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[ [ "Chlorine" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Chlorine''' is a chemical element; it has symbol '''Cl''' and atomic number 17.The second-lightest of the halogens, it appears between fluorine and bromine in the periodic table and its properties are mostly intermediate between them.", "Chlorine is a yellow-green gas at room temperature.", "It is an extremely reactive element and a strong oxidising agent: among the elements, it has the highest electron affinity and the third-highest electronegativity on the revised Pauling scale, behind only oxygen and fluorine.Chlorine played an important role in the experiments conducted by medieval alchemists, which commonly involved the heating of chloride salts like ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac) and sodium chloride (common salt), producing various chemical substances containing chlorine such as hydrogen chloride, mercury(II) chloride (corrosive sublimate), and .", "However, the nature of free chlorine gas as a separate substance was only recognised around 1630 by Jan Baptist van Helmont.", "Carl Wilhelm Scheele wrote a description of chlorine gas in 1774, supposing it to be an oxide of a new element.", "In 1809, chemists suggested that the gas might be a pure element, and this was confirmed by Sir Humphry Davy in 1810, who named it after the Ancient Greek (, \"pale green\") because of its colour.Because of its great reactivity, all chlorine in the Earth's crust is in the form of ionic chloride compounds, which includes table salt.", "It is the second-most abundant halogen (after fluorine) and twenty-first most abundant chemical element in Earth's crust.", "These crustal deposits are nevertheless dwarfed by the huge reserves of chloride in seawater.Elemental chlorine is commercially produced from brine by electrolysis, predominantly in the chloralkali process.", "The high oxidising potential of elemental chlorine led to the development of commercial bleaches and disinfectants, and a reagent for many processes in the chemical industry.", "Chlorine is used in the manufacture of a wide range of consumer products, about two-thirds of them organic chemicals such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC), many intermediates for the production of plastics, and other end products which do not contain the element.", "As a common disinfectant, elemental chlorine and chlorine-generating compounds are used more directly in swimming pools to keep them sanitary.", "Elemental chlorine at high concentration is extremely dangerous, and poisonous to most living organisms.", "As a chemical warfare agent, chlorine was first used in World War I as a poison gas weapon.In the form of chloride ions, chlorine is necessary to all known species of life.", "Other types of chlorine compounds are rare in living organisms, and artificially produced chlorinated organics range from inert to toxic.", "In the upper atmosphere, chlorine-containing organic molecules such as chlorofluorocarbons have been implicated in ozone depletion.", "Small quantities of elemental chlorine are generated by oxidation of chloride ions in neutrophils as part of an immune system response against bacteria." ], [ "History", "The most common compound of chlorine, sodium chloride, has been known since ancient times; archaeologists have found evidence that rock salt was used as early as 3000 BC and brine as early as 6000 BC.===Early discoveries===Around 900, the authors of the Arabic writings attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan (Latin: Geber) and the Persian physician and alchemist Abu Bakr al-Razi ( 865–925, Latin: Rhazes) were experimenting with sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride), which when it was distilled together with vitriol (hydrated sulfates of various metals) produced hydrogen chloride.", "However, it appears that in these early experiments with chloride salts, the gaseous products were discarded, and hydrogen chloride may have been produced many times before it was discovered that it can be put to chemical use.", "One of the first such uses was the synthesis of mercury(II) chloride (corrosive sublimate), whose production from the heating of mercury either with alum and ammonium chloride or with vitriol and sodium chloride was first described in the ''De aluminibus et salibus'' (\"On Alums and Salts\", an eleventh- or twelfth century Arabic text falsely attributed to Abu Bakr al-Razi and translated into Latin in the second half of the twelfth century by Gerard of Cremona, 1144–1187).", "Another important development was the discovery by pseudo-Geber (in the ''De inventione veritatis'', \"On the Discovery of Truth\", after c. 1300) that by adding ammonium chloride to nitric acid, a strong solvent capable of dissolving gold (i.e., ''aqua regia'') could be produced.", "Although ''aqua regia'' is an unstable mixture that continually gives off fumes containing free chlorine gas, this chlorine gas appears to have been ignored until c. 1630, when its nature as a separate gaseous substance was recognised by the Brabantian chemist and physician Jan Baptist van Helmont.Carl Wilhelm Scheele, discoverer of chlorine===Isolation===The element was first studied in detail in 1774 by Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele, and he is credited with the discovery.", "Scheele produced chlorine by reacting MnO2 (as the mineral pyrolusite) with HCl::4 HCl + MnO2 → MnCl2 + 2 H2O + Cl2Scheele observed several of the properties of chlorine: the bleaching effect on litmus, the deadly effect on insects, the yellow-green color, and the smell similar to aqua regia.", "He called it \"''dephlogisticated muriatic acid air''\" since it is a gas (then called \"airs\") and it came from hydrochloric acid (then known as \"muriatic acid\").", "He failed to establish chlorine as an element.Common chemical theory at that time held that an acid is a compound that contains oxygen (remnants of this survive in the German and Dutch names of oxygen: or '''', both translating into English as ''acid substance''), so a number of chemists, including Claude Berthollet, suggested that Scheele's ''dephlogisticated muriatic acid air'' must be a combination of oxygen and the yet undiscovered element, ''muriaticum''.In 1809, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Louis-Jacques Thénard tried to decompose ''dephlogisticated muriatic acid air'' by reacting it with charcoal to release the free element ''muriaticum'' (and carbon dioxide).", "They did not succeed and published a report in which they considered the possibility that ''dephlogisticated muriatic acid air'' is an element, but were not convinced.In 1810, Sir Humphry Davy tried the same experiment again, and concluded that the substance was an element, and not a compound.", "He announced his results to the Royal Society on 15 November that year.", "At that time, he named this new element \"chlorine\", from the Greek word χλωρος (''chlōros'', \"green-yellow\"), in reference to its color.", "The name \"halogen\", meaning \"salt producer\", was originally used for chlorine in 1811 by Johann Salomo Christoph Schweigger.", "This term was later used as a generic term to describe all the elements in the chlorine family (fluorine, bromine, iodine), after a suggestion by Jöns Jakob Berzelius in 1826.In 1823, Michael Faraday liquefied chlorine for the first time, and demonstrated that what was then known as \"solid chlorine\" had a structure of chlorine hydrate (Cl2·H2O).===Later uses===Chlorine gas was first used by French chemist Claude Berthollet to bleach textiles in 1785.Modern bleaches resulted from further work by Berthollet, who first produced sodium hypochlorite in 1789 in his laboratory in the town of Javel (now part of Paris, France), by passing chlorine gas through a solution of sodium carbonate.", "The resulting liquid, known as \"\" (\"Javel water\"), was a weak solution of sodium hypochlorite.", "This process was not very efficient, and alternative production methods were sought.", "Scottish chemist and industrialist Charles Tennant first produced a solution of calcium hypochlorite (\"chlorinated lime\"), then solid calcium hypochlorite (bleaching powder).", "These compounds produced low levels of elemental chlorine and could be more efficiently transported than sodium hypochlorite, which remained as dilute solutions because when purified to eliminate water, it became a dangerously powerful and unstable oxidizer.", "Near the end of the nineteenth century, E. S. Smith patented a method of sodium hypochlorite production involving electrolysis of brine to produce sodium hydroxide and chlorine gas, which then mixed to form sodium hypochlorite.", "This is known as the chloralkali process, first introduced on an industrial scale in 1892, and now the source of most elemental chlorine and sodium hydroxide.", "In 1884 Chemischen Fabrik Griesheim of Germany developed another chloralkali process which entered commercial production in 1888.Elemental chlorine solutions dissolved in chemically basic water (sodium and calcium hypochlorite) were first used as anti-putrefaction agents and disinfectants in the 1820s, in France, long before the establishment of the germ theory of disease.", "This practice was pioneered by Antoine-Germain Labarraque, who adapted Berthollet's \"Javel water\" bleach and other chlorine preparations.", "Elemental chlorine has since served a continuous function in topical antisepsis (wound irrigation solutions and the like) and public sanitation, particularly in swimming and drinking water.Chlorine gas was first used as a weapon on April 22, 1915, at the Second Battle of Ypres by the German Army.", "The effect on the allies was devastating because the existing gas masks were difficult to deploy and had not been broadly distributed." ], [ "Properties", "acrylic glassSolid chlorine at −150 °CChlorine is the second halogen, being a nonmetal in group 17 of the periodic table.", "Its properties are thus similar to fluorine, bromine, and iodine, and are largely intermediate between those of the first two.", "Chlorine has the electron configuration Ne3s23p5, with the seven electrons in the third and outermost shell acting as its valence electrons.", "Like all halogens, it is thus one electron short of a full octet, and is hence a strong oxidising agent, reacting with many elements in order to complete its outer shell.", "Corresponding to periodic trends, it is intermediate in electronegativity between fluorine and bromine (F: 3.98, Cl: 3.16, Br: 2.96, I: 2.66), and is less reactive than fluorine and more reactive than bromine.", "It is also a weaker oxidising agent than fluorine, but a stronger one than bromine.", "Conversely, the chloride ion is a weaker reducing agent than bromide, but a stronger one than fluoride.", "It is intermediate in atomic radius between fluorine and bromine, and this leads to many of its atomic properties similarly continuing the trend from iodine to bromine upward, such as first ionisation energy, electron affinity, enthalpy of dissociation of the X2 molecule (X = Cl, Br, I), ionic radius, and X–X bond length.", "(Fluorine is anomalous due to its small size.", ")All four stable halogens experience intermolecular van der Waals forces of attraction, and their strength increases together with the number of electrons among all homonuclear diatomic halogen molecules.", "Thus, the melting and boiling points of chlorine are intermediate between those of fluorine and bromine: chlorine melts at −101.0 °C and boils at −34.0 °C.", "As a result of the increasing molecular weight of the halogens down the group, the density and heats of fusion and vaporisation of chlorine are again intermediate between those of bromine and fluorine, although all their heats of vaporisation are fairly low (leading to high volatility) thanks to their diatomic molecular structure.", "The halogens darken in colour as the group is descended: thus, while fluorine is a pale yellow gas, chlorine is distinctly yellow-green.", "This trend occurs because the wavelengths of visible light absorbed by the halogens increase down the group.", "Specifically, the colour of a halogen, such as chlorine, results from the electron transition between the highest occupied antibonding ''πg'' molecular orbital and the lowest vacant antibonding ''σu'' molecular orbital.", "The colour fades at low temperatures, so that solid chlorine at −195 °C is almost colourless.Like solid bromine and iodine, solid chlorine crystallises in the orthorhombic crystal system, in a layered lattice of Cl2 molecules.", "The Cl–Cl distance is 198 pm (close to the gaseous Cl–Cl distance of 199 pm) and the Cl···Cl distance between molecules is 332 pm within a layer and 382 pm between layers (compare the van der Waals radius of chlorine, 180 pm).", "This structure means that chlorine is a very poor conductor of electricity, and indeed its conductivity is so low as to be practically unmeasurable.===Isotopes===Chlorine has two stable isotopes, 35Cl and 37Cl.", "These are its only two natural isotopes occurring in quantity, with 35Cl making up 76% of natural chlorine and 37Cl making up the remaining 24%.", "Both are synthesised in stars in the oxygen-burning and silicon-burning processes.", "Both have nuclear spin 3/2+ and thus may be used for nuclear magnetic resonance, although the spin magnitude being greater than 1/2 results in non-spherical nuclear charge distribution and thus resonance broadening as a result of a nonzero nuclear quadrupole moment and resultant quadrupolar relaxation.", "The other chlorine isotopes are all radioactive, with half-lives too short to occur in nature primordially.", "Of these, the most commonly used in the laboratory are 36Cl (''t''1/2 = 3.0×105 y) and 38Cl (''t''1/2 = 37.2 min), which may be produced from the neutron activation of natural chlorine.The most stable chlorine radioisotope is 36Cl.", "The primary decay mode of isotopes lighter than 35Cl is electron capture to isotopes of sulfur; that of isotopes heavier than 37Cl is beta decay to isotopes of argon; and 36Cl may decay by either mode to stable 36S or 36Ar.", "36Cl occurs in trace quantities in nature as a cosmogenic nuclide in a ratio of about (7–10) × 10−13 to 1 with stable chlorine isotopes: it is produced in the atmosphere by spallation of 36Ar by interactions with cosmic ray protons.", "In the top meter of the lithosphere, 36Cl is generated primarily by thermal neutron activation of 35Cl and spallation of 39K and 40Ca.", "In the subsurface environment, muon capture by 40Ca becomes more important as a way to generate 36Cl." ], [ "Chemistry and compounds", " Halogen bond energies (kJ/mol) X XX HX BX3 AlX3 CX4 F 159 574 645 582 456 Cl243428444427327 Br193363368360272 I151294272285239Chlorine is intermediate in reactivity between fluorine and bromine, and is one of the most reactive elements.", "Chlorine is a weaker oxidising agent than fluorine but a stronger one than bromine or iodine.", "This can be seen from the standard electrode potentials of the X2/X− couples (F, +2.866 V; Cl, +1.395 V; Br, +1.087 V; I, +0.615 V; At, approximately +0.3 V).", "However, this trend is not shown in the bond energies because fluorine is singular due to its small size, low polarisability, and inability to show hypervalence.", "As another difference, chlorine has a significant chemistry in positive oxidation states while fluorine does not.", "Chlorination often leads to higher oxidation states than bromination or iodination but lower oxidation states than fluorination.", "Chlorine tends to react with compounds including M–M, M–H, or M–C bonds to form M–Cl bonds.Given that E°(O2/H2O) = +1.229 V, which is less than +1.395 V, it would be expected that chlorine should be able to oxidise water to oxygen and hydrochloric acid.", "However, the kinetics of this reaction are unfavorable, and there is also a bubble overpotential effect to consider, so that electrolysis of aqueous chloride solutions evolves chlorine gas and not oxygen gas, a fact that is very useful for the industrial production of chlorine.===Hydrogen chloride===Structure of solid deuterium chloride, with D···Cl hydrogen bondsThe simplest chlorine compound is hydrogen chloride, HCl, a major chemical in industry as well as in the laboratory, both as a gas and dissolved in water as hydrochloric acid.", "It is often produced by burning hydrogen gas in chlorine gas, or as a byproduct of chlorinating hydrocarbons.", "Another approach is to treat sodium chloride with concentrated sulfuric acid to produce hydrochloric acid, also known as the \"salt-cake\" process::NaCl + H2SO4 NaHSO4 + HCl:NaCl + NaHSO4 Na2SO4 + HClIn the laboratory, hydrogen chloride gas may be made by drying the acid with concentrated sulfuric acid.", "Deuterium chloride, DCl, may be produced by reacting benzoyl chloride with heavy water (D2O).At room temperature, hydrogen chloride is a colourless gas, like all the hydrogen halides apart from hydrogen fluoride, since hydrogen cannot form strong hydrogen bonds to the larger electronegative chlorine atom; however, weak hydrogen bonding is present in solid crystalline hydrogen chloride at low temperatures, similar to the hydrogen fluoride structure, before disorder begins to prevail as the temperature is raised.", "Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid (p''K''a = −7) because the hydrogen bonds to chlorine are too weak to inhibit dissociation.", "The HCl/H2O system has many hydrates HCl·''n''H2O for ''n'' = 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6.Beyond a 1:1 mixture of HCl and H2O, the system separates completely into two separate liquid phases.", "Hydrochloric acid forms an azeotrope with boiling point 108.58 °C at 20.22 g HCl per 100 g solution; thus hydrochloric acid cannot be concentrated beyond this point by distillation.Unlike hydrogen fluoride, anhydrous liquid hydrogen chloride is difficult to work with as a solvent, because its boiling point is low, it has a small liquid range, its dielectric constant is low and it does not dissociate appreciably into H2Cl+ and ions – the latter, in any case, are much less stable than the bifluoride ions () due to the very weak hydrogen bonding between hydrogen and chlorine, though its salts with very large and weakly polarising cations such as Cs+ and (R = Me, Et, Bu''n'') may still be isolated.", "Anhydrous hydrogen chloride is a poor solvent, only able to dissolve small molecular compounds such as nitrosyl chloride and phenol, or salts with very low lattice energies such as tetraalkylammonium halides.", "It readily protonates electrophiles containing lone-pairs or π bonds.", "Solvolysis, ligand replacement reactions, and oxidations are well-characterised in hydrogen chloride solution::Ph3SnCl + HCl ⟶ Ph2SnCl2 + PhH (solvolysis):Ph3COH + 3 HCl ⟶ + H3O+Cl− (solvolysis): + BCl3 ⟶ + HCl (ligand replacement):PCl3 + Cl2 + HCl ⟶ (oxidation)===Other binary chlorides===Hydrated nickel(II) chloride, NiCl2(H2O)6Nearly all elements in the periodic table form binary chlorides.", "The exceptions are decidedly in the minority and stem in each case from one of three causes: extreme inertness and reluctance to participate in chemical reactions (the noble gases, with the exception of xenon in the highly unstable XeCl2 and XeCl4); extreme nuclear instability hampering chemical investigation before decay and transmutation (many of the heaviest elements beyond bismuth); and having an electronegativity higher than chlorine's (oxygen and fluorine) so that the resultant binary compounds are formally not chlorides but rather oxides or fluorides of chlorine.", "Even though nitrogen in NCl3 is bearing a negative charge, the compound is usually called nitrogen trichloride.Chlorination of metals with Cl2 usually leads to a higher oxidation state than bromination with Br2 when multiple oxidation states are available, such as in MoCl5 and MoBr3.Chlorides can be made by reaction of an element or its oxide, hydroxide, or carbonate with hydrochloric acid, and then dehydrated by mildly high temperatures combined with either low pressure or anhydrous hydrogen chloride gas.", "These methods work best when the chloride product is stable to hydrolysis; otherwise, the possibilities include high-temperature oxidative chlorination of the element with chlorine or hydrogen chloride, high-temperature chlorination of a metal oxide or other halide by chlorine, a volatile metal chloride, carbon tetrachloride, or an organic chloride.", "For instance, zirconium dioxide reacts with chlorine at standard conditions to produce zirconium tetrachloride, and uranium trioxide reacts with hexachloropropene when heated under reflux to give uranium tetrachloride.", "The second example also involves a reduction in oxidation state, which can also be achieved by reducing a higher chloride using hydrogen or a metal as a reducing agent.", "This may also be achieved by thermal decomposition or disproportionation as follows:: EuCl3 + H2 ⟶ EuCl2 + HCl: ReCl5 ReCl3 + Cl2: AuCl3 AuCl + Cl2Most metal chlorides with the metal in low oxidation states (+1 to +3) are ionic.", "Nonmetals tend to form covalent molecular chlorides, as do metals in high oxidation states from +3 and above.", "Both ionic and covalent chlorides are known for metals in oxidation state +3 (e.g.", "scandium chloride is mostly ionic, but aluminium chloride is not).", "Silver chloride is very insoluble in water and is thus often used as a qualitative test for chlorine.===Polychlorine compounds===Although dichlorine is a strong oxidising agent with a high first ionisation energy, it may be oxidised under extreme conditions to form the cation.", "This is very unstable and has only been characterised by its electronic band spectrum when produced in a low-pressure discharge tube.", "The yellow cation is more stable and may be produced as follows:: This reaction is conducted in the oxidising solvent arsenic pentafluoride.", "The trichloride anion, , has also been characterised; it is analogous to triiodide.===Chlorine fluorides===The three fluorides of chlorine form a subset of the interhalogen compounds, all of which are diamagnetic.", "Some cationic and anionic derivatives are known, such as , , , and Cl2F+.", "Some pseudohalides of chlorine are also known, such as cyanogen chloride (ClCN, linear), chlorine cyanate (ClNCO), chlorine thiocyanate (ClSCN, unlike its oxygen counterpart), and chlorine azide (ClN3).Chlorine monofluoride (ClF) is extremely thermally stable, and is sold commercially in 500-gram steel lecture bottles.", "It is a colourless gas that melts at −155.6 °C and boils at −100.1 °C.", "It may be produced by the reaction of its elements at 225 °C, though it must then be separated and purified from chlorine trifluoride and its reactants.", "Its properties are mostly intermediate between those of chlorine and fluorine.", "It will react with many metals and nonmetals from room temperature and above, fluorinating them and liberating chlorine.", "It will also act as a chlorofluorinating agent, adding chlorine and fluorine across a multiple bond or by oxidation: for example, it will attack carbon monoxide to form carbonyl chlorofluoride, COFCl.", "It will react analogously with hexafluoroacetone, (CF3)2CO, with a potassium fluoride catalyst to produce heptafluoroisopropyl hypochlorite, (CF3)2CFOCl; with nitriles RCN to produce RCF2NCl2; and with the sulfur oxides SO2 and SO3 to produce ClSO2F and ClOSO2F respectively.", "It will also react exothermically with compounds containing –OH and –NH groups, such as water::H2O + 2 ClF ⟶ 2 HF + Cl2OChlorine trifluoride (ClF3) is a volatile colourless molecular liquid which melts at −76.3 °C and boils at 11.8 °C.", "It may be formed by directly fluorinating gaseous chlorine or chlorine monofluoride at 200–300 °C.", "One of the most reactive chemical compounds known, the list of elements it sets on fire is diverse, containing hydrogen, potassium, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, sulfur, selenium, tellurium, bromine, iodine, and powdered molybdenum, tungsten, rhodium, iridium, and iron.", "It will also ignite water, along with many substances which in ordinary circumstances would be considered chemically inert such as asbestos, concrete, glass, and sand.", "When heated, it will even corrode noble metals as palladium, platinum, and gold, and even the noble gases xenon and radon do not escape fluorination.", "An impermeable fluoride layer is formed by sodium, magnesium, aluminium, zinc, tin, and silver, which may be removed by heating.", "Nickel, copper, and steel containers are usually used due to their great resistance to attack by chlorine trifluoride, stemming from the formation of an unreactive layer of metal fluoride.", "Its reaction with hydrazine to form hydrogen fluoride, nitrogen, and chlorine gases was used in experimental rocket engine, but has problems largely stemming from its extreme hypergolicity resulting in ignition without any measurable delay.", "Today, it is mostly used in nuclear fuel processing, to oxidise uranium to uranium hexafluoride for its enriching and to separate it from plutonium, as well as in the semiconductor industry, where it is used to clean chemical vapor deposition chambers.", "It can act as a fluoride ion donor or acceptor (Lewis base or acid), although it does not dissociate appreciably into and ions.Chlorine pentafluoride (ClF5) is made on a large scale by direct fluorination of chlorine with excess fluorine gas at 350 °C and 250 atm, and on a small scale by reacting metal chlorides with fluorine gas at 100–300 °C.", "It melts at −103 °C and boils at −13.1 °C.", "It is a very strong fluorinating agent, although it is still not as effective as chlorine trifluoride.", "Only a few specific stoichiometric reactions have been characterised.", "Arsenic pentafluoride and antimony pentafluoride form ionic adducts of the form ClF4+MF6− (M = As, Sb) and water reacts vigorously as follows::2 H2O + ClF5 ⟶ 4 HF + FClO2The product, chloryl fluoride, is one of the five known chlorine oxide fluorides.", "These range from the thermally unstable FClO to the chemically unreactive perchloryl fluoride (FClO3), the other three being FClO2, F3ClO, and F3ClO2.All five behave similarly to the chlorine fluorides, both structurally and chemically, and may act as Lewis acids or bases by gaining or losing fluoride ions respectively or as very strong oxidising and fluorinating agents.=== Chlorine oxides ===Yellow chlorine dioxide (ClO2) gas above a solution containing chlorine dioxideStructure of dichlorine heptoxide, Cl2O7, the most stable of the chlorine oxidesThe chlorine oxides are well-studied in spite of their instability (all of them are endothermic compounds).", "They are important because they are produced when chlorofluorocarbons undergo photolysis in the upper atmosphere and cause the destruction of the ozone layer.", "None of them can be made from directly reacting the elements.Dichlorine monoxide (Cl2O) is a brownish-yellow gas (red-brown when solid or liquid) which may be obtained by reacting chlorine gas with yellow mercury(II) oxide.", "It is very soluble in water, in which it is in equilibrium with hypochlorous acid (HOCl), of which it is the anhydride.", "It is thus an effective bleach and is mostly used to make hypochlorites.", "It explodes on heating or sparking or in the presence of ammonia gas.Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) was the first chlorine oxide to be discovered in 1811 by Humphry Davy.", "It is a yellow paramagnetic gas (deep-red as a solid or liquid), as expected from its having an odd number of electrons: it is stable towards dimerisation due to the delocalisation of the unpaired electron.", "It explodes above −40 °C as a liquid and under pressure as a gas and therefore must be made at low concentrations for wood-pulp bleaching and water treatment.", "It is usually prepared by reducing a chlorate as follows:: + Cl− + 2 H+ ⟶ ClO2 + Cl2 + H2OIts production is thus intimately linked to the redox reactions of the chlorine oxoacids.", "It is a strong oxidising agent, reacting with sulfur, phosphorus, phosphorus halides, and potassium borohydride.", "It dissolves exothermically in water to form dark-green solutions that very slowly decompose in the dark.", "Crystalline clathrate hydrates ClO2·''n''H2O (''n'' ≈ 6–10) separate out at low temperatures.", "However, in the presence of light, these solutions rapidly photodecompose to form a mixture of chloric and hydrochloric acids.", "Photolysis of individual ClO2 molecules result in the radicals ClO and ClOO, while at room temperature mostly chlorine, oxygen, and some ClO3 and Cl2O6 are produced.", "Cl2O3 is also produced when photolysing the solid at −78 °C: it is a dark brown solid that explodes below 0 °C.", "The ClO radical leads to the depletion of atmospheric ozone and is thus environmentally important as follows::Cl• + O3 ⟶ ClO• + O2:ClO• + O• ⟶ Cl• + O2Chlorine perchlorate (ClOClO3) is a pale yellow liquid that is less stable than ClO2 and decomposes at room temperature to form chlorine, oxygen, and dichlorine hexoxide (Cl2O6).", "Chlorine perchlorate may also be considered a chlorine derivative of perchloric acid (HOClO3), similar to the thermally unstable chlorine derivatives of other oxoacids: examples include chlorine nitrate (ClONO2, vigorously reactive and explosive), and chlorine fluorosulfate (ClOSO2F, more stable but still moisture-sensitive and highly reactive).", "Dichlorine hexoxide is a dark-red liquid that freezes to form a solid which turns yellow at −180 °C: it is usually made by reaction of chlorine dioxide with oxygen.", "Despite attempts to rationalise it as the dimer of ClO3, it reacts more as though it were chloryl perchlorate, ClO2+ClO4−, which has been confirmed to be the correct structure of the solid.", "It hydrolyses in water to give a mixture of chloric and perchloric acids: the analogous reaction with anhydrous hydrogen fluoride does not proceed to completion.Dichlorine heptoxide (Cl2O7) is the anhydride of perchloric acid (HClO4) and can readily be obtained from it by dehydrating it with phosphoric acid at −10 °C and then distilling the product at −35 °C and 1 mmHg.", "It is a shock-sensitive, colourless oily liquid.", "It is the least reactive of the chlorine oxides, being the only one to not set organic materials on fire at room temperature.", "It may be dissolved in water to regenerate perchloric acid or in aqueous alkalis to regenerate perchlorates.", "However, it thermally decomposes explosively by breaking one of the central Cl–O bonds, producing the radicals ClO3 and ClO4 which immediately decompose to the elements through intermediate oxides.===Chlorine oxoacids and oxyanions===+ Standard reduction potentials for aqueous Cl species (acid)(base)Cl2/Cl−Cl2/Cl−+1.358HOCl/Cl−+1.484ClO−/Cl−+0.890/Cl−+1.459 HOCl/Cl2+1.630ClO−/Cl2+0.421HClO2/Cl2+1.659 /Cl2+1.468 /Cl2+1.277 HClO2/HOCl+1.701/ClO−+0.681 /ClO−+0.488/HClO2+1.181/+0.295/+1.201/+0.374Chlorine forms four oxoacids: hypochlorous acid (HOCl), chlorous acid (HOClO), chloric acid (HOClO2), and perchloric acid (HOClO3).", "As can be seen from the redox potentials given in the adjacent table, chlorine is much more stable towards disproportionation in acidic solutions than in alkaline solutions:: Cl2 + H2O HOCl + H+ + Cl− ''K''ac = 4.2 × 10−4 mol2 l−2 Cl2 + 2 OH− OCl− + H2O + Cl− ''K''alk = 7.5 × 1015 mol−1 lThe hypochlorite ions also disproportionate further to produce chloride and chlorate (3 ClO− 2 Cl− + ) but this reaction is quite slow at temperatures below 70 °C in spite of the very favourable equilibrium constant of 1027.The chlorate ions may themselves disproportionate to form chloride and perchlorate (4 Cl− + 3 ) but this is still very slow even at 100 °C despite the very favourable equilibrium constant of 1020.The rates of reaction for the chlorine oxyanions increases as the oxidation state of chlorine decreases.", "The strengths of the chlorine oxyacids increase very quickly as the oxidation state of chlorine increases due to the increasing delocalisation of charge over more and more oxygen atoms in their conjugate bases.Most of the chlorine oxoacids may be produced by exploiting these disproportionation reactions.", "Hypochlorous acid (HOCl) is highly reactive and quite unstable; its salts are mostly used for their bleaching and sterilising abilities.", "They are very strong oxidising agents, transferring an oxygen atom to most inorganic species.", "Chlorous acid (HOClO) is even more unstable and cannot be isolated or concentrated without decomposition: it is known from the decomposition of aqueous chlorine dioxide.", "However, sodium chlorite is a stable salt and is useful for bleaching and stripping textiles, as an oxidising agent, and as a source of chlorine dioxide.", "Chloric acid (HOClO2) is a strong acid that is quite stable in cold water up to 30% concentration, but on warming gives chlorine and chlorine dioxide.", "Evaporation under reduced pressure allows it to be concentrated further to about 40%, but then it decomposes to perchloric acid, chlorine, oxygen, water, and chlorine dioxide.", "Its most important salt is sodium chlorate, mostly used to make chlorine dioxide to bleach paper pulp.", "The decomposition of chlorate to chloride and oxygen is a common way to produce oxygen in the laboratory on a small scale.", "Chloride and chlorate may comproportionate to form chlorine as follows:: + 5 Cl− + 6 H+ ⟶ 3 Cl2 + 3 H2OPerchlorates and perchloric acid (HOClO3) are the most stable oxo-compounds of chlorine, in keeping with the fact that chlorine compounds are most stable when the chlorine atom is in its lowest (−1) or highest (+7) possible oxidation states.", "Perchloric acid and aqueous perchlorates are vigorous and sometimes violent oxidising agents when heated, in stark contrast to their mostly inactive nature at room temperature due to the high activation energies for these reactions for kinetic reasons.", "Perchlorates are made by electrolytically oxidising sodium chlorate, and perchloric acid is made by reacting anhydrous sodium perchlorate or barium perchlorate with concentrated hydrochloric acid, filtering away the chloride precipitated and distilling the filtrate to concentrate it.", "Anhydrous perchloric acid is a colourless mobile liquid that is sensitive to shock that explodes on contact with most organic compounds, sets hydrogen iodide and thionyl chloride on fire and even oxidises silver and gold.", "Although it is a weak ligand, weaker than water, a few compounds involving coordinated are known.", "The Table below presents typical oxidation states for chlorine element as given in the secondary schools or colleges.", "Anyhow in university chemistry courses it should be pointed out that there are more complex chemical compounds, the structure of which can only be explained using modern quantum chemical methods, for example, cluster technetium chloride (CH3)4N3Tc6Cl14, in which 6 of the 14 chlorine atoms are formally divalent, and oxidation states are fractional .", "In addition, all the above chemical regularities are valid for \"normal\" or close to normal conditions, while at ultra-high pressures (for example, in the cores of large planets), chlorine can exhibit an oxidation state of -3, forming a Na3Cl compound with sodium, which does not fit into traditional concepts of chemistry.", "Chlorine oxidation state −1 +1 +3 +5 +7 Name chloride hypochlorite chlorite chlorate perchlorate Formula Cl− ClO− Structure The chloride ion The hypochlorite ion The chlorite ion The chlorate ion The perchlorate ion===Organochlorine compounds===Suggested mechanism for the chlorination of a carboxylic acid by phosphorus pentachloride to form an acyl chlorideLike the other carbon–halogen bonds, the C–Cl bond is a common functional group that forms part of core organic chemistry.", "Formally, compounds with this functional group may be considered organic derivatives of the chloride anion.", "Due to the difference of electronegativity between chlorine (3.16) and carbon (2.55), the carbon in a C–Cl bond is electron-deficient and thus electrophilic.", "Chlorination modifies the physical properties of hydrocarbons in several ways: chlorocarbons are typically denser than water due to the higher atomic weight of chlorine versus hydrogen, and aliphatic organochlorides are alkylating agents because chloride is a leaving group.Alkanes and aryl alkanes may be chlorinated under free-radical conditions, with UV light.", "However, the extent of chlorination is difficult to control: the reaction is not regioselective and often results in a mixture of various isomers with different degrees of chlorination, though this may be permissible if the products are easily separated.", "Aryl chlorides may be prepared by the Friedel-Crafts halogenation, using chlorine and a Lewis acid catalyst.", "The haloform reaction, using chlorine and sodium hydroxide, is also able to generate alkyl halides from methyl ketones, and related compounds.", "Chlorine adds to the multiple bonds on alkenes and alkynes as well, giving di- or tetrachloro compounds.", "However, due to the expense and reactivity of chlorine, organochlorine compounds are more commonly produced by using hydrogen chloride, or with chlorinating agents such as phosphorus pentachloride (PCl5) or thionyl chloride (SOCl2).", "The last is very convenient in the laboratory because all side products are gaseous and do not have to be distilled out.Many organochlorine compounds have been isolated from natural sources ranging from bacteria to humans.", "Chlorinated organic compounds are found in nearly every class of biomolecules including alkaloids, terpenes, amino acids, flavonoids, steroids, and fatty acids.", "Organochlorides, including dioxins, are produced in the high temperature environment of forest fires, and dioxins have been found in the preserved ashes of lightning-ignited fires that predate synthetic dioxins.", "In addition, a variety of simple chlorinated hydrocarbons including dichloromethane, chloroform, and carbon tetrachloride have been isolated from marine algae.", "A majority of the chloromethane in the environment is produced naturally by biological decomposition, forest fires, and volcanoes.Some types of organochlorides, though not all, have significant toxicity to plants or animals, including humans.", "Dioxins, produced when organic matter is burned in the presence of chlorine, and some insecticides, such as DDT, are persistent organic pollutants which pose dangers when they are released into the environment.", "For example, DDT, which was widely used to control insects in the mid 20th century, also accumulates in food chains, and causes reproductive problems (e.g., eggshell thinning) in certain bird species.", "Due to the ready homolytic fission of the C–Cl bond to create chlorine radicals in the upper atmosphere, chlorofluorocarbons have been phased out due to the harm they do to the ozone layer." ], [ "Occurrence and production", "Liquid chlorine analysisChlorine is too reactive to occur as the free element in nature but is very abundant in the form of its chloride salts.", "It is the twenty-first most abundant element in Earth's crust and makes up 126 parts per million of it, through the large deposits of chloride minerals, especially sodium chloride, that have been evaporated from water bodies.", "All of these pale in comparison to the reserves of chloride ions in seawater: smaller amounts at higher concentrations occur in some inland seas and underground brine wells, such as the Great Salt Lake in Utah and the Dead Sea in Israel.Small batches of chlorine gas are prepared in the laboratory by combining hydrochloric acid and manganese dioxide, but the need rarely arises due to its ready availability.", "In industry, elemental chlorine is usually produced by the electrolysis of sodium chloride dissolved in water.", "This method, the chloralkali process industrialized in 1892, now provides most industrial chlorine gas.", "Along with chlorine, the method yields hydrogen gas and sodium hydroxide, which is the most valuable product.", "The process proceeds according to the following chemical equation::2 NaCl + 2 H2O → Cl2 + H2 + 2 NaOHThe electrolysis of chloride solutions all proceed according to the following equations::Cathode: 2 H2O + 2 e− → H2 + 2 OH−:Anode: 2 Cl− → Cl2 + 2 e−In diaphragm cell electrolysis, an asbestos (or polymer-fiber) diaphragm separates a cathode and an anode, preventing the chlorine forming at the anode from re-mixing with the sodium hydroxide and the hydrogen formed at the cathode.", "The salt solution (brine) is continuously fed to the anode compartment and flows through the diaphragm to the cathode compartment, where the caustic alkali is produced and the brine is partially depleted.", "Diaphragm methods produce dilute and slightly impure alkali, but they are not burdened with the problem of mercury disposal and they are more energy efficient.Membrane cell electrolysis employs permeable membrane as an ion exchanger.", "Saturated sodium (or potassium) chloride solution is passed through the anode compartment, leaving at a lower concentration.", "This method also produces very pure sodium (or potassium) hydroxide but has the disadvantage of requiring very pure brine at high concentrations.Membrane cell process for chloralkali productionIn the Deacon process, hydrogen chloride recovered from the production of organochlorine compounds is recovered as chlorine.", "The process relies on oxidation using oxygen:: 4 HCl + O2 → 2 Cl2 + 2 H2OThe reaction requires a catalyst.", "As introduced by Deacon, early catalysts were based on copper.", "Commercial processes, such as the Mitsui MT-Chlorine Process, have switched to chromium and ruthenium-based catalysts.", "The chlorine produced is available in cylinders from sizes ranging from 450 g to 70 kg, as well as drums (865 kg), tank wagons (15 tonnes on roads; 27–90 tonnes by rail), and barges (600–1200 tonnes)." ], [ "Applications", "Sodium chloride is the most common chlorine compound, and is the main source of chlorine for the demand by the chemical industry.", "About 15000 chlorine-containing compounds are commercially traded, including such diverse compounds as chlorinated methane, ethanes, vinyl chloride, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), aluminium trichloride for catalysis, the chlorides of magnesium, titanium, zirconium, and hafnium which are the precursors for producing the pure form of those elements.Quantitatively, of all elemental chlorine produced, about 63% is used in the manufacture of organic compounds, and 18% in the manufacture of inorganic chlorine compounds.", "About 15,000 chlorine compounds are used commercially.", "The remaining 19% of chlorine produced is used for bleaches and disinfection products.", "The most significant of organic compounds in terms of production volume are 1,2-dichloroethane and vinyl chloride, intermediates in the production of PVC.", "Other particularly important organochlorines are methyl chloride, methylene chloride, chloroform, vinylidene chloride, trichloroethylene, perchloroethylene, allyl chloride, epichlorohydrin, chlorobenzene, dichlorobenzenes, and trichlorobenzenes.", "The major inorganic compounds include HCl, Cl2O, HOCl, NaClO3, chlorinated isocyanurates, AlCl3, SiCl4, SnCl4, PCl3, PCl5, POCl3, AsCl3, SbCl3, SbCl5, BiCl3, and ZnCl2.=== Sanitation, disinfection, and antisepsis ======= Combating putrefaction ====In France (as elsewhere), animal intestines were processed to make musical instrument strings, Goldbeater's skin and other products.", "This was done in \"gut factories\" (''boyauderies''), and it was an odiferous and unhealthy process.", "In or about 1820, the Société d'encouragement pour l'industrie nationale offered a prize for the discovery of a method, chemical or mechanical, for separating the peritoneal membrane of animal intestines without putrefaction.", "The prize was won by Antoine-Germain Labarraque, a 44-year-old French chemist and pharmacist who had discovered that Berthollet's chlorinated bleaching solutions (\"''Eau de Javel''\") not only destroyed the smell of putrefaction of animal tissue decomposition, but also actually retarded the decomposition.Labarraque's research resulted in the use of chlorides and hypochlorites of lime (calcium hypochlorite) and of sodium (sodium hypochlorite) in the ''boyauderies.''", "The same chemicals were found to be useful in the routine disinfection and deodorization of latrines, sewers, markets, abattoirs, anatomical theatres, and morgues.", "They were successful in hospitals, lazarets, prisons, infirmaries (both on land and at sea), magnaneries, stables, cattle-sheds, etc.", "; and they were beneficial during exhumations, embalming, outbreaks of epidemic disease, fever, and blackleg in cattle.==== Disinfection ====Labarraque's chlorinated lime and soda solutions have been advocated since 1828 to prevent infection (called \"contagious infection\", presumed to be transmitted by \"miasmas\"), and to treat putrefaction of existing wounds, including septic wounds.", "In his 1828 work, Labarraque recommended that doctors breathe chlorine, wash their hands in chlorinated lime, and even sprinkle chlorinated lime about the patients' beds in cases of \"contagious infection\".", "In 1828, the contagion of infections was well known, even though the agency of the microbe was not discovered until more than half a century later.During the Paris cholera outbreak of 1832, large quantities of so-called ''chloride of lime'' were used to disinfect the capital.", "This was not simply modern calcium chloride, but chlorine gas dissolved in lime-water (dilute calcium hydroxide) to form calcium hypochlorite (chlorinated lime).", "Labarraque's discovery helped to remove the terrible stench of decay from hospitals and dissecting rooms, and by doing so, effectively deodorised the Latin Quarter of Paris.", "These \"putrid miasmas\" were thought by many to cause the spread of \"contagion\" and \"infection\" – both words used before the germ theory of infection.", "Chloride of lime was used for destroying odors and \"putrid matter\".", "One source claims chloride of lime was used by Dr. John Snow to disinfect water from the cholera-contaminated well that was feeding the Broad Street pump in 1854 London, though three other reputable sources that describe that famous cholera epidemic do not mention the incident.", "One reference makes it clear that chloride of lime was used to disinfect the offal and filth in the streets surrounding the Broad Street pump – a common practice in mid-nineteenth century England.==== Semmelweis and experiments with antisepsis ====upright=0.6 Perhaps the most famous application of Labarraque's chlorine and chemical base solutions was in 1847, when Ignaz Semmelweis used chlorine-water (chlorine dissolved in pure water, which was cheaper than chlorinated lime solutions) to disinfect the hands of Austrian doctors, which Semmelweis noticed still carried the stench of decomposition from the dissection rooms to the patient examination rooms.", "Long before the germ theory of disease, Semmelweis theorized that \"cadaveric particles\" were transmitting decay from fresh medical cadavers to living patients, and he used the well-known \"Labarraque's solutions\" as the only known method to remove the smell of decay and tissue decomposition (which he found that soap did not).", "The solutions proved to be far more effective antiseptics than soap (Semmelweis was also aware of their greater efficacy, but not the reason), and this resulted in Semmelweis's celebrated success in stopping the transmission of childbed fever (\"puerperal fever\") in the maternity wards of Vienna General Hospital in Austria in 1847.Much later, during World War I in 1916, a standardized and diluted modification of Labarraque's solution containing hypochlorite (0.5%) and boric acid as an acidic stabilizer was developed by Henry Drysdale Dakin (who gave full credit to Labarraque's prior work in this area).", "Called Dakin's solution, the method of wound irrigation with chlorinated solutions allowed antiseptic treatment of a wide variety of open wounds, long before the modern antibiotic era.", "A modified version of this solution continues to be employed in wound irrigation in modern times, where it remains effective against bacteria that are resistant to multiple antibiotics (see Century Pharmaceuticals).==== Public sanitation ====Liquid pool chlorineThe first continuous application of chlorination to drinking U.S. water was installed in Jersey City, New Jersey, in 1908.By 1918, the US Department of Treasury called for all drinking water to be disinfected with chlorine.", "Chlorine is presently an important chemical for water purification (such as in water treatment plants), in disinfectants, and in bleach.", "Even small water supplies are now routinely chlorinated.Chlorine is usually used (in the form of hypochlorous acid) to kill bacteria and other microbes in drinking water supplies and public swimming pools.", "In most private swimming pools, chlorine itself is not used, but rather sodium hypochlorite, formed from chlorine and sodium hydroxide, or solid tablets of chlorinated isocyanurates.", "The drawback of using chlorine in swimming pools is that the chlorine reacts with the amino acids in proteins in human hair and skin.", "Contrary to popular belief, the distinctive \"chlorine aroma\" associated with swimming pools is not the result of elemental chlorine itself, but of chloramine, a chemical compound produced by the reaction of free dissolved chlorine with amines in organic substances including those in urine and sweat.", "As a disinfectant in water, chlorine is more than three times as effective against ''Escherichia coli'' as bromine, and more than six times as effective as iodine.", "Increasingly, monochloramine itself is being directly added to drinking water for purposes of disinfection, a process known as chloramination.It is often impractical to store and use poisonous chlorine gas for water treatment, so alternative methods of adding chlorine are used.", "These include hypochlorite solutions, which gradually release chlorine into the water, and compounds like sodium dichloro-s-triazinetrione (dihydrate or anhydrous), sometimes referred to as \"dichlor\", and trichloro-s-triazinetrione, sometimes referred to as \"trichlor\".", "These compounds are stable while solid and may be used in powdered, granular, or tablet form.", "When added in small amounts to pool water or industrial water systems, the chlorine atoms hydrolyze from the rest of the molecule, forming hypochlorous acid (HOCl), which acts as a general biocide, killing germs, microorganisms, algae, and so on.=== Use as a weapon ======= World War I ====Chlorine gas, also known as bertholite, was first used as a weapon in World War I by Germany on April 22, 1915, in the Second Battle of Ypres.", "As described by the soldiers, it had the distinctive smell of a mixture of pepper and pineapple.", "It also tasted metallic and stung the back of the throat and chest.", "Chlorine reacts with water in the mucosa of the lungs to form hydrochloric acid, destructive to living tissue and potentially lethal.", "Human respiratory systems can be protected from chlorine gas by gas masks with activated charcoal or other filters, which makes chlorine gas much less lethal than other chemical weapons.", "It was pioneered by a German scientist later to be a Nobel laureate, Fritz Haber of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin, in collaboration with the German chemical conglomerate IG Farben, which developed methods for discharging chlorine gas against an entrenched enemy.", "After its first use, both sides in the conflict used chlorine as a chemical weapon, but it was soon replaced by the more deadly phosgene and mustard gas.==== Middle east ====Chlorine gas was also used during the Iraq War in Anbar Province in 2007, with insurgents packing truck bombs with mortar shells and chlorine tanks.", "The attacks killed two people from the explosives and sickened more than 350.Most of the deaths were caused by the force of the explosions rather than the effects of chlorine since the toxic gas is readily dispersed and diluted in the atmosphere by the blast.", "In some bombings, over a hundred civilians were hospitalized due to breathing difficulties.", "The Iraqi authorities tightened security for elemental chlorine, which is essential for providing safe drinking water to the population.On 23 October 2014, it was reported that the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant had used chlorine gas in the town of Duluiyah, Iraq.", "Laboratory analysis of clothing and soil samples confirmed the use of chlorine gas against Kurdish Peshmerga Forces in a vehicle-borne improvised explosive device attack on 23 January 2015 at the Highway 47 Kiske Junction near Mosul.Another country in the middle east, Syria, has used chlorine as a chemical weapon delivered from barrel bombs and rockets.", "In 2016, the OPCW-UN Joint Investigative Mechanism concluded that the Syrian government used chlorine as a chemical weapon in three separate attacks.", "Later investigations from the OPCW's Investigation and Identification Team concluded that the Syrian Air Force was responsible for chlorine attacks in 2017 and 2018." ], [ "Biological role", "The chloride anion is an essential nutrient for metabolism.", "Chlorine is needed for the production of hydrochloric acid in the stomach and in cellular pump functions.", "The main dietary source is table salt, or sodium chloride.", "Overly low or high concentrations of chloride in the blood are examples of electrolyte disturbances.", "Hypochloremia (having too little chloride) rarely occurs in the absence of other abnormalities.", "It is sometimes associated with hypoventilation.", "It can be associated with chronic respiratory acidosis.", "Hyperchloremia (having too much chloride) usually does not produce symptoms.", "When symptoms do occur, they tend to resemble those of hypernatremia (having too much sodium).", "Reduction in blood chloride leads to cerebral dehydration; symptoms are most often caused by rapid rehydration which results in cerebral edema.", "Hyperchloremia can affect oxygen transport." ], [ "Hazards", "Chlorine is a toxic gas that attacks the respiratory system, eyes, and skin.", "Because it is denser than air, it tends to accumulate at the bottom of poorly ventilated spaces.", "Chlorine gas is a strong oxidizer, which may react with flammable materials.Chlorine is detectable with measuring devices in concentrations as low as 0.2 parts per million (ppm), and by smell at 3 ppm.", "Coughing and vomiting may occur at 30 ppm and lung damage at 60 ppm.", "About 1000 ppm can be fatal after a few deep breaths of the gas.", "The IDLH (immediately dangerous to life and health) concentration is 10 ppm.", "Breathing lower concentrations can aggravate the respiratory system and exposure to the gas can irritate the eyes.", "When chlorine is inhaled at concentrations greater than 30 ppm, it reacts with water within the lungs, producing hydrochloric acid (HCl) and hypochlorous acid (HOCl).When used at specified levels for water disinfection, the reaction of chlorine with water is not a major concern for human health.", "Other materials present in the water may generate disinfection by-products that are associated with negative effects on human health.In the United States, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the permissible exposure limit for elemental chlorine at 1 ppm, or 3 mg/m3.The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has designated a recommended exposure limit of 0.5 ppm over 15 minutes.In the home, accidents occur when hypochlorite bleach solutions come into contact with certain acidic drain-cleaners to produce chlorine gas.", "Hypochlorite bleach (a popular laundry additive) combined with ammonia (another popular laundry additive) produces chloramines, another toxic group of chemicals.=== Chlorine-induced cracking in structural materials ===Chlorine is widely used for purifying water, especially potable water supplies and water used in swimming pools.", "Several catastrophic collapses of swimming pool ceilings have occurred from chlorine-induced stress corrosion cracking of stainless steel suspension rods.", "Some polymers are also sensitive to attack, including acetal resin and polybutene.", "Both materials were used in hot and cold water domestic plumbing, and stress corrosion cracking caused widespread failures in the US in the 1980s and 1990s.Chlorine \"attack\" on an acetal resin plumbing joint resulting from a fractured acetal joint in a water supply system which started at an injection molding defect in the joint and slowly grew until the part failed.", "The fracture surface shows iron and calcium salts that were deposited in the leaking joint from the water supply before failure and are the indirect result of the chlorine attack.=== Chlorine-iron fire ===The element iron can combine with chlorine at high temperatures in a strong exothermic reaction, creating a ''chlorine-iron fire''.", "Chlorine-iron fires are a risk in chemical process plants, where much of the pipework that carries chlorine gas is made of steel." ], [ "See also", "* Chlorine cycle* Chlorine gas poisoning* Industrial gas* Polymer degradation* Reductive dechlorination" ], [ "References" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "General bibliography", "" ], [ "External links", " Chlorine at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)* Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry: Chlorine* Electrolytic production* Production and liquefaction of chlorine* Chlorine Production Using Mercury, Environmental Considerations and Alternatives* National Pollutant Inventory – Chlorine* National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health – Chlorine Page* Chlorine Institute – Trade association representing the chlorine industry* Chlorine Online – the web portal of Eurochlor – the business association of the European chlor-alkali industry*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Calcium" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Calcium''' is a chemical element; it has symbol '''Ca''' and atomic number 20.As an alkaline earth metal, calcium is a reactive metal that forms a dark oxide-nitride layer when exposed to air.", "Its physical and chemical properties are most similar to its heavier homologues strontium and barium.", "It is the fifth most abundant element in Earth's crust, and the third most abundant metal, after iron and aluminium.", "The most common calcium compound on Earth is calcium carbonate, found in limestone and the fossilised remnants of early sea life; gypsum, anhydrite, fluorite, and apatite are also sources of calcium.", "The name derives from Latin ''calx'' \"lime\", which was obtained from heating limestone.Some calcium compounds were known to the ancients, though their chemistry was unknown until the seventeenth century.", "Pure calcium was isolated in 1808 via electrolysis of its oxide by Humphry Davy, who named the element.", "Calcium compounds are widely used in many industries: in foods and pharmaceuticals for calcium supplementation, in the paper industry as bleaches, as components in cement and electrical insulators, and in the manufacture of soaps.", "On the other hand, the metal in pure form has few applications due to its high reactivity; still, in small quantities it is often used as an alloying component in steelmaking, and sometimes, as a calcium–lead alloy, in making automotive batteries.Calcium is the most abundant metal and the fifth-most abundant element in the human body.", "As electrolytes, calcium ions (Ca2+) play a vital role in the physiological and biochemical processes of organisms and cells: in signal transduction pathways where they act as a second messenger; in neurotransmitter release from neurons; in contraction of all muscle cell types; as cofactors in many enzymes; and in fertilization.", "Calcium ions outside cells are important for maintaining the potential difference across excitable cell membranes, protein synthesis, and bone formation." ], [ "Characteristics", "===Classification===Calcium is a very ductile silvery metal (sometimes described as pale yellow) whose properties are very similar to the heavier elements in its group, strontium, barium, and radium.", "A calcium atom has twenty electrons, arranged in the electron configuration Ar4s2.Like the other elements placed in group 2 of the periodic table, calcium has two valence electrons in the outermost s-orbital, which are very easily lost in chemical reactions to form a dipositive ion with the stable electron configuration of a noble gas, in this case argon.Hence, calcium is almost always divalent in its compounds, which are usually ionic.", "Hypothetical univalent salts of calcium would be stable with respect to their elements, but not to disproportionation to the divalent salts and calcium metal, because the enthalpy of formation of MX2 is much higher than those of the hypothetical MX.", "This occurs because of the much greater lattice energy afforded by the more highly charged Ca2+ cation compared to the hypothetical Ca+ cation.Calcium, strontium, barium, and radium are always considered to be alkaline earth metals; the lighter beryllium and magnesium, also in group 2 of the periodic table, are often included as well.", "Nevertheless, beryllium and magnesium differ significantly from the other members of the group in their physical and chemical behaviour: they behave more like aluminium and zinc respectively and have some of the weaker metallic character of the post-transition metals, which is why the traditional definition of the term \"alkaline earth metal\" excludes them.===Physical properties===Calcium metal melts at 842 °C and boils at 1494 °C; these values are higher than those for magnesium and strontium, the neighbouring group 2 metals.", "It crystallises in the face-centered cubic arrangement like strontium; above 450 °C, it changes to an anisotropic hexagonal close-packed arrangement like magnesium.", "Its density of 1.55 g/cm3 is the lowest in its group.Calcium is harder than lead but can be cut with a knife with effort.", "While calcium is a poorer conductor of electricity than copper or aluminium by volume, it is a better conductor by mass than both due to its very low density.", "While calcium is infeasible as a conductor for most terrestrial applications as it reacts quickly with atmospheric oxygen, its use as such in space has been considered.===Chemical properties===File:Ca(aq)6 improved image.tif\|thumb\|left\|Structure of the polymeric Ca(H2O)62+ center in hydrated calcium chloride, illustrating the high coordination number typical for calcium complexes.The chemistry of calcium is that of a typical heavy alkaline earth metal.", "For example, calcium spontaneously reacts with water more quickly than magnesium and less quickly than strontium to produce calcium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.", "It also reacts with the oxygen and nitrogen in the air to form a mixture of calcium oxide and calcium nitride.", "When finely divided, it spontaneously burns in air to produce the nitride.", "In bulk, calcium is less reactive: it quickly forms a hydration coating in moist air, but below 30% relative humidity it may be stored indefinitely at room temperature.Besides the simple oxide CaO, the peroxide CaO2 can be made by direct oxidation of calcium metal under a high pressure of oxygen, and there is some evidence for a yellow superoxide Ca(O2)2.Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, is a strong base, though it is not as strong as the hydroxides of strontium, barium or the alkali metals.", "All four dihalides of calcium are known.", "Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and calcium sulfate (CaSO4) are particularly abundant minerals.", "Like strontium and barium, as well as the alkali metals and the divalent lanthanides europium and ytterbium, calcium metal dissolves directly in liquid ammonia to give a dark blue solution.Due to the large size of the calcium ion (Ca2+), high coordination numbers are common, up to 24 in some intermetallic compounds such as CaZn13.Calcium is readily complexed by oxygen chelates such as EDTA and polyphosphates, which are useful in analytic chemistry and removing calcium ions from hard water.", "In the absence of steric hindrance, smaller group 2 cations tend to form stronger complexes, but when large polydentate macrocycles are involved the trend is reversed.Although calcium is in the same group as magnesium and organomagnesium compounds are very commonly used throughout chemistry, organocalcium compounds are not similarly widespread because they are more difficult to make and more reactive, although they have recently been investigated as possible catalysts.", "Organocalcium compounds tend to be more similar to organoytterbium compounds due to the similar ionic radii of Yb2+ (102 pm) and Ca2+ (100 pm).Most of these compounds can only be prepared at low temperatures; bulky ligands tend to favor stability.", "For example, calcium dicyclopentadienyl, Ca(C5H5)2, must be made by directly reacting calcium metal with mercurocene or cyclopentadiene itself; replacing the C5H5 ligand with the bulkier C5(CH3)5 ligand on the other hand increases the compound's solubility, volatility, and kinetic stability.===Isotopes===Natural calcium is a mixture of five stable isotopes (40Ca, 42Ca, 43Ca, 44Ca, and 46Ca) and one isotope with a half-life so long that it can be considered stable for all practical purposes (48Ca, with a half-life of about 4.3 × 1019 years).", "Calcium is the first (lightest) element to have six naturally occurring isotopes.By far the most common isotope of calcium in nature is 40Ca, which makes up 96.941% of all natural calcium.", "It is produced in the silicon-burning process from fusion of alpha particles and is the heaviest stable nuclide with equal proton and neutron numbers; its occurrence is also supplemented slowly by the decay of primordial 40K.", "Adding another alpha particle leads to unstable 44Ti, which quickly decays via two successive electron captures to stable 44Ca; this makes up 2.806% of all natural calcium and is the second-most common isotope.The other four natural isotopes, 42Ca, 43Ca, 46Ca, and 48Ca, are significantly rarer, each comprising less than 1% of all natural calcium.", "The four lighter isotopes are mainly products of the oxygen-burning and silicon-burning processes, leaving the two heavier ones to be produced via neutron capture processes.", "46Ca is mostly produced in a \"hot\" s-process, as its formation requires a rather high neutron flux to allow short-lived 45Ca to capture a neutron.", "48Ca is produced by electron capture in the r-process in type Ia supernovae, where high neutron excess and low enough entropy ensures its survival.46Ca and 48Ca are the first \"classically stable\" nuclides with a six-neutron or eight-neutron excess respectively.", "Although extremely neutron-rich for such a light element, 48Ca is very stable because it is a doubly magic nucleus, having 20 protons and 28 neutrons arranged in closed shells.", "Its beta decay to 48Sc is very hindered because of the gross mismatch of nuclear spin: 48Ca has zero nuclear spin, being even–even, while 48Sc has spin 6+, so the decay is forbidden by the conservation of angular momentum.", "While two excited states of 48Sc are available for decay as well, they are also forbidden due to their high spins.", "As a result, when 48Ca does decay, it does so by double beta decay to 48Ti instead, being the lightest nuclide known to undergo double beta decay.The heavy isotope 46Ca can also theoretically undergo double beta decay to 46Ti as well, but this has never been observed.", "The lightest and most common isotope 40Ca is also doubly magic and could undergo double electron capture to 40Ar, but this has likewise never been observed.", "Calcium is the only element to have two primordial doubly magic isotopes.", "The experimental lower limits for the half-lives of 40Ca and 46Ca are 5.9 × 1021 years and 2.8 × 1015 years respectively.Apart from the practically stable 48Ca, the longest lived radioisotope of calcium is 41Ca.", "It decays by electron capture to stable 41K with a half-life of about a hundred thousand years.", "Its existence in the early Solar System as an extinct radionuclide has been inferred from excesses of 41K: traces of 41Ca also still exist today, as it is a cosmogenic nuclide, continuously reformed through neutron activation of natural 40Ca.Many other calcium radioisotopes are known, ranging from 35Ca to 60Ca.", "They are all much shorter-lived than 41Ca, the most stable among them being 45Ca (half-life 163 days) and 47Ca (half-life 4.54 days).", "The isotopes lighter than 42Ca usually undergo beta plus decay to isotopes of potassium, and those heavier than 44Ca usually undergo beta minus decay to isotopes of scandium, although near the nuclear drip lines, proton emission and neutron emission begin to be significant decay modes as well.Like other elements, a variety of processes alter the relative abundance of calcium isotopes.", "The best studied of these processes is the mass-dependent fractionation of calcium isotopes that accompanies the precipitation of calcium minerals such as calcite, aragonite and apatite from solution.", "Lighter isotopes are preferentially incorporated into these minerals, leaving the surrounding solution enriched in heavier isotopes at a magnitude of roughly 0.025% per atomic mass unit (amu) at room temperature.", "Mass-dependent differences in calcium isotope composition are conventionally expressed by the ratio of two isotopes (usually 44Ca/40Ca) in a sample compared to the same ratio in a standard reference material.", "44Ca/40Ca varies by about 1% among common earth materials." ], [ "History", "One of the 'Ain Ghazal Statues, made from lime plasterCalcium compounds were known for millennia, although their chemical makeup was not understood until the 17th century.", "Lime as a building material and as plaster for statues was used as far back as around 7000 BC.", "The first dated lime kiln dates back to 2500 BC and was found in Khafajah, Mesopotamia.At about the same time, dehydrated gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O) was being used in the Great Pyramid of Giza.", "This material would later be used for the plaster in the tomb of Tutankhamun.", "The ancient Romans instead used lime mortars made by heating limestone (CaCO3).", "The name \"calcium\" itself derives from the Latin word ''calx'' \"lime\".Vitruvius noted that the lime that resulted was lighter than the original limestone, attributing this to the boiling of the water.", "In 1755, Joseph Black proved that this was due to the loss of carbon dioxide, which as a gas had not been recognised by the ancient Romans.In 1789, Antoine Lavoisier suspected that lime might be an oxide of a fundamental chemical element.", "In his table of the elements, Lavoisier listed five \"salifiable earths\" (i.e., ores that could be made to react with acids to produce salts (''salis'' = salt, in Latin): ''chaux'' (calcium oxide), ''magnésie'' (magnesia, magnesium oxide), ''baryte'' (barium sulfate), ''alumine'' (alumina, aluminium oxide), and ''silice'' (silica, silicon dioxide)).", "About these \"elements\", Lavoisier reasoned: Calcium, along with its congeners magnesium, strontium, and barium, was first isolated by Humphry Davy in 1808.Following the work of Jöns Jakob Berzelius and Magnus Martin af Pontin on electrolysis, Davy isolated calcium and magnesium by putting a mixture of the respective metal oxides with mercury(II) oxide on a platinum plate which was used as the anode, the cathode being a platinum wire partially submerged into mercury.", "Electrolysis then gave calcium–mercury and magnesium–mercury amalgams, and distilling off the mercury gave the metal.", "However, pure calcium cannot be prepared in bulk by this method and a workable commercial process for its production was not found until over a century later." ], [ "Occurrence and production", "Travertine terraces in Pamukkale, TurkeyAt 3%, calcium is the fifth most abundant element in the Earth's crust, and the third most abundant metal behind aluminium and iron.", "It is also the fourth most abundant element in the lunar highlands.", "Sedimentary calcium carbonate deposits pervade the Earth's surface as fossilized remains of past marine life; they occur in two forms, the rhombohedral calcite (more common) and the orthorhombic aragonite (forming in more temperate seas).", "Minerals of the first type include limestone, dolomite, marble, chalk, and iceland spar; aragonite beds make up the Bahamas, the Florida Keys, and the Red Sea basins.", "Corals, sea shells, and pearls are mostly made up of calcium carbonate.", "Among the other important minerals of calcium are gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O), anhydrite (CaSO4), fluorite (CaF2), and apatite (Ca5(PO4)3X, X = OH, Cl, or F).The major producers of calcium are China (about 10000 to 12000 tonnes per year), Russia (about 6000 to 8000 tonnes per year), and the United States (about 2000 to 4000 tonnes per year).", "Canada and France are also among the minor producers.", "In 2005, about 24000 tonnes of calcium were produced; about half of the world's extracted calcium is used by the United States, with about 80% of the output used each year.In Russia and China, Davy's method of electrolysis is still used, but is instead applied to molten calcium chloride.", "Since calcium is less reactive than strontium or barium, the oxide–nitride coating that results in air is stable and lathe machining and other standard metallurgical techniques are suitable for calcium.", "In the United States and Canada, calcium is instead produced by reducing lime with aluminium at high temperatures.===Geochemical cycling===Calcium cycling provides a link between tectonics, climate, and the carbon cycle.", "In the simplest terms, uplift of mountains exposes calcium-bearing rocks such as some granites to chemical weathering and releases Ca2+ into surface water.", "These ions are transported to the ocean where they react with dissolved CO2 to form limestone (), which in turn settles to the sea floor where it is incorporated into new rocks.", "Dissolved CO2, along with carbonate and bicarbonate ions, are termed \"dissolved inorganic carbon\" (DIC).The actual reaction is more complicated and involves the bicarbonate ion (HCO) that forms when CO2 reacts with water at seawater pH::Ca^2+ + 2 HCO3- -> CaCO3_v + CO2 + H2OAt seawater pH, most of the CO2 is immediately converted back into .", "The reaction results in a net transport of one molecule of CO2 from the ocean/atmosphere into the lithosphere.", "The result is that each Ca2+ ion released by chemical weathering ultimately removes one CO2 molecule from the surficial system (atmosphere, ocean, soils and living organisms), storing it in carbonate rocks where it is likely to stay for hundreds of millions of years.", "The weathering of calcium from rocks thus scrubs CO2 from the ocean and atmosphere, exerting a strong long-term effect on climate." ], [ "Applications", "The largest use of metallic calcium is in steelmaking, due to its strong chemical affinity for oxygen and sulfur.", "Its oxides and sulfides, once formed, give liquid lime aluminate and sulfide inclusions in steel which float out; on treatment, these inclusions disperse throughout the steel and become small and spherical, improving castability, cleanliness and general mechanical properties.", "Calcium is also used in maintenance-free automotive batteries, in which the use of 0.1% calcium–lead alloys instead of the usual antimony–lead alloys leads to lower water loss and lower self-discharging.Due to the risk of expansion and cracking, aluminium is sometimes also incorporated into these alloys.", "These lead–calcium alloys are also used in casting, replacing lead–antimony alloys.", "Calcium is also used to strengthen aluminium alloys used for bearings, for the control of graphitic carbon in cast iron, and to remove bismuth impurities from lead.", "Calcium metal is found in some drain cleaners, where it functions to generate heat and calcium hydroxide that saponifies the fats and liquefies the proteins (for example, those in hair) that block drains.Besides metallurgy, the reactivity of calcium is exploited to remove nitrogen from high-purity argon gas and as a getter for oxygen and nitrogen.", "It is also used as a reducing agent in the production of chromium, zirconium, thorium, vanadium and uranium.", "It can also be used to store hydrogen gas, as it reacts with hydrogen to form solid calcium hydride, from which the hydrogen can easily be re-extracted.Calcium isotope fractionation during mineral formation has led to several applications of calcium isotopes.", "In particular, the 1997 observation by Skulan and DePaolo that calcium minerals are isotopically lighter than the solutions from which the minerals precipitate is the basis of analogous applications in medicine and in paleoceanography.", "In animals with skeletons mineralized with calcium, the calcium isotopic composition of soft tissues reflects the relative rate of formation and dissolution of skeletal mineral.In humans, changes in the calcium isotopic composition of urine have been shown to be related to changes in bone mineral balance.", "When the rate of bone formation exceeds the rate of bone resorption, the 44Ca/40Ca ratio in soft tissue rises and vice versa.", "Because of this relationship, calcium isotopic measurements of urine or blood may be useful in the early detection of metabolic bone diseases like osteoporosis.A similar system exists in seawater, where 44Ca/40Ca tends to rise when the rate of removal of Ca2+ by mineral precipitation exceeds the input of new calcium into the ocean.", "In 1997, Skulan and DePaolo presented the first evidence of change in seawater 44Ca/40Ca over geologic time, along with a theoretical explanation of these changes.", "More recent papers have confirmed this observation, demonstrating that seawater Ca2+ concentration is not constant, and that the ocean is never in a \"steady state\" with respect to calcium input and output.", "This has important climatological implications, as the marine calcium cycle is closely tied to the carbon cycle.Many calcium compounds are used in food, as pharmaceuticals, and in medicine, among others.", "For example, calcium and phosphorus are supplemented in foods through the addition of calcium lactate, calcium diphosphate, and tricalcium phosphate.", "The last is also used as a polishing agent in toothpaste and in antacids.", "Calcium lactobionate is a white powder that is used as a suspending agent for pharmaceuticals.", "In baking, calcium phosphate is used as a leavening agent.", "Calcium sulfite is used as a bleach in papermaking and as a disinfectant, calcium silicate is used as a reinforcing agent in rubber, and calcium acetate is a component of liming rosin and is used to make metallic soaps and synthetic resins.Calcium is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines." ], [ "Food sources", "Foods rich in calcium include dairy products, such as yogurt and cheese, sardines, salmon, soy products, kale, and fortified breakfast cereals.Because of concerns for long-term adverse side effects, including calcification of arteries and kidney stones, both the U.S. Institute of Medicine (IOM) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) set Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs) for combined dietary and supplemental calcium.", "From the IOM, people of ages 9–18 years are not to exceed 3 g/day combined intake; for ages 19–50, not to exceed 2.5 g/day; for ages 51 and older, not to exceed 2 g/day.", "EFSA set the UL for all adults at 2.5 g/day, but decided the information for children and adolescents was not sufficient to determine ULs." ], [ "Biological and pathological role", "+ Age-adjusted daily calcium recommendations (from U.S. Institute of Medicine RDAs) Age Calcium (mg/day) 1–3 years 700 4–8 years 1000 9–18 years 1300 19–50 years 1000 >51 years 1000 Pregnancy 1000 Lactation 1000Global dietary calcium intake among adults (mg/day).===Function===Calcium is an essential element needed in large quantities.", "The Ca2+ ion acts as an electrolyte and is vital to the health of the muscular, circulatory, and digestive systems; is indispensable to the building of bone; and supports synthesis and function of blood cells.", "For example, it regulates the contraction of muscles, nerve conduction, and the clotting of blood.", "As a result, intra- and extracellular calcium levels are tightly regulated by the body.", "Calcium can play this role because the Ca2+ ion forms stable coordination complexes with many organic compounds, especially proteins; it also forms compounds with a wide range of solubilities, enabling the formation of the skeleton.===Binding===Calcium ions may be complexed by proteins through binding the carboxyl groups of glutamic acid or aspartic acid residues; through interacting with phosphorylated serine, tyrosine, or threonine residues; or by being chelated by γ-carboxylated amino acid residues.", "Trypsin, a digestive enzyme, uses the first method; osteocalcin, a bone matrix protein, uses the third.Some other bone matrix proteins such as osteopontin and bone sialoprotein use both the first and the second.", "Direct activation of enzymes by binding calcium is common; some other enzymes are activated by noncovalent association with direct calcium-binding enzymes.", "Calcium also binds to the phospholipid layer of the cell membrane, anchoring proteins associated with the cell surface.===Solubility===As an example of the wide range of solubility of calcium compounds, monocalcium phosphate is very soluble in water, 85% of extracellular calcium is as dicalcium phosphate with a solubility of 2.00 mM, and the hydroxyapatite of bones in an organic matrix is tricalcium phosphate with a solubility of 1000 μM.=== Nutrition ===Calcium is a common constituent of multivitamin dietary supplements, but the composition of calcium complexes in supplements may affect its bioavailability which varies by solubility of the salt involved: calcium citrate, malate, and lactate are highly bioavailable, while the oxalate is less.", "Other calcium preparations include calcium carbonate, calcium citrate malate, and calcium gluconate.", "The intestine absorbs about one-third of calcium eaten as the free ion, and plasma calcium level is then regulated by the kidneys.===Hormonal regulation of bone formation and serum levels===Parathyroid hormone and vitamin D promote the formation of bone by allowing and enhancing the deposition of calcium ions there, allowing rapid bone turnover without affecting bone mass or mineral content.", "When plasma calcium levels fall, cell surface receptors are activated and the secretion of parathyroid hormone occurs; it then proceeds to stimulate the entry of calcium into the plasma pool by taking it from targeted kidney, gut, and bone cells, with the bone-forming action of parathyroid hormone being antagonised by calcitonin, whose secretion increases with increasing plasma calcium levels.===Abnormal serum levels===Excess intake of calcium may cause hypercalcemia.", "However, because calcium is absorbed rather inefficiently by the intestines, high serum calcium is more likely caused by excessive secretion of parathyroid hormone (PTH) or possibly by excessive intake of vitamin D, both of which facilitate calcium absorption.", "All these conditions result in excess calcium salts being deposited in the heart, blood vessels, or kidneys.", "Symptoms include anorexia, nausea, vomiting, memory loss, confusion, muscle weakness, increased urination, dehydration, and metabolic bone disease.Chronic hypercalcaemia typically leads to calcification of soft tissue and its serious consequences: for example, calcification can cause loss of elasticity of vascular walls and disruption of laminar blood flow—and thence to plaque rupture and thrombosis.", "Conversely, inadequate calcium or vitamin D intakes may result in hypocalcemia, often caused also by inadequate secretion of parathyroid hormone or defective PTH receptors in cells.", "Symptoms include neuromuscular excitability, which potentially causes tetany and disruption of conductivity in cardiac tissue.===Bone disease===As calcium is required for bone development, many bone diseases can be traced to the organic matrix or the hydroxyapatite in molecular structure or organization of bone.", "Osteoporosis is a reduction in mineral content of bone per unit volume, and can be treated by supplementation of calcium, vitamin D, and bisphosphonates.", "Inadequate amounts of calcium, vitamin D, or phosphates can lead to softening of bones, called osteomalacia." ], [ "Safety", "===Metallic calcium===Because calcium reacts exothermically with water and acids, calcium metal coming into contact with bodily moisture results in severe corrosive irritation.", "When swallowed, calcium metal has the same effect on the mouth, oesophagus, and stomach, and can be fatal.", "However, long-term exposure is not known to have distinct adverse effects." ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Chromium" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Chromium''' is a chemical element; it has symbol '''Cr''' and atomic number 24.It is the first element in group 6.It is a steely-grey, lustrous, hard, and brittle transition metal.Chromium metal is valued for its high corrosion resistance and hardness.", "A major development in steel production was the discovery that steel could be made highly resistant to corrosion and discoloration by adding metallic chromium to form stainless steel.", "Stainless steel and chrome plating (electroplating with chromium) together comprise 85% of the commercial use.", "Chromium is also greatly valued as a metal that is able to be highly polished while resisting tarnishing.", "Polished chromium reflects almost 70% of the visible spectrum, and almost 90% of infrared light.", "The name of the element is derived from the Greek word χρῶμα, ''chrōma'', meaning color, because many chromium compounds are intensely colored.Industrial production of chromium proceeds from chromite ore (mostly FeCr2O4) to produce ferrochromium, an iron-chromium alloy, by means of aluminothermic or silicothermic reactions.", "Ferrochromium is then used to produce alloys such as stainless steel.", "Pure chromium metal is produced by a different process: roasting and leaching of chromite to separate it from iron, followed by reduction with carbon and then aluminium.In the United States, trivalent chromium (Cr(III)) ion is considered an essential nutrient in humans for insulin, sugar, and lipid metabolism.", "However, in 2014, the European Food Safety Authority, acting for the European Union, concluded that there was insufficient evidence for chromium to be recognized as essential.While chromium metal and Cr(III) ions are considered non-toxic, hexavalent chromium, Cr(VI), is toxic and carcinogenic.", "According to the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA), chromium trioxide that is used in industrial electroplating processes is a \"substance of very high concern\" (SVHC).Abandoned chromium production sites often require environmental cleanup." ], [ "Physical properties", "=== Atomic ===Chromium is the fourth transition metal found on the periodic table, and has a ground-state electron configuration of Ar 3d5 4s1.It is the first element in the periodic table whose configuration violates the Aufbau principle.", "Exceptions to the principle also occur later in the periodic table for elements such as copper, niobium and molybdenum.Chromium is the first element in the 3d series where the 3d electrons start to sink into the core; they thus contribute less to metallic bonding, and hence the melting and boiling points and the enthalpy of atomisation of chromium are lower than those of the preceding element vanadium.", "Chromium(VI) is a strong oxidising agent in contrast to the molybdenum(VI) and tungsten(VI) oxides.=== Bulk ===Sample of pure chromium metalChromium is extremely hard, and is the third hardest element behind carbon (diamond) and boron.", "Its Mohs hardness is 8.5, which means that it can scratch samples of quartz and topaz, but can be scratched by corundum.", "Chromium is highly resistant to tarnishing, which makes it useful as a metal that preserves its outermost layer from corroding, unlike other metals such as copper, magnesium, and aluminium.Chromium has a melting point of 1907 °C (3465 °F), which is relatively low compared to the majority of transition metals.", "However, it still has the second highest melting point out of all the Period 4 elements, being topped by vanadium by 3 °C (5 °F) at 1910 °C (3470 °F).", "The boiling point of 2671 °C (4840 °F), however, is comparatively lower, having the fourth lowest boiling point out of the Period 4 transition metals alone behind copper, manganese and zinc.", "The electrical resistivity of chromium at 20 °C is 125 nanoohm-meters.Chromium has a high specular reflection in comparison to other transition metals.", "In infrared, at 425 μm, chromium has a maximum reflectance of about 72%, reducing to a minimum of 62% at 750 μm before rising again to 90% at 4000 μm.", "When chromium is used in stainless steel alloys and polished, the specular reflection decreases with the inclusion of additional metals, yet is still high in comparison with other alloys.", "Between 40% and 60% of the visible spectrum is reflected from polished stainless steel.", "The explanation on why chromium displays such a high turnout of reflected photon waves in general, especially the 90% in infrared, can be attributed to chromium's magnetic properties.", "Chromium has unique magnetic properties - chromium is the only elemental solid that shows antiferromagnetic ordering at room temperature and below.", "Above 38 °C, its magnetic ordering becomes paramagnetic.", "The antiferromagnetic properties, which cause the chromium atoms to temporarily ionize and bond with themselves, are present because the body-centric cubic's magnetic properties are disproportionate to the lattice periodicity.", "This is due to the magnetic moments at the cube's corners and the unequal, but antiparallel, cube centers.", "From here, the frequency-dependent relative permittivity of chromium, deriving from Maxwell's equations and chromium's antiferromagnetism, leaves chromium with a high infrared and visible light reflectance.==== Passivation ====Chromium metal left standing in air is passivated - it forms a thin, protective, surface layer of oxide.", "This layer has a spinel structure a few atomic layers thick; it is very dense and inhibits the diffusion of oxygen into the underlying metal.", "In contrast, iron forms a more porous oxide through which oxygen can migrate, causing continued rusting.", "Passivation can be enhanced by short contact with oxidizing acids like nitric acid.", "Passivated chromium is stable against acids.", "Passivation can be removed with a strong reducing agent that destroys the protective oxide layer on the metal.", "Chromium metal treated in this way readily dissolves in weak acids.Chromium, unlike iron and nickel, does not suffer from hydrogen embrittlement.", "However, it does suffer from nitrogen embrittlement, reacting with nitrogen from air and forming brittle nitrides at the high temperatures necessary to work the metal parts.=== Isotopes ===Naturally occurring chromium is composed of four stable isotopes; 50Cr, 52Cr, 53Cr and 54Cr, with 52Cr being the most abundant (83.789% natural abundance).", "50Cr is observationally stable, as it is theoretically capable of decaying to 50Ti via double electron capture with a half-life of no less than 1.3 years.", "Twenty-five radioisotopes have been characterized, ranging from 42Cr to 70Cr; the most stable radioisotope is 51Cr with a half-life of 27.7 days.", "All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 24 hours and the majority less than 1 minute.", "Chromium also has two metastable nuclear isomers.", "The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 52Cr, is electron capture and the primary mode after is beta decay.53Cr is the radiogenic decay product of 53Mn (half-life 3.74 million years).", "Chromium isotopes are typically collocated (and compounded) with manganese isotopes.", "This circumstance is useful in isotope geology.", "Manganese-chromium isotope ratios reinforce the evidence from 26Al and 107Pd concerning the early history of the Solar System.", "Variations in 53Cr/52Cr and Mn/Cr ratios from several meteorites indicate an initial 53Mn/55Mn ratio that suggests Mn-Cr isotopic composition must result from in-situ decay of 53Mn in differentiated planetary bodies.", "Hence 53Cr provides additional evidence for nucleosynthetic processes immediately before coalescence of the Solar System.", "53Cr has been posited as a proxy for atmospheric oxygen concentration." ], [ "Chemistry and compounds", "The Pourbaix diagram for chromium in pure water, perchloric acid, or sodium hydroxideChromium is a member of group 6, of the transition metals.", "The +3 and +6 states occur most commonly within chromium compounds, followed by +2; charges of +1, +4 and +5 for chromium are rare, but do nevertheless occasionally exist.=== Common oxidation states ===Oxidation states −4 (d10)Na4Cr(CO)4 −2 (d8) −1 (d7) 0 (d6) +1 (d5) '''+2 (d4)''' '''+3 (d3)''' +4 (d2) +5 (d1) '''+6 (d0)''' ==== Chromium(0) ====Many Cr(0) complexes are known.", "Bis(benzene)chromium and chromium hexacarbonyl are highlights in organochromium chemistry.==== Chromium(II) ====Chromium(II) carbide (Cr3C2)Chromium(II) compounds are uncommon, in part because they readily oxidize to chromium(III) derivatives in air.", "Water-stable chromium(II) chloride that can be made by reducing chromium(III) chloride with zinc.", "The resulting bright blue solution created from dissolving chromium(II) chloride is stable at neutral pH.", "Some other notable chromium(II) compounds include chromium(II) oxide , and chromium(II) sulfate .", "Many chromium(II) carboxylates are known.", "The red chromium(II) acetate (Cr2(O2CCH3)4) is somewhat famous.", "It features a Cr-Cr quadruple bond.==== Chromium(III) ====Anhydrous chromium(III) chloride (CrCl3)A large number of chromium(III) compounds are known, such as chromium(III) nitrate, chromium(III) acetate, and chromium(III) oxide.", "Chromium(III) can be obtained by dissolving elemental chromium in acids like hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid, but it can also be formed through the reduction of chromium(VI) by cytochrome c7.The ion has a similar radius (63 pm) to (radius 50 pm), and they can replace each other in some compounds, such as in chrome alum and alum.Chromium(III) tends to form octahedral complexes.", "Commercially available chromium(III) chloride hydrate is the dark green complex CrCl2(H2O)4Cl.", "Closely related compounds are the pale green CrCl(H2O)5Cl2 and violet Cr(H2O)6Cl3.If anhydrous violet chromium(III) chloride is dissolved in water, the violet solution turns green after some time as the chloride in the inner coordination sphere is replaced by water.", "This kind of reaction is also observed with solutions of chrome alum and other water-soluble chromium(III) salts.", "A tetrahedral coordination of chromium(III) has been reported for the Cr-centered Keggin anion α-CrW12O405–.Chromium(III) hydroxide (Cr(OH)3) is amphoteric, dissolving in acidic solutions to form Cr(H2O)63+, and in basic solutions to form .", "It is dehydrated by heating to form the green chromium(III) oxide (Cr2O3), a stable oxide with a crystal structure identical to that of corundum.==== Chromium(VI) ====Chromium(VI) compounds are oxidants at low or neutral pH.", "Chromate anions () and dichromate (Cr2O72−) anions are the principal ions at this oxidation state.", "They exist at an equilibrium, determined by pH::2 CrO42− + 2 H+ Cr2O72− + H2OChromium(VI) oxyhalides are known also and include chromyl fluoride (CrO2F2) and chromyl chloride ().", "However, despite several erroneous claims, chromium hexafluoride (as well as all higher hexahalides) remains unknown, as of 2020.Chromium(VI) oxideSodium chromate is produced industrially by the oxidative roasting of chromite ore with sodium carbonate.", "The change in equilibrium is visible by a change from yellow (chromate) to orange (dichromate), such as when an acid is added to a neutral solution of potassium chromate.", "At yet lower pH values, further condensation to more complex oxyanions of chromium is possible.Both the chromate and dichromate anions are strong oxidizing reagents at low pH:: + 14 + 6 e− → 2 + 21 (ε0 = 1.33 V)They are, however, only moderately oxidizing at high pH:: + 4 + 3 e− → + 5 (ε0 = −0.13 V)Sodium chromate (Na2CrO4)Chromium(VI) compounds in solution can be detected by adding an acidic hydrogen peroxide solution.", "The unstable dark blue chromium(VI) peroxide (CrO5) is formed, which can be stabilized as an ether adduct .Chromic acid has the hypothetical formula .", "It is a vaguely described chemical, despite many well-defined chromates and dichromates being known.", "The dark red chromium(VI) oxide , the acid anhydride of chromic acid, is sold industrially as \"chromic acid\".", "It can be produced by mixing sulfuric acid with dichromate and is a strong oxidizing agent.=== Other oxidation states ===Compounds of chromium(V) are rather rare; the oxidation state +5 is only realized in few compounds but are intermediates in many reactions involving oxidations by chromate.", "The only binary compound is the volatile chromium(V) fluoride (CrF5).", "This red solid has a melting point of 30 °C and a boiling point of 117 °C.", "It can be prepared by treating chromium metal with fluorine at 400 °C and 200 bar pressure.", "The peroxochromate(V) is another example of the +5 oxidation state.", "Potassium peroxochromate (K3Cr(O2)4) is made by reacting potassium chromate with hydrogen peroxide at low temperatures.", "This red brown compound is stable at room temperature but decomposes spontaneously at 150–170 °C.Compounds of chromium(IV) are slightly more common than those of chromium(V).", "The tetrahalides, CrF4, CrCl4, and CrBr4, can be produced by treating the trihalides () with the corresponding halogen at elevated temperatures.", "Such compounds are susceptible to disproportionation reactions and are not stable in water.", "Organic compounds containing Cr(IV) state such as chromium tetra ''t''-butoxide are also known.Most chromium(I) compounds are obtained solely by oxidation of electron-rich, octahedral chromium(0) complexes.", "Other chromium(I) complexes contain cyclopentadienyl ligands.", "As verified by X-ray diffraction, a Cr-Cr quintuple bond (length 183.51(4) pm) has also been described.", "Extremely bulky monodentate ligands stabilize this compound by shielding the quintuple bond from further reactions.Chromium compound determined experimentally to contain a Cr-Cr quintuple bond" ], [ "Occurrence", "Crocoite (PbCrO4)Chromite oreChromium is the 21st most abundant element in Earth's crust with an average concentration of 100 ppm.", "Chromium compounds are found in the environment from the erosion of chromium-containing rocks, and can be redistributed by volcanic eruptions.", "Typical background concentrations of chromium in environmental media are: atmosphere 3; soil 2O4) ore.About two-fifths of the chromite ores and concentrates in the world are produced in South Africa, about a third in Kazakhstan, while India, Russia, and Turkey are also substantial producers.", "Untapped chromite deposits are plentiful, but geographically concentrated in Kazakhstan and southern Africa.", "Although rare, deposits of native chromium exist.", "The Udachnaya Pipe in Russia produces samples of the native metal.", "This mine is a kimberlite pipe, rich in diamonds, and the reducing environment helped produce both elemental chromium and diamonds.The relation between Cr(III) and Cr(VI) strongly depends on pH and oxidative properties of the location.", "In most cases, Cr(III) is the dominating species, but in some areas, the ground water can contain up to 39 µg/L of total chromium, of which 30 µg/L is Cr(VI)." ], [ "History", "=== Early applications ===Chromium minerals as pigments came to the attention of the west in the eighteenth century.", "On 26 July 1761, Johann Gottlob Lehmann found an orange-red mineral in the Beryozovskoye mines in the Ural Mountains which he named ''Siberian red lead''.", "Though misidentified as a lead compound with selenium and iron components, the mineral was in fact crocoite with a formula of PbCrO4.In 1770, Peter Simon Pallas visited the same site as Lehmann and found a red lead mineral that was discovered to possess useful properties as a pigment in paints.", "After Pallas, the use of Siberian red lead as a paint pigment began to develop rapidly throughout the region.", "Crocoite would be the principal source of chromium in pigments until the discovery of chromite many years later.The red color of rubies is due to trace amounts of chromium within the corundum.In 1794, Louis Nicolas Vauquelin received samples of crocoite ore.", "He produced chromium trioxide (CrO3) by mixing crocoite with hydrochloric acid.", "In 1797, Vauquelin discovered that he could isolate metallic chromium by heating the oxide in a charcoal oven, for which he is credited as the one who truly discovered the element.", "Vauquelin was also able to detect traces of chromium in precious gemstones, such as ruby and emerald.During the nineteenth century, chromium was primarily used not only as a component of paints, but in tanning salts as well.", "For quite some time, the crocoite found in Russia was the main source for such tanning materials.", "In 1827, a larger chromite deposit was discovered near Baltimore, United States, which quickly met the demand for tanning salts much more adequately than the crocoite that had been used previously.", "This made the United States the largest producer of chromium products until the year 1848, when larger deposits of chromite were uncovered near the city of Bursa, Turkey.", "With the development of metallurgy and chemical industries in the Western world, the need for chromium increased.Chromium is also famous for its reflective, metallic luster when polished.", "It is used as a protective and decorative coating on car parts, plumbing fixtures, furniture parts and many other items, usually applied by electroplating.", "Chromium was used for electroplating as early as 1848, but this use only became widespread with the development of an improved process in 1924." ], [ "Production", "Piece of chromium produced with aluminothermic reactionWorld production trend of chromiumzone-refiner, showing large visible crystal grainsApproximately 28.8 million metric tons (Mt) of marketable chromite ore was produced in 2013, and converted into 7.5 Mt of ferrochromium.", "According to John F. Papp, writing for the USGS, \"Ferrochromium is the leading end use of chromite ore, and stainless steel is the leading end use of ferrochromium.", "\"The largest producers of chromium ore in 2013 have been South Africa (48%), Kazakhstan (13%), Turkey (11%), and India (10%), with several other countries producing the rest of about 18% of the world production.The two main products of chromium ore refining are ferrochromium and metallic chromium.", "For those products the ore smelter process differs considerably.", "For the production of ferrochromium, the chromite ore (FeCr2O4) is reduced in large scale in electric arc furnace or in smaller smelters with either aluminium or silicon in an aluminothermic reaction.Chromium ore output in 2002For the production of pure chromium, the iron must be separated from the chromium in a two step roasting and leaching process.", "The chromite ore is heated with a mixture of calcium carbonate and sodium carbonate in the presence of air.", "The chromium is oxidized to the hexavalent form, while the iron forms the stable Fe2O3.The subsequent leaching at higher elevated temperatures dissolves the chromates and leaves the insoluble iron oxide.", "The chromate is converted by sulfuric acid into the dichromate.", ":4 FeCr2O4 + 8 Na2CO3 + 7 O2 → 8 Na2CrO4 + 2 Fe2O3 + 8 CO2:2 Na2CrO4 + H2SO4 → Na2Cr2O7 + Na2SO4 + H2OThe dichromate is converted to the chromium(III) oxide by reduction with carbon and then reduced in an aluminothermic reaction to chromium.", ":Na2Cr2O7 + 2 C → Cr2O3 + Na2CO3 + CO:Cr2O3 + 2 Al → Al2O3 + 2 Cr" ], [ "Applications", "The creation of metal alloys account for 85% of the available chromium's usage.", "The remainder of chromium is used in the chemical, refractory, and foundry industries.=== Metallurgy ===Stainless steel cutlery made from Cromargan 18/10, containing 18% chromiumThe strengthening effect of forming stable metal carbides at grain boundaries, and the strong increase in corrosion resistance made chromium an important alloying material for steel.", "High-speed tool steels contain 3–5% chromium.", "Stainless steel, the primary corrosion-resistant metal alloy, is formed when chromium is introduced to iron in concentrations above 11%.", "For stainless steel's formation, ferrochromium is added to the molten iron.", "Also, nickel-based alloys have increased strength due to the formation of discrete, stable, metal, carbide particles at the grain boundaries.", "For example, Inconel 718 contains 18.6% chromium.", "Because of the excellent high-temperature properties of these nickel superalloys, they are used in jet engines and gas turbines in lieu of common structural materials.", "ASTM B163 relies on Chromium for condenser and heat-exchanger tubes, while castings with high strength at elevated temperatures that contain Chromium are standardised with ASTM A567.AISI type 332 is used where high temperature would normally cause carburization, oxidation or corrosion.", "Incoloy 800 \"is capable of remaining stable and maintaining its austenitic structure even after long time exposures to high temperatures\".", "Nichrome is used as resistance wire for heating elements in things like toasters and space heaters.", "These uses make chromium a strategic material.", "Consequently, during World War II, U.S. road engineers were instructed to avoid chromium in yellow road paint, as it \"may become a critical material during the emergency.\"", "The United States likewise considered chromium \"essential for the German war industry\" and made intense diplomatic efforts to keep it out of the hands of Nazi Germany.Decorative chrome plating on a motorcycleThe high hardness and corrosion resistance of unalloyed chromium makes it a reliable metal for surface coating; it is still the most popular metal for sheet coating, with its above-average durability, compared to other coating metals.", "A layer of chromium is deposited on pretreated metallic surfaces by electroplating techniques.", "There are two deposition methods: thin, and thick.", "Thin deposition involves a layer of chromium below 1 µm thickness deposited by chrome plating, and is used for decorative surfaces.", "Thicker chromium layers are deposited if wear-resistant surfaces are needed.", "Both methods use acidic chromate or dichromate solutions.", "To prevent the energy-consuming change in oxidation state, the use of chromium(III) sulfate is under development; for most applications of chromium, the previously established process is used.In the chromate conversion coating process, the strong oxidative properties of chromates are used to deposit a protective oxide layer on metals like aluminium, zinc, and cadmium.", "This passivation and the self-healing properties of the chromate stored in the chromate conversion coating, which is able to migrate to local defects, are the benefits of this coating method.", "Because of environmental and health regulations on chromates, alternative coating methods are under development.Chromic acid anodizing (or Type I anodizing) of aluminium is another electrochemical process that does not lead to the deposition of chromium, but uses chromic acid as an electrolyte in the solution.", "During anodization, an oxide layer is formed on the aluminium.", "The use of chromic acid, instead of the normally used sulfuric acid, leads to a slight difference of these oxide layers.The high toxicity of Cr(VI) compounds, used in the established chromium electroplating process, and the strengthening of safety and environmental regulations demand a search for substitutes for chromium, or at least a change to less toxic chromium(III) compounds.=== Pigment ===The mineral crocoite (which is also lead chromate PbCrO4) was used as a yellow pigment shortly after its discovery.", "After a synthesis method became available starting from the more abundant chromite, chrome yellow was, together with cadmium yellow, one of the most used yellow pigments.", "The pigment does not photodegrade, but it tends to darken due to the formation of chromium(III) oxide.", "It has a strong color, and was used for school buses in the United States and for the postal services (for example, the Deutsche Post) in Europe.", "The use of chrome yellow has since declined due to environmental and safety concerns and was replaced by organic pigments or other alternatives that are free from lead and chromium.", "Other pigments that are based around chromium are, for example, the deep shade of red pigment chrome red, which is simply lead chromate with lead(II) hydroxide (PbCrO4·Pb(OH)2).", "A very important chromate pigment, which was used widely in metal primer formulations, was zinc chromate, now replaced by zinc phosphate.", "A wash primer was formulated to replace the dangerous practice of pre-treating aluminium aircraft bodies with a phosphoric acid solution.", "This used zinc tetroxychromate dispersed in a solution of polyvinyl butyral.", "An 8% solution of phosphoric acid in solvent was added just before application.", "It was found that an easily oxidized alcohol was an essential ingredient.", "A thin layer of about 10–15 µm was applied, which turned from yellow to dark green when it was cured.", "There is still a question as to the correct mechanism.", "Chrome green is a mixture of Prussian blue and chrome yellow, while the chrome oxide green is chromium(III) oxide.Chromium oxides are also used as a green pigment in the field of glassmaking and also as a glaze for ceramics.", "Green chromium oxide is extremely lightfast and as such is used in cladding coatings.", "It is also the main ingredient in infrared reflecting paints, used by the armed forces to paint vehicles and to give them the same infrared reflectance as green leaves.=== Other uses ===Red crystal of a ruby laserChromium(III) ions present in corundum crystals (aluminium oxide) cause them to be colored red; when corundum appears as such, it is known as a ruby.", "If the corundum is lacking in chromium(III) ions, it is known as a sapphire.", "A red-colored artificial ruby may also be achieved by doping chromium(III) into artificial corundum crystals, thus making chromium a requirement for making synthetic rubies.", "Such a synthetic ruby crystal was the basis for the first laser, produced in 1960, which relied on stimulated emission of light from the chromium atoms in such a crystal.", "Ruby has a laser transition at 694.3 nanometers, in a deep red color.Because of their toxicity, chromium(VI) salts are used for the preservation of wood.", "For example, chromated copper arsenate (CCA) is used in timber treatment to protect wood from decay fungi, wood-attacking insects, including termites, and marine borers.", "The formulations contain chromium based on the oxide CrO3 between 35.3% and 65.5%.", "In the United States, 65,300 metric tons of CCA solution were used in 1996.Chromium(III) salts, especially chrome alum and chromium(III) sulfate, are used in the tanning of leather.", "The chromium(III) stabilizes the leather by cross linking the collagen fibers.", "Chromium tanned leather can contain 4–5% of chromium, which is tightly bound to the proteins.", "Although the form of chromium used for tanning is not the toxic hexavalent variety, there remains interest in management of chromium in the tanning industry.", "Recovery and reuse, direct/indirect recycling, and \"chrome-less\" or \"chrome-free\" tanning are practiced to better manage chromium usage.The high heat resistivity and high melting point makes chromite and chromium(III) oxide a material for high temperature refractory applications, like blast furnaces, cement kilns, molds for the firing of bricks and as foundry sands for the casting of metals.", "In these applications, the refractory materials are made from mixtures of chromite and magnesite.", "The use is declining because of the environmental regulations due to the possibility of the formation of chromium(VI).", "Several chromium compounds are used as catalysts for processing hydrocarbons.", "For example, the Phillips catalyst, prepared from chromium oxides, is used for the production of about half the world's polyethylene.", "Fe-Cr mixed oxides are employed as high-temperature catalysts for the water gas shift reaction.", "Copper chromite is a useful hydrogenation catalyst.Chromates of metals are used in humistor.=== Uses of compounds ===* Chromium(IV) oxide (CrO2) is a magnetic compound.", "Its ideal shape anisotropy, which imparts high coercivity and remnant magnetization, made it a compound superior to γ-Fe2O3.Chromium(IV) oxide is used to manufacture magnetic tape used in high-performance audio tape and standard audio cassettes.", "* Chromium(III) oxide (Cr2O3) is a metal polish known as green rouge.", "* Chromic acid is a powerful oxidizing agent and is a useful compound for cleaning laboratory glassware of any trace of organic compounds.", "It is prepared by dissolving potassium dichromate in concentrated sulfuric acid, which is then used to wash the apparatus.", "Sodium dichromate is sometimes used because of its higher solubility (50 g/L versus 200 g/L respectively).", "The use of dichromate cleaning solutions is now phased out due to the high toxicity and environmental concerns.", "Modern cleaning solutions are highly effective and chromium free.", "* Potassium dichromate is a chemical reagent, used as a titrating agent.", "* Chromates are added to drilling muds to prevent corrosion of steel under wet conditions.", "* Chrome alum is Chromium(III) potassium sulfate and is used as a mordant (i.e., a fixing agent) for dyes in fabric and in tanning." ], [ "Biological role", "The biologically beneficial effects of chromium(III) are debated.", "Chromium is accepted by the U.S. National Institutes of Health as a trace element for its roles in the action of insulin, a hormone that mediates the metabolism and storage of carbohydrate, fat, and protein.", "The mechanism of its actions in the body, however, have not been defined, leaving in question the essentiality of chromium.In contrast, hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI) or Cr6+) is highly toxic and mutagenic.", "Ingestion of chromium(VI) in water has been linked to stomach tumors, and it may also cause allergic contact dermatitis (ACD).", "\"Chromium deficiency\", involving a lack of Cr(III) in the body, or perhaps some complex of it, such as glucose tolerance factor, is controversial.", "Some studies suggest that the biologically active form of chromium(III) is transported in the body via an oligopeptide called low-molecular-weight chromium-binding substance (LMWCr), which might play a role in the insulin signaling pathway.The chromium content of common foods is generally low (1–13 micrograms per serving).", "The chromium content of food varies widely, due to differences in soil mineral content, growing season, plant cultivar, and contamination during processing.", "Chromium (and nickel) leach into food cooked in stainless steel, with the effect being largest when the cookware is new.", "Acidic foods that are cooked for many hours also exacerbate this effect.=== Dietary recommendations ===There is disagreement on chromium's status as an essential nutrient.", "Governmental departments from Australia, New Zealand, India, Japan, and the United States consider chromium essential while the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) of the European Union does not.The U.S. National Academy of Medicine (NAM) updated the Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for chromium in 2001.For chromium, there was insufficient information to set EARs and RDAs, so its needs are described as estimates for Adequate Intakes (AIs).", "The current AIs of chromium for women ages 14 through 50 is 25 μg/day, and the AIs for women ages 50 and above is 20 μg/day.", "The AIs for women who are pregnant are 30 μg/day, and for women who are lactating, the set AIs are 45 μg/day.", "The AIs for men ages 14 through 50 are 35 μg/day, and the AIs for men ages 50 and above are 30 μg/day.", "For children ages 1 through 13, the AIs increase with age from 0.2 μg/day up to 25 μg/day.", "As for safety, the NAM sets Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs) for vitamins and minerals when the evidence is sufficient.", "In the case of chromium, there is not yet enough information, hence no UL has been established.", "Collectively, the EARs, RDAs, AIs, and ULs are the parameters for the nutrition recommendation system known as Dietary Reference Intake (DRI).", "Australia and New Zealand consider chromium to be an essential nutrient, with an AI of 35 μg/day for men, 25 μg/day for women, 30 μg/day for women who are pregnant, and 45 μg/day for women who are lactating.", "A UL has not been set due to the lack of sufficient data.", "India considers chromium to be an essential nutrient, with an adult recommended intake of 33 μg/day.", "Japan also considers chromium to be an essential nutrient, with an AI of 10 μg/day for adults, including women who are pregnant or lactating.", "A UL has not been set.", "The EFSA of the European Union however, does not consider chromium to be an essential nutrient; chromium is the only mineral for which the United States and the European Union disagree.====Labeling====For U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes, the amount of the substance in a serving is expressed as a percent of the Daily Value (%DV).", "For chromium labeling purposes, 100% of the Daily Value was 120 μg.", "As of 27 May 2016 the percentage of daily value was revised to 35 μg to bring the chromium intake into a consensus with the official Recommended Dietary Allowance.", "A table of the old and new adult daily values is provided at Reference Daily Intake.===Food sources===Food composition databases such as those maintained by the U.S. Department of Agriculture do not contain information on the chromium content of foods.", "A wide variety of animal and vegetable foods contain chromium.", "Content per serving is influenced by the chromium content of the soil in which the plants are grown, by foodstuffs fed to animals, and by processing methods, as chromium is leached into foods if processed or cooked in stainless steel equipment.", "One diet analysis study conducted in Mexico reported an average daily chromium intake of 30 micrograms.", "An estimated 31% of adults in the United States consume multi-vitamin/mineral dietary supplements, which often contain 25 to 60 micrograms of chromium.=== Supplementation ===Chromium is an ingredient in total parenteral nutrition (TPN), because deficiency can occur after months of intravenous feeding with chromium-free TPN.", "It is also added to nutritional products for preterm infants.", "Although the mechanism of action in biological roles for chromium is unclear, in the United States chromium-containing products are sold as non-prescription dietary supplements in amounts ranging from 50 to 1,000 μg.", "Lower amounts of chromium are also often incorporated into multi-vitamin/mineral supplements consumed by an estimated 31% of adults in the United States.", "Chemical compounds used in dietary supplements include chromium chloride, chromium citrate, chromium(III) picolinate, chromium(III) polynicotinate, and other chemical compositions.", "The benefit of supplements has not been proven.==== Approved and disapproved health claims ====In 2005, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration had approved a qualified health claim for chromium picolinate with a requirement for very specific label wording: \"One small study suggests that chromium picolinate may reduce the risk of insulin resistance, and therefore possibly may reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes.", "FDA concludes, however, that the existence of such a relationship between chromium picolinate and either insulin resistance or type 2 diabetes is highly uncertain.\"", "At the same time, in answer to other parts of the petition, the FDA rejected claims for chromium picolinate and cardiovascular disease, retinopathy or kidney disease caused by abnormally high blood sugar levels.", "In 2010, chromium(III) picolinate was approved by Health Canada to be used in dietary supplements.", "Approved labeling statements include: a factor in the maintenance of good health, provides support for healthy glucose metabolism, helps the body to metabolize carbohydrates and helps the body to metabolize fats.", "The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) approved claims in 2010 that chromium contributed to normal macronutrient metabolism and maintenance of normal blood glucose concentration, but rejected claims for maintenance or achievement of a normal body weight, or reduction of tiredness or fatigue.Given the evidence for chromium deficiency causing problems with glucose management in the context of intravenous nutrition products formulated without chromium, research interest turned to whether chromium supplementation would benefit people who have type 2 diabetes but are not chromium deficient.", "Looking at the results from four meta-analyses, one reported a statistically significant decrease in fasting plasma glucose levels (FPG) and a non-significant trend in lower hemoglobin A1C.", "A second reported the same, a third reported significant decreases for both measures, while a fourth reported no benefit for either.", "A review published in 2016 listed 53 randomized clinical trials that were included in one or more of six meta-analyses.", "It concluded that whereas there may be modest decreases in FPG and/or HbA1C that achieve statistical significance in some of these meta-analyses, few of the trials achieved decreases large enough to be expected to be relevant to clinical outcome.Two systematic reviews looked at chromium supplements as a mean of managing body weight in overweight and obese people.", "One, limited to chromium picolinate, a popular supplement ingredient, reported a statistically significant −1.1 kg (2.4 lb) weight loss in trials longer than 12 weeks.", "The other included all chromium compounds and reported a statistically significant −0.50 kg (1.1 lb) weight change.", "Change in percent body fat did not reach statistical significance.", "Authors of both reviews considered the clinical relevance of this modest weight loss as uncertain/unreliable.", "The European Food Safety Authority reviewed the literature and concluded that there was insufficient evidence to support a claim.Chromium is promoted as a sports performance dietary supplement, based on the theory that it potentiates insulin activity, with anticipated results of increased muscle mass, and faster recovery of glycogen storage during post-exercise recovery.", "A review of clinical trials reported that chromium supplementation did not improve exercise performance or increase muscle strength.", "The International Olympic Committee reviewed dietary supplements for high-performance athletes in 2018 and concluded there was no need to increase chromium intake for athletes, nor support for claims of losing body fat.=== Fresh-water fish ===Chromium is naturally present in the environment in trace amounts, but industrial use in rubber and stainless steel manufacturing, chrome plating, dyes for textiles, tanneries and other uses contaminates aquatic systems.", "In Bangladesh, rivers in or downstream from industrialized areas exhibit heavy metal contamination.", "Irrigation water standards for chromium are 0.1 mg/L, but some rivers are more than five times that amount.", "The standard for fish for human consumption is less than 1 mg/kg, but many tested samples were more than five times that amount.", "Chromium, especially hexavalent chromium, is highly toxic to fish because it is easily absorbed across the gills, readily enters blood circulation, crosses cell membranes and bioconcentrates up the food chain.", "In contrast, the toxicity of trivalent chromium is very low, attributed to poor membrane permeability and little biomagnification.Acute and chronic exposure to chromium(VI) affects fish behavior, physiology, reproduction and survival.", "Hyperactivity and erratic swimming have been reported in contaminated environments.", "Egg hatching and fingerling survival are affected.", "In adult fish there are reports of histopathological damage to liver, kidney, muscle, intestines, and gills.", "Mechanisms include mutagenic gene damage and disruptions of enzyme functions.There is evidence that fish may not require chromium, but benefit from a measured amount in diet.", "In one study, juvenile fish gained weight on a zero chromium diet, but the addition of 500 μg of chromium in the form of chromium chloride or other supplement types, per kilogram of food (dry weight), increased weight gain.", "At 2,000 μg/kg the weight gain was no better than with the zero chromium diet, and there were increased DNA strand breaks." ], [ "Precautions", "Water-insoluble chromium(III) compounds and chromium metal are not considered a health hazard, while the toxicity and carcinogenic properties of chromium(VI) have been known for a long time.", "Because of the specific transport mechanisms, only limited amounts of chromium(III) enter the cells.", "Acute oral toxicity ranges between 50 and 150 mg/kg.", "A 2008 review suggested that moderate uptake of chromium(III) through dietary supplements poses no genetic-toxic risk.", "In the US, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has designated an air permissible exposure limit (PEL) in the workplace as a time-weighted average (TWA) of 1 mg/m3.The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 0.5 mg/m3, time-weighted average.", "The IDLH (immediately dangerous to life and health) value is 250 mg/m3.=== Chromium(VI) toxicity ===The acute oral toxicity for chromium(VI) ranges between 1.5 and 3.3 mg/kg.", "In the body, chromium(VI) is reduced by several mechanisms to chromium(III) already in the blood before it enters the cells.", "The chromium(III) is excreted from the body, whereas the chromate ion is transferred into the cell by a transport mechanism, by which also sulfate and phosphate ions enter the cell.", "The acute toxicity of chromium(VI) is due to its strong oxidant properties.", "After it reaches the blood stream, it damages the kidneys, the liver and blood cells through oxidation reactions.", "Hemolysis, renal, and liver failure result.", "Aggressive dialysis can be therapeutic.The carcinogenity of chromate dust has been known for a long time, and in 1890 the first publication described the elevated cancer risk of workers in a chromate dye company.", "Three mechanisms have been proposed to describe the genotoxicity of chromium(VI).", "The first mechanism includes highly reactive hydroxyl radicals and other reactive radicals which are by products of the reduction of chromium(VI) to chromium(III).", "The second process includes the direct binding of chromium(V), produced by reduction in the cell, and chromium(IV) compounds to the DNA.", "The last mechanism attributed the genotoxicity to the binding to the DNA of the end product of the chromium(III) reduction.Chromium salts (chromates) are also the cause of allergic reactions in some people.", "Chromates are often used to manufacture, amongst other things, leather products, paints, cement, mortar and anti-corrosives.", "Contact with products containing chromates can lead to allergic contact dermatitis and irritant dermatitis, resulting in ulceration of the skin, sometimes referred to as \"chrome ulcers\".", "This condition is often found in workers that have been exposed to strong chromate solutions in electroplating, tanning and chrome-producing manufacturers.=== Environmental issues ===Because chromium compounds were used in dyes, paints, and leather tanning compounds, these compounds are often found in soil and groundwater at active and abandoned industrial sites, needing environmental cleanup and remediation.", "Primer paint containing hexavalent chromium is still widely used for aerospace and automobile refinishing applications.In 2010, the Environmental Working Group studied the drinking water in 35 American cities in the first nationwide study.", "The study found measurable hexavalent chromium in the tap water of 31 of the cities sampled, with Norman, Oklahoma, at the top of list; 25 cities had levels that exceeded California's proposed limit.The more toxic hexavalent chromium form can be reduced to the less soluble trivalent oxidation state in soils by organic matter, ferrous iron, sulfides, and other reducing agents, with the rates of such reduction being faster under more acidic conditions than under more alkaline ones.", "In contrast, trivalent chromium can be oxidized to hexavalent chromium in soils by manganese oxides, such as Mn(III) and Mn(IV) compounds.", "Since the solubility and toxicity of chromium (VI) are greater that those of chromium (III), the oxidation-reduction conversions between the two oxidation states have implications for movement and bioavailability of chromium in soils, groundwater, and plants." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "General bibliography", "" ], [ "External links", " ATSDR Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Chromium Toxicity U.S. Department of Health and Human Services* IARC Monograph \"Chromium and Chromium compounds\"* It's Elemental – The Element Chromium* The Merck Manual – Mineral Deficiency and Toxicity* National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health – Chromium Page* Chromium at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Cymbal" ], [ "Introduction", "Characteristic rock hi-hat pattern.", "A '''cymbal''' is a common percussion instrument.", "Often used in pairs, cymbals consist of thin, normally round plates of various alloys.", "The majority of cymbals are of indefinite pitch, although small disc-shaped cymbals based on ancient designs sound a definite note (such as crotales).", "Cymbals are used in many ensembles ranging from the orchestra, percussion ensembles, jazz bands, heavy metal bands, and marching groups.", "Drum kits usually incorporate at least a crash, ride, or crash/ride, and a pair of hi-hat cymbals.", "A player of cymbals is known as a '''cymbalist'''.A cymbalist using a cymbal as part of a larger musical arrangement." ], [ "Etymology and names", "The word cymbal is derived from the Latin , which is the latinisation , which in turn derives .In orchestral scores, cymbals may be indicated by the French ; German , , , or ; Italian or ; and Spanish .", "Many of these derive from the word for plates." ], [ "History", "Cymbals have existed since ancient times.", "Representations of cymbals may be found in reliefs and paintings from Armenian Highlands (7th century BC), Larsa, Babylon, Assyria, ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, and ancient Rome.", "References to cymbals also appear throughout the Bible, through many Psalms and songs of praise to God.", "Cymbals may have been introduced to China from Central Asia in the 3rd or 4th century AD.===India===In India, cymbals have been in use since ancient times and are still used across almost all major temples and Buddhist sites.", "Gigantic aartis along the Ganges, which are revered by Hindus all over the world, are incomplete without large cymbals.===Central Asia and Iran===Mesopotamian cymbals from the 3rd millennium B.C.", "show that the large cymbal dates back into antiquity.The Shahnameh (circa 977 and 1010 CE) mentions the use of cymbals at least 14 times in its text, most in the context of creating a loud din in war, to frighten the enemy or to celebrate.", "The Persian word is ''sanj'' or ''senj'' (), but the Shahnameh does not claim these to be Persian in origin.", "Several times it calls then \"Indian cymbals.\"", "Other adjectives to describe them include \"golden\" and \"brass,\" and to play them is to \"clash\" them.A different form is called ''sanj angshati'' (), these are zill.==== Ashura ceremony ====Besides the original use in war, another use in Persian culture was the Ashura ceremony.", "Originally in the ceremony, two pieces of stone were beaten on the sides of the mourner with special movements accompanied by a lamentation song.", "This has been replaced by beating ''Karbzani'' or ''Karebzani'' and playing ''sanj ''and ratchets.", "Cities where this has been performed include Lahijan and Aran of Kashan, as well as Semnan and Sabzevar.====Etymology====:''See Zang''All theories about the etymology of the word Sanj, identify it as a Pahlavi word.", "By some accounts means ''weight''; and it is possible that the original term was ''sanjkūb'' meaning ”striking weights” against each other.", "By some accounts the word is reform version of \"Zang\" (bell), referring to its bell-shaped plate.===Turkey===Surname-i Vebbi (fol.", "172a), showing cymbals being used in military setting by a Turkish army.", "Descriptions of this kind of use date as far back as the Shahnameh, circa 977-1010 A.D.Cymbals were employed by Turkish janissaries in the 14th century or earlier.", "By the 17th century, such cymbals were used in European music, and more commonly played in military bands and orchestras by the mid 18th century.", "Since the 19th century, some composers have called for larger roles for cymbals in musical works, and a variety of cymbal shapes, techniques, and hardware have been developed in response." ], [ "Anatomy", "The anatomy of the cymbal plays a large part in the sound it creates.", "A hole is drilled in the center of the cymbal, which is used to either mount the cymbal on a stand or for tying straps through (for hand playing).", "The bell, dome, or cup is the raised section immediately surrounding the hole.", "The bell produces a higher \"pinging\" pitch than the rest of the cymbal.", "The bow is the rest of the surface surrounding the bell.", "The bow is sometimes described in two areas: the ride and crash area.", "The ride area is the thicker section closer to the bell while the crash area is the thinner tapering section near the edge.", "The edge or rim is the immediate circumference of the cymbal.Cymbals are measured by their diameter either in inches or centimeters.", "The size of the cymbal affects its sound, larger cymbals usually being louder and having longer sustain.", "The weight describes how thick the cymbal is.", "Cymbal weights are important to the sound they produce and how they play.", "Heavier cymbals have a louder volume, more cut, and better stick articulation (when using drum sticks).", "Thin cymbals have a fuller sound, lower pitch, and faster response.The profile of the cymbal is the vertical distance of the bow from the bottom of the bell to the cymbal edge (higher profile cymbals are more bowl-shaped).", "The profile affects the pitch of the cymbal: higher profile cymbals have higher pitch." ], [ "Types", "=== Orchestral cymbals ===Cymbals offer a composer nearly endless amounts of color and effect.", "Their unique timbre allows them to project even against a full orchestra and through the heaviest of orchestrations and enhance articulation and nearly any dynamic.", "Cymbals have been utilized historically to suggest frenzy, fury or bacchanalian revels, as seen in the Venus music in Wagner's ''Tannhäuser'', Grieg's ''Peer Gynt suite'', and Osmin's aria \"O wie will ich triumphieren\" from Mozart's ''Die Entführung aus dem Serail''.=== Clash cymbals ===A pair of clash cymbals in cross section.", "The bell is in green and the straps are in red.Orchestral clash cymbals are traditionally used in pairs, each one having a strap set in the bell of the cymbal by which they are held.", "Such a pair is known as '''clash cymbals, crash cymbals, hand cymbals,''' or '''plates'''.", "Certain sounds can be obtained by rubbing their edges together in a sliding movement for a \"sizzle\", striking them against each other in what is called a \"crash\", tapping the edge of one against the body of the other in what is called a \"tap-crash\", scraping the edge of one from the inside of the bell to the edge for a \"scrape\" or \"zischen\", or shutting the cymbals together and choking the sound in what is called a \"hi-hat\" or \"crush\".", "A skilled percussionist can obtain an enormous dynamic range from such cymbals.", "For example, in Beethoven's Symphony No.", "9, the percussionist is employed to first play cymbals pianissimo, adding a touch of colour rather than loud crash.Crash cymbals are usually damped by pressing them against the percussionist's body.", "A composer may write ''laissez vibrer'', or, \"let vibrate\" (usually abbreviated l.v.", "), ''secco'' (dry), or equivalent indications on the score; more usually, the percussionist must judge when to damp based on the written duration of a crash and the context in which it occurs.", "Crash cymbals have traditionally been accompanied by the bass drum playing an identical part.", "This combination, played loudly, is an effective way to accentuate a note since it contributes to both very low and very high-frequency ranges and provides a satisfying \"crash-bang-wallop\".", "In older music the composer sometimes provided one part for this pair of instruments, writing ''senza piatti'' or ''piatti soli'' () if only one is needed.", "This came from the common practice of having one percussionist play using one cymbal mounted to the shell of the bass drum.", "The percussionist would crash the cymbals with the left hand and use a mallet to strike the bass drum with the right.", "This method is nowadays often employed in pit orchestras and called for specifically by composers who desire a certain effect.", "Stravinsky calls for this in his ballet Petrushka, and Mahler calls for this in his Titan Symphony.", "The modern convention is for the instruments to have independent parts.", "However, in kit drumming, a cymbal crash is still most often accompanied by a simultaneous kick to the bass drum, which provides a musical effect and support to the crash.=== Hi hats ===Crash cymbals evolved into the low-sock and from this to the modern hi-hat.", "Even in a modern drum kit, they remain paired with the bass drum as the two instruments which are played with the player's feet.", "However, hi-hat cymbals tend to be heavy with little taper, more similar to a ride cymbal than to a clash cymbal as found in a drum kit, and perform a ride rather than a crash function.=== Suspended cymbal ===Another use of cymbals is the suspended cymbal.", "This instrument takes its name from the traditional method of suspending the cymbal by means of a leather strap or rope, thus allowing the cymbal to vibrate as freely as possible for maximum musical effect.", "Early jazz drumming pioneers borrowed this style of cymbal mounting during the early 1900s and later drummers further developed this instrument into the mounted horizontal or nearly horizontally mounted \"crash\" cymbals of a modern drum kit instead of a leather strap suspension system.", "Many modern drum kits use a mount with felt or otherwise dampening fabric to act as a barrier to hold the cymbals between metal clamps: thus forming the modern-day ride cymbal.", "Suspended cymbals can be played with yarn-, sponge-, or cord wrapped mallets.", "The first known instance of using a sponge-headed mallet on a cymbal is the final chord of Hector Berlioz' Symphonie Fantastique.", "Composers sometimes specifically request other types of mallets like felt mallets or timpani mallets for different attack and sustain qualities.", "Suspended cymbals can produce bright and slicing tones when forcefully struck, and give an eerie transparent \"windy\" sound when played quietly.", "A tremolo, or roll (played with two mallets alternately striking on opposing sides of the cymbal) can build in volume from almost inaudible to an overwhelming climax in a satisfyingly smooth manner (as in Humperdinck's Mother Goose Suite).", "The edge of a suspended cymbal may be hit with the shoulder of a drum stick to obtain a sound somewhat akin to that of clash cymbals.", "Other methods of playing include scraping a coin or triangle beater rapidly across the ridges on the top of the cymbal, giving a \"zing\" sound (as some percussionists do in the fourth movement of Dvořák's Symphony No.", "9).", "Other effects that can be used include drawing a bass bow across the edge of the cymbal for a sound like squealing car brakes.=== Ancient cymbals ===Ancient, antique or tuned cymbals are much more rarely called for.", "Their timbre is entirely different, more like that of small hand-bells or of the notes of the keyed harmonica.", "They are not struck full against each other, but by one of their edges, and the note given in by them is higher in proportion as they are thicker and smaller.", "Berlioz's ''Romeo and Juliet'' calls for two pairs of cymbals, modeled on some old Pompeian instruments no larger than the hand (some are no larger than a large coin), and tuned to F and B flat.", "The modern instruments descended from this line are the crotales.=== List of cymbal types ===Hi-hats.", "The clutch suspends the top cymbal on a rod operated by a pedal.Cymbal types include:* Bell cymbal* China cymbal* Clash cymbal* Crash cymbal* Crash/ride cymbal* Finger cymbal* Flat ride cymbal* Hi-hat* Ride cymbal* Sizzle cymbal* Splash cymbal* Swish cymbal* Suspended cymbal* Taal – Indian cymbal (clash cymbal)" ], [ "See also", "* Cymbal making and Cymbal alloys* Cymbal manufacturers* Percussion instruments* Drum and Drum kit* Taal* Zill" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===" ], [ "External links", " Orchestral cymbal playing, with an excellent short history of cymbals* Cymbal Colour Exploration, A 3D binaural audio recording of different cymbal sound colours" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Cadmium" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cadmium''' is a chemical element; it has symbol '''Cd''' and atomic number 48.This soft, silvery-white metal is chemically similar to the two other stable metals in group 12, zinc and mercury.", "Like zinc, it demonstrates oxidation state +2 in most of its compounds, and like mercury, it has a lower melting point than the transition metals in groups 3 through 11.Cadmium and its congeners in group 12 are often not considered transition metals, in that they do not have partly filled ''d'' or ''f'' electron shells in the elemental or common oxidation states.", "The average concentration of cadmium in Earth's crust is between 0.1 and 0.5 parts per million (ppm).", "It was discovered in 1817 simultaneously by Stromeyer and Hermann, both in Germany, as an impurity in zinc carbonate.Cadmium occurs as a minor component in most zinc ores and is a byproduct of zinc production.", "Cadmium was used for a long time as a corrosion-resistant plating on steel, and cadmium compounds are used as red, orange, and yellow pigments, to color glass, and to stabilize plastic.", "Cadmium use is generally decreasing because it is toxic (it is specifically listed in the European Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive) and nickel–cadmium batteries have been replaced with nickel–metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries.", "One of its few new uses is in cadmium telluride solar panels.Although cadmium has no known biological function in higher organisms, a cadmium-dependent carbonic anhydrase has been found in marine diatoms." ], [ "Characteristics", "===Physical properties===Cadmium is a soft, malleable, ductile, silvery-white divalent metal.", "It is similar in many respects to zinc but forms complex compounds.", "Unlike most other metals, cadmium is resistant to corrosion and is used as a protective plate on other metals.", "As a bulk metal, cadmium is insoluble in water and is not flammable; however, in its powdered form it may burn and release toxic fumes.===Chemical properties===Although cadmium usually has an oxidation state of +2, it also exists in the +1 state.", "Cadmium and its congeners are not always considered transition metals, in that they do not have partly filled d or f electron shells in the elemental or common oxidation states.", "Cadmium burns in air to form brown amorphous cadmium oxide (CdO); the crystalline form of this compound is a dark red which changes color when heated, similar to zinc oxide.", "Hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and nitric acid dissolve cadmium by forming cadmium chloride (CdCl2), cadmium sulfate (CdSO4), or cadmium nitrate (Cd(NO3)2).", "The oxidation state +1 can be produced by dissolving cadmium in a mixture of cadmium chloride and aluminium chloride, forming the Cd22+ cation, which is similar to the Hg22+ cation in mercury(I) chloride.", ":Cd + CdCl2 + 2 AlCl3 → Cd2(AlCl4)2The structures of many cadmium complexes with nucleobases, amino acids, and vitamins have been determined.===Isotopes===The cadmium-113 total cross section clearly showing the cadmium cut-offNaturally occurring cadmium is composed of eight isotopes.", "Two of them are radioactive, and three are expected to decay but have not measurably done so under laboratory conditions.", "The two natural radioactive isotopes are 113Cd (beta decay, half-life is ) and 116Cd (two-neutrino double beta decay, half-life is ).", "The other three are 106Cd, 108Cd (both double electron capture), and 114Cd (double beta decay); only lower limits on these half-lives have been determined.", "At least three isotopes – 110Cd, 111Cd, and 112Cd – are stable.", "Among the isotopes that do not occur naturally, the most long-lived are 109Cd with a half-life of 462.6 days, and 115Cd with a half-life of 53.46 hours.", "All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives of less than 2.5 hours, and the majority have half-lives of less than 5 minutes.", "Cadmium has 8 known meta states, with the most stable being 113mCd (''t''1⁄2 = 14.1 years), 115mCd (''t''1⁄2 = 44.6 days), and 117mCd (''t''1⁄2 = 3.36 hours).The known isotopes of cadmium range in atomic mass from 94.950 u (95Cd) to 131.946 u (132Cd).", "For isotopes lighter than 112 u, the primary decay mode is electron capture and the dominant decay product is element 47 (silver).", "Heavier isotopes decay mostly through beta emission producing element 49 (indium).One isotope of cadmium, 113Cd, absorbs neutrons with high selectivity: With very high probability, neutrons with energy below the ''cadmium cut-off'' will be absorbed; those higher than the ''cut-off will be transmitted''.", "The cadmium cut-off is about 0.5 eV, and neutrons below that level are deemed slow neutrons, distinct from intermediate and fast neutrons.Cadmium is created via the s-process in low- to medium-mass stars with masses of 0.6 to 10 solar masses, over thousands of years.", "In that process, a silver atom captures a neutron and then undergoes beta decay." ], [ "History", "Friedrich StromeyerCadmium (Latin ''cadmia'', Greek ''καδμεία'' meaning \"calamine\", a cadmium-bearing mixture of minerals that was named after the Greek mythological character Κάδμος, Cadmus, the founder of Thebes) was discovered in contaminated zinc compounds sold in pharmacies in Germany in 1817 by Friedrich Stromeyer.", "Karl Samuel Leberecht Hermann simultaneously investigated the discoloration in zinc oxide and found an impurity, first suspected to be arsenic, because of the yellow precipitate with hydrogen sulfide.", "Additionally Stromeyer discovered that one supplier sold zinc carbonate instead of zinc oxide.", "Stromeyer found the new element as an impurity in zinc carbonate (calamine), and, for 100 years, Germany remained the only important producer of the metal.", "The metal was named after the Latin word for calamine, because it was found in this zinc ore. Stromeyer noted that some impure samples of calamine changed color when heated but pure calamine did not.", "He was persistent in studying these results and eventually isolated cadmium metal by roasting and reducing the sulfide.", "The potential for cadmium yellow as pigment was recognized in the 1840s, but the lack of cadmium limited this application.Even though cadmium and its compounds are toxic in certain forms and concentrations, the British Pharmaceutical Codex from 1907 states that cadmium iodide was used as a medication to treat \"enlarged joints, scrofulous glands, and chilblains\".In 1907, the International Astronomical Union defined the international ångström in terms of a red cadmium spectral line (1 wavelength = 6438.46963 Å).", "This was adopted by the 7th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1927.In 1960, the definitions of both the metre and ångström were changed to use krypton.After the industrial scale production of cadmium started in the 1930s and 1940s, the major application of cadmium was the coating of iron and steel to prevent corrosion; in 1944, 62% and in 1956, 59% of the cadmium in the United States was used for plating.", "In 1956, 24% of the cadmium in the United States was used for a second application in red, orange and yellow pigments from sulfides and selenides of cadmium.The stabilizing effect of cadmium chemicals like the carboxylates cadmium laurate and cadmium stearate on PVC led to an increased use of those compounds in the 1970s and 1980s.", "The demand for cadmium in pigments, coatings, stabilizers, and alloys declined as a result of environmental and health regulations in the 1980s and 1990s; in 2006, only 7% of total cadmium consumption was used for plating, and only 10% was used for pigments.At the same time, these decreases in consumption were compensated by a growing demand for cadmium for nickel–cadmium batteries, which accounted for 81% of the cadmium consumption in the United States in 2006." ], [ "Occurrence", "Cadmium metalCadmium makes up about 0.1 ppm of Earth's crust.", "It is much rarer than zinc, which makes up about 65 ppm.", "No significant deposits of cadmium-containing ores are known.", "The only cadmium mineral of importance, greenockite (CdS), is nearly always associated with sphalerite (ZnS).", "This association is caused by geochemical similarity between zinc and cadmium, with no geological process likely to separate them.", "Thus, cadmium is produced mainly as a byproduct of mining, smelting, and refining sulfidic ores of zinc, and, to a lesser degree, lead and copper.", "Small amounts of cadmium, about 10% of consumption, are produced from secondary sources, mainly from dust generated by recycling iron and steel scrap.", "Production in the United States began in 1907, but wide use began after World War I.Metallic cadmium can be found in the Vilyuy River basin in Siberia.Rocks mined for phosphate fertilizers contain varying amounts of cadmium, resulting in a cadmium concentration of as much as 300 mg/kg in the fertilizers and a high cadmium content in agricultural soils.", "Coal can contain significant amounts of cadmium, which ends up mostly in coal fly ash.Cadmium in soil can be absorbed by crops such as rice and cocoa.", "In 2002, the Chinese ministry of agriculture measured that 28% of rice it sampled had excess lead and 10% had excess cadmium above limits defined by law.", "''Consumer Reports'' tested 28 brands of dark chocolate sold in the United States in 2022, and found cadmium in all of them, with 13 exceeding the California Maximum Allowable Dose level.Some plants such as willow trees and poplars have been found to clean both lead and cadmium from soil.Typical background concentrations of cadmium do not exceed 5 ng/m3 in the atmosphere; 2 mg/kg in soil; 1 μg/L in freshwater and 50 ng/L in seawater.", "Concentrations of cadmium above 10 μg/L may be stable in water having low total solute concentrations and ''p'' H and can be difficult to remove by conventional water treatment processes." ], [ "Production", "Cadmium is a common impurity in zinc ores, and it is most often isolated during the production of zinc.", "Some zinc ores concentrates from zinc sulfate ores contain up to 1.4% of cadmium.", "In the 1970s, the output of cadmium was per ton of zinc.", "Zinc sulfide ores are roasted in the presence of oxygen, converting the zinc sulfide to the oxide.", "Zinc metal is produced either by smelting the oxide with carbon or by electrolysis in sulfuric acid.", "Cadmium is isolated from the zinc metal by vacuum distillation if the zinc is smelted, or cadmium sulfate is precipitated from the electrolysis solution.The British Geological Survey reports that in 2001, China was the top producer of cadmium with almost one-sixth of the world's production, closely followed by South Korea and Japan.File:Cadmium - world production trend.svg\|History of the world production of cadmiumFile:2022cadmium.png\|Cadmium production in 2010." ], [ "Applications", "Cadmium is a common component of electric batteries, pigments, coatings, and electroplating.===Batteries===Ni–Cd batteriesIn 2009, 86% of cadmium was used in batteries, predominantly in rechargeable nickel–cadmium batteries.", "Nickel–cadmium cells have a nominal cell potential of 1.2 V. The cell consists of a positive nickel hydroxide electrode and a negative cadmium electrode plate separated by an alkaline electrolyte (potassium hydroxide).", "The European Union put a limit on cadmium in electronics in 2004 of 0.01%, with some exceptions, and in 2006 reduced the limit on cadmium content to 0.002%.", "Another type of battery based on cadmium is the silver–cadmium battery.===Electroplating===A photograph and representative spectrum of photoluminescence from colloidal CdSe quantum dotsCadmium electroplating, consuming 6% of the global production, is used in the aircraft industry to reduce corrosion of steel components.", "This coating is passivated by chromate salts.", "A limitation of cadmium plating is hydrogen embrittlement of high-strength steels from the electroplating process.", "Therefore, steel parts heat-treated to tensile strength above 1300 MPa (200 ksi) should be coated by an alternative method (such as special low-embrittlement cadmium electroplating processes or physical vapor deposition).Titanium embrittlement from cadmium-plated tool residues resulted in banishment of those tools (and the implementation of routine tool testing to detect cadmium contamination) in the A-12/SR-71, U-2, and subsequent aircraft programs that use titanium.===Nuclear fission===Cadmium is used in the control rods of nuclear reactors, acting as a very effective neutron poison to control neutron flux in nuclear fission.", "When cadmium rods are inserted in the core of a nuclear reactor, cadmium absorbs neutrons, preventing them from creating additional fission events, thus controlling the amount of reactivity.", "The pressurized water reactor designed by Westinghouse Electric Company uses an alloy consisting of 80% silver, 15% indium, and 5% cadmium.===Televisions===QLED TVs have been starting to include cadmium in construction.", "Some companies have been looking to reduce the environmental impact of human exposure and pollution of the material in televisions during production.===Anticancer drugs===Complexes based on heavy metals have great potential for the treatment of a wide variety of cancers but their use is often limited due to toxic side effects.", "However, scientists are advancing in the field and new promising cadmium complex compounds with reduced toxicity have been discovered.===Compounds===cadmium orangeCadmium oxide was used in black and white television phosphors and in the blue and green phosphors of color television cathode ray tubes.", "Cadmium sulfide (CdS) is used as a photoconductive surface coating for photocopier drums.Cadmium sulfideVarious cadmium salts are used in paint pigments, with CdS as a yellow pigment being the most common.", "Cadmium selenide is a red pigment, commonly called ''cadmium red''.", "To painters who work with the pigment, cadmium provides the most brilliant and durable yellows, oranges, and reds – so much so that during production, these colors are significantly toned down before they are ground with oils and binders or blended into watercolors, gouaches, acrylics, and other paint and pigment formulations.", "Because these pigments are potentially toxic, users should use a barrier cream on the hands to prevent absorption through the skin even though the amount of cadmium absorbed into the body through the skin is reported to be less than 1%.In PVC, cadmium was used as heat, light, and weathering stabilizers.", "Currently, cadmium stabilizers have been completely replaced with barium-zinc, calcium-zinc and organo-tin stabilizers.", "Cadmium is used in many kinds of solder and bearing alloys, because it has a low coefficient of friction and fatigue resistance.", "It is also found in some of the lowest-melting alloys, such as Wood's metal.===Semiconductors===Cadmium is an element in some semiconductor materials.", "Cadmium sulfide, cadmium selenide, and cadmium telluride are used in some photodetectors and solar cells.", "HgCdTe detectors are sensitive to mid-infrared light and used in some motion detectors.===Laboratory uses===Violet light from a helium cadmium metal vapor laser.", "The highly monochromatic color arises from the 441.563 nm transition line of cadmium.Helium–cadmium lasers are a common source of blue or ultraviolet laser light.", "Lasers at wavelengths of 325, 354 and 442 nm are made using this gain medium; some models can switch between these wavelengths.", "They are notably used in fluorescence microscopy as well as various laboratory uses requiring laser light at these wavelengths.Cadmium selenide quantum dots emit bright luminescence under UV excitation (He–Cd laser, for example).", "The color of this luminescence can be green, yellow or red depending on the particle size.", "Colloidal solutions of those particles are used for imaging of biological tissues and solutions with a fluorescence microscope.In molecular biology, cadmium is used to block voltage-dependent calcium channels from fluxing calcium ions, as well as in hypoxia research to stimulate proteasome-dependent degradation of Hif-1α.Cadmium-selective sensors based on the fluorophore BODIPY have been developed for imaging and sensing of cadmium in cells.", "One powerful method for monitoring cadmium in aqueous environments involves electrochemistry.", "By employing a self-assembled monolayer one can obtain a cadmium selective electrode with a ppt-level sensitivity." ], [ "Biological role and research", "Cadmium has no known function in higher organisms and is considered toxic.", "Cadmium is considered an environmental pollutant that causes health hazard to living organisms.", "Administration of cadmium to cells causes oxidative stress and increases the levels of antioxidants produced by cells to protect against macro molecular damage.However a cadmium-dependent carbonic anhydrase has been found in some marine diatoms.", "The diatoms live in environments with very low zinc concentrations and cadmium performs the function normally carried out by zinc in other anhydrases.", "This was discovered with X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy.Cadmium is preferentially absorbed in the kidneys of humans.", "Up to about 30 mg of cadmium is commonly inhaled throughout human childhood and adolescence.", "Cadmium is under research regarding its toxicity in humans, potentially elevating risks of cancer, cardiovascular disease, and osteoporosis." ], [ "Environment", "The biogeochemistry of cadmium and its release to the environment has been the subject of review, as has the speciation of cadmium in the environment." ], [ "Safety", "Individuals and organizations have been reviewing cadmium's bioinorganic aspects for its toxicity.", "The most dangerous form of occupational exposure to cadmium is inhalation of fine dust and fumes, or ingestion of highly soluble cadmium compounds.", "Inhalation of cadmium fumes can result initially in metal fume fever, but may progress to chemical pneumonitis, pulmonary edema, and death.Cadmium is also an environmental hazard.", "Human exposure is primarily from fossil fuel combustion, phosphate fertilizers, natural sources, iron and steel production, cement production and related activities, nonferrous metals production, and municipal solid waste incineration.", "Other sources of cadmium include bread, root crops, and vegetables.Jinzū River area, which was contaminated with cadmiumThere have been a few instances of general population poisoning as the result of long-term exposure to cadmium in contaminated food and water.", "Research into an estrogen mimicry that may induce breast cancer is ongoing, .", "In the decades leading up to World War II, mining operations contaminated the Jinzū River in Japan with cadmium and traces of other toxic metals.", "As a consequence, cadmium accumulated in the rice crops along the riverbanks downstream of the mines.", "Some members of the local agricultural communities consumed the contaminated rice and developed itai-itai disease and renal abnormalities, including proteinuria and glucosuria.", "The victims of this poisoning were almost exclusively post-menopausal women with low iron and low body stores of other minerals.", "Similar general population cadmium exposures in other parts of the world have not resulted in the same health problems because the populations maintained sufficient iron and other mineral levels.", "Thus, although cadmium is a major factor in the itai-itai disease in Japan, most researchers have concluded that it was one of several factors.Cadmium is one of six substances banned by the European Union's Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) directive, which regulates hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment, but allows for certain exemptions and exclusions from the scope of the law.The International Agency for Research on Cancer has classified cadmium and cadmium compounds as carcinogenic to humans.", "Although occupational exposure to cadmium is linked to lung and prostate cancer, there is still uncertainty about the carcinogenicity of cadmium in low environmental exposure.", "Recent data from epidemiological studies suggest that intake of cadmium through diet is associated with a higher risk of endometrial, breast, and prostate cancer as well as with osteoporosis in humans.", "A recent study has demonstrated that endometrial tissue is characterized by higher levels of cadmium in current and former smoking females.Cadmium exposure is associated with a large number of illnesses including kidney disease, early atherosclerosis, hypertension, and cardiovascular diseases.", "Although studies show a significant correlation between cadmium exposure and occurrence of disease in human populations, a molecular mechanism has not yet been identified.", "One hypothesis holds that cadmium is an endocrine disruptor and some experimental studies have shown that it can interact with different hormonal signaling pathways.", "For example, cadmium can bind to the estrogen receptor alpha, and affect signal transduction along the estrogen and MAPK signaling pathways at low doses.The tobacco plant absorbs and accumulates heavy metals such as cadmium from the surrounding soil into its leaves.", "Following tobacco smoke inhalation, these are readily absorbed into the body of users.", "Tobacco smoking is the most important single source of cadmium exposure in the general population.", "An estimated 10% of the cadmium content of a cigarette is inhaled through smoking.", "Absorption of cadmium through the lungs is more effective than through the gut.", "As much as 50% of the cadmium inhaled in cigarette smoke may be absorbed.On average, cadmium concentrations in the blood of smokers is 4 to 5 times greater than non-smokers and in the kidney, 2–3 times greater than in non-smokers.", "Despite the high cadmium content in cigarette smoke, there seems to be little exposure to cadmium from passive smoking.In a non-smoking population, food is the greatest source of exposure.", "High quantities of cadmium can be found in crustaceans, mollusks, offal, frog legs, cocoa solids, bitter and semi-bitter chocolate, seaweed, fungi and algae products.", "However, grains, vegetables, and starchy roots and tubers are consumed in much greater quantity in the U.S., and are the source of the greatest dietary exposure there.", "Most plants bio-accumulate metal toxins such as cadmium and when composted to form organic fertilizers, yield a product that often can contain high amounts (e.g., over 0.5 mg) of metal toxins for every kilogram of fertilizer.", "Fertilizers made from animal dung (e.g., cow dung) or urban waste can contain similar amounts of cadmium.", "The cadmium added to the soil from fertilizers (rock phosphates or organic fertilizers) become bio-available and toxic only if the soil pH is low (i.e., acidic soils).", "In the European Union, an analysis of almost 22,000 topsoil samples with LUCAS survey concluded that 5.5% of samples have concentrations higher than 1 mg kg-1.Zinc, copper, calcium, and iron ions, and selenium with vitamin C are used to treat cadmium intoxication, though it is not easily reversed.===Regulations===Because of the adverse effects of cadmium on the environment and human health, the supply and use of cadmium is restricted in Europe under the REACH Regulation.The EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain specifies that 2.5 μg/kg body weight is a tolerable weekly intake for humans.", "The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives has declared 7 μg/kg body weight to be the provisional tolerable weekly intake level.", "The state of California requires a food label to carry a warning about potential exposure to cadmium on products such as cocoa powder.", "The European Commission has put in place the EU regulation (2019/1009) on fertilizing products (EU, 2019), adopted in June 2019 and fully applicable as of July 2022, sets a Cd limit value in phosphate fertilizers to 60 mg kg-1 of P2O5.The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the permissible exposure limit (PEL) for cadmium at a time-weighted average (TWA) of 0.005 ppm.", "The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has not set a recommended exposure limit (REL) and has designated cadmium as a known human carcinogen.", "The IDLH (immediately dangerous to life and health) level for cadmium is 9 mg/m3.Lethal doseOrganismRouteTimeLD50: 225 mg/kgratoraln/aLD50: 890 mg/kgmouseoraln/aLC50: 25 mg/m3ratairborne30 minIn addition to mercury, the presence of cadmium in some batteries has led to the requirement of proper disposal (or recycling) of batteries.===Product recalls===In May 2006, a sale of the seats from Arsenal F.C.", "'s old stadium, Highbury in London, England was cancelled when the seats were discovered to contain trace amounts of cadmium.", "Reports of high levels of cadmium use in children's jewelry in 2010 led to a US Consumer Product Safety Commission investigation.", "The U.S. CPSC issued specific recall notices for cadmium content in jewelry sold by Claire's and Wal-Mart stores.In June 2010, McDonald's voluntarily recalled more than 12 million promotional ''Shrek Forever After 3D'' Collectible Drinking Glasses because of the cadmium levels in paint pigments on the glassware.", "The glasses were manufactured by Arc International, of Millville, New Jersey, USA." ], [ "See also", "* Red List building materials* Toxic heavy metal" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", " Cadmium at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)* ATSDR Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Cadmium Toxicity U.S. Department of Health and Human Services* National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health – Cadmium Page* NLM Hazardous Substances Databank – Cadmium, Elemental" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Curium" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Curium''' is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol '''Cm''' and atomic number 96.This transuranic actinide element was named after eminent scientists Marie and Pierre Curie, both known for their research on radioactivity.", "Curium was first intentionally made by the team of Glenn T. Seaborg, Ralph A. James, and Albert Ghiorso in 1944, using the cyclotron at Berkeley.", "They bombarded the newly discovered element plutonium (the isotope 239Pu) with alpha particles.", "This was then sent to the Metallurgical Laboratory at University of Chicago where a tiny sample of curium was eventually separated and identified.", "The discovery was kept secret until after the end of World War II.", "The news was released to the public in November 1947.Most curium is produced by bombarding uranium or plutonium with neutrons in nuclear reactors – one tonne of spent nuclear fuel contains ~20 grams of curium.Curium is a hard, dense, silvery metal with a high melting and boiling point for an actinide.", "It is paramagnetic at ambient conditions, but becomes antiferromagnetic upon cooling, and other magnetic transitions are also seen in many curium compounds.", "In compounds, curium usually has valence +3 and sometimes +4; the +3 valence is predominant in solutions.", "Curium readily oxidizes, and its oxides are a dominant form of this element.", "It forms strongly fluorescent complexes with various organic compounds, but there is no evidence of its incorporation into bacteria and archaea.", "If it gets into the human body, curium accumulates in bones, lungs, and liver, where it promotes cancer.All known isotopes of curium are radioactive and have small critical mass for a nuclear chain reaction.", "They mostly emit α-particles; radioisotope thermoelectric generators can use the heat from this process, but this is hindered by the rarity and high cost of curium.", "Curium is used in making heavier actinides and the 238Pu radionuclide for power sources in artificial cardiac pacemakers and RTGs for spacecraft.", "It served as the α-source in the alpha particle X-ray spectrometers of several space probes, including the ''Sojourner'', ''Spirit'', ''Opportunity'', and ''Curiosity'' Mars rovers and the Philae lander on comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko, to analyze the composition and structure of the surface." ], [ "History", "Glenn T. SeaborgThe cyclotron at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, in August 1939.Though curium had likely been produced in previous nuclear experiments as well as the natural nuclear fission reactor at Oklo, Gabon, it was first intentionally synthesized, isolated and identified in 1944, at University of California, Berkeley, by Glenn T. Seaborg, Ralph A. James, and Albert Ghiorso.", "In their experiments, they used a cyclotron.Curium was chemically identified at the Metallurgical Laboratory (now Argonne National Laboratory), University of Chicago.", "It was the third transuranium element to be discovered even though it is the fourth in the series – the lighter element americium was still unknown.The sample was prepared as follows: first plutonium nitrate solution was coated on a platinum foil of ~0.5 cm2 area, the solution was evaporated and the residue was converted into plutonium(IV) oxide (PuO2) by annealing.", "Following cyclotron irradiation of the oxide, the coating was dissolved with nitric acid and then precipitated as the hydroxide using concentrated aqueous ammonia solution.", "The residue was dissolved in perchloric acid, and further separation was done by ion exchange to yield a certain isotope of curium.", "The separation of curium and americium was so painstaking that the Berkeley group initially called those elements ''pandemonium'' (from Greek for ''all demons'' or ''hell'') and ''delirium'' (from Latin for ''madness'').Curium-242 was made in July–August 1944 by bombarding 239Pu with α-particles to produce curium with the release of a neutron:: ^{239}_{94}Pu + ^{4}_{2}He -> ^{242}_{96}Cm + ^{1}_{0}nCurium-242 was unambiguously identified by the characteristic energy of the α-particles emitted during the decay:: ^{242}_{96}Cm -> ^{238}_{94}Pu + ^{4}_{2}HeThe half-life of this alpha decay was first measured as 150 days and then corrected to 162.8 days.Another isotope 240Cm was produced in a similar reaction in March 1945:: ^{239}_{94}Pu + ^{4}_{2}He -> ^{240}_{96}Cm + 3^{1}_{0}nThe α-decay half-life of 240Cm was correctly determined as 26.7 days.The discovery of curium and americium in 1944 was closely related to the Manhattan Project, so the results were confidential and declassified only in 1945.Seaborg leaked the synthesis of the elements 95 and 96 on the U.S. radio show for children, the ''Quiz Kids'', five days before the official presentation at an American Chemical Society meeting on November 11, 1945, when one listener asked if any new transuranic element beside plutonium and neptunium had been discovered during the war.", "The discovery of curium (242Cm and 240Cm), its production, and its compounds was later patented listing only Seaborg as the inventor.The element was named after Marie Curie and her husband Pierre Curie, who are known for discovering radium and for their work in radioactivity.", "It followed the example of gadolinium, a lanthanide element above curium in the periodic table, which was named after the explorer of rare-earth elements Johan Gadolin:::As the name for the element of atomic number 96 we should like to propose \"curium\", with symbol Cm.", "The evidence indicates that element 96 contains seven 5f electrons and is thus analogous to the element gadolinium, with its seven 4f electrons in the regular rare earth series.", "On this basis element 96 is named after the Curies in a manner analogous to the naming of gadolinium, in which the chemist Gadolin was honored.The first curium samples were barely visible, and were identified by their radioactivity.", "Louis Werner and Isadore Perlman made the first substantial sample of 30 µg curium-242 hydroxide at University of California, Berkeley in 1947 by bombarding americium-241 with neutrons.", "Macroscopic amounts of curium(III) fluoride were obtained in 1950 by W. W. T. Crane, J. C. Wallmann and B.", "B. Cunningham.", "Its magnetic susceptibility was very close to that of GdF3 providing the first experimental evidence for the +3 valence of curium in its compounds.", "Curium metal was produced only in 1951 by reduction of CmF3 with barium." ], [ "Characteristics", "===Physical===Double-hexagonal close packing with the layer sequence ABAC in the crystal structure of α-curium (A: green, B: blue, C: red)Photoluminescence of the Cm(HDPA)3·H2O crystal upon irradiation with 420 nm lightA synthetic, radioactive element, curium is a hard, dense metal with a silvery-white appearance and physical and chemical properties resembling gadolinium.", "Its melting point of 1344 °C is significantly higher than that of the previous elements neptunium (637 °C), plutonium (639 °C) and americium (1176 °C).", "In comparison, gadolinium melts at 1312 °C.", "Curium boils at 3556 °C.", "With a density of 13.52 g/cm3, curium is lighter than neptunium (20.45 g/cm3) and plutonium (19.8 g/cm3), but heavier than most other metals.", "Of two crystalline forms of curium, α-Cm is more stable at ambient conditions.", "It has a hexagonal symmetry, space group P63/mmc, lattice parameters ''a'' = 365 pm and ''c'' = 1182 pm, and four formula units per unit cell.", "The crystal consists of double-hexagonal close packing with the layer sequence ABAC and so is isotypic with α-lanthanum.", "At pressure >23 GPa, at room temperature, α-Cm becomes β-Cm, which has face-centered cubic symmetry, space group Fmm and lattice constant ''a'' = 493 pm.", "On further compression to 43 GPa, curium becomes an orthorhombic γ-Cm structure similar to α-uranium, with no further transitions observed up to 52 GPa.", "These three curium phases are also called Cm I, II and III.Curium has peculiar magnetic properties.", "Its neighbor element americium shows no deviation from Curie-Weiss paramagnetism in the entire temperature range, but α-Cm transforms to an antiferromagnetic state upon cooling to 65–52 K, and β-Cm exhibits a ferrimagnetic transition at ~205 K. Curium pnictides show ferromagnetic transitions upon cooling: 244CmN and 244CmAs at 109 K, 248CmP at 73 K and 248CmSb at 162 K. The lanthanide analog of curium, gadolinium, and its pnictides, also show magnetic transitions upon cooling, but the transition character is somewhat different: Gd and GdN become ferromagnetic, and GdP, GdAs and GdSb show antiferromagnetic ordering.In accordance with magnetic data, electrical resistivity of curium increases with temperature – about twice between 4 and 60 K – and then is nearly constant up to room temperature.", "There is a significant increase in resistivity over time (~) due to self-damage of the crystal lattice by alpha decay.", "This makes uncertain the true resistivity of curium (~).", "Curium's resistivity is similar to that of gadolinium, and the actinides plutonium and neptunium, but significantly higher than that of americium, uranium, polonium and thorium.Under ultraviolet illumination, curium(III) ions show strong and stable yellow-orange fluorescence with a maximum in the range of 590–640 nm depending on their environment.", "The fluorescence originates from the transitions from the first excited state 6D7/2 and the ground state 8S7/2.Analysis of this fluorescence allows monitoring interactions between Cm(III) ions in organic and inorganic complexes.===Chemical===150pxCurium ion in solution almost always has a +3 oxidation state, the most stable oxidation state for curium.", "A +4 oxidation state is seen mainly in a few solid phases, such as CmO2 and CmF4.Aqueous curium(IV) is only known in the presence of strong oxidizers such as potassium persulfate, and is easily reduced to curium(III) by radiolysis and even by water itself.", "Chemical behavior of curium is different from the actinides thorium and uranium, and is similar to americium and many lanthanides.", "In aqueous solution, the Cm3+ ion is colorless to pale green; Cm4+ ion is pale yellow.", "The optical absorption of Cm3+ ion contains three sharp peaks at 375.4, 381.2 and 396.5 nm and their strength can be directly converted into the concentration of the ions.", "The +6 oxidation state has only been reported once in solution in 1978, as the curyl ion (): this was prepared from beta decay of americium-242 in the americium(V) ion .", "Failure to get Cm(VI) from oxidation of Cm(III) and Cm(IV) may be due to the high Cm4+/Cm3+ ionization potential and the instability of Cm(V).Curium ions are hard Lewis acids and thus form most stable complexes with hard bases.", "The bonding is mostly ionic, with a small covalent component.", "Curium in its complexes commonly exhibits a 9-fold coordination environment, with a tricapped trigonal prismatic molecular geometry.===Isotopes===About 19 radioisotopes and 7 nuclear isomers, 233Cm to 251Cm, are known; none are stable.", "The longest half-lives are 15.6 million years (247Cm) and 348,000 years (248Cm).", "Other long-lived ones are 245Cm (8500 years), 250Cm (8300 years) and 246Cm (4760 years).", "Curium-250 is unusual: it mostly (~86%) decays by spontaneous fission.", "The most commonly used isotopes are 242Cm and 244Cm with the half-lives 162.8 days and 18.1 years, respectively.", "Thermal neutron cross sections (barns) 242Cm243Cm244Cm245Cm246Cm247CmFission56171.0421450.1481.90Capture1613015.203691.2257C/F ratio3.200.2114.620.178.710.70 LEU spent nuclear fuel 20 years after 53 MWd/kg burnup3 common isotopes 513700390 Fast-neutron reactor MOX fuel (avg 5 samples, burnup 66–120 GWd/t)Total curium 3.09% 27.64%70.16%2.166%0.0376%0.000928% Isotope242Cm243Cm244Cm245Cm246Cm247Cm248Cm250CmCritical mass, kg 25 7.5336.839740.423.5All isotopes ranging from 242Cm to 248Cm, as well as 250Cm, undergo a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction and thus in principle can be a nuclear fuel in a reactor.", "As in most transuranic elements, nuclear fission cross section is especially high for the odd-mass curium isotopes 243Cm, 245Cm and 247Cm.", "These can be used in thermal-neutron reactors, whereas a mixture of curium isotopes is only suitable for fast breeder reactors since the even-mass isotopes are not fissile in a thermal reactor and accumulate as burn-up increases.", "The mixed-oxide (MOX) fuel, which is to be used in power reactors, should contain little or no curium because neutron activation of 248Cm will create californium.", "Californium is a strong neutron emitter, and would pollute the back end of the fuel cycle and increase the dose to reactor personnel.", "Hence, if minor actinides are to be used as fuel in a thermal neutron reactor, the curium should be excluded from the fuel or placed in special fuel rods where it is the only actinide present.Transmutation flow between 238Pu and 244Cm in LWR.Fission percentage is 100 minus shown percentages.Total rate of transmutation varies greatly by nuclide.245Cm–248Cm are long-lived with negligible decay.The adjacent table lists the critical masses for curium isotopes for a sphere, without moderator or reflector.", "With a metal reflector (30 cm of steel), the critical masses of the odd isotopes are about 3–4 kg.", "When using water (thickness ~20–30 cm) as the reflector, the critical mass can be as small as 59 grams for 245Cm, 155 grams for 243Cm and 1550 grams for 247Cm.", "There is significant uncertainty in these critical mass values.", "While it is usually on the order of 20%, the values for 242Cm and 246Cm were listed as large as 371 kg and 70.1 kg, respectively, by some research groups.Curium is not currently used as nuclear fuel due to its low availability and high price.", "245Cm and 247Cm have very small critical mass and so could be used in tactical nuclear weapons, but none are known to have been made.", "Curium-243 is not suitable for such, due to its short half-life and strong α emission, which would cause excessive heat.", "Curium-247 would be highly suitable due to its long half-life, which is 647 times longer than plutonium-239 (used in many existing nuclear weapons).===Occurrence===Several isotopes of curium were detected in the fallout from the ''Ivy Mike'' nuclear test.The longest-lived isotope, 247Cm, has half-life 15.6 million years; so any primordial curium, that is, present on Earth when it formed, should have decayed by now.", "Its past presence as an extinct radionuclide is detectable as an excess of its primordial, long-lived daughter 235U.", "Traces of 242Cm may occur naturally in uranium minerals due to neutron capture and beta decay (239Pu → 240Pu → 241Am → 242Cm), though the quantities would be tiny and this has not been confirmed: even with \"extremely generous\" estimates for neutron absorption possibilities, the quantity of 242Cm present in 1 × 108 kg of 18% uranium pitchblende would not even be one atom.", "Traces of 247Cm are also probably brought to Earth in cosmic rays, but again this has not been confirmed.", "There is also the possibility of 244Cm being produced as the double beta decay daughter of natural 244Pu.Curium is made artificially in small amounts for research purposes.", "It also occurs as one of the waste products in spent nuclear fuel.", "Curium is present in nature in some areas used for nuclear weapons testing.", "Analysis of the debris at the test site of the United States' first thermonuclear weapon, Ivy Mike (1 November 1952, Enewetak Atoll), besides einsteinium, fermium, plutonium and americium also revealed isotopes of berkelium, californium and curium, in particular 245Cm, 246Cm and smaller quantities of 247Cm, 248Cm and 249Cm.Atmospheric curium compounds are poorly soluble in common solvents and mostly adhere to soil particles.", "Soil analysis revealed about 4,000 times higher concentration of curium at the sandy soil particles than in water present in the soil pores.", "An even higher ratio of about 18,000 was measured in loam soils.The transuranium elements from americium to fermium, including curium, occurred naturally in the natural nuclear fission reactor at Oklo, but no longer do so.Curium, and other non-primordial actinides, have also been suspected to exist in the spectrum of Przybylski's Star." ], [ "Synthesis", "===Isotope preparation===Curium is made in small amounts in nuclear reactors, and by now only kilograms of 242Cm and 244Cm have been accumulated, and grams or even milligrams for heavier isotopes.", "Hence the high price of curium, which has been quoted at 160–185 USD per milligram, with a more recent estimate at US$2,000/g for 242Cm and US$170/g for 244Cm.", "In nuclear reactors, curium is formed from 238U in a series of nuclear reactions.", "In the first chain, 238U captures a neutron and converts into 239U, which via β− decay transforms into 239Np and 239Pu.Further neutron capture followed by β−-decay gives americium (241Am) which further becomes 242Cm:For research purposes, curium is obtained by irradiating not uranium but plutonium, which is available in large amounts from spent nuclear fuel.", "A much higher neutron flux is used for the irradiation that results in a different reaction chain and formation of 244Cm:Curium-244 alpha decays to 240Pu, but it also absorbs neutrons, hence a small amount of heavier curium isotopes.", "Of those, 247Cm and 248Cm are popular in scientific research due to their long half-lives.", "But the production rate of 247Cm in thermal neutron reactors is low because it is prone to fission due to thermal neutrons.", "Synthesis of 250Cm by neutron capture is unlikely due to the short half-life of the intermediate 249Cm (64 min), which β− decays to the berkelium isotope 249Bk.The above cascade of (n,γ) reactions gives a mix of different curium isotopes.", "Their post-synthesis separation is cumbersome, so a selective synthesis is desired.", "Curium-248 is favored for research purposes due to its long half-life.", "The most efficient way to prepare this isotope is by α-decay of the californium isotope 252Cf, which is available in relatively large amounts due to its long half-life (2.65 years).", "About 35–50 mg of 248Cm is produced thus, per year.", "The associated reaction produces 248Cm with isotopic purity of 97%.Another isotope, 245Cm, can be obtained for research, from α-decay of 249Cf; the latter isotope is produced in small amounts from β−-decay of 249Bk.===Metal preparation===Chromatographic elution curves revealing the similarity between Tb, Gd, Eu lanthanides and corresponding Bk, Cm, Am actinidesMost synthesis routines yield a mix of actinide isotopes as oxides, from which a given isotope of curium needs to be separated.", "An example procedure could be to dissolve spent reactor fuel (e.g.", "MOX fuel) in nitric acid, and remove the bulk of the uranium and plutonium using a PUREX ('''P'''lutonium – '''UR'''anium '''EX'''traction) type extraction with tributyl phosphate in a hydrocarbon.", "The lanthanides and the remaining actinides are then separated from the aqueous residue (raffinate) by a diamide-based extraction to give, after stripping, a mixture of trivalent actinides and lanthanides.", "A curium compound is then selectively extracted using multi-step chromatographic and centrifugation techniques with an appropriate reagent.", "''Bis''-triazinyl bipyridine complex has been recently proposed as such reagent which is highly selective to curium.", "Separation of curium from the very chemically similar americium can also be done by treating a slurry of their hydroxides in aqueous sodium bicarbonate with ozone at elevated temperature.", "Both americium and curium are present in solutions mostly in the +3 valence state; americium oxidizes to soluble Am(IV) complexes, but curium stays unchanged and so can be isolated by repeated centrifugation.Metallic curium is obtained by reduction of its compounds.", "Initially, curium(III) fluoride was used for this purpose.", "The reaction was done in an environment free of water and oxygen, in an apparatus made of tantalum and tungsten, using elemental barium or lithium as reducing agents.", ":Another possibility is reduction of curium(IV) oxide using a magnesium-zinc alloy in a melt of magnesium chloride and magnesium fluoride." ], [ "Compounds and reactions", "===Oxides===Curium readily reacts with oxygen forming mostly Cm2O3 and CmO2 oxides, but the divalent oxide CmO is also known.", "Black CmO2 can be obtained by burning curium oxalate (), nitrate (), or hydroxide in pure oxygen.", "Upon heating to 600–650 °C in vacuum (about 0.01 Pa), it transforms into the whitish Cm2O3:: 4CmO2 ->\\Delta T 2Cm2O3 + O2.Or, Cm2O3 can be obtained by reducing CmO2 with molecular hydrogen:: 2CmO2 + H2 -> Cm2O3 + H2OAlso, a number of ternary oxides of the type M(II)CmO3 are known, where M stands for a divalent metal, such as barium.Thermal oxidation of trace quantities of curium hydride (CmH2–3) has been reported to give a volatile form of CmO2 and the volatile trioxide CmO3, one of two known examples of the very rare +6 state for curium.", "Another observed species was reported to behave similar to a supposed plutonium tetroxide and was tentatively characterized as CmO4, with curium in the extremely rare +8 state; but new experiments seem to indicate that CmO4 does not exist, and have cast doubt on the existence of PuO4 as well.===Halides===The colorless curium(III) fluoride (CmF3) can be made by adding fluoride ions into curium(III)-containing solutions.", "The brown tetravalent curium(IV) fluoride (CmF4) on the other hand is only obtained by reacting curium(III) fluoride with molecular fluorine:: A series of ternary fluorides are known of the form A7Cm6F31 (A = alkali metal).The colorless curium(III) chloride (CmCl3) is made by reacting curium hydroxide (Cm(OH)3) with anhydrous hydrogen chloride gas.", "It can be further turned into other halides such as curium(III) bromide (colorless to light green) and curium(III) iodide (colorless), by reacting it with the ammonia salt of the corresponding halide at temperatures of ~400–450 °C:: Or, one can heat curium oxide to ~600°C with the corresponding acid (such as hydrobromic for curium bromide).", "Vapor phase hydrolysis of curium(III) chloride gives curium oxychloride:: ===Chalcogenides and pnictides===Sulfides, selenides and tellurides of curium have been obtained by treating curium with gaseous sulfur, selenium or tellurium in vacuum at elevated temperature.", "Curium pnictides of the type CmX are known for nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic and antimony.", "They can be prepared by reacting either curium(III) hydride (CmH3) or metallic curium with these elements at elevated temperature.===Organocurium compounds and biological aspects===Predicted curocene structureOrganometallic complexes analogous to uranocene are known also for other actinides, such as thorium, protactinium, neptunium, plutonium and americium.", "Molecular orbital theory predicts a stable \"curocene\" complex (η8-C8H8)2Cm, but it has not been reported experimentally yet.Formation of the complexes of the type (BTP = 2,6-di(1,2,4-triazin-3-yl)pyridine), in solutions containing n-C3H7-BTP and Cm3+ ions has been confirmed by EXAFS.", "Some of these BTP-type complexes selectively interact with curium and thus are useful for separating it from lanthanides and another actinides.", "Dissolved Cm3+ ions bind with many organic compounds, such as hydroxamic acid, urea, fluorescein and adenosine triphosphate.", "Many of these compounds are related to biological activity of various microorganisms.", "The resulting complexes show strong yellow-orange emission under UV light excitation, which is convenient not only for their detection, but also for studying interactions between the Cm3+ ion and the ligands via changes in the half-life (of the order ~0.1 ms) and spectrum of the fluorescence.Curium has no biological significance.", "There are a few reports on biosorption of Cm3+ by bacteria and archaea, but no evidence for incorporation of curium into them." ], [ "Applications", "===Radionuclides===The radiation from curium is so strong that the metal glows purple in the dark.Curium is one of the most radioactive isolable elements.", "Its two most common isotopes 242Cm and 244Cm are strong alpha emitters (energy 6 MeV); they have fairly short half-lives, 162.8 days and 18.1 years, and give as much as 120 W/g and 3 W/g of heat, respectively.", "Therefore, curium can be used in its common oxide form in radioisotope thermoelectric generators like those in spacecraft.", "This application has been studied for the 244Cm isotope, while 242Cm was abandoned due to its prohibitive price, around 2000 USD/g.", "243Cm with a ~30-year half-life and good energy yield of ~1.6 W/g could be a suitable fuel, but it gives significant amounts of harmful gamma and beta rays from radioactive decay products.", "As an α-emitter, 244Cm needs much less radiation shielding, but it has a high spontaneous fission rate, and thus a lot of neutron and gamma radiation.", "Compared to a competing thermoelectric generator isotope such as 238Pu, 244Cm emits 500 times more neutrons, and its higher gamma emission requires a shield that is 20 times thicker— of lead for a 1 kW source, compared to for 238Pu.", "Therefore, this use of curium is currently considered impractical.A more promising use of 242Cm is for making 238Pu, a better radioisotope for thermoelectric generators such as in heart pacemakers.", "The alternate routes to 238Pu use the (n,γ) reaction of 237Np, or deuteron bombardment of uranium, though both reactions always produce 236Pu as an undesired by-product since the latter decays to 232U with strong gamma emission.", "Curium is a common starting material for making higher transuranic and superheavy elements.", "Thus, bombarding 248Cm with neon (22Ne), magnesium (26Mg), or calcium (48Ca) yields isotopes of seaborgium (265Sg), hassium (269Hs and 270Hs), and livermorium (292Lv, 293Lv, and possibly 294Lv).", "Californium was discovered when a microgram-sized target of curium-242 was irradiated with 35 MeV alpha particles using the cyclotron at Berkeley:: + → + Only about 5,000 atoms of californium were produced in this experiment.The odd-mass curium isotopes 243Cm, 245Cm, and 247Cm are all highly fissile and can release additional energy in a thermal spectrum nuclear reactor.", "All curium isotopes are fissionable in fast-neutron reactors.", "This is one of the motives for minor actinide separation and transmutation in the nuclear fuel cycle, helping to reduce the long-term radiotoxicity of used, or spent nuclear fuel.Alpha-particle X-ray spectrometer of a Mars exploration rover===X-ray spectrometer===The most practical application of 244Cm—though rather limited in total volume—is as α-particle source in alpha particle X-ray spectrometers (APXS).", "These instruments were installed on the Sojourner, Mars, Mars 96, Mars Exploration Rovers and Philae comet lander, as well as the Mars Science Laboratory to analyze the composition and structure of the rocks on the surface of planet Mars.", "APXS was also used in the Surveyor 5–7 moon probes but with a 242Cm source.An elaborate APXS setup has a sensor head containing six curium sources with a total decay rate of several tens of millicuries (roughly one gigabecquerel).", "The sources are collimated on a sample, and the energy spectra of the alpha particles and protons scattered from the sample are analyzed (proton analysis is done only in some spectrometers).", "These spectra contain quantitative information on all major elements in the sample except for hydrogen, helium and lithium." ], [ "Safety", "Due to its radioactivity, curium and its compounds must be handled in appropriate labs under special arrangements.", "While curium itself mostly emits α-particles which are absorbed by thin layers of common materials, some of its decay products emit significant fractions of beta and gamma rays, which require a more elaborate protection.", "If consumed, curium is excreted within a few days and only 0.05% is absorbed in the blood.", "From there, ~45% goes to the liver, 45% to the bones, and the remaining 10% is excreted.", "In bone, curium accumulates on the inside of the interfaces to the bone marrow and does not significantly redistribute with time; its radiation destroys bone marrow and thus stops red blood cell creation.", "The biological half-life of curium is about 20 years in the liver and 50 years in the bones.", "Curium is absorbed in the body much more strongly via inhalation, and the allowed total dose of 244Cm in soluble form is 0.3 μCi.", "Intravenous injection of 242Cm- and 244Cm-containing solutions to rats increased the incidence of bone tumor, and inhalation promoted lung and liver cancer.Curium isotopes are inevitably present in spent nuclear fuel (about 20 g/tonne).", "The isotopes 245Cm–248Cm have decay times of thousands of years and must be removed to neutralize the fuel for disposal.", "Such a procedure involves several steps, where curium is first separated and then converted by neutron bombardment in special reactors to short-lived nuclides.", "This procedure, nuclear transmutation, while well documented for other elements, is still being developed for curium." ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * Holleman, Arnold F. and Wiberg, Nils '' Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie'', 102 Edition, de Gruyter, Berlin 2007, .", "* Penneman, R. A. and Keenan T. K. The radiochemistry of americium and curium, University of California, Los Alamos, California, 1960" ], [ "External links", "* Curium at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)* NLM Hazardous Substances Databank – Curium, Radioactive" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Californium" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Californium''' is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol '''Cf''' and atomic number 98.The element was first synthesized in 1950 at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (then the University of California Radiation Laboratory), by bombarding curium with alpha particles (helium-4 ions).", "It is an actinide element, the sixth transuranium element to be synthesized, and has the second-highest atomic mass of all elements that have been produced in amounts large enough to see with the naked eye (after einsteinium).", "The element was named after the university and the U.S. state of California.Two crystalline forms exist for californium at normal pressure: one above and one below .", "A third form exists at high pressure.", "Californium slowly tarnishes in air at room temperature.", "Californium compounds are dominated by the +3 oxidation state.", "The most stable of californium's twenty known isotopes is californium-251, with a half-life of 898 years.", "This short half-life means the element is not found in significant quantities in the Earth's crust.", "252Cf, with a half-life of about 2.645 years, is the most common isotope used and is produced at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the United States and Research Institute of Atomic Reactors in Russia.Californium is one of the few transuranium elements with practical applications.", "Most of these applications exploit the property of certain isotopes of californium to emit neutrons.", "For example, californium can be used to help start up nuclear reactors, and it is employed as a source of neutrons when studying materials using neutron diffraction and neutron spectroscopy.", "Californium can also be used in nuclear synthesis of higher mass elements; oganesson (element 118) was synthesized by bombarding californium-249 atoms with calcium-48 ions.", "Users of californium must take into account radiological concerns and the element's ability to disrupt the formation of red blood cells by bioaccumulating in skeletal tissue." ], [ "Characteristics", "=== Physical properties ===Californium is a silvery-white actinide metal with a melting point of and an estimated boiling point of .", "The pure metal is malleable and is easily cut with a razor blade.", "Californium metal starts to vaporize above when exposed to a vacuum.", "Below californium metal is either ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic (it acts like a magnet), between 48 and 66 K it is antiferromagnetic (an intermediate state), and above it is paramagnetic (external magnetic fields can make it magnetic).", "It forms alloys with lanthanide metals but little is known about the resulting materials.The element has two crystalline forms at standard atmospheric pressure: a double-hexagonal close-packed form dubbed alpha (α) and a face-centered cubic form designated beta (β).", "The α form exists below 600–800 °C with a density of 15.10 g/cm3 and the β form exists above 600–800 °C with a density of 8.74 g/cm3.At 48 GPa of pressure the β form changes into an orthorhombic crystal system due to delocalization of the atom's 5f electrons, which frees them to bond.The bulk modulus of a material is a measure of its resistance to uniform pressure.", "Californium's bulk modulus is , which is similar to trivalent lanthanide metals but smaller than more familiar metals, such as aluminium (70 GPa).=== Chemical properties and compounds ===+ Representative californium compounds state compound formula color +2 californium(II) bromide CfBr2 yellow +2 californium(II) iodide CfI2 dark violet +3 californium(III) oxide Cf2O3 yellow-green +3 californium(III) fluoride CfF3 bright green +3 californium(III) chloride CfCl3 emerald green +3 californium(III) bromide CfBr3 yellowish green +3 californium(III) iodide CfI3 lemon yellow +3californium(III) polyborateCfB6O8(OH)5pale green +4 californium(IV) oxide CfO2 black brown +4 californium(IV) fluoride CfF4 green Californium exhibits oxidation states of 4, 3, or 2.It typically forms eight or nine bonds to surrounding atoms or ions.", "Its chemical properties are predicted to be similar to other primarily 3+ valence actinide elements and the element dysprosium, which is the lanthanide above californium in the periodic table.", "Compounds in the +4 oxidation state are strong oxidizing agents and those in the +2 state are strong reducing agents.The element slowly tarnishes in air at room temperature, with the rate increasing when moisture is added.", "Californium reacts when heated with hydrogen, nitrogen, or a chalcogen (oxygen family element); reactions with dry hydrogen and aqueous mineral acids are rapid.", "Californium is only water-soluble as the californium(III) cation.", "Attempts to reduce or oxidize the +3 ion in solution have failed.", "The element forms a water-soluble chloride, nitrate, perchlorate, and sulfate and is precipitated as a fluoride, oxalate, or hydroxide.", "Californium is the heaviest actinide to exhibit covalent properties, as is observed in the californium borate.=== Isotopes ===Twenty isotopes of californium are known (mass number ranging from 237 to 256); the most stable are 251Cf with half-life 898 years, 249Cf with half-life 351 years, 250Cf with half-life 13.08 years, and 252Cf with half-life 2.645 years.", "All other isotopes have half-life shorter than a year, and most of these have half-lives less than 20 minutes.249Cf is formed from beta decay of berkelium-249, and most other californium isotopes are made by subjecting berkelium to intense neutron radiation in a nuclear reactor.", "Though californium-251 has the longest half-life, its production yield is only 10% due to its tendency to collect neutrons (high neutron capture) and its tendency to interact with other particles (high neutron cross section).Californium-252 is a very strong neutron emitter, which makes it extremely radioactive and harmful.", "252Cf, 96.9% of the time, alpha decays to curium-248; the other 3.1% of decays are spontaneous fission.", "One microgram (μg) of 252Cf emits 2.3 million neutrons per second, an average of 3.7 neutrons per spontaneous fission.", "Most other isotopes of californium, alpha decay to curium (atomic number 96)." ], [ "History", "The alt=Large pieces of equipment with a man standing nearby.Californium was first made at University of California Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, by physics researchers Stanley Gerald Thompson, Kenneth Street Jr., Albert Ghiorso, and Glenn T. Seaborg, about February 9, 1950.It was the sixth transuranium element to be discovered; the team announced its discovery on March 17, 1950.To produce californium, a microgram-size target of curium-242 () was bombarded with 35 MeV alpha particles () in the cyclotron at Berkeley, which produced californium-245 () plus one free neutron ().", ": + → + To identify and separate out the element, ion exchange and adsorsion methods were undertaken.", "Only about 5,000 atoms of californium were produced in this experiment, and these atoms had a half-life of 44 minutes.The discoverers named the new element after the university and the state.", "This was a break from the convention used for elements 95 to 97, which drew inspiration from how the elements directly above them in the periodic table were named.", "However, the element directly above element 98 in the periodic table, dysprosium, has a name that means \"hard to get at\", so the researchers decided to set aside the informal naming convention.", "They added that \"the best we can do is to point out that ... searchers a century ago found it difficult to get to California\".Weighable amounts of californium were first produced by the irradiation of plutonium targets at Materials Testing Reactor at National Reactor Testing Station, eastern Idaho; these findings were reported in 1954.The high spontaneous fission rate of californium-252 was observed in these samples.", "The first experiment with californium in concentrated form occurred in 1958.The isotopes 249Cf to 252Cf were isolated that same year from a sample of plutonium-239 that had been irradiated with neutrons in a nuclear reactor for five years.", "Two years later, in 1960, Burris Cunningham and James Wallman of Lawrence Radiation Laboratory of the University of California created the first californium compounds—californium trichloride, californium(III) oxychloride, and californium oxide—by treating californium with steam and hydrochloric acid.The High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR) at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, started producing small batches of californium in the 1960s.", "By 1995, HFIR nominally produced of californium annually.", "Plutonium supplied by the United Kingdom to the United States under the 1958 US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement was used for making californium.The Atomic Energy Commission sold 252Cf to industrial and academic customers in the early 1970s for $10 per microgram, and an average of of 252Cf were shipped each year from 1970 to 1990.Californium metal was first prepared in 1974 by Haire and Baybarz, who reduced californium(III) oxide with lanthanum metal to obtain microgram amounts of sub-micrometer thick films." ], [ "Occurrence", "Traces of californium can be found near facilities that use the element in mineral prospecting and in medical treatments.", "The element is fairly insoluble in water, but it adheres well to ordinary soil; and concentrations of it in the soil can be 500 times higher than in the water surrounding the soil particles.Nuclear fallout from atmospheric nuclear weapons testing prior to 1980 contributed a small amount of californium to the environment.", "Californium isotopes with mass numbers 249, 252, 253, and 254 have been observed in the radioactive dust collected from the air after a nuclear explosion.", "Californium is not a major radionuclide at United States Department of Energy legacy sites since it was not produced in large quantities.Californium was once believed to be produced in supernovas, as their decay matches the 60-day half-life of 254Cf.", "However, subsequent studies failed to demonstrate any californium spectra, and supernova light curves are now thought to follow the decay of nickel-56.The transuranium elements from americium to fermium, including californium, occurred naturally in the natural nuclear fission reactor at Oklo, but no longer do so.Spectral lines of californium, along with those of several other non-primordial elements, were detected in Przybylski's Star in 2008." ], [ "Production", "Californium is produced in nuclear reactors and particle accelerators.", "Californium-250 is made by bombarding berkelium-249 () with neutrons, forming berkelium-250 () via neutron capture (n,γ) which, in turn, quickly beta decays (β−) to californium-250 () in the following reaction::(n,γ) → + β−Bombardment of californium-250 with neutrons produces californium-251 and californium-252.Prolonged irradiation of americium, curium, and plutonium with neutrons produces milligram amounts of californium-252 and microgram amounts of californium-249.As of 2006, curium isotopes 244 to 248 are irradiated by neutrons in special reactors to produce primarily californium-252 with lesser amounts of isotopes 249 to 255.Microgram quantities of californium-252 are available for commercial use through the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission.", "Only two sites produce californium-252: the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the United States, and the Research Institute of Atomic Reactors in Dimitrovgrad, Russia.", "As of 2003, the two sites produce 0.25 grams and 0.025 grams of californium-252 per year, respectively.Three californium isotopes with significant half-lives are produced, requiring a total of 15 neutron captures by uranium-238 without nuclear fission or alpha decay occurring during the process.", "Californium-253 is at the end of a production chain that starts with uranium-238, includes several isotopes of plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium, and the californium isotopes 249 to 253 (see diagram).alt=A complex flow diagram showing various isotopes." ], [ "Applications", "alt= Large conical structure on a pulley with a man on top and two near the base.Californium-252 has a number of specialized uses as a strong neutron emitter; it produces 139 million neutrons per microgram per minute.", "This property makes it useful as a startup neutron source for some nuclear reactors and as a portable (non-reactor based) neutron source for neutron activation analysis to detect trace amounts of elements in samples.", "Neutrons from californium are used as a treatment of certain cervical and brain cancers where other radiation therapy is ineffective.", "It has been used in educational applications since 1969 when Georgia Institute of Technology got a loan of 119 μg of 252Cf from the Savannah River Site.", "It is also used with online elemental coal analyzers and bulk material analyzers in the coal and cement industries.Neutron penetration into materials makes californium useful in detection instruments such as fuel rod scanners; neutron radiography of aircraft and weapons components to detect corrosion, bad welds, cracks and trapped moisture; and in portable metal detectors.", "Neutron moisture gauges use 252Cf to find water and petroleum layers in oil wells, as a portable neutron source for gold and silver prospecting for on-the-spot analysis, and to detect ground water movement.", "The main uses of 252Cf in 1982 were, reactor start-up (48.3%), fuel rod scanning (25.3%), and activation analysis (19.4%).", "By 1994, most 252Cf was used in neutron radiography (77.4%), with fuel rod scanning (12.1%) and reactor start-up (6.9%) as important but secondary uses.", "In 2021, fast neutrons from 252Cf were used for wireless data transmission.251Cf has a very small calculated critical mass of about , high lethality, and a relatively short period of toxic environmental irradiation.", "The low critical mass of californium led to some exaggerated claims about possible uses for the element.In October 2006, researchers announced that three atoms of oganesson (element 118) had been identified at Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia, from bombarding 249Cf with calcium-48, making it the heaviest element ever made.", "The target contained about 10 mg of 249Cf deposited on a titanium foil of 32 cm2 area.", "Californium has also been used to produce other transuranium elements; for example, lawrencium was first synthesized in 1961 by bombarding californium with boron nuclei." ], [ "Precautions", "Californium that bioaccumulates in skeletal tissue releases radiation that disrupts the body's ability to form red blood cells.", "The element plays no natural biological role in any organism due to its intense radioactivity and low concentration in the environment.Californium can enter the body from ingesting contaminated food or drinks or by breathing air with suspended particles of the element.", "Once in the body, only 0.05% of the californium will reach the bloodstream.", "About 65% of that californium will be deposited in the skeleton, 25% in the liver, and the rest in other organs, or excreted, mainly in urine.", "Half of the californium deposited in the skeleton and liver are gone in 50 and 20 years, respectively.", "Californium in the skeleton adheres to bone surfaces before slowly migrating throughout the bone.The element is most dangerous if taken into the body.", "In addition, californium-249 and californium-251 can cause tissue damage externally, through gamma ray emission.", "Ionizing radiation emitted by californium on bone and in the liver can cause cancer." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Californium at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)* NuclearWeaponArchive.org – Californium* Hazardous Substances Databank – Californium, Radioactive" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Christian Social Union in Bavaria" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Christian Social Union in Bavaria''' (German: , '''CSU''') is a Christian democratic and conservative political party in Germany.", "Having a regionalist identity, the CSU operates only in Bavaria while its larger counterpart, the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), operates in the other fifteen states of Germany.", "It differs from the CDU by being somewhat more conservative in social matters, following Catholic social teaching.", "The CSU is considered the ''de facto'' successor of the Weimar-era Catholic Bavarian People's Party.At the federal level, the CSU forms a common faction in the Bundestag with the CDU which is frequently referred to as the Union Faction (''die Unionsfraktion'') or simply CDU/CSU.", "The CSU has 45 seats in the Bundestag since the 2021 federal election, making it currently the second smallest of the seven parties represented.", "The CSU is a member of the European People's Party and the International Democrat Union.Party leader Markus Söder serves as Minister-President of Bavaria, a position that CSU representatives have held from 1946 to 1954 and again since 1957." ], [ "History", "Chairman Franz Josef Strauß in 1976Franz Josef Strauß (1915–1988) had left behind the strongest legacy as a leader of the party, having led the party from 1961 until his death in 1988.His political career in the federal cabinet was unique in that he had served in four ministerial posts in the years between 1953 and 1969.From 1978 until his death in 1988, Strauß served as the Minister-President of Bavaria.", "Strauß was the first leader of the CSU to be a candidate for the German chancellery in 1980.In the 1980 federal election, Strauß ran against the incumbent Helmut Schmidt of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) but lost thereafter as the SPD and the Free Democratic Party (FDP) managed to secure an absolute majority together, forming a social-liberal coalition.The CSU has led the Bavarian state government since it came into existence in 1946, save from 1954 to 1957 when the SPD formed a state government in coalition with the Bavaria Party and the state branches of the GB/BHE and FDP.Initially, the separatist Bavaria Party (BP) successfully competed for the same electorate as the CSU, as both parties saw and presented themselves as successors to the BVP.", "The CSU was ultimately able to win this power struggle for itself.", "Among other things, the BP was involved in the \"casino affair\" under dubious circumstances by the CSU at the end of the 1950s and lost considerable prestige and votes.", "In the 1966 state election, the BP finally left the state parliament.Before the 2008 elections in Bavaria, the CSU perennially achieved absolute majorities at the state level by itself.", "This level of dominance is unique among Germany's 16 states.", "Edmund Stoiber took over the CSU leadership in 1999.He ran for Chancellor of Germany in 2002, but his preferred CDU/CSU–FDP coalition lost against the SPD candidate Gerhard Schröder's SPD–Green alliance.In the 2003 Bavarian state election, the CSU won 60.7% of the vote and 124 of 180 seats in the state parliament.", "This was the first time any party had won a two-thirds majority in a German state parliament.", "''The Economist'' later suggested that this exceptional result was due to a backlash against Schröder's government in Berlin.", "The CSU's popularity declined in subsequent years.", "Stoiber stepped down from the posts of Minister-President and CSU chairman in September 2007.A year later, the CSU lost its majority in the 2008 Bavarian state election, with its vote share dropping from 60.7% to 43.4%.", "The CSU remained in power by forming a coalition with the FDP.", "In the 2009 general election, the CSU received only 42.5% of the vote in Bavaria in the 2009 election, which by then constituted its weakest showing in the party's history.The CSU made gains in the 2013 Bavarian state election and the 2013 federal election, which were held a week apart in September 2013.The CSU regained their majority in the Bavarian Landtag and remained in government in Berlin.", "They had three ministers in the Fourth Merkel cabinet, namely Horst Seehofer (Minister of the Interior, Building and Community), Andreas Scheuer (Minister of Transport and Digital Infrastructure) and Gerd Müller (Minister for Economic Cooperation and Development).The 2018 Bavarian state election yielded the worst result for the CSU in the state elections (top candidate Markus Söder) since 1950 with 37.2% of votes, a decline of over ten percentage points compared to the last result in 2013.After that, the CSU had to form a new coalition government with the minor partner Free Voters of Bavaria.The 2021 German federal election saw the worst election result ever for the Union.", "The CSU also had a weak showing with 5.2% of votes nationally and 31.7% of the total in Bavaria." ], [ "Relationship with the CDU", "The CSU is the sister party of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU).", "Together, they are called the Union.", "The CSU operates only within Bavaria, and the CDU operates in all states other than Bavaria.", "While virtually independent, at the federal level the parties form a common CDU/CSU faction.", "No Chancellor has ever come from the CSU, although Strauß and Edmund Stoiber were CDU/CSU candidates for Chancellor in the 1980 federal election and the 2002 federal election, respectively, which were both won by the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD).", "Below the federal level, the parties are entirely independent.Since its formation, the CSU has been more conservative than the CDU.", "CSU and the state of Bavaria decided not to sign the ''Grundgesetz'' of the Federal Republic of Germany as they could not agree with the division of Germany into two states after World War II.", "Although Bavaria like all German states has a separate police and justice system (distinctive and non-federal), the CSU has actively participated in all political affairs of the German Parliament, the German government, the German Bundesrat, the parliamentary elections of the German President, the European Parliament and meetings with Mikhail Gorbachev in Russia.Like the CDU, the CSU is pro-European, although some Eurosceptic tendencies were shown in the past." ], [ "Leaders", "=== Party chairmen ===ChairmanFromTo1stJosef Müller17 December 194528 May 19492ndHans Ehard28 May 194922 January 19553rdHanns Seidel22 January 195516 February 19614thFranz Josef Strauß18 March 19613 October 19885thTheodor Waigel16 November 198816 January 19996thEdmund Stoiber16 January 199929 September 20077thErwin Huber29 September 200725 October 20088thHorst Seehofer25 October 200819 January 20199thMarkus Söder19 January 2019Present day=== Ministers-president ===The CSU has contributed eleven of the twelve Ministers-President of Bavaria since 1945, with only Wilhelm Hoegner (1945–1946, 1954–1957) of the SPD also holding the office.Minister-PresidentFromToFritz Schäffer28 May 194528 September 1945Hans Ehard (first time)21 December 194614 December 1954Hanns Seidel16 October 195722 January 1960Hans Ehard (second time)26 January 196011 December 1962Alfons Goppel11 December 19626 November 1978Franz Josef Strauss6 November 19783 October 1988Max Streibl19 October 198827 May 1993Edmund Stoiber28 May 199330 September 2007Günther Beckstein9 October 200727 October 2008Horst Seehofer27 October 200813 March 2018Markus Söder16 March 2018Present day" ], [ "Election results", "=== Federal parliament (''Bundestag'') === Election Constituency Party list Seats +/– Status Votes % Votes % 1949 1,380,448 5.8 (#4) 1953 2,450,286 8.9 (#4) 2,427,387 8.8 (#4) 28 1957 3,186,150 10.6 (#3) 3,133,060 10.5 (#3) 3 1961 3,104,742 9.7 (#4) 3,014,471 9.6 (#4) 5 1965 3,204,648 9.9 (#3) 3,136,506 9.6 (#3) 1 1969 3,094,176 9.5 (#3) 3,115,652 9.5 (#3) 0 1972 3,620,625 9.7 (#3) 3,615,183 9.7 (#3) 1 1976 4,008,514 10.6 (#3) 4,027,499 10.6 (#3) 5 1980 3,941,365 10.4 (#3) 3,908,459 10.3 (#4) 1 1983 4,318,800 11.1 (#3) 4,140,865 10.6 (#3) 1 1987 3,859,244 10.2 (#3) 3,715,827 9.8 (#3) 4 1990 3,423,904 7.4 (#4) 3,302,980 7.1 (#4) 2 1994 3,657,627 6.5 (#3) 3,427,196 7.3 (#3) 1 1998 3,602,472 7.3 (#3) 3,324,480 6.8 (#3) 3 2002 4,311,178 9.0 (#3) 4,315,080 9.0 (#3) 11 2005 3,889,990 8.2 (#3) 3,494,309 7.4 (#6) 12 2009 3,191,000 7.4 (#6) 2,830,238 6.5 (#6) 1 2013 3,544,079 8.1 (#4) 3,243,569 7.4 (#5) 11 2017 3,255,604 7.0 (#6) 2,869,744 6.2 (#7) 10 2021 2,787,904 6.0 (#6) 2,402,826 5.2 (#6) 1 === European Parliament === Election Votes % Seats +/– 1979 2,817,120 10.1 (#3) 1984 2,109,130 8.5 (#3) 1 1989 2,326,277 8.2 (#4) 0 1994 2,393,374 6.8 (#4) 1 1999 2,540,007 9.4 (#4) 2 2004 2,063,900 8.0 (#4) 1 2009 1,896,762 7.2 (#6) 1 2014 1,567,258 5.3 (#6) 3 2019 2,354,816 6.3 (#5) 1=== Landtag of Bavaria === Election Constituency Party list Seats +/– Status Votes % Votes % 1946 1,593,908 52.2 (#1) 1950 1,264,993 26.8 (#1) 1,262,377 27.4 (#1) 40 1954 1,855,995 37.6 (#1) 1,835,959 37.9 (#1) 19 1958 2,101,645 44.8 (#1) 2,091,259 45.5 (#1) 18 1962 2,343,169 47.1 (#1) 2,320,359 47.5 (#1) 7 1966 2,549,610 47.7 (#1) 2,524,732 48.1 (#1) 2 1970 3,205,170 56.2 (#1) 3,139,429 56.4 (#1) 14 1974 3,520,065 61.7 (#1) 3,481,486 62.0 (#1) 8 1978 3,394,096 58.5 (#1) 3,387,995 59.1 (#1) 3 1982 3,557,068 57.9 (#1) 3,534,375 58.2 (#1) 4 1986 3,142,094 54.9 (#1) 3,191,640 55.7 (#1) 5 1990 3,007,566 52.6 (#1) 3,085,948 54.9 (#1) 1 1994 3,063,635 52.2 (#1) 3,100,253 52.8 (#1) 7 1998 3,168,996 51.7 (#1) 3,278,768 52.9 (#1) 3 2003 3,050,456 59.3 (#1) 3,167,408 60.6 (#1) 1 2008 2,267,521 42.5 (#1) 2,336,439 43.4 (#1) 32 2013 2,754,256 46.5 (#1) 2,882,169 47.7 (#1) 9 2018 2,495,186 36.7 (#1) 2,551,046 37.2 (#1) 16 2023 2,527,580 37.0 (#1) 2,531,562 37.1 (#1)" ], [ "See also", "* List of Christian Social Union of Bavaria politicians* Politics of Germany" ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "Further reading", "* Alf Mintzel (1975).", "''Die CSU.", "Anatomie einer konservativen Partei 1945–1972'' .", "Opladen.", "." ], [ "External links", "* Christlich-Soziale Union – official website ( English page)* Christian-Social Union (Bavaria, Germany)* Christian-Social Union of Bavaria (CSU)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Corporate title" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Corporate titles''' or '''business titles''' are given to corporate officers to show what duties and responsibilities they have in the organization.", "Such titles are used by publicly and privately held for-profit corporations, cooperatives, non-profit organizations, educational institutions, partnerships, and sole proprietorships that also confer corporate titles." ], [ "Variations", "There are considerable variations in the composition and responsibilities of corporate titles.Within the corporate office or corporate center of a corporation, some corporations have a chairman and chief executive officer (CEO) as the top-ranking executive, while the number two is the president and chief operating officer (COO); other corporations have a president and CEO but no official deputy.", "Typically, senior managers are \"higher\" than vice presidents, although many times a senior officer may also hold a vice president title, such as executive vice president and chief financial officer (CFO).", "The board of directors is technically not part of management itself, although its chairman may be considered part of the corporate office if he or she is an executive chairman.A corporation often consists of different businesses, whose senior executives report directly to the CEO or COO, but that depends on the form of the business.", "If organized as a division then the top manager is often known as an executive vice president (EVP).", "If that business is a subsidiary which has considerably more independence, then the title might be chairman and CEO.In many countries, particularly in Europe and Asia, there is a separate executive board for day-to-day business and supervisory board (elected by shareholders) for control purposes.", "In these countries, the CEO presides over the executive board and the chairman presides over the supervisory board, and these two roles will always be held by different people.", "This ensures a distinction between management by the executive board and governance by the supervisory board.", "This seemingly allows for clear lines of authority.", "There is a strong parallel here with the structure of government, which tends to separate the political cabinet from the management civil service.In the United States and other countries that follow a single-board corporate structure, the board of directors (elected by the shareholders) is often equivalent to the European or Asian supervisory board, while the functions of the executive board may be vested either in the board of directors or in a separate committee, which may be called an operating committee (J.P. Morgan Chase), management committee (Goldman Sachs), executive committee (Lehman Brothers), executive council (Hewlett-Packard), or executive board (HeiG) composed of the division/subsidiary heads and senior officers that report directly to the CEO.===United States===State laws in the United States traditionally required certain positions to be created within every corporation, such as president, secretary and treasurer.", "Today, the approach under the ''Model Business Corporation Act'', which is employed in many states, is to grant corporations discretion in determining which titles to have, with the only mandated organ being the board of directors.Some states that do not employ the MBCA continue to require that certain offices be established.", "Under the law of Delaware, where most large US corporations are established, stock certificates must be signed by two officers with titles specified by law (e.g.", "a president and secretary or a president and treasurer).", "Every corporation incorporated in California must have a chairman of the board or a president (or both), as well as a secretary and a chief financial officer.Limited liability company (LLC)-structured companies are generally run directly by their members, but the members can agree to appoint officers such as a CEO or to appoint \"managers\" to operate the company.American companies are generally led by a CEO.", "In some companies, the CEO also has the title of \"president\".", "In other companies, a president is a different person, and the primary duties of the two positions are defined in the company's bylaws (or the laws of the governing legal jurisdiction).", "Many companies also have a CFO, a chief operating officer (COO) and other senior positions such as chief legal officer (CLO), chief strategy officer (CSO), chief marketing officer (CMO), etc.", "that report to the president and CEO.", "The next level, which are not executive positions, is middle management and may be called \"vice presidents\", \"directors\" or \"managers\", depending on the size and required managerial depth of the company.===United Kingdom===In British English, the title of managing director is generally synonymous with that of chief executive officer.", "Managing directors do not have any particular authority under the ''Companies Act'' in the UK, but do have implied authority based on the general understanding of what their position entails, as well as any authority expressly delegated by the board of directors.===Japan and South Korea===In Japan, corporate titles are roughly standardized across companies and organizations; although there is variation from company to company, corporate titles within a company are always consistent, and the large companies in Japan generally follow the same outline.", "These titles are the formal titles that are used on business cards.", "Korean corporate titles are similar to those of Japan.Legally, Japanese and Korean companies are only required to have a board of directors with at least one representative director.", "In Japanese, a company director is called a ''torishimariyaku'' (取締役) and a representative director is called a ''daihyō torishimariyaku'' (代表取締役).", "The equivalent Korean titles are ''isa'' (이사, 理事) and ''daepyo-isa'' (대표이사, 代表理事).", "These titles are often combined with lower titles, e.g.", "''senmu torishimariyaku'' or ''jōmu torishimariyaku'' for Japanese executives who are also board members.", "Most Japanese companies also have statutory auditors, who operate alongside the board of directors in supervisory roles.Under the commercial code in Japan, ''Jugyōin'' (従業員) meaning the \"employee\", is different from ''Kaishain'' (会社員), meaning the \"stockholders\".The typical structure of executive titles in large companies includes the following:English gloss''Hanja''KoreanCommentsChairman会長(會長)''Hoejang''(회장)Often a semi-retired president or company founder.", "Denotes a position with considerable power within the company exercised through behind-the-scenes influence via the active president.Vice chairman副会長(副會長)''Bu-hoejang''(부회장)At Korean family-owned ''chaebol'' companies such as Samsung, the vice-chairman commonly holds the CEO title (i.e., vice chairman and CEO)President社長''Sajang''(사장)Often CEO of the corporation.", "Some companies do not have the \"chairman\" position, in which case the \"president\" is the top position that is equally respected and authoritative.Deputy presidentor senior executive vice president副社長''Bu-sajang''(부사장)Reports to the presidentExecutive vice president専務''Jŏnmu''(전무)Senior vice president常務''Sangmu''(상무)Vice presidentor general manageror department head部長''Bujang''(부장)Highest non-executive title; denotes a head of a division or department.", "There is significant variation in the official English translation used by different companies.Deputy general manager次長''Chajang''(차장)Direct subordinate to ''bujang''Manageror section head課長''Gwajang''(과장)Denotes a head of a team or section underneath a larger division or departmentAssistant manageror team leader係長(代理)''Daeri'''(대리)Staff社員''Sawon''(사원)Staff without managerial titles are often referred to without using a title at all+PersonnelClassificationEnglish gloss''Kanji''Japanese管理監督者商人使用者Administrator or merchantChairman会長''Kaichō''Vice chairman副会長''Fuku-kaichō''President会社長''Kaishachō''Vice president副社長''Fuku-shachō''Senior director and managing director (precedence depends on company and their roles)専務''Senmu''常務''Jōmu''管理職商業使用人使用者Manager or mercantile servantGeneral manager本部長''Hon-buchō''Department manager部長''Buchō''Deputy department manager次長''Jichō''Section manager課長''Kachō''Assistant section manager課長補佐''Kachō-hosa''Team leader or team manager係長''Kakarichō''従業員労働者被用者被雇用者Senior staff or chief (staff)主任''Shunin''Staff+ExecutivesClassificationEnglish gloss''Kanji''Japanese役員ExecutiveDirector取締役''Torishimariyaku''Statutory auditor監査役''Kansayaku''Accounting advisor会計参与''Kaikei-Sanyo''役員等Executives and ''etcetera''Executive director執行役''Shikkōyaku''Accounting auditor会計監査人Kaikei-kansaninThe top management group, comprising ''jomu''/''sangmu'' and above, is often referred to collectively as \"cadre\" or \"senior management\" (幹部 or 重役; ''kambu'' or ''juyaku'' in Japanese; ''ganbu'' or ''jungyŏk'' in Korean).Some Japanese and Korean companies have also adopted American-style titles, but these are not yet widespread and their usage varies.", "For example, although there is a Korean translation for \"chief operating officer\" (''최고운영책임자, choego unyŏng chaegimja''), not many companies have yet adopted it with the exception of a few multi-national companies such as Samsung and CJ (a spin-off from Samsung), while the CFO title is often used alongside other titles such as ''bu-sajang'' (SEVP) or ''Jŏnmu'' (EVP).Since the late 1990s, many Japanese companies have introduced the title of ''shikkō yakuin'' (執行役員) or 'officer', seeking to emulate the separation of directors and officers found in American companies.", "In 2002, the statutory title of ''shikkō yaku'' (執行役) was introduced for use in companies that introduced a three-committee structure in their board of directors.", "The titles are frequently given to ''buchō'' and higher-level personnel.", "Although the two titles are very similar in intent and usage, there are several legal distinctions: ''shikkō yaku'' make their own decisions in the course of performing work delegated to them by the board of directors, and are considered managers of the company rather than employees, with a legal status similar to that of directors.", "''Shikkō yakuin'' are considered employees of the company that follow the decisions of the board of directors, although in some cases directors may have the ''shikkō yakuin'' title as well." ], [ "Senior management<span id=\"Senior\"></span>", "The highest-level executives in senior management usually have titles beginning with \"chief\" and ending with \"officer\", forming what is often called the \"C-suite\", or \"CxO\", where \"x\" is a variable that could be any functional area (not to be confused with CXO).", "The traditional three such officers are CEO, COO, and CFO.", "Depending on the management structure, titles may exist instead of, or be blended/overlapped with, other traditional executive titles, such as ''president'', various designations of ''vice presidents'' (e.g.", "VP of marketing), and ''general managers'' or ''directors'' of various divisions (such as director of marketing); the latter may or may not imply membership of the ''board of directors''.Certain other prominent positions have emerged, some of which are sector-specific.", "For example, chief audit executive (CAE), chief procurement officer (CPO) and chief risk officer (CRO) positions are often found in many types of financial services companies.", "Technology companies of all sorts now tend to have a chief technology officer (CTO) to manage technology development.", "A chief information officer (CIO) oversees information technology (IT) matters, either in companies that specialize in IT or in any kind of company that relies on it for supporting infrastructure.Many companies now also have a chief marketing officer (CMO), particularly mature companies in competitive sectors, where brand management is a high priority.", "A chief value officer (CVO) is introduced in companies where business processes and organizational entities are focused on the creation and maximization of value.", "Approximately 50% of the S&P 500 companies have created a chief strategy officer (CSO) in their top management team to lead strategic planning and manage inorganic growth, which provides a long range perspective versus the tactical view of the COO or CFO.", "This function often replaces a COO on the C-Suite team, in cases where the company wants to focus on growth rather than efficiency and cost containment.", "A chief administrative officer (CAO) may be found in many large complex organizations that have various departments or divisions.", "Additionally, many companies now call their top diversity leadership position the chief diversity officer (CDO).", "However, this and many other nontraditional and lower-ranking titles are not universally recognized as corporate officers, and they tend to be specific to particular organizational cultures or the preferences of employees.===Specific corporate officer positions ===Chairman of the board – presiding officer of the corporate board of directors.", "The chairman influences the board of directors, which in turn elects and removes the officers of a corporation and oversees the human, financial, environmental and technical operations of a corporation.", "* The CEO may also hold the title of \"chairman\", resulting in an executive chairman.", "In this case, the board frequently names an independent member of the board as a lead director.", "The C-suite is normally led by the CEO.", "* Executive chairman – the chairman's post may also exist as an office separate from that of CEO, and it is considered an executive chairman if that titleholder wields influence over company operations, such as Vince McMahon of WWE, Steve Case of AOL Time Warner, and Douglas Flint of HSBC.", "In particular, the group chairmanship of HSBC is considered the top position of that institution, outranking the chief executive, and is responsible for leading the board and representing the company in meetings with government figures.", "Prior to the creation of the group management board in 2006, HSBC's chairman essentially held the duties of a chief executive at an equivalent institution, while HSBC's chief executive served as the deputy.", "After the 2006 reorganization, the management cadre ran the business, while the chairman oversaw the controls of the business through compliance and audit and the direction of the business.", "* Non-executive chairman – also a separate post from the CEO, unlike an executive chairman, a non-executive chairman does not interfere in day-to-day company matters.", "Across the world, many companies have separated the roles of chairman and CEO, often resulting in a non-executive chairman, saying that this move improves corporate governance.", "Chief business officer is a corporate senior executive who assumes full management responsibility for the company's deal making, provides leadership and executes a deal strategy that will allow the company to fulfill its scientific/technology mission and build shareholder value, provides managerial guidance to the company's product development staff as needed.", "Chief of staff is a corporate director level manager who has overall responsibility for the staff activity within the company who often would have responsibility of hiring and firing of the highest level managers and sometimes directors.", "They can work with and report directly to managing directors and the chief executive officer.", "CommissionerFinancial control officer, FCO or FC, also comptroller or controller – supervises accounting and financial reporting within an organization* Director or member of a board of directors – high-level official with a fiduciary responsibility of overseeing the operation of a corporation and elects or removes officers of a corporation; nominally, ''directors'', other than the ''chairman'' are usually not considered to be employees of the company ''per se'', although they may receive compensation, often including benefits; in publicly held companies.", "A ''board of directors'' is normally made up of members (''directors'') who are a mixture of corporate officials who are also management employees of the company (inside directors) and persons who are not employed by the company in any capacity (outside directors or non-executive directors).", "In privately held companies, the ''board of directors'' often only consists of the statutory corporate officials, and in ''sole proprietorship'' and ''partnerships'', the board is entirely optional, and if it does exist, only operates in an advisory capacity to the owner or ''partners''.", "Non-profit corporations' governing board members may be called ''directors'' like most for-profit corporations, or an alternative like ''trustees'', ''governors'', etc.", "Director – a manager of managers within an organization who is often responsible for a major business function and who sometimes reports to a vice president (in some financial services companies the title vice president has a different meaning).", "Often used with name of a functional area; ''finance director'', ''director of finance'', ''marketing director'', and so on.", "Not to be confused with a ''member of the board of directors'', who is also referred to as a ''director''.", "This is a middle management and not an executive level position, unless it is in the banking industry.", "Alternatively, a manager of managers is often referred to as a \"senior manager' or as an \"associate vice president\", depending upon levels of management, and industry type.", "President – legally recognized highest \"titled\" corporate officer, and usually a member of the board of directors.", "There is much variation; often the CEO also holds the title of president, while in other organizations if there is a separate CEO, the president is then second highest-ranking position.", "In such a case the president is often the COO and is considered to be more focused upon daily operations compared to the CEO, who is supposed to be the visionary.", "If the corporate president is not the COO (such as Richard Parsons of Time Warner from 1995 to 2001), then many division heads report directly to the CEO themselves, with the president taking on special assignments from the CEO.", "Secretary or company secretary – legally recognized \"titled\" corporate officer who reports to the board of directors and is responsible for keeping the records of the board and the company.", "This title is often concurrently held by the ''treasurer'' in a dual position called ''secretary-treasurer''; both positions may be concurrently held by the ''CFO''.", "Note, however, that the ''secretary'' has a reporting line to the board of directors, regardless of any other reporting lines conferred by concurrent titles.", "Treasurer – legally recognized corporate officer entrusted with the fiduciary responsibility of caring for company funds.", "Often this title is held concurrently with that of ''secretary'' in a dual role called ''secretary-treasurer''.", "It can also be held concurrently with the title of ''CFO'' or fall under the jurisdiction of one, though the CFO tends to oversee the finance department instead, which deals with accounting and audits, while the treasurer deals directly with company funds.", "Note, however, that the ''treasurer'' has a reporting line to the board of directors, regardless of any other reporting lines conferred by concurrent titles.", "SuperintendentOwner (sometimes proprietor or sole proprietor, for sole proprietorships)Partner – Used in many different ways.", "This may indicate a co-owner as in a legal partnership or may be used in a general way to refer to a broad class of employees or temporary/contract workers who are often assigned field or customer service work.", "Associate is often used in a similar way.", " Vice chair or vice chairman – officer of the board of directors who may stand in for the ''chairman'' in his or her absence.", "However, this type of vice chairman title on its own usually has only an advisory role and not an operational one (such as Ted Turner at Time Warner).", "An unrelated definition of ''vice chair'' describes an executive who is higher ranking or has more seniority than ''executive vice president''.", "Sometimes, EVPs report to the vice chair, who in turn reports directly to the CEO (so vice chairs in effect constitute an additional layer of management), other vice chairs have more responsibilities but are otherwise on an equal tier with EVPs.", "Executive vice chairman are usually ''not'' on the board of directors.", "Royal Bank of Canada previously used vice chairs in their inner management circle until 2004 but have since renamed them as ''group heads''.===List of chief officer (CO) titles===+ Title Abbreviation Explanation Chief academic officer CAO Responsible for academic administration at universities and other higher education institutions Chief accessibility officer CAO Responsible for overseeing accessibility and inclusion for people with disabilities and seniors Chief accounting officer CAO Responsible for overseeing all accounting and bookkeeping functions, ensuring that ledger accounts, financial statements, and cost control systems are operating effectively Chief administrative officer CAO Responsible for business administration, including daily operations and overall performance Chief analytics officer CAO Responsible for data analysis and interpretation Chief architect CA Responsible for designing systems for high availability and scalability, specifically in technology companies.", "Often called enterprise architects (EA).", "Chief audit executive CAE Responsible for the internal audit Chief brand officer CBO Responsible for a brand's image, experience, and promise, and propagating it throughout all aspects of the company, overseeing marketing, advertising, design, public relations and customer service departments Chief business officer CBO Responsible for the company's deal making, provides leadership and execute a deal strategy that will allow the company to fulfill its scientific/technology mission and build shareholder value, provides managerial guidance to the company's product development staff as needed.", "Chief business development officer CBDO Responsible for business development plans, design and implementation of processes to support business growth Chief commercial officer CCO Responsible for commercial strategy and development Chief communications officer CCO Responsible for communications to employees, shareholders, media, bloggers, influencers, the press, the community, and the public.", "Practical application of communication studies Chief compliance officer CCO Responsible for overseeing and managing regulatory compliance.", "Chief content officer CCO Responsible for developing and commissioning content for broadcasting channels and multimedia exploitation Chief creative officer CCO In one sense of the term, responsible for the overall look and feel of marketing, media, and branding.", "In another sense, similar to chief design officer.", "Chief customer officer CCO Responsible for customer relationship management Chief data officer CDO Responsible for enterprise-wide governance and utilization of information and data as assets, via data processing, data analysis, data mining, information trading, and other means Chief delivery officerCDOResponsible for leading the project management office for project coordination, and facilitating product deliveries among clients worldwide Chief design officer CDO Responsible for overseeing all design aspects of a company's products and services, including product design, graphic design, user experience design, industrial design, and package design, and possibly aspects of advertising, marketing, and engineering Chief development officer CDO Responsible for activities developing the business, usually through added products, added clients, markets or segments Chief digital officer CDO Responsible for adoption of digital technologies, digital consumer experiences, the process of digital transformation, and devising and executing social strategies Chief diversity officer CDO Responsible for diversity and inclusion, including diversity training and equal employment opportunity Chief engineering officer CEngO Similar to the more common chief technology officer (CTO); responsible for technology/product R & D and manufacturing issues in a technology company, oversees the development of technology being commercialized Chief executive officer CEO Responsible for the overall vision and direction of an organization, making the final decisions over all of the corporation's operations.", "The highest-ranking management officer; often also the chairman of the board.", "Usually called CEO in the United States, chief executive or managing director in the United Kingdom, Commonwealth of Nations, and some other countries.", "Chief experience officer CXO Responsible for user experience, overseeing user experience design and user interface design.", "''CXO'' is not to be confused with ''CxO'', a term commonly used when referring to any one of various chief officers.", "Chief financial officer CFO Responsible for all aspects of finances Chief gaming officer CGO Responsible for both the game development and the online and offline publishing functions of a company that makes video games Chief government relations officer CGRO Responsible for all aspects of government relations and lobbying Chief human resources officer CHRO Responsible for all aspects of human resource management and industrial relations Chief information officer CIO Responsible for IT, particularly in IT companies or companies that rely heavily on an IT infrastructure Chief information security officer CISO Responsible for information security Chief information technology officer CITO Responsible for information technology.", "Often equivalent to chief information officer (CIO) and, in a company that sells IT, chief technology officer (CTO).", "Chief innovation officer CINO Responsible for innovation Chief investment officer CIO Responsible for investment and for the asset liability management (ALM) of typical large financial institutions such as insurers, banks and/or pension funds Chief knowledge officer CKO Responsible for managing intellectual capital and knowledge management Chief learning officer CLO Responsible for learning and training Chief legal officer CLO Responsible for overseeing and identifying legal issues in all departments and their interrelation, as well as corporate governance and business policy.", "Often called general counsel (GC) or chief counsel.", "Chief marketing officer CMO Responsible for marketing; job may include sales management, product development, distribution channel management, marketing communications (including advertising and promotions), pricing, market research, and customer service.", "Chief medical officer CMO Responsible for scientific and medical excellence, especially in pharmaceutical companies, health systems, hospitals, and integrated provider networks.", "The title is used in many countries for the senior government official who advises on matters of public health importance.", "In the latter sense compare also chief dental officer.", "Chief networking officer CNO Responsible for social capital within the company and between the company and its partners Chief nursing officer CNO Responsible for nursing Chief operating officer COO Responsible for supervising office administration and maintenance, business operations, including operations management, operations research, and (when applicable) manufacturing operations; role is highly contingent and situational, changing from company to company and even from a CEO to their successor within the same company.", "Often called \"director of operations\" in the nonprofit sector.", "Chief privacy officer CPO Responsible for all the privacy of the data in an organization, including privacy policy enforcement Chief process officer CPO Responsible for business processes and applied process theory, defining rules, policies, and guidelines to ensure that the main objectives follow the company strategy as well as establishing control mechanisms Chief procurement officer CPO Responsible for procurement, sourcing goods and services and negotiating prices and contracts Chief product officer CPO Responsible for all product-related matters.", "The CPO is to the business's product what the CTO is to technology.", "The responsibilities of the CPO are inclusive of product vision, product strategy, user experience, product design, product development, and product marketing.", "Chief quality officer CQO Responsible for quality and quality assurance, setting up quality goals and ensuring that those goals continue to be met over time Chief research officer CRO Responsible for research Chief research and development officer CRDO Responsible for research and development Chief revenue officer CRO Responsible for measuring and maximizing revenue Chief risk officer CRO Responsible for risk management, ensuring that risk is avoided, controlled, accepted, or transferred and that opportunities are not missed.", "Sometimes called chief risk management officer (CRMO).", "Chief sales officer CSO Responsible for sales Chief science officer CSO Responsible for science, usually applied science, including research and development and new technologies.", "Sometimes called chief scientist.", "Chief security officer CSO Responsible for security, including physical security and network security Chief software officer CSO Responsible for the overall software strategy, roadmap, engineering, and user experience Chief solutions officer CSO Responsible for the development and delivery of reliable and innovative business and technology solutions Chief strategy officer CSO Responsible for all aspects of strategy and strategic planning, including enterprise portfolio management, corporate development, and market intelligence Chief sustainability officer CSO Responsible for environmental/sustainability programsChief system engineerCSEResponsible for the whole system specification, validation, and verification in development processes.", "Usually using as the manager of other sub-system engineers.", "Chief technology officer (or \"Chief technical officer\") CTO Responsible for technology and research and development, overseeing the development of technology to be commercialized.", "For an information technology company, the subject matter would be similar to the CIO's; however, the CTO's focus is technology for the firm to sell versus technology used for facilitating the firm's own operations.This position is sometimes called \"Chief technical officer\", and often has the responsibility of managing the \"technical issues\" related to products or services in organizations that are not necessarily focused on technology.", "This is relatively common in NGOs and the development aid sector when the CEO or Project Director is not a person with a strong technical background related to the aid program focus such as economic development, renewable energy, human rights, agriculture, WASH, emergency responses, etc.", "The CTO provides guidance and advice to the program implementation team related to technical things.", "In some development aid programs, this position is similar to the technical director.", "Chief value officer CVO Ensure that all programs, actions, new products, services and investments create and capture customer value.", "Chief visionary officer CVO Responsible for defining corporate vision, business strategy, and working plans Chief web officer CWO Responsible for the web presence of the company and usually for the entire online presence, including intranet and Internet (web, mobile apps, other)" ], [ "Middle management", "* Supervisor* Foreman* General manager or GM* Manager* Of counsel – A lawyer working on a part-time or temporary basis for a company or law firm.", "* Vice president – Middle or upper manager in a corporation.", "They often appear in various hierarchical layers such as ''executive vice president'', ''senior vice president'', ''associate vice president'', or ''assistant vice president'', with EVP usually considered the highest and usually reporting to the CEO or president.", "Many times, corporate officers such as the ''CFO'', ''COO'', ''CSO'', ''CIO'', ''CTO'', ''secretary'', or ''treasurer'' will concurrently hold ''vice president'' titles, commonly EVP or SVP.", "Vice presidents in small companies are also referred to as chiefs of a certain division, such as vice president for finance, or vice president for administration.", "In some financial contexts, the title of vice president is actually subordinate to a director." ], [ "See also", "* Corporate liability* Identification with corporation* International Executive Resources Group* List of corporate titles* Outline of management" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Taking Stock - Corporate Execs Get Scammed, Federal Bureau of Investigation" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Cambridge, Massachusetts" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cambridge''' ( ) is a city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, in the United States.", "It is a suburb in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, located directly across the Charles River from Boston.", "The city's population as of the 2020 U.S. census was 118,403, making it the most populous city in the county, the fourth-largest in Massachusetts, behind Boston, Worcester, and Springfield, and ninth-largest in New England.", "The city was named in honor of the University of Cambridge in Cambridge, England, which was an important center of the Puritan theology that was embraced by the town's founders.Harvard University, an Ivy League university founded in Cambridge in 1636, is the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States.", "Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Lesley University, and Hult International Business School also are based in Cambridge.", "Radcliffe College, a women's liberal arts college, was based in Cambridge from its 1879 founding until its assimilation into Harvard in 1999.Kendall Square, near MIT in the eastern part of Cambridge, has been called \"the most innovative square mile on the planet\" due to the high concentration of startup companies that have emerged there since 2010.Founded in December 1630 during the colonial era, Cambridge was one among the first cities established in the Thirteen Colonies, and it went on to play a historic role during the American Revolution.", "In May 1775, approximately 16,000 American patriots assembled in Cambridge Common to begin organizing a military retaliation against British troops following the Battles of Lexington and Concord.", "On July 2, 1775, two weeks after the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia formally established the Continental Army and appointed George Washington commander of it, Washington arrived at Cambridge Common to take command of the Patriot soldiers camped there.", "Many of these soldiers played a role in supporting Washington's successful Siege of Boston, which trapped garrisoned British troops from moving by land, forcing the British to ultimately abandon Boston.", "Cambridge Common is thus celebrated as the birthplace of the Continental Army." ], [ "History", " George Washington takes command of the Continental Army in Cambridge Square on July 3, 1775; Cambridge is considered the birthplace of the Continental Army, which went on to secure American independence by defeating the British in the American Revolutionary War.An 1873 map of Harvard SquareAn 1873 map of CambridgeAn 1852 map of Greater Boston highlighting the regional rail lines and course of Middlesex Canal; Cambridge is near the bottom of the map highlighted in yellow, and West Cambridge, which is present-day Arlington, Massachusetts, highlighted in pink===Pre-colonization===Massachusett Tribe inhabited the area that would become Cambridge for thousands of years prior to European colonization of the Americas, most recently under the name ''Anmoughcawgen''.", "At the time of European contact and exploration, the area was inhabited by Naumkeag or Pawtucket to the north and Massachusett to the south, and may have been inhabited by other groups such as the Totant not well described in later European narratives.", "The contact period introduced a number of European infectious diseases which would decimate native populations in virgin soil epidemics, leaving the area uncontested upon the arrival of large groups of English settlers in 1630.===17th century and colonialism===In December 1630, the site of present-day Cambridge was chosen for settlement because it was safely upriver from Boston Harbor, making it easily defensible from attacks by enemy ships.", "The city was founded by Thomas Dudley, his daughter Anne Bradstreet, and his son-in-law Simon Bradstreet.", "The first houses were built in the spring of 1631.The settlement was initially referred to as \"the newe towne\".", "Official Massachusetts records show the name rendered as '''Newe Towne''' by 1632, and as '''Newtowne''' by 1638.Located at the first convenient Charles River crossing west of Boston, Newtowne was one of several towns, including Boston, Dorchester, Watertown, and Weymouth, founded by the 700 original Puritan colonists of the Massachusetts Bay Colony under Governor John Winthrop.", "Its first preacher was Thomas Hooker, who led many of its original inhabitants west in 1636 to found Hartford and the Connecticut Colony; before leaving, they sold their plots to more recent immigrants from England.", "The original village site is now within Harvard Square.", "The marketplace where farmers sold crops from surrounding towns at the edge of a salt marsh (since filled) remains within a small park at the corner of John F. Kennedy and Winthrop Streets.In 1636, Newe College, later renamed Harvard College after benefactor John Harvard, was founded as North America's first institution of higher learning.", "Its initial purpose was training ministers.", "According to Cotton Mather, Newtowne was chosen for the site of the college by the Great and General Court, then the legislature of Massachusetts Bay Colony, primarily for its proximity to the popular and highly respected Puritan preacher Thomas Shepard.", "In May 1638,(2) .", "(This source gives May 12, 1638, as the date of the name change; others say May 2, 1638, or late 1637.)", "the settlement's name was changed to Cambridge in honor of the University of Cambridge in Cambridge, England.In 1639, the Massachusetts General Court purchased the land that became present-day Cambridge from the Naumkeag Squaw Sachem of Mistick.The town comprised a much larger area than the present city, with various outlying parts becoming independent towns over the years: Cambridge Village (later Newtown and now Newton) in 1688, Cambridge Farms (now Lexington) in 1712 or 1713, and Little or South Cambridge (now Brighton) and Menotomy or West Cambridge (now Arlington) in 1807.In the late 19th century, various schemes for annexing Cambridge to Boston were pursued and rejected.", "(2) Newtowne's ministers, Hooker and Shepard, the college's first president, the college's major benefactor, and the first schoolmaster Nathaniel Eaton were all Cambridge alumni, as was the colony's governor John Winthrop.", "In 1629, Winthrop had led the signing of the founding document of the city of Boston, which was known as the Cambridge Agreement, after the university.", "In 1650, Governor Thomas Dudley signed the charter creating the corporation that still governs Harvard College.", "(2) Cambridge grew slowly as an agricultural village by road from Boston, the colony's capital.", "By the American Revolution, most residents lived near the Common and Harvard College, with most of the town comprising farms and estates.", "Most inhabitants were descendants of the original Puritan colonists, but there was also a small elite of Anglican \"worthies\" who were not involved in village life, made their livings from estates, investments, and trade, and lived in mansions along \"the Road to Watertown\", present-day Brattle Street, which is still known as Tory Row.===18th century and Revolutionary War===Coming south from Virginia, George Washington took command of the force of Patriot soldiers camped on Cambridge Common on July 3, 1775, which is now considered the birthplace of the Continental Army.On January 24, 1776, Henry Knox arrived with an artillery train captured from Fort Ticonderoga, which allowed Washington to force the British Army to evacuate Boston.", "Most of the Loyalist estates in Cambridge were confiscated after the Revolutionary War.===19th century and industrialization===Between 1790 and 1840, Cambridge grew rapidly with the construction of West Boston Bridge in 1792 connecting Cambridge directly to Boston, making it no longer necessary to travel through the Boston Neck, Roxbury, and Brookline to cross the Charles River.", "A second bridge, the Canal Bridge, opened in 1809 alongside the new Middlesex Canal.", "The new bridges and roads made what were formerly estates and marshland into prime industrial and residential districts.In the mid-19th century, Cambridge was the center of a literary revolution.", "It was home to some of the famous Fireside poets, named because their poems would often be read aloud by families in front of their evening fires.", "The Fireside poets, including Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, James Russell Lowell, and Oliver Wendell Holmes, were highly popular and influential in this era.Soon after, turnpikes were built: the Cambridge and Concord Turnpike (today's Broadway and Concord Ave.), the Middlesex Turnpike (Hampshire St. and Massachusetts Ave. northwest of Porter Square), and what are today's Cambridge, Main, and Harvard Streets connected various areas of Cambridge to the bridges.", "In addition, the town was connected to the Boston & Maine Railroad, leading to the development of Porter Square as well as the creation of neighboring Somerville from the formerly rural parts of Charlestown.Cambridge was incorporated as a city in 1846.The city's commercial center began to shift from Harvard Square to Central Square, which became the city's downtown around that time.Between 1850 and 1900, Cambridge took on much of its present character, featuring streetcar suburban development along the turnpikes and working class and industrial neighborhoods focused on East Cambridge, comfortable middle-class housing on the old Cambridgeport, and Mid-Cambridge estates and upper-class enclaves near Harvard University and on the minor hills.", "The arrival of the railroad in North Cambridge and Northwest Cambridge led to three changes: the development of massive brickyards and brickworks between Massachusetts Avenue, Concord Avenue, and Alewife Brook; the ice-cutting industry launched by Frederic Tudor on Fresh Pond; and the carving up of the last estates into residential subdivisions to house the thousands of immigrants who arrived to work in the new industries.For much of the 19th and early 20th centuries, the city's largest employer was the New England Glass Company, founded in 1818.By the middle of the 19th century, it was the world's largest and most modern glassworks.", "In 1888, Edward Drummond Libbey moved all production to Toledo, Ohio, where it continues today under the name Owens-Illinois.", "The company's flint glassware with heavy lead content is prized by antique glass collectors, and the Toledo Museum of Art has a large collection.", "The Museum of Fine Arts in Boston and the Sandwich Glass Museum on Cape Cod also house several pieces.In 1895, Edwin Ginn, founder of Ginn and Company, built the Athenaeum Press Building for his publishing textbook empire.===20th century===By 1920, Cambridge was one of New England's main industrial cities, with nearly 120,000 residents.", "Among the largest businesses in Cambridge during the period of industrialization was Carter's Ink Company, whose neon sign long adorned the Charles River and which was for many years the world's largest ink manufacturer.", "Next door was the Athenaeum Press.", "Confectionery and snack manufacturers in the Cambridgeport-Area 4-Kendall corridor included Kennedy Biscuit Factory, later part of Nabisco and originator of the Fig Newton, Necco, Squirrel Brands, George Close Company (1861–1930s), Page & Shaw, Daggett Chocolate (1892–1960s, recipes bought by Necco), Fox Cross Company (1920–1980, originator of the Charleston Chew, and now part of Tootsie Roll Industries), Kendall Confectionery Company, and James O. Welch (1927–1963, originator of Junior Mints, Sugar Daddies, Sugar Mamas, and Sugar Babies, now part of Tootsie Roll Industries).", "Main Street was nicknamed \"Confectioner's Row\".Only the Cambridge Brands subsidiary of Tootsie Roll Industries remains in town, still manufacturing Junior Mints in the old Welch factory on Main Street.", "The Blake and Knowles Steam Pump Company (1886), the Kendall Boiler and Tank Company (1880, now in Chelmsford, Massachusetts), and the New England Glass Company (1818–1878) were among the industrial manufacturers in what are now Kendall Square and East Cambridge.In 1935, the Cambridge Housing Authority and the Public Works Administration demolished an integrated low-income tenement neighborhood with African Americans and European immigrants.", "In its place, it built the whites-only \"'''Newtowne Court'''\" public housing development and the adjoining, blacks-only \"'''Washington Elms'''\" project in 1940; the city required segregation in its other public housing projects as well.As industry in New England began to decline during the Great Depression and after World War II, Cambridge lost much of its industrial base.", "It also began to become an intellectual, rather than an industrial, center.", "Harvard University, which had always been important as both a landowner and an institution, began to play a more dominant role in the city's life and culture.", "When Radcliffe College was established in 1879, the town became a mecca for some of the nation's most academically talented female students.", "MIT's move from Boston to Cambridge in 1916 reinforced Cambridge's status as an intellectual center of the United States.After the 1950s, the city's population began to decline slowly as families tended to be replaced by single people and young couples.", "In Cambridge Highlands, the technology company Bolt, Beranek, & Newman produced the first network router in 1969 and hosted the invention of computer-to-computer email in 1971.The 1980s brought a wave of high technology startups.", "Those selling advanced minicomputers were overtaken by the microcomputer.", "Cambridge-based VisiCorp made the first spreadsheet software for personal computers, VisiCalc, and helped propel the Apple II to consumer success.", "It was overtaken and purchased by Cambridge-based Lotus Development, maker of Lotus 1-2-3 (which was, in turn, replaced in by Microsoft Excel).The city continues to be home to many startups.", "Kendall Square was a software hub through the dot-com boom and today hosts offices of such technology companies as Google, Microsoft, and Amazon.", "The Square also now houses the headquarters of Akamai.In 1976, Harvard's plans to start experiments with recombinant DNA led to a three-month moratorium and a citizen review panel.", "In the end, Cambridge decided to allow such experiments but passed safety regulations in 1977.This led to regulatory certainty and acceptance when Biogen opened a lab in 1982, in contrast to the hostility that caused the Genetic Institute, a Harvard spinoff, to abandon Somerville and Boston for Cambridge.", "The biotech and pharmaceutical industries have since thrived in Cambridge, which now includes headquarters for Biogen and Genzyme; laboratories for Novartis, Teva, Takeda, Alnylam, Ironwood, Catabasis, Moderna Therapeutics, Editas Medicine; support companies such as Cytel; and many smaller companies.====Rent control====During the era of rent control in Massachusetts, at least 20 percent of all rent controlled apartments in Cambridge housed the rich.", "The vast majority housed middle- and high-income earners.", "In an independent study conducted of 2/3 of the rent controlled apartments in Cambridge in 1988, 246 were households headed by doctors, 298 by lawyers, 265 by architects, 259 by professors, and 220 by engineers.", "There were 2,650 with students, including 1,503 with graduate students.", "Those who lived in rent controlled apartments includedRuth Abrams, a Justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court.", "Kenneth Reeves, the mayor of Cambridge at the time rent control was repealed in Massachusetts, was living in the same rent controlled apartment he lived in as a Harvard student in 1973.", "Frederik, Crown Prince of DenmarkThe end of rent control in 1994 had numerous effects on the city.", "Within four years of repealing the law, Cambridge, where \"the city's form of rent control was unusually strict,\" saw new housing and construction increase by 50%, and the tax revenue from construction permits tripled.", "Property values in Cambridge increased by about $7.8 billion in the decade following the repeal.", "Roughly a quarter of this increase, $1.8 billion ($3 billion in 2024 dollars), was due to the repeal of rent control.Close to 40% of all Cambridge properties were under rent control when it was repealed.", "Their property values appreciated faster than non-rent controlled properties, as did the properties around them.", "By the end of the 20th century, Cambridge had one of the most costly housing markets in the Northeastern United States.===21st century===Cambridge's mix of amenities and proximity to Boston kept housing prices relatively stable despite the bursting of the United States housing bubble in 2008 and 2009.Cambridge has been a sanctuary city since 1985 and reaffirmed its status as such in 2006.", "(2)" ], [ "Geography", "A winter view of Cambridge and Harvard University's Weld Boathouse seen from Boston with the Charles River in the foregroundAccording to the U.S. Census Bureau, Cambridge has a total area of , of which is land and (9.82%) of which is water.=== Adjacent municipalities ===Cambridge is located in eastern Massachusetts, bordered by: the city of Boston to the south and east (across the Charles River)* the city of Somerville to the north* the town of Arlington to the northwest* the town of Belmont and* the city of Watertown to the westThe border between Cambridge and the neighboring city of Somerville passes through densely populated neighborhoods, which are connected by the MBTA Red Line.", "Some of the main squares, Inman, Porter, and to a lesser extent, Harvard and Lechmere, are very close to the city line, as are Somerville's Union and Davis Squares.Through the City of Cambridge's exclusive municipal water system, the city further controls two exclave areas, one being Payson Park Reservoir and Gatehouse, a 2009 listed American Water Landmark located roughly one mile west of Fresh Pond and surrounded by the town of Belmont.", "The second area is the larger Hobbs Brook and Stony Brook watersheds, which share borders with neighboring towns and cities including Lexington, Lincoln, Waltham and Weston.=== Neighborhoods ======= Squares ====Cambridge has been called the \"City of Squares\",(2) as most of its commercial districts are major street intersections known as squares.", "Each square acts as a neighborhood center.Kendall Square, formed by the junction of Broadway, Main Street, and Third Street, has been called \"the most innovative square mile on the planet\", owing to its high concentration of entrepreneurial start-ups and quality of innovation which have emerged in the vicinity of the square since 2010.Technology Square is an office and laboratory building cluster in this neighborhood.", "Just over the Longfellow Bridge from Boston, at the eastern end of the MIT campus, it is served by the Kendall/MIT station on the MBTA Red Line subway.", "Most of Cambridge's large office towers are located in the Square.", "Kendall Square houses some of the biggest technological companies of the world, including Google, Microsoft, Amazon, Meta, and Apple.", "A biotech industry has developed in this area.", "The Cambridge Innovation Center, a large co-working space, is in Kendall Square at 1 Broadway.", "The Cambridge Center office complex is in Kendall Square, and not at the actual center of Cambridge.", "The \"One Kendall Square\" complex is nearby, but not actually in Kendall Square.Central Square is formed by the junction of Massachusetts Avenue, Prospect Street, and Western Avenue.", "Containing a variety of ethnic restaurants, it was economically depressed as recently as the late 1990s; it underwent gentrification in recent years (in conjunction with the development of the nearby University Park at MIT), and continues to grow more costly.", "It is served by the Central Station stop on the MBTA Red Line subway.", "'''Lafayette Square''', formed by the junction of Massachusetts Avenue, Columbia Street, Sidney Street, and Main Street, is considered part of the Central Square area.", "Cambridgeport is south of Central Square, and bordered by MIT, the Charles River, Massachusetts Avenue, and River Street.Harvard Square is formed by the junction of Massachusetts Avenue, Brattle Street, Dunster Street, and JFK Street.", "This is the primary site of Harvard University and a major Cambridge shopping area.", "It is served by a Red Line station.", "Harvard Square was originally the Red Line's northwestern terminus and a major transfer point to streetcars that also operated in a short tunnel—which is still a major bus terminal, although the area under the Square was reconfigured dramatically in the 1980s when the Red Line was extended.", "A short distance away from the square lies the Cambridge Common, while the neighborhood north of Harvard and east of Massachusetts Avenue is known as Baldwin, in honor of the first Black principal of Cambridge public schools, Maria L. Baldwin.", "It was renamed \"Baldwin\" in 2021, and so some know the area better by its former name, Agassiz, after the famed scientist Louis Agassiz.Porter Square is about a mile north on Massachusetts Avenue from Harvard Square, at the junction of Massachusetts and Somerville Avenues.", "It includes part of the city of Somerville and is served by the Porter Square Station, a complex housing a Red Line stop and a Fitchburg Line commuter rail stop.", "Lesley University's University Hall and Porter campus are in Porter Square.Inman Square is at the junction of Cambridge and Hampshire streets in mid-Cambridge.", "It is home to restaurants, bars, music venues, and boutiques.", "Victorian streetlights, benches, and bus stops were added to the streets in the 2000s, and a new city park was installed.Lechmere Square is at the junction of Cambridge and First streets, adjacent to the CambridgeSide Galleria shopping mall.", "It is served by Lechmere station on the MBTA Green Line.==== Other neighborhoods ====Cambridge's residential neighborhoods border but are not defined by the squares.", "* East Cambridge (Area 1) is bordered on the north by Somerville, on the east by the Charles River, on the south by Broadway and Main Street, and on the west by the Grand Junction Railroad tracks.", "It includes the NorthPoint development.", "* MIT Campus (Area 2) is bordered on the north by Broadway, on the south and east by the Charles River, and on the west by the Grand Junction Railroad tracks.", "* Wellington-Harrington (Area 3) is bordered on the north by Somerville, on the south and west by Hampshire Street, and on the east by the Grand Junction Railroad tracks.", "* The Port, formerly known as Area 4, is bordered on the north by Hampshire Street, on the south by Massachusetts Avenue, on the west by Prospect Street, and on the east by the Grand Junction Railroad tracks.", "Residents of Area 4 often simply call their neighborhood \"The Port\" and the area of Cambridgeport and Riverside \"The Coast\".", "In October 2015, the Cambridge City Council officially renamed Area 4 \"The Port\", formalizing the longtime nickname, largely on the initiative of neighborhood native and then-Vice Mayor Dennis Benzan.", "The port is usually the busier part of the city.", "* Cambridgeport (Area 5) is bordered on the north by Massachusetts Avenue, on the south by the Charles River, on the west by River Street, and on the east by the Grand Junction Railroad tracks.", "* Mid-Cambridge (Area 6) is bordered on the north by Kirkland and Hampshire Streets and Somerville, on the south by Massachusetts Avenue, on the west by Peabody Street, and on the east by Prospect Street.", "* Riverside (Area 7), an area sometimes called \"The Coast\", is bordered on the north by Massachusetts Avenue, on the south by the Charles River, on the west by JFK Street, and on the east by River Street.", "* Baldwin (Area 8) is bordered on the north by Somerville, on the south and east by Kirkland Street, and on the west by Massachusetts Avenue.", "* Neighborhood Nine or Radcliffe (formerly called Peabody, until the recent relocation of a neighborhood school by that name) is bordered on the north by railroad tracks, on the south by Concord Avenue, on the west by railroad tracks, and on the east by Massachusetts Avenue.", "::The Avon Hill sub-neighborhood consists of the higher elevations within the area bounded by Upland Road, Raymond Street, Linnaean Street and Massachusetts Avenue.", "* Brattle area/West Cambridge (Area 10) is bordered on the north by Concord Avenue and Garden Street, on the south by the Charles River and Watertown, on the west by Fresh Pond and the Collins Branch Library, and on the east by JFK Street.", "It includes the sub-neighborhoods of Brattle Street (formerly known as Tory Row) and Huron Village.", "* North Cambridge (Area 11) is bordered on the north by Arlington and Somerville, on the south by railroad tracks, on the west by Belmont, and on the east by Somerville.", "* Cambridge Highlands (Area 12) is bordered on the north and east by railroad tracks, on the south by Fresh Pond, and on the west by Belmont.", "* Strawberry Hill (Area 13) is bordered on the north by Fresh Pond, on the south by Watertown, on the west by Belmont, and on the east by the Watertown-Cambridge Greenway (formerly railroad tracks).==== Gallery ====File:Centralsquarecambridgemass.jpg\|Central SquareFile:Harvard square 2009j.JPG\|Harvard SquareFile:Cambridge MA Inman Square.jpg\|Inman Square=== Climate ===In the Köppen-Geiger classification, Cambridge has a hot-summer humid continental climate (Dfa) with hot summers and cold winters, that can appear in the southern end of New England's interior.", "Abundant rain falls on the city (and in the winter often as snow); it has no dry season.", "The average January temperature is 26.6 °F (−3 °C), making Cambridge part of Group D, independent of the isotherm.", "There are four well-defined seasons." ], [ "Demographics", " Racial composition 2020 2010 1990 1970 1950 White 61.7% 66.6% 75.3% 91.1% 95.3% —Non-Hispanic 57.5% 62.1% 71.6% 89.7% n/a Black or African American 10.6% 11.7% 13.5% 6.8% 4.3% Hispanic or Latino (of any race) 8.8% 7.6% 6.8% 1.9% n/a Asian 18.3% 15.1% 8.4% 1.5% 0.3% Two or more races 7.1% 4.3% n/a n/a n/aAs of the census of 2010, there were 105,162 people, 44,032 households, and 17,420 families residing in the city.", "The population density was .", "There were 47,291 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the city was 66.60% White, 11.70% Black or African American, 0.20% Native American, 15.10% Asian (3.7% Chinese, 1.4% Asian Indian, 1.2% Korean, 1.0% Japanese), 0.01% Pacific Islander, 2.10% from other races, and 4.30% from two or more races.", "7.60% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race (1.6% Puerto Rican, 1.4% Mexican, 0.6% Dominican, 0.5% Colombian & Salvadoran, 0.4% Spaniard).", "Non-Hispanic Whites were 62.1% of the population in 2010, down from 89.7% in 1970.An individual resident of Cambridge is known as a Cantabrigian.In 2010, there were 44,032 households, out of which 16.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 28.9% were married couples living together, 8.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 60.4% were non-families.", "40.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.00 and the average family size was 2.76.In the city, the population was spread out, with 13.3% of the population under the age of 18, 21.2% from 18 to 24, 38.6% from 25 to 44, 17.8% from 45 to 64, and 9.2% who were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 30.5 years.", "For every 100 females, there were 96.1 males.", "For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.7 males.The median income for a household in the city was $47,979, and the median income for a family was $59,423 (these figures had risen to $58,457 and $79,533 respectively ).", "Males had a median income of $43,825 versus $38,489 for females.", "The per capita income for the city was $31,156.About 8.7% of families and 12.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15.1% of those under age 18 and 12.9% of those age 65 or over.Cambridge has been ranked as one of the most liberal cities in America.", "Locals living in and near the city jokingly refer to it as \"The People's Republic of Cambridge\".", "For 2016, the residential property tax rate in Cambridge was $6.99 per $1,000.Cambridge enjoys the highest possible bond credit rating, AAA, with all three Wall Street rating agencies.In 2000, 11.0% of city residents were of Irish ancestry; 7.2% were of English, 6.9% Italian, 5.5% West Indian and 5.3% German ancestry.", "69.4% spoke only English at home, while 6.9% spoke Spanish, 3.2% Chinese or Mandarin, 3.0% Portuguese, 2.9% French Creole, 2.3% French, 1.5% Korean, and 1.0% Italian.=== Income ===Data is from the 2009–2013 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates.", "(2) (3) Rank ZIP Code (ZCTA) Per capitaincome Medianhouseholdincome Medianfamilyincome Population Number ofhouseholds 1 02142 $67,525 $100,114 $150,774 2,838 1,385 2 02138 $52,592 $75,446 $120,564 35,554 13,868 3 02140 $50,856 $75,446 $120,564 18,164 8,460 ''Cambridge'' $47,448 $72,529 $93,460 105,737 44,345 ''Middlesex County'' $42,861 $82,090 $104,032 1,522,533 581,120 4 02139 $42,235 $71,745 $93,220 36,015 14,474 5 02141 $39,241 $64,326 $76,276 13,126 6,182 ''Massachusetts'' $35,763 $66,866 $84,900 6,605,058 2,530,147 ''United States'' $28,155 $53,046 $64,719 311,536,594 115,610,216" ], [ "Economy", "Kendall Square, the center of Cambridge's biotech economy as seen from the Charles RiverManufacturing was an important part of Cambridge's economy in the late 19th and early 20th century, but educational institutions are its biggest employers today.", "Harvard and MIT together employ about 20,000.As a cradle of technological innovation, Cambridge was home to technology firms Analog Devices, Akamai, Bolt, Beranek, and Newman (BBN Technologies) (now part of Raytheon), General Radio (later GenRad), Lotus Development Corporation (now part of IBM), Polaroid, Symbolics, and Thinking Machines.In 1996, Polaroid, Arthur D. Little, and Lotus were Cambridge's top employers, with over 1,000 employees, but they faded out a few years later.", "Health care and biotechnology firms such as Genzyme, Biogen Idec, bluebird bio, Millennium Pharmaceuticals, Sanofi, Pfizer and Novartis have significant presences in the city.", "Though headquartered in Switzerland, Novartis continues to expand its operations in Cambridge.Other major biotech and pharmaceutical firms expanding their presence in Cambridge include GlaxoSmithKline, AstraZeneca, Shire, and Pfizer.", "Most of Cambridge's biotech firms are in Kendall Square and East Cambridge, which decades ago were the city's center of manufacturing.", "Some others are in University Park at MIT, a new development in another former manufacturing area.None of the high technology firms that once dominated the economy was among the 25 largest employers in 2005, but by 2008 Akamai and ITA Software were.", "Google, IBM Research, Microsoft Research, and Philips Research maintain offices in Cambridge.", "In late January 2012—less than a year after acquiring Billerica-based analytic database management company, Vertica—Hewlett-Packard announced it would also be opening its first offices in Cambridge.", "Also around that time, e-commerce giants Staples and Amazon.com said they would be opening research and innovation centers in Kendall Square.", "And LabCentral provides a shared laboratory facility for approximately 25 emerging biotech companies.The proximity of Cambridge's universities has also made the city a center for nonprofit groups and think tanks, including the National Bureau of Economic Research, the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, Cultural Survival, and One Laptop per Child.In September 2011, Cambridge launched its Entrepreneur Walk of Fame initiative, recognizing people who have made contributions to innovation in global business.In 2021, Cambridge was one of approximately 27 US cities to receive a AAA rating from each of the three major credit rating agencies in the nation, Moody's Investors Service, Standard & Poor's and Fitch Ratings.", "2021 marked the 22nd consecutive year that Cambridge had retained this distinction.=== Top employers ===, the city's ten largest employers are: # Employer # of employees 1Harvard University12,5652Massachusetts Institute of Technology9,3113City of Cambridge3,2564Takeda Pharmaceuticals3,4845Biogen2,4216 Novartis Inst.", "For Biomedical Research2,2676Cambridge Innovation Center2,2678Cambridge Health Alliance1,8069 Mt.", "Auburn Hospital1,78910Sanofi Genzyme1,782" ], [ "Arts and culture", "Fogg Museum at Harvard University=== Museums ===* Harvard Art Museum, including the Busch-Reisinger Museum, a collection of Germanic art, the Fogg Art Museum, a comprehensive collection of Western art, and the Arthur M. Sackler Museum, a collection of Middle East and Asian art* Harvard Museum of Natural History, including the Glass Flowers collection* List Visual Arts Center, MIT* MIT Museum* Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard* Semitic Museum, Harvard=== Public art ===Cambridge has a large and varied collection of permanent public art, on both city property, managed by the Cambridge Arts Council, Community Art Center, and the Harvard and MIT campuses.", "Temporary public artworks are displayed as part of the annual Cambridge River Festival on the banks of the Charles River during winter celebrations in Harvard and Central Squares and at Harvard University campus sites.", "Experimental forms of public artistic and cultural expression include the Central Square World's Fair, the annual Somerville-based Honk!", "Festival, and If This House Could Talk, a neighborhood art and history event.Street musicians and other performers entertain tourists and locals in Harvard Square during the warmer months.", "The performances are coordinated through a public process that has been developed collaboratively by the performers, city administrators, private organizations and business groups.", "The Cambridge public library contains four Works Progress Administration murals completed in 1935 by Elizabeth Tracy Montminy: ''Religion'', ''Fine Arts'', ''History of Books and Paper'', and ''The Development of the Printing Press''.Longfellow House–Washington's Headquarters National Historic SiteStata Center at MITSimmons Hall at MIT=== Architecture ===Despite intensive urbanization during the late 19th century and the 20th century, Cambridge has several historic buildings, including some from the 17th century.", "The city also has abundant contemporary architecture, largely built by Harvard and MIT.", "'''Notable historic buildings in the city include''':* The Asa Gray House (1810)* Austin Hall, Harvard University (1882–1884)* Cambridge City Hall (1888–1889)* Cambridge Public Library (1888)* Christ Church, Cambridge (1761)* Cooper-Frost-Austin House (1689–1817)* Elmwood House (1767), residence of the president of Harvard University* First Church of Christ, Scientist (1924–1930)* The First Parish in Cambridge (1833)* Harvard-Epworth United Methodist Church (1891–1893)* Harvard Lampoon Building (1909)* The Hooper-Lee-Nichols House (1685–1850)* Longfellow House–Washington's Headquarters National Historic Site (1759), former home of poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and headquarters of George Washington* The Memorial Church of Harvard University (1932)* Memorial Hall, Harvard University (1870–1877)* Middlesex County Courthouse (1814–1848)* Urban Rowhouse (1875)* O'Reilly Spite House (1908), built to spite a neighbor who would not sell his adjacent land'''Contemporary architecture''':* Arthur M. Sackler Museum at Harvard University, one of the few buildings in the U.S. by Pritzker Prize winner James Stirling* Baker House dormitory at MIT by Finnish architect Alvar Aalto, one of only two Aalto buildings in the U.S.* Harvard Graduate Center/Harkness Commons by The Architects Collaborative with Walter Gropius* Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts at Harvard, the only Le Corbusier building in North America* Design Research Building by Benjamin Thompson and Associates* Harvard Science Center, Holyoke Center, and Peabody Terrace by Catalan architect and Harvard Graduate School of Design Dean Josep Lluís Sert* Kresge Auditorium, MIT, by Eero Saarinen* Harvard Art Museums, renovation and major expansion of Fogg Museum building, completed in 2014 by Renzo Piano* MIT Chapel by Eero Saarinen* MIT Media Lab, two buildings by I. M. Pei and Fumihiko Maki* Simmons Hall at MIT by Steven Holl* Stata Center, home to the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, the Department of Linguistics, and the Department of Philosophy by Frank Gehry=== Music ===The city has an active music scene, from classical performances to the latest popular bands.", "Beyond its colleges and universities, Cambridge has many music venues, including The Middle East, Club Passim, The Plough and Stars, The Lizard Lounge and the Nameless Coffeehouse.<!--" ], [ "Notable people", "---- NOTE: Please create an article named \"List of people from Cambridge, Massachusetts\", ...---- then put in this section!---- For examples, see List of people from Chicago, List of people from Wichita, Kansas, and others.---- NOTE: Since there are numerous notable people from Cambridge, please put those people in the list articles!-->=== Parks and recreation ===Alewife Brook ReservationConsisting largely of densely built residential space, Cambridge lacks significant tracts of public parkland.", "Easily accessible open space on the university campuses, including Harvard Yard, Radcliffe Yard, and MIT's Great Lawn, as well as the considerable open space of Mount Auburn Cemetery and Fresh Pond Reservation, partly compensates for this.", "At Cambridge's western edge, the cemetery is known as a garden cemetery because of its landscaping (the oldest planned landscape in the country) and arboretum.", "Although known as a Cambridge landmark, much of the cemetery lies within Watertown.", "It is also an Important Bird Area (IBA) in the Greater Boston area.", "Fresh Pond Reservation is the largest open green space in Cambridge with 162 acres (656,000 m2) of land around a 155-acre (627,000 m2) kettle hole lake.", "This land includes a 2.25-mile walking trail around the reservoir and a public 9-hole golf course.Public parkland includes the esplanade along the Charles River, which mirrors its Boston counterpart, Cambridge Common, Danehy Park, and Alewife Brook Reservation." ], [ "Government", "=== Federal and state representation === Voter registration and party enrollment Party Number of voters Percentage Democratic 39,916 56.48% Republican 2,126 3.01% Unaffiliated 27,922 39.51% Libertarian 213 0.31% Total 70,674 100%Cambridge is split between Massachusetts's 5th and 7th U.S. congressional districts.", "The 5th district seat is held by Democrat Katherine Clark, who replaced now-Senator Ed Markey in a 2013 special election; the 7th is represented by Democrat Ayanna Pressley, elected in 2018.The state's senior United States senator is Democrat Elizabeth Warren, elected in 2012, who lives in Cambridge.", "The governor of Massachusetts is Democrat Maura Healey, elected in 2022.Cambridge is represented in six districts in the Massachusetts House of Representatives: the 24th Middlesex (which includes parts of Belmont and Arlington), the 25th and 26th Middlesex (the latter of which includes a portion of Somerville), the 29th Middlesex (which includes a small part of Watertown), and the Eighth and Ninth Suffolk (both including parts of the City of Boston).", "The city is represented in the Massachusetts Senate as a part of the 2nd Middlesex, Middlesex and Suffolk, and 1st Suffolk and Middlesex districts.===Politics===From 1860 to 1880, Republicans Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, Rutherford B. Hayes, and James Garfield each won Cambridge, Grant doing so by margins of over 20 points in both of his campaigns.", "Following that, from 1884 to 1892, Grover Cleveland won Cambridge in all three of his presidential campaigns, by less than ten points each time.Then from 1896 to 1924, Cambridge became something of a swing city with a slight Republican lean.", "Republican candidates carried the city in five of the eight presidential elections during that time, with five of the elections resulting in either a plurality or a margin of victory of fewer than ten points.", "In modern times, however, Cambridge has been largely Democratic.", "In the last 23 presidential elections, dating back to the nomination of Al Smith in the 1928 presidential election, Democratic presidential candidates have won Cambridge with every Democratic nominee since Massachusetts native John F. Kennedy in 1960 receiving at least 70% of the vote, except for Jimmy Carter in 1976 and 1980.Since 1928, the only Republican nominee to come within ten points of carrying Cambridge is Dwight Eisenhower in his 1956 reelection bid.+ Presidential election results Year Democratic Republican2020'''91.7%''' ''50,233''6.4% ''3,519''2016'''87.9%''' ''46,563''6.3% ''3,323''2012'''86.0%''' ''43,515''10.8% ''5,476''2008'''87.8%''' ''40,876''10.1% ''4,697''2004'''84.8%''' ''35,886''12.6% ''5,338''2000'''72.1%''' ''28,846''12.9% ''5,166''1996'''78.9%''' ''30,043''13.1% ''4,990''1992'''74.7%''' ''30,737''14.2% ''5,847''1988'''77.0%''' ''32,027''21.1% ''8,770''1984'''76.2%''' ''32,582''23.4% ''10,007''1980'''60.8%''' ''24,337''19.9% ''7,952''1976'''68.7%''' ''29,052''24.6% ''10,424''1972'''74.0%''' ''30,486''25.4% ''10,464''1968'''76.8%''' ''29,386''17.9% ''6,840''1964'''83.6%''' ''36,009''13.4% ''5,764''1960'''70.3%''' ''34,029''28.3% ''13,691''1956'''49.7%''' ''25,240''48.3% ''24,538''1952'''56.2%''' ''31,668''41.8% ''23,526''1948'''62.6%''' ''33,501''32.1% ''17,149''1944'''58.4%''' ''27,629''36.2% ''17,149''1940'''58.8%''' ''30,412''38.6% ''19,967''1936'''55.9%''' ''25,917''33.4% ''15,495''1932'''60.9%''' ''24,585''35.0% ''14,121''1928'''60.9%''' ''25,794''37.0% ''15,662''192437.2% ''11,321'''''49.5%''' ''15,048''192038.6% ''10,808'''''58.2%''' ''16,289''1916'''55.6%''' ''7,999''42.8% ''6,149''1912'''48.7%''' ''6,665''24.5% ''3,360''190843.5% ''5,562'''''51.6%''' ''6,595''1904'''48.7%''' ''6,769''48.3% ''6,706''190046.2% ''5,249'''''50.3%''' ''5,717''189625.6% ''2,868'''''64.8%''' ''7,247''1892'''53.6%''' ''5,996''44.2% ''4,945''1888'''51.4%''' ''4,832''46.1% ''4,330''1884'''47.8%''' ''4,040''40.6% ''3,430''188043.5% ''3,293'''''55.9%''' ''4,227''187649.1% ''3,531'''''50.9%''' ''3,654''187234.8% ''1,753'''''65.2%''' ''3,289''186839.2% ''1,982'''''60.8%''' ''3,079''186438.0% ''1,693'''''62.0%''' ''2,760''186024.6% ''888'''''50.0%''' ''1,805''===City government ===Cambridge City Hall in the 1980sCambridge has a city government led by a mayor and a nine-member city council.", "There is also a six-member school committee that functions alongside the superintendent of public schools.", "The councilors and school committee members are elected every two years using proportional representation.The mayor is elected by the city councilors from among themselves and serves as the chair of city council meetings.", "The mayor also sits on the school committee.", "The mayor is not the city's chief executive.", "Rather, the city manager, who is appointed by the city council, serves in that capacity.Under the city's Plan E form of government, the city council does not have the power to appoint or remove city officials who are under the direction of the city manager.", "The city council and its members are also forbidden from giving orders to any subordinate of the city manager.Yi-An Huang is the City Manager as of September 6, 2022, succeeding Owen O'Riordan (now the Deputy City Manager) who briefly served as the Acting City Manager after Louis DePasquale resigned on July 5, 2022, after six years in office.", "District Councillor In office since At-large Burhan Azeem Jan. 2022 At-large Marc C. McGovern Jan. 2014 At-large Patty Nolan Jan. 2020 At-large Joan Pickett Jan. 2024 At-large Sumbul Siddiqui Jan. 2018 At-large E. Denise Simmons* Jan. 2002 At-large Jivan Sobrinho-Wheeler Jan. 2024 At-large Paul Toner Jan. 2022 At-large Ayesha Wilson Jan. 2024''* = current mayor''''** = former mayor''On March 8, 2021, Cambridge City Council voted to recognize polyamorous domestic partnerships, becoming the second city in the United States following neighboring Somerville, which had done so in 2020.=== County government ===Cambridge was a county seat of Middlesex County, along with Lowell, until the abolition of county government.", "Though the county government was abolished in 1997, the county still exists as a geographical and political region.", "The employees of Middlesex County courts, jails, registries, and other county agencies now work directly for the state.", "The county's registrars of Deeds and Probate remain in Cambridge, but the Superior Court and District Attorney have had their operations transferred to Woburn.", "Third District Court has shifted operations to Medford, and the county Sheriff's office awaits near-term relocation.", "(2)" ], [ "Education", "MIT's main campusDunster House, one of 12 undergraduate dormitories at Harvard University=== Higher education ===Cambridge is perhaps best known as an academic and intellectual center.", "Its colleges and universities include:* Cambridge School of Culinary Arts* Harvard University* Hult International Business School* Lesley University* Longy School of Music of Bard College* Massachusetts Institute of Technology* Radcliffe College (now merged with Harvard College)At least 258 of the world's total 962 Nobel Prize winners have at some point in their careers been affiliated with universities in Cambridge.Cambridge College is named for Cambridge and was based in Cambridge until 2017, when it consolidated to a new headquarters in neighboring Boston.The American Academy of Arts and Sciences, one of the nation's oldest learned societies founded in 1780, is based in Cambridge.=== Primary and secondary public education ===The city's schools constitute the Cambridge Public School District.", "Schools include:* Amigos School* Baldwin School (formerly the Agassiz School)* Cambridgeport School* Fletcher-Maynard Academy* Graham and Parks Alternative School* Haggerty School* Kennedy-Longfellow School* King Open School* Martin Luther King Jr. School* Morse School (a Core Knowledge school)* Peabody School* Tobin School (a Montessori school)Five upper schools offer grades 6–8 in some of the same buildings as the elementary schools:* Amigos School* Cambridge Street Upper School* Putnam Avenue Upper School* Rindge Avenue Upper School* Vassal Lane Upper SchoolCambridge has three district public high school programs, including Cambridge Rindge and Latin School (CRLS).Other public charter schools include Benjamin Banneker Charter School, which serves grades K–6; Community Charter School of Cambridge in Kendall Square, which serves grades 7–12; and Prospect Hill Academy, a charter school whose upper school is in Central Square though it is not a part of the Cambridge Public School District.=== Primary and secondary private education ===The portion of Cambridge Public Library built in 1888Cambridge also has several private schools, including:* Boston Archdiocesan Choir School* Buckingham Browne & Nichols School* Cambridge Montessori school* Cambridge Friends School* Fayerweather Street School* International School of Boston (formerly École Bilingue)* Matignon High School* Shady Hill School* St. Peter School" ], [ "Media", "=== Newspapers ===Cambridge is served by a single online newspaper, Cambridge Day.", "The last physical newspaper in the city, ''Cambridge Chronicle'', ceased publication in 2022 and today only cross-posts regional stories from other Gannett properties.=== Radio ===Cambridge is home to the following radio stations, including both commercially-licensed and student-run stations: Callsign Frequency City/town Licensee Format WHRB 95.3 FM Cambridge (Harvard) Harvard Radio Broadcasting Co., Inc. Musical variety WJIB 740 AM/101.3 FM Cambridge Bob Bittner Broadcasting Adult standards/Pop WMBR 88.1 FM Cambridge (MIT) Technology Broadcasting Corporation College radio=== Television and broadband ===Cambridge Community Television (CCTV) has served the city since its inception in 1988.CCTV operates Cambridge's public access television facility and three television channels, 8, 9, and 96, on the Cambridge cable system (Comcast).", "The city has invited tenders from other cable providers, but Comcast remains its only fixed television and broadband utility,(2) though services from American satellite TV providers are available.", "In October 2014, Cambridge City Manager Richard Rossi appointed a citizen Broadband Task Force to \"examine options to increase competition, reduce pricing, and improve speed, reliability and customer service for both residents and businesses.\"" ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Utilities===Cable television service is provided by XFINITY (Comcast Communications).", "Parts of Cambridge are served by a district heating systems loop for industrial organizations that also cover Boston.", "Electric service and natural gas are both provided by Eversource Energy.", "Landline telecommunications service are provided by Harvard University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), and Verizon Communications.", "All phones in Cambridge are inter-connected to central office locations in the metropolitan area.", "The city maintains its own Public, educational, and government access (PEG) known as Cambridge Community Television (CCTV).=== Water department ===Cambridge obtains water from Hobbs Brook (in Lincoln and Waltham) and Stony Brook (Waltham and Weston), as well as an emergency connection to the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority.", "The city owns over of land in other towns that includes these reservoirs and portions of their watershed.", "Water from these reservoirs flows by gravity through an aqueduct to Fresh Pond in Cambridge.", "It is then treated in an adjacent plant and pumped uphill to an elevation of above sea level at the Payson Park Reservoir (Belmont).", "The water is then redistributed downhill via gravity to individual users in the city.", "(2) A new water treatment plant opened in 2001.In October 2016, the city announced that, owing to drought conditions, they would begin buying water from the MWRA.", "On January 3, 2017, Cambridge announced that \"As a result of continued rainfall each month since October 2016, we have been able to significantly reduce the need to use MWRA water.", "We have not purchased any MWRA water since December 12, 2016 and if 'average' rainfall continues this could continue for several months.", "\"Sewer service is available in Cambridge.", "The city is inter-connected with the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority (MWRA)'s sewage network with sewage treatment plant in the Boston Harbor.=== Transportation ======= Road ====Massachusetts Avenue in Harvard SquareCambridge is served by several major roads, including Route 2, Route 16, and the Route 28.The Massachusetts Turnpike does not pass through Cambridge but is accessible by an exit in nearby Allston.", "Both U.S. Route 1 and Interstate 93 provide additional access at the eastern end of Cambridge via Leverett Circle in Boston.", "Route 2A runs the length of the city, chiefly along Massachusetts Avenue.", "The Charles River forms the southern border of Cambridge and is crossed by 11 bridges connecting Cambridge to Boston, eight of which are open to motorized road traffic, including the Longfellow Bridge and the Harvard Bridge.Cambridge has an irregular street network because many of the roads date from the colonial era.", "Contrary to popular belief, the road system did not evolve from longstanding cow-paths.", "Roads connected various village settlements with each other and nearby towns and were shaped by geographic features, most notably streams, hills, and swampy areas.", "Today, the major \"squares\" are typically connected by long, mostly straight roads, such as Massachusetts Avenue between Harvard Square and Central Square or Hampshire Street between Kendall Square and Inman Square.On October 25, 2022, Cambridge City Council voted 8–1 to eliminate parking minimums from the city code, citing declining car ownership, with the aim of promoting housing construction.==== Mass transit ====Central station on the MBTA Red Line in CambridgeCambridge is served by the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority, including Porter station on the regional Commuter Rail, Lechmere station on the Green Line, and Alewife, Porter, Harvard, Central, and Kendall Square/MIT stations on the Red Line.", "Alewife station, the terminus of the Red Line, has a large multi-story parking garage.The Harvard bus tunnel under Harvard Square connects to the Red Line underground.", "This tunnel was originally opened for streetcars in 1912 and served trackless trolleys, trolleybuses, and buses as the routes were converted; four lines of the MBTA trolleybus system continued to use it until their conversion to diesel in 2022.The tunnel was partially reconfigured when the Red Line was extended to Alewife in the early 1980s.Both Union Square station in Somerville on the Green Line and Community College station in Charlestown on the Orange Line are located just outside of Cambridge.Besides the state-owned transit agency, the city is also served by the Charles River Transportation Management Agency (CRTMA) shuttles which are supported by some of the largest companies operating in the city, in addition to the municipal government itself.==== Cycling ====Cambridge has several bike paths, including one along the Charles River, and the Linear Park connecting the Minuteman Bikeway at Alewife with the Somerville Community Path.", "A connection to Watertown opened in 2022.Bike parking is common and there are bike lanes on many streets, although concerns have been expressed regarding the suitability of many of the lanes.", "On several central MIT streets, bike lanes transfer onto the sidewalk.", "Cambridge bans cycling on certain sections of sidewalk where pedestrian traffic is heavy.", "(2) ''Bicycling Magazine'' in 2006 rated Boston as one of the worst cities in the nation for bicycling, but it has given Cambridge honorable mention as one of the best and was called \"Boston's great hope\" by the magazine.", "Boston has since then followed the example of Cambridge and made considerable efforts to improve bicycling safety and convenience.", "(2) (3) (4) (5) (6) ==== Walking ====Weeks Bridge provides a pedestrian-only connection between Boston's Allston-Brighton neighborhood and Cambridge over the Charles River.Walking is a popular activity in Cambridge.", "In 2000, among U.S. cities with more than 100,000 residents, Cambridge had the highest percentage of commuters who walked to work.", "Cambridge's major historic squares have changed into modern walking neighborhoods, including traffic calming features based on the needs of pedestrians rather than of motorists.==== Intercity ====The Boston intercity bus and train stations at South Station in Boston, and Logan International Airport in East Boston, both of which are accessible by subway.", "The Fitchburg Line rail service from Porter Square connects to some western suburbs.", "Since October 2010, there has also been intercity bus service between Alewife Station (Cambridge) and New York City.=== Police department ===In addition to the Cambridge Police Department, the city is patrolled by the Fifth (Brighton) Barracks of Troop H of the Massachusetts State Police.", "Owing, however, to proximity, the city also practices functional cooperation with the Fourth (Boston) Barracks of Troop H, as well.", "The campuses of Harvard and MIT are patrolled by the Harvard University Police Department and MIT Police Department, respectively.=== Fire department ===Cambridge Fire Department's Engine 2, Paramedic Squad 2, Ladder 3 firehouseThe city of Cambridge is protected by the Cambridge Fire Department.", "Established in 1832, the CFD operates eight engine companies, four ladder companies, one rescue company, and three paramedic squad companies from eight fire stations located throughout the city.", "The Acting Chief is Thomas F. Cahill Jr.=== Emergency medical services (EMS) ===The city of Cambridge receives emergency medical services from PRO EMS, a privately contracted ambulance service.=== Public library services ===Further educational services are provided at the Cambridge Public Library.", "The large modern main building was built in 2009, and connects to the restored 1888 Richardson Romanesque building.", "It was founded as the private Cambridge Athenaeum in 1849 and was acquired by the city in 1858, and became the Dana Library.", "The 1888 building was a donation of Frederick H. Rindge." ], [ "Sister cities and twin towns", "Cambridge's sister cities with active relationships are:* Coimbra, Portugal (1982)* Gaeta, Italy (1982)* Tsukuba, Japan (1983)* San José Las Flores, El Salvador (1987)* Yerevan, Armenia (1987)* Galway, Ireland (1997)* Les Cayes, Haiti (2014)Cambridge has ten additional inactive sister city relationships:* Dublin, Ireland (1983)* Ischia, Italy (1984)* Catania, Italy (1987)* Kraków, Poland (1989)* Florence, Italy (1992)* Santo Domingo Oeste, Dominican Republic (2003)* Southwark, England (2004)* Yuseong (Daejeon), Korea (2005)* Haidian (Beijing), China (2005)* Cienfuegos, Cuba (2005)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * * ** Cambridge article by Rev.", "Edward Abbott in Volume 1, pages 305–358.", "* Eliot, Samuel Atkins.", "''A History of Cambridge, Massachusetts: 1630–1913''.", "Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Cambridge Tribune, 1913.", "* * Paige, Lucius.", "''History of Cambridge, Massachusettse: 1630–1877''.", "Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Riverside Press, 1877.", "* ''Survey of Architectural History in Cambridge: Mid Cambridge''.", "Cambridge, Massachusetts: Cambridge Historical Commission, 1967..* ''Survey of Architectural History in Cambridge: Cambridgeport''.", "Cambridge, Massachusetts: Cambridge Historical Commission, 1971..* ''Survey of Architectural History in Cambridge: Old Cambridge''.", "Cambridge, Massachusetts: Cambridge Historical Commission, 1973..* ''Survey of Architectural History in Cambridge: Northwest Cambridge''.", "Cambridge, Massachusetts: Cambridge Historical Commission, 1977..* ''Survey of Architectural History in Cambridge: East Cambridge'' (revised edition).", "Cambridge, Massachusetts: Cambridge Historical Commission, 1988.", "* " ], [ "External links", " * * * The Innovation Trail – History of invention in Cambridge and Boston" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Cambridge (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cambridge''' is a city and the county town of Cambridgeshire, United Kingdom, famous for being the location of the University of Cambridge.", "'''Cambridge''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Places", "===Australia===* Cambridge, Tasmania, a suburb of Hobart* Town of Cambridge, a Western Australian local government area===Barbados===* Cambridge, Barbados, a populated place in the parish of Saint Joseph, Barbados===Canada===* Cambridge, Ontario, a city in Canada* Cambridge (federal electoral district), a federal electoral district corresponding to Cambridge, Ontario* Cambridge (provincial electoral district), a provincial electoral district corresponding to Cambridge, Ontario* Cambridge, Hants County, Nova Scotia, a small community in Canada* Cambridge, Kings County, Nova Scotia, a small community in Canada* Cambridge Bay, Nunavut, a hamlet in Canada* Cambridge Parish, New Brunswick, a civil parish in Canada* Cambridge-Narrows, New Brunswick, a small community in Canada===Jamaica===* Cambridge, Jamaica===Malta===* Cambridge Battery/Fort Cambridge, an artillery battery===New Zealand===* Cambridge, New Zealand===South Africa===* Cambridge, Eastern Cape===United Kingdom===* Cambridge (ward), Southport* Cambridge, Gloucestershire* Cambridge, Scottish Borders, a location in the United Kingdom* Cambridge, West Yorkshire, a location in the United Kingdom* Cambridge (UK Parliament constituency)* County of Cambridge, another name for Cambridgeshire* Cambridge Heath, a place in the London borough of Tower Hamlets* Cambridge Town (disambiguation) or Camberley, Surrey, England===United States===* Cambridge, Idaho* Cambridge, Illinois* Cambridge, Iowa* Cambridge, Kansas* Cambridge, Kentucky* Cambridge, Maine* Cambridge, Maryland* Cambridge, Massachusetts* Cambridge, Minnesota* Cambridge, Missouri* Cambridge, Nebraska* Cambridge, New Hampshire, a township* Cambridge, Delran, New Jersey* Cambridge, Evesham, New Jersey* Cambridge (town), New York* Cambridge (village), New York* Cambridge, Ohio* Cambridge, Vermont* Cambridge (village), Vermont* Cambridge, Wisconsin* Cambridge City, Indiana* Cambridge Springs, Pennsylvania* Cambridge Township, Ohio* Cambridge Township, Henry County, Illinois* Cambridge Township, Michigan* Cambridge Township, Minnesota* Cambridge Township, Pennsylvania===Extraterrestrial===* 2531 Cambridge, a stony Main Belt asteroid in the Solar System" ], [ "People", "===Given name===* Cambridge Jones, British celebrity photographer===Surnames===* Alice Cambridge (1762–1829), early Irish Methodist preacher* Alyson Cambridge (born 1980), American operatic soprano and classical music, jazz, and American popular song singer* Asuka Cambridge (born 1993), Japanese sprint athlete* Barrington Cambridge (born 1957), Guyanese boxer* Godfrey Cambridge (1933–1976), American stand-up comic and actor* Richard Owen Cambridge (1717–1802), British poet===Titles===* Duke of Cambridge" ], [ "Brands and enterprises", "* Cambridge (cigarette)* Cambridge Audio, a manufacturer of audio equipment* Cambridge Glass, a glass company of Cambridge, Ohio* Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company, founded 1881 in England * Cambridge SoundWorks, a manufacturer of audio equipment* Cambridge Theatre, a theatre in the West End of London* Cambridge University Press" ], [ "Educational institutions", "* Cambridge State University, US* The Cambridge School (disambiguation)* University of Cambridge, UK" ], [ "Other uses", "* ''Cambridge'' (book), 2005 book by Tim Rawle* ''Cambridge'' (ship), four merchant ships* Austin Cambridge, motor car range produced by the Austin Motor Company* Cambridge Circus (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Colin Dexter" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Norman Colin Dexter''' (29 September 1930 – 21 March 2017) was an English crime writer known for his ''Inspector Morse'' series of novels, which were written between 1975 and 1999 and adapted as an ITV television series, ''Inspector Morse'', from 1987 to 2000.His characters have spawned a sequel series, ''Lewis'' from 2006 to 2015, and a prequel series, ''Endeavour'' from 2012 to 2023." ], [ "Early life and career", "Dexter was born in Stamford, Lincolnshire, to Alfred and Dorothy Dexter.", "He had an elder brother, John, a fellow classicist, who taught Classics at The King's School, Peterborough, and a sister, Avril.", "Alfred ran a small garage and taxi company from premises in Scotgate, Stamford.", "Dexter was educated at St John's Infants School and Bluecoat Junior School, from which he gained a scholarship to Stamford School, a boys' grammar school, where a younger contemporary was England cricket captain and England rugby player M. J. K. Smith.After leaving school, Dexter completed his national service with the Royal Corps of Signals and then read Classics at Christ's College, Cambridge, graduating in 1953 and receiving a master's degree in 1958.In 1954, Dexter began his teaching career as assistant Classics master at Wyggeston Grammar School for Boys in Leicester.", "There he helped the school's Christian Union.", "However, in 2000 he stated that he shared the same views on politics and religion as Inspector Morse, who was portrayed in the final Morse novel, ''The Remorseful Day'', as an atheist.", "A post at Loughborough Grammar School followed in 1957, then he took up the position of senior Classics teacher at Corby Grammar School, Northamptonshire, in 1959.In 1966, he was forced by the onset of deafness to retire from teaching and took up the post of senior assistant secretary at the University of Oxford Delegacy of Local Examinations (UODLE) in Oxford, a job he held until his retirement in 1988.In November 2008, Dexter featured prominently in the BBC Four programme \"How to Solve a Cryptic Crossword\" as part of the ''Timeshift'' series, in which he recounted some of the crossword clues solved by Morse." ], [ "Writing career", "The initial books written by Dexter were general studies textbooks.", "He began writing mysteries in 1972 during a family holiday.", "''Last Bus to Woodstock'' was published in 1975 and introduced the character of Inspector Morse, the irascible detective whose penchants for cryptic crosswords, English literature, cask ale, and music by Wagner reflected Dexter's own enthusiasms.", "Dexter's plots used false leads and other red herrings, \"presenting Morse, and his readers, with fiendishly difficult puzzles to solve\".The success of the 33 two-hour episodes of the ITV television series ''Inspector Morse'', produced between 1987 and 2000, brought further attention to Dexter's writings.", "The show featured Inspector Morse, played by John Thaw, and his assistant Sergeant Robert Lewis, played by Kevin Whately.", "In the manner of Alfred Hitchcock, Dexter made a cameo appearance in almost all episodes.From 2006 to 2015, Morse's assistant Lewis was featured in a 33-episode ITV series titled ''Lewis'' (''Inspector Lewis'' in the United States).", "Lewis is assisted by DS James Hathaway, played by Laurence Fox.", "A prequel series, ''Endeavour'', features a young Morse and stars Shaun Evans and Roger Allam.", "''Endeavour'' was first broadcast on the ITV network in 2012, ending with the ninth series in 2023, taking young Morse's career into 1972.Dexter was a consultant for ''Lewis'' and the first few years of ''Endeavour''.", "As with ''Morse'', Dexter occasionally made cameo appearances in both ''Lewis'' and ''Endeavour''.Although Dexter's military service was as a Morse code operator in the Royal Corps of Signals, the character was named after his friend Sir Jeremy Morse, a crossword devotee like Dexter.", "The music for the television series, written by Barrington Pheloung, used a motif based on the Morse code for Morse's name." ], [ "Awards and honours", "Dexter received several Crime Writers' Association awards: two Silver Daggers for ''Service of All the Dead'' in 1979 and ''The Dead of Jericho'' in 1981; two Gold Daggers for ''The Wench is Dead'' in 1989 and ''The Way Through the Woods'' in 1992; and a Cartier Diamond Dagger for lifetime achievement in 1997.In 1996, Dexter received a Macavity Award for his short story \"Evans Tries an O-Level\".", "In 1980, he was elected a member of the by-invitation-only Detection Club.", "In 2005 Dexter became a Fellow by Special Election of St Cross College, Oxford.In the 2000 Birthday Honours Dexter was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire for services to literature.", "In 2001 he was awarded the Freedom of the City of Oxford.", "In September 2011, the University of Lincoln awarded Dexter an honorary Doctor of Letters degree." ], [ "Personal life", "In 1956 he married Dorothy Cooper.", "They had a daughter, Sally, and a son, Jeremy." ], [ "Death", "On 21 March 2017 Dexter's publisher, Macmillan, said in a statement \"With immense sadness, Macmillan announces the death of Colin Dexter who died peacefully at his home in Oxford this morning\"." ], [ "Bibliography", "===Inspector Morse novels===# ''Last Bus to Woodstock'' (1975)# ''Last Seen Wearing'' (1976)# ''The Silent World of Nicholas Quinn'' (1977)# ''Service of All the Dead'' (1979)# ''The Dead of Jericho'' (1981)# ''The Riddle of the Third Mile'' (1983)# ''The Secret of Annexe 3'' (1986)# ''The Wench is Dead'' (1989)# ''The Jewel That Was Ours'' (1991)# ''The Way Through the Woods'' (1992)# ''The Daughters of Cain'' (1994)# ''Death Is Now My Neighbour'' (1996)# ''The Remorseful Day'' (1999)===Novellas and short story collections===* ''The Inside Story'' (1993)* ''Neighbourhood Watch'' (1993)* ''Morse's Greatest Mystery'' (1993); also published as ''As Good as Gold''# \"As Good as Gold\" (Morse)# \"Morse's Greatest Mystery\" (Morse)# \"Evans Tries an O-Level\"# \"Dead as a Dodo\" (Morse)# \"At the Lulu-Bar Motel\"# \"Neighbourhood Watch\" (Morse)# \"A Case of Mis-Identity\" (a Sherlock Holmes pastiche)# \"The Inside Story\" (Morse)# \"Monty's Revolver\"# \"The Carpet-Bagger\"# \"Last Call\" (Morse)===Uncollected short stories=== \"The Burglar\" in ''You, The Mail on Sunday'' (1994)* \"The Double Crossing\" in ''Mysterious Pleasures'' (2003)* \"Between the Lines\" in ''The Detection Collection'' (2005)* \"The Case of the Curious Quorum\" (featuring Inspector Lewis) in ''The Verdict of Us All'' (2006)* \"The Other Half\" in ''The Strand Magazine'' (February–May 2007)* \"Morse and the Mystery of the Drunken Driver\" in ''Daily Mail'' (December 2008)* \"Clued Up\" (a 4-page story featuring Lewis and Morse solving a crossword) in ''Cracking Cryptic Crosswords'' (2009)===Other===* Foreword to ''Chambers Crossword Manual'' (2001)* ''Chambers Book of Morse Crosswords'' (2006)* Foreword to ''Oxford: A Cultural and Literary History'' (2007)* ''Cracking Cryptic Crosswords: A Guide to Solving Cryptic Crosswords'' (2010)* Foreword to ''Oxford Through the Lens'' (2016)" ], [ "See also", "* Diogenes Small" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "College" ], [ "Introduction", "Corpus Christi College, one of the constituent colleges of the University of Cambridge in England Williams College in Williamstown, Massachusetts, one of the oldest liberal arts colleges in the United States\tSeinäjoki College in Seinäjoki, South Ostrobothnia, Finland, in May 2018\tA '''college''' (Latin: ''collegium'') is an educational institution or a constituent part of one.", "A college may be a degree-awarding tertiary educational institution, a part of a collegiate or federal university, an institution offering vocational education, a further education institution, or a secondary school.", "In most of the world, a college may be a high school or secondary school, a college of further education, a training institution that awards trade qualifications, a higher-education provider that does not have university status (often without its own degree-awarding powers), or a constituent part of a university.", "In the United States, a college may offer undergraduate programs – either as an independent institution or as the undergraduate program of a university – or it may be a residential college of a university or a community college, referring to (primarily public) higher education institutions that aim to provide affordable and accessible education, usually limited to two-year associate degrees.", "The word is generally also used as a synonym for a university in the US.", "Colleges in countries such as France, Belgium, and Switzerland provide secondary education." ], [ "Etymology", "The \"red siminar\", a college building pictured in the coat of arms of Nuuk, the capital city of Greenland The word \"college\" is from the Latin verb ''lego, legere, legi, lectum'', \"to collect, gather together, pick\", plus the preposition ''cum'', \"with\", thus meaning \"selected together\".", "Thus \"colleagues\" are literally \"persons who have been selected to work together\".", "In ancient Rome a ''collegium'' was a \"body, guild, corporation united in colleagueship; of magistrates, praetors, tribunes, priests, augurs; a political club or trade guild\".", "Thus a college was a form of corporation or corporate body, an artificial legal person (body/corpus) with its own legal personality, with the capacity to enter into legal contracts, to sue and be sued.", "In mediaeval England there were colleges of priests, for example in chantry chapels; modern survivals include the Royal College of Surgeons in England (originally the Guild of Surgeons Within the City of London), the College of Arms in London (a body of heralds enforcing heraldic law), an electoral college (to elect representatives); all groups of persons \"selected in common\" to perform a specified function and appointed by a monarch, founder or other person in authority.", "As for the modern \"college of education\", it was a body created for that purpose, for example Eton College was founded in 1440 by letters patent of King Henry VI for the constitution of a college ''of Fellows, priests, clerks, choristers, poor scholars, and old poor men, with one master or governor'', whose duty it shall be to instruct these scholars and any others who may resort thither from any part of England in the knowledge of letters, and especially of grammar, without payment\"." ], [ "Overview", "===Higher education===King's College London, established by a Royal Charter in 1829, is one of the founding colleges of the University of London.Within higher education, the term can be used to refer to: * A constituent part of a collegiate university, for example King's College, Cambridge, or of a federal university, for example King's College London.", "* A liberal arts college, an independent institution of higher education focusing on undergraduate education, such as Williams College or Amherst College.", "* A liberal arts division of a university whose undergraduate program does not otherwise follow a liberal arts model, such as the Yuanpei College at Peking University.", "* An institute providing specialised training, such as a college of further education, for example Belfast Metropolitan College, a teacher training college, or an art college.", "* A Catholic higher education institute which includes universities, colleges, and other institutions of higher education privately run by the Catholic Church, typically by religious institutes.", "Those tied to the Holy See are specifically called pontifical universities.", "* In the United States, college is sometimes but rarely a synonym for a research university, such as Dartmouth College, one of the eight universities in the Ivy League.", "* In the United States, the undergraduate college of a university which also confers graduate degrees, such as Yale College, the undergraduate college within Yale University.===Further education===A sixth form college or college of further education is an educational institution in England, Wales, Northern Ireland, Belize, the Caribbean, Malta, Norway, Brunei, and Southern Africa, among others, where students aged 16 to 19 typically study for advanced school-level qualifications, such as A-levels, BTEC, HND or its equivalent and the International Baccalaureate Diploma, or school-level qualifications such as GCSEs.", "In Singapore and India, this is known as a junior college.", "The municipal government of the city of Paris uses the phrase \"sixth form college\" as the English name for a lycée.===Secondary education===Scotch College, Melbourne, an independent secondary school in Australia In some national education systems, secondary schools may be called \"colleges\" or have \"college\" as part of their title.In Australia the term \"college\" is applied to any private or independent (non-government) primary and, especially, secondary school as distinct from a state school.", "Melbourne Grammar School, Cranbrook School, Sydney and The King's School, Parramatta are considered colleges.There has also been a recent trend to rename or create government secondary schools as \"colleges\".", "In the state of Victoria, some state high schools are referred to as ''secondary colleges'', although the pre-eminent government secondary school for boys in Melbourne is still named Melbourne High School.", "In Western Australia, South Australia and the Northern Territory, \"college\" is used in the name of all state high schools built since the late 1990s, and also some older ones.", "In New South Wales, some high schools, especially multi-campus schools resulting from mergers, are known as \"secondary colleges\".", "In Queensland some newer schools which accept primary and high school students are styled ''state college'', but state schools offering only secondary education are called \"State High School\".", "In Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory, \"college\" refers to the final two years of high school (years 11 and 12), and the institutions which provide this.", "In this context, \"college\" is a system independent of the other years of high school.", "Here, the expression is a shorter version of ''matriculation college''.In a number of Canadian cities, many government-run secondary schools are called \"collegiates\" or \"collegiate institutes\" (C.I.", "), a complicated form of the word \"college\" which avoids the usual \"post-secondary\" connotation.", "This is because these secondary schools have traditionally focused on academic, rather than vocational, subjects and ability levels (for example, collegiates offered Latin while vocational schools offered technical courses).", "Some private secondary schools (such as Upper Canada College, Vancouver College) choose to use the word \"college\" in their names nevertheless.", "Some secondary schools elsewhere in the country, particularly ones within the separate school system, may also use the word \"college\" or \"collegiate\" in their names.In New Zealand the word \"college\" normally refers to a secondary school for ages 13 to 17 and \"college\" appears as part of the name especially of private or integrated schools.", "\"Colleges\" most frequently appear in the North Island, whereas \"high schools\" are more common in the South Island.In the Netherlands, \"college\" is equivalent to HBO (Higher professional education).", "It is oriented towards professional training with clear occupational outlook, unlike universities which are scientifically oriented.St John's College, Johannesburg, a boys' school in South Africa In South Africa, some secondary schools, especially private schools on the English public school model, have \"college\" in their title, including six of South Africa's Elite Seven high schools.", "A typical example of this category would be St John's College.Private schools that specialize in improving children's marks through intensive focus on examination needs are informally called \"cram-colleges\".In Sri Lanka the word \"college\" (known as ''Vidyalaya'' in ''Sinhala'') normally refers to a secondary school, which usually signifies above the 5th standard.", "During the British colonial period a limited number of exclusive secondary schools were established based on English public school model (Royal College Colombo, S. Thomas' College, Mount Lavinia, Trinity College, Kandy) these along with several Catholic schools (St. Joseph's College, Colombo, St Anthony's College) traditionally carry their name as colleges.", "Following the start of free education in 1931 large group of central colleges were established to educate the rural masses.", "Since Sri Lanka gained Independence in 1948, many schools that have been established have been named as \"college\".===Other===Royal College Colombo, a boys' school located in Colombo, Sri Lanka As well as an educational institution, the term, in accordance with its etymology, may also refer to any formal group of colleagues set up under statute or regulation; often under a Royal Charter.", "Examples include an electoral college, the College of Arms, a college of canons, and the College of Cardinals.", "Other collegiate bodies include professional associations, particularly in medicine and allied professions.", "In the UK these include the Royal College of Nursing and the Royal College of Physicians.", "Examples in the United States include the American College of Physicians, the American College of Surgeons, and the American College of Dentists.", "An example in Australia is the Royal Australian College of General Practitioners." ], [ "College by country", "The different ways in which the term \"College\" is used to describe educational institutions in various regions of the world is listed below:" ], [ "Americas", "===Canada===In Canadian English, the term \"college\" usually refers to a trades school, applied arts/science/technology/business/health school or community college.", "These are post-secondary institutions granting certificates, diplomas, associate degrees and (in some cases) bachelor's degrees.", "The French acronym specific to public institutions within Quebec's particular system of pre-university and technical education is CEGEP (''Collège d'enseignement général et professionnel'', \"college of general and professional education\").", "They are collegiate-level institutions that a student typically enrols in if they wish to continue onto university in the Quebec education system, or to learn a trade.", "In Ontario and Alberta, there are also institutions that are designated university colleges, which only grant undergraduate degrees.", "This is to differentiate between universities, which have both undergraduate and graduate programs and those that do not.In Canada, there is a strong distinction between \"college\" and \"university\".", "In conversation, one specifically would say either \"they are going to university\" (i.e., studying for a three- or four-year degree at a university) or \"they are going to college\" (i.e., studying at a technical/career training).====Usage in a university setting====The term ''college'' also applies to distinct entities that formally act as an affiliated institution of the university, formally referred to as federated college, or affiliated colleges.", "A university may also formally include several constituent colleges, forming a collegiate university.", "Examples of collegiate universities in Canada include Trent University, and the University of Toronto.", "These types of institutions act independently, maintaining their own endowments, and properties.", "However, they remain either affiliated, or federated with the overarching university, with the overarching university being the institution that formally grants the degrees.", "For example, Trinity College was once an independent institution, but later became federated with the University of Toronto.", "Several centralized universities in Canada have mimicked the collegiate university model; although constituent colleges in a centralized university remains under the authority of the central administration.", "Centralized universities that have adopted the collegiate model to a degree includes the University of British Columbia, with Green College and St. John's College; and the Memorial University of Newfoundland, with Sir Wilfred Grenfell College.Occasionally, \"college\" refers to a subject specific faculty within a university that, while distinct, are neither ''federated'' nor ''affiliated''—College of Education, College of Medicine, College of Dentistry, College of Biological Science among others.The Royal Military College of Canada is a military college which trains officers for the Canadian Armed Forces.", "The institution is a full-fledged university, with the authority to issue graduate degrees, although it continues to word the term ''college'' in its name.", "The institution's sister schools, Royal Military College Saint-Jean also uses the term college in its name, although it academic offering is akin to a CEGEP institution in Quebec.", "A number of post-secondary art schools in Canada formerly used the word ''college'' in their names, despite formally being universities.", "However, most of these institutions were renamed, or re-branded in the early 21st century, omitting the word ''college'' from its name.====Usage in secondary education====The word ''college'' continues to be used in the names public separate secondary schools in Ontario.", "A number of independent schools across Canada also use the word ''college'' in its name.Public secular school boards in Ontario also refer to their secondary schools as ''collegiate institutes''.", "However, usage of the word ''collegiate institute'' varies between school boards.", "''Collegiate institute'' is the predominant name for secondary schools in Lakehead District School Board, and Toronto District School Board, although most school boards in Ontario use ''collegiate institute'' alongside ''high school'', and ''secondary school'' in the names of their institutions.", "Similarly, secondary schools in Regina, and Saskatoon are referred to as ''Collegiate''.===Chile===Officially, since 2009, the Pontifical Catholic University of Chile incorporated the term \"college\" as the name of a tertiary education program as a bachelor's degree.", "The program features a ''Bachelor of Natural Sciences and Mathematics'', a ''Bachelor of Social Science'' and a ''Bachelor of Arts and Humanities''.", "It has the same system as the American universities, it combines majors and minors and finally, it let the students continue a higher degree in the same university once the program it is completed.But in Chile, the term \"college\" is not usually used for tertiary education, but is used mainly in the name of some private bilingual schools, corresponding to levels 0, 1 and 2 of the ISCED 2011.Some examples are they Santiago College, Saint George's College, among others.===United States===City College of New York In the United States, there were 5,916 post-secondary institutions (universities and colleges) having peaked at 7,253 in 2012–13 and fallen every year since.", "A \"college\" in the US can refer to a constituent part of a university (which can be a residential college, the sub-division of the university offering undergraduate courses, or a school of the university offering particular specialized courses), an independent institution offering bachelor's-level courses, or an institution offering instruction in a particular professional, technical or vocational field.", "In popular usage, the word \"college\" is the generic term for any post-secondary undergraduate education.", "Americans \"go to college\" after high school, regardless of whether the specific institution is formally a college or a university.", "Some students choose to dual-enroll, by taking college classes while still in high school.", "The word and its derivatives are the standard terms used to describe the institutions and experiences associated with American post-secondary undergraduate education.Students must pay for college before taking classes.", "Some borrow the money via loans, and some students fund their educations with cash, scholarships, grants, or some combination of these payment methods.", "In 2011, the state or federal government subsidized $8,000 to $100,000 for each undergraduate degree.", "For state-owned schools (called \"public\" universities), the subsidy was given to the college, with the student benefiting from lower tuition.", "The state subsidized on average 50% of public university tuition.Saint Anselm College Colleges vary in terms of size, degree, and length of stay.", "Two-year colleges, also known as junior or community colleges, usually offer an associate degree, and four-year colleges usually offer a bachelor's degree.", "Often, these are entirely undergraduate institutions, although some have graduate school programs.Four-year institutions in the U.S. that emphasize a liberal arts curriculum are known as liberal arts colleges.", "Until the 20th century, liberal arts, law, medicine, theology, and divinity were about the only form of higher education available in the United States.", "These schools have traditionally emphasized instruction at the undergraduate level, although advanced research may still occur at these institutions.Bowdoin College While there is no national standard in the United States, the term \"university\" primarily designates institutions that provide undergraduate and graduate education.", "A university typically has as its core and its largest internal division an undergraduate college teaching a liberal arts curriculum, also culminating in a bachelor's degree.", "What often distinguishes a university is having, in addition, one or more graduate schools engaged in both teaching graduate classes and in research.", "Often these would be called a School of Law or School of Medicine, (but may also be called a college of law, or a faculty of law).", "An exception is Vincennes University, Indiana, which is styled and chartered as a \"university\" even though almost all of its academic programs lead only to two-year associate degrees.", "Some institutions, such as Dartmouth College and The College of William & Mary, have retained the term \"college\" in their names for historical reasons.", "In one unique case, Boston College and Boston University, the former located in Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts and the latter located in Boston, Massachusetts, are completely separate institutions.Usage of the terms varies among the states.", "In 1996, for example, Georgia changed all of its four-year institutions previously designated as colleges to universities, and all of its vocational technology schools to technical colleges.Pomona College The terms \"university\" and \"college\" do not exhaust all possible titles for an American institution of higher education.", "Other options include \"institute\" (Worcester Polytechnic Institute and Massachusetts Institute of Technology), \"academy\" (United States Military Academy), \"union\" (Cooper Union), \"conservatory\" (New England Conservatory), and \"school\" (Juilliard School).", "In colloquial use, they are still referred to as \"college\" when referring to their undergraduate studies.The term ''college'' is also, as in the United Kingdom, used for a constituent semi-autonomous part of a larger university but generally organized on academic rather than residential lines.", "For example, at many institutions, the undergraduate portion of the university can be briefly referred to as '''the college''' (such as The College of the University of Chicago, Harvard College at Harvard, or Columbia College at Columbia) while at others, such as the University of California, Berkeley, \"colleges\" are collections of academic programs and other units that share some common characteristics, mission, or disciplinary focus (the \"college of engineering\", the \"college of nursing\", and so forth).", "There exist other variants for historical reasons, including some uses that exist because of mergers and acquisitions; for example, Duke University, which was called Trinity College until the 1920s, still calls its main undergraduate subdivision Trinity College of Arts and Sciences.====Residential colleges====Scripps College Some American universities, such as Princeton, Rice, and Yale have established residential colleges (sometimes, as at Harvard, the first to establish such a system in the 1930s, known as houses) along the lines of Oxford or Cambridge.", "Unlike the Oxbridge colleges, but similarly to Durham, these residential colleges are not autonomous legal entities nor are they typically much involved in education itself, being primarily concerned with room, board, and social life.", "At the University of Michigan, University of California, San Diego and the University of California, Santa Cruz, each residential college teaches its own core writing courses and has its own distinctive set of graduation requirements.Many U.S. universities have placed increased emphasis on their residential colleges in recent years.", "This is exemplified by the creation of new colleges at Ivy League schools such as Yale University and Princeton University, and efforts to strengthen the contribution of the residential colleges to student education, including through a 2016 taskforce at Princeton on residential colleges.====Origin of the U.S. usage====The founders of the first institutions of higher education in the United States were graduates of the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge.", "The small institutions they founded would not have seemed to them like universities – they were tiny and did not offer the higher degrees in medicine and theology.", "Furthermore, they were not composed of several small colleges.", "Instead, the new institutions felt like the Oxford and Cambridge colleges they were used to – small communities, housing and feeding their students, with instruction from residential tutors (as in the United Kingdom, described above).", "When the first students graduated, these \"colleges\" assumed the right to confer degrees upon them, usually with authority—for example, The College of William & Mary has a royal charter from the British monarchy allowing it to confer degrees while Dartmouth College has a charter permitting it to award degrees \"as are usually granted in either of the universities, or any other college in our realm of Great Britain.", "\"Agnes Scott College The leaders of Harvard College (which granted America's first degrees in 1642) might have thought of their college as the first of many residential colleges that would grow up into a New Cambridge university.", "However, over time, few new colleges were founded there, and Harvard grew and added higher faculties.", "Eventually, it changed its title to university, but the term \"college\" had stuck and \"colleges\" have arisen across the United States.In U.S. usage, the word \"college\" not only embodies a particular type of school, but has historically been used to refer to the general concept of higher education when it is not necessary to specify a school, as in \"going to college\" or \"college savings accounts\" offered by banks.In a survey of more than 2,000 college students in 33 states and 156 different campuses, the U.S. Public Interest Research Group found the average student spends as much as $1,200 each year on textbooks and supplies alone.", "By comparison, the group says that's the equivalent of 39 percent of tuition and fees at a community college, and 14 percent of tuition and fees at a four-year public university.====Morrill Land-Grant Act====SUNY Purchase College In addition to private colleges and universities, the U.S. also has a system of government funded, public universities.", "Many were founded under the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act of 1862.A movement had arisen to bring a form of more practical higher education to the masses, as \"...many politicians and educators wanted to make it possible for all young Americans to receive some sort of advanced education.\"", "The Morrill Act \"...made it possible for the new western states to establish colleges for the citizens.\"", "Its goal was to make higher education more easily accessible to the citizenry of the country, specifically to improve agricultural systems by providing training and scholarship in the production and sales of agricultural products, and to provide formal education in \"...agriculture, home economics, mechanical arts, and other professions that seemed practical at the time.", "\"The act was eventually extended to allow all states that had remained with the Union during the American Civil War, and eventually all states, to establish such institutions.", "Most of the colleges established under the Morrill Act have since become full universities, and some are among the elite of the world.====Benefits of college====Selection of a four-year college as compared to a two-year junior college, even by marginal students such as those with a C+ grade average in high school and SAT scores in the mid 800s, increases the probability of graduation and confers substantial economic and social benefits." ], [ "Asia", "===Bangladesh===RAJUK Uttara Model College, located in the northern suburb of Uttara in the capital Dhaka In Bangladesh, educational institutions offering higher secondary (11th–12th grade) education are known as colleges.===Hong Kong===In Hong Kong, the term 'college' is used by tertiary institutions as either part of their names or to refer to a constituent part of the university, such as the colleges in the collegiate The Chinese University of Hong Kong; or to a residence hall of a university, such as St. John's College, University of Hong Kong.", "Many older secondary schools have the term 'college' as part of their names.===India===The Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee is the oldest technical institution in Asia.The modern system of education was heavily influenced by the British starting in 1835.In India, the term \"college\" is commonly reserved for institutions that offer high school diplomas at year 12 (\"''Junior College''\", similar to American ''high schools''), and those that offer the bachelor's degree; some colleges, however, offer programmes up to PhD level.", "Generally, colleges are located in different parts of a state and all of them are affiliated to a regional university.", "The colleges offer programmes leading to degrees of that university.", "Colleges may be either Autonomous or non-autonomous.", "Autonomous Colleges are empowered to establish their own syllabus, and conduct and assess their own examinations; in non-autonomous colleges, examinations are conducted by the university, at the same time for all colleges under its affiliation.", "There are several hundred universities and each university has affiliated colleges, often a large number.The first liberal arts and sciences college in India was \"Cottayam College\" or the \"Syrian College\", Kerala in 1815.The First inter linguistic residential education institution in Asia was started at this college.", "At present it is a Theological seminary which is popularly known as Orthodox Theological Seminary or Old Seminary.", "After that, CMS College, Kottayam, established in 1817, and the Presidency College, Kolkata, also 1817, initially known as Hindu College.", "The first college for the study of Christian theology and ecumenical enquiry was Serampore College (1818).", "The first Missionary institution to impart Western style education in India was the Scottish Church College, Calcutta (1830).", "The first commerce and economics college in India was Sydenham College, Mumbai (1913).In India a new term has been introduced that is Autonomous Institutes & Colleges.", "An autonomous Colleges are colleges which need to be affiliated to a certain university.", "These colleges can conduct their own admission procedure, examination syllabus, fees structure etc.", "However, at the end of course completion, they cannot issue their own degree or diploma.", "The final degree or diploma is issued by the affiliated university.", "Also, some significant changes can pave way under the NEP (New Education Policy 2020) which may affect the present guidelines for universities and colleges.===Israel===Braude College of Engineering In Israel, any non-university higher-learning facility is called a college.", "Institutions accredited by the Council for Higher Education in Israel (CHE) to confer a bachelor's degree are called \"Academic Colleges\" (; plural ).", "These colleges (at least 4 for 2012) may also offer master's degrees and act as Research facilities.", "There are also over twenty teacher training colleges or seminaries, most of which may award only a Bachelor of Education (BEd) degree.", "* Academic colleges: Any educational facility that had been approved to offer at least bachelor's degree is entitled by CHE to use the term academic college in its name.", "* Engineering academic college: Any academic facility that offer at least bachelor's degree and most of it faculties are providing an Engineering degree and Engineering license.", "* Educational academic college: After an educational facility that had been approved for \"Teachers seminar\" status is then approved to provide a Bachelor of Education, its name is changed to include \"Educational Academic college.", "\"* Technical college: A \"Technical college\" () is an educational facility that is approved to allow to provide P.E degree (הנדסאי) (14'th class) or technician (טכנאי) (13'th class) diploma and licenses.", "* Training College: A \"Training College\" ( or ) is an educational facility that provides basic training allowing a person to receive a working permit in a field such as alternative medicine, cooking, Art, Mechanical, Electrical and other professions.", "A trainee could receive the right to work in certain professions as apprentice (j. mechanic, j. Electrician etc.).", "After working in the training field for enough time an apprentice could have a license to operate (Mechanic, Electrician).", "This educational facility is mostly used to provide basic training for low tech jobs and for job seekers without any training that are provided by the nation's Employment Service (שירות התעסוקה).===Macau===Following the Portuguese usage, the term \"college\" (''colégio'') in Macau has traditionally been used in the names for private (and non-governmental) pre-university educational institutions, which correspond to form one to form six level tiers.", "Such schools are usually run by the Roman Catholic church or missionaries in Macau.", "Examples include Chan Sui Ki Perpetual Help College, Yuet Wah College, and Sacred Heart Canossian College.===Philippines===In the Philippines, colleges usually refer to institutions of learning that grant degrees but whose scholastic fields are not as diverse as that of a university (University of Santo Tomas, University of the Philippines, Ateneo de Manila University, De La Salle University, Far Eastern University, and AMA University), such as the San Beda College which specializes in law, AMA Computer College whose campuses are spread all over the Philippines which specializes in information and computing technologies, and the Mapúa Institute of Technology which specializes in engineering, or to component units within universities that do not grant degrees but rather facilitate the instruction of a particular field, such as a College of Science and College of Engineering, among many other colleges of the University of the Philippines.A state college may not have the word \"college\" on its name, but may have several component colleges, or departments.", "Thus, the Eulogio Amang Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology is a state college by classification.Usually, the term \"college\" is also thought of as a hierarchical demarcation between the term \"university\", and quite a number of colleges seek to be recognized as universities as a sign of improvement in academic standards (Colegio de San Juan de Letran, San Beda College), and increase in the diversity of the offered degree programs (called \"courses\").", "For private colleges, this may be done through a survey and evaluation by the Commission on Higher Education and accrediting organizations, as was the case of Urios College which is now the Fr.", "Saturnino Urios University.", "For state colleges, it is usually done by a legislation by the Congress or Senate.", "In common usage, \"going to college\" simply means attending school for an undergraduate degree, whether it's from an institution recognized as a college or a university.When it comes to referring to the level of education, ''college'' is the term more used to be synonymous to tertiary or higher education.", "A student who is or has studied his/her undergraduate degree at either an institution with ''college'' or ''university'' in its name is considered to be going to or have gone to ''college''.===Singapore===The term \"college\" in Singapore is generally only used for pre-university educational institutions called \"Junior Colleges\", which provide the final two years of secondary education (equivalent to sixth form in British terms or grades 11–12 in the American system).", "Since 1 January 2005, the term also refers to the three campuses of the Institute of Technical Education with the introduction of the \"collegiate system\", in which the three institutions are called ITE College East, ITE College Central, and ITE College West respectively.The term \"university\" is used to describe higher-education institutions offering locally conferred degrees.", "Institutions offering diplomas are called \"polytechnics\", while other institutions are often referred to as \"institutes\" and so forth.===Sri Lanka===There are several professional and vocational institutions that offer post-secondary education without granting degrees that are referred to as \"colleges\".", "This includes the Sri Lanka Law College, the many Technical Colleges and Teaching Colleges.===Turkey===In Turkey, the term \"kolej\" (college) refers to a private high school, typically preceded by one year of preparatory language education.", "Notable Turkish colleges include Robert College, Uskudar American Academy, American Collegiate Institute and Tarsus American College." ], [ "Africa", "===South Africa===Although the term \"college\" is hardly used in any context at any university in South Africa, some non-university tertiary institutions call themselves colleges.", "These include teacher training colleges, business colleges and wildlife management colleges.", "See: List of universities in South Africa#Private colleges and universities; List of post secondary institutions in South Africa.===Zimbabwe===The term college is mainly used by private or independent secondary schools with Advanced Level (Upper 6th formers) and also Polytechnic Colleges which confer diplomas only.", "A student can complete secondary education (International General Certificate of Secondary Education, IGCSE) at 16 years and proceed straight to a poly-technical college or they can proceed to Advanced level (16 to 19 years) and obtain a General Certificate of Education (GCE) certificate which enables them to enroll at a university, provided they have good grades.", "Alternatively, with lower grades, the GCE certificate holders will have an added advantage over their GCSE counterparts if they choose to enroll at a polytechnical college.", "Some schools in Zimbabwe choose to offer the International Baccalaureate studies as an alternative to the IGCSE and GCE." ], [ "Europe", "===Greece==='''''Kollegio''''' (in Greek Κολλέγιο) refers to the Centers of Post-Lyceum Education (in Greek Κέντρο Μεταλυκειακής Εκπαίδευσης, abbreviated as KEME), which are principally private and belong to the Greek post-secondary education system.", "Some of them have links to EU or US higher education institutions or accreditation organizations, such as the NEASC.", "''Kollegio'' (or ''Kollegia'' in plural) may also refer to private non-tertiary schools, such as the Athens College.===Ireland===Parliament Square, Trinity College Dublin in Ireland In Ireland the term \"college\" is normally used to describe an institution of tertiary education.", "University students often say they attend \"college\" rather than \"university\".", "Until 1989, no university provided teaching or research directly; they were formally offered by a constituent college of the university.There are number of secondary education institutions that traditionally used the word \"college\" in their names: these are either older, private schools (such as Belvedere College, Gonzaga College, Castleknock College, and St. Michael's College) or what were formerly a particular kind of secondary school.", "These secondary schools, formerly known as \"technical colleges,\" were renamed \"community colleges,\" but remain secondary schools.The country's only ancient university is the University of Dublin.", "Created during the reign of Elizabeth I, it is modelled on the collegiate universities of Cambridge and Oxford.", "However, only one constituent college was ever founded, hence the curious position of Trinity College Dublin today; although both are usually considered one and the same, the university and college are completely distinct corporate entities with separate and parallel governing structures.Among more modern foundations, the National University of Ireland, founded in 1908, consisted of constituent colleges and recognised colleges until 1997.The former are now referred to as constituent universities – institutions that are essentially universities in their own right.", "The National University can trace its existence back to 1850 and the creation of the Queen's University of Ireland and the creation of the Catholic University of Ireland in 1854.From 1880, the degree awarding roles of these two universities was taken over by the Royal University of Ireland, which remained until the creation of the National University in 1908 and Queen's University Belfast.The state's two new universities, Dublin City University and University of Limerick, were initially National Institute for Higher Education institutions.", "These institutions offered university level academic degrees and research from the start of their existence and were awarded university status in 1989 in recognition of this.Third level technical education in the state has been carried out in the Institutes of Technology, which were established from the 1970s as Regional Technical Colleges.", "These institutions have ''delegated authority'' which entitles them to give degrees and diplomas from Quality and Qualifications Ireland (QQI) in their own names.A number of private colleges exist such as Dublin Business School, providing undergraduate and postgraduate courses validated by QQI and in some cases by other universities.Other types of college include colleges of education, such as the Church of Ireland College of Education.", "These are specialist institutions, often linked to a university, which provide both undergraduate and postgraduate academic degrees for people who want to train as teachers.A number of state-funded further education colleges exist – which offer vocational education and training in a range of areas from business studies and information and communications technology to sports injury therapy.", "These courses are usually one, two or less often three years in duration and are validated by QQI at Levels 5 or 6, or for the BTEC Higher National Diploma award, which is a Level 6/7 qualification, validated by Edexcel.", "There are numerous private colleges (particularly in Dublin and Limerick) which offer both further and higher education qualifications.", "These degrees and diplomas are often certified by foreign universities/international awarding bodies and are aligned to the National Framework of Qualifications at Levels 6, 7 and 8.===Netherlands===In the Netherlands there are 3 main educational routes after high school.", "* MBO (middle-level applied education), which is the equivalent of junior college.", "Designed to prepare students for either skilled trades and technical occupations and workers in support roles in professions such as engineering, accountancy, business administration, nursing, medicine, architecture, and criminology or for additional education at another college with more advanced academic material.", "* HBO (higher professional education), which is the equivalent of college and has a professional orientation.", "After HBO (typically 4–6 years), pupils can enroll in a (professional) master's program (1–2 years) or enter the job market.", "The HBO is taught in vocational universities (hogescholen), of which there are over 40 in the Netherlands, each of which offers a broad variety of programs, with the exception of some that specialize in arts or agriculture.", "Note that the hogescholen are not allowed to name themselves university in Dutch.", "This also stretches to English and therefore HBO institutions are known as universities of applied sciences.", "* WO (Scientific education), which is the equivalent to university level education and has an academic orientation.HBO graduates can be awarded two titles, which are Baccalaureus (bc.)", "and Ingenieur (ing.).", "At a WO institution, many more bachelor's and master's titles can be awarded.", "Bachelor's degrees: Bachelor of Arts (BA), Bachelor of Science (BSc) and Bachelor of Laws (LLB).", "Master's degrees: Master of Arts (MA), Master of Laws (LLM) and Master of Science (MSc).", "The PhD title is a research degree awarded upon completion and defense of a doctoral thesis.===Portugal===Presently in Portugal, the term ''colégio'' (college) is normally used as a generic reference to a private (non-government) school that provides from basic to secondary education.", "Many of the private schools include the term ''colégio'' in their name.", "Some special public schools – usually of the boarding school type – also include the term in their name, with a notable example being the ''Colégio Militar'' (Military College).", "The term ''colégio interno'' (literally \"internal college\") is used specifically as a generic reference to a boarding school.Until the 19th century, a ''colégio'' was usually a secondary or pre-university school, of public or religious nature, where the students usually lived together.", "A model for these colleges was the Royal College of Arts and Humanities, founded in Coimbra by King John III of Portugal in 1542.===United Kingdom===thumb====Secondary education and further education====Further education (FE) colleges and sixth form colleges are institutions providing further education to students over 16.Some of these also provide higher education courses (see below).", "In the context of secondary education, 'college' is used in the names of some private schools, e.g.", "Eton College and Winchester College.====Higher education====In higher education, a college is normally a provider that does not hold university status, although it can also refer to a constituent part of a collegiate or federal university or a grouping of academic faculties or departments within a university.", "Traditionally the distinction between colleges and universities was that colleges did not award degrees while universities did, but this is no longer the case with NCG having gained taught degree awarding powers (the same as some universities) on behalf of its colleges, and many of the colleges of the University of London holding full degree awarding powers and being effectively universities.", "Most colleges, however, do not hold their own degree awarding powers and continue to offer higher education courses that are validated by universities or other institutions that can award degrees.In England, , over 60% of the higher education providers directly funded by HEFCE (208/340) are sixth-form or further education colleges, often termed colleges of further and higher education, along with 17 colleges of the University of London, one university college, 100 universities, and 14 other providers (six of which use 'college' in their name).", "Overall, this means over two-thirds of state-supported higher education providers in England are colleges of one form or another.", "Many private providers are also called colleges, e.g.", "the New College of the Humanities and St Patrick's College, London.Colleges within universities vary immensely in their responsibilities.", "The large constituent colleges of the University of London are effectively universities in their own right; colleges in some universities, including those of the University of the Arts London and smaller colleges of the University of London, run their own degree courses but do not award degrees; those at the University of Roehampton provide accommodation and pastoral care as well as delivering the teaching on university courses; those at Oxford and Cambridge deliver some teaching on university courses as well as providing accommodation and pastoral care; and those in Durham, Kent, Lancaster and York provide accommodation and pastoral care but do not normally participate in formal teaching.", "The legal status of these colleges also varies widely, with University of London colleges being independent corporations and recognised bodies, Oxbridge colleges, colleges of the University of the Highlands and Islands (UHI) and some Durham colleges being independent corporations and listed bodies, most Durham colleges being owned by the university but still listed bodies, and those of other collegiate universities not having formal recognition.", "When applying for undergraduate courses through UCAS, University of London colleges are treated as independent providers, colleges of Oxford, Cambridge, Durham and UHI are treated as locations within the universities that can be selected by specifying a 'campus code' in addition to selecting the university, and colleges of other universities are not recognised.The UHI and the University of Wales Trinity Saint David (UWTSD) both include further education colleges.", "However, while the UHI colleges integrate FE and HE provision, UWTSD maintains a separation between the university campuses (Lampeter, Carmarthen and Swansea) and the two colleges (''Coleg Sir Gâr'' and ''Coleg Ceredigion''; n.b.", "''coleg'' is Welsh for college), which although part of the same group are treated as separate institutions rather than colleges within the university.A university college is an independent institution with the power to award taught degrees, but which has not been granted university status.", "University College is a protected title that can only be used with permission, although note that University College London, University College, Oxford and University College, Durham are colleges within their respective universities and not university colleges (in the case of UCL holding full degree awarding powers that set it above a university college), while University College Birmingham is a university in its own right and also not a university college." ], [ "Oceania", "===Australia===In Australia a college may be an institution of tertiary education that is smaller than a university, run independently or as part of a university.", "Following a reform in the 1980s many of the formerly independent colleges now belong to a larger universities.Referring to parts of a university, there are ''residential colleges'' which provide residence for students, both undergraduate and postgraduate, called university colleges.", "These colleges often provide additional tutorial assistance, and some host theological study.", "Many colleges have strong traditions and rituals, so are a combination of dormitory style accommodation and fraternity or sorority culture.Most technical and further education institutions (TAFEs), which offer certificate and diploma vocational courses, are styled \"TAFE colleges\" or \"Colleges of TAFE\".", "In some places, such as Tasmania, college refers to a type of school for Year 11 and 12 students, e.g.", "Don College.===New Zealand===The University of Otago in New Zealand The constituent colleges of the former University of New Zealand (such as Canterbury University College) have become independent universities.", "Some halls of residence associated with New Zealand universities retain the name of \"college\", particularly at the University of Otago (which although brought under the umbrella of the University of New Zealand, already possessed university status and degree awarding powers).", "The institutions formerly known as \"Teacher-training colleges\" now style themselves \"College of education\".Some universities, such as the University of Canterbury, have divided their university into constituent administrative \"Colleges\" – the College of Arts containing departments that teach Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences, College of Science containing Science departments, and so on.", "This is largely modelled on the Cambridge model, discussed above.Like the United Kingdom some professional bodies in New Zealand style themselves as \"colleges\", for example, the Royal Australasian College of Surgeons, the Royal Australasian College of Physicians.In some parts of the country, secondary school is often referred to as college and the term is used interchangeably with high school.", "This sometimes confuses people from other parts of New Zealand.", "But in all parts of the country many secondary schools have \"College\" in their name, such as Rangitoto College, New Zealand's largest secondary." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ], [ "See also", "* Community college* Residential college* University college* Vocational university* Madrasa* Ashrama (stage)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Chalmers University of Technology" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Chalmers University of Technology''' (, commonly referred to as '''Chalmers''') is a private research university located in Gothenburg, Sweden.", "Chalmers focuses on engineering and science, but more broadly it also conducts research and offers education in shipping, architecture and management.", "The university has approximately 3100 employees and 10,000 students.Chalmers is a research-intensive university, widely recognized as one of Europe's leading technical universities.", "It is consistently ranked among the world's top 100 universities in engineering and technology, and is acknowledged for its excellence in engineering education and research.", "Moreover, Chalmers is continuously rated as the most well known as well as the best reputed university in Sweden, according to annual public surveys.Chalmers is coordinating the Graphene Flagship, the European Union's biggest research initiative to bring graphene innovation out of the lab and into commercial applications, and leading the development of a Swedish quantum computer.The university is a co-founder of the CDIO Initiative, a member of the UNITECH International program, the IDEA League, the Nordic Five Tech, and the ENHANCE alliances as well as the EURECOM consortium and the CESAER network." ], [ "History", "Chalmers was founded in 1829 following a donation by William Chalmers, a director of the Swedish East India Company.", "He donated part of his fortune for the establishment of an \"industrial school\".", "The university was run as a private institution until 1937 when it became the second state-owned technical university.", "In 1994 the government of Sweden reorganised Chalmers into a private company (aktiebolag) owned by a government-controlled foundation.Chalmers is one of only three universities in Sweden which are named after a person, the other two being Karolinska Institutet and Linnaeus University." ], [ "Departments", "Chalmers University of Technology has the following 13 departments:* Architecture and Civil Engineering* Chemistry and Chemical Engineering* Communication and Learning in Science* Computer Science and Engineering* Electrical Engineering* Industrial and Materials Science* Life Sciences* Mathematical Sciences* Mechanics and Maritime Sciences* Microtechnology and Nanoscience* Physics* Space, Earth and Environment* Technology Management and EconomicsFurthermore, Chalmers is home to six Areas of Advance and six national competence centers in key fields such as materials, mathematical modelling, environmental science, and vehicle safety." ], [ "Research infrastructure", "Chalmers University of Technology's research infrastructure includes everything from advanced real or virtual labs to large databases, computer capacity for large-scale calculations and research facilities.", "* Chalmers AI Research Centre, CHAIR* Chalmers Centre for Computational Science and Engineering, C3SE* Chalmers Mass Spectrometry Infrastructure, CMSI* Chalmers Power Central* Chalmers Materials Analysis Laboratory* Chalmers Simulator Centre* Chemical Imaging Infrastructure* Facility for Computational Systems Biology* HSB Living Lab* Nanofabrication Laboratory* Onsala Space Observatory* Revere – Chalmers Resource for Vehicle Research* The National laboratory in terahertz characterisation* SAFER - Vehicle and Traffic Safety Centre at Chalmers" ], [ "Rankings and reputation", "Since 2012, Chalmers has achieved the highest reputation for Swedish Universities by the Kantar Sifo's Reputation Index.", "According to the survey, Chalmers is the most well-known university in Sweden regarded as a successful and competitive high-class institution with a large contribution to society and credibility in media.Moreover, the European Commission has recognized Chalmers as one of Europe's top universities, while based on the U-Multirank 2022, Chalmers characterized as a top performing university across various indicators (i.e., teaching & learning, research, knowledge transfer and international orientation) with the highest number of ‘A’ (very good) scores on the institutional level for Sweden.Additionally, in 2018, a benchmarking report from MIT ranked Chalmers top 10 in the world of engineering education, while in 2020, the World University Research Rankings placed Chalmers 12th in the world based on the evaluation of three key research aspects, namely research multi-disciplinarity, research impact, and research cooperativeness.Finally, in 2011, the International Professional Ranking of Higher Education Institutions, which is established on the basis of the number of alumni holding a post of chief executive officer (CEO) or equivalent in one of the Fortune Global 500 companies, Chalmers ranked 38th in the world, ranking 1st in Sweden and 15th in Europe.", "QS World University Rankings by Subject 2023SubjectsRankArchitecture and Built Environment46Material Sciences47Engineering - Mechanical57Engineering - Electrical and Electronic61Engineering - Chemical93Statistics and Operational Research101-150Engineering - Civil and Structural101-150Computer Science and Information Systems122Mathematics127Physics and Astronomy132" ], [ "Ties and partnerships", "Chalmers is a member of the IDEA League network, a strategic alliance between five leading European universities of science and technology.", "The scope of the network is to provide the environment for students, researchers and staff to share knowledge, experience and resources.Moreover, Chalmers is a partner of the UNITECH International, an organization consisting of distinguished technical universities and multinational companies across Europe.", "UNITECH helps bridge the gap between the industrial and academic world offering exchange programs consisting of studies as well as an integrated internship at one of the corporate partners.Chalmers is also a member of the Nordic Five Tech network, a strategic alliance of the five leading technical universities in Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden.", "The Nordic Five Tech universities are amongst the top international technical universities with the goal of creating synergies within education, research and innovation.Additionally, Chalmers is a member of the ENHANCE, an alliance of ten leading Universities of Technology shaping the future of Europe and driving transformation in science and society.", "The partner institutions have a history of solid cooperation in EU programmes and joint research projects.Furthermore, Chalmers is a member of CESAER, a European association of universities of science and technology.", "Among others, the requirements for a university to be a member of CESAER is to provide excellent science and technology research, education and innovation as well as to have a leading position in their region, their country and beyond.Additionally, Chalmers has established formal agreements with three leading materials science centers: University of California, Santa Barbara, ETH Zurich and Stanford University.", "Within the framework of the agreements, a yearly bilateral workshop is organized, and exchange of researchers is supported.Chalmers has general exchange agreements with many European and U.S. universities and maintains a special exchange program agreement with National Chiao Tung University (NCTU) in Taiwan where the exchange students from the two universities maintain offices for, among other things, helping local students with applying and preparing for an exchange year as well as acting as representatives.Finally, Chalmers has strong partnerships with major industries such as Ericsson, Volvo, Saab AB and AstraZeneca." ], [ "Students", "Approximately 40% of Sweden's graduate engineers and architects are educated at Chalmers.", "Each year, around 250 postgraduate degrees are awarded as well as 850 graduate degrees.", "About 1,000 post-graduate students attend programmes at the university, and many students are taking Master of Science engineering programmes and the Master of Architecture programme.", "Since 2007, all master's programmes are taught in English for both national and international students.", "This was a result of the adaptation to the Bologna process that started in 2004 at Chalmers (as the first technical university in Sweden).Currently, about 10% of all students at Chalmers come from countries outside Sweden to enrol in a master's or PhD program.Around 2,700 students also attend Bachelor of Science engineering programmes, merchant marine and other undergraduate courses at Campus Lindholmen.", "Chalmers also shares some students with Gothenburg University in the joint IT University project.", "The IT University focuses exclusively on information technology and offers bachelor's and master's programmes with degrees issued from either Chalmers or Gothenburg University, depending on the programme.Chalmers confers honorary doctoral degrees to people outside the university who have shown great merit in their research or in society." ], [ "Organization", "Chalmers is an aktiebolag with 100 shares à 1,000 SEK, all of which are owned by the Chalmers University of Technology Foundation, a private foundation, which appoints the university board and the president.", "The foundation has its members appointed by the Swedish government (4 to 8 seats), the departments appoint one member, the student union appoints one member and the president automatically gains one chair.", "Each department is led by a department head, usually a member of the faculty of that department.", "The faculty senate represents members of the faculty when decisions are taken." ], [ "Campuses", "the gate of Chalmers (Gibraltar Campus)In 1937, the school moved from the city centre to the new Gibraltar Campus, named after the mansion which owned the grounds, where it is now located.", "The Lindholmen College Campus was created in the early 1990s and is located on the island Hisingen.", "Campus Johanneberg and Campus Lindholmen, as they are now called, are connected by bus lines." ], [ "Student societies and traditions", "Traditions include the graduation ceremony and the Cortège procession, an annual public event.", "* Chalmers Students' Union* Chalmers Aerospace Club – founded in 1981.In Swedish frequently also referred to as ''Chalmers rymdgrupp'' (roughly ''Chalmers Space Group'').", "Members of CAC led the ESA funded CACTEX (Chalmers Aerospace Club Thermal EXperiment) project where the thermal conductivity of alcohol at zero gravity was investigated using a sounding rocket.", "* Chalmers Alternative Sports – Student association organizing trips and other activities working to promote alternative sports.", "Every year the Chalmers Wake arranges a pond wakeboard contest in the fountain outside the architecture building at Chalmers.", "* Chalmersbaletten* Chalmers Ballong Corps* Chalmers Baroque Ensemble* Chalmers Business Society (CBS)* CETAC* Chalmers Choir* Chalmers Formula StudentETA - ( E-sektionens Teletekniska Avdelning) Founded in 1935, it's a student-run amateur radio society that also engages in hobby electronics.", " Chalmers Film and Photography Committee (CFFC)* Chalmersspexet – Amateur theater group which has produced new plays since 1948* Chalmers International Reception Committee (CIRC)* XP – Committee that is responsible for the experimental workshop, a workshop open for students* Chalmers Program Committee – PU* Chalmers Students for Sustainability (CSS) – promoting sustainable development among the students and runs projects, campaigns and lectures* Föreningen Chalmers Skeppsbyggare, Chalmers Naval Architecture Students' Society (FCS)* Chalmers Sailing Society* RANG – Chalmers Indian Association* Caster – Developing and operating a Driver in the Loop (DIL) simulator, which is used in various courses and projects" ], [ "Notable alumni", "* Christopher Ahlberg, computer scientist and entrepreneur, Spotfire and Recorded Future founder* Abbas Anvari, former chancellor of Sharif University of Technology* Linn Berggren, artist and former member of Ace of Base* Gustaf Dalén, Nobel Prize in Physics* Sigfrid Edström, director ASEA, president IOC* Claes-Göran Granqvist, physicist* Margit Hall, first female architect in Sweden* Harald Hammarström, linguist* Krister Holmberg, professor of Surface Chemistry at Chalmers University of Technology.", "* Mats Hillert, metallurgist* Ivar Jacobson, computer scientist* Erik Johansson, photographic surrealist* Jan Johansson, jazz musician* Leif Johansson, former CEO Volvo* Olav Kallenberg, probability theorist* Marianne Kärrholm, chemical engineer and Chalmers professor* Hjalmar Kumlien, architect* Abraham Langlet, chemist* Martin Lorentzon, Spotify and TradeDoubler founder* Ingemar Lundström, physicist, chairman of the Nobel Committee for Physics* Carl Magnusson, industrial designer and inventor* Semir Mahjoub, businessman and entrepreneur* Peter Nordin, computer scientist and entrepreneur* Åke Öberg, biomedical scientist* Leif Östling, CEO Scania AB* PewDiePie (Felix Arvid Ulf Kjellberg), YouTuber (no degree)* Carl Abraham Pihl, engineer and director of first Norwegian railroad (Hovedbanen)* Richard Soderberg, businessman, inventor and professor at Massachusetts Institute of Technology* Hans Stråberg, former president and CEO of Electrolux* Ludvig Strigeus, computer scientist and entrepreneur* Per Håkan Sundell, computer scientist and entrepreneur* Marcus Wandt, test pilot and ESA astronaut* Jan Wäreby, businessman* Gert Wingårdh, architect* Vera Sandberg, engineer* Anna von Hausswolff, musician* Anita Schjøll Brede, entrepreneur* Martin Rolinski,artist and former member of Body without organs" ], [ "Presidents", "Although the official Swedish title for the head is \"rektor\", the university now uses \"President\" as the English translation.", "1829 – 1852 Carl Palmstedt 1852 – 1881 Eduard von Schoultz 1881 – 1913 August Wijkander 1913 – 1933 Hugo Grauers 1934 – 1943 Sven Hultin 1943 – 1958 Gustav Hössjer 1958 – 1966 Lennart Rönnmark 1966 – 1974 Nils Gralén 1974 – 1989 Sven Olving 1989 – 1998 Anders Sjöberg 1998 – 2006 Jan-Eric Sundgren 2006 – 2015 Karin Markides 2015 – 2023 Stefan Bengtsson 2023 – Martin Nilsson Jacobi" ], [ "See also", "* KTH Royal Institute of Technology* Chalmers School of Entrepreneurship* IT University of Göteborg* List of universities in Sweden* Marie Rådbo, astronomer* The International Science Festival in Gothenburg * University of Gothenburg (Göteborg University)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Chalmers University of Technology – official site* Chalmers Student Union* Chalmers Alumni Association" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Codex" ], [ "Introduction", "The ''Codex Gigas'', 13th century, Bohemia.The '''codex''' (: '''codices''' ) was the historical ancestor of the modern book.", "Instead of being composed of sheets of paper, it used sheets of vellum, papyrus, or other materials.", "The term ''codex'' is often used for ancient manuscript books, with handwritten contents.", "A codex, much like the modern book, is bound by stacking the pages and securing one set of edges by a variety of methods over the centuries, yet in a form analogous to modern bookbinding.", "Modern books are divided into paperback (or softback) and those bound with stiff boards, called hardbacks.", "Elaborate historical bindings are called treasure bindings.", "At least in the Western world, the main alternative to the paged codex format for a long document was the continuous scroll, which was the dominant form of document in the ancient world.", "Some codices are continuously folded like a concertina, in particular the Maya codices and Aztec codices, which are actually long sheets of paper or animal skin folded into pages.", "In Japan, concertina-style codices called orihon developed during the Heian period (794–1185) were made of paper.", "The Ancient Romans developed the form from wax tablets.", "The gradual replacement of the scroll by the codex has been called the most important advance in book making before the invention of the printing press.", "The codex transformed the shape of the book itself, and offered a form that has lasted ever since.", "The spread of the codex is often associated with the rise of Christianity, which early on adopted the format for the Bible.", "First described in the 1st century of the Common Era, when the Roman poet Martial praised its convenient use, the codex achieved numerical parity with the scroll around 300 CE, and had completely replaced it throughout what was by then a Christianized Greco-Roman world by the 6th century." ], [ "Etymology and origins", "The scroll was the document form which was replaced by the codex during the late Roman Empire.The word codex comes from the Latin word ''caudex'', meaning \"trunk of a tree\", \"block of wood\" or \"book\".", "The codex began to replace the scroll almost as soon as it was invented, although new finds add three centuries to its history (see below).", "In Egypt, by the fifth century, the codex outnumbered the scroll by ten to one based on surviving examples.", "By the sixth century, the scroll had almost vanished as a medium for literature.", "The change from rolls to codices roughly coincides with the transition from papyrus to parchment as the preferred writing material, but the two developments are unconnected.", "In fact, any combination of codices and scrolls with papyrus and parchment is technically feasible and common in the historical record.Technically, even modern notebooks and paperbacks are codices, but publishers and scholars reserve the term for manuscript (hand-written) books produced from Late antiquity until the Middle Ages.", "The scholarly study of these manuscripts is sometimes called codicology.", "The study of ancient documents in general is called paleography.The codex provided considerable advantages over other book formats, primarily its compactness, sturdiness, economic use of materials by using both sides (recto and verso), and ease of reference (a codex accommodates random access, as opposed to a scroll, which uses sequential access)." ], [ "History", "Reproduction Roman-style wax tablet, from which the codex evolved.The Romans used precursors made of reusable wax-covered tablets of wood for taking notes and other informal writings.", "Two ancient polyptychs, a ''pentaptych'' and ''octoptych'' excavated at Herculaneum, used a unique connecting system that presages later sewing on of thongs or cords.", "A first evidence of the use of papyrus in codex form comes from the Ptolemaic period in Egypt, as a find at the University of Graz shows.", "Julius Caesar may have been the first Roman to reduce scrolls to bound pages in the form of a note-book, possibly even as a papyrus codex.", "At the turn of the 1st century AD, a kind of folded parchment notebook called ''pugillares membranei'' in Latin became commonly used for writing in the Roman Empire.", "Theodore Cressy Skeat theorized that this form of notebook was invented in Rome and then spread rapidly to the Near East.Codices are described in certain works by the Classical Latin poet, Martial.", "He wrote a series of five couplets meant to accompany gifts of literature that Romans exchanged during the festival of Saturnalia.", "Three of these books are specifically described by Martial as being in the form of a codex; the poet praises the compendiousness of the form (as opposed to the scroll), as well as the convenience with which such a book can be read on a journey.", "In another poem by Martial, the poet advertises a new edition of his works, specifically noting that it is produced as a codex, taking less space than a scroll and being more comfortable to hold in one hand.", "According to Theodore Cressy Skeat, this might be the first recorded known case of an entire edition of a literary work (not just a single copy) being published in codex form, though it was likely an isolated case and was not a common practice until a much later time.The Book of Kells is an example of a codex that was created during the Middle Ages.In his discussion of one of the earliest parchment codices to survive from Oxyrhynchus in Egypt, Eric Turner seems to challenge Skeat's notion when stating, \"its mere existence is evidence that this book form had a prehistory\", and that \"early experiments with this book form may well have taken place outside of Egypt.\"", "Early codices of parchment or papyrus appear to have been widely used as personal notebooks, for instance in recording copies of letters sent (Cicero ''Fam.''", "9.26.1).", "Early codices were not always cohesive.", "They often contained multiple languages, various topics and even multiple authors.", "\"Such codices formed libraries in their own right.\"", "The parchment notebook pages were \"more durable, and could withstand being folded and stitched to other sheets\".", "Parchments whose writing was no longer needed were commonly washed or scraped for re-use, creating a palimpsest; the erased text, which can often be recovered, is older and usually more interesting than the newer text which replaced it.", "Consequently, writings in a codex were often considered informal and impermanent.", "Parchment (animal skin) was expensive, and therefore it was used primarily by the wealthy and powerful, who were also able to pay for textual design and color.", "\"Official documents and deluxe manuscripts in the late Middle Ages were written in gold and silver ink on parchment...dyed or painted with costly purple pigments as an expression of imperial power and wealth.", "\"As early as the early 2nd century, there is evidence that a codex—usually of papyrus—was the preferred format among Christians.", "In the library of the Villa of the Papyri, Herculaneum (buried in AD 79), all the texts (of Greek literature) are scrolls (see Herculaneum papyri).", "However, in the Nag Hammadi library, hidden about AD 390, all texts (Gnostic) are codices.", "Despite this comparison, a fragment of a non-Christian parchment codex of Demosthenes' ''De Falsa Legatione'' from Oxyrhynchus in Egypt demonstrates that the surviving evidence is insufficient to conclude whether Christians played a major or central role in the development of early codices—or if they simply adopted the format to distinguish themselves from Jews.The earliest surviving fragments from codices come from Egypt, and are variously dated (always tentatively) towards the end of the 1st century or in the first half of the 2nd.", "This group includes the Rylands Library Papyrus P52, containing part of St John's Gospel, and perhaps dating from between 125 and 160.Early medieval bookcase containing about ten codices depicted in the Codex Amiatinus ( 700).In Western culture, the codex gradually replaced the scroll.", "Between the 4th century, when the codex gained wide acceptance, and the Carolingian Renaissance in the 8th century, many works that were not converted from scroll to codex were lost.", "The codex improved on the scroll in several ways.", "It could be opened flat at any page for easier reading, pages could be written on both front and back (recto and verso), and the protection of durable covers made it more compact and easier to transport.The ancients stored codices with spines facing inward, and not always vertically.", "The spine could be used for the incipit, before the concept of a proper title developed in medieval times.", "Though most early codices were made of papyrus, papyrus was fragile and supplied from Egypt, the only place where papyrus grew.", "The more durable parchment and vellum gained favor, despite the cost.The Codex Mendoza, an Aztec codex from the early 16th century, showing the tribute obligations of particular towns.The codices of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica (Mexico and Central America) had a similar appearance when closed to the European codex, but were instead made with long folded strips of either fig bark (amatl) or plant fibers, often with a layer of whitewash applied before writing.", "New World codices were written as late as the 16th century (see Maya codices and Aztec codices).", "Those written before the Spanish conquests seem all to have been single long sheets folded concertina-style, sometimes written on both sides of the ''amatl'' paper.", "There are significant codices produced in the colonial era, with pictorial and alphabetic texts in Spanish or an indigenous language such as Nahuatl.In East Asia, the scroll remained standard for far longer than in the Mediterranean world.", "There were intermediate stages, such as scrolls folded concertina-style and pasted together at the back and books that were printed only on one side of the paper.", "This replaced traditional Chinese writing mediums such as bamboo and wooden slips, as well as silk and paper scrolls.", "The evolution of the codex in China began with folded-leaf pamphlets in the 9th century, during the late Tang dynasty (618–907), improved by the 'butterfly' bindings of the Song dynasty (960–1279), the wrapped back binding of the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), the stitched binding of the Ming (1368–1644) and Qing dynasties (1644–1912), and finally the adoption of Western-style bookbinding in the 20th century.", "The initial phase of this evolution, the accordion-folded palm-leaf-style book, most likely came from India and was introduced to China via Buddhist missionaries and scriptures.Judaism still retains the Torah scroll, at least for ceremonial use." ], [ "From scrolls to codex", "The cover of the Carolingian gospel book, the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram, produced ca.", "AD 870 at the Palace of Aachen, during the reign of Charles the Bald.Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich.Among the experiments of earlier centuries, scrolls were sometimes unrolled horizontally, as a succession of columns.", "(The Dead Sea Scrolls are a famous example of this format.)", "This made it possible to fold the scroll as an accordion.", "The next evolutionary step was to cut the folios and sew and glue them at their centers, making it easier to use the papyrus or vellum recto-verso as with a modern book.Traditional bookbinders would call one of these assembled, trimmed and bound folios (that is, the \"pages\" of the book as a whole, comprising the front matter and contents) a ''codex'' in contradistinction to the cover or ''case,'' producing the format of book now colloquially known as a ''hardcover''.", "In the hardcover bookbinding process, the procedure of binding the codex is very different to that of producing and attaching the case." ], [ "Preparation", "The first stage in creating a codex is to prepare the animal skin.", "The skin is washed with water and lime but not together.", "The skin is soaked in the lime for a couple of days.", "The hair is removed, and the skin is dried by attaching it to a frame, called a herse.", "The parchment maker attaches the skin at points around the circumference.", "The skin attaches to the herse by cords.", "To prevent it from being torn, the maker wraps the area of the skin attached to the cord around a pebble called a pippin.", "After completing that, the maker uses a crescent shaped knife called a ''lunarium'' or ''lunellum'' to remove any remaining hairs.", "Once the skin completely dries, the maker gives it a deep clean and processes it into sheets.", "The number of sheets from a piece of skin depends on the size of the skin and the final product dimensions.", "For example, the average calfskin can provide three-and-a-half medium sheets of writing material, which can be doubled when they are folded into two conjoint leaves, also known as a ''bifolium''.", "Historians have found evidence of manuscripts in which the scribe wrote down the medieval instructions now followed by modern membrane makers.", "Defects can often be found in the membrane, whether they are from the original animal, human error during the preparation period, or from when the animal was killed.", "Defects can also appear during the writing process.", "Unless the manuscript is kept in perfect condition, defects can also appear later in its life.===Preparation of pages for writing===Manuscript, Codex Manesse.", "Most manuscripts were ruled with horizontal lines that served as the baselines on which the text was entered.Firstly, the membrane must be prepared.", "The first step is to set up the quires.", "The quire is a group of several sheets put together.", "Raymond Clemens and Timothy Graham point out, in \"Introduction to Manuscript Studies\", that \"the quire was the scribe's basic writing unit throughout the Middle Ages\":Pricking is the process of making holes in a sheet of parchment (or membrane) in preparation of it ruling.", "The lines were then made by ruling between the prick marks....", "The process of entering ruled lines on the page to serve as a guide for entering text.", "Most manuscripts were ruled with horizontal lines that served as the baselines on which the text was entered and with vertical bounding lines that marked the boundaries of the columns.===Forming quire===From the Carolingian period to the end of the Middle Ages, different styles of folding the quire came about.", "For example, in continental Europe throughout the Middle Ages, the quire was put into a system in which each side folded on to the same style.", "The hair side met the hair side and the flesh side to the flesh side.", "This was not the same style used in the British Isles, where the membrane was folded so that it turned out an eight-leaf quire, with single leaves in the third and sixth positions.", "The next stage was tacking the quire.", "Tacking is when the scribe would hold together the leaves in quire with thread.", "Once threaded together, the scribe would then sew a line of parchment up the \"spine\" of the manuscript to protect the tacking.=== Materials ===The materials codices are made with are their support, and include papyrus, parchment (sometimes referred to as membrane or vellum), and paper.", "They are written and drawn on with metals, pigments and ink.", "The quality, size, and choice of support determine the status of a codex.", "Papyrus is found only in late antiquity and the early Middle Ages.", "Codices intended for display were bound with more durable materials than vellum.", "Parchment varied widely due to animal species and finish, and identification of animals used to make it has only begun to be studied in the 21st century.", "How manufacturing influenced the final products, technique, and style, is little understood.", "However, changes in style are underpinned more by variation in technique.", "Before the 14th and 15th century, paper was expensive, and its use may mark off the deluxe copy.=== Structure ===The structure of a codex includes its size, format/''ordinatio''(its quires or gatherings), consisting of sheets folded a number of times, often twice- a ''bifolio''), sewing, bookbinding and rebinding.", "A quire consisted of a number of folded sheets inserting into one another- at least three, but most commonly four bifolia, that is eight sheets and sixteen pages: Latin quaternio or Greek tetradion, which became a synonym for quires.", "Unless an exemplar (text to be copied) was copied exactly, format differed.", "In preparation for writing codices, ruling patterns were used that determined the layout of each page.", "Holes were prickled with a spiked lead wheel and a circle.", "Ruling was then applied separately on each page or once through the top folio.", "Ownership markings, decorations and illumination are also a part of it.", "They are specific to the scriptoria, or any production center, and libraries of codices.=== Pages ===Watermarks may provide, although often approximate, dates for when the copying occurred.", "The layout– size of the margin and the number of lines– is determined.", "There may be textual articulations, running heads, openings, chapters and paragraphs.", "Space was reserved for illustrations and decorated guide letters.", "The apparatus of books for scholars became more elaborate during the 13th and 14th centuries when chapter, verse, page numbering, marginalia finding guides, indexes, glossaries and tables of contents were developed.=== The ''libraire'' ===By a close examination of the physical attributes of a codex, it is sometimes possible to match up long-separated elements originally from the same book.", "In 13th-century book publishing, due to secularization, stationers or ''libraires'' emerged.", "They would receive commissions for texts, which they would contract out to scribes, illustrators, and binders, to whom they supplied materials.", "Due to the systematic format used for assembly by the ''libraire'', the structure can be used to reconstruct the original order of a manuscript.", "However, complications can arise in the study of a codex.", "Manuscripts were frequently rebound, and this resulted in a particular codex incorporating works of different dates and origins, thus different internal structures.", "Additionally, a binder could alter or unify these structures to ensure a better fit for the new binding.", "Completed quires or books of quires might constitute independent book units- booklets, which could be returned to the stationer, or combined with other texts to make anthologies or miscellanies.", "Exemplars were sometimes divided into quires for simultaneous copying and loaned out to students for study.", "To facilitate this, catchwords were used- a word at the end of a page providing the next page's first word." ], [ "See also", "* Grimoire* History of books* History of scrolls* List of codices* List of florilegia and botanical codices* List of New Testament papyri* List of New Testament uncials* Traditional Chinese bookbinding* Volume (bibliography)* Index (publishing)" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited references", "* * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Centre for the History of the Book* The Codex and Canon Consciousness – Draft paper by Robert Kraft on the change from scroll to codex* The Construction of the Codex In Classic- and Postclassic-Period Maya Civilization Maya Codex and Paper Making* Encyclopaedia Romana: \"Scroll and codex\"* K. C. Hanson, ''Catalogue of New Testament Papyri & Codices 2nd—10th Centuries''* Medieval and Renaissance manuscripts, including Vulgates, Breviaries, Contracts, and Herbal Texts from 12 -17th century, Center for Digital Initiatives, University of Vermont Libraries" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Calf (animal)" ], [ "Introduction", "Poddy calf sitting in the long grassA '''calf''' (: '''calves''') is a young domestic cow or bull.", "Calves are reared to become adult cattle or are slaughtered for their meat, called veal, and their hide.The term ''calf'' is also used for some other species.", "See \"Other animals\" below." ], [ "Terminology", "Calving (step by step)\"Calf\" is the term used from birth to weaning, when it becomes known as a ''weaner'' or ''weaner calf'', though in some areas the term \"calf\" may be used until the animal is a yearling.", "The birth of a calf is known as ''calving''.", "A calf that has lost its mother is an orphan calf, also known as a ''poddy'' or ''poddy-calf'' in British.", "''Bobby calves'' are young calves which are to be slaughtered for human consumption.", "A ''vealer'' is a calf weighing less than about which is at about eight to nine months of age.", "A young female calf from birth until she has had a calf of her own is called a ''heifer''().", "In the American Old West, a motherless or small, runty calf was sometimes referred to as a dodie.The term \"calf\" is also used for some other species.", "See \"Other animals\" below." ], [ "Early development", "Newborn calf.Charolais calves which were transferred, as embryos, into their Aberdeen Angus and Hereford recipient mothers.Calves may be produced by natural means, or by artificial breeding using artificial insemination or embryo transfer.Calves are born after nine months.", "They usually stand within a few minutes of calving, and suckle within an hour.", "However, for the first few days they are not easily able to keep up with the rest of the herd, so young calves are often left hidden by their mothers, who visit them several times a day to suckle them.", "By a week old the calf is able to follow the mother all the time.Some calves are ear tagged soon after birth, especially those that are stud cattle in order to correctly identify their dams (mothers), or in areas (such as the EU) where tagging is a legal requirement for cattle.", "Typically when the calves are about two months old they are branded, ear marked, castrated and vaccinated." ], [ "Calf rearing systems", "The ''single suckler'' system of rearing calves is similar to that occurring naturally in wild cattle, where each calf is suckled by its own mother until it is weaned at about nine months old.", "This system is commonly used for rearing beef cattle throughout the world.Cows kept on poor forage (as is typical in subsistence farming) produce a limited amount of milk.", "A calf left with such a mother all the time can easily drink all the milk, leaving none for human consumption.", "For dairy production under such circumstances, the calf's access to the cow must be limited, for example by penning the calf and bringing the mother to it once a day after partly milking her.", "The small amount of milk available for the calf under such systems may mean that it takes a longer time to rear, and in subsistence farming it is therefore common for cows to calve only in alternate years.In more intensive dairy farming, cows can easily be bred and fed to produce far more milk than one calf can drink.", "In the ''multi-suckler'' system, several calves are fostered onto one cow in addition to her own, and these calves' mothers can then be used wholly for milk production.", "More commonly, calves of dairy cows are fed formula milk from soon after birth, usually from a bottle or bucket.Purebred female calves of dairy cows are reared as replacement dairy cows.", "Most purebred dairy calves are produced by artificial insemination (AI).", "By this method each bull can serve many cows, so only a very few of the purebred dairy male calves are needed to provide bulls for breeding.", "The remainder of the male calves may be reared for beef or veal; Only a proportion of purebred heifers are needed to provide replacement cows, so often some of the cows in dairy herds are put to a beef bull to produce crossbred calves suitable for rearing as beef.Veal calves may be reared entirely on milk formula and killed at about 18 or 20 weeks as \"white\" veal, or fed on grain and hay and killed at 22 to 35 weeks to produce red or pink veal." ], [ "Growth", "Ear tagged calf and cow in Andorra.Video of calf suckling in BulgariaA commercial steer or bull calf is expected to put on about per month.", "A nine-month-old steer or bull is therefore expected to weigh about .", "Heifers will weigh at least at eight months of age.150 days old calfCalves are usually weaned at about eight to nine months of age, but depending on the season and condition of the dam, they might be weaned earlier.", "They may be paddock weaned, often next to their mothers, or weaned in stockyards.", "The latter system is preferred by some as it accustoms the weaners to the presence of people and they are trained to take feed other than grass.", "Small numbers may also be weaned with their dams with the use of weaning nose rings or nosebands which results in the mothers rejecting the calves' attempts to suckle.", "Many calves are also weaned when they are taken to the large weaner auction sales that are conducted in the south eastern states of Australia.", "Victoria and New South Wales have (sale yard numbers) of up to 8,000 weaners (calves) for auction sale in one day.", "The best of these weaners may go to the butchers.", "Others will be purchased by re-stockers to grow out and fatten on grass or as potential breeders.", "In the United States these weaners may be known as ''feeders'' and would be placed directly into feedlots.At about 12 months old a beef heifer reaches puberty if she is well grown." ], [ "Diseases", "Calves suffer from few congenital abnormalities but the Akabane virus is widely distributed in temperate to tropical regions of the world.", "The virus is a teratogenic pathogen which causes abortions, stillbirths, premature births and congenital abnormalities, but occurs only during some years.Calves commonly face on-farm acquired diseases, often of infectious nature.", "Preweaned calves most commonly experience conditions such as diarrhea, omphalitis, lameness and respiratory diseases.", "Diarrhea, omphalitis and lameness are most common in calves aged up to two weeks, while the frequency of respiratory diseases tends to increase with age.", "These conditions also display seasonal patterns, with omphalitis being more common in the summer months, and respiratory diseases and diarrhea occurring more frequently in the fall." ], [ "Uses", "Calf meat for human consumption is called veal, and is usually produced from the male calves of Dairy cattle.", "Also eaten are calf's brains and calf liver.", "The hide is used to make calfskin, or tanned into leather and called calf leather, or sometimes in the US \"novillo\", the Spanish term.", "The fourth compartment of the stomach of slaughtered milk-fed calves is the source of rennet.", "The intestine is used to make Goldbeater's skin, and is the source of Calf Intestinal Alkaline Phosphatase (CIP).Dairy cows can only produce milk after having calved, and dairy cows need to produce one calf each year in order to remain in production.", "Female calves will become a replacement dairy cow.", "Male dairy calves are generally reared for beef or veal; relatively few are kept for breeding purposes." ], [ "Other animals", "In English, the term \"calf\" is used by extension for the young of various other large species of mammal.", "In addition to other bovid species (such as bison, yak and water buffalo), these include the young of camels, dolphins, elephants, giraffes, hippopotamuses, deer (such as moose, elk (wapiti) and red deer), rhinoceroses, porpoises, whales, walruses and larger seals.", "(Generally, the adult males of these same species are called \"bulls\" and the adult females \"cows\".)", "However, common domestic species tend to have their own specific names, such as lamb, foal used for all ''Equidae'', or piglet used for all suidae." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Weaning-beef-calves* Calving on ''Ropin' the Web'', Agriculture and Food, Government of Alberta, Canada* Winter Feeding Sites and Calf Scours, Kansas State University" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Claude Shannon" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Claude Elwood Shannon''' (April 30, 1916 – February 24, 2001) was an American mathematician, electrical engineer, computer scientist and cryptographer known as the \"father of information theory\", he was the first to describe the boolean gates (electronic circuits) that are essential to all digital electronic circuits, and he built the first machine learning device thus founding the field of artificial intelligence.", "He is credited alongside George Boole for laying the foundations of the Information Age.", "As a 21-year-old master's degree student at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), he wrote his thesis demonstrating that electrical applications of Boolean algebra could construct any logical numerical relationship, thereby establishing the theory behind digital computing and digital circuits.", "In 1987, Howard Gardner called his thesis \"possibly the most important, and also the most famous, master's thesis of the century\", and Herman Goldstine described it as \"surely... one of the most important master's theses ever written...", "It helped to change digital circuit design from an art to a science.\"", "Shannon also contributed to the field of cryptanalysis for national defense of the United States during World War II, including his fundamental work on codebreaking and secure telecommunications, writing a paper which is considered one of the foundational pieces of modern cryptography, and whose work \"was a turning point, and marked the closure of classical cryptography and the beginning of modern cryptography.\"", "His mathematical theory of communication laid the foundations for the field of information theory, with his famous paper being called the \"Magna Carta of the Information Age\" by ''Scientific American,'' along with his work being described as being at \"the heart of today's digital information technology\".", "His Theseus machine was the first electrical device to learn by trial and error.", "It is was thus the first example of artificial intelligence.", "Rodney Brooks declared that Shannon was the 20th century engineer who contributed the most to 21st century technologies.", "His achievements are said to be on par with those of Albert Einstein and Sir Isaac Newton in their fields." ], [ "Biography", "===Childhood===The Shannon family lived in Gaylord, Michigan, and Claude was born in a hospital in nearby Petoskey.", "His father, Claude Sr. (1862–1934), was a businessman and, for a while, a judge of probate in Gaylord.", "His mother, Mabel Wolf Shannon (1890–1945), was a language teacher, who also served as the principal of Gaylord High School.", "Claude Sr. was a descendant of New Jersey settlers, while Mabel was a child of German immigrants.", "Shannon's family was active in their Methodist Church during his youth.Most of the first 16 years of Shannon's life were spent in Gaylord, where he attended public school, graduating from Gaylord High School in 1932.Shannon showed an inclination towards mechanical and electrical things.", "His best subjects were science and mathematics.", "At home, he constructed such devices as models of planes, a radio-controlled model boat and a barbed-wire telegraph system to a friend's house a half-mile away.", "While growing up, he also worked as a messenger for the Western Union company.Shannon's childhood hero was Thomas Edison, whom he later learned was a distant cousin.", "Both Shannon and Edison were descendants of John Ogden (1609–1682), a colonial leader and an ancestor of many distinguished people.===Logic circuits===In 1932, Shannon entered the University of Michigan, where he was introduced to the work of George Boole.", "He graduated in 1936 with two bachelor's degrees: one in electrical engineering and the other in mathematics.In 1936, Shannon began his graduate studies in electrical engineering at MIT, where he worked on Vannevar Bush's differential analyzer, an early analog computer.", "While studying the complicated ''ad hoc'' circuits of this analyzer, Shannon designed switching circuits based on Boole's concepts.", "In 1937, he wrote his master's degree thesis, ''A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits''.", "A paper from this thesis was published in 1938.In this work, Shannon diagramed switching circuits that could implement the essential operators of Boolean algebra.", "Then he proved that his switching circuits could be used to simplify the arrangement of the electromechanical relays that were used during that time in telephone call routing switches.", "Next, he expanded this concept, proving that these circuits could solve all problems that Boolean algebra could solve.", "In the last chapter, he presented diagrams of several circuits, including a digital 4-bit full adder.Using this property of electrical switches to implement logic is the fundamental concept that underlies all electronic digital computers.", "Shannon's work became the foundation of digital circuit design, as it became widely known in the electrical engineering community during and after World War II.", "The theoretical rigor of Shannon's work superseded the ''ad hoc'' methods that had prevailed previously.", "Howard Gardner called Shannon's thesis \"possibly the most important, and also the most noted, master's thesis of the century.", "\"Shannon received his PhD in mathematics from MIT in 1940.Vannevar Bush had suggested that Shannon should work on his dissertation at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, in order to develop a mathematical formulation for Mendelian genetics.", "This research resulted in Shannon's PhD thesis, called ''An Algebra for Theoretical Genetics''.In 1940, Shannon became a National Research Fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey.", "In Princeton, Shannon had the opportunity to discuss his ideas with influential scientists and mathematicians such as Hermann Weyl and John von Neumann, and he also had occasional encounters with Albert Einstein and Kurt Gödel.", "Shannon worked freely across disciplines, and this ability may have contributed to his later development of mathematical information theory.===Wartime research===Shannon then joined Bell Labs to work on fire-control systems and cryptography during World War II, under a contract with section D-2 (Control Systems section) of the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC).Shannon is credited with the invention of signal-flow graphs, in 1942.He discovered the topological gain formula while investigating the functional operation of an analog computer.For two months early in 1943, Shannon came into contact with the leading British mathematician Alan Turing.", "Turing had been posted to Washington to share with the U.S. Navy's cryptanalytic service the methods used by the British Government Code and Cypher School at Bletchley Park to break the cyphers used by the ''Kriegsmarine'' U-boats in the north Atlantic Ocean.", "He was also interested in the encipherment of speech and to this end spent time at Bell Labs.", "Shannon and Turing met at teatime in the cafeteria.", "Turing showed Shannon his 1936 paper that defined what is now known as the \"universal Turing machine\".", "This impressed Shannon, as many of its ideas complemented his own.In 1945, as the war was coming to an end, the NDRC was issuing a summary of technical reports as a last step prior to its eventual closing down.", "Inside the volume on fire control, a special essay titled ''Data Smoothing and Prediction in Fire-Control Systems'', coauthored by Shannon, Ralph Beebe Blackman, and Hendrik Wade Bode, formally treated the problem of smoothing the data in fire-control by analogy with \"the problem of separating a signal from interfering noise in communications systems.\"", "In other words, it modeled the problem in terms of data and signal processing and thus heralded the coming of the Information Age.Shannon's work on cryptography was even more closely related to his later publications on communication theory.", "At the close of the war, he prepared a classified memorandum for Bell Telephone Labs entitled \"A Mathematical Theory of Cryptography\", dated September 1945.A declassified version of this paper was published in 1949 as \"Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems\" in the ''Bell System Technical Journal''.", "This paper incorporated many of the concepts and mathematical formulations that also appeared in his ''A Mathematical Theory of Communication''.", "Shannon said that his wartime insights into communication theory and cryptography developed simultaneously, and that \"they were so close together you couldn't separate them\".", "In a footnote near the beginning of the classified report, Shannon announced his intention to \"develop these results … in a forthcoming memorandum on the transmission of information.", "\"While he was at Bell Labs, Shannon proved that the cryptographic one-time pad is unbreakable in his classified research that was later published in 1949.The same article also proved that any unbreakable system must have essentially the same characteristics as the one-time pad: the key must be truly random, as large as the plaintext, never reused in whole or part, and kept secret.===Information theory===In 1948, the promised memorandum appeared as \"A Mathematical Theory of Communication\", an article in two parts in the July and October issues of the ''Bell System Technical Journal''.", "This work focuses on the problem of how best to encode the message a sender wants to transmit.", "Shannon developed information entropy as a measure of the information content in a message, which is a measure of uncertainty reduced by the message.", "In so doing, he essentially invented the field of information theory.The book ''The Mathematical Theory of Communication'' reprints Shannon's 1948 article and Warren Weaver's popularization of it, which is accessible to the non-specialist.", "Weaver pointed out that the word \"information\" in communication theory is not related to what you do say, but to what you could say.", "That is, information is a measure of one's freedom of choice when one selects a message.", "Shannon's concepts were also popularized, subject to his own proofreading, in John Robinson Pierce's ''Symbols, Signals, and Noise''.Information theory's fundamental contribution to natural language processing and computational linguistics was further established in 1951, in his article \"Prediction and Entropy of Printed English\", showing upper and lower bounds of entropy on the statistics of English – giving a statistical foundation to language analysis.", "In addition, he proved that treating space as the 27th letter of the alphabet actually lowers uncertainty in written language, providing a clear quantifiable link between cultural practice and probabilistic cognition.Another notable paper published in 1949 is \"Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems\", a declassified version of his wartime work on the mathematical theory of cryptography, in which he proved that all theoretically unbreakable cyphers must have the same requirements as the one-time pad.", "He is also credited with the introduction of sampling theory, which is concerned with representing a continuous-time signal from a (uniform) discrete set of samples.", "This theory was essential in enabling telecommunications to move from analog to digital transmissions systems in the 1960s and later.===Artificial Intelligence===In 1950, Shannon, designed, and built with the help of his wife, a machine learning device, Theseus.", "It consisted of a maze on a surface, below which were sensors that followed the path of a mechanical mouse through the maze.", "After much trial and error, this device would learn the shortest path through the maze, and direct the mechanical mouse through the maze.", "The pattern of the maze could be changed at will.Mazin Gilbert says Theseus \"inspired the whole field of AI.", "This random trial and error is the foundation of artificial intelligence.", "\"===Teaching at MIT===In 1956 Shannon joined the MIT faculty, holding an endowed chair.", "He worked in the Research Laboratory of Electronics (RLE).", "He continued to serve on the MIT faculty until 1978.===Later life===Shannon developed Alzheimer's disease and spent the last few years of his life in a nursing home; he died in 2001, survived by his wife, a son and daughter, and two granddaughters.=== Hobbies and inventions ===The Minivac 601, a digital computer trainer designed by ShannonOutside of Shannon's academic pursuits, he was interested in juggling, unicycling, and chess.", "He also invented many devices, including a Roman numeral computer called THROBAC, and juggling machines.", "He built a device that could solve the Rubik's Cube puzzle.Shannon designed the Minivac 601, a digital computer trainer to teach business people about how computers functioned.", "It was sold by the Scientific Development Corp starting in 1961.He is also considered the co-inventor of the first wearable computer along with Edward O. Thorp.", "The device was used to improve the odds when playing roulette.===Personal life===Shannon married Norma Levor, a wealthy, Jewish, left-wing intellectual in January 1940.The marriage ended in divorce after about a year.", "Levor later married Ben Barzman.Shannon met his second wife, Mary Elizabeth Moore (Betty), when she was a numerical analyst at Bell Labs.", "They were married in 1949.Betty assisted Claude in building some of his most famous inventions.", "They had three children.Shannon presented himself as apolitical and an atheist.===Tributes===Statue of Claude Shannon at AT&T Shannon LabsThere are six statues of Shannon sculpted by Eugene Daub: one at the University of Michigan; one at MIT in the Laboratory for Information and Decision Systems; one in Gaylord, Michigan; one at the University of California, San Diego; one at Bell Labs; and another at AT&T Shannon Labs.", "The statue in Gaylord is located in the Claude Shannon Memorial Park.", "After the breakup of the Bell System, the part of Bell Labs that remained with AT&T Corporation was named Shannon Labs in his honor.According to Neil Sloane, an AT&T Fellow who co-edited Shannon's large collection of papers in 1993, the perspective introduced by Shannon's communication theory (now called information theory) is the foundation of the digital revolution, and every device containing a microprocessor or microcontroller is a conceptual descendant of Shannon's publication in 1948: \"He's one of the great men of the century.", "Without him, none of the things we know today would exist.", "The whole digital revolution started with him.\"", "The cryptocurrency unit shannon (a synonym for gwei) is named after him.Shannon is credited by many as single-handedly creating information theory and for laying the foundations for the Digital Age.", "''A Mind at Play'', a biography of Shannon written by Jimmy Soni and Rob Goodman, was published in 2017.They described Shannon as \"the most important genius you’ve never heard of, a man whose intellect was on par with Albert Einstein and Isaac Newton\".On April 30, 2016, Shannon was honored with a Google Doodle to celebrate his life on what would have been his 100th birthday.", "''The Bit Player'', a feature film about Shannon directed by Mark Levinson premiered at the World Science Festival in 2019.Drawn from interviews conducted with Shannon in his house in the 1980s, the film was released on Amazon Prime in August 2020." ], [ "The Mathematical Theory of Communication", "=== Weaver's Contribution ===Shannon's ''The Mathematical Theory of Communication,'' begins with an interpretation of his own work by Warren Weaver.", "Although Shannon's entire work is about communication itself, Warren Weaver communicated his ideas in such a way that those not acclimated to complex theory and mathematics could comprehend the fundamental laws he put forth.", "The coupling of their unique communicational abilities and ideas generated the Shannon-Weaver model, although the mathematical and theoretical underpinnings emanate entirely from Shannon's work after Weaver's introduction.", "For the layman, Weaver's introduction better communicates ''The Mathematical Theory of Communication'', but Shannon's subsequent logic, mathematics, and expressive precision was responsible for defining the problem itself." ], [ "Other work", "Shannon and his electromechanical mouse ''Theseus'' (named after Theseus from Greek mythology) which he tried to have solve the maze in one of the first experiments in artificial intelligenceTheseus Maze in MIT Museum===Shannon's mouse===\"Theseus\", created in 1950, was a mechanical mouse controlled by an electromechanical relay circuit that enabled it to move around a labyrinth of 25 squares.", "The maze configuration was flexible and it could be modified arbitrarily by rearranging movable partitions.", "The mouse was designed to search through the corridors until it found the target.", "Having travelled through the maze, the mouse could then be placed anywhere it had been before, and because of its prior experience it could go directly to the target.", "If placed in unfamiliar territory, it was programmed to search until it reached a known location and then it would proceed to the target, adding the new knowledge to its memory and learning new behavior.", "Shannon's mouse appears to have been the first artificial learning device of its kind.===Shannon's estimate for the complexity of chess===In 1949 Shannon completed a paper (published in March 1950) which estimates the game-tree complexity of chess, which is approximately 10120.This number is now often referred to as the \"Shannon number\", and is still regarded today as an accurate estimate of the game's complexity.", "The number is often cited as one of the barriers to solving the game of chess using an exhaustive analysis (i.e.", "brute force analysis).===Shannon's computer chess program===On March 9, 1949, Shannon presented a paper called \"Programming a Computer for playing Chess\".", "The paper was presented at the National Institute for Radio Engineers Convention in New York.", "He described how to program a computer to play chess based on position scoring and move selection.", "He proposed basic strategies for restricting the number of possibilities to be considered in a game of chess.", "In March 1950 it was published in ''Philosophical Magazine'', and is considered one of the first articles published on the topic of programming a computer for playing chess, and using a computer to solve the game.His process for having the computer decide on which move to make was a minimax procedure, based on an evaluation function of a given chess position.", "Shannon gave a rough example of an evaluation function in which the value of the black position was subtracted from that of the white position.", "''Material'' was counted according to the usual chess piece relative value (1 point for a pawn, 3 points for a knight or bishop, 5 points for a rook, and 9 points for a queen).", "He considered some positional factors, subtracting ½ point for each doubled pawn, backward pawn, and isolated pawn; ''mobility'' was incorporated by adding 0.1 point for each legal move available.===Shannon's maxim===Shannon formulated a version of Kerckhoffs' principle as \"The enemy knows the system\".", "In this form it is known as \"Shannon's maxim\"." ], [ "Commemorations", "===Shannon centenary===Claude Shannon centenaryThe Shannon centenary, 2016, marked the life and influence of Claude Elwood Shannon on the hundredth anniversary of his birth on April 30, 1916.It was inspired in part by the Alan Turing Year.", "An ad hoc committee of the IEEE Information Theory Society including Christina Fragouli, Rüdiger Urbanke, Michelle Effros, Lav Varshney and Sergio Verdú, coordinated worldwide events.", "The initiative was announced in the History Panel at the 2015 IEEE Information Theory Workshop Jerusalem and the IEEE Information Theory Society newsletter.A detailed listing of confirmed events was available on the website of the IEEE Information Theory Society.Some of the planned activities included:* Bell Labs hosted the First Shannon Conference on the Future of the Information Age on April 28–29, 2016, in Murray Hill, New Jersey, to celebrate Claude Shannon and the continued impact of his legacy on society.", "The event includes keynote speeches by global luminaries and visionaries of the information age who will explore the impact of information theory on society and our digital future, informal recollections, and leading technical presentations on subsequent related work in other areas such as bioinformatics, economic systems, and social networks.", "There is also a student competition* Bell Labs launched a Web exhibit on April 30, 2016, chronicling Shannon's hiring at Bell Labs (under an NDRC contract with US Government), his subsequent work there from 1942 through 1957, and details of Mathematics Department.", "The exhibit also displayed bios of colleagues and managers during his tenure, as well as original versions of some of the technical memoranda which subsequently became well known in published form.", "* The Republic of Macedonia is planning a commemorative stamp.", "A USPS commemorative stamp is being proposed, with an active petition.", "* A documentary on Claude Shannon and on the impact of information theory, ''The Bit Player'', is being produced by Sergio Verdú and Mark Levinson.", "* A trans-Atlantic celebration of both George Boole's bicentenary and Claude Shannon's centenary that is being led by University College Cork and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.", "A first event was a workshop in Cork, When Boole Meets Shannon, and will continue with exhibits at the Boston Museum of Science and at the MIT Museum.", "* Many organizations around the world are holding observance events, including the Boston Museum of Science, the Heinz-Nixdorf Museum, the Institute for Advanced Study, Technische Universität Berlin, University of South Australia (UniSA), Unicamp (Universidade Estadual de Campinas), University of Toronto, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Cairo University, Telecom ParisTech, National Technical University of Athens, Indian Institute of Science, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Nanyang Technological University of Singapore, University of Maryland, University of Illinois at Chicago, École Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne, The Pennsylvania State University (Penn State), University of California Los Angeles, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications, and University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.", "* A logo that appears on this page was crowdsourced on Crowdspring.", "* The Math Encounters presentation of May 4, 2016, at the National Museum of Mathematics in New York, titled ''Saving Face: Information Tricks for Love and Life'', focused on Shannon's work in information theory.", "A video recording and other material are available." ], [ "Awards and honors list", "The Claude E. Shannon Award was established in his honor; he was also its first recipient, in 1972.", "* Stuart Ballantine Medal of the Franklin Institute, 1955* Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1957* Harvey Prize, the Technion of Haifa, Israel, 1972Alfred Noble Prize, 1939 (award of civil engineering societies in the US) National Medal of Science, 1966, presented by President Lyndon B. Johnson* Kyoto Prize, 1985Morris Liebmann Memorial Prize of the Institute of Radio Engineers, 1949 United States National Academy of Sciences, 1956* Medal of Honor of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 1966* Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement, 1967* Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW), foreign member, 1975* Member of the American Philosophical Society, 1983* Basic Research Award, Eduard Rhein Foundation, Germany, 1991* Marconi Society Lifetime Achievement Award, 2000* Donnor Professor of Science, MIT, 1958–1979" ], [ "Selected works", "* Claude E. Shannon: ''A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits'', master's thesis, MIT, 1937.", "* Claude E. Shannon: \"A Mathematical Theory of Communication\", ''Bell System Technical Journal'', Vol.", "27, pp.", "379–423, 623–656, 1948 ( abstract).", "* Claude E. Shannon and Warren Weaver: ''The Mathematical Theory of Communication.''", "The University of Illinois Press, Urbana, Illinois, 1949." ], [ "See also", "Entropy power inequalityError-correcting codes with feedbackList of pioneers in computer scienceModels of communicationn-gramNoisy channel coding theoremNyquist–Shannon sampling theoremOne-time padProduct cipherPulse-code modulationRate distortion theorySamplingShannon capacityShannon entropyShannon indexShannon multigraphShannon securityShannon switching gameShannon–Fano codingShannon–Hartley lawShannon–Hartley theoremShannon's expansionShannon's source coding theoremShannon-Weaver model of communicationWhittaker–Shannon interpolation formula" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " Rethnakaran Pulikkoonattu — Eric W. Weisstein: Mathworld biography of Shannon, Claude Elwood (1916–2001) Shannon, Claude Elwood (1916–2001) – from Eric Weisstein's World of Scientific Biography* Claude E. Shannon: ''Programming a Computer for Playing Chess'', Philosophical Magazine, Ser.7, Vol.", "41, No.", "314, March 1950.", "(Available online under ''External links'' below)* David Levy: ''Computer Gamesmanship: Elements of Intelligent Game Design'', Simon & Schuster, 1983.", "* Mindell, David A., \"Automation's Finest Hour: Bell Labs and Automatic Control in World War II\", IEEE Control Systems, December 1995, pp. 72–80.", "* Poundstone, William, ''Fortune's Formula'', Hill & Wang, 2005, * Gleick, James, ''The Information: A History, A Theory, A Flood'', Pantheon, 2011, * Jimmy Soni and Rob Goodman, ''A Mind at Play: How Claude Shannon Invented the Information Age'', Simon and Schuster, 2017, * Nahin, Paul J., ''The Logician and the Engineer: How George Boole and Claude Shannon Create the Information Age'', Princeton University Press, 2013, * Everett M. Rogers, '' Claude Shannon's Cryptography Research During World War II and the Mathematical Theory of Communication'', 1994 Proceedings of IEEE International Carnahan Conference on Security Technology, pp.", "1–5, 1994.Claude Shannon's cryptography research during World War II and the mathematical theory of communication" ], [ "External links", "** Guide to the Claude Elwood Shannon papers at the Library of Congress* * Claude Elwood Shannon (1916–2001) at the ''Notices of the American Mathematical Society''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Cracking" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cracking''' may refer to:* Cracking, the formation of a fracture or partial fracture in a solid material studied as fracture mechanics** Performing a sternotomy* Fluid catalytic cracking, a catalytic process widely used in oil refineries for cracking large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller molecules* Cracking (chemistry), the decomposition of complex organic molecules into smaller ones* Cracking joints, the practice of manipulating one's bone joints to make a sharp sound* Cracking codes, see cryptanalysis* Whip cracking* Safe cracking* ''Crackin''', band featuring Lester Abrams* Packing and cracking, a method of creating voting districts to give a political party an advantageIn '''computing''':* Another name for security hacking; the practice of defeating computer security.", "* Password cracking, the process of discovering the plaintext of an encrypted computer password.", "* Software cracking, the defeating of software copy protection." ], [ "See also", "Crack (disambiguation)Cracker (disambiguation)Cracklings (solid material remaining after rendering fat)Cracker (pejorative)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Community" ], [ "Introduction", "Community Town hall A community of interest gathers at Stonehenge, England, for the summer solstice.A '''community''' is a social unit (a group of living things) with a shared socially significant characteristic, such as place, set of norms, culture, religion, values, customs, or identity.", "Communities may share a sense of place situated in a given geographical area (e.g.", "a country, village, town, or neighbourhood) or in virtual space through communication platforms.", "Durable good relations that extend beyond immediate genealogical ties also define a sense of community, important to their identity, practice, and roles in social institutions such as family, home, work, government, TV network, society, or humanity at large.", "Although communities are usually small relative to personal social ties, \"community\" may also refer to large group affiliations such as national communities, international communities, and virtual communities.The English-language word \"community\" derives from the Old French (Modern French: ''''), which comes from the Latin ''communitas'' \"community\", \"public spirit\" (from Latin ''communis'', \"common\").Human communities may have intent, belief, resources, preferences, needs, and risks in common, affecting the identity of the participants and their degree of cohesiveness." ], [ "Perspectives of various disciplines", "===Archaeology===Archaeological studies of social communities use the term \"community\" in two ways, paralleling usage in other areas.", "The first is an informal definition of community as a place where people used to live.", "In this sense it is synonymous with the concept of an ancient settlement—whether a hamlet, village, town, or city.", "The second meaning resembles the usage of the term in other social sciences: a community is a group of people living near one another who interact socially.", "Social interaction on a small scale can be difficult to identify with archaeological data.", "Most reconstructions of social communities by archaeologists rely on the principle that social interaction in the past was conditioned by physical distance.", "Therefore, a small village settlement likely constituted a social community and spatial subdivisions of cities and other large settlements may have formed communities.", "Archaeologists typically use similarities in material culture—from house types to styles of pottery—to reconstruct communities in the past.", "This classification method relies on the assumption that people or households will share more similarities in the types and styles of their material goods with other members of a social community than they will with outsiders.=== Sociology ===In the field of sociology, a community is conceptualized as a group of individuals who share common geographic, social, or cultural characteristics and are bound by a sense of belonging and mutual interdependence.", "It extends beyond mere proximity to encompass a shared identity, values, and a sense of collective responsibility.", "Communities can be formal or informal, ranging from small, close-knit neighborhoods to large, complex societies.", "Sociology emphasizes the role of community in shaping individuals' identities, providing social support, and influencing patterns of social interaction.", "Community structures play a crucial role in the transmission of cultural norms, the formation of social networks, and the development of social institutions, contributing significantly to the social fabric and dynamics of societies at various scales.===Ecology===In ecology, a community is an assemblage of populations—potentially of different species—interacting with one another.", "Community ecology is the branch of ecology that studies interactions between and among species.", "It considers how such interactions, along with interactions between species and the abiotic environment, affect social structure and species richness, diversity and patterns of abundance.", "Species interact in three ways: competition, predation and mutualism:* Competition typically results in a double negative—that is both species lose in the interaction.", "* Predation involves a win/lose situation, with one species winning.", "* Mutualism sees both species co-operating in some way, with both winning.The two main types of ecological communities are '''major''' communities, which are self-sustaining and self-regulating (such as a forest or a lake), and '''minor''' communities, which rely on other communities (like fungi decomposing a log) and are the building blocks of major communities.", "Moreover, we can establish other non-taxonomic subdivisions of biocenosis, such as guilds.A simplified example of a community.", "A community includes many populations and how they interact with each other.", "This example shows interaction between the zebra and the bush, and between the lion and the zebra, as well as between the bird and the organisms by the water, like the worms.=== Semantics ===The concept of \"community\" often has a positive semantic connotation, exploited rhetorically by populist politicians and by advertisersto promote feelings and associations of mutual well-being, happiness and togetherness—veering towards an almost-achievable utopian community.In contrast, the epidemiological term \"community transmission\" can have negative implications, and instead of a \"criminal community\" one often speaks of a \"criminal underworld\" or of the \"criminal fraternity\"." ], [ "Key concepts", "===''Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft''===In (1887), German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies described two types of human association: (usually translated as \"community\") and (\"society\" or \"association\").", "Tönnies proposed the ''–'' dichotomy as a way to think about social ties.", "No group is exclusively one or the other.", "stress personal social interactions, and the roles, values, and beliefs based on such interactions.", "stress indirect interactions, impersonal roles, formal values, and beliefs based on such interactions.===Sense of community===In a seminal 1986 study, McMillan and Chavis identify four elements of \"sense of community\":# membership: feeling of belonging or of sharing a sense of personal relatedness,# influence: mattering, making a difference to a group and of the group mattering to its members# reinforcement: integration and fulfillment of needs,# shared emotional connection.To what extent do participants in joint activities experience a sense of community?A \"sense of community index\" (SCI) was developed by Chavis and colleagues, and revised and adapted by others.", "Although originally designed to assess sense of community in neighborhoods, the index has been adapted for use in schools, the workplace, and a variety of types of communities.Studies conducted by the APPA indicate that young adults who feel a sense of belonging in a community, particularly small communities, develop fewer psychiatric and depressive disorders than those who do not have the feeling of love and belonging.====Socialization====Lewes Bonfire Night procession commemorating 17 Protestant martyrs burnt at the stake from 1555 to 1557The process of learning to adopt the behavior patterns of the community is called socialization.", "The most fertile time of socialization is usually the early stages of life, during which individuals develop the skills and knowledge and learn the roles necessary to function within their culture and social environment.", "For some psychologists, especially those in the psychodynamic tradition, the most important period of socialization is between the ages of one and ten.", "But socialization also includes adults moving into a significantly different environment where they must learn a new set of behaviors.Socialization is influenced primarily by the family, through which children first learn community norms.", "Other important influences include schools, peer groups, people, mass media, the workplace, and government.", "The degree to which the norms of a particular society or community are adopted determines one's willingness to engage with others.", "The norms of tolerance, reciprocity, and trust are important \"habits of the heart\", as de Tocqueville put it, in an individual's involvement in community." ], [ "Community development", "Community development is often linked with community work or community planning, and may involve stakeholders, foundations, governments, or contracted entities including non-government organisations (NGOs), universities or government agencies to progress the social well-being of local, regional and, sometimes, national communities.", "More grassroots efforts, called community building or community organizing, seek to empower individuals and groups of people by providing them with the skills they need to effect change in their own communities.", "These skills often assist in building political power through the formation of large social groups working for a common agenda.", "Community development practitioners must understand both how to work with individuals and how to affect communities' positions within the context of larger social institutions.", "Public administrators, in contrast, need to understand community development in the context of rural and urban development, housing and economic development, and community, organizational and business development.Formal accredited programs conducted by universities, as part of degree granting institutions, are often used to build a knowledge base to drive curricula in public administration, sociology and community studies.", "The General Social Survey from the National Opinion Research Center at the University of Chicago and the Saguaro Seminar at the Harvard Kennedy School are examples of national community development in the United States.", "The Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs at Syracuse University in New York State offers core courses in community and economic development, and in areas ranging from non-profit development to US budgeting (federal to local, community funds).", "In the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has led in providing extensive research in the field through its ''Community Development Journal,'' used worldwide by sociologists and community development practitioners.At the intersection between community ''development'' and community ''building'' are a number of programs and organizations with community development tools.", "One example of this is the program of the Asset Based Community Development Institute of Northwestern University.", "The institute makes available downloadable tools to assess community assets and make connections between non-profit groups and other organizations that can help in community building.", "The Institute focuses on helping communities develop by \"mobilizing neighborhood assets\" – building from the inside out rather than the outside in.", "In the disability field, community building was prevalent in the 1980s and 1990s with roots in John McKnight's approaches.===Community building and organizing===The anti-war affinity group \"Collateral Damage\" protesting the Iraq WarIn ''The Different Drum: Community-Making and Peace'' (1987) Scott Peck argues that the almost accidental sense of community that exists at times of crisis can be consciously built.", "Peck believes that conscious community building is a process of deliberate design based on the knowledge and application of certain rules.", "He states that this process goes through four stages:# '''Pseudocommunity''': When people first come together, they try to be \"nice\" and present what they feel are their most personable and friendly characteristics.# '''Chaos''': People move beyond the inauthenticity of pseudo-community and feel safe enough to present their \"shadow\" selves.", "# '''Emptiness''': Moves beyond the attempts to fix, heal and convert of the chaos stage, when all people become capable of acknowledging their own woundedness and brokenness, common to human beings.# '''True community''': Deep respect and true listening for the needs of the other people in this community.In 1991, Peck remarked that building a sense of community is easy but maintaining this sense of community is difficult in the modern world.", "An interview with M. Scott Peck by Alan Atkisson.", "''In Context'' #29, p. 26.The three basic types of community organizing are grassroots organizing, coalition building, and \"institution-based community organizing\", (also called \"broad-based community organizing\", an example of which is faith-based community organizing, or Congregation-based Community Organizing).Community building can use a wide variety of practices, ranging from simple events (e.g., potlucks, small book clubs) to larger-scale efforts (e.g., mass festivals, construction projects that involve local participants rather than outside contractors).Community building that is geared toward citizen action is usually termed \"community organizing\".", "In these cases, organized community groups seek accountability from elected officials and increased direct representation within decision-making bodies.", "Where good-faith negotiations fail, these constituency-led organizations seek to pressure the decision-makers through a variety of means, including picketing, boycotting, sit-ins, petitioning, and electoral politics.", "Community organizing can focus on more than just resolving specific issues.", "Organizing often means building a widely accessible power structure, often with the end goal of distributing power equally throughout the community.", "Community organizers generally seek to build groups that are open and democratic in governance.", "Such groups facilitate and encourage consensus decision-making with a focus on the general health of the community rather than a specific interest group.If communities are developed based on something they share in common, whether location or values, then one challenge for developing communities is how to incorporate individuality and differences.", "Rebekah Nathan suggests in her book, ''My Freshman Year'', we are drawn to developing communities totally based on sameness, despite stated commitments to diversity, such as those found on university websites." ], [ "Types of community", "Participants in Diana Leafe Christian's \"Heart of a Healthy Community\" seminar circle during an afternoon session at O.U.R.", "EcovillageA number of ways to categorize types of community have been proposed.", "One such breakdown is as follows:# '''Location-based Communities''': range from the local neighbourhood, suburb, village, town or city, region, nation or even the planet as a whole.", "These are also called '''communities of place'''.# '''Identity-based Communities''': range from the local clique, sub-culture, ethnic group, religious, multicultural or pluralistic civilisation, or the global community cultures of today.", "They may be included as ''communities of need'' or ''identity'', such as disabled persons, or frail aged people.# '''Organizationally-based Communities''': range from communities organized informally around family or network-based guilds and associations to more formal incorporated associations, political decision-making structures, economic enterprises, or professional associations at a small, national or international scale.# '''Intentional Communities''': a mix of all three previous types, these are highly cohesive residential communities with a common social or spiritual purpose, ranging from monasteries and ashrams to modern ecovillages and housing cooperatives.The usual categorizations of community relations have a number of problems: (1) they tend to give the impression that a particular community can be defined as just this kind or another; (2) they tend to conflate modern and customary community relations; (3) they tend to take sociological categories such as ethnicity or race as given, forgetting that different ethnically defined persons live in different kinds of communities—grounded, interest-based, diasporic, etc.In response to these problems, Paul James and his colleagues have developed a taxonomy that maps community relations, and recognizes that actual communities can be characterized by different kinds of relations at the same time:# '''Grounded community relations'''.", "This involves enduring attachment to particular places and particular people.", "It is the dominant form taken by customary and tribal communities.", "In these kinds of communities, the land is fundamental to identity.# '''Life-style community relations'''.", "This involves giving primacy to communities coming together around particular chosen ways of life, such as morally charged or interest-based relations or just living or working in the same location.", "Hence the following sub-forms:## community-life as morally bounded, a form taken by many traditional faith-based communities.## community-life as interest-based, including sporting, leisure-based and business communities which come together for regular moments of engagement.## community-life as proximately-related, where neighbourhood or commonality of association forms a community of convenience, or a community of place (see below).# '''Projected community relations'''.", "This is where a community is self-consciously treated as an entity to be projected and re-created.", "It can be projected as through thin advertising slogan, for example gated community, or can take the form of ongoing associations of people who seek political integration, communities of practice based on professional projects, associative communities which seek to enhance and support individual creativity, autonomy and mutuality.", "A nation is one of the largest forms of projected or imagined community.In these terms, communities can be nested and/or intersecting; one community can contain another—for example a location-based community may contain a number of ethnic communities.", "Both lists above can be used in a cross-cutting matrix in relation to each other." ], [ "Internet communities", "In general, virtual communities value knowledge and information as currency or social resource.", "What differentiates virtual communities from their physical counterparts is the extent and impact of \"weak ties\", which are the relationships acquaintances or strangers form to acquire information through online networks.", "Relationships among members in a virtual community tend to focus on information exchange about specific topics.", "A survey conducted by Pew Internet and The American Life Project in 2001 found those involved in entertainment, professional, and sports virtual-groups focused their activities on obtaining information.An epidemic of bullying and harassment has arisen from the exchange of information between strangers, especially among teenagers, in virtual communities.", "Despite attempts to implement anti-bullying policies, Sheri Bauman, professor of counselling at the University of Arizona, claims the \"most effective strategies to prevent bullying\" may cost companies revenue.Virtual Internet-mediated communities can interact with offline real-life activity, potentially forming strong and tight-knit groups such as QAnon." ], [ "See also", "* Circles of Sustainability* Communitarianism* Community theatre* Engaged theory* Outline of community* Wikipedia community" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Barzilai, Gad.", "2003.", "''Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities.''", "Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.", "* Beck, U.", "1992.", "''Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity.''", "London: Sage: 2000.", "''What is globalization?''", "Cambridge: Polity Press.", "* Chavis, D.M., Hogge, J.H., McMillan, D.W., & Wandersman, A.", "1986.", "\"Sense of community through Brunswick's lens: A first look.\"", "''Journal of Community Psychology'', 14(1), 24–40.", "* Chipuer, H.M., & Pretty, G.M.H.", "(1999).", "A review of the Sense of Community Index: Current uses, factor structure, reliability, and further development.", "''Journal of Community Psychology'', 27(6), 643–658.", "* Christensen, K., et al.", "(2003).", "''Encyclopedia of Community.''", "4 volumes.", "Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.", "* Cohen, A. P.", "1985.", "''The Symbolic Construction of Community.''", "Routledge: New York.", "* Durkheim, Émile.", "1950 1895 ''The Rules of Sociological Method''.", "Translated by S.A. Solovay and J.H.", "Mueller.", "New York: The Free Press.", "* Cox, F., J. Erlich, J. Rothman, and J. Tropman.", "1970.", "''Strategies of Community Organization: A Book of Readings.''", "Itasca, IL: F.E.", "Peacock Publishers.", "* Effland, R. 1998.The Cultural Evolution of Civilizations Mesa Community College.", "* Giddens, A.", "1999.", "\"Risk and Responsibility\" ''Modern Law Review'' 62(1): 1–10.", "* * Lenski, G.", "1974.", "''Human Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology.''", "New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.* Long, D.A., & Perkins, D.D.", "(2003).", "Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Sense of Community Index and Development of a Brief SCI.", "''Journal of Community Psychology'', 31, 279–296.", "* Lyall, Scott, ed.", "(2016).", "''Community in Modern Scottish Literature''.", "Brill \| Rodopi: Leiden \| Boston.", "* Nancy, Jean-Luc.", "''La Communauté désœuvrée'' – philosophical questioning of the concept of community and the possibility of encountering a non-subjective concept of it* * Newman, D.", "2005.", "''Sociology: Exploring the Architecture of Everyday Life,'' Chapter 5.", "\"Building Identity: Socialization\" Pine Forge Press.", "Retrieved: 2006-08-05.", "* Putnam, R.D.", "2000.", "''Bowling Alone: The collapse and revival of American community.''", "New York: Simon & Schuster* Sarason, S.B.", "1974.", "''The psychological sense of community: Prospects for a community psychology.''", "San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.", "1986.", "\"Commentary: The emergence of a conceptual center.\"", "''Journal of Community Psychology'', 14, 405–407.", "* Smith, M.K.", "2001.Community.", "''Encyclopedia of informal education''.", "Last updated: January 28, 2005.Retrieved: 2006-07-15." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Community college" ], [ "Introduction", "Long Beach City College in Long Beach, CaliforniaLos Angeles City College campus in East Hollywood, California, c. in 1922A '''community college''' is a type of undergraduate higher education institution, generally leading to an associate degree, certificate, or diploma.", "The term can have different meanings in different countries: many community colleges have an \"open enrollment\" for students who have graduated from high school (also known as senior secondary school or upper secondary school).", "The term usually refers to a higher educational institution that provides workforce education and college transfer academic programs.", "Some institutions maintain athletic teams and dormitories similar to their university counterparts." ], [ "Australia", "In Australia, the term \"community college\" refers to small private businesses running short (e.g.", "six weeks) courses generally of a self-improvement or hobbyist nature.", "Equivalent to the American notion of community colleges are Technical and Further Education colleges or TAFEs; these are institutions regulated mostly at state and territory level.", "There are also an increasing number of private providers colloquially called \"colleges\".TAFEs and other providers carry on the tradition of adult education, which was established in Australia around the mid-19th century, when evening classes were held to help adults enhance their numeracy and literacy skills.", "Most Australian universities can also be traced back to such forerunners, although obtaining a university charter has always changed their nature.", "In TAFEs and colleges today, courses are designed for personal development of an individual or for employment outcomes.", "Educational programs cover a variety of topics such as arts, languages, business and lifestyle.", "They usually are scheduled to run two, three or four days of the week, depending on the level of the course undertaken.", "A Certificate I may only run for 4 hours twice a week for a term of 9 weeks.", "A full-time Diploma course might have classes 4 days per week for a year (36 weeks).", "Some courses may be offered in the evenings or weekends to accommodate people working full-time.", "Funding for colleges may come from government grants and course fees.", "Many are not-for-profit organisations.", "Such TAFES are located in metropolitan, regional and rural locations of Australia.Education offered by TAFEs and colleges has changed over the years.", "By the 1980s, many colleges had recognised a community need for computer training.", "Since then thousands of people have increased skills through IT courses.", "The majority of colleges by the late 20th century had also become Registered Training Organisations.", "They offer individuals a nurturing, non-traditional education venue to gain skills that better prepare them for the workplace and potential job openings.", "TAFEs and colleges have not traditionally offered bachelor's degrees, instead providing pathway arrangements with universities to continue towards degrees.", "The American innovation of the associate degree is being developed at some institutions.", "Certificate courses I to IV, diplomas and advanced diplomas are typically offered, the latter deemed equivalent to an undergraduate qualification, albeit typically in more vocational areas.", "Recently, some TAFE institutes (and private providers) have also become higher education providers in their own right and are now starting to offer bachelor's degree programs." ], [ "Canada", "In Canada, colleges are adult educational institutions that provide higher education and tertiary education, and grant certificates and diplomas.", "Alternatively, Canadian colleges are often called \"institutes\" or \"polytechnic institutes\".", "As well, in Ontario, the 24 colleges of applied arts and technology have been mandated to offer their own stand-alone degrees as well as to offer joint degrees with universities through \"articulation agreements\" that often result in students emerging with both a diploma and a degree.", "Thus, for example, the University of Guelph \"twins\" with Humber College and York University does the same with Seneca College.", "More recently, however, colleges have been offering a variety of their own degrees, often in business, technology, science, and other technical fields.", "Each province has its own educational system, as prescribed by the Canadian federalism model of governance.", "In the mid-1960s and early 1970s, most Canadian colleges began to provide practical education and training for the emerging and booming generation, and for immigrants from around the world who were entering Canada in increasing numbers at that time.", "A formative trend was the merging of the then separate vocational training and adult education (night school) institutions.Canadian colleges are either publicly funded or private post-secondary institutions (run for profit).In terms of academic pathways, Canadian colleges and universities collaborate with each other with the purpose of providing college students the opportunity to academically upgrade their education.", "Students can transfer their diplomas and earn transfer credits through their completed college credits towards undergraduate university degrees.The term associate degree is used in western Canada to refer to a two-year college arts or science degree, similar to how the term is used in the United States.", "In other parts of Canada, the term advanced degree is used to indicate a three- or four-year college program.In Quebec, three years is the norm for a university degree because a year of credit is earned in the CÉGEP (college) system.", "Even when speaking in English, people often refer to all colleges as Cégeps; however, the term is an acronym more correctly applied specifically to the French-language public system: Collège d'enseignement général et professionnel (CEGEP); in English: College of General and Vocational Education.", "The word \"college\" can also refer to a private high school in Quebec.", "; Canadian community college systems* List of colleges in Canada* Colleges and Institutes Canada (CICan) – publicly funded educational institutions; formerly the Association of Canadian Community Colleges (ACCC)* National Association of Career Colleges – privately funded educational institutions; formerly the Association of Canadian Career Colleges" ], [ "India", "In India, 98 community colleges are recognized by the University Grants Commission.", "The courses offered by these colleges are diplomas, advance diplomas and certificate courses.", "The duration of these courses usually ranges from six months to two years." ], [ "Malaysia", "A community college in Johor, MalaysiaCommunity colleges in Malaysia are a network of educational institutions whereby vocational and technical skills training could be provided at all levels for school leavers before they entered the workforce.", "The community colleges also provide an infrastructure for rural communities to gain skills training through short courses as well as providing access to a post-secondary education.At the moment, most community colleges award qualifications up to Level 3 in the Malaysian Qualifications Framework (Certificate 3) in both the Skills sector (Sijil Kemahiran Malaysia or the Malaysian Skills Certificate) as well as the Vocational and Training sector but the number of community colleges that are starting to award Level 4 qualifications (Diploma) are increasing.", "This is two levels below a bachelor's degree (Level 6 in the MQF) and students within the system who intend to further their studies to that level will usually seek entry into Advanced Diploma programs in public universities, polytechnics or accredited private providers." ], [ "Philippines", "In the Philippines, a community school functions as elementary or secondary school at daytime and towards the end of the day convert into a community college.", "This type of institution offers night classes under the supervision of the same principal, and the same faculty members who are given part-time college teaching load.The concept of community college dates back to the time of the former Minister of Education, Culture and Sports (MECS) that had under its wings the Bureaus of Elementary Education, Secondary Education, Higher Education and Vocational-Technical Education.", "MECS Secretary, Cecilio Putong, who in 1971 wrote that a community school is a school established in the community, by the community, and for the community itself.", "Pedro T. Orata of Pangasinan shared the same idea, hence the establishment of a community college, now called the City College of Urdaneta.A community college like the one in Abuyog, Leyte can operate with only a PHP 124,000 annual budget in a two-story structure housing more than 700 students." ], [ "United Kingdom", "Except for Scotland, this term is rarely used in the United Kingdom.", "When it is, a community college is a school which not only provides education for the school-age population (11–18) of the locality, but also additional services and education to adults and other members of the community.", "This education includes but is not limited to sports, adult literacy and lifestyle education.", "Usually when students finish their secondary school studies at age 16, they move on to a sixth form college where they study for their A-levels (although some secondary schools have integrated sixth forms).", "After the two-year A-level period, they may proceed to a college of further education or a university.", "The former is also known as a technical college." ], [ "United States", "Joliet Junior College main campus, in Joliet, Illinois, established in 1901 as the first community college in the U.S.Fullerton College in Fullerton, California has been in continuous operation since 1913, making it the nation's longest-operating community collegeMonroe Community College in Rochester, New YorkCollin College in Plano, TexasIn the United States, community colleges, sometimes called junior colleges, technical colleges, two-year colleges, or city colleges, are primarily public institutions providing tertiary education, also known as continuing education, that focuses on certificates, diplomas, and associate degrees.", "After graduating from a community college, some students transfer to a liberal arts college or university for two to three years to complete a bachelor's degree.Before the 1970s, community colleges in the United States were more commonly referred to as junior colleges.", "That term is still used at some institutions.", "Public community colleges primarily attract and accept students from the local community and are usually supported by local tax revenue.", "They usually work with local and regional businesses to ensure students are being prepared for the local workforce." ], [ "Research", "Some research organizations and publications focus upon the activities of community college, junior college, and technical college institutions.", "Many of these institutions and organizations present the most current research and practical outcomes at annual community college conferences.", "* The American Association of Community Colleges has provided oversight on community college research since the 1920s.", "AACC publishes a research journal called the ''Community College Journal''.", "* The Community College Research Center (CCRC) at Teachers College, Columbia University, has been conducting research on community colleges since 1996 to identify barriers to students' post-secondary access and promising solutions.", "CCRC's publishes research reports, briefs, and resources geared toward a variety of community college stakeholders, including college and college system leaders, faculty and support staff, policymakers, and institutional researchers.", "* The Association of Community College Trustees (ACCT) has provided education for community college boards of directors and advocacy for community colleges since 1972.ACCT President and CEO J. Noah Brown published a book about the past, present, and future of community colleges, ''Charting a New Course for Community Colleges: Aligning Policies with Practice''.", "* The Center for Community College Student Engagement at the University of Texas at Austin administers surveys and provides data analysis support to member colleges regarding various factors of student engagement and involvement in community colleges in the United States and Canada.", "* The Office of Community College Research and Leadership at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign studies policies, programs, and practices designed to enhance outcomes for diverse youth and adults who seek to transition to and through college to employment.", "OCCRL's research spans the P-20 education continuum, with an intense focus on how community colleges impact education and employment outcomes for diverse learners.", "Results of OCCRL's studies of pathways and programs of study, extending from high school to community colleges and universities and to employment, are disseminated nationally and internationally.", "Reports and materials are derived from new knowledge captured and disseminated through OCCRL's website, scholarly publications, and other vehicles.Several peer-reviewed journals extensively publish research on community colleges:* ''Community College Journal of Research and Practice''* ''Community College Review''* ''The College Quarterly''* ''Journal of Applied Research in the Community College''* ''Journal of Transformative Leadership and Policy Studies''* ''New Directions for Community Colleges''" ], [ "See also", "* Articulation (education)* Distance learning* E-learning* Folk high school* Junior college* Lifelong learning; In Australia:* Technical and further education* Workers' Educational Association, also in the UK; In the Philippines:* Association of Local Colleges and Universities* Local college and university; In the UK:* Further education" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Baker, G. A. III (1994).", "A handbook on the community college in America: Its history, mission, and management.", "Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.", "* Cohen, A.M., Brawer, F.B.", "(2003) The American Community College, 4th edition.", "San Francisco: Jossey Bass.", "* Dougherty, K. J.", "(1994).", "The contradictory college: The conflicting origins, impacts, and futures of the community college.", "Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.", "* Frye, J. H. (1992).", "The vision of the public junior college, 1900–1940.Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.", "* Kasper, H.T.", "(2002).", "The changing role of community college.", "Occupational Outlook Quarterly, 46(4), 14–21." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Civil Rights Memorial" ], [ "Introduction", "The Civil Rights MemorialThe '''Civil Rights Memorial''' is an American memorial in Montgomery, Alabama, created by Maya Lin.", "The names of 41 people are inscribed on the granite fountain as martyrs who were killed in the civil rights movement.", "The memorial is sponsored by the Southern Poverty Law Center." ], [ "Design", "The names included in the memorial belong to those who were killed between 1955 and 1968.The dates chosen represent a time when legalized segregation was prominent.", "In 1956 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in ''Brown v. Board of Education'' that racial segregation in schools was unlawful and 1968 is the year of the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.", "The monument was created by Maya Lin, who also created the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington, D.C.", "The Civil Rights Memorial was dedicated in 1989.The concept of Lin's design is based on the soothing and healing effect of water.", "It was inspired by a passage from King's 1963 \"I Have a Dream\" speech \"...we will not be satisfied \"until justice rolls down like waters and righteousness like a mighty stream...\" The quotation in the passage, which is inscribed on the memorial, is a direct paraphrase of Amos 5:24, as translated in the American Standard Version of the Bible.", "The memorial is a fountain in the form of an asymmetric inverted stone cone.", "A film of water flows over the base of the cone, which contains the 41 names included.", "It is possible to touch the smooth film of water and to alter it temporarily, which quickly returns to smoothness.", "The memorial is designed in a timeline manner.", "It begins with Brown v. Board in 1954, and ends with Martin Luther King Jr.'s assassination in 1968." ], [ "Tours and location", "The memorial is in downtown Montgomery, at 400 Washington Avenue, in an open plaza in front of the Civil Rights Memorial Center, which was the offices of the Southern Poverty Law Center until it moved across the street into a new building in 2001.The memorial may be visited freely 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.The Civil Rights Memorial Center offers guided group tours, lasting approximately one hour.", "Tours are available by appointment, Monday to Saturday.The memorial is only a few blocks from other historic sites, including the Dexter Avenue King Memorial Baptist Church, the Alabama State Capitol, the Alabama Department of Archives and History, the corners where Claudette Colvin and Rosa Parks boarded buses in 1955 on which they would later refuse to give up their seats, and the Rosa Parks Library and Museum." ], [ "Names included", "===\"Civil Rights Martyrs\"===The 41 names included in the Civil Rights Memorial are those of:* Louis Allen* Willie Brewster* Benjamin Brown* Johnnie Mae Chappell* James Chaney* Addie Mae Collins* Vernon Dahmer* Jonathan Daniels* Henry Hezekiah Dee* Roman Ducksworth Jr.* Willie Edwards* Medgar Evers* Andrew Goodman* Paul Guihard* Samuel Hammond Jr.* Jimmie Lee Jackson* Wharlest Jackson* Martin Luther King Jr.* Bruce W. Klunder* George W. Lee* Herbert Lee* Viola Liuzzo* Denise McNair* Delano Herman Middleton* Charles Eddie Moore* Oneal Moore* William Lewis Moore* Mack Charles Parker* Lemuel Penn* James Reeb* John Earl Reese* Carole Robertson* Michael Schwerner* Henry Ezekial Smith* Lamar Smith* Emmett Till* Clarence Triggs* Virgil Lamar Ware* Cynthia Wesley* Ben Chester White* Sammy Younge Jr.=== \"The Forgotten\" ===\"The Forgotten\" are 74 people who are identified in a display at the Civil Rights Memorial Center.", "These names were not inscribed on the Memorial because there was insufficient information about their deaths at the time the Memorial was created.", "However, it is thought that these people were killed as a result of racially motivated violence between 1952 and 1968.", "* Andrew Lee Anderson* Frank Andrews* Isadore Banks* Larry Bolden* James Brazier* Thomas Brewer* Hilliard Brooks* Charles Brown* Jessie Brown* Carrie Brumfield* Eli Brumfield* Silas (Ernest) Caston* Clarence Cloninger* Willie Countryman* Vincent Dahmon* Woodrow Wilson Daniels* Joseph Hill Dumas* Pheld Evans* J. E. Evanston* Mattie Greene* Jasper Greenwood* Jimmie Lee Griffith* A. C. Hall* Rogers Hamilton* Collie Hampton* Alphonso Harris* Izell Henry* Arthur James Hill* Ernest Hunter* Luther Jackson* Ernest Jells* Joe Franklin Jeter* Marshall Johnson* John Lee* Willie Henry Lee* Richard Lillard* George Love* Robert McNair* Maybelle Mahone* Sylvester Maxwell* Clinton Melton* James Andrew Miller* Booker T. Mixon* Nehemiah Montgomery* Frank Morris* James Earl Motley* Sam O'Quinn* Hubert Orsby* Larry Payne* C. H. Pickett* Albert Pitts* David Pitts* Ernest McPharland* Jimmy Powell* William Roy Prather* Johnny Queen* Donald Rasberry* Fred Robinson* Johnny Robinson* Willie Joe Sanford* Marshall Scott Jr.* Jessie James Shelby* W. G. Singleton* Ed Smith* Eddie James Stewart* Isaiah Taylor* Freddie Lee Thomas* Saleam Triggs* Hubert Varner* Clifton Walker* James Waymers* John Wesley Wilder* Rodell Williamson* Archie Wooden" ], [ "See also", "* Civil rights movement in popular culture* History of fountains in the United States* Title I of the Civil Rights Act of 1968" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official Site* Civil Rights Martyrs" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Charles Babbage" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Charles Babbage''' (; 26 December 1791 – 18 October 1871) was an English polymath.", "A mathematician, philosopher, inventor and mechanical engineer, Babbage originated the concept of a digital programmable computer.Babbage is considered by some to be \"father of the computer\".", "Babbage is credited with inventing the first mechanical computer, the Difference Engine, that eventually led to more complex electronic designs, though all the essential ideas of modern computers are to be found in Babbage's Analytical Engine, programmed using a principle openly borrowed from the Jacquard loom.", "Babbage had a broad range of interests in addition to his work on computers covered in his 1832 book ''Economy of Manufactures and Machinery''.", "He was an important figure in the social scene in London, and is credited with importing the \"scientific soirée\" from France with his well-attended Saturday evening soirées.", "His varied work in other fields has led him to be described as \"pre-eminent\" among the many polymaths of his century.Babbage, who died before the complete successful engineering of many of his designs, including his Difference Engine and Analytical Engine, remained a prominent figure in the ideating of computing.", "Parts of Babbage's incomplete mechanisms are on display in the Science Museum in London.", "In 1991, a functioning difference engine was constructed from Babbage's original plans.", "Built to tolerances achievable in the 19th century, the success of the finished engine indicated that Babbage's machine would have worked." ], [ "Early life", "Portrait of Charles Babbage ()Babbage's birthplace is disputed, but according to the ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' he was most likely born at 44 Crosby Row, Walworth Road, London, England.", "A blue plaque on the junction of Larcom Street and Walworth Road commemorates the event.His date of birth was given in his obituary in ''The Times'' as 26 December 1792; but then a nephew wrote to say that Babbage was born one year earlier, in 1791.The parish register of St. Mary's, Newington, London, shows that Babbage was baptised on 6 January 1792, supporting a birth year of 1791.Babbage Babbage was one of four children of Benjamin Babbage and Betsy Plumleigh Teape.", "His father was a banking partner of William Praed in founding Praed's & Co. of Fleet Street, London, in 1801.In 1808, the Babbage family moved into the old Rowdens house in East Teignmouth.", "Around the age of eight, Babbage was sent to a country school in Alphington near Exeter to recover from a life-threatening fever.", "For a short time, he attended King Edward VI Grammar School in Totnes, South Devon, but his health forced him back to private tutors for a time.Babbage then joined the 30-student Holmwood Academy, in Baker Street, Enfield, Middlesex, under the Reverend Stephen Freeman.", "The academy had a library that prompted Babbage's love of mathematics.", "He studied with two more private tutors after leaving the academy.", "The first was a clergyman near Cambridge; through him Babbage encountered Charles Simeon and his evangelical followers, but the tuition was not what he needed.", "He was brought home, to study at the Totnes school: this was at age 16 or 17.The second was an Oxford tutor, under whom Babbage reached a level in Classics sufficient to be accepted by the University of Cambridge." ], [ "At the University of Cambridge", "Babbage arrived at Trinity College, Cambridge, in October 1810.He was already self-taught in some parts of contemporary mathematics; he had read Robert Woodhouse, Joseph Louis Lagrange, and Marie Agnesi.", "As a result, he was disappointed in the standard mathematical instruction available at the university.Babbage, John Herschel, George Peacock, and several other friends formed the Analytical Society in 1812; they were also close to Edward Ryan.", "As a student, Babbage was also a member of other societies such as The Ghost Club, concerned with investigating supernatural phenomena, and the Extractors Club, dedicated to liberating its members from the madhouse, should any be committed to one.In 1812, Babbage transferred to Peterhouse, Cambridge.", "He was the top mathematician there, but did not graduate with honours.", "He instead received a degree without examination in 1814.He had defended a thesis that was considered blasphemous in the preliminary public disputation, but it is not known whether this fact is related to his not sitting the examination." ], [ "After Cambridge", "Considering his reputation, Babbage quickly made progress.", "He lectured to the Royal Institution on astronomy in 1815, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1816.After graduation, on the other hand, he applied for positions unsuccessfully, and had little in the way of a career.", "In 1816 he was a candidate for a teaching job at Haileybury College; he had recommendations from James Ivory and John Playfair, but lost out to Henry Walter.", "In 1819, Babbage and Herschel visited Paris and the Society of Arcueil, meeting leading French mathematicians and physicists.", "That year Babbage applied to be professor at the University of Edinburgh, with the recommendation of Pierre Simon Laplace; the post went to William Wallace.With Herschel, Babbage worked on the electrodynamics of Arago's rotations, publishing in 1825.Their explanations were only transitional, being picked up and broadened by Michael Faraday.", "The phenomena are now part of the theory of eddy currents, and Babbage and Herschel missed some of the clues to unification of electromagnetic theory, staying close to Ampère's force law.Babbage purchased the actuarial tables of George Barrett, who died in 1821 leaving unpublished work, and surveyed the field in 1826 in ''Comparative View of the Various Institutions for the Assurance of Lives''.", "This interest followed a project to set up an insurance company, prompted by Francis Baily and mooted in 1824, but not carried out.", "Babbage did calculate actuarial tables for that scheme, using Equitable Society mortality data from 1762 onwards.During this whole period, Babbage depended awkwardly on his father's support, given his father's attitude to his early marriage, of 1814: he and Edward Ryan wedded the Whitmore sisters.", "He made a home in Marylebone in London and established a large family.", "On his father's death in 1827, Babbage inherited a large estate (value around £100,000, equivalent to £ or $ today), making him independently wealthy.", "After his wife's death in the same year he spent time travelling.", "In Italy he met Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany, foreshadowing a later visit to Piedmont.", "In April 1828 he was in Rome, and relying on Herschel to manage the difference engine project, when he heard that he had become a professor at Cambridge, a position he had three times failed to obtain (in 1820, 1823 and 1826).===Royal Astronomical Society===Babbage was instrumental in founding the Royal Astronomical Society in 1820, initially known as the Astronomical Society of London.", "Its original aims were to reduce astronomical calculations to a more standard form, and to circulate data.", "These directions were closely connected with Babbage's ideas on computation, and in 1824 he won its Gold Medal, cited \"for his invention of an engine for calculating mathematical and astronomical tables\".Babbage's motivation to overcome errors in tables by mechanisation had been a commonplace since Dionysius Lardner wrote about it in 1834 in the ''Edinburgh Review'' (under Babbage's guidance).", "The context of these developments is still debated.", "Babbage's own account of the origin of the difference engine begins with the Astronomical Society's wish to improve ''The Nautical Almanac''.", "Babbage and Herschel were asked to oversee a trial project, to recalculate some part of those tables.", "With the results to hand, discrepancies were found.", "This was in 1821 or 1822, and was the occasion on which Babbage formulated his idea for mechanical computation.", "The issue of the ''Nautical Almanac'' is now described as a legacy of a polarisation in British science caused by attitudes to Sir Joseph Banks, who had died in 1820.A portion of the difference engineBabbage studied the requirements to establish a modern postal system, with his friend Thomas Frederick Colby, concluding there should be a uniform rate that was put into effect with the introduction of the Uniform Fourpenny Post supplanted by the Uniform Penny Post in 1839 and 1840.Colby was another of the founding group of the Society.", "He was also in charge of the Survey of Ireland.", "Herschel and Babbage were present at a celebrated operation of that survey, the remeasuring of the Lough Foyle baseline.===British Lagrangian School===The Analytical Society had initially been no more than an undergraduate provocation.", "During this period it had some more substantial achievements.", "In 1816 Babbage, Herschel and Peacock published a translation from French of the lectures of Sylvestre Lacroix, which was then the state-of-the-art calculus textbook.Reference to Lagrange in calculus terms marks out the application of what are now called formal power series.", "British mathematicians had used them from about 1730 to 1760.As re-introduced, they were not simply applied as notations in differential calculus.", "They opened up the fields of functional equations (including the difference equations fundamental to the difference engine) and operator (D-module) methods for differential equations.", "The analogy of difference and differential equations was notationally changing Δ to D, as a \"finite\" difference becomes \"infinitesimal\".", "These symbolic directions became popular, as operational calculus, and pushed to the point of diminishing returns.", "The Cauchy concept of limit was kept at bay.", "Woodhouse had already founded this second \"British Lagrangian School\" with its treatment of Taylor series as formal.In this context function composition is complicated to express, because the chain rule is not simply applied to second and higher derivatives.", "This matter was known to Woodhouse by 1803, who took from Louis François Antoine Arbogast what is now called Faà di Bruno's formula.", "In essence it was known to Abraham De Moivre (1697).", "Herschel found the method impressive, Babbage knew of it, and it was later noted by Ada Lovelace as compatible with the analytical engine.", "In the period to 1820 Babbage worked intensively on functional equations in general, and resisted both conventional finite differences and Arbogast's approach (in which Δ and D were related by the simple additive case of the exponential map).", "But via Herschel he was influenced by Arbogast's ideas in the matter of iteration, i.e.", "composing a function with itself, possibly many times.", "Writing in a major paper on functional equations in the ''Philosophical Transactions'' (1815/6), Babbage said his starting point was work of Gaspard Monge." ], [ "Academic", "From 1828 to 1839, Babbage was Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge.", "Not a conventional resident don, and inattentive to his teaching responsibilities, he wrote three topical books during this period of his life.", "He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1832.Babbage was out of sympathy with colleagues: George Biddell Airy, his predecessor as Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Trinity College, Cambridge, thought an issue should be made of his lack of interest in lecturing.", "Babbage planned to lecture in 1831 on political economy.", "Babbage's reforming direction looked to see university education more inclusive, universities doing more for research, a broader syllabus and more interest in applications; but William Whewell found the programme unacceptable.", "A controversy Babbage had with Richard Jones lasted for six years.", "He never did give a lecture.It was during this period that Babbage tried to enter politics.", "Simon Schaffer writes that his views of the 1830s included disestablishment of the Church of England, a broader political franchise, and inclusion of manufacturers as stakeholders.", "He twice stood for Parliament as a candidate for the borough of Finsbury.", "In 1832 he came in third among five candidates, missing out by some 500 votes in the two-member constituency when two other reformist candidates, Thomas Wakley and Christopher Temple, split the vote.", "In his memoirs Babbage related how this election brought him the friendship of Samuel Rogers: his brother Henry Rogers wished to support Babbage again, but died within days.", "In 1834 Babbage finished last among four.", "In 1832, Babbage, Herschel and Ivory were appointed Knights of the Royal Guelphic Order, however they were not subsequently made knights bachelor to entitle them to the prefix ''Sir'', which often came with appointments to that foreign order (though Herschel was later created a baronet).===\"Declinarians\", learned societies and the BAAS===''Letter to Sir Humphry Davy'', 1822Babbage now emerged as a polemicist.", "One of his biographers notes that all his books contain a \"campaigning element\".", "His ''Reflections on the Decline of Science and some of its Causes'' (1830) stands out, however, for its sharp attacks.", "It aimed to improve British science, and more particularly to oust Davies Gilbert as President of the Royal Society, which Babbage wished to reform.", "It was written out of pique, when Babbage hoped to become the junior secretary of the Royal Society, as Herschel was the senior, but failed because of his antagonism to Humphry Davy.", "Michael Faraday had a reply written, by Gerrit Moll, as ''On the Alleged Decline of Science in England'' (1831).", "On the front of the Royal Society Babbage had no impact, with the bland election of the Duke of Sussex to succeed Gilbert the same year.", "As a broad manifesto, on the other hand, his ''Decline'' led promptly to the formation in 1831 of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (BAAS).The ''Mechanics' Magazine'' in 1831 identified as Declinarians the followers of Babbage.", "In an unsympathetic tone it pointed out David Brewster writing in the ''Quarterly Review'' as another leader; with the barb that both Babbage and Brewster had received public money.In the debate of the period on statistics (''qua'' data collection) and what is now statistical inference, the BAAS in its Statistical Section (which owed something also to Whewell) opted for data collection.", "This Section was the sixth, established in 1833 with Babbage as chairman and John Elliot Drinkwater as secretary.", "The foundation of the Statistical Society followed.", "Babbage was its public face, backed by Richard Jones and Robert Malthus.===''On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures''===''On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures'', 1835Babbage's notation for machine parts, explanation from ''On a method of expressing by signs the action of machinery'' (1827) of his \"Mechanical Notation\", invented for his own use in understanding the work on the difference engine, and an influence on the conception of the analytical engineBabbage published ''On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures'' (1832), on the organisation of industrial production.", "It was an influential early work of operational research.", "John Rennie the Younger in addressing the Institution of Civil Engineers on manufacturing in 1846 mentioned mostly surveys in encyclopaedias, and Babbage's book was first an article in the ''Encyclopædia Metropolitana'', the form in which Rennie noted it, in the company of related works by John Farey Jr., Peter Barlow and Andrew Ure.", "From ''An essay on the general principles which regulate the application of machinery to manufactures and the mechanical arts'' (1827), which became the ''Encyclopædia Metropolitana'' article of 1829, Babbage developed the schematic classification of machines that, combined with discussion of factories, made up the first part of the book.", "The second part considered the \"domestic and political economy\" of manufactures.The book sold well, and quickly went to a fourth edition (1836).", "Babbage represented his work as largely a result of actual observations in factories, British and abroad.", "It was not, in its first edition, intended to address deeper questions of political economy; the second (late 1832) did, with three further chapters including one on piece rate.", "The book also contained ideas on rational design in factories, and profit sharing.====\"Babbage principle\"====In ''Economy of Machinery'' was described what is now called the \"Babbage principle\".", "It pointed out commercial advantages available with more careful division of labour.", "As Babbage himself noted, it had already appeared in the work of Melchiorre Gioia in 1815.The term was introduced in 1974 by Harry Braverman.", "Related formulations are the \"principle of multiples\" of Philip Sargant Florence, and the \"balance of processes\".What Babbage remarked is that skilled workers typically spend parts of their time performing tasks that are below their skill level.", "If the labour process can be divided among several workers, labour costs may be cut by assigning only high-skill tasks to high-cost workers, restricting other tasks to lower-paid workers.", "He also pointed out that training or apprenticeship can be taken as fixed costs; but that returns to scale are available by his approach of standardisation of tasks, therefore again favouring the factory system.", "His view of human capital was restricted to minimising the time period for recovery of training costs.====Publishing====Another aspect of the work was its detailed breakdown of the cost structure of book publishing.", "Babbage took the unpopular line, from the publishers' perspective, of exposing the trade's profitability.", "He went as far as to name the organisers of the trade's restrictive practices.", "Twenty years later he attended a meeting hosted by John Chapman to campaign against the Booksellers Association, still a cartel.====Influence====It has been written that \"what Arthur Young was to agriculture, Charles Babbage was to the factory visit and machinery\".", "Babbage's theories are said to have influenced the layout of the 1851 Great Exhibition, and his views had a strong effect on his contemporary George Julius Poulett Scrope.", "Karl Marx argued that the source of the productivity of the factory system was exactly the combination of the division of labour with machinery, building on Adam Smith, Babbage and Ure.", "Where Marx picked up on Babbage and disagreed with Smith was on the motivation for division of labour by the manufacturer: as Babbage did, he wrote that it was for the sake of profitability, rather than productivity, and identified an impact on the concept of a trade.John Ruskin went further, to oppose completely what manufacturing in Babbage's sense stood for.", "Babbage also affected the economic thinking of John Stuart Mill.", "George Holyoake saw Babbage's detailed discussion of profit sharing as substantive, in the tradition of Robert Owen and Charles Fourier, if requiring the attentions of a benevolent captain of industry, and ignored at the time.Charles Babbage's Saturday night soirées, held from 1828 into the 1840s, were important gathering places for prominent scientists, authors and aristocracy.", "Babbage is credited with importing the \"scientific soirée\" from France with his well-attended Saturday evening soirées.", "Works by Babbage and Ure were published in French translation in 1830; ''On the Economy of Machinery'' was translated in 1833 into French by Édouard Biot, and into German the same year by Gottfried Friedenberg.", "The French engineer and writer on industrial organisation Léon Lalanne was influenced by Babbage, but also by the economist Claude Lucien Bergery, in reducing the issues to \"technology\".", "William Jevons connected Babbage's \"economy of labour\" with his own labour experiments of 1870.The Babbage principle is an inherent assumption in Frederick Winslow Taylor's scientific management.Mary Everest Boole claimed that there was profound influence – via her uncle George Everest – of Indian thought in general and Indian logic, in particular, on Babbage and on her husband George Boole, as well as on Augustus De Morgan:Think what must have been the effect of the intense Hinduizing of three such men as Babbage, De Morgan, and George Boole on the mathematical atmosphere of 1830–65.What share had it in generating the Vector Analysis and the mathematics by which investigations in physical science are now conducted?", "===Natural theology===In 1837, responding to the series of eight ''Bridgewater Treatises'', Babbage published his ''Ninth Bridgewater Treatise'', under the title ''On the Power, Wisdom and Goodness of God, as manifested in the Creation''.", "In this work Babbage weighed in on the side of uniformitarianism in a current debate.", "He preferred the conception of creation in which a God-given natural law dominated, removing the need for continuous \"contrivance\".The book is a work of natural theology, and incorporates extracts from related correspondence of Herschel with Charles Lyell.", "Babbage put forward the thesis that God had the omnipotence and foresight to create as a divine legislator.", "In this book, Babbage dealt with relating interpretations between science and religion; on the one hand, he insisted that \"there exists no fatal collision between the words of Scripture and the facts of nature;\" on the other hand, he wrote that the Book of Genesis was not meant to be read literally in relation to scientific terms.", "Against those who said these were in conflict, he wrote \"that the contradiction they have imagined can have no real existence, and that whilst the testimony of Moses remains unimpeached, we may also be permitted to confide in the testimony of our senses.", "\"The ''Ninth Bridgewater Treatise'' was quoted extensively in ''Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation''.", "The parallel with Babbage's computing machines is made explicit, as allowing plausibility to the theory that transmutation of species could be pre-programmed.Plate from the ''Ninth Bridgewater Treatise'', showing a parametric family of algebraic curves acquiring isolated real pointsJonar Ganeri, author of ''Indian Logic'', believes Babbage may have been influenced by Indian thought; one possible route would be through Henry Thomas Colebrooke.", "Mary Everest Boole argues that Babbage was introduced to Indian thought in the 1820s by her uncle George Everest:Some time about 1825, Everest came to England for two or three years, and made a fast and lifelong friendship with Herschel and with Babbage, who was then quite young.", "I would ask any fair-minded mathematician to read Babbage's Ninth Bridgewater Treatise and compare it with the works of his contemporaries in England; and then ask himself whence came the peculiar conception of the nature of miracle which underlies Babbage's ideas of Singular Points on Curves (Chap, viii) – from European Theology or Hindu Metaphysic?", "Oh!", "how the English clergy of that day hated Babbage's book!=== Religious views ===Babbage was raised in the Protestant form of the Christian faith, his family having inculcated in him an orthodox form of worship.", "He explained:Rejecting the Athanasian Creed as a \"direct contradiction in terms\", in his youth he looked to Samuel Clarke's works on religion, of which ''Being and Attributes of God'' (1704) exerted a particularly strong influence on him.", "Later in life, Babbage concluded that \"the true value of the Christian religion rested, not on speculative theology ... but ... upon those doctrines of kindness and benevolence which that religion claims and enforces, not merely in favour of man himself but of every creature susceptible of pain or of happiness.", "\"In his autobiography ''Passages from the Life of a Philosopher'' (1864), Babbage wrote a whole chapter on the topic of religion, where he identified three sources of divine knowledge:# ''A priori'' or mystical experience# From Revelation# From the examination of the works of the CreatorHe stated, on the basis of the design argument, that studying the works of nature had been the more appealing evidence, and the one which led him to actively profess the existence of God.", "Advocating for natural theology, he wrote:Like Samuel Vince, Babbage also wrote a defence of the belief in divine miracles.", "Against objections previously posed by David Hume, Babbage advocated for the belief of divine agency, stating \"we must not measure the credibility or incredibility of an event by the narrow sphere of our own experience, nor forget that there is a Divine energy which overrides what we familiarly call the laws of nature.\"", "He alluded to the limits of human experience, expressing: \"all that we see in a miracle is an effect which is new to our observation, and whose cause is concealed.", "The cause may be beyond the sphere of our observation, and would be thus beyond the familiar sphere of nature; but this does not make the event a violation of any law of nature.", "The limits of man's observation lie within very narrow boundaries, and it would be arrogance to suppose that the reach of man's power is to form the limits of the natural world.\"" ], [ "Later life", "''The Illustrated London News'' (4 November 1871)The British Association was consciously modelled on the Deutsche Naturforscher-Versammlung, founded in 1822.It rejected romantic science as well as metaphysics, and started to entrench the divisions of science from literature, and professionals from amateurs.", "Belonging as he did to the \"Wattite\" faction in the BAAS, represented in particular by James Watt the younger, Babbage identified closely with industrialists.", "He wanted to go faster in the same directions, and had little time for the more gentlemanly component of its membership.", "Indeed, he subscribed to a version of conjectural history that placed industrial society as the culmination of human development (and shared this view with Herschel).", "A clash with Roderick Murchison led in 1838 to his withdrawal from further involvement.", "At the end of the same year he sent in his resignation as Lucasian professor, walking away also from the Cambridge struggle with Whewell.", "His interests became more focussed, on computation and metrology, and on international contacts.===Metrology programme===A project announced by Babbage was to tabulate all physical constants (referred to as \"constants of nature\", a phrase in itself a neologism), and then to compile an encyclopaedic work of numerical information.", "He was a pioneer in the field of \"absolute measurement\".", "His ideas followed on from those of Johann Christian Poggendorff, and were mentioned to Brewster in 1832.There were to be 19 categories of constants, and Ian Hacking sees these as reflecting in part Babbage's \"eccentric enthusiasms\".", "Babbage's paper ''On Tables of the Constants of Nature and Art'' was reprinted by the Smithsonian Institution in 1856, with an added note that the physical tables of Arnold Henry Guyot \"will form a part of the important work proposed in this article\".Exact measurement was also key to the development of machine tools.", "Here again Babbage is considered a pioneer, with Henry Maudslay, William Sellers, and Joseph Whitworth.===Engineer and inventor===Through the Royal Society Babbage acquired the friendship of the engineer Marc Brunel.", "It was through Brunel that Babbage knew of Joseph Clement, and so came to encounter the artisans whom he observed in his work on manufactures.", "Babbage provided an introduction for Isambard Kingdom Brunel in 1830, for a contact with the proposed Bristol & Birmingham Railway.", "He carried out studies, around 1838, to show the superiority of the broad gauge for railways, used by Brunel's Great Western Railway.In 1838, Babbage invented the pilot (also called a cow-catcher), the metal frame attached to the front of locomotives that clears the tracks of obstacles; he also constructed a dynamometer car.", "His eldest son, Benjamin Herschel Babbage, worked as an engineer for Brunel on the railways before emigrating to Australia in the 1850s.Babbage also invented an ophthalmoscope, which he gave to Thomas Wharton Jones for testing.", "Jones, however, ignored it.", "The device only came into use after being independently invented by Hermann von Helmholtz.===Cryptography===Babbage achieved notable results in cryptography, though this was still not known a century after his death.", "Letter frequency was category 18 of Babbage's tabulation project.", "Joseph Henry later defended interest in it, in the absence of the facts, as relevant to the management of movable type.As early as 1845, Babbage had solved a cipher that had been posed as a challenge by his nephew Henry Hollier, and in the process, he made a discovery about ciphers that were based on Vigenère tables.", "Specifically, he realised that enciphering plain text with a keyword rendered the cipher text subject to modular arithmetic.", "During the Crimean War of the 1850s, Babbage broke Vigenère's autokey cipher as well as the much weaker cipher that is called Vigenère cipher today.", "His discovery was kept a military secret, and was not published.", "Credit for the result was instead given to Friedrich Kasiski, a Prussian infantry officer, who made the same discovery some years later.", "However, in 1854, Babbage published the solution of a Vigenère cipher, which had been published previously in the ''Journal of the Society of Arts''.", "In 1855, Babbage also published a short letter, \"Cypher Writing\", in the same journal.", "Nevertheless, his priority was not established until 1985.===Public nuisances===Babbage involved himself in well-publicised but unpopular campaigns against public nuisances.", "He once counted all the broken panes of glass of a factory, publishing in 1857 a \"Table of the Relative Frequency of the Causes of Breakage of Plate Glass Windows\": Of 464 broken panes, 14 were caused by \"drunken men, women or boys\".Babbage's distaste for commoners (the Mob) included writing \"Observations of Street Nuisances\" in 1864, as well as tallying up 165 \"nuisances\" over a period of 80 days.", "He especially hated street music, and in particular the music of organ grinders, against whom he railed in various venues.", "The following quotation is typical:Babbage was not alone in his campaign.", "A convert to the cause was the MP Michael Thomas Bass.In the 1860s, Babbage also took up the anti-hoop-rolling campaign.", "He blamed hoop-rolling boys for driving their iron hoops under horses' legs, with the result that the rider is thrown and very often the horse breaks a leg.", "Babbage achieved a certain notoriety in this matter, being denounced in debate in Commons in 1864 for \"commencing a crusade against the popular game of tip-cat and the trundling of hoops.\"" ], [ "Computing pioneer", "Part of Charles Babbage's Difference Engine (#1), assembled after his death by his son, Henry Prevost Babbage (1824–1918), using parts found in Charles' laboratory.", "Whipple Museum of the History of Science, Cambridge, England.Babbage's machines were among the first mechanical computers.", "That they were not actually completed was largely because of funding problems and clashes of personality, most notably with George Biddell Airy, the Astronomer Royal.Babbage directed the building of some steam-powered machines that achieved some modest success, suggesting that calculations could be mechanised.", "For more than ten years he received government funding for his project, which amounted to £17,000, but eventually the Treasury lost confidence in him.While Babbage's machines were mechanical and unwieldy, their basic architecture was similar to that of a modern computer.", "The data and program memory were separated, operation was instruction-based, the control unit could make conditional jumps, and the machine had a separate I/O unit.===Background on mathematical tables===In Babbage's time, printed mathematical tables were calculated by human computers; in other words, by hand.", "They were central to navigation, science and engineering, as well as mathematics.", "Mistakes were known to occur in transcription as well as calculation.At Cambridge, Babbage saw the fallibility of this process, and the opportunity of adding mechanisation into its management.", "His own account of his path towards mechanical computation references a particular occasion: There was another period, seven years later, when his interest was aroused by the issues around computation of mathematical tables.", "The French official initiative by Gaspard de Prony, and its problems of implementation, were familiar to him.", "After the Napoleonic Wars came to a close, scientific contacts were renewed on the level of personal contact: in 1819 Charles Blagden was in Paris looking into the printing of the stalled de Prony project, and lobbying for the support of the Royal Society.", "In works of the 1820s and 1830s, Babbage referred in detail to de Prony's project.===Difference engine===The Science Museum's Difference Engine No.", "2, built from Babbage's designPortion of Babbage's difference engineBabbage began in 1822 with what he called the difference engine, made to compute values of polynomial functions.", "It was created to calculate a series of values automatically.", "By using the method of finite differences, it was possible to avoid the need for multiplication and division.For a prototype difference engine, Babbage brought in Joseph Clement to implement the design, in 1823.Clement worked to high standards, but his machine tools were particularly elaborate.", "Under the standard terms of business of the time, he could charge for their construction, and would also own them.", "He and Babbage fell out over costs around 1831.Some parts of the prototype survive in the Museum of the History of Science, Oxford.", "This prototype evolved into the \"first difference engine\".", "It remained unfinished and the finished portion is located at the Science Museum in London.", "This first difference engine would have been composed of around 25,000 parts, weighed , and would have been tall.", "Although Babbage received ample funding for the project, it was never completed.", "He later (1847–1849) produced detailed drawings for an improved version,\"Difference Engine No.", "2\", but did not receive funding from the British government.", "His design was finally constructed in 1989–1991, using his plans and 19th-century manufacturing tolerances.", "It performed its first calculation at the Science Museum, London, returning results to 31 digits.Nine years later, in 2000, the Science Museum completed the printer Babbage had designed for the difference engine.====Completed models====The Science Museum has constructed two Difference Engines according to Babbage's plans for the Difference Engine No 2.One is owned by the museum.", "The other, owned by the technology multimillionaire Nathan Myhrvold, went on exhibition at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California on 10 May 2008.The two models that have been constructed are not replicas.===Analytical Engine===Portion of the mill with a printing mechanism of the Analytical Engine, built by Charles Babbage, as displayed at the Science Museum (London)After the attempt at making the first difference engine fell through, Babbage worked to design a more complex machine called the Analytical Engine.", "He hired C. G. Jarvis, who had previously worked for Clement as a draughtsman.", "The Analytical Engine marks the transition from mechanised arithmetic to fully-fledged general purpose computation.", "It is largely on it that Babbage's standing as computer pioneer rests.The major innovation was that the Analytical Engine was to be programmed using punched cards: the Engine was intended to use loops of Jacquard's punched cards to control a mechanical calculator, which could use as input the results of preceding computations.", "The machine was also intended to employ several features subsequently used in modern computers, including sequential control, branching and looping.", "It would have been the first mechanical device to be, in principle, Turing-complete.", "The Engine was not a single physical machine, but rather a succession of designs that Babbage tinkered with until his death in 1871.Part of the Analytical Engine on display, in 1843, left of centre in this engraving of the King George III Museum in King's College, London===Ada Lovelace and Italian followers===Ada Lovelace, who corresponded with Babbage during his development of the Analytical Engine, is credited with developing an algorithm that would enable the Engine to calculate a sequence of Bernoulli numbers.", "Despite documentary evidence in Lovelace's own handwriting, some scholars dispute to what extent the ideas were Lovelace's own.", "For this achievement, she is often described as the first computer programmer; though no programming language had yet been invented.Lovelace also translated and wrote literature supporting the project.", "Describing the engine's programming by punch cards, she wrote: \"We may say most aptly that the Analytical Engine weaves algebraical patterns just as the Jacquard loom weaves flowers and leaves.", "\"Babbage visited Turin in 1840 at the invitation of Giovanni Plana, who had developed in 1831 an analog computing machine that served as a perpetual calendar.", "Here in 1840 in Turin, Babbage gave the only public explanation and lectures about the Analytical Engine.", "In 1842 Charles Wheatstone approached Lovelace to translate a paper of Luigi Menabrea, who had taken notes of Babbage's Turin talks; and Babbage asked her to add something of her own.", "Fortunato Prandi who acted as interpreter in Turin was an Italian exile and follower of Giuseppe Mazzini.===Swedish followers===Per Georg Scheutz wrote about the difference engine in 1830, and experimented in automated computation.", "After 1834 and Lardner's ''Edinburgh Review'' article he set up a project of his own, doubting whether Babbage's initial plan could be carried out.", "This he pushed through with his son, Edvard Scheutz.", "Another Swedish engine was that of Martin Wiberg (1860).===Legacy===In 2011, researchers in Britain proposed a multimillion-pound project, \"Plan 28\", to construct Babbage's Analytical Engine.", "Since Babbage's plans were continually being refined and were never completed, they intended to engage the public in the project and crowd-source the analysis of what should be built.", "It would have the equivalent of 675 bytes of memory, and run at a clock speed of about 7 Hz.", "They hoped to complete it by the 150th anniversary of Babbage's death, in 2021.Advances in MEMS and nanotechnology have led to recent high-tech experiments in mechanical computation.", "The benefits suggested include operation in high radiation or high temperature environments.", "These modern versions of mechanical computation were highlighted in ''The Economist'' in its special \"end of the millennium\" black cover issue in an article entitled \"Babbage's Last Laugh\".Due to his association with the town Babbage was chosen in 2007 to appear on the 5 Totnes pound note.", "An image of Babbage features in the British cultural icons section of the newly designed British passport in 2015." ], [ "Family", "Babbage's grave at Kensal Green Cemetery, London, photographed in 2014On 25 July 1814, Babbage married Georgiana Whitmore, sister of British parliamentarian William Wolryche-Whitmore, at St. Michael's Church in Teignmouth, Devon.", "The couple lived at Dudmaston Hall, Shropshire (where Babbage engineered the central heating system), before moving to 5 Devonshire Street, London in 1815.Charles and Georgiana had eight children,Also see but only four – Benjamin Herschel, Georgiana Whitmore, Dugald Bromhead and Henry Prevost – survived childhood.", "Charles' wife Georgiana died in Worcester on 1 September 1827, the same year as his father, their second son (also named Charles) and their newborn son Alexander.", "* Benjamin Herschel Babbage (1815–1878)* Charles Whitmore Babbage (1817–1827)* Georgiana Whitmore Babbage (1818 – 26 September 1834)* Edward Stewart Babbage (1819–1821)* Francis Moore Babbage (1821–????", ")* Dugald Bromhead (Bromheald?)", "Babbage (1823–1901)* (Maj-Gen) Henry Prevost Babbage (1824–1918)* Alexander Forbes Babbage (1827–1827)His youngest surviving son, Henry Prevost Babbage (1824–1918), went on to create six small demonstration pieces for Difference Engine No.", "1 based on his father's designs, one of which was sent to Harvard University where it was later discovered by Howard H. Aiken, pioneer of the Harvard Mark I. Henry Prevost's 1910 Analytical Engine Mill, previously on display at Dudmaston Hall, is now on display at the Science Museum." ], [ "Death", "The Science Museum.Babbage lived and worked for over 40 years at 1 Dorset Street, Marylebone, where he died, at the age of 79, on 18 October 1871; he was buried in London's Kensal Green Cemetery.", "According to Horsley, Babbage died \"of renal inadequacy, secondary to cystitis.\"", "He had declined both a knighthood and baronetcy.", "He also argued against hereditary peerages, favouring life peerages instead.=== Autopsy report ===In 1983, the autopsy report for Charles Babbage was discovered and later published by his great-great-grandson.", "A copy of the original is also available.", "Half of Babbage's brain is preserved at the Hunterian Museum in the Royal College of Surgeons in London.", "The other half of Babbage's brain is on display in the Science Museum, London." ], [ "Memorials", "thumbThere is a black plaque commemorating the 40 years Babbage spent at 1 Dorset Street, London.", "Locations, institutions and other things named after Babbage include:* The Moon crater, Babbage* The Charles Babbage Institute, an information technology archive and research center at the University of Minnesota* Babbage River Falls, Yukon, Canada* The Charles Babbage Premium, an annual computing award* British Rail named a locomotive after Charles Babbage in the 1990s.", "* Babbage Island, Western Australia* The Babbage Building at the University of Plymouth, where the university's school of computing is based* The Babbage programming language for GEC 4000 series minicomputers* \"Babbage\", ''The Economist'' 's Science and Technology blog* The former chain retail computer and video-games store \"Babbage's\" (now GameStop) was named after him." ], [ "In fiction and film", "Babbage frequently appears in steampunk works; he has been called an iconic figure of the genre.", "Other works in which Babbage appears include:* The 2008 short film ''Babbage'', screened at the 2008 Cannes Film Festival, a 2009 finalist with Haydenfilms, and shown at the 2009 HollyShorts Film Festival and other international film festivals.", "The film shows Babbage at a dinner party, with guests discussing his life and work.", "* Sydney Padua created ''The Thrilling Adventures of Lovelace and Babbage'', a cartoon alternate history in which Babbage and Lovelace succeed in building the Analytical Engine.", "It quotes heavily from the writings of Lovelace, Babbage and their contemporaries.", "* Kate Beaton, cartoonist of webcomic ''Hark!", "A Vagrant'', devoted one of her comic strips to Charles and Georgiana Babbage.", "* The ''Doctor Who'' episode \"Spyfall, Part 2\" (Season 12, episode 2) features Charles Babbage and Ada Gordon as characters who assist the Doctor when she's stuck in the year 1834." ], [ "Publications", "''Account of the repetition of M. Arago's experiments on the magnetism manifested by various substances during the act of rotation'', 1825* * * * * * (Reissued by Cambridge University Press 2009, .", ")* (The LOCOMAT site contains a reconstruction of this table.", ")* * * * " ], [ "See also", " Babbage's congruence* IEEE Computer Society Charles Babbage Award* List of pioneers in computer science" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* ." ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * The Babbage Papers The papers held by the Science Museum Library and Archives which relate mostly to Babbage's automatic calculating engines* ''The Babbage Engine'': Computer History Museum, Mountain View CA, US.", "Multi-page account of Babbage, his engines and his associates, including a video of the Museum's functioning replica of the Difference Engine No 2 in action* Analytical Engine Museum John Walker's (of AutoCAD fame) comprehensive catalogue of the complete technical works relating to Babbage's machine.", "* Charles Babbage A history at the School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews Scotland.", "* Mr. Charles Babbage: obituary from ''The Times'' (1871)* The Babbage Pages* Charles Babbage, The Online Books Page, University of Pennsylvania* The Babbage Difference Engine: an overview of how it works* \"On a Method of Expressing by Signs the Action of Machinery\", 1826.Original edition* Charles Babbage Institute: pages on \"Who Was Charles Babbage?\"", "including biographical note, description of Difference Engine No.", "2, publications by Babbage, archival and published sources on Babbage, sources on Babbage and Ada Lovelace* ''Babbage's Ballet'' by Ivor Guest, Ballet Magazine, 1997* ''Babbage's Calculating Machine'' (1872) – full digital facsimile from Linda Hall Library* Author profile in the database zbMATH* The 'difference engine' built by Georg & Edvard Scheutz in 1843*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Cross-dressing" ], [ "Introduction", "Irving Berlin's \"This Is the Army, Mr. Jones\", performed by cross-dressed U.S. Army soldiers (1942)'''Cross-dressing''' is the act of wearing clothes traditionally or stereotypically associated with a different gender.", "From as early as pre-modern history, cross-dressing has been practiced in order to disguise, comfort, entertain, and express oneself.Socialization establishes social norms among the people of a particular society.", "With regard to the social aspects of clothing, such standards may reflect guidelines relating to the style, color, or type of clothing that individuals are expected to wear.", "Such expectations may be delineated according to gender roles.", "Cross-dressing involves dressing contrary to the prevailing standards (or in some cases, laws) for a person of their gender in their own society.The term \"cross-dressing\" refers to an action or a behavior, without attributing or implying any specific causes or motives for that behavior.", "Cross-dressing is not synonymous with being transgender." ], [ "Terminology", "The phenomenon of cross-dressing is seen throughout recorded history, being referred to as far back as the Hebrew Bible.", "The terms used to describe it have changed throughout history; the Anglo-Saxon-rooted term \"cross-dresser\" is viewed more favorably than the Latin-origin term \"transvestite\" in some circles, where it has come to be seen as outdated and derogatory.", "Its first mention originated in Magnus Hirschfeld's ''Die Transvestiten'' (The Transvestites) in 1910, originally associating cross-dressing with non-heterosexual behavior or derivations of sexual intent.", "Its connotations largely changed in the 20th century as its use was more frequently associated with sexual excitement, otherwise known as transvestic disorder.", "This term was historically used to diagnose psychiatric disorders (e.g.", "transvestic fetishism), but the former (cross-dressing) was coined by the transgender community.", "The Oxford English Dictionary gives 1911 as the earliest citation of the term \"cross-dressing\", by Edward Carpenter: \"Cross-dressing must be taken as a general indication of, and a cognate phenomenon to, homosexuality\".", "In 1928, Havelock Ellis used the two terms \"cross-dressing\" and \"transvestism\" interchangeably.", "The earliest citations for \"cross-dress\" and \"cross-dresser\" are 1966 and 1976, respectively.===En femme===The term '''''en femme''''' is a lexical borrowing of a French phrase.", "It is used in the transgender and crossdressing community to describe the act of wearing feminine clothing or expressing a stereotypically feminine personality.", "The term is borrowed from the modern French phrase ''en femme'' meaning \"as a woman.\"", "Most crossdressers also use a female name whilst ''en femme''; that is their \"femme name\".", "In the cross-dressing community the persona a man adopts when he dresses as a woman is known as his \"femme self\".Between 1987 and 1991, JoAnn Roberts and CDS published a magazine called \"En Femme\" that was \"for the transvestite, transsexual, crossdresser, and female impersonator.", "\"===En homme===The term '''''en homme''''' is an anglicized adaptation of a French phrase.", "It is used in the transgender and crossdressing community to describe the act of wearing masculine clothing or expressing a stereotypically masculine personality.", "The term is derived from the modern colloquial French phrase ''en tant qu'homme'' meaning \"as a man\" and the anglicized adaptation ''en homme'' literally translates as \"in man\".", "Most crossdressers also use a ''homme'' (male) name whilst ''en homme''." ], [ "History", "===Non-Western history===Frances Benjamin Johnston (right) poses with two cross-dressing friends; the \"lady\" is identified by Johnston as the illustrator Mills Thompson .Lady Murasaki's classical novel ''The Tale of Genji'' from 1008 demonstrates the transgression between masculine and feminine beauty with characters that have no clear gender differentiability.", "Cross-dressing has been practiced throughout much of recorded history, in many societies, and for many reasons.", "Examples exist in Greek, Norse, and Hindu mythology.", "Cross-dressing can be found in theater and religion, such as kabuki, Noh, and Korean shamanism, as well as in folklore, literature, and music.", "For instance, in examining kabuki culture during Japan's edo period, cross-dressing was not only used for theater purposes but also because current societal trends: cross-dressing and the switching of genders was a familiar concept to the Japanese at the time which allowed them to interchange characters's genders easily and incorporate geisha fashion into men's wear.", "This was especially common in the story-telling of ancient stories such as the character Benten from Benten Kozō.", "He was a thief in the play cross-dressing as a woman.", "Cross-dressing was also exhibited in Japanese Noh for similar reasons.", "Societal standards at the time broke boundaries between gender.", "For example, ancient Japanese portraits of aristocrats have no clear differentiation in characteristics between male and female beauty.", "Thus, in Noh performance, the cross-dressing of actors was common; especially given the ease of disguising biological sex with the use of masks and heavy robes.", "In a non-entertainment context, cross-dressing is also exhibited in Korean shamanism for religious purposes.", "Specifically, this is displayed in chaesu-gut, a shamanistic rite gut in which a shaman offers a sacrifice to the spirits to intermediate in the fortunes of the intended humans for the gut.", "Here, cross-dressing serves many purposes.", "Firstly, the shaman (typically a woman) would cross-dress as both male and female spirits can occupy her.", "This allows her to represent the opposite sex and become a cross-sex icon in 75% of the time of the ritual.", "This also allows her to become a sexually liminal being.", "It is clear that in entertainment, literature, art, and religion, different civilizations have utilized cross-dressing for many different purposes.===Western history===In the British and European context, theatrical troupes (\"playing companies\") were all-male, with the female parts undertaken by boy players.The Rebecca Riots took place between 1839 and 1843 in West and Mid Wales.", "They were a series of protests undertaken by local farmers and agricultural workers in response to unfair taxation.", "The rioters, often men dressed as women, took their actions against toll-gates, as they were tangible representations of high taxes and tolls.", "The riots ceased prior to 1844 due to several factors, including increased troop levels, a desire by the protestors to avoid violence and the appearance of criminal groups using the guise of the biblical character Rebecca for their own purposes.", "In 1844 an Act of Parliament to consolidate and amend the laws relating to turnpike trusts in Wales was passed.A variety of historical figures are known to have cross-dressed to varying degrees.", "Many women found they had to disguise themselves as men in order to participate in the wider world.", "For example, it is postulated that Margaret King cross-dressed in the early 19th century to attend medical school, as universities at that time accepted only male students.", "A century later, Vita Sackville-West dressed as a young soldier in order to \"walk out\" with her girlfriend Violet Keppel, to avoid the street harassment that two women would have faced.", "The prohibition on women wearing male garb, once strictly applied, still has echoes today in some Western societies which require girls and women to wear skirts, for example as part of school uniform or office dress codes.", "In some countries, even in casual settings, women are still prohibited from wearing traditionally male clothing.", "Sometimes all trousers, no matter how loose and long, are automatically considered \"indecent\", which may render their wearer subject to severe punishment, as in the case of Lubna al-Hussein in Sudan in 2009." ], [ "Legal issues", "In many countries, cross-dressing was illegal under laws that identified it as indecent or immoral.", "Many such laws were challenged in the late 1900s giving people the right to freedom of gender expression with regard to their clothing.For instance, from 1840 forward, United States saw state and city laws forbidding people from appearing in public while dressed in clothes not commonly associated with their assigned sex.", "The goal of this wave of policies was to create a tool that would enforce a normative gender narrative, targeting multiple gender identities across the gender spectrum.", "With the progression of time, styles, and societal trends, it became even more difficult to draw the line between what was cross-dressing or not.", "Only recently have these laws changed.", "As recently as 2011, it was still possible for a man to get arrested for \"impersonating a woman\" — a vestige of the 19th century laws.", "Even with this, legal issues surrounding cross-dressing perpetuated all throughout the mid 20th century.", "During this time period, police would often reference laws that did not exist or laws that have been repealed in order to target the LGBTQ+ community.This extends beyond the United States: There still remains 13 UN member States that explicitly criminalize transgender individuals, and there exist even more countries that use a great deal of diverse laws to target them.", "The third edition of the Trans Legal Mapping Report, done by the International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans, and Intersex Association found that an especially common method to target these individuals is through cross-dressing regulations.", "For instance, only in 2014 did an appeal court in Malaysia finally overturn a state law prohibiting Muslim men from cross-dressing as women.In the Australian state of Tasmania, cross-dressing in public was made a criminal offence in 1935, and this law was only repealed in 2000." ], [ "Varieties", "There are many different kinds of cross-dressing and many different reasons why an individual might engage in cross-dressing behavior.", "Some people cross-dress as a matter of comfort or style, a personal preference for clothing associated with the opposite gender.", "Some people cross-dress to shock others or challenge social norms; others will limit their cross-dressing to underwear, so that it is not apparent.", "Some people attempt to pass as a member of the opposite gender in order to gain access to places or resources they would not otherwise be able to reach.===Theater and performance===Single-sex theatrical troupes often have some performers who cross-dress to play roles written for members of the opposite sex (travesti and trouser roles).", "Cross-dressing, particularly the depiction of males wearing dresses, is often used for comic effect onstage and on-screen.Boy player refers to children who performed in Medieval and English Renaissance playing companies.", "Some boy players worked for the adult companies and performed the female roles as women did not perform on the English stage in this period.", "Others worked for children's companies in which all roles, not just the female ones, were played by boys.", "In an effort to clamp down on kabuki's popularity, women's kabuki, known as , was banned in 1629 in Japan for being too erotic.", "Following this ban, young boys began performing in , which was also soon banned.", "Thus adult men play female roles in kabuki.Dan is the general name for female roles in Chinese opera, often referring to leading roles.", "They may be played by male or female actors.", "In the early years of Peking opera, all roles were played by men, but this practice is no longer common in any Chinese opera genre.Women have often been excluded from Noh, and men often play female characters in it.Drag is a special form of performance art based on the act of cross-dressing.", "A drag queen is usually a male-assigned person who performs as an exaggeratedly feminine character, in heightened costuming sometimes consisting of a showy dress, high-heeled shoes, obvious make-up, and wig.", "A drag queen may imitate famous female film or pop-music stars.", "A faux queen is a female-assigned person employing the same techniques.", "A drag king is a counterpart of the drag queen – a female-assigned person who adopts a masculine persona in performance or imitates a male film or pop-music star.", "Some female-assigned people undergoing gender reassignment therapy also self-identify as 'drag kings'.Drag queens Lady Bunny (left) and Sherry Vine (right) in 2008.Drag is a form of cross-dressing as performance art.The modern activity of battle reenactments has raised the question of women passing as male soldiers.", "In 1989, Lauren Burgess dressed as a male soldier in a U.S. National Park Service reenactment of the Battle of Antietam, and was ejected after she was discovered to be a woman.", "Burgess sued the Park Service for sexual discrimination.", "The case spurred spirited debate among Civil War buffs.", "In 1993, a federal judge ruled in Burgess's favor.", "\"Wigging\" refers to the practice of male stunt doubles taking the place of an actress, parallel to \"paint downs\", where white stunt doubles are made up to resemble black actors.", "Female stunt doubles have begun to protest this norm of \"historical sexism\", saying that it restricts their already limited job possibilities.====British pantomime, television and comedy====Comedian Dan Leno as Widow Twankey in the 1896 pantomime ''Aladdin'' at Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, LondonCross-dressing is a traditional popular trope in British comedy.", "The pantomime dame in British pantomime dates from the 19th century, which is part of the theatrical tradition of female characters portrayed by male actors in drag.", "Widow Twankey (Aladdin's mother) is a popular pantomime dame: in 2004 Ian McKellen played the role.The Monty Python comedy troupe donned frocks and makeup, playing female roles while speaking in falsetto.", "Character comics such as Benny Hill and Dick Emery drew upon several female identities.", "In the BBC's long-running sketch show ''The Dick Emery Show'' (broadcast from 1963 to 1981), Emery played Mandy, a busty peroxide blonde whose catchphrase, \"Ooh, you are awful ... but I like you!", "\", was given in response to a seemingly innocent remark made by her interviewer, but perceived by her as ribald double entendre.", "The popular tradition of cross dressing in British comedy extended to the 1984 music video for Queen's \"I Want to Break Free\" where the band parody several female characters from the soap opera ''Coronation Street''.===Sexual fetishes===A transvestic fetishist wearing latex clothesA transvestic fetishist is a person who cross-dresses as part of a sexual fetish.", "According to the fourth edition of ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'', this fetishism was limited to heterosexual men; however, DSM-5 does not have this restriction, and opens it to women and men, regardless of their sexual orientation.Sometimes either member of a heterosexual couple will cross-dress in order to arouse the other.", "For example, the male might wear skirts or lingerie and/or the female will wear boxers or other male clothing.", "(See also forced feminization)===Passing===Some people who cross-dress may endeavor to project a complete impression of belonging to another gender, including mannerisms, speech patterns, and emulation of sexual characteristics.", "This is referred to as passing or \"trying to pass\", depending how successful the person is.", "An observer who sees through the cross-dresser's attempt to pass is said to have \"read\" or \"clocked\" them.", "There are videos, books, and magazines on how a man may look more like a woman.Others may choose to take a mixed approach, adopting some feminine traits and some masculine traits in their appearance.", "For instance, a man might wear both a dress and a beard.", "This is sometimes known as \"genderfuck\".", "In a broader context, cross-dressing may also refer to other actions undertaken to pass as a particular sex, such as packing (accentuating the male crotch bulge) or, the opposite, tucking (concealing the male crotch bulge)." ], [ "Gender disguise", "Gender disguise has been used by women and girls to pass as male, and by men and boys to pass as female.", "Gender disguise has also been used as a plot device in storytelling, particularly in narrative ballads, and is a recurring motif in literature, theater, and film.", "Historically, some women have cross-dressed to take up male-dominated or male-exclusive professions, such as military service.", "Conversely, some men have cross-dressed to escape from mandatory military service or as a disguise to assist in political or social protest, as men in Wales did in the Rebecca Riots and when conducting Ceffyl Pren as a form of mob justice.Depiction of Welsh labourers dressed in women's clothing within the Rebecca Riots, ''Illustrated London News'' 1843=== Sports ===Conversation surrounding exclusion and inequality in sports has been around for decades.", "While the fight for equality in sports has been going on, there are a couple of notable women who have dressed as men or hid their gender to insert themselves into the very gatekept world of sports.==== Roberta \"Bobbi\" Gibb ====Roberta \"Bobbi\" Gibb is the first woman to have competed in the Boston Marathon.", "In 1966 Bobbi Gibb wrote a letter to the Boston Athletic Association asking to participate in the race happening that year.", "When Gibb received her letter back in the mail she was faced with the news that her entry to the race was denied due to her gender.", "Rather than just accept her fate, Gibb did not take no for an answer and decided to run the marathon anyways—however, she would do it hidden as a man.", "On the day of the race Gibb showed up in an oversized sweatshirt, her brother's shorts, and men's running shoes.", "Gibb hid in the bushes until the race started and then joined in with the crowd.", "Eventually her fellow runners figured out Gibb's real gender but stated that they would make sure that she finished the race.", "Gibb ended up finishing her first Boston Marathon in 3 hours, 27 minutes and 40 seconds.", "She crossed the finish line with blistered, bleeding feet from the men's running shoes she was wearing.", "Gibb's act of defiance influenced other women marathon runners of the time like Katherine Switzer, who also registered under an alias to be able to run the race in 1967.It would not be until 1972 until there was an official women's race within the Boston Marathon.==== Sam Kerr ====Sam Kerr is a forward for the Australian Women's Soccer Team and Chelsea FC in the FA Women's Super League.", "Kerr has been regarded as one of the best forward players in the sport and has been one of the most highly paid players in women's soccer as well.", "While Kerr now shares the world state with other great women soccer players, as a young child she shared the field with young boys.", "Kerr grew up in a suburb of Perth where there was little to no access to young girls soccer teams in the direct area.", "Not having a girls team to play on did not bother Kerr though, she simply played on a youth boys team where all of her teammates just assumed she was also a boy.", "Kerr states in her book ''My Journey to the World Cup'' that she continued to hide her gender because she did not want to be treated any differently.", "In her book Kerr also revealed that when one of her teammates found out that she was, in fact a girl, he cried.", "While Kerr's act of hiding her gender was initially an accident, it is still an example of how women (and in the case a young girl) can create opportunities for themselves by looking or acting as a man.=== War ===One of the most common instances of gender disguise is in the instance of war/militaristic situations.", "From Joan of Arc in the 15th century to Mulan from the animated Disney Mulan to young girls in World War II, there have been many different people of many different sexes that disguise themselves as men in order to be able to fight in wars.==== Joan of Arc ====Born , St Joan of Arc or the Maid of Orleans is one of the oldest examples of gender disguise.", "At 13, after receiving a revelation that she was supposed to lead the French to victory over the English in the 100 years war, Joan donned the clothing of a male soldier in the French army.", "Joan was able to convince King Charles the VIII to allow her to take the lead of some of the French armies in order to help him get his crown back.", "Ultimately, Joan of Arc was successful in claiming victory over the English but was captured in 1430 and found guilty of heresy, leading to her execution in 1431.The impact of her actions was seen even after Joan's death in 1431.During the suffragette movement, Joan of Arc was used as an inspiration for the movement, particularly in Britain where many used her actions as fuel for their fight for political reform.==== Deborah Sampson ====Born in 1760 in Plympton, Massachusetts, Deborah Sampson was the first female soldier in the US Army.", "The only woman in the Revolution to receive a full military pension, at age 18 Deborah took the name “Robert Shirtleff” and enlisted in union forces.", "In her capacity as a soldier, she was very successful, being named captain and leading an infantry in the capture of 15 enemy soldiers among other things.", "One and a half years into service, her true sex was revealed when she had to receive medical care.", "Following an honorable discharge, Deborah petitioned congress for her full pay that was withheld on the grounds of being an “invalid soldier” and eventually received it.", "She died in 1827 at age 66.Even after her death, Deborah Sampson continues to be a \"hero of the American Revolution\".", "In 2019, a diary from corporal Abner Weston shares about Deborah Sampson's previously unknown first attempt to enlist in the Continental Army.These women are just a few among many who have disguised themselves as men in order to be able to fight in many different wars.", "Others who have used gender disguise for this purpose include Kit Kavanaugh/Christian Davies, Hannah Snell, Sarah Emma Edmonds, Frances Clayton, Dorothy Lawrence, Zoya Smirnow, and Brita Olofsdotter.=== Journalism and culture ===In some instances, women in journalism deem is necessary to wear the identity of a man in order to gather information that is only accessible from the male point of view.", "In other cases, people cross-dress to navigate certain cultures and/or specific circumstances that involve strict gender norms and expectations.==== Norah Vincent ====Norah Vincent, author of the book ''Self-Made Man: One Woman's Journey Into Manhood and Back Again'', used gender disguise in order to go undercover as a men to penetrate men's social circles and experience life as a man.", "In 2003, Vincent put her life on pause to adopt a new masculine identity as Ned Vincent.", "She worked with a makeup artist and vocal coach in order to convincingly play the role of a biological man.", "She wore an undersized sports bra, a stuffed jock strap, and size 11½ shoes to deceive those around her.", "In her book, Vincent makes discoveries about socialization, romance, sex, and stress as a man that leads her to conclude that, “Men have different problems than women have, but they don't have it better.” However, Vincent developed controversial opinions about sex and gender, claiming that transgender people are not legitimate until they undergo hormone therapy and surgical intervention.", "After writing ''Self-Made Man,'' Vincent became a victim of depression; she died by medically assisted suicide in 2022.==== Bacha posh ====Bacha posh, an Afghani tradition, involves the crossdressing of young Afghan girls by their families so that they present to the public as boys.", "Families engage in bacha posh so that their daughters may avoid the oppression that women face under Afghanistan's deeply patriarchal society.", "Other reasons for having a bacha posh daughter include economic pressure, as girls and women are generally prohibited from work in contemporary Afghanistan, and social pressure, as families with boys tend to be more well regarded in Afghan society.", "While there is no law that prohibits bacha posh, girls are expected to revert to traditional gender norms upon reaching puberty.", "According to Thomas Barfield, an anthropology professor at Boston University, bacha posh is \"one of the most under-investigated\" topics in the realm of gender studies, making difficult to determine exactly how common the practice is in Afghan society.", "However, some prominent female figures in Afghan society have admitted to being bacha posh in their youth.", "A more famous example of this is Afghan parliament member Azita Rafaat.", "Rafaat claims that bacha posh was a positive experience that built her self-confidence in Afghanistan's heavily patriarchal society and gave her a more well rounded understanding of women's issues in Afghanistan." ], [ "Clothes", "Some male crossdressers seek a more subtle feminine image.The actual determination of cross-dressing is largely socially constructed.", "For example, in Western society, trousers have long been adopted for usage by women, and it is no longer regarded as cross-dressing.", "In cultures where men have traditionally worn skirt-like garments such as the kilt or sarong, these are not seen as women's clothing, and wearing them is not seen as cross-dressing for men.", "As societies are becoming more global in nature, both men's and women's clothing are adopting styles of dress associated with other cultures.Cosplaying may also involve cross-dressing, for some females may wish to dress as a male, and vice versa (see crossplay).", "Breast binding (for females) is not uncommon and is one of the things likely needed to cosplay a male character.In most parts of the world, it remains socially disapproved for men to wear clothes traditionally associated with women.", "Attempts are occasionally made, e.g.", "by fashion designers, to promote the acceptance of skirts as everyday wear for men.", "Cross-dressers have complained that society permits women to wear pants or jeans and other masculine clothing, while condemning any man who wants to wear clothing sold for women.While creating a more feminine figure, male cross-dressers will often utilize different types and styles of breast forms, which are silicone or foam prostheses traditionally used by women who have undergone mastectomies to recreate the visual appearance of a breast.", "Some male cross-dressers may also use hip or butt pads to create a profile that appears more stereotypically feminine.While most male cross-dressers utilize clothing associated with modern women, some are involved in subcultures that involve dressing as little girls or in vintage clothing.", "Some such men have written that they enjoy dressing as femininely as possible, so they wear frilly dresses with lace and ribbons, bridal gowns complete with veils, as well as multiple petticoats, corsets, girdles and/or garter belts with nylon stockings.The term ''underdressing'' is used by male cross-dressers to describe wearing female undergarments such as panties under their male clothes.", "The famous low-budget film-maker Edward D. Wood Jr. (who also went out in public dressed in drag as \"Shirley\", his female alter ego) said he often wore women's underwear under his military uniform as a Marine during World War II.", "''Female masking'' is a form of cross-dressing in which men wear masks that present them as female." ], [ "Social issues", "John Collet, which were considered to be vulgar at the time.Cross-dressers may begin wearing clothing associated with the opposite sex in childhood, using the clothes of a sibling, parent, or friend.", "Some parents have said they allowed their children to cross-dress and, in many cases, the child stopped when they became older.", "The same pattern often continues into adulthood, where there may be confrontations with a spouse, partner, family member or friend.", "Married cross-dressers can experience considerable anxiety and guilt if their spouse objects to their behavior.Sometimes because of guilt or other reasons cross-dressers dispose of all their clothing, a practice called \"purging\", only to start collecting the other gender's clothing again." ], [ "Festivals", "Celebrations of cross-dressing occur in widespread cultures.", "The Abissa festival in Côte d'Ivoire, Ofudamaki in Japan, and Kottankulangara Festival in India are all examples of this." ], [ "Analysis", "Advocacy for social change has done much to relax the constrictions of gender roles on men and women, but they are still subject to prejudice from some people.", "It is noticeable that as being transgender becomes more socially accepted as a normal human condition, the prejudices against cross-dressing are changing quite quickly, just as the similar prejudices against homosexuals have changed rapidly in recent decades.The reason it is so hard to have statistics for female cross-dressers is that the line where cross-dressing stops and cross-dressing begins has become blurred, whereas the same line for men is as well defined as ever.", "This is one of the many issues being addressed by third wave feminism as well as the modern-day masculist movement.The general culture has very mixed views about cross-dressing.", "A woman who wears her husband's shirt to bed is considered attractive, while a man who wears his wife's nightgown to bed may be considered transgressive.", "Marlene Dietrich in a tuxedo was considered very erotic; Jack Lemmon in a dress was considered ridiculous.", "All this may result from an overall gender role rigidity for males; that is, because of the prevalent gender dynamic throughout the world, men frequently encounter discrimination when deviating from masculine gender norms, particularly violations of heteronormativity.", "A man's adoption of feminine clothing is often considered a going down in the gendered social order whereas a woman's adoption of what are traditionally men's clothing (at least in the English-speaking world) has less of an impact because women have been traditionally subordinate to men, unable to affect serious change through style of dress.", "Thus when a male cross-dresser puts on his clothes, he transforms into the quasi-female and thereby becomes an embodiment of the conflicted gender dynamic.", "Following the work of Judith Butler, gender proceeds along through ritualized performances, but in male cross-dressing it becomes a performative \"breaking\" of the masculine and a \"subversive repetition\" of the feminine.Psychoanalysts today do not regard cross-dressing by itself as a psychological problem, unless it interferes with a person's life.", "\"For instance,\" said Joseph Merlino, senior editor of ''Freud at 150: 21st Century Essays on a Man of Genius'', \"suppose that...I'm a cross-dresser and I don't want to keep it confined to my circle of friends, or my party circle, and I want to take that to my wife and I don't understand why she doesn't accept it, or I take it to my office and I don't understand why they don't accept it, then it's become a problem because it's interfering with my relationships and environment.\"" ], [ "Cross-dressing in the 21st century", "=== Fashion trends ===Camp fashion made an appearance during the 2019 Met Gala which had the theme of \"Camp: Notes on Fashion.\"", "A themed exhibit of the same name was later displayed at the Met Fifth Avenue.Cross-dressing today is much more common and normalized thanks to trends such as camp fashion and androgynous fashion.", "These trends have long histories but have recently been popularized thanks to major designers, fashion media, and celebrities today.", "Camp is a style of fashion that has had a long history extending all the way back to the Victorian era to the modern era.", "During the Victorian era up until the mid-20th century, it was defined as an exaggerated and flamboyant style of dressing.", "This was typically associated with ideas of effeminacy, de-masculization, and homosexuality.", "As the trend entered the 20th century, it also developed an association with a lack of conduct, creating the connotation that those who engaged in Camp are unrefined, improper, distasteful, and, essentially, undignified.", "Though this was its former understanding, Camp has now developed a new role in the fashion industry.", "It is considered a fashion style that has \"failed seriousness\" and has instead become a fun way of self-expression.", "Thanks to its integration with high fashion and extravagance, Camp is now seen as a high art form of absurdity: including loud, vibrant, bold, fun, and empty frivolity.Drag icon RuPaul speaking at RuPaul's DragCon in Los Angeles in 2019.\|leftCamp is often used in drag culture as a method of exaggerating or inversing traditional conceptions of what it means to be feminine.", "In actuality, the QTPOC community has had a large impact on Camp.", "This is exhibited by ballroom culture, camp/glamour queens, Black '70s funk, Caribbean Carnival costumes, Blaxploitation movies, \"pimp/player fashion\", and more.", "This notion has also been materialized by camp icons such as Josephine Baker and RuPaul.Androgynous fashion is described as neither masculine nor feminine rather it is the embodiment of a gender inclusive and sexually neutral fashion of expression.", "The general understanding of androgynous fashion is mixing both masculine and feminine pieces with the goal of producing a look that has no visual differentiations between one gender or another.", "This look is achieved by masking the general body so that one cannot identify the biological sex of an individual given the silhouette of the clothing pieces: Therefore, many androgynous looks include looser, baggier clothing that can conceal curves in the female body or using more \"feminine\" fabrics and prints for men.Musician Harry Styles wearing a shimmery pussy-bow blouse at a concert in Saint Paul in 2018.Both of these style forms have been normalized and popularized by celebrities such as Harry Styles, Timothée Chalamet, Billie Eilish, Princess Diana, and more.=== Societal changes ===crossplaying as Misty from the popular anime Pokémon at Chicago Comic & Entertainment Expo in 2015.Beyond fashion, cross-dressing in non-Western countries have not fully outgrown the negative connotations that it has in the West.", "For instance, many Eastern and Southeastern Asian countries have a narrative of discrimination and stigma against LGBTQ and cross-dressing individuals.", "This is especially evident in the post-pandemic world.", "During this time, it was clear to see the failures of these governments to provide sufficient support to these individuals due to a lack of legal services, lack of job opportunity, and more.", "For instance, to be able to receive government aid, these individuals need to be able to quickly change their legal name, gender, and other information on official ID documents.", "This fault augmented the challenges of income loss, food insecurity, safe housing, healthcare, and more for many trans and cross-dressing individuals.", "This was especially pertinent as many of these individuals relied on entertainment and sex work for income.", "With the pandemic removing these job opportunities, the stigmatisation and discrimination against these individuals only increased, especially in Southeast Asian countries.On the other hand, some Asian countries have grown to be more accepting of cross-dressing as modernization has increased.", "For instance, among Japan's niche communities there exists the otokonoko.", "This is a group of male-assigned individuals who engage in female cross-dressing as a form of gender expression.", "This trend originated with manga and grew with an increase in maid cafes, cosplaying, and more in the 2010s.", "With the normalization of this through cosplay, cross-dressing has become a large part of otaku and anime culture." ], [ "Across media{{Anchor\|Literature}}", "Actress Lucie Höflich portraying Viola in a Berlin production of Twelfth Night in 1907.Women dressed as men, and less often men dressed as women, is a common trope in fiction and folklore.", "For example, in Norse myth, Thor disguised himself as Freya.", "These disguises were also popular in Gothic fiction, such as in works by Charles Dickens, Alexandre Dumas, père, and Eugène Sue, and in a number of Shakespeare's plays, such as ''Twelfth Night''.", "In ''The Wind in the Willows'', Toad dresses as a washerwoman, and in ''The Lord of the Rings'', Éowyn pretends to be a man.In science fiction, fantasy and women's literature, this literary motif is occasionally taken further, with literal transformation of a character from male to female or vice versa.", "Virginia Woolf's ''Orlando: A Biography'' focuses on a man who becomes a woman, as does a warrior in Peter S. Beagle's ''The Innkeeper's Song''; while in Geoff Ryman's ''The Warrior Who Carried Life'', Cara magically transforms herself into a man.Other popular examples of gender disguise include ''Madame Doubtfire'' (published as ''Alias Madame Doubtfire'' in the United States) and its movie adaptation ''Mrs.", "Doubtfire'', featuring a man disguised as a woman.", "Similarly, the movie ''Tootsie'' features Dustin Hoffman disguised as a woman, while the movie ''The Associate'' features Whoopi Goldberg disguised as a man.", "Mana (Japanese Musician) from the Japanese V-Kei bands Malice Mizer and Moi dix Mois often wears dresses and does not talk in interviews, and started the gothic lolita subculture.", "He is often mistaken for a woman." ], [ "Medical views", "The 10th edition of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems lists ''dual-role transvestism'' (non-sexual cross-dressing) and ''fetishistic transvestism'' (cross-dressing for sexual pleasure) as disorders.", "Both listings were removed for the 11th edition.", "Transvestic fetishism is a paraphilia and a psychiatric diagnosis in the DSM-5 version of the ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders''." ], [ "See also", "* Androgyny* Breeches role* Breeching (boys)* Cross-dressing ball* Cross-gender acting* Drag (clothing)* Effeminacy* Femboy* Femme* Femminiello* Gender bender* Gender identity* Gender variance* List of transgender-related topics* List of transgender-rights organizations* List of wartime crossdressers* ''Otokonoko'', male crossdressing in Japan* Queer heterosexuality* Sex and gender distinction* Social construction of gender* Sexual orientation hypothesis* Transvestism* Travesti (theatre)* Tri-Ess* Womanless wedding" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Anders, Charles.", "''The Lazy Crossdresser'', Greenery Press, 2002..* Boyd, Helen.", "''My Husband Betty'', Thunder's Mouth Press, 2003* * Clute, John & Grant, John.", "''The Encyclopedia of Fantasy'', Orbit Books, 1997.", "* * * \"Lynne\".", "\"A Cross-Dressing-Perspective\"" ], [ "External links", "* * The Gender Centre (Australia)* Crossdressing Support Group (Canada)* The EnFemme Archives* En Femme Magazine No.", "1, Digital Transgender Archive" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Channel Tunnel" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Channel Tunnel''' (), sometimes referred to as the ''''Chunnel'''', is a undersea railway tunnel, opened in 1994, that connects Folkestone (Kent, England) with Coquelles (Pas-de-Calais, France) beneath the English Channel at the Strait of Dover.", "It is the only fixed link between the island of Great Britain and the European mainland.", "At its lowest point, it is below the sea bed and below sea level.", "At , it has the longest underwater section of any tunnel in the world and is the third-longest railway tunnel in the world.", "The speed limit for trains through the tunnel is .", "The tunnel is owned and operated by Getlink, formerly Groupe Eurotunnel.The tunnel carries high-speed Eurostar passenger trains, LeShuttle services for road vehicles and freight trains.", "It connects end-to-end with high-speed railway lines: the LGV Nord in France and High Speed 1 in England.", "In 2017, rail services carried 10.3 million passengers and 1.22 million tonnes of freight, and the Shuttle carried 10.4 million passengers, 2.6 million cars, 51,000 coaches, and 1.6 million lorries (equivalent to 21.3 million tonnes of freight), compared with 11.7 million passengers, 2.6 million lorries and 2.2 million cars by sea through the Port of Dover.Plans to build a cross-Channel fixed link appeared as early as 1802, but British political and media pressure motivated by fears of compromising national security had disrupted attempts to build one.", "An early unsuccessful attempt was made in the late 19th century, on the English side, \"in the hope of forcing the hand of the English Government\".", "The eventual successful project, organised by Eurotunnel, began construction in 1988 and opened in 1994.Estimated to cost £5.5 billion in 1985, it was at the time the most expensive construction project ever proposed.", "The cost finally amounted to £9 billion (equivalent to £ billion in ), well over budget.Since its opening, the tunnel has experienced occasional mechanical problems.", "Both fires and cold weather have temporarily disrupted its operation.", "Since at least 1997, aggregations of migrants around Calais seeking entry to the United Kingdom, such as through the tunnel, have prompted deterrence and countermeasures." ], [ "Origins", "=== Earlier proposals ===In 1802, Albert Mathieu-Favier, a French mining engineer, put forward a proposal to tunnel under the English Channel, with illumination from oil lamps, horse-drawn coaches, and an artificial island positioned mid-Channel for changing horses.", "His design envisaged a bored two-level tunnel with the top tunnel used for transport and the bottom one for groundwater flows.In 1839, Aimé Thomé de Gamond, a Frenchman, performed the first geological and hydrographical surveys on the Channel between Calais and Dover.", "He explored several schemes and, in 1856, presented a proposal to Napoleon III for a mined railway tunnel from Cap Gris-Nez to East Wear Point with a port/airshaft on the Varne sandbank at a cost of 170 million francs, or less than £7 million.Albert Mathieu-Favier's plans for a coach service through the channel as of 1802 containing huge ventilation chimneysThomé de Gamond's plan of 1856 for a cross-Channel link, with a port/airshaft on the Varne sandbank mid-ChannelIn 1865, a deputation led by George Ward Hunt proposed the idea of a tunnel to the Chancellor of the Exchequer of the day, William Ewart Gladstone.In 1866, Henry Marc Brunel made a survey of the floor of the Strait of Dover.", "By his results, he proved that the floor was composed of chalk, like the adjoining cliffs, and thus a tunnel was feasible.", "For this survey, he invented the gravity corer, which is still used in geology.Around 1866, William Low and Sir John Hawkshaw promoted tunnel ideas, but apart from preliminary geological studies, none were implemented.An official Anglo-French protocol was established in 1876 for a cross-Channel railway tunnel.General Wolseley riding on the fleeing lion.In 1881, British railway entrepreneur Sir Edward Watkin and Alexandre Lavalley, a French Suez Canal contractor, were in the Anglo-French Submarine Railway Company that conducted exploratory work on both sides of the Channel.", "From June 1882 to March 1883, the British tunnel boring machine tunneled, through chalk, a total of , while Lavalley used a similar machine to drill from Sangatte on the French side.", "However, the cross-Channel tunnel project was abandoned in 1883, despite this success, after fears raised by the British military that an underwater tunnel might be used as an invasion route.", "Nevertheless, in 1883, this TBM was used to bore a railway ventilation tunnel— in diameter and long—between Birkenhead and Liverpool, England, through sandstone under the Mersey River.", "These early works were encountered more than a century later during the TML project.A 1907 film, ''Tunnelling the English Channel'' by pioneer filmmaker Georges Méliès, depicts King Edward VII and President Armand Fallières dreaming of building a tunnel under the English Channel.In 1919, during the Paris Peace Conference, British prime minister David Lloyd George repeatedly brought up the idea of a Channel tunnel as a way of reassuring France about British willingness to defend against another German attack.", "The French did not take the idea seriously, and nothing came of the proposal.In the 1920s, Winston Churchill advocated for the Channel Tunnel, using that exact name in his essay \"Should Strategists Veto The Tunnel?\"", "It was published on 27 July 1924 in the ''Weekly Dispatch'', and argued vehemently against the idea that the tunnel could be used by a Continental enemy in an invasion of Britain.", "Churchill expressed his enthusiasm for the project again in an article for the ''Daily Mail'' on 12 February 1936, \"Why Not A Channel Tunnel?", "\"There was another proposal in 1929, but nothing came of this discussion and the idea was shelved.", "Proponents estimated the construction cost at US$150 million.", "The engineers had addressed the concerns of both nations' military leaders by designing two sumps—one near the coast of each country—that could be flooded at will to block the tunnel but this did not appease military leaders, or dispel concerns about hordes of tourists who would disrupt English life.", "Military fears continued during the Second World War.", "After the fall of France, as Britain prepared for an expected German invasion, a Royal Navy officer in the Directorate of Miscellaneous Weapons Development calculated that Hitler could use slave labour to build two Channel tunnels in 18 months.", "The estimate caused rumours that Germany had already begun digging.A British film from Gaumont Studios, ''The Tunnel'' (also called ''TransAtlantic Tunnel''), was released in 1935 as a science-fiction project concerning the creation of a transatlantic tunnel.", "It referred briefly to its protagonist, a Mr. McAllan, as having completed a British Channel tunnel successfully in 1940, five years into the future of the film's release.By 1955, defence arguments had become less relevant due to the dominance of air power, and both the British and French governments supported technical and geological surveys.", "In 1958 the 1881 workings were cleared in preparation for a £100,000 geological survey by the Channel Tunnel Study Group.", "30% of the funding came from Channel Tunnel Co Ltd, the largest shareholder of which was the British Transport Commission, as successor to the South Eastern Railway.", "A detailed geological survey was carried out in 1964 and 1965.Although the two countries agreed to build a tunnel in 1964, the phase 1 initial studies and signing of a second agreement to cover phase 2 took until 1973.The plan described a government-funded project to create two tunnels to accommodate car shuttle wagons on either side of a service tunnel.", "Construction started on both sides of the Channel in 1974.On 20 January 1975, to the dismay of their French partners, the then-governing Labour Party in Britain cancelled the project due to uncertainty about EEC membership, doubling cost estimates and the general economic crisis at the time.", "By this time the British tunnel boring machine was ready and the Ministry of Transport had conducted a experimental drive.", "(This short tunnel, called Adit A1, was eventually reused as the starting and access point for tunnelling operations from the British side, and remains an access point to the service tunnel.)", "The cancellation costs were estimated at £17 million.", "On the French side, a tunnel-boring machine had been installed underground in a stub tunnel.", "It lay there for 14 years until 1988, when it was sold, dismantled, refurbished and shipped to Turkey, where it was used to drive the Moda tunnel for the Istanbul Sewerage Scheme.=== Initiation of project ===In 1979, the \"Mouse-hole Project\" was suggested when the Conservatives came to power in Britain.", "The concept was a single-track rail tunnel with a service tunnel but without shuttle terminals.", "The British government took no interest in funding the project, but British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher did not object to a privately funded project, although she said she assumed it would be for cars rather than trains.", "In 1981, Thatcher and French president François Mitterrand agreed to establish a working group to evaluate a privately funded project.", "In June 1982 the Franco-British study group favoured a twin tunnel to accommodate conventional trains and a vehicle shuttle service.", "In April 1985 promoters were invited to submit scheme proposals.", "Four submissions were shortlisted:* Channel Tunnel, a rail proposal based on the 1975 scheme presented by Channel Tunnel Group/France–Manche (CTG/F–M).", "* Eurobridge, a suspension bridge with a series of spans with a roadway in an enclosed tube.", "* Euroroute, a tunnel between artificial islands approached by bridges.", "* Channel Expressway, a set of large-diameter road tunnels with mid-Channel ventilation towers.The cross-Channel ferry industry protested under the name \"Flexilink\".", "In 1975 there was no campaign protesting a fixed link, with one of the largest ferry operators (Sealink) being state-owned.", "Flexilink continued rousing opposition throughout 1986 and 1987.Public opinion strongly favoured a drive-through tunnel, but concerns about ventilation, accident management and driver mesmerisation led to the only shortlisted rail submission, CTG/F-M, being awarded the project in January 1986.Reasons given for the selection included that it caused least disruption to shipping in the Channel and least environmental disruption, was the best protected against terrorism, and was the most likely to attract sufficient private finance.=== Arrangement ===A block diagram describing the organisation structure used on the project.", "Eurotunnel is the central organisation for construction and operation (via a concession) of the tunnelThe British ''Channel Tunnel Group'' consisted of two banks and five construction companies, while their French counterparts, ''France–Manche'', consisted of three banks and five construction companies.", "The banks' role was to advise on financing and secure loan commitments.", "On 2 July 1985, the groups formed Channel Tunnel Group/France–Manche (CTG/F–M).", "Their submission to the British and French governments was drawn from the 1975 project, including 11 volumes and a substantial environmental impact statement.The Anglo-French Treaty on the Channel Tunnel was signed by both governments in Canterbury Cathedral.", "The Treaty of Canterbury (1986) prepared the Concession for the construction and operation of the Fixed Link by privately owned companies and outlined arbitration methods to be used in the event of disputes.", "It set up the Intergovernmental Commission (IGC), responsible for monitoring all matters associated with the Tunnel's construction and operation on behalf of the British and French governments, and a Safety Authority to advise the IGC.It drew a land frontier between the two countries in the middle of the Channel tunnel—the first of its kind.Design and construction were done by the ten construction companies in the CTG/F-M group.", "The French terminal and boring from Sangatte were done by the five French construction companies in the joint venture group ''GIE Transmanche Construction''.", "The English Terminal and boring from Shakespeare Cliff were done by the five British construction companies in the ''Translink Joint Venture''.", "The two partnerships were linked by a bi-national project organisation, TransManche Link (TML).", "The ''Maître d'Oeuvre'' was a supervisory engineering body employed by Eurotunnel under the terms of the concession that monitored the project and reported to the governments and banks.In France, with its long tradition of infrastructure investment, the project had widespread approval.", "The French National Assembly approved it unanimously in April 1987, and after a public inquiry, the Senate approved it unanimously in June.", "In Britain, select committees examined the proposal, making history by holding hearings away from Westminster, in Kent.", "In February 1987, the third reading of the Channel Tunnel Bill took place in the House of Commons, and passed by 94 votes to 22.The Channel Tunnel Act gained Royal assent and passed into law in July.", "Parliamentary support for the project came partly from provincial members of Parliament on the basis of promises of regional Eurostar through train services that never materialised; the promises were repeated in 1996 when the contract for construction of the Channel Tunnel Rail Link was awarded.=== Cost ===The tunnel is a build-own-operate-transfer (BOOT) project with a concession.", "TML would design and build the tunnel, but financing was through a separate legal entity, Eurotunnel.", "Eurotunnel absorbed CTG/F-M and signed a construction contract with TML, but the British and French governments controlled final engineering and safety decisions, now in the hands of the Channel Tunnel Safety Authority.", "The British and French governments gave Eurotunnel a 55-year operating concession (from 1987; extended by 10 years to 65 years in 1993) to repay loans and pay dividends.", "A Railway Usage Agreement was signed between Eurotunnel, British Rail and SNCF guaranteeing future revenue in exchange for the railways obtaining half of the tunnel's capacity.Private funding for such a complex infrastructure project was of unprecedented scale.", "Initial equity of £45 million was raised by CTG/F-M, increased by £206 million private institutional placement, £770 million was raised in a public share offer that included press and television advertisements, a syndicated bank loan and letter of credit arranged £5 billion.", "Privately financed, the total investment costs at 1985 prices were £2.6 billion.", "At the 1994 completion actual costs were, in 1985 prices, £4.65 billion: an 80% cost overrun.", "The cost overrun was partly due to enhanced safety, security, and environmental demands.", "Financing costs were 140% higher than forecast.=== Construction ===One of the southern tunnel boring machinesWorking from both the English and French sides of the Channel, eleven tunnel boring machines or TBMs cut through chalk marl to construct two rail tunnels and a service tunnel.", "The vehicle shuttle terminals are at Cheriton (part of Folkestone) and Coquelles, and are connected to the English M20 and French A16 motorways respectively.Tunnelling commenced in 1988, and the tunnel began operating in 1994.In 1985 prices, the total construction cost was £4.65 billion (equivalent to £ billion in 2015), an 80% cost overrun.", "At the peak of construction 15,000 people were employed with daily expenditure over £3 million.", "Ten workers, eight of them British, were killed during construction between 1987 and 1993, most in the first few months of boring.=== Completion ===Class 319 EMUs ran excursions into the tunnel from Sandling railway station on 7 May 1994, the first passenger trains to go through the Channel TunnelA diameter pilot hole allowed the service tunnel to break through without ceremony on 30 October 1990.On 1 December 1990, Englishman Graham Fagg and Frenchman Phillippe Cozette broke through the service tunnel with the media watching.", "Eurotunnel completed the tunnel on time.", "(A BBC TV television commentator called Graham Fagg \"the first man to cross the Channel by land for 8000 years\".)", "The two tunnelling efforts met each other with an offset of only .", "A Paddington Bear soft toy was chosen by British tunnellers as the first item to pass through to their French counterparts when the two sides met.The Queen and François Mitterrand on the day of the opening, 1994The tunnel was officially opened, one year later than originally planned, by Queen Elizabeth II and the French president, François Mitterrand, in a ceremony held in Calais on 6 May 1994.The Queen travelled through the tunnel to Calais on a Eurostar train, which stopped nose to nose with the train that carried President Mitterrand from Paris.", "Following the ceremony President Mitterrand and the Queen travelled on Le Shuttle to a similar ceremony in Folkestone.", "A full public service did not start for several months.", "The first freight train, however, ran on 1 June 1994 and carried Rover and Mini cars being exported to Italy.The Channel Tunnel Rail Link (CTRL), now called High Speed 1, runs from St Pancras railway station in London to the tunnel portal at Folkestone in Kent.", "It cost £5.8 billion.", "On 16 September 2003 the prime minister, Tony Blair, opened the first section of High Speed 1, from Folkestone to north Kent.", "On 6 November 2007, the Queen officially opened High Speed 1 and St Pancras International station, replacing the original slower link to Waterloo International railway station.", "High Speed 1 trains travel at up to , the journey from London to Paris taking 2 hours 15 minutes, to Brussels 1 hour 51 minutes.In 1994, the American Society of Civil Engineers elected the tunnel as one of the seven modern Wonders of the World.", "In 1995, the American magazine ''Popular Mechanics'' published the results." ], [ "Opening dates", "The opening was phased for various services offered as the Channel Tunnel Safety Authority, the IGC, gave permission for various services to begin at several dates over the period 1994/1995 but start-up dates were a few days later.+Channel Tunnel start of traffic datesTraffic flow Start of service HGV lorry shuttles19 May 1994 Freight 1 June 1994 Eurostar passenger 14 November 1994 Car shuttles 22 December 1994 Coach shuttles 26 June 1995 Bicycle service 10 August 1995 Motorcycle service 31 August 1995 Caravan/campervan service 30 September 1995" ], [ "Engineering", "The Channel Tunnel exhibit at the National Railway Museum in York, England, showing the circular cross section of the tunnel with the overhead line powering a Eurostar train.", "Also visible is the segmented tunnel liningSite investigation undertaken in the 20 years before construction confirmed earlier speculations that a tunnel could be bored through a chalk marl stratum.", "The chalk marl is conducive to tunnelling, with impermeability, ease of excavation and strength.", "The chalk marl runs along the entire length of the English side of the tunnel, but on the French side a length of has variable and difficult geology.", "The tunnel consists of three bores: two diameter rail tunnels, apart, in length with a diameter service tunnel in between.", "The three bores are connected by cross-passages and piston relief ducts.", "The service tunnel was used as a pilot tunnel, boring ahead of the main tunnels to determine the conditions.", "English access was provided at Shakespeare Cliff and French access from a shaft at Sangatte.", "The French side used five tunnel boring machines (TBMs), and the English side six.", "The service tunnel uses Service Tunnel Transport System (STTS) and Light Service Tunnel Vehicles (LADOGS).", "Fire safety was a critical design issue.Between the portals at Beussingue and Castle Hill the tunnel is long, with under land on the French side and on the UK side, and under sea.", "It is the third-longest rail tunnel in the world, behind the Gotthard Base Tunnel in Switzerland and the Seikan Tunnel in Japan, but with the longest under-sea section.", "The average depth is below the seabed.", "On the UK side, of the expected of spoil approximately was used for fill at the terminal site, and the remainder was deposited at Lower Shakespeare Cliff behind a seawall, reclaiming of land.", "This land was then made into the Samphire Hoe Country Park.", "Environmental impact assessment did not identify any major risks for the project, and further studies into safety, noise, and air pollution were overall positive.", "However, environmental objections were raised over a high-speed link to London.=== Geology ===Geological profile along the tunnel as constructed.", "For most of its length the tunnel bores through a chalk marl stratum (layer)Successful tunnelling required a sound understanding of topography and geology and the selection of the best rock strata through which to dig.", "The geology of this site generally consists of northeasterly dipping Cretaceous strata, part of the northern limb of the Wealden-Boulonnais dome.", "Characteristics include:* Continuous chalk on the cliffs on either side of the Channel containing no major faulting, as observed by Verstegan in 1605.", "* Four geological strata, marine sediments laid down 90–100 million years ago; pervious upper and middle chalk above slightly pervious lower chalk and finally impermeable Gault Clay.", "A sandy stratum, glauconitic marl (tortia), is in between the chalk marl and gault clay.", "* A layer of chalk marl (French: ''craie bleue'') in the lower third of the lower chalk appeared to present the best tunnelling medium.", "The chalk has a clay content of 30–40% providing impermeability to groundwater yet relatively easy excavation with strength allowing minimal support.", "Ideally, the tunnel would be bored in the bottom of the chalk marl, allowing water inflow from fractures and joints to be minimised, but above the gault clay that would increase stress on the tunnel lining and swell and soften when wet.On the English side, the stratum dip is less than 5°; on the French side, this increases to 20°.", "Jointing and faulting are present on both sides.", "On the English side, only minor faults of displacement less than exist; on the French side, displacements of up to are present owing to the Quenocs anticlinal fold.", "The faults are of limited width, filled with calcite, pyrite and remolded clay.", "The increased dip and faulting restricted the selection of routes on the French side.", "To avoid confusion, microfossil assemblages were used to classify the chalk marl.", "On the French side, particularly near the coast, the chalk was harder, more brittle and more fractured than on the English side.", "This led to the adoption of different tunnelling techniques on the two sides.The Quaternary undersea valley Fosse Dangeard, and Castle Hill landslip at the English portal, caused concerns.", "Identified by the 1964–65 geophysical survey, the Fosse Dangeard is an infilled valley system extending below the seabed, south of the tunnel route in mid-channel.", "A 1986 survey showed that a tributary crossed the path of the tunnel, and so the tunnel route was made as far north and deep as possible.", "The English terminal had to be located in the Castle Hill landslip, which consists of displaced and tipping blocks of lower chalk, glauconitic marl and gault debris.", "Thus the area was stabilised by buttressing and inserting drainage adits.", "The service tunnel acted as a pilot preceding the main ones, so that the geology, areas of crushed rock, and zones of high water inflow could be predicted.", "Exploratory probing took place in the service tunnel, in the form of extensive forward probing, vertical downward probes and sideways probing.=== Site investigation ===Marine soundings and samplings by Thomé de Gamond were carried out during 1833–67, establishing the seabed depth at a maximum of and the continuity of geological strata (layers).", "Surveying continued over many years, with 166 marine and 70 land-deep boreholes being drilled and over 4,000 line kilometres of the marine geophysical survey completed.", "Surveys were undertaken in 1958–1959, 1964–1965, 1972–1974 and 1986–1988.The surveying in 1958–59 catered for immersed tube and bridge designs, as well as a bored tunnel, and thus a wide area was investigated.", "At this time, marine geophysics surveying for engineering projects was in its infancy, with poor positioning and resolution from seismic profiling.", "The 1964–65 surveys concentrated on a northerly route that left the English coast at Dover harbour; using 70 boreholes, an area of deeply weathered rock with high permeability was located just south of Dover harbour.Given the previous survey results and access constraints, a more southerly route was investigated in the 1972–73 survey, and the route was confirmed to be feasible.", "Information for the tunnelling project also came from work before the 1975 cancellation.", "On the French side at Sangatte, a deep shaft with adits was made.", "On the English side at Shakespeare Cliff, the government allowed of diameter tunnel to be driven.", "The actual tunnel alignment, method of excavation and support were essentially the same as the 1975 attempt.", "In the 1986–87 survey, previous findings were reinforced, and the characteristics of the gault clay and the tunnelling medium (chalk marl that made up 85% of the route) were investigated.", "Geophysical techniques from the oil industry were employed.=== Tunnelling ===Typical cross section, with the service tunnel between the two rail tunnels; shown linking the rail tunnels is a piston relief duct, necessary to manage changes in air pressure caused by the very fast movement of trainsTunnelling was a major engineering challenge, with the only precedent being the undersea Seikan Tunnel in Japan, which opened in 1988.A serious health and safety risk with building tunnels underwater is major water inflow due to the high hydrostatic pressure from the sea above, under weak ground conditions.", "The tunnel also had the challenge of time: being privately funded, the early financial return was paramount.The objective was to construct two rail tunnels, apart, in length; a service tunnel between the two main ones; pairs of -diameter cross-passages linking the rail tunnels to the service one at spacing; piston relief ducts in diameter connecting the rail tunnels apart; two undersea crossover caverns to connect the rail tunnels, with the service tunnel always preceding the main ones by at least to ascertain the ground conditions.", "There was plenty of experience with excavating through chalk in the mining industry, while the undersea crossover caverns were a complex engineering problem.", "The French one was based on the Mount Baker Ridge freeway tunnel in Seattle; the UK cavern was dug from the service tunnel ahead of the main ones, to avoid delay.Midpoint of the tunnel as seen from the service roadPrecast segmental linings in the main TBM drives were used, but two different solutions were used.", "On the French side, neoprene and grout sealed bolted linings made of cast iron or high-strength reinforced concrete were used; on the English side, the main requirement was for speed so bolting of cast-iron lining segments was only carried out in areas of poor geology.", "In the UK rail tunnels, eight lining segments plus a key segment were used; in the French side, five segments plus a key.", "On the French side, a diameter deep grout-curtained shaft at Sangatte was used for access.", "On the English side, a marshalling area was below the top of Shakespeare Cliff, the New Austrian Tunnelling method (NATM) was first applied in the chalk marl here.", "On the English side, the land tunnels were driven from Shakespeare Cliff—the same place as the marine tunnels—not from Folkestone.", "The platform at the base of the cliff was not large enough for all of the drives and, despite environmental objections, tunnel spoil was placed behind a reinforced concrete seawall, on condition of placing the chalk in an enclosed lagoon, to avoid wide dispersal of chalk fines.", "Owing to limited space, the precast lining factory was on the Isle of Grain in the Thames estuary, which used Scottish granite aggregate delivered by ship from the Foster Yeoman coastal super quarry at Glensanda in Loch Linnhe on the west coast of Scotland.2 Hunslet 900 mm gauge battery locomotives for Trans Manche Link construction trainsOn the French side, owing to the greater permeability to water, earth pressure balance TBMs with open and closed modes was used.", "The TBMs were of a closed nature during the initial , but then operated as open, boring through the chalk marl stratum.", "This minimised the impact to the ground, allowed high water pressures to be withstood and it also alleviated the need to grout ahead of the tunnel.", "The French effort required five TBMs: two main marine machines, one mainland machine (the short land drives of allowed one TBM to complete the first drive then reverse direction and complete the other), and two service tunnel machines.", "On the English side, the simpler geology allowed faster open-faced TBMs.", "Six machines were used; all commenced digging from Shakespeare Cliff, three marine-bound and three for the land tunnels.", "Towards the completion of the undersea drives, the UK TBMs were driven steeply downwards and buried clear of the tunnel.", "These buried TBMs were then used to provide an electrical earth.", "The French TBMs then completed the tunnel and were dismantled.", "A gauge railway was used on the English side during construction.In contrast to the English machines, which were given technical names, the French tunnelling machines were all named after women: Brigitte, Europa, Catherine, Virginie, Pascaline, Séverine.At the end of the tunnelling, one machine was on display at the side of the M20 motorway in Folkestone until Eurotunnel sold it on eBay for £39,999 to a scrap metal merchant.", "Another machine (T4 \"Virginie\") still survives on the French side, adjacent to Junction 41 on the A16, in the middle of the D243E3/D243E4 roundabout.", "On it are the words \"hommage aux bâtisseurs du tunnel\", meaning \"tribute to the builders of the tunnel\".=== Tunnel boring machines ===The eleven tunnel boring machines were designed and manufactured through a joint venture between the Robbins Company of Kent, Washington, United States; Markham & Co. of Chesterfield, England; and Kawasaki Heavy Industries of Japan.", "The TBMs for the service tunnels and main tunnels on the UK side were designed and manufactured by James Howden & Company Ltd, Scotland.=== Railway design ===Interior of the Eurotunnel Shuttle, used to carry motor vehicles through the Channel Tunnel.", "These are the largest railway wagons in the world.", "====Loading gauge====The loading gauge height is .==== Communications ====There are three communication systems:* Concession radio – for the tunnel operator's personnel and vehicles within the concession area (terminals, tunnels, coastal shafts)* Track-to-train radio – secure speech and data between trains and the railway control centre* Shuttle internal radio – communication among shuttle crew, and to passengers over car radios==== Power supply ====Power is delivered to the locomotives via an overhead line at with a normal overhead clearance of .", "All tunnel services run on electricity, shared equally from English and French sources.", "There are two substations fed at 400 kV at each terminal, but in an emergency, the tunnel's lighting (about 20,000 light fittings) and the plant can be powered solely from either England or France.The traditional railway south of London uses a 750 V DC third rail to deliver electricity, but since the opening of High Speed 1 there is no longer any need for tunnel trains to use it.", "High Speed 1, the tunnel and the LGV Nord all have power provided via overhead catenary at 25 kV 50 Hz AC.", "The railways on \"classic\" lines in Belgium are also electrified by overhead wires, but at 3000 V DC.==== Signalling ====A cab signalling system gives information directly to train drivers on a display.", "There is a train protection system that stops the train if the speed exceeds that indicated on the in-cab display.", "TVM430, as used on LGV Nord and High Speed 1, is used in the tunnel.", "The TVM signalling is interconnected with the signalling on the high-speed lines on either side, allowing trains to enter and exit the tunnel system without stopping.", "The maximum speed is .Signalling in the tunnel is coordinated from a control centre at the Folkestone terminal.", "A backup centre at the Calais terminal is staffed at all times and can take over all operations in the event of a breakdown or emergency.==== Track system ====Conventional ballasted tunnel track was ruled out owing to the difficulty of maintenance and lack of stability and precision.", "The Sonneville International Corporation's track system was chosen because it was reliable and also cost-effective.", "The type of track used is known as Low Vibration Track (LVT), which is held in place by gravity and friction.", "Reinforced concrete blocks of 100 kg support the rails every 60 cm and are held by 12 mm thick closed-cell polymer foam pads placed at the bottom of rubber boots.", "The latter separates the blocks' mass movements from the concrete.", "The track provides extra overhead clearance for larger trains.", "UIC60 (60 kg/m) rails of 900A grade rest on rail pads, which fit the RN/Sonneville bolted dual leaf-springs.", "The rails, LVT-blocks and their boots with pads were assembled outside the tunnel, in a fully automated process developed by the LVT inventor, Roger Sonneville.", "About 334,000 Sonneville blocks were made on the Sangatte site.Maintenance activities are less than projected.", "The rails had initially been ground on a yearly basis or after approximately 100MGT of traffic.", "Maintenance is facilitated by the existence of two tunnel junctions or crossover facilities, allowing for two-way operation in each of the six tunnel segments, and providing safe access for maintenance of one isolated tunnel segment at a time.", "The two crossovers are the largest artificial undersea caverns ever built, at long, high and wide.", "The English crossover is from Shakespeare Cliff, and the French crossover is from Sangatte.==== Ventilation, cooling and drainage ====The ventilation system maintains higher air pressure in the service tunnel than in the rail tunnels, so that in the event of a fire, smoke does not enter the service tunnel from the rail tunnels.", "There is a normal ventilating system and a supplementary system.", "Twin fans are mounted in vertical shafts where digging for the tunnel began, on both sides of the channel: two in Sangatte, France, and two more at Shakespeare Cliff, UK.", "The normal ventilating system is connected direct to the service tunnel and provides fresh air through the cross- passages into the running tunnels, where it is dispersed by the piston effect of the train and shuttle movements.", "Only one fan on each side is ever running, the second being available as a backup.", "The supplementary ventilating system is a separate emergency system and can be used to control smoke or supply emergency air within the tunnels.", "On both systems, the fans are normally run on supply mode, pulling in air from the outside, but they can also be used in extraction mode to remove smoke or fumes from the tunnels.Two cooling water pipes in each rail tunnel circulate chilled water to remove heat generated by the rail traffic.", "Pumping stations remove water in the tunnels from rain, seepage, and so on.During the design stage of the tunnel, engineers found that its aerodynamic properties and the heat generated by high-speed trains as they passed through it would raise the temperature inside the tunnel to .", "As well as making the trains \"unbearably warm\" for passengers, this also presented a risk of equipment failure and track distortion.", "To cool the tunnel to below , engineers installed of diameter cooling pipes carrying of water.", "The network—Europe's largest cooling system—was supplied by eight York Titan chillers running on R22, a hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) refrigerant gas.Due to R22's ozone depletion potential and high global warming potential, its use is being phased out in developed countries.", "Since 1 January 2015, it has been illegal in Europe to use HCFCs to service air-conditioning equipment; broken equipment that used HCFCs must be replaced with equipment that does not use it.", "In 2016, Trane was selected to provide replacement chillers for the tunnel's cooling network.", "The York chillers were decommissioned and four \"next generation\" Trane Series E CenTraVac large-capacity (2600 kW to 14,000 kW) chillers were installed—two in Sangatte, France, and two at Shakespeare Cliff, UK.", "The energy-efficient chillers, using Honeywell's non-flammable, ultra-low GWP R1233zd(E) refrigerant, maintain temperatures at , and in their first year of operation generated savings of 4.8 GWh—approximately 33%, equating to €500,000 ($585,000)—for tunnel operator Getlink.=== Rolling stock ===ClassImageTypeCars per setTop speedNumberRoutesBuiltmphkm/h Eurotunnel Class 9 170px Electric locomotive Car Shuttle: 2 x 28 HGV Shuttle: 2 x 30 or 32 99 160 57 Folkestone to Calais 1992–2003 Car Shuttle 170px Passenger carriage 99 160 252 HGV Shuttle 170px Passenger carriage 99 160 430 Club car 170px Passenger carriage EurostarClass 373 ''Eurostar e300''170pxEMU2 x 1818630028London–ParisLondon–BrusselsLondon–Marne-la-Vallée – ChessyLondon–Bourg Saint MauriceLondon–Marseille Saint-Charles1992-1996Class 374 ''Eurostar e320''170pxEMU1620032017London–ParisLondon–Marne-la-Vallée – ChessyLondon–2011-2018 Freight: DB CargoClass 92170pxElectric locomotive18714046Freight Routes between the United Kingdom to France.1993–1996 Eurotunnel Service LocomotivesClass 0001170pxDiesel locomotive16210010Shunting1991–1992Class 0031Diesel locomotive13150111988 (as 900 mm gauge locomotive); 1993-1994 (rebuilt as shunter)=== Rolling stock used previously === Class Picture Nickname/Nameplate Production Builder Note SNCF Class BB 22200/British Rail Class 22 120px Yellow Submarine 1976–1986 Alstom Electric locomotives used in 1994/95 pending delivery of Class 9s British Rail Class 319 120px* 319008: ''Cheriton''* 319009: ''Coquelles'' 1987 York Carriage Works Electric Multiple Unit used on demonstration runs in 1993/94" ], [ "Operators", "=== LeShuttle ===Getlink operates the LeShuttle, a vehicle shuttle service, through the tunnel.Car shuttle sets have two separate halves: single and double deck.", "Each half has two loading/unloading wagons and 12 carrier wagons.", "Eurotunnel's original order was for nine car shuttle sets.Heavy goods vehicle (HGV) shuttle sets also have two halves, with each half containing one loading wagon, one unloading wagon and 14 carrier wagons.", "There is a club car behind the leading locomotive, where drivers must stay during the journey.", "Eurotunnel originally ordered six HGV shuttle sets.Initially 38 LeShuttle locomotives were commissioned, with one at each end of a shuttle train.=== Freight locomotives ===Forty-six Class 92 locomotives for hauling freight trains and overnight passenger trains (the Nightstar project, which was abandoned) were commissioned, running on both overhead AC and third-rail DC power.", "However, RFF does not let these run on French railways, so there are plans to certify Alstom Prima II locomotives for use in the tunnel.=== International passenger ===Thirty-one Eurostar trains, based on the French TGV, built to UK loading gauge with many modifications for safety within the tunnel, were commissioned, with ownership split between British Rail, French national railways (SNCF) and Belgian national railways (NMBS/SNCB).", "British Rail ordered seven more for services north of London.", "Around 2010, Eurostar ordered ten trains from Siemens based on its Velaro product.", "The Class 374 entered service in 2016 and has been operating through the Channel Tunnel ever since alongside the current Class 373.Germany (DB) has since around 2005 tried to get permission to run train services to London.", "At the end of 2009, extensive fire-proofing requirements were dropped and DB received permission to run German Intercity-Express (ICE) test trains through the tunnel.", "In June 2013 DB was granted access to the tunnel, but these plans were ultimately dropped.In October 2021, Renfe, the Spanish state railway company, expressed interest in operating a cross-Channel route between Paris and London using some of their existing trains with the intention of competing with Eurostar.", "No details have been revealed as to which trains would be used.Between October and November 2023, three more companies expressed interest in potentially running services between London and various European cities:\"Evolyn\", a start-up company based in Spain announced plans that they intended to run services between London and Paris by 2026.The company stated that orders had been placed for the newly developed \"Avelia\" high speed trains built by Alstom for international operations.", "Alstom however, noted that no firm order for any rolling stock had been placed, but that there ongoing discussions with the start-up over potential procurements.", "Virgin Group founder Richard Branson had reportly hired the former managing director of Virgin Trains to initiate infrastructure talks on a potential international service to rival Eurostar running services between London, Paris, Brussels and Amsterdam.", "Dutch start-up \"Heuro\" announced plans to start running services from Amsterdam to both Paris and London.", "Heuro is said to have officially applied for timetable slots beginning in December 2027 and is reportedly raising investment funds in Europe and the USA.=== Service locomotives ===Diesel locomotives for rescue and shunting work are Eurotunnel Class 0001 and Eurotunnel Class 0031." ], [ "Operation", "The following chart presents the estimated number of passengers and tonnes of freight, respectively, annually transported through the Channel Tunnel since 1994 (M = million).=== Usage and services ===Cheriton in west Folkestone.", "The terminal services shuttle trains that carry vehicles, and is linked to the M20 motorwayThe 2003 Folkestone White Horse viewed at Cheriton terminalTransport services offered by the tunnel are as follows: Eurotunnel Le Shuttle roll-on roll-off shuttle service for road vehicles and their drivers and passengers,* Eurostar passenger trains,* through freight trains.Both the freight and passenger traffic forecasts that led to the construction of the tunnel were overestimated; in particular, Eurotunnel's commissioned forecasts were over-predictions.", "Although the captured share of Channel crossings was forecast correctly, high competition (especially from budget airlines which expanded rapidly in the 1990s and 2000s) and reduced tariffs led to low revenue.", "Overall cross-Channel traffic was overestimated.With the EU's liberalisation of international rail services, the tunnel and High Speed 1 have been open to competition since 2010.There have been a number of operators interested in running trains through the tunnel and along High Speed 1 to London.", "In June 2013, after several years, DB obtained a license to operate Frankfurt – London trains, not expected to run before 2016 because of delivery delays of the custom-made trains.Plans for the service to Frankfurt seem to have been shelved in 2018.==== Passenger traffic volumes ====Cross-tunnel passenger traffic volumes peaked at 18.4 million in 1998, dropped to 14.9 million in 2003 and has increased substantially since then.At the time of the decision about building the tunnel, 15.9 million passengers were predicted for Eurostar trains in the opening year.", "In 1995, the first full year, actual numbers were a little over 2.9 million, growing to 7.1 million in 2000, then dropping to 6.3 million in 2003.Eurostar was initially limited by the lack of a high-speed connection on the British side.", "After the completion of High Speed 1 in two stages in 2003 and 2007, traffic increased.", "In 2008, Eurostar carried 9,113,371 passengers, a 10% increase over the previous year, despite traffic limitations due to the 2008 Channel Tunnel fire.", "Eurostar passenger numbers continued to increase.", "Year Passengers transported Eurostar(''actual ticket sales'') Passenger Shuttles(''estimated, millions'') Total(''estimated, millions'') '''1994''' ~100,000 0.2 0.3 '''1995''' 2,920,309 4.4 7.3 '''1996''' 4,995,010 7.9 12.9 '''1997''' 6,004,268 8.6 14.6 '''1998''' 6,307,849 12.1 18.4 '''1999''' 6,593,247 11.0 17.6 '''2000''' 7,130,417 9.9 17.0 '''2001''' 6,947,135 9.4 16.3 '''2002''' 6,602,817 8.6 15.2 '''2003''' 6,314,795 8.6 14.9 '''2004''' 7,276,675 7.8 15.1 '''2005''' 7,454,497 8.2 15.7 '''2006''' 7,858,337 7.8 15.7 '''2007''' 8,260,980 7.9 16.2 '''2008''' 9,113,371 7.0 16.1 '''2009''' 9,220,233 6.9 16.1 '''2010''' 9,528,558 7.5 17.0 '''2011''' 9,679,764 9.3 19.0 '''2012''' 9,911,649 10.0 19.9 '''2013''' 10,132,691 10.3 20.4 '''2014''' 10,397,894 10.6 21.0 '''2015''' 10,399,267 10.5 20.9 '''2016''' 10,011,337 10.6 20.6 '''2017''' 10,300,622 10.4 20.7'''2018'''11,000,000'''2019'''11,046,608'''2020'''2,503,419'''2021'''1,637,687'''2022'''8,295,005only passengers taking Eurostar to cross the Channel==== Freight traffic volumes ====Freight volumes have been erratic, with a major decrease during 1997 due to a closure caused by a fire in a freight shuttle.", "Freight crossings increased over the period, indicating the substitutability of the tunnel by sea crossings.", "The tunnel has achieved a market share close to or above Eurotunnel's 1980s predictions but Eurotunnel's 1990 and 1994 predictions were overestimates.For through freight trains, the first year prediction was 7.2 million tonnes; the actual 1995 figure was 1.3M tonnes.", "Through freight volumes peaked in 1998 at 3.1M tonnes.", "This fell back to 1.21M tonnes in 2007, increasing slightly to 1.24M tonnes in 2008.Together with that carried on freight shuttles, freight growth has occurred since opening, with 6.4M tonnes carried in 1995, 18.4M tonnes recorded in 2003 and 19.6M tonnes in 2007.Numbers fell back in the wake of the 2008 fire.", "Year Freight transported (''tonnes'') through freight trains Eurotunnel Truck Shuttles ('''') Total (''est.'')", "'''1994''' 0 800,000 800,000 '''1995''' 1,349,802 5,100,000 6,400,000 '''1996''' 2,783,774 6,700,000 9,500,000 '''1997''' 2,925,171 3,300,000 6,200,000 '''1998''' 3,141,438 9,200,000 12,300,000 '''1999''' 2,865,251 10,900,000 13,800,000 '''2000''' 2,947,385 14,700,000 17,600,000 '''2001''' 2,447,432 15,600,000 18,000,000 '''2002''' 1,463,580 15,600,000 17,100,000 '''2003''' 1,743,686 16,700,000 18,400,000 '''2004''' 1,889,175 16,600,000 18,500,000 '''2005''' 1,587,790 17,000,000 18,600,000 '''2006''' 1,569,429 16,900,000 18,500,000 '''2007''' 1,213,647 18,400,000 19,600,000 '''2008''' 1,239,445 14,200,000 15,400,000 '''2009''' 1,181,089 10,000,000 11,200,000 '''2010''' 1,128,079 14,200,000 15,300,000 '''2011''' 1,324,673 16,400,000 17,700,000 '''2012''' 1,227,139 19,000,000 20,200,000 '''2013''' 1,363,834 17,700,000 19,100,000 '''2014''' 1,648,047 18,700,000 20,350,000 '''2015''' 1,420,000 19,300,000 20,720,000 '''2016''' 1,040,000 21,300,000 22,340,000 '''2017''' 1,220,000 21,300,000 22,550,000 '''2018'''1,301,460 '''2019'''1,390,303 '''2020'''1,138,213 '''2021'''1,041,140 '''2022'''864,058Eurotunnel's freight subsidiary is Europorte 2.In September 2006 EWS, the UK's largest rail freight operator, announced that owing to the cessation of UK-French government subsidies of £52 million per annum to cover the tunnel \"Minimum User Charge\" (a subsidy of around £13,000 per train, at a traffic level of 4,000 trains per annum), freight trains would stop running after 30 November.==== Economic performance ====Shares in Eurotunnel were issued at £3.50 per share on 9 December 1987.By mid-1989 the price had risen to £11.00.Delays and cost overruns led to the price dropping; during demonstration runs in October 1994, it reached an all-time low.", "Eurotunnel suspended payment on its debt in September 1995 to avoid bankruptcy.", "In December 1997 the British and French governments extended Eurotunnel's operating concession by 34 years, to 2086.The financial restructuring of Eurotunnel occurred in mid-1998, reducing debt and financial charges.", "Despite the restructuring, ''The Economist'' reported in 1998 that to break even Eurotunnel would have to increase fares, traffic and market share for sustainability.", "A cost-benefit analysis of the tunnel indicated that there were few impacts on the wider economy and few developments associated with the project and that the British economy would have been better off if it had not been constructed.Under the terms of the Concession, Eurotunnel was obliged to investigate a cross-Channel road tunnel.", "In December 1999 road and rail tunnel proposals were presented to the British and French governments, but it was stressed that there was not enough demand for a second tunnel.", "A three-way treaty between the United Kingdom, France and Belgium governs border controls, with the establishment of ''control zones'' wherein the officers of the other nation may exercise limited customs and law enforcement powers.", "For most purposes, these are at either end of the tunnel, with the French border controls on the UK side of the tunnel and vice versa.", "For some city-to-city trains, the train is a control zone.", "A binational emergency plan coordinates UK and French emergency activities.In 1999 Eurostar posted its first net profit, having made a loss of £925m in 1995.In 2005 Eurotunnel was described as being in a serious situation.", "In 2013, operating profits rose 4 percent from 2012, to £54 million.==== Security ====There is a need for full passport controls, as the tunnel acts as a border between the Schengen Area and the Common Travel Area.", "There are juxtaposed controls, meaning that passports are checked before boarding by officials of the departing country and by officials of the destination country.", "These control points are only at the main Eurostar stations: French officials operate at London St Pancras, while British officials operate at Lille-Europe, Brussels-South, Paris-Gare du Nord, Rotterdam CS, and Amsterdam CS.", "During the winter ski season, they also operate at Gare de Bourg-Saint-Maurice and Moûtiers-Salins-Brides-les-Bains station.", "Eurostar passengers pass through airport-style security screening.", "For the shuttle road-vehicle trains, there are juxtaposed passport controls before boarding the trains.When Eurostar trains ran south of Paris such as from Marseille, there were no passport and security checks before departure, and those trains had to stop in Lille at least 30 minutes to allow all passengers to be checked.", "No checks are performed on board.", "There have been plans for services from Amsterdam, Frankfurt and Cologne to London, but a major reason to cancel them was the need for a stop in Lille.", "Direct service from London to Amsterdam started on 4 April 2018; following the building of check-in terminals at Amsterdam and Rotterdam and the intergovernmental agreement, a direct service from the two Dutch cities to London started on 30 April 2020." ], [ "Terminals", "Car being driven onto a shuttle carriage at the French terminal in CoquellesThe terminals' sites are at Cheriton (near Folkestone in the United Kingdom) and Coquelles (near Calais in France).", "The UK site uses the M20 motorway for access.", "The terminals are organised with the frontier controls juxtaposed with the entry to the system to allow travellers to go onto the motorway at the destination country immediately after leaving the shuttle.To achieve design output at the French terminal, the shuttles accept cars on double-deck wagons; for flexibility, ramps were placed inside the shuttles to provide access to the top decks.", "At Folkestone there are of the main-line track, 45 turnouts and eight platforms.", "At Calais there are of track and 44 turnouts.", "At the terminals, the shuttle trains traverse a figure eight to reduce uneven wear on the wheels.", "There is a freight marshalling yard west of Cheriton at Dollands Moor Freight Yard." ], [ "Regional impact", "A 1996 report from the European Commission predicted that Kent and Nord-Pas de Calais had to face increased traffic volumes due to the general growth of cross-Channel traffic and traffic attracted by the tunnel.", "In Kent, a high-speed rail line to London would transfer traffic from road to rail.", "Kent's regional development would benefit from the tunnel, but being so close to London restricts the benefits.", "Gains are in the traditional industries and are largely dependent on the development of Ashford International railway station, without which Kent would be totally dependent on London's expansion.", "Nord-Pas-de-Calais enjoys a strong internal symbolic effect of the Tunnel which results in significant gains in manufacturing.The removal of a bottleneck by means like the tunnel does not necessarily induce economic gains in all adjacent regions.", "The image of a region being connected to European high-speed transport and active political response is more important for regional economic development.", "Some small-medium enterprises located in the immediate vicinity of the terminal have used the opportunity to re-brand the profile of their business with positive effects, such as ''The New Inn'' at Etchinghill which was able to commercially exploit its unique selling point as being 'the closest pub to the Channel Tunnel'.", "Tunnel-induced regional development is small compared to general economic growth.", "The South East of England is likely to benefit developmentally and socially from faster and cheaper transport to continental Europe, but the benefits are unlikely to be equally distributed throughout the region.", "The overall environmental impact is almost certainly negative.Since the opening of the tunnel, small positive impacts on the wider economy have been felt, but it is difficult to identify major economic successes directly attributed to the tunnel.", "The Eurotunnel does operate profitably, offering an alternative transportation mode unaffected by poor weather.", "High costs of construction did delay profitability, however, and companies involved in the tunnel's construction and operation early in operation relied on government aid to deal with the accumulated debt." ], [ "Illegal immigration", "Illegal immigrants and would-be asylum seekers have used the tunnel to attempt to enter Britain.", "By 1997, the problem had attracted international press attention, and by 1999, the French Red Cross opened the first migrant centre at Sangatte, using a warehouse once used for tunnel construction; by 2002, it housed up to 1,500 people at a time, most of them trying to get to the UK.", "In 2001, most came from Afghanistan, Iraq, and Iran, but African countries were also represented.Eurotunnel, the company that operates the crossing, said that more than 37,000 migrants were intercepted between January and July 2015.Approximately 3,000 migrants, mainly from Ethiopia, Eritrea, Sudan and Afghanistan, were living in the temporary camps erected in Calais at the time of an official count in July 2015.An estimated 3,000 to 5,000 migrants were waiting in Calais for a chance to get to England.Britain and France operate a system of juxtaposed controls on immigration and customs, where investigations happen before travel.", "France is part of the Schengen immigration zone, removing border checks in normal times between most EU member states; Britain and the Republic of Ireland form their own separate Common Travel Area immigration zone.Most illegal immigrants and would-be asylum seekers who got into Britain found some way to ride a freight train.", "Trucks are loaded onto freight trains.", "In a few instances, migrants stowed away in a liquid chocolate tanker and managed to survive, spread across several attempts.", "Although the facilities were fenced, airtight security was deemed impossible; migrants would even jump from bridges onto moving trains.", "In several incidents people were injured during the crossing; others tampered with railway equipment, causing delays and requiring repairs.", "Eurotunnel said it was losing £5m per month because of the problem.In 2001 and 2002, several riots broke out at Sangatte, and groups of migrants (up to 550 in a December 2001 incident) stormed the fences and attempted to enter ''en masse''.Other migrants seeking permanent UK settlement use the Eurostar passenger train.", "They may purport to be visitors (whether to be issued with a required visit visa, or deny and falsify their true intentions to obtain a maximum of 6-months-in-a-year at-port stamp); purport to be someone else whose documents they hold, or used forged or counterfeit passports.", "Such breaches result in refusal of permission to enter the UK, affected by Border Force after such a person's identity is fully established, assuming they persist in their application to enter the UK.Increased security measures around the tunnel have resulted in much of the migration moving to small boats instead.=== Diplomatic efforts ===Local authorities in both France and the UK called for the closure of the Sangatte migrant camp, and Eurotunnel twice sought an injunction against the centre.", "As of 2006 the United Kingdom blamed France for allowing Sangatte to open, and France blamed both the UK for its then lax asylum rules/law, and the EU for not having a uniform immigration policy.", "The problem's ''cause célèbre'' nature even lead to journalists being detained as they followed migrants onto railway property.In 2002, the European Commission told France that it was in breach of European Union rules on the free transfer of goods because of the delays and closures as a result of its poor security.", "The French government built a double fence, at a cost of £5 million, reducing the numbers of migrants detected each week reaching Britain on goods trains from 250 to almost none.", "Other measures included CCTV cameras and increased police patrols.", "At the end of 2002, the Sangatte centre was closed after the UK agreed to absorb some migrants.On 23 and 30 June 2015, striking workers associated with MyFerryLink damaged sections of track by burning car tires, cancelling all trains and creating a backlog of vehicles.", "Hundreds seeking to reach Britain attempted to stow away inside and underneath transport trucks destined for the UK.", "Extra security measures included a £2 million upgrade of detection technology, £1 million extra for dog searches, and £12 million (over three years) towards a joint fund with France for security surrounding the Port of Calais.=== Illegal attempts to cross and deaths ===In 2002, a dozen migrants died in crossing attempts.", "In the two months from June to July 2015, ten migrants died near the French tunnel terminal, during a period when 1,500 attempts to evade security precautions were being made each day.On 6 July 2015, a migrant died while attempting to climb onto a freight train while trying to reach Britain from the French side of the Channel.", "The previous month an Eritrean man was killed under similar circumstances.During the night of 28 July 2015, one person, aged 25–30, was found dead after a night in which 1,500–2,000 migrants had attempted to enter the Eurotunnel terminal.", "The body of a Sudanese migrant was subsequently found inside the tunnel.", "On 4 August 2015, another Sudanese migrant walked nearly the entire length of one of the tunnels.", "He was arrested close to the British side, after having walked about through the tunnel." ], [ "Mechanical incidents", "=== Fires ===There have been three fires in the tunnel, all on the heavy goods vehicle (HGV) shuttles, that were significant enough to close the tunnel, as well as other minor incidents.On 9 December 1994, during an \"invitation only\" testing phase, a fire broke out in a Ford Escort car while its owner was loading it onto the upper deck of a tourist shuttle.", "The fire started at about 10:00, with the shuttle train stationary in the Folkestone terminal, and was put out about 40 minutes later with no passenger injuries.On 18 November 1996, a fire broke out on an HGV shuttle wagon in the tunnel, but nobody was seriously hurt.", "The exact cause is unknown, although it was neither a Eurotunnel equipment nor rolling stock problem; it may have been due to arson of a heavy goods vehicle.", "It is estimated that the heart of the fire reached , with the tunnel severely damaged over , with some affected to some extent.", "Full operation recommenced six months after the fire.On 21 August 2006, the tunnel was closed for several hours when a truck on an HGV shuttle train caught fire.On 11 September 2008, a fire occurred in the Channel Tunnel at 13:57 GMT.", "The incident started on an HGV shuttle train travelling towards France.", "The event occurred from the French entrance to the tunnel.", "No one was killed but several people were taken to hospitals suffering from smoke inhalation, and minor cuts and bruises.", "The tunnel was closed to all traffic, with the undamaged South Tunnel reopening for limited services two days later.", "Full service resumed on 9 February 2009 after repairs costing €60 million.On 29 November 2012, the tunnel was closed for several hours after a truck on an HGV shuttle caught fire.On 17 January 2015, both tunnels were closed following a lorry fire that filled the midsection of Running Tunnel North with smoke.", "Eurostar cancelled all services.", "The shuttle train had been heading from Folkestone to Coquelles and stopped adjacent to cross-passage CP 4418 just before 12:30 UTC.", "38 passengers and four members of Eurotunnel staff were evacuated into the service tunnel and transported to France in special STTS road vehicles.", "They were taken to the Eurotunnel Fire/Emergency Management Centre close to the French portal.=== Train failures ===On the night of 19/20 February 1996, about 1,000 passengers became trapped in the Channel Tunnel when Eurostar trains from London broke down owing to failures of electronic circuits caused by snow and ice being deposited and then melting on the circuit boards.On 3 August 2007, an electrical failure lasting six hours caused passengers to be trapped in the tunnel on a shuttle.On the evening of 18 December 2009, during the December 2009 European snowfall, five London-bound Eurostar trains failed inside the tunnel, trapping 2,000 passengers for approximately 16 hours, during the coldest temperatures in eight years.", "A Eurotunnel spokesperson explained that snow had evaded the train's winterisation shields, and the transition from cold air outside to the tunnel's warm atmosphere had melted the snow, resulting in electrical failures.", "One train was turned back before reaching the tunnel; two trains were hauled out of the tunnel by Eurotunnel Class 0001 diesel locomotives.", "The blocking of the tunnel led to the implementation of Operation Stack, the transformation of the M20 motorway into a linear car park.The occasion was the first time that a Eurostar train was evacuated inside the tunnel; the failing of four at once was described as \"unprecedented\".", "The Channel Tunnel reopened the following morning.", "Nirj Deva, Member of the European Parliament for South East England, had called for Eurostar chief executive Richard Brown to resign over the incidents.", "An independent report by Christopher Garnett (former CEO of Great North Eastern Railway) and Claude Gressier (a French transport expert) on the 18/19 December 2009 incidents was issued in February 2010, making 21 recommendations.On 7 January 2010, a Brussels–London Eurostar broke down in the tunnel.", "The train had 236 passengers on board and was towed to Ashford; other trains that had not yet reached the tunnel were turned back.=== Safety ===The Channel Tunnel Safety Authority is responsible for some aspects of safety regulation in the tunnel; it reports to the Intergovernmental Commission (IGC).The service tunnel is used for access to technical equipment in cross-passages and equipment rooms, to provide fresh-air ventilation and for emergency evacuation.", "The Service Tunnel Transport System (STTS) allows fast access to all areas of the tunnel.", "The service vehicles are rubber-tired with a buried wire guidance system.", "The 24 STTS vehicles are used mainly for maintenance but also for firefighting and emergencies.", "\"Pods\" with different purposes, up to a payload of , are inserted into the side of the vehicles.", "The vehicles cannot turn around within the tunnel and are driven from either end.", "The maximum speed is when the steering is locked.", "A fleet of 15 Light Service Tunnel Vehicles (LADOGS) was introduced to supplement the STTSs.", "The LADOGS has a short wheelbase with a turning circle, allowing two-point turns within the service tunnel.", "Steering cannot be locked like the STTS vehicles, and maximum speed is .", "Pods up to can be loaded onto the rear of the vehicles.", "Drivers in the tunnel sit on the right, and the vehicles drive on the left.", "Owing to the risk of French personnel driving on their native right side of the road, sensors in the vehicles alert the driver if the vehicle strays to the right side.The three tunnels contain of air that needs to be conditioned for comfort and safety.", "Air is supplied from ventilation buildings at Shakespeare Cliff and Sangatte, with each building capable of providing 100% standby capacity.", "Supplementary ventilation also exists on either side of the tunnel.", "In the event of a fire, ventilation is used to keep smoke out of the service tunnel and move smoke in one direction in the main tunnel to give passengers clean air.", "The tunnel was the first main-line railway tunnel to have special cooling equipment.", "Heat is generated from traction equipment and drag.", "The design limit was set at , using a mechanical cooling system with refrigeration plants on both sides that run chilled water circulating in pipes within the tunnel.Trains travelling at high speed create piston effect pressure changes that can affect passenger comfort, ventilation systems, tunnel doors, fans and the structure of the trains, and which drag on the trains.", "Piston relief ducts of diameter were chosen to solve the problem, with 4 ducts per kilometre to give close to optimum results.", "However, this design led to extreme lateral forces on the trains, so a reduction in train speed was required and restrictors were installed in the ducts.The safety issue of a possible fire on a passenger-vehicle shuttle garnered much attention, with Eurotunnel noting that fire was the risk attracting the most attention in a 1994 safety case for three reasons: the opposition of ferry companies to passengers being allowed to remain with their cars; Home Office statistics indicating that car fires had doubled in ten years; and the long length of the tunnel.", "Eurotunnel commissioned the UK Fire Research Station—now part of the Building Research Establishment—to give reports of vehicle fires, and liaised with Kent Fire Brigade to gather vehicle fire statistics over one year.", "Fire tests took place at the French Mines Research Establishment with a mock wagon used to investigate how cars burned.", "The wagon door systems are designed to withstand fire inside the wagon for 30 minutes, longer than the transit time of 27 minutes.", "Wagon air conditioning units help to purge dangerous fumes from inside the wagon before travel.", "Each wagon has a fire detection and extinguishing system, with sensing of ions or ultraviolet radiation, smoke and gases that can trigger halon gas to quench a fire.", "Since the HGV wagons are not covered, fire sensors are located on the loading wagon and in the tunnel.", "A water main in the service tunnel provides water to the main tunnels at intervals.", "The ventilation system can control smoke movement.", "Special arrival sidings accept a train that is on fire, as the train is not allowed to stop whilst on fire in the tunnel unless continuing its journey would lead to a worse outcome.", "Eurotunnel has banned a wide range of hazardous goods from travelling in the tunnel.", "Two STTS (Service Tunnel Transportation System) vehicles with firefighting pods are on duty at all times, with a maximum delay of 10 minutes before they reach a burning train." ], [ "Unusual traffic", "=== Trains ===In 1999, the ''Kosovo Train for Life'' passed through the tunnel en route to Pristina, in Kosovo.=== Other ===In 2009, former F1 racing champion John Surtees drove a Ginetta G50 EV electric sports car prototype from England to France, using the service tunnel, as part of a charity event.", "He was required to keep to the speed limit.", "To celebrate the 2014 Tour de France's transfer from its opening stages in Britain to France in July of that year, Chris Froome of Team Sky rode a bicycle through the service tunnel, becoming the first solo rider to do so.", "The crossing took under an hour, reaching speeds of —faster than most cross-channel ferries." ], [ "Mobile network coverage", "Since 2012, French operators Bouygues Telecom, Orange and SFR have covered Running Tunnel South, the tunnel bore normally used for travel from France to Britain.In January 2014, UK operators EE and Vodafone signed ten-year contracts with Eurotunnel for Running Tunnel North.", "The agreements will enable both operators' subscribers to use 2G and 3G services.", "Both EE and Vodafone planned to offer LTE services on the route; EE said it expected to cover the route with LTE connectivity by the summer of 2014.EE and Vodafone will offer Channel Tunnel network coverage for travellers from the UK to France.", "Eurotunnel said it also held talks with Three UK but has yet to reach an agreement with the operator.In May 2014, Eurotunnel announced that they had installed equipment from Alcatel-Lucent to cover Running Tunnel North and simultaneously to provide mobile service (GSM 900/1800 MHz and UMTS 2100 MHz) by EE, O2 and Vodafone.", "The service of EE and Vodafone commenced on the same date as the announcement.", "O2 service was expected to be available soon afterwards.In November 2014, EE announced that it had previously switched on LTE earlier in September 2014.O2 turned on 2G, 3G and 4G services in November 2014, whilst Vodafone's 4G was due to go live later." ], [ "Other (non-transport) services", "The tunnel also houses the 1,000 MW ElecLink interconnector to transfer power between the British and French electricity networks.", "During the night of 31 August/1 September 2021, the 51 km-long 320 kV DC cable was switched into service for the first time." ], [ "See also", "* France–United Kingdom border* British Rail Class 373* Proposed British Isles fixed sea link connections* Japan–Korea Undersea Tunnel* List of transport megaprojects* Marmaray Tunnel* Samphire Hoe* Strait of Gibraltar crossing" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * * * * * Article on a post-WW1 plan for a tunnel that was scrapped by the Great Depression.", "A total cost figure of US$150 million was given in 1929* Autobiography of Sir John Stokes regarding 1882 deliberations" ], [ "External links", "* UK website at eurotunnel.com* French website at eurotunnel.com/fr* Tribute website at chunnel.com* * Channel Tunnel on OpenStreetMap wiki* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Cyberpunk" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cyberpunk''' is a subgenre of science fiction in a dystopian futuristic setting that tends to focus on a \"combination of lowlife and high tech\", featuring futuristic technological and scientific achievements, such as artificial intelligence and cyberware, juxtaposed with societal collapse, dystopia or decay.", "Much of cyberpunk is rooted in the New Wave science fiction movement of the 1960s and 1970s, when writers like Philip K. Dick, Michael Moorcock, Roger Zelazny, John Brunner, J. G. Ballard, Philip José Farmer and Harlan Ellison examined the impact of drug culture, technology, and the sexual revolution while avoiding the utopian tendencies of earlier science fiction.Comics exploring cyberpunk themes began appearing as early as Judge Dredd, first published in 1977.Released in 1984, William Gibson's influential debut novel ''Neuromancer'' helped solidify cyberpunk as a genre, drawing influence from punk subculture and early hacker culture.", "Frank Miller's ''Ronin'' is an example of a cyberpunk graphic novel.", "Other influential cyberpunk writers included Bruce Sterling and Rudy Rucker.", "The Japanese cyberpunk subgenre began in 1982 with the debut of Katsuhiro Otomo's manga series ''Akira'', with its 1988 anime film adaptation (also directed by Otomo) later popularizing the subgenre.Early films in the genre include Ridley Scott's 1982 film ''Blade Runner'', one of several of Philip K. Dick's works that have been adapted into films (in this case, ''Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?'').", "The \"first cyberpunk television series\" was the TV series ''Max Headroom'' from 1987, playing in a futuristic dystopia ruled by an oligarchy of television networks, and where computer hacking played a central role in many story lines.", "The films ''Johnny Mnemonic'' (1995) and ''New Rose Hotel'' (1998), both based upon short stories by William Gibson, flopped commercially and critically, while ''The Matrix'' trilogy (1999–2003) and ''Judge Dredd'' (1995) were some of the most successful cyberpunk films.Newer cyberpunk media includes ''Blade Runner 2049'' (2017), a sequel to the original 1982 film; ''Dredd'' (2012), which was not a sequel to the original movie; ''Ghost in the Shell'' (2017); ''Alita: Battle Angel'' (2019), based on the 1990s Japanese manga ''Battle Angel Alita''; the 2018 Netflix TV series ''Altered Carbon'', based on Richard K. Morgan's 2002 novel of the same name; the 2020 remake of 1997 role-playing video game ''Final Fantasy VII''; and the video game ''Cyberpunk 2077'' (2020), based on R. Talsorian Games's 1988 tabletop role-playing game ''Cyberpunk''." ], [ "Background", "Lawrence Person has attempted to define the content and ethos of the cyberpunk literary movement stating: Cyberpunk plots often center on conflict among artificial intelligences, hackers, and megacorporations, and tend to be set in a near-future Earth, rather than in the far-future settings or galactic vistas found in novels such as Isaac Asimov's ''Foundation'' or Frank Herbert's ''Dune''.", "The settings are usually post-industrial dystopias but tend to feature extraordinary cultural ferment and the use of technology in ways never anticipated by its original inventors (\"the street finds its own uses for things\").", "Much of the genre's atmosphere echoes film noir, and written works in the genre often use techniques from detective fiction.", "There are sources who view that cyberpunk has shifted from a literary movement to a mode of science fiction due to the limited number of writers and its transition to a more generalized cultural formation." ], [ "History and origins", "The origins of cyberpunk are rooted in the New Wave science fiction movement of the 1960s and 1970s, where ''New Worlds'', under the editorship of Michael Moorcock, began inviting and encouraging stories that examined new writing styles, techniques, and archetypes.", "Reacting to conventional storytelling, New Wave authors attempted to present a world where society coped with a constant upheaval of new technology and culture, generally with dystopian outcomes.", "Writers like Roger Zelazny, J. G. Ballard, Philip José Farmer, Samuel R. Delany, and Harlan Ellison often examined the impact of drug culture, technology, and the sexual revolution with an avant-garde style influenced by the Beat Generation (especially William S. Burroughs's science fiction writing), Dadaism, and their own ideas.", "Ballard attacked the idea that stories should follow the \"archetypes\" popular since the time of Ancient Greece, and the assumption that these would somehow be the same ones that would call to modern readers, as Joseph Campbell argued in ''The Hero with a Thousand Faces''.", "Instead, Ballard wanted to write a new myth for the modern reader, a style with \"more psycho-literary ideas, more meta-biological and meta-chemical concepts, private time systems, synthetic psychologies and space-times, more of the sombre half-worlds one glimpses in the paintings of schizophrenics.", "\"This had a profound influence on a new generation of writers, some of whom would come to call their movement \"cyberpunk\".", "One, Bruce Sterling, later said:Ballard, Zelazny, and the rest of New Wave was seen by the subsequent generation as delivering more \"realism\" to science fiction, and they attempted to build on this.Samuel R. Delanys 1968 novel ''Nova'' is also considered one of the major forerunners of the cyberpunk movement.", "It prefigures, for instance, cyberpunk's staple trope of humans interfacing with computers via implants.", "Writer William Gibson claimed to be greatly influenced by Delany, and his novel ''Neuromancer'' includes allusions to ''Nova''.Similarly influential, and generally cited as proto-cyberpunk, is the Philip K. Dick novel ''Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?", "'', first published in 1968.Presenting precisely the general feeling of dystopian post-economic-apocalyptic future as Gibson and Sterling later deliver, it examines ethical and moral problems with cybernetic, artificial intelligence in a way more \"realist\" than the Isaac Asimov ''Robot'' series that laid its philosophical foundation.", "Dick's protege and friend K. W. Jeter wrote a novel called ''Dr.", "Adder'' in 1972 that, Dick lamented, might have been more influential in the field had it been able to find a publisher at that time.", "It was not published until 1984, after which Jeter made it the first book in a trilogy, followed by ''The Glass Hammer'' (1985) and ''Death Arms'' (1987).", "Jeter wrote other standalone cyberpunk novels before going on to write three authorized sequels to ''Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?", "'', named ''Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human'' (1995), ''Blade Runner 3: Replicant Night'' (1996), and ''Blade Runner 4: Eye and Talon''.", "''Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?''", "was made into the seminal movie ''Blade Runner'', released in 1982.This was one year after William Gibson's story \"Johnny Mnemonic\" helped move proto-cyberpunk concepts into the mainstream.", "That story, which also became a film years later in 1995, involves another dystopian future, where human couriers deliver computer data, stored cybernetically in their own minds.=== Etymology ===The term \"cyberpunk\" first appeared as the title of a short story by Bruce Bethke, written in 1980 and published in ''Amazing Stories'' in 1983.The name was picked up by Gardner Dozois, editor of ''Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine'', and popularized in his editorials.Bethke says he made two lists of words, one for technology, one for troublemakers, and experimented with combining them variously into compound words, consciously attempting to coin a term that encompassed both punk attitudes and high technology.", "He described the idea thus:Afterward, Dozois began using this term in his own writing, most notably in a ''Washington Post'' article where he said \"About the closest thing here to a self-willed esthetic 'school' would be the purveyors of bizarre hard-edged, high-tech stuff, who have on occasion been referred to as 'cyberpunks'—Sterling, Gibson, Shiner, Cadigan, Bear.", "\"About that time in 1984, William Gibson's novel ''Neuromancer'' was published, delivering a glimpse of a future encompassed by what became an archetype of cyberpunk \"virtual reality\", with the human mind being fed light-based worldscapes through a computer interface.", "Some, perhaps ironically including Bethke himself, argued at the time that the writers whose style Gibson's books epitomized should be called \"Neuromantics\", a pun on the name of the novel plus \"New Romantics\", a term used for a New Wave pop music movement that had just occurred in Britain, but this term did not catch on.", "Bethke later paraphrased Michael Swanwick's argument for the term: \"the movement writers should properly be termed neuromantics, since so much of what they were doing was clearly imitating ''Neuromancer''\".alt=A Japanese man with mirrorshades indoors, a blonde mohawk and headphones around his neck.Sterling was another writer who played a central role, often consciously, in the cyberpunk genre, variously seen as either keeping it on track, or distorting its natural path into a stagnant formula.", "In 1986, he edited a volume of cyberpunk stories called ''Mirrorshades: The Cyberpunk Anthology'', an attempt to establish what cyberpunk was, from Sterling's perspective.In the subsequent decade, the motifs of Gibson's ''Neuromancer'' became formulaic, climaxing in the satirical extremes of Neal Stephenson's ''Snow Crash'' in 1992.Bookending the cyberpunk era, Bethke himself published a novel in 1995 called ''Headcrash'', like ''Snow Crash'' a satirical attack on the genre's excesses.", "Fittingly, it won an honor named after cyberpunk's spiritual founder, the Philip K. Dick Award.", "It satirized the genre in this way:" ], [ "Style and ethos", "Primary figures in the cyberpunk movement include William Gibson, Neal Stephenson, Bruce Sterling, Bruce Bethke, Pat Cadigan, Rudy Rucker, and John Shirley.", "Philip K. Dick (author of ''Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?", "'', from which the film ''Blade Runner'' was adapted) is also seen by some as prefiguring the movement.", "''Blade Runner'' can be seen as a quintessential example of the cyberpunk style and theme.", "Video games, board games, and tabletop role-playing games, such as ''Cyberpunk 2020'' and ''Shadowrun'', often feature storylines that are heavily influenced by cyberpunk writing and movies.", "Beginning in the early 1990s, some trends in fashion and music were also labeled as cyberpunk.", "Cyberpunk is also featured prominently in anime and manga (Japanese cyberpunk), with ''Akira'', ''Ghost in the Shell'' and ''Cowboy Bebop'' being among the most notable.=== Setting ===Cyberpunk writers tend to use elements from crime fiction—particularly hardboiled detective fiction and film noir—and postmodernist prose to describe an often nihilistic underground side of an electronic society.", "The genre's vision of a troubled future is often called the antithesis of the generally utopian visions of the future popular in the 1940s and 1950s.", "Gibson defined cyberpunk's antipathy towards utopian science fiction in his 1981 short story \"The Gernsback Continuum,\" which pokes fun at and, to a certain extent, condemns utopian science fiction.In some cyberpunk writing, much of the action takes place online, in cyberspace, blurring the line between actual and virtual reality.", "A typical trope in such work is a direct connection between the human brain and computer systems.", "Cyberpunk settings are dystopias with corruption, computers, and computer networks.", "Giant, multinational corporations have for the most part replaced governments as centers of political, economic, and even military power.The economic and technological state of Japan is a regular theme in the cyberpunk literature of the 1980s.", "Of Japan's influence on the genre, William Gibson said, \"Modern Japan simply was cyberpunk.\"", "Cyberpunk is often set in urbanized, artificial landscapes, and \"city lights, receding\" was used by Gibson as one of the genre's first metaphors for cyberspace and virtual reality.The cityscapes of Hong Kong has had major influences in the urban backgrounds, ambiance and settings in many cyberpunk works such as ''Blade Runner'' and ''Shadowrun''.", "Ridley Scott envisioned the landscape of cyberpunk Los Angeles in ''Blade Runner'' to be \"Hong Kong on a very bad day\".", "The streetscapes of the ''Ghost in the Shell'' film were based on Hong Kong.", "Its director Mamoru Oshii felt that Hong Kong's strange and chaotic streets where \"old and new exist in confusing relationships\", fit the theme of the film well.", "Hong Kong's Kowloon Walled City is particularly notable for its disorganized hyper-urbanization and breakdown in traditional urban planning to be an inspiration to cyberpunk landscapes.", "During the British rule of Hong Kong, it was an area neglected by both the British and Qing administrations, embodying elements of liberalism in a dystopian context.", "Portrayals of East Asia and Asians in Western cyberpunk have been criticized as Orientalist and promoting racist tropes playing on American and European fears of East Asian dominance; this has been referred to as \"techno-Orientalism\".=== Society and government ===Cyberpunk can be intended to disquiet readers and call them to action.", "It often expresses a sense of rebellion, suggesting that one could describe it as a type of cultural revolution in science fiction.", "In the words of author and critic David Brin:...a closer look at cyberpunk authors reveals that they nearly always portray future societies in which governments have become wimpy and pathetic ...Popular science fiction tales by Gibson, Williams, Cadigan and others ''do'' depict Orwellian accumulations of power in the next century, but nearly always clutched in the secretive hands of a wealthy or corporate elite.Cyberpunk stories have also been seen as fictional forecasts of the evolution of the Internet.", "The earliest descriptions of a global communications network came long before the World Wide Web entered popular awareness, though not before traditional science-fiction writers such as Arthur C. Clarke and some social commentators such as James Burke began predicting that such networks would eventually form.Some observers cite that cyberpunk tends to marginalize sectors of society such as women and people of colour.", "It is claimed that, for instance, cyberpunk depicts fantasies that ultimately empower masculinity using fragmentary and decentered aesthetic that culminate in a masculine genre populated by male outlaws.", "Critics also note the absence of any reference to Africa or black characters in the quintessential cyberpunk film ''Blade Runner'' while other films reinforce stereotypes." ], [ "Media", "=== Literature ===Minnesota writer Bruce Bethke coined the term in 1983 for his short story \"Cyberpunk\", which was published in an issue of ''Amazing Science Fiction Stories''.", "The term was quickly appropriated as a label to be applied to the works of William Gibson, Bruce Sterling, Pat Cadigan and others.", "Of these, Sterling became the movement's chief ideologue, thanks to his fanzine ''Cheap Truth''.", "John Shirley wrote articles on Sterling and Rucker's significance.", "John Brunner's 1975 novel ''The Shockwave Rider'' is considered by many to be the first cyberpunk novel with many of the tropes commonly associated with the genre, some five years before the term was popularized by Dozois.William Gibson with his novel ''Neuromancer'' (1984) is arguably the most famous writer connected with the term cyberpunk.", "He emphasized style, a fascination with surfaces, and atmosphere over traditional science-fiction tropes.", "Regarded as ground-breaking and sometimes as \"the archetypal cyberpunk work\", ''Neuromancer'' was awarded the Hugo, Nebula, and Philip K. Dick Awards.", "''Count Zero'' (1986) and ''Mona Lisa Overdrive'' (1988) followed after Gibson's popular debut novel.", "According to the Jargon File, \"Gibson's near-total ignorance of computers and the present-day hacker culture enabled him to speculate about the role of computers and hackers in the future in ways hackers have since found both irritatingly naïve and tremendously stimulating.", "\"Early on, cyberpunk was hailed as a radical departure from science-fiction standards and a new manifestation of vitality.", "Shortly thereafter, however, some critics arose to challenge its status as a revolutionary movement.", "These critics said that the science fiction New Wave of the 1960s was much more innovative as far as narrative techniques and styles were concerned.", "Furthermore, while ''Neuromancer''s narrator may have had an unusual \"voice\" for science fiction, much older examples can be found: Gibson's narrative voice, for example, resembles that of an updated Raymond Chandler, as in his novel ''The Big Sleep'' (1939).", "Others noted that almost all traits claimed to be uniquely cyberpunk could in fact be found in older writers' works—often citing J. G. Ballard, Philip K. Dick, Harlan Ellison, Stanisław Lem, Samuel R. Delany, and even William S. Burroughs.", "For example, Philip K. Dick's works contain recurring themes of social decay, artificial intelligence, paranoia, and blurred lines between objective and subjective realities.", "The influential cyberpunk movie ''Blade Runner'' (1982) is based on his book, ''Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?''.", "Humans linked to machines are found in Pohl and Kornbluth's ''Wolfbane'' (1959) and Roger Zelazny's ''Creatures of Light and Darkness'' (1968).In 1994, scholar Brian Stonehill suggested that Thomas Pynchon's 1973 novel ''Gravity's Rainbow'' \"not only curses but precurses what we now glibly dub cyberspace.\"", "Other important predecessors include Alfred Bester's two most celebrated novels, ''The Demolished Man'' and ''The Stars My Destination'', as well as Vernor Vinge's novella ''True Names''.==== Reception and impact ====Science-fiction writer David Brin describes cyberpunk as \"the finest free promotion campaign ever waged on behalf of science fiction\".", "It may not have attracted the \"real punks\", but it did ensnare many new readers, and it provided the sort of movement that postmodern literary critics found alluring.", "Cyberpunk made science fiction more attractive to academics, argues Brin; in addition, it made science fiction more profitable to Hollywood and to the visual arts generally.", "Although the \"self-important rhetoric and whines of persecution\" on the part of cyberpunk fans were irritating at worst and humorous at best, Brin declares that the \"rebels did shake things up.", "We owe them a debt.", "\"Fredric Jameson considers cyberpunk the \"supreme literary expression if not of postmodernism, then of late capitalism itself\".Cyberpunk further inspired many later writers to incorporate cyberpunk ideas into their own works, such as George Alec Effinger's ''When Gravity Fails''.", "''Wired'' magazine, created by Louis Rossetto and Jane Metcalfe, mixes new technology, art, literature, and current topics in order to interest today's cyberpunk fans, which Paula Yoo claims \"proves that hardcore hackers, multimedia junkies, cyberpunks and cellular freaks are poised to take over the world\".=== Film and television ===The film ''Blade Runner'' (1982) is set in 2019 in a dystopian future in which manufactured beings called replicants are slaves used on space colonies and are legal prey on Earth to various bounty hunters who \"retire\" (kill) them.", "Although ''Blade Runner'' was largely unsuccessful in its first theatrical release, it found a viewership in the home video market and became a cult film.", "Since the movie omits the religious and mythical elements of Dick's original novel (e.g.", "empathy boxes and Wilbur Mercer), it falls more strictly within the cyberpunk genre than the novel does.", "William Gibson would later reveal that upon first viewing the film, he was surprised at how the look of this film matched his vision for ''Neuromancer'', a book he was then working on.", "The film's tone has since been the staple of many cyberpunk movies, such as ''The Matrix trilogy'' (1999–2003), which uses a wide variety of cyberpunk elements.", "A sequel to ''Blade Runner'' was released in 2017.The TV series ''Max Headroom'' (1987) is an iconic cyberpunk work, taking place in a futuristic dystopia ruled by an oligarchy of television networks.", "Computer hacking played a central role in many of the story lines.", "''Max Headroom'' has been called \"the first cyberpunk television series\".The number of films in the genre has grown steadily since ''Blade Runner''.", "Several of Philip K. Dick's works have been adapted to the silver screen.", "The films ''Johnny Mnemonic'' (1995) and ''New Rose Hotel'' (1998), both based on short stories by William Gibson, flopped commercially and critically.", "Other cyberpunk films include ''RoboCop'' (1987), ''Total Recall'' (1990), ''Hardware'' (1990), ''The Lawnmower Man'' (1992), ''12 Monkeys'' (1995), ''Hackers'' (1995), and ''Strange Days'' (1995).", "Some cyberpunk films have been described as tech-noir, a hybrid genre combining neo-noir and science fiction or cyberpunk.=== Anime and manga ===The Japanese cyberpunk subgenre began in 1982 with the debut of Katsuhiro Otomo's manga series ''Akira'', with its 1988 anime film adaptation, which Otomo directed, later popularizing the subgenre.", "''Akira'' inspired a wave of Japanese cyberpunk works, including manga and anime series such as ''Ghost in the Shell'', ''Battle Angel Alita'', and ''Cowboy Bebop''.", "Other early Japanese cyberpunk works include the 1982 film ''Burst City'', the 1985 original video animation ''Megazone 23'', and the 1989 film ''Tetsuo: The Iron Man''.According to Paul Gravett, when ''Akira'' began to be published, cyberpunk literature had not yet been translated into Japanese, Otomo has distinct inspirations such as Mitsuteru Yokoyama's manga series ''Tetsujin 28-go'' (1956–1966) and Moebius.In contrast to Western cyberpunk which has roots in New Wave science fiction literature, Japanese cyberpunk has roots in underground music culture, specifically the Japanese punk subculture that arose from the Japanese punk music scene in the 1970s.", "The filmmaker Sogo Ishii introduced this subculture to Japanese cinema with the punk film ''Panic High School'' (1978) and the punk biker film ''Crazy Thunder Road'' (1980), both portraying the rebellion and anarchy associated with punk, and the latter featuring a punk biker gang aesthetic.", "Ishii's punk films paved the way for Otomo's seminal cyberpunk work ''Akira''.", "Cyberpunk themes are widely visible in anime and manga.", "In Japan, where cosplay is popular and not only teenagers display such fashion styles, cyberpunk has been accepted and its influence is widespread.", "William Gibson's ''Neuromancer,'' whose influence dominated the early cyberpunk movement, was also set in Chiba, one of Japan's largest industrial areas, although at the time of writing the novel Gibson did not know the location of Chiba and had no idea how perfectly it fit his vision in some ways.", "The exposure to cyberpunk ideas and fiction in the 1980s has allowed it to seep into the Japanese culture.Cyberpunk anime and manga draw upon a futuristic vision which has elements in common with Western science fiction and therefore have received wide international acceptance outside Japan.", "\"The conceptualization involved in cyberpunk is more of forging ahead, looking at the new global culture.", "It is a culture that does not exist right now, so the Japanese concept of a cyberpunk future, seems just as valid as a Western one, especially as Western cyberpunk often incorporates many Japanese elements.\"", "William Gibson is now a frequent visitor to Japan, and he came to see that many of his visions of Japan have become a reality:Modern Japan simply was cyberpunk.", "The Japanese themselves knew it and delighted in it.", "I remember my first glimpse of Shibuya, when one of the young Tokyo journalists who had taken me there, his face drenched with the light of a thousand media-suns—all that towering, animated crawl of commercial information—said, \"You see?", "You see?", "It is ''Blade Runner'' town.\"", "And it was.", "It so evidently was.==== Influence ====''Akira'' (1982 manga) and its 1988 anime film adaptation have influenced numerous works in animation, comics, film, music, television and video games.", "''Akira'' has been cited as a major influence on Hollywood films such as ''The Matrix'', ''Chronicle'', ''Looper'', ''Midnight Special'', and ''Inception'', as well as cyberpunk-influenced video games such as Hideo Kojima's ''Snatcher'' and ''Metal Gear Solid'', Valve's ''Half-Life'' series and Dontnod Entertainment's ''Remember Me''.", "''Akira'' has also influenced the work of musicians such as Kanye West, who paid homage to ''Akira'' in the \"Stronger\" music video, and Lupe Fiasco, whose album ''Tetsuo & Youth'' is named after Tetsuo Shima.", "The popular bike from the film, Kaneda's Motorbike, appears in ''Steven Spielberg'''s film ''Ready Player One'', and CD Projekt's video game ''Cyberpunk 2077''.An interpretation of digital rain, similar to the images used in ''Ghost in the Shell'' and later in ''The Matrix''''Ghost in the Shell'' (1995) influenced a number of prominent filmmakers, most notably the Wachowskis in ''The Matrix'' (1999) and its sequels.", "''The Matrix'' series took several concepts from the film, including the Matrix digital rain, which was inspired by the opening credits of ''Ghost in the Shell'' and a sushi magazine the wife of the senior designer of the animation, Simon Witheley, had in the kitchen at the time., and the way characters access the Matrix through holes in the back of their necks.", "Other parallels have been drawn to James Cameron's ''Avatar'', Steven Spielberg's ''A.I.", "Artificial Intelligence'', and Jonathan Mostow's ''Surrogates''.", "James Cameron cited ''Ghost in the Shell'' as a source of inspiration, citing it as an influence on ''Avatar''.The original video animation ''Megazone 23'' (1985) has a number of similarities to ''The Matrix''.", "''Battle Angel Alita'' (1990) has had a notable influence on filmmaker James Cameron, who was planning to adapt it into a film since 2000.It was an influence on his TV series ''Dark Angel'', and he is the producer of the 2019 film adaptation ''Alita: Battle Angel''.=== Comics ===In 1975, artist Moebius collaborated with writer Dan O'Bannon on a story called ''The Long Tomorrow'', published in the French magazine ''Métal Hurlant''.", "One of the first works featuring elements now seen as exemplifying cyberpunk, it combined influences from film noir and hardboiled crime fiction with a distant sci-fi environment.", "Author William Gibson stated that Moebius' artwork for the series, along with other visuals from ''Métal Hurlant'', strongly influenced his 1984 novel ''Neuromancer''.", "The series had a far-reaching impact in the cyberpunk genre, being cited as an influence on Ridley Scott's ''Alien'' (1979) and ''Blade Runner''.", "Moebius later expanded upon ''The Long Tomorrow'''s aesthetic with ''The Incal'', a graphic novel collaboration with Alejandro Jodorowsky published from 1980 to 1988.The story centers around the exploits of a detective named John Difool in various science fiction settings, and while not confined to the tropes of cyberpunk, it features many elements of the genre.", "Moebius was one of the designers of ''Tron'' (1982), a movie that shows a world inside a computer.Concurrently with many other foundational cyberpunk works, DC Comics published Frank Miller's six-issue miniseries ''Rōnin'' from 1983 to 1984.The series, incorporating aspects of Samurai culture, martial arts films and manga, is set in a dystopian near-future New York.", "It explores the link between an ancient Japanese warrior and the apocalyptic, crumbling cityscape he finds himself in.", "The comic also bears several similarities to ''Akira'', with highly powerful telepaths playing central roles, as well as sharing many key visuals.", "''Rōnin'' would go on to influence many later works, including ''Samurai Jack'' and the ''Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles'', as well as video games such as ''Cyberpunk 2077''.", "Two years later, Miller himself would incorporate several toned-down elements of ''Rōnin'' into his acclaimed 1986 miniseries ''The Dark Knight Returns'', in which a retired Bruce Wayne once again takes up the mantle of Batman in a Gotham that is increasingly becoming more dystopian.Paul Pope's ''Batman: Year 100'', published in 2006, also exhibits several traits typical of cyberpunk fiction, such as a rebel protagonist opposing a future authoritarian state, and a distinct retrofuturist aesthetic that makes callbacks to both ''The Dark Knight Returns'' and Batman's original appearances in the 1940s.=== Games ===There are many cyberpunk video games.", "Popular series include ''Final Fantasy VII'' and its spin-offs and remake, the ''Megami Tensei'' series, Kojima's ''Snatcher'' and ''Metal Gear'' series, ''Deus Ex'' series, ''Syndicate'' series, and ''System Shock'' and its sequel.", "Other games, like ''Blade Runner'', ''Ghost in the Shell'', and the ''Matrix'' series, are based upon genre movies, or role-playing games (for instance the various ''Shadowrun'' games).Several RPGs called ''Cyberpunk'' exist: ''Cyberpunk'', ''Cyberpunk 2020'', ''Cyberpunk v3.0'' and ''Cyberpunk Red'' written by Mike Pondsmith and published by R. Talsorian Games, and ''GURPS Cyberpunk'', published by Steve Jackson Games as a module of the GURPS family of RPGs.", "''Cyberpunk 2020'' was designed with the settings of William Gibson's writings in mind, and to some extent with his approval, unlike the approach taken by FASA in producing the transgenre ''Shadowrun'' game and its various sequels, which mixes cyberpunk with fantasy elements such as magic and fantasy races such as orcs and elves.", "Both are set in the near future, in a world where cybernetics are prominent.", "In addition, Iron Crown Enterprises released an RPG named ''Cyberspace'', which was out of print for several years until recently being re-released in online PDF form.", "CD Projekt Red released ''Cyberpunk 2077,'' a cyberpunk open world first-person shooter/role-playing video game (RPG) based on the tabletop RPG ''Cyberpunk 2020'', on December 10, 2020.In 1990, in a convergence of cyberpunk art and reality, the United States Secret Service raided Steve Jackson Games's headquarters and confiscated all their computers.", "Officials denied that the target had been the ''GURPS Cyberpunk'' sourcebook, but Jackson would later write that he and his colleagues \"were never able to secure the return of the complete manuscript; ...", "The Secret Service at first flatly refused to return anything – then agreed to let us copy files, but when we got to their office, restricted us to one set of out-of-date files – then agreed to make copies for us, but said \"tomorrow\" every day from March 4 to March 26.On March 26 we received a set of disks which purported to be our files, but the material was late, incomplete and well-nigh useless.\"", "Steve Jackson Games won a lawsuit against the Secret Service, aided by the new Electronic Frontier Foundation.", "This event has achieved a sort of notoriety, which has extended to the book itself as well.", "All published editions of ''GURPS Cyberpunk'' have a tagline on the front cover, which reads \"The book that was seized by the U.S. Secret Service!\"", "Inside, the book provides a summary of the raid and its aftermath.Cyberpunk has also inspired several tabletop, miniature and board games such as ''Necromunda'' by Games Workshop.", "''Netrunner'' is a collectible card game introduced in 1996, based on the ''Cyberpunk 2020'' role-playing game.", "''Tokyo NOVA'', debuting in 1993, is a cyberpunk role-playing game that uses playing cards instead of dice.", "''Cyberpunk 2077'' set a new record for the largest number of simultaneous players in a single player game, with a record 1,003,262 playing just after the December 10th launch, according to Steam Database.", "That tops the previous Steam record of 472,962 players set by ''Fallout 4'' back in 2015.=== Music ===Invariably the origin of cyberpunk music lies in the synthesizer-heavy scores of cyberpunk films such as ''Escape from New York'' (1981) and ''Blade Runner'' (1982).", "Some musicians and acts have been classified as cyberpunk due to their aesthetic style and musical content.", "Often dealing with dystopian visions of the future or biomechanical themes, some fit more squarely in the category than others.", "Bands whose music has been classified as cyberpunk include Psydoll, Front Line Assembly, Clock DVA, Angelspit and Sigue Sigue Sputnik.Some musicians not normally associated with cyberpunk have at times been inspired to create concept albums exploring such themes.", "Albums such as the British musician and songwriter Gary Numan's ''Replicas'', ''The Pleasure Principle'' and ''Telekon'' were heavily inspired by the works of Philip K. Dick.", "Kraftwerk's ''The Man-Machine'' and ''Computer World'' albums both explored the theme of humanity becoming dependent on technology.", "Nine Inch Nails' concept album ''Year Zero'' also fits into this category.", "Fear Factory concept albums are heavily based upon future dystopia, cybernetics, clash between man and machines, virtual worlds.", "Billy Idol's ''Cyberpunk'' drew heavily from cyberpunk literature and the cyberdelic counter culture in its creation.", "''1.Outside'', a cyberpunk narrative fueled concept album by David Bowie, was warmly met by critics upon its release in 1995.Many musicians have also taken inspiration from specific cyberpunk works or authors, including Sonic Youth, whose albums ''Sister'' and ''Daydream Nation'' take influence from the works of Philip K. Dick and William Gibson respectively.", "Madonna's 2001 Drowned World Tour opened with a cyberpunk section, where costumes, asethetics and stage props were used to accentuate the dystopian nature of the theatrical concert.", "Lady Gaga used a cyberpunk-persona and visual style for her sixth studio album Chromatica (2020).Vaporwave and synthwave are also influenced by cyberpunk.", "The former has been inspired by one of the messages of cyberpunk and is interpreted as a dystopian critique of capitalism in the vein of cyberpunk and the latter is more surface-level, inspired only by the aesthetic of cyberpunk as a nostalgic retrofuturistic revival of aspects of cyberpunk's origins." ], [ "Social impact", "=== Art and architecture ===Berlin's Sony Center, opened in 2000, has been described as having a cyberpunk aesthetic.Writers David Suzuki and Holly Dressel describe the cafes, brand-name stores and video arcades of the Sony Center in the Potsdamer Platz public square of Berlin, Germany, as \"a vision of a cyberpunk, corporate urban future\".=== Society and counterculture ===Several subcultures have been inspired by cyberpunk fiction.", "These include the cyberdelic counter culture of the late 1980s and early 1990s.", "Cyberdelic, whose adherents referred to themselves as \"cyberpunks\", attempted to blend the psychedelic art and drug movement with the technology of cyberculture.", "Early adherents included Timothy Leary, Mark Frauenfelder and R. U. Sirius.", "The movement largely faded following the dot-com bubble implosion of 2000.Cybergoth is a fashion and dance subculture which draws its inspiration from cyberpunk fiction, as well as rave and Gothic subcultures.", "In addition, a distinct cyberpunk fashion of its own has emerged in recent years which rejects the raver and goth influences of cybergoth, and draws inspiration from urban street fashion, \"post apocalypse\", functional clothing, high tech sports wear, tactical uniform and multifunction.", "This fashion goes by names like \"tech wear\", \"goth ninja\" or \"tech ninja\".The Kowloon Walled City in Hong Kong (demolished in 1994) is often referenced as the model cyberpunk/dystopian slum as, given its poor living conditions at the time coupled with the city's political, physical, and economic isolation has caused many in academia to be fascinated by the ingenuity of its spawning.=== Cyberpunk derivatives ===As a wider variety of writers began to work with cyberpunk concepts, new subgenres of science fiction emerged, some of which could be considered as playing off the cyberpunk label, others which could be considered as legitimate explorations into newer territory.", "These focused on technology and its social effects in different ways.", "One prominent subgenre is \"steampunk,\" which is set in an alternate history Victorian era that combines anachronistic technology with cyberpunk's bleak film noir world view.", "The term was originally coined around 1987 as a joke to describe some of the novels of Tim Powers, James P. Blaylock, and K.W.", "Jeter, but by the time Gibson and Sterling entered the subgenre with their collaborative novel ''The Difference Engine'' the term was being used earnestly as well.Another subgenre is \"biopunk\" (cyberpunk themes dominated by biotechnology) from the early 1990s, a derivative style building on biotechnology rather than informational technology.", "In these stories, people are changed in some way not by mechanical means, but by genetic manipulation." ], [ "Registered trademark status", "In the United States, the term \"Cyberpunk\" is a registered trademark owned by CD Projekt SA who obtained it from the previous owner R. Talsorian Games Inc. who originally registered it for its tabletop role-playing game.", "R. Talsorian Games currently used the trademark under license from CD Projekt SA for the tabletop role-playing game.Within the European Union, the \"Cyberpunk\" trademark is owned by two parties: CD Projekt SA for \"games and online gaming services\" (particularly for the video game adaptation of the former) and by Sony Music for use outside games." ], [ "See also", "* Corporate warfare* Cyborg* Digital dystopia* Postcyberpunk* Posthumanization* Steampunk* Solarpunk* Transhumanism* Type 1 civilization* Utopian and dystopian fiction" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Cyberpunk on The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction* The Cyberpunk Directory—Comprehensive directory of cyberpunk resources* Cyberpunk Media Archive Archive of cyberpunk media* The Cyberpunk Project—A project dedicated toward maintaining a cyberpunk database, library, and other information* cyberpunks.com A website dedicated to cyberpunk themed news and media" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Comic strip" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''comic strip''' is a sequence of cartoons, arranged in interrelated panels to display brief humor or form a narrative, often serialized, with text in balloons and captions.", "Traditionally, throughout the 20th and into the 21st century, these have been published in newspapers and magazines, with daily horizontal strips printed in black-and-white in newspapers, while Sunday papers offered longer sequences in special color comics sections.", "With the advent of the internet, online comic strips began to appear as webcomics.Most strips are written and drawn by a comics artist, known as a cartoonist.", "As the word \"comic\" implies, strips are frequently humorous.", "Examples of these gag-a-day strips are ''Blondie'', ''Bringing Up Father'', ''Marmaduke'', and ''Pearls Before Swine''.", "In the late 1920s, comic strips expanded from their mirthful origins to feature adventure stories, as seen in ''Popeye'', ''Captain Easy'', ''Buck Rogers'', ''Tarzan'', and ''Terry and the Pirates''.", "In the 1940s, soap-opera-continuity strips such as ''Judge Parker'' and ''Mary Worth'' gained popularity.", "Because \"comic\" strips are not always funny, cartoonist Will Eisner has suggested that '''sequential art''' would be a better genre-neutral name.Comic strips have appeared inside American magazines such as ''Liberty'' and ''Boys' Life'', but also on the front covers, such as the ''Flossy Frills'' series on ''The American Weekly'' Sunday newspaper supplement.", "In the UK and the rest of Europe, comic strips are also serialized in ''comic book magazines'', with a strip's story sometimes continuing over three pages." ], [ "History", "Richard Newton ''Progress of a Scotsman'' 1794 (British Museum)Storytelling using a sequence of pictures has existed through history.", "One medieval European example in textile form is the Bayeux Tapestry.", "Printed examples emerged in 19th-century Germany and in mid 18th-century England, where some of the first satirical or humorous sequential narrative drawings were produced.", "William Hogarth's 18th-century English caricature include both narrative sequences, such as ''A Rake's Progress'', and single panels.", "The ''Biblia pauperum'' (\"Paupers' Bible\"), a tradition of picture Bibles beginning in the Late Middle Ages, sometimes depicted Biblical events with words spoken by the figures in the miniatures written on scrolls coming out of their mouths—which makes them to some extent ancestors of the modern cartoon strips.In China, with its traditions of block printing and of the incorporation of text with image, experiments with what became ''lianhuanhua'' date back to 1884.Thomas Rowlandson after G.M.Woodward.", "''Opinions on the Divorce Bill'' 1800 (Metropolitan Museum, New York) The origin of the modern English language comic strip can be traced to the efflorescence of caricature in late 18th century London.", "English caricaturists such as Richard Newton and George Woodward developed sophisticated caricature styles using strips of expressive comic figures with captions that could be read left to right to cumulative effect, as well as business models for advertising and selling cheap comic illustration on regular subscription.", "Other leading British caricaturists produced strips as well; for example James Gillray in ''Democracy;-or-a Sketch of the Life of Buonaparte''.", "His contemporary Thomas Rowlandson used strips as early as 1784 for example in ''The Loves of the Fox and the Badger''.", "Rowlandson may also be credited with inventing the first internationally recognized comic strip character: ''Doctor Syntax'' whose picaresque journeys through England were told through a series of comic etchings, accompanied by verse.", "Original published in parts between 1809 and 1811 in Rudolf Ackermann's ''Poetical Magazine'', in book form ''The Tour of Doctor Syntax in search of the picturesque'' ran to 9 editions between 1812 and 1819, spun off two sequels, a prequel, numerous pirate imitations and copies including French, German, Danish and translations.", "His image was available on pottery, textiles wallpaper and other merchandise.", "Thomas Rowlandson ''My Wife'' 1815 (Metropolitan Museum New York)The Caricature Magazine or Hudibrastic Mirror, an influential English comic series published in London between 1807 and 1819 by Thomas Tegg included some satirical stories in comic strip format such as ''The Adventures of Johnny Newcome''." ], [ "Newspapers<!--'Newspaper strip' and 'Newspaper strips' redirect here-->", "The first newspaper comic strips appeared in North America in the late 19th century.", "''The Yellow Kid'' is usually credited as one of the first '''newspaper strips'''.", "However, the art form combining words and pictures developed gradually and there are many examples which led up to the comic strip.The Glasgow Looking Glass was the first mass-produced publication to tell stories using illustrations and is regarded as the worlds first comic strip.", "It satirised the political and social life of Scotland in the 1820s.", "It was conceived and illustrated by William Heath.", "Swiss author and caricature artist Rodolphe Töpffer (Geneva, 1799–1846) is considered the father of the modern comic strips.", "His illustrated stories such as ''Histoire de M. Vieux Bois'' (1827), first published in the US in 1842 as ''The Adventures of Obadiah Oldbuck'' or ''Histoire de Monsieur Jabot'' (1831), inspired subsequent generations of German and American comic artists.", "In 1865, German painter, author, and caricaturist Wilhelm Busch created the strip ''Max and Moritz'', about two trouble-making boys, which had a direct influence on the American comic strip.", "''Max and Moritz'' was a series of seven severely moralistic tales in the vein of German children's stories such as ''Struwwelpeter'' (\"Shockheaded Peter\").", "In the story's final act, the boys, after perpetrating some mischief, are tossed into a sack of grain, run through a mill, and consumed by a flock of geese (without anybody mourning their demise).", "''Max and Moritz'' provided an inspiration for German immigrant Rudolph Dirks, who created the ''Katzenjammer Kids'' in 1897—a strip starring two German-American boys visually modelled on ''Max and Moritz''.", "Familiar comic-strip iconography such as stars for pain, sawing logs for snoring, speech balloons, and thought balloons originated in Dirks' strip.Hugely popular, ''Katzenjammer Kids'' occasioned one of the first comic-strip copyright ownership suits in the history of the medium.", "When Dirks left William Randolph Hearst for the promise of a better salary under Joseph Pulitzer, it was an unusual move, since cartoonists regularly deserted Pulitzer for Hearst.", "In a highly unusual court decision, Hearst retained the rights to the name \"Katzenjammer Kids\", while creator Dirks retained the rights to the characters.", "Hearst promptly hired Harold Knerr to draw his own version of the strip.", "Dirks renamed his version ''Hans and Fritz'' (later, ''The Captain and the Kids'').", "Thus, two versions distributed by rival syndicates graced the comics pages for decades.", "Dirks' version, eventually distributed by United Feature Syndicate, ran until 1979.In the United States, the great popularity of comics sprang from the newspaper war (1887 onwards) between Pulitzer and Hearst.", "''The Little Bears'' (1893–96) was the first American comic strip with recurring characters, while the first color comic supplement was published by the ''Chicago Inter-Ocean'' sometime in the latter half of 1892, followed by the ''New York Journal''s first color Sunday comic pages in 1897.On January 31, 1912, Hearst introduced the nation's first full daily comic page in his ''New York Evening Journal''.", "The history of this newspaper rivalry and the rapid appearance of comic strips in most major American newspapers is discussed by Ian Gordon.", "Numerous events in newspaper comic strips have reverberated throughout society at large, though few of these events occurred in recent years, owing mainly to the declining use of continuous storylines on newspaper comic strips, which since the 1970s had been waning as an entertainment form.", "From 1903 to 1905 Gustave Verbeek, wrote his comic series \"The UpsideDowns of Old Man Muffaroo and Little Lady Lovekins\".", "These comics were made in such a way that one could read the 6 panel comic, flip the book and keep reading.", "He made 64 such comics in total.The longest-running American comic strips are:# ''The Katzenjammer Kids'' (1897–2006; 109 years)# ''Gasoline Alley'' (1918–present)# ''Ripley's Believe It or Not!''", "(1918–present)# ''Barney Google and Snuffy Smith'' (1919–present)# ''Thimble Theater/Popeye'' (1919–present)# ''Blondie'' (1930–present)# ''Dick Tracy'' (1931–present)# ''Alley Oop'' (1932–present)# ''Bringing Up Father'' (1913–2000; 87 years)# ''Little Orphan Annie'' (1924–2010; 86 years)Most newspaper comic strips are syndicated; a syndicate hires people to write and draw a strip and then distributes it to many newspapers for a fee.", "Some newspaper strips begin or remain exclusive to one newspaper.", "For example, the ''Pogo'' comic strip by Walt Kelly originally appeared only in the ''New York Star'' in 1948 and was not picked up for syndication until the following year.Newspaper comic strips come in two different types: daily strips and Sunday strips.", "In the United States, a daily strip appears in newspapers on weekdays, Monday through Saturday, as contrasted with a Sunday strip, which typically only appears on Sundays.", "Daily strips usually are printed in black and white, and Sunday strips are usually in color.", "However, a few newspapers have published daily strips in color, and some newspapers have published Sunday strips in black and white." ], [ "Popularity", "''Illustrated Chips'' (1896).", "Harmsworth titles enjoyed a monopoly of comics in the UK until the emergence of DC Thomson comics in the 1930s.Making his first appearance in the British magazine ''Judy'' by writer and fledgling artist Charles H. Ross in 1867, Ally Sloper is one of the earliest comic strip characters and he is regarded as the first recurring character in comics.", "The highly popular character was spun off into his own comic, ''Ally Sloper's Half Holiday'', in 1884.While in the early 20th century comic strips were a frequent target for detractors of \"yellow journalism\", by the 1920s the medium became wildly popular.", "While radio, and later, television surpassed newspapers as a means of entertainment, most comic strip characters were widely recognizable until the 1980s, and the \"funny pages\" were often arranged in a way they appeared at the front of Sunday editions.", "In 1931, George Gallup's first poll had the comic section as the most important part of the newspaper, with additional surveys pointing out that the comic strips were the second most popular feature after the picture page.", "During the 1930s, many comic sections had between 12 and 16 pages, although in some cases, these had up to 24 pages.The popularity and accessibility of strips meant they were often clipped and saved; authors including John Updike and Ray Bradbury have written about their childhood collections of clipped strips.", "Often posted on bulletin boards, clipped strips had an ancillary form of distribution when they were faxed, photocopied or mailed.", "''The Baltimore Sun''s Linda White recalled, \"I followed the adventures of ''Winnie Winkle'', ''Moon Mullins'' and ''Dondi'', and waited each fall to see how Lucy would manage to trick Charlie Brown into trying to kick that football.", "(After I left for college, my father would clip out that strip each year and send it to me just to make sure I didn't miss it.)\"" ], [ "Production and format", "The two conventional formats for newspaper comics are strips and single gag panels.", "The strips are usually displayed horizontally, wider than they are tall.", "Single panels are square, circular or taller than they are wide.", "Strips usually, but not always, are broken up into several smaller panels with continuity from panel to panel.", "A horizontal strip can also be used for a single panel with a single gag, as seen occasionally in Mike Peters' ''Mother Goose and Grimm''.Early daily strips were large, often running the entire width of the newspaper, and were sometimes three or more inches high.", "Initially, a newspaper page included only a single daily strip, usually either at the top or the bottom of the page.", "By the 1920s, many newspapers had a comics page on which many strips were collected together.", "During the 1930s, the original art for a daily strip could be drawn as large as 25 inches wide by six inches high.", "Over decades, the size of daily strips became smaller and smaller, until by 2000, four standard daily strips could fit in an area once occupied by a single daily strip.", "As strips have become smaller, the number of panels have been reduced.Proof sheets were the means by which syndicates provided newspapers with black-and-white line art for the reproduction of strips (which they arranged to have colored in the case of Sunday strips).", "Michigan State University Comic Art Collection librarian Randy Scott describes these as \"large sheets of paper on which newspaper comics have traditionally been distributed to subscribing newspapers.", "Typically each sheet will have either six daily strips of a given title or one Sunday strip.", "Thus, a week of ''Beetle Bailey'' would arrive at the ''Lansing State Journal'' in two sheets, printed much larger than the final version and ready to be cut apart and fitted into the local comics page.\"", "Comic strip historian Allan Holtz described how strips were provided as mats (the plastic or cardboard trays in which molten metal is poured to make plates) or even plates ready to be put directly on the printing press.", "He also notes that with electronic means of distribution becoming more prevalent printed sheets \"are definitely on their way out.", "\"NEA Syndicate experimented briefly with a two-tier daily strip, ''Star Hawks'', but after a few years, ''Star Hawks'' dropped down to a single tier.In Flanders, the two-tier strip is the standard publication style of most daily strips like ''Spike and Suzy'' and ''Nero''.", "They appear Monday through Saturday; until 2003 there were no Sunday papers in Flanders.", "In the last decades, they have switched from black and white to color.===Cartoon panels===Jimmy Hatlo's ''They'll Do It Every Time'' was often drawn in the two-panel format as seen in this 1943 example.Single panels usually, but not always, are not broken up and lack continuity.", "The daily ''Peanuts'' is a strip, and the daily ''Dennis the Menace'' is a single panel.", "J. R. Williams' long-run ''Out Our Way'' continued as a daily panel even after it expanded into a Sunday strip, ''Out Our Way with the Willets''.", "Jimmy Hatlo's ''They'll Do It Every Time'' was often displayed in a two-panel format with the first panel showing some deceptive, pretentious, unwitting or scheming human behavior and the second panel revealing the truth of the situation." ], [ "Sunday comics", "Gene Ahern's ''The Squirrel Cage'' (January 3, 1937), an example of a topper strip which is better remembered than the strip it accompanied, Ahern's ''Room and Board''.Russell Patterson and Carolyn Wells' ''New Adventures of Flossy Frills'' (January 26, 1941), an example of comic strips on Sunday magazines.Sunday newspapers traditionally included a special color section.", "Early Sunday strips (known colloquially as \"the funny papers\", shortened to \"the funnies\"), such as ''Thimble Theatre'' and ''Little Orphan Annie'', filled an entire newspaper page, a format known to collectors as full page.", "Sunday pages during the 1930s and into the 1940s often carried a secondary strip by the same artist as the main strip.", "No matter whether it appeared above or below a main strip, the extra strip was known as the topper, such as ''The Squirrel Cage'' which ran along with ''Room and Board'', both drawn by Gene Ahern.During the 1930s, the original art for a Sunday strip was usually drawn quite large.", "For example, in 1930, Russ Westover drew his ''Tillie the Toiler'' Sunday page at a size of 17\" × 37\".", "In 1937, the cartoonist Dudley Fisher launched the innovative ''Right Around Home'', drawn as a huge single panel filling an entire Sunday page.Full-page strips were eventually replaced by strips half that size.", "Strips such as ''The Phantom'' and ''Terry and the Pirates'' began appearing in a format of two strips to a page in full-size newspapers, such as the ''New Orleans Times Picayune'', or with one strip on a tabloid page, as in the ''Chicago Sun-Times''.", "When Sunday strips began to appear in more than one format, it became necessary for the cartoonist to allow for rearranged, cropped or dropped panels.", "During World War II, because of paper shortages, the size of Sunday strips began to shrink.", "After the war, strips continued to get smaller and smaller because of increased paper and printing costs.", "The last full-page comic strip was the ''Prince Valiant'' strip for 11 April 1971.Comic strips have also been published in Sunday newspaper magazines.", "Russell Patterson and Carolyn Wells' ''New Adventures of Flossy Frills'' was a continuing strip series seen on Sunday magazine covers.", "Beginning January 26, 1941, it ran on the front covers of Hearst's ''American Weekly'' newspaper magazine supplement, continuing until March 30 of that year.", "Between 1939 and 1943, four different stories featuring Flossy appeared on ''American Weekly'' covers.Sunday comics sections employed offset color printing with multiple print runs imitating a wide range of colors.", "Printing plates were created with four or more colors—traditionally, the CMYK color model: cyan, magenta, yellow and \"K\" for black.", "With a screen of tiny dots on each printing plate, the dots allowed an image to be printed in a halftone that appears to the eye in different gradations.", "The semi-opaque property of ink allows halftone dots of different colors to create an optical effect of full-color imagery." ], [ "Underground comic strips", "The decade of the 1960s saw the rise of underground newspapers, which often carried comic strips, such as ''Fritz the Cat'' and ''The Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers''.", "''Zippy the Pinhead'' initially appeared in underground publications in the 1970s before being syndicated.", "''Bloom County'' and ''Doonesbury'' began as strips in college newspapers under different titles, and later moved to national syndication.", "Underground comic strips covered subjects that are usually taboo in newspaper strips, such as sex and drugs.", "Many underground artists, notably Vaughn Bode, Dan O'Neill, Gilbert Shelton, and Art Spiegelman went on to draw comic strips for magazines such as ''Playboy'', ''National Lampoon'', and Pete Millar's ''CARtoons''.", "Jay Lynch graduated from undergrounds to alternative weekly newspapers to ''Mad'' and children's books." ], [ "Webcomics", "''Webcomics'', also known as ''online comics'' and ''internet comics'', are comics that are available to read on the Internet.", "Many are exclusively published online, but the majority of traditional newspaper comic strips have some Internet presence.", "King Features Syndicate and other syndicates often provide archives of recent strips on their websites.", "Some, such as Scott Adams, creator of ''Dilbert'', include an email address in each strip." ], [ "Conventions and genres", "Most comic strip characters do not age throughout the strip's life, but in some strips, like Lynn Johnston's award-winning ''For Better or For Worse'', the characters age as the years pass.", "The first strip to feature aging characters was ''Gasoline Alley''.The history of comic strips also includes series that are not humorous, but tell an ongoing dramatic story.", "Examples include ''The Phantom'', ''Prince Valiant'', ''Dick Tracy'', ''Mary Worth'', ''Modesty Blaise'', ''Little Orphan Annie'', ''Flash Gordon'', and ''Tarzan''.", "Sometimes these are spin-offs from comic books, for example ''Superman'', ''Batman'', and ''The Amazing Spider-Man''.A number of strips have featured animals as main characters.", "Some are non-verbal (''Marmaduke'', ''The Angriest Dog in the World''), some have verbal thoughts but are not understood by humans, (''Garfield'', Snoopy in ''Peanuts''), and some can converse with humans (''Bloom County'', ''Calvin and Hobbes'', ''Mutts'', ''Citizen Dog'', ''Buckles'', ''Get Fuzzy'', ''Pearls Before Swine'', and ''Pooch Cafe'').", "Other strips are centered entirely on animals, as in ''Pogo'' and ''Donald Duck''.", "Gary Larson's ''The Far Side'' was unusual, as there were no central characters.", "Instead ''The Far Side'' used a wide variety of characters including humans, monsters, aliens, chickens, cows, worms, amoebas, and more.", "John McPherson's ''Close to Home'' also uses this theme, though the characters are mostly restricted to humans and real-life situations.", "Wiley Miller not only mixes human, animal, and fantasy characters, but also does several different comic strip continuities under one umbrella title, ''Non Sequitur''.", "Bob Thaves's ''Frank & Ernest'' began in 1972 and paved the way for some of these strips, as its human characters were manifest in diverse forms—as animals, vegetables, and minerals." ], [ "Social and political influence", "The comics have long held a distorted mirror to contemporary society, and almost from the beginning have been used for political or social commentary.", "This ranged from the conservative slant of Harold Gray's ''Little Orphan Annie'' to the unabashed liberalism of Garry Trudeau's ''Doonesbury''.", "Al Capp's ''Li'l Abner'' espoused liberal opinions for most of its run, but by the late 1960s, it became a mouthpiece for Capp's repudiation of the counterculture.", "''Pogo'' used animals to particularly devastating effect, caricaturing many prominent politicians of the day as animal denizens of Pogo's Okeefenokee Swamp.", "In a fearless move, Pogo's creator Walt Kelly took on Joseph McCarthy in the 1950s, caricaturing him as a bobcat named Simple J. Malarkey, a megalomaniac who was bent on taking over the characters' birdwatching club and rooting out all undesirables.", "Kelly also defended the medium against possible government regulation in the McCarthy era.", "At a time when comic books were coming under fire for supposed sexual, violent, and subversive content, Kelly feared the same would happen to comic strips.", "Going before the Congressional subcommittee, he proceeded to charm the members with his drawings and the force of his personality.", "The comic strip was safe for satire.During the early 20th century, comic strips were widely associated with publisher William Randolph Hearst, whose papers had the largest circulation of strips in the United States.", "Hearst was notorious for his practice of yellow journalism, and he was frowned on by readers of ''The New York Times'' and other newspapers which featured few or no comic strips.", "Hearst's critics often assumed that all the strips in his papers were fronts for his own political and social views.", "Hearst did occasionally work with or pitch ideas to cartoonists, most notably his continued support of George Herriman's ''Krazy Kat''.", "An inspiration for Bill Watterson and other cartoonists, ''Krazy Kat'' gained a considerable following among intellectuals during the 1920s and 1930s.Some comic strips, such as ''Doonesbury'' and ''Mallard Fillmore'', may be printed on the editorial or op-ed page rather than the comics page because of their regular political commentary.", "For example, the August 12, 1974 ''Doonesbury'' strip was awarded a 1975 Pulitzer Prize for its depiction of the Watergate scandal.", "''Dilbert'' is sometimes found in the business section of a newspaper instead of the comics page because of the strip's commentary about office politics, and ''Tank McNamara'' often appears on the sports page because of its subject matter.", "Lynn Johnston's ''For Better or For Worse'' created an uproar when Lawrence, one of the strip's supporting characters, came out of the closet." ], [ "Publicity and recognition", "The world's longest comic strip is long and on display at Trafalgar Square as part of the London Comedy Festival.", "The London Cartoon Strip was created by 15 of Britain's best known cartoonists and depicts the history of London.The Reuben, named for cartoonist Rube Goldberg, is the most prestigious award for U.S. comic strip artists.", "Reuben awards are presented annually by the National Cartoonists Society (NCS).In 1995, the United States Postal Service issued a series of commemorative stamps, Comic Strip Classics, marking the comic-strip centennial.Today's strip artists, with the help of the NCS, enthusiastically promote the medium, which since the 1970s (and particularly the 1990s) has been considered to be in decline due to numerous factors such as changing tastes in humor and entertainment, the waning relevance of newspapers in general and the loss of most foreign markets outside English-speaking countries.", "One particularly humorous example of such promotional efforts is the Great Comic Strip Switcheroonie, held in 1997 on April Fool's Day, an event in which dozens of prominent artists took over each other's strips.", "''Garfield''s Jim Davis, for example, switched with ''Blondie''s Stan Drake, while Scott Adams (''Dilbert'') traded strips with Bil Keane (''The Family Circus'').While the 1997 Switcheroonie was a one-time publicity stunt, an artist taking over a feature from its originator is an old tradition in newspaper cartooning (as it is in the comic book industry).", "In fact, the practice has made possible the longevity of the genre's more popular strips.", "Examples include ''Little Orphan Annie'' (drawn and plotted by Harold Gray from 1924 to 1944 and thereafter by a succession of artists including Leonard Starr and Andrew Pepoy), and ''Terry and the Pirates'', started by Milton Caniff in 1934 and picked up by George Wunder.A business-driven variation has sometimes led to the same feature continuing under a different name.", "In one case, in the early 1940s, Don Flowers' ''Modest Maidens'' was so admired by William Randolph Hearst that he lured Flowers away from the Associated Press and to King Features Syndicate by doubling the cartoonist's salary, and renamed the feature ''Glamor Girls'' to avoid legal action by the AP.", "The latter continued to publish ''Modest Maidens'', drawn by Jay Allen in Flowers' style." ], [ "Issues in U.S. newspaper comic strips", "As newspapers have declined, the changes have affected comic strips.", "Jeff Reece, lifestyle editor of ''The Florida Times-Union'', wrote, \"Comics are sort of the 'third rail' of the newspaper.", "\"===Size===In the early decades of the 20th century, all Sunday comics received a full page, and daily strips were generally the width of the page.", "The competition between papers for having more cartoons than the rest from the mid-1920s, the growth of large-scale newspaper advertising during most of the thirties, paper rationing during World War II, the decline on news readership (as television newscasts began to be more common) and inflation (which has caused higher printing costs) beginning during the fifties and sixties led to Sunday strips being published on smaller and more diverse formats.", "As newspapers have reduced the page count of Sunday comic sections since the late 1990s (by the 2010s, most sections have only four pages, with the back page not always being destined for comics) has also led to further downsizes.Daily strips have suffered as well.", "Before the mid-1910s, there was not a \"standard\" size\", with strips running the entire width of a page or having more than one tier.", "By the 1920s, strips often covered six of the eight columns occupied by a traditional broadsheet paper.", "During the 1940s, strips were reduced to four columns wide (with a \"transition\" width of five columns).", "As newspapers became narrower beginning in the 1970s, strips have gotten even smaller, often being just three columns wide, a similar width to the one most daily panels occupied before the 1940s.In an issue related to size limitations, Sunday comics are often bound to rigid formats that allow their panels to be rearranged in several different ways while remaining readable.", "Such formats usually include throwaway panels at the beginning, which some newspapers will omit for space.", "As a result, cartoonists have less incentive to put great efforts into these panels.", "''Garfield'' and ''Mutts'' were known during the mid-to-late 80s and 1990s respectively for their throwaways on their Sunday strips, however both strips now run \"generic\" title panels.Some cartoonists have complained about this, with Walt Kelly, creator of ''Pogo,'' openly voicing his discontent about being forced to draw his Sunday strips in such rigid formats from the beginning.", "Kelly's heirs opted to end the strip in 1975 as a form of protest against the practice.", "Since then, ''Calvin and Hobbes'' creator Bill Watterson has written extensively on the issue, arguing that size reduction and dropped panels reduce both the potential and freedom of a cartoonist.", "After a lengthy battle with his syndicate, Watterson won the privilege of making half page-sized Sunday strips where he could arrange the panels any way he liked.", "Many newspaper publishers and a few cartoonists objected to this, and some papers continued to print ''Calvin and Hobbes'' at small sizes.", "''Opus'' won that same privilege years after ''Calvin and Hobbes'' ended, while Wiley Miller circumvented further downsizes by making his ''Non Sequitur'' Sunday strip available only in a vertical arrangement.", "Most strips created since 1990, however, are drawn in the unbroken \"third-page\" format.", "Few newspapers still run half-page strips, as with ''Prince Valiant'' and ''Hägar the Horrible'' in the front page of the ''Reading Eagle'' Sunday comics section until the mid-2010s.===Format===With the success of ''The Gumps'' during the 1920s, it became commonplace for strips (comedy- and adventure-laden alike) to have lengthy stories spanning weeks or months.", "The \"Monarch of Medioka\" story in Floyd Gottfredson's ''Mickey Mouse'' comic strip ran from September 8, 1937 to May 2, 1938.Between the 1960s and the late 1980s, as television news relegated newspaper reading to an occasional basis rather than daily, syndicators were abandoning long stories and urging cartoonists to switch to simple daily gags, or week-long \"storylines\" (with six consecutive (mostly unrelated) strips following a same subject), with longer storylines being used mainly on adventure-based and dramatic strips.", "Strips begun during the mid-1980s or after (such as ''Get Fuzzy'', ''Over the Hedge'', ''Monty'', and others) are known for their heavy use of storylines, lasting between one and three weeks in most cases.The writing style of comic strips changed as well after World War II.", "With an increase in the number of college-educated readers, there was a shift away from slapstick comedy and towards more cerebral humor.", "Slapstick and visual gags became more confined to Sunday strips, because as ''Garfield'' creator Jim Davis put it, \"Children are more likely to read Sunday strips than dailies.", "\"===Second author===Many older strips are no longer drawn by the original cartoonist, who has either died or retired.", "Such strips are known as \"zombie strips\".", "A cartoonist, paid by the syndicate or sometimes a relative of the original cartoonist, continues writing the strip, a tradition that became commonplace in the early half of the 20th century.", "''Hägar the Horrible'' and ''Frank and Ernest'' are both drawn by the sons of the creators.", "Some strips which are still in affiliation with the original creator are produced by small teams or entire companies, such as Jim Davis' ''Garfield'', however there is some debate if these strips fall in this category.This act is commonly criticized by modern cartoonists including Watterson and ''Pearls Before Swine'''s Stephan Pastis.", "The issue was addressed in six consecutive ''Pearls'' strips in 2005.Charles Schulz, of ''Peanuts'' fame, requested that his strip not be continued by another cartoonist after his death.", "He also rejected the idea of hiring an inker or letterer, comparing it to a golfer hiring a man to make his putts.", "Schulz's family has honored his wishes and refused numerous proposals by syndicators to continue ''Peanuts'' with a new author.====Assistants====Since the consolidation of newspaper comics by the first quarter of the 20th century, most cartoonists have used a group of assistants (with usually one of them credited).", "However, quite a few cartoonists (e.g.", ": George Herriman and Charles Schulz, among others) have done their strips almost completely by themselves; often criticizing the use of assistants for the same reasons most have about their editors hiring anyone else to continue their work after their retirement.===Rights to the strips===Historically, syndicates owned the creators' work, enabling them to continue publishing the strip after the original creator retired, left the strip, or died.", "This practice led to the term \"legacy strips\", or more pejoratively \"zombie strips\".", "Most syndicates signed creators to 10- or even 20-year contracts.", "(There have been exceptions, however, such as Bud Fisher's ''Mutt and Jeff'' being an early—if not the earliest—case in which the creator retained ownership of his work.)", "Both these practices began to change with the 1970 debut of Universal Press Syndicate, as the company gave cartoonists a 50-percent ownership share of their work.", "Creators Syndicate, founded in 1987, granted artists full rights to the strips, something that Universal Press did in 1990, followed by King Features in 1995.By 1999 both Tribune Media Services and United Feature had begun granting ownership rights to creators (limited to new and/or hugely popular strips).===Censorship===Starting in the late 1940s, the national syndicates which distributed newspaper comic strips subjected them to very strict censorship.", "''Li'l Abner'' was censored in September 1947 and was pulled from the Pittsburgh Press by Scripps-Howard.", "The controversy, as reported in ''Time'', centered on Capp's portrayal of the U.S. Senate.", "Said Edward Leech of Scripps, \"We don't think it is good editing or sound citizenship to picture the Senate as an assemblage of freaks and crooks... boobs and undesirables.", "\"As comics are easier for children to access compared to other types of media, they have a significantly more rigid censorship code than other media.", "Stephan Pastis has lamented that the \"unwritten\" censorship code is still \"stuck somewhere in the 1950s\".", "Generally, comics are not allowed to include such words as \"damn\", \"sucks\", \"screwed\", and \"hell\", although there have been exceptions such as the September 22, 2010 ''Mother Goose and Grimm'' in which an elderly man says, \"This nursing home food sucks,\" and a pair of ''Pearls Before Swine'' comics from January 11, 2011 with a character named Ned using the word \"crappy\".", "Naked backsides and shooting guns cannot be shown, according to ''Dilbert'' cartoonist Scott Adams.", "Such comic strip taboos were detailed in Dave Breger's book ''But That's Unprintable'' (Bantam, 1955).Many issues such as sex, narcotics, and terrorism cannot or can very rarely be openly discussed in strips, although there are exceptions, usually for satire, as in ''Bloom County''.", "This led some cartoonists to resort to double entendre or dialogue children do not understand, as in Greg Evans' ''Luann''.", "Another example of wordplay to get around censorship is a July 27, 2016 Pearls Before Swine strip that features Pig talking to his sister, and says the phrase \"I SIS!\"", "repeatedly after correcting his sister's grammar.", "The strip then cuts to a scene of a NSA wiretap agent, following a scene of Pig being arrested by the FBI saying \"Never correct your sister's grammar\", implying that the CIA mistook the phrase \"I SIS\" with \"ISIS\".", "Younger cartoonists have claimed commonplace words, images, and issues should be allowed in the comics, considering that the pressure on \"clean\" humor has been a chief factor for the declining popularity of comic strips since the 1990s (Aaron McGruder, creator of ''The Boondocks'', decided to end his strip partly because of censorship issues, while the ''Popeye'' daily comic strip ended in 1994 after newspapers objected to a storyline they considered to be a satire on abortion).", "Some of the taboo words and topics are mentioned daily on television and other forms of visual media.", "Webcomics and comics distributed primarily to college newspapers are much freer in this respect." ], [ "See also", "''Biblia pauperum''Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & MuseumComic book Comic strip syndicationComics studiesHistory of American comicsList of British comic stripsList of cartoonistsList of newspaper comic stripsMilitary humor comic strips" ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography ===* * " ], [ "Further reading", "*Gordon, Ian.", "''Comic Strips and Consumer Culture'' (1998) Smithsonian Institution PressGoulart, Ron.", "''Encyclopedia of American Comics''Goulart, Ron.", "''The Funnies''Goulart, Ron.", "''The Adventurous Decade''Holtz, Allan.", "''American Newspaper Comics: An Encyclopedic Reference Guide''.", "(2012) University of Michigan Press.", "Horn, Maurice.", "''The World Encyclopedia of Comics''.", "(1976) Chelsea House, (1982) Avon.", "* Horn, Maurice.", "''The World Encyclopedia of Cartoons'' (Chelsea House, 1979) – 6 volumes* Horn, Maurice.", "''100 Years of American Newspaper Comics'' (Gramercy Books, 1996) Koenigsberg, Moses.", "''King News'', Moses KoenigsbergMott, Frank Luther.", "''American Journalism''* * Robinson, Jerry.", "''The Comics''Sheridan, Martin.", "''Comics And Their Creators''Stein, Daniel and Jan-Noel Thon, eds.", "''From Comic Strips to Graphic Novels.", "Contributions to the Theory and History of Graphic Narrative''.", "Berlin/Boston 2015.Tebbell.", "''The Compact History of the American Newspaper''Strickler, Dave.", "''Syndicated Comic Strips and Artists''*Watson, Elmo Scott.", "''A History of Newspaper Syndicates in the United States'', Elmo Scott WatsonWaugh, Coulton.", "''The Comics''" ], [ "External links", "* National Cartoonists Society *** Comic Art Collection at the University of Missouri* Billy Ireland Cartoon Library and Museum at Ohio State University" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Continuum hypothesis" ], [ "Introduction", " In mathematics, specifically set theory, the '''continuum hypothesis''' (abbreviated '''CH''') is a hypothesis about the possible sizes of infinite sets.", "It states thator equivalently, thatIn Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with the axiom of choice (ZFC), this is equivalent to the following equation in aleph numbers: , or even shorter with beth numbers: .The continuum hypothesis was advanced by Georg Cantor in 1878, and establishing its truth or falsehood is the first of Hilbert's 23 problems presented in 1900.The answer to this problem is independent of ZFC, so that either the continuum hypothesis or its negation can be added as an axiom to ZFC set theory, with the resulting theory being consistent if and only if ZFC is consistent.", "This independence was proved in 1963 by Paul Cohen, complementing earlier work by Kurt Gödel in 1940.The name of the hypothesis comes from the term ''the continuum'' for the real numbers." ], [ "History", "Cantor believed the continuum hypothesis to be true and for many years tried in vain to prove it.", "It became the first on David Hilbert's list of important open questions that was presented at the International Congress of Mathematicians in the year 1900 in Paris.", "Axiomatic set theory was at that point not yet formulated.", "Kurt Gödel proved in 1940 that the negation of the continuum hypothesis, i.e., the existence of a set with intermediate cardinality, could not be proved in standard set theory.", "The second half of the independence of the continuum hypothesis – i.e., unprovability of the nonexistence of an intermediate-sized set – was proved in 1963 by Paul Cohen." ], [ "Cardinality of infinite sets", "Two sets are said to have the same ''cardinality'' or ''cardinal number'' if there exists a bijection (a one-to-one correspondence) between them.", "Intuitively, for two sets ''S'' and ''T'' to have the same cardinality means that it is possible to \"pair off\" elements of ''S'' with elements of ''T'' in such a fashion that every element of ''S'' is paired off with exactly one element of ''T'' and vice versa.", "Hence, the set {banana, apple, pear} has the same cardinality as {yellow, red, green}.With infinite sets such as the set of integers or rational numbers, the existence of a bijection between two sets becomes more difficult to demonstrate.", "The rational numbers seemingly form a counterexample to the continuum hypothesis: the integers form a proper subset of the rationals, which themselves form a proper subset of the reals, so intuitively, there are more rational numbers than integers and more real numbers than rational numbers.", "However, this intuitive analysis is flawed; it does not take proper account of the fact that all three sets are infinite.", "It turns out the rational numbers can actually be placed in one-to-one correspondence with the integers, and therefore the set of rational numbers is the same size (''cardinality'') as the set of integers: they are both countable sets.Cantor gave two proofs that the cardinality of the set of integers is strictly smaller than that of the set of real numbers (see Cantor's first uncountability proof and Cantor's diagonal argument).", "His proofs, however, give no indication of the extent to which the cardinality of the integers is less than that of the real numbers.", "Cantor proposed the continuum hypothesis as a possible solution to this question.The continuum hypothesis states that the set of real numbers has minimal possible cardinality which is greater than the cardinality of the set of integers.", "That is, every set, ''S'', of real numbers can either be mapped one-to-one into the integers or the real numbers can be mapped one-to-one into ''S''.", "As the real numbers are equinumerous with the powerset of the integers, i.e.", ", the continuum hypothesis can be restated as follows:Assuming the axiom of choice, there is a unique smallest cardinal number greater than , and the continuum hypothesis is in turn equivalent to the equality ." ], [ "Independence from ZFC", "The independence of the continuum hypothesis (CH) from Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory (ZF) follows from combined work of Kurt Gödel and Paul Cohen.Gödel showed that CH cannot be disproved from ZF, even if the axiom of choice (AC) is adopted (making ZFC).", "Gödel's proof shows that CH and AC both hold in the constructible universe L, an inner model of ZF set theory, assuming only the axioms of ZF.", "The existence of an inner model of ZF in which additional axioms hold shows that the additional axioms are consistent with ZF, provided ZF itself is consistent.", "The latter condition cannot be proved in ZF itself, due to Gödel's incompleteness theorems, but is widely believed to be true and can be proved in stronger set theories.Cohen showed that CH cannot be proven from the ZFC axioms, completing the overall independence proof.", "To prove his result, Cohen developed the method of forcing, which has become a standard tool in set theory.", "Essentially, this method begins with a model of ZF in which CH holds, and constructs another model which contains more sets than the original, in a way that CH does not hold in the new model.", "Cohen was awarded the Fields Medal in 1966 for his proof.The independence proof just described shows that CH is independent of ZFC.", "Further research has shown that CH is independent of all known ''large cardinal axioms'' in the context of ZFC.", "Moreover, it has been shown that the cardinality of the continuum can be any cardinal consistent with König's theorem.", "A result of Solovay, proved shortly after Cohen's result on the independence of the continuum hypothesis, shows that in any model of ZFC, if is a cardinal of uncountable cofinality, then there is a forcing extension in which .", "However, per König's theorem, it is not consistent to assume is or or any cardinal with cofinality .The continuum hypothesis is closely related to many statements in analysis, point set topology and measure theory.", "As a result of its independence, many substantial conjectures in those fields have subsequently been shown to be independent as well.The independence from ZFC means that proving or disproving the CH within ZFC is impossible.", "However, Gödel and Cohen's negative results are not universally accepted as disposing of all interest in the continuum hypothesis.", "The continuum hypothesis remains an active topic of research; see Woodin and Peter Koellner for an overview of the current research status.The continuum hypothesis and the axiom of choice were among the first genuinely mathematical statements shown to be independent of ZF set theory.", "Although the existence of some statements independent of ZFC had already been known more than two decades prior: for example, assuming good soundness properties and the consistency ZFC, Gödel's incompleteness theorems, which were published in 1931, establish that there is a formal statement (one for each appropriate Gödel numbering scheme) expressing the consistency of ZFC, that is also independent of it.", "The latter independence result indeed holds for many theories." ], [ "Arguments for and against the continuum hypothesis", "Gödel believed that CH is false, and that his proof that CH is consistent with ZFC only shows that the Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms do not adequately characterize the universe of sets.", "Gödel was a platonist and therefore had no problems with asserting the truth and falsehood of statements independent of their provability.", "Cohen, though a formalist, also tended towards rejecting CH.Historically, mathematicians who favored a \"rich\" and \"large\" universe of sets were against CH, while those favoring a \"neat\" and \"controllable\" universe favored CH.", "Parallel arguments were made for and against the axiom of constructibility, which implies CH.", "More recently, Matthew Foreman has pointed out that ontological maximalism can actually be used to argue in favor of CH, because among models that have the same reals, models with \"more\" sets of reals have a better chance of satisfying CH.Another viewpoint is that the conception of set is not specific enough to determine whether CH is true or false.", "This viewpoint was advanced as early as 1923 by Skolem, even before Gödel's first incompleteness theorem.", "Skolem argued on the basis of what is now known as Skolem's paradox, and it was later supported by the independence of CH from the axioms of ZFC since these axioms are enough to establish the elementary properties of sets and cardinalities.", "In order to argue against this viewpoint, it would be sufficient to demonstrate new axioms that are supported by intuition and resolve CH in one direction or another.", "Although the axiom of constructibility does resolve CH, it is not generally considered to be intuitively true any more than CH is generally considered to be false.At least two other axioms have been proposed that have implications for the continuum hypothesis, although these axioms have not currently found wide acceptance in the mathematical community.", "In 1986, Chris Freiling presented an argument against CH by showing that the negation of CH is equivalent to Freiling's axiom of symmetry, a statement derived by arguing from particular intuitions about probabilities.", "Freiling believes this axiom is \"intuitively true\" but others have disagreed.A difficult argument against CH developed by W. Hugh Woodin has attracted considerable attention since the year 2000.Foreman does not reject Woodin's argument outright but urges caution.", "Woodin proposed a new hypothesis that he labeled the , or \"Star axiom\".", "The Star axiom would imply that is , thus falsifying CH.", "The Star axiom was bolstered by an independent May 2021 proof showing the Star axiom can be derived from a variation of Martin's maximum.", "However, Woodin stated in the 2010s that he now instead believes CH to be true, based on his belief in his new \"ultimate L\" conjecture.Solomon Feferman argued that CH is not a definite mathematical problem.", "He proposed a theory of \"definiteness\" using a semi-intuitionistic subsystem of ZF that accepts classical logic for bounded quantifiers but uses intuitionistic logic for unbounded ones, and suggested that a proposition is mathematically \"definite\" if the semi-intuitionistic theory can prove .", "He conjectured that CH is not definite according to this notion, and proposed that CH should, therefore, be considered not to have a truth value.", "Peter Koellner wrote a critical commentary on Feferman's article.Joel David Hamkins proposes a multiverse approach to set theory and argues that \"the continuum hypothesis is settled on the multiverse view by our extensive knowledge about how it behaves in the multiverse, and, as a result, it can no longer be settled in the manner formerly hoped for\".", "In a related vein, Saharon Shelah wrote that he does \"not agree with the pure Platonic view that the interesting problems in set theory can be decided, that we just have to discover the additional axiom.", "My mental picture is that we have many possible set theories, all conforming to ZFC\".==Generalized continuum hypothesis==The ''generalized continuum hypothesis'' (GCH) states that if an infinite set's cardinality lies between that of an infinite set ''S'' and that of the power set of ''S'', then it has the same cardinality as either ''S'' or .", "That is, for any infinite cardinal there is no cardinal such that .", "GCH is equivalent to:: for every ordinal (occasionally called ''Cantor's aleph hypothesis'').The beth numbers provide an alternate notation for this condition: for every ordinal .", "The continuum hypothesis is the special case for the ordinal .", "GCH was first suggested by Philip Jourdain.", "For the early history of GCH, see Moore.Like CH, GCH is also independent of ZFC, but Sierpiński proved that ZF + GCH implies the axiom of choice (AC) (and therefore the negation of the axiom of determinacy, AD), so choice and GCH are not independent in ZF; there are no models of ZF in which GCH holds and AC fails.", "To prove this, Sierpiński showed GCH implies that every cardinality n is smaller than some aleph number, and thus can be ordered.", "This is done by showing that n is smaller than which is smaller than its own Hartogs number—this uses the equality ; for the full proof, see Gillman.Kurt Gödel showed that GCH is a consequence of ZF + V=L (the axiom that every set is constructible relative to the ordinals), and is therefore consistent with ZFC.", "As GCH implies CH, Cohen's model in which CH fails is a model in which GCH fails, and thus GCH is not provable from ZFC.", "W. B. Easton used the method of forcing developed by Cohen to prove Easton's theorem, which shows it is consistent with ZFC for arbitrarily large cardinals to fail to satisfy .", "Much later, Foreman and Woodin proved that (assuming the consistency of very large cardinals) it is consistent that holds for every infinite cardinal .", "Later Woodin extended this by showing the consistency of for every .", "Carmi Merimovich showed that, for each ''n'' ≥ 1, it is consistent with ZFC that for each κ, 2κ is the ''n''th successor of κ.", "On the other hand, László Patai proved that if γ is an ordinal and for each infinite cardinal κ, 2κ is the γth successor of κ, then γ is finite.For any infinite sets A and B, if there is an injection from A to B then there is an injection from subsets of A to subsets of B.", "Thus for any infinite cardinals A and B, .", "If A and B are finite, the stronger inequality holds.", "GCH implies that this strict, stronger inequality holds for infinite cardinals as well as finite cardinals.===Implications of GCH for cardinal exponentiation===Although the generalized continuum hypothesis refers directly only to cardinal exponentiation with 2 as the base, one can deduce from it the values of cardinal exponentiation in all cases.", "GCH implies that:: when ''α'' ≤ ''β''+1;: when ''β''+1 < ''α'' and , where '''cf''' is the cofinality operation; and: when ''β''+1 < ''α'' and .The first equality (when ''α'' ≤ ''β''+1) follows from:: , while:: ;The third equality (when ''β''+1 < ''α'' and ) follows from::, by König's theorem, while::Where, for every γ, GCH is used for equating and ; is used as it is equivalent to the axiom of choice." ], [ "See also", "Absolute InfiniteBeth numberCardinalityΩ-logicSecond continuum hypothesisWetzel's problem" ], [ "References", " " ], [ "Sources", "" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * Gödel, K.: ''What is Cantor's Continuum Problem?", "'', reprinted in Benacerraf and Putnam's collection ''Philosophy of Mathematics'', 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1983.An outline of Gödel's arguments against CH.", "* Martin, D. (1976).", "\"Hilbert's first problem: the continuum hypothesis,\" in ''Mathematical Developments Arising from Hilbert's Problems,'' Proceedings of Symposia in Pure Mathematics XXVIII, F. Browder, editor.", "American Mathematical Society, 1976, pp. 81–92.", "* " ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Çevik Bir" ], [ "Introduction", "Çevik Bir in 1993'''Çevik Bir''' (born 1939) is a retired Turkish army general.", "He was a member of the Turkish General Staff in the 1990s.", "He took a major part in several important international missions in the Middle East and North Africa.", "He was born in Buca, Izmir Province, in 1939 and is married with one child.He graduated from the Turkish Military Academy as an engineer officer in 1958, from the Army Staff College in 1970 and from the Armed Forces College in 1971.He graduated from NATO Defense College, Rome, Italy in 1973.From 1983 to 1985, he served at SHAPE, NATO's headquarters in Belgium.", "He was promoted to brigadier general and commanded an armed brigade and division in Turkey.", "From 1987 to 1991, he served as major general, and then was promoted to lieutenant general.After the dictator Siad Barre’s ousting, conflicts between the General Mohammed Farah Aidid party and other clans in Somalia had led to famine and lawlessness throughout the country.", "An estimated 300,000 people had died from starvation.", "A combined military force of United States and United Nations (under the name \"UNOSOM\") were deployed to Mogadishu, to monitor the ceasefire and deliver food and supplies to the starving people of Somali.", "Çevik Bir, who was then a lieutenant-general of Turkey, became the force commander of UNOSOM II in April 1993.Despite the retreat of US and UN forces after several deaths due to local hostilities mainly led by Aidid, the introduction of a powerful military force opened the transportation routes, enabling the provision of supplies and ended the famine quickly.", "He was succeeded as Force Commander by a Malaysian general in January 1994.He became a four-star general and served three years as vice chairman of the Turkish Armed Forces, then appointed commander of the Turkish First Army, in Istanbul.", "While he was vice chairman of the TAF, he signed the Turkish-Israeli Military Coordination agreement in 1996.Çevik Bir became the Turkish army's deputy chief of general staff shortly after the Somali operation and played a vital role in establishing a Turkish-Israeli entente.", "He retired from the army on 30 August 1999.He is a former member of the Association for the Study of the Middle East and Africa (ASMEA).On 12 April 2012, Bir and 30 other officers were taken in custody for their role in the 1997 military memorandum that forced the then Turkish government, led by the Refah Partisi (Welfare Party), to step down.", "On 11 September 2021, the General Staff Personnel Presidency reported to the Ankara 5th High Criminal Court, where the case was heard, that the administrative action was taken to demolish the 13 retired generals convicted in the February 28 trial.", "Thus, Çevik Bir was demoted.", "Çevik Bir, one of the generals who planned the process, said \"In Turkey we have a marriage of Islam and democracy.", "(…) The child of this marriage is secularism.", "Now this child gets sick from time to time.", "The Turkish Armed Forces is the doctor which saves the child.", "Depending on how sick the kid is, we administer the necessary medicine to make sure the child recuperates\"." ], [ "Distinctions", "* United Nations Medal (1994)* US Medal of Merit (1994)* Turkish Armed Forces Medal of Distinguished Service (1995)* German Medal of Honor (1996)* Turkish Armed Forces Medal of Merit (1996)* United Kingdom Distinguished Achievement Medal (1997)* United Kingdom Distinguished Service Medal (1997)* Jordanian Medal of Istihkak (1998)* French Medal of Merit (1999)" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Collectivism (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Collectivism''' is the type of social organization.", "'''Collectivism''' may also refer to:* Bureaucratic collectivism, a theory of class society which is used to describe the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin* Collectivist anarchism, a socialist doctrine in which the workers own and manage the production* Collectivism (art), art which is created by a group of people rather than an individual* Communitarianism, a political position that emphasizes the importance of the community over the individual or attempts to integrate the two* Corporatism, a political ideology in which groups, rather than individuals, are the building blocks of society" ], [ "See also", "* Collective* Collective farming, aka ''collectivization''* Collective security* Collective ownership* Collective agreement" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Nepeta" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Nepeta''''' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Lamiaceae.", "The genus name, from Latin (“catnip”), is reportedly in reference to Nepete, an ancient Etruscan city.", "There are about 250 species.The genus is native to Europe, Asia, and Africa, and has also naturalized in North America.Some members of this group are known as '''catnip''' or '''catmint''' because of their effect on house cats – the nepetalactone contained in some ''Nepeta'' species binds to the olfactory receptors of cats, typically resulting in temporary euphoria." ], [ "Description", "Most of the species are herbaceous perennial plants, but some are annuals.", "They have sturdy stems with opposite heart-shaped, green to gray-green leaves.", "''Nepeta'' plants are usually aromatic in foliage and flowers.The tubular flowers can be lavender, blue, white, pink, or lilac, and spotted with tiny lavender-purple dots.", "The flowers are located in verticillasters grouped on spikes; or the verticillasters are arranged in opposite cymes, racemes, or panicles – toward the tip of the stems.The calyx is tubular or campanulate, they are slightly curved or straight, and the limbs are often 2-lipped with five teeth.", "The lower lip is larger, with 3-lobes, and the middle lobe is the largest.", "The flowers have 4 hairless stamens that are nearly parallel, and they ascend under the upper lip of the corolla.", "Two stamen are longer and stamens of pistillate flowers are rudimentary.", "The style protrudes outside of the mouth of the flowers.The fruits are nutlets, which are oblong-ovoid, ellipsoid, ovoid, or obovoid in shape.", "The surfaces of the nutlets can be slightly ribbed, smooth or warty." ], [ "Selected species", "* Some species formerly classified as ''Nepeta'' are now in the genera ''Dracocephalum'', ''Glechoma'', and ''Calamintha'' .Species include:''Nepeta adenophyta'' Hedge''Nepeta agrestis'' Loisel.", "''Nepeta alaghezi'' Pojark.", "''Nepeta alatavica'' Lipsky''Nepeta algeriensis'' Noë''Nepeta amicorum'' Rech.f.", "''Nepeta amoena'' Stapf''Nepeta anamurensis'' Gemici & Leblebici''Nepeta annua'' Pall.", "''Nepeta apuleji'' Ucria''Nepeta argolica'' Bory & Chaub.", "''Nepeta assadii'' Jamzad''Nepeta assurgens'' Hausskn.", "& Bornm.", "''Nepeta astorensis'' Shinwari & Chaudhri''Nepeta atlantica'' Ball''Nepeta autraniana'' Bornm.", "''Nepeta azurea'' R.Br.", "ex Benth.", "''Nepeta badachschanica'' Kudrjasch.", "''Nepeta bakhtiarica'' Rech.f.", "''Nepeta ballotifolia'' Hochst.", "ex A.Rich.", "''Nepeta balouchestanica'' Jamzad & Ingr.", "''Nepeta barfakensis'' Rech.f.", "''Nepeta baytopii'' Hedge & Lamond''Nepeta bazoftica'' Jamzad''Nepeta bellevii'' Prain''Nepeta betonicifolia'' C.A.Mey.", "''Nepeta binaloudensis'' Jamzad''Nepeta bodeana'' Bunge''Nepeta × boissieri'' Willk.", "''Nepeta bokhonica'' Jamzad''Nepeta bombaiensis'' Dalzell''Nepeta bornmuelleri'' Hausskn.", "ex Bornm.", "''Nepeta botschantzevii'' Czern.", "''Nepeta brachyantha'' Rech.f.", "& Edelb.", "''Nepeta bracteata'' Benth.", "''Nepeta brevifolia'' C.A.Mey.", "''Nepeta bucharica'' Lipsky''Nepeta caerulea'' Aiton''Nepeta caesarea'' Boiss.", "''Nepeta campestris'' Benth.", "''Nepeta camphorata'' Boiss.", "& Heldr.", "''Nepeta × campylantha'' Rech.f.", "''Nepeta cataria'' L.''Nepeta cephalotes'' Boiss.", "''Nepeta chionophila'' Boiss.", "& Hausskn.", "''Nepeta ciliaris'' Benth.", "''Nepeta cilicica'' Boiss.", "ex Benth.", "''Nepeta clarkei'' Hook.f.", "''Nepeta coerulescens'' Maxim.", "''Nepeta concolor'' Boiss.", "& Heldr.", "ex Benth.", "''Nepeta conferta'' Hedge & Lamond''Nepeta congesta'' Fisch.", "& C.A.Mey.", "''Nepeta connata'' Royle ex Benth.", "''Nepeta consanguinea'' Pojark.", "''Nepeta crinita'' Montbret & Aucher ex Benth.", "''Nepeta crispa'' Willd.", "''Nepeta curviflora'' Boiss.", "''Nepeta cyanea'' Steven''Nepeta cyrenaica'' Quézel & Zaffran''Nepeta czegemensis'' Pojark.", "''Nepeta daenensis'' Boiss.", "''Nepeta deflersiana'' Schweinf.", "ex Hedge''Nepeta densiflora'' Kar.", "& Kir.", "''Nepeta dentata'' C.Y.Wu & S.J.Hsuan''Nepeta denudata'' Benth.", "''Nepeta dirmencii'' Yild.", "& Dinç''Nepeta discolor'' Royle ex Benth.", "''Nepeta distans'' Royle''Nepeta duthiei'' Prain & Mukerjee''Nepeta elliptica'' Royle ex Benth.", "''Nepeta elymaitica'' Bornm.", "''Nepeta erecta'' (Royle ex Benth.)", "Benth.", "''Nepeta eremokosmos'' Rech.f.", "''Nepeta eremophila'' Hausskn.", "& Bornm.", "''Nepeta eriosphaera'' Rech.f.", "& Köie''Nepeta eriostachya'' Benth.", "''Nepeta ernesti-mayeri'' Diklic & V.Nikolic''Nepeta everardii'' S.Moore''Nepeta × faassenii'' Bergmans ex Stearn''Nepeta flavida'' Hub.-Mor.", "''Nepeta floccosa'' Benth.", "''Nepeta foliosa'' Moris''Nepeta fordii'' Hemsl.", "''Nepeta formosa'' Kudrjasch.", "''Nepeta freitagii'' Rech.f.", "''Nepeta glechomifolia'' (Dunn) Hedge''Nepeta gloeocephala'' Rech.f.", "''Nepeta glomerata'' Montbret & Aucher ex Benth.", "''Nepeta glomerulosa'' Boiss.", "''Nepeta glutinosa'' Benth.", "''Nepeta gontscharovii'' Kudrjasch.", "''Nepeta govaniana'' (Wall.", "ex Benth.)", "Benth.", "''Nepeta graciliflora'' Benth.", "''Nepeta granatensis'' Boiss.", "''Nepeta grandiflora'' M.Bieb.", "''Nepeta grata'' Benth.", "''Nepeta griffithii'' Hedge''Nepeta heliotropifolia'' Lam.", "''Nepeta hemsleyana'' Oliv.", "ex Prain''Nepeta henanensis'' C.S.Zhu''Nepeta hindostana'' (B.Heyne ex Roth) Haines''Nepeta hispanica'' Boiss.", "& Reut.", "''Nepeta hormozganica'' Jamzad''Nepeta humilis'' Benth.", "''Nepeta hymenodonta'' Boiss.", "''Nepeta isaurica'' Boiss.", "& Heldr.", "ex Benth.", "''Nepeta ispahanica'' Boiss.", "''Nepeta italica'' L.''Nepeta jakupicensis'' Micevski''Nepeta jomdaensis'' H.W.Li''Nepeta juncea'' Benth.", "''Nepeta knorringiana'' Pojark.", "''Nepeta koeieana'' Rech.f.", "''Nepeta kokamirica'' Regel''Nepeta kokanica'' Regel''Nepeta komarovii'' E.A.Busch''Nepeta kotschyi'' Boiss.", "''Nepeta kurdica'' Hausskn.", "& Bornm.", "''Nepeta kurramensis'' Rech.f.", "''Nepeta ladanolens'' Lipsky''Nepeta laevigata'' (D.Don) Hand.-Mazz.", "''Nepeta lagopsis'' Benth.", "''Nepeta lamiifolia'' Willd.", "''Nepeta lamiopsis'' Benth.", "ex Hook.f.", "''Nepeta lasiocephala'' Benth.", "''Nepeta latifolia'' DC.", "''Nepeta leucolaena'' Benth.", "ex Hook.f.", "''Nepeta linearis'' Royle ex Benth.", "''Nepeta lipskyi'' Kudrjasch.", "''Nepeta longibracteata'' Benth.", "''Nepeta longiflora'' Vent.", "''Nepeta longituba'' Pojark.", "''Nepeta ludlow-hewittii'' Blakelock''Nepeta macrosiphon'' Boiss.", "''Nepeta mahanensis'' Jamzad & M.Simmonds''Nepeta manchuriensis'' S.Moore''Nepeta mariae'' Regel''Nepeta maussarifii'' Lipsky''Nepeta melissifolia'' Lam.", "''Nepeta membranifolia'' C.Y.Wu''Nepeta menthoides'' Boiss.", "& Buhse''Nepeta meyeri'' Benth.", "''Nepeta micrantha'' Bunge''Nepeta minuticephala'' Jamzad''Nepeta mirzayanii'' Rech.f.", "& Esfand.", "''Nepeta mollis'' Benth.", "''Nepeta monocephala'' Rech.f.", "''Nepeta monticola'' Kudr.", "''Nepeta multibracteata'' Desf.", "''Nepeta multicaulis'' Mukerjee''Nepeta multifida'' L.''Nepeta natanzensis'' Jamzad''Nepeta nawarica'' Rech.f.", "''Nepeta nepalensis'' Spreng.", "''Nepeta nepetella'' L.''Nepeta nepetellae'' Forssk.", "''Nepeta nepetoides'' (Batt.", "ex Pit.)", "Harley''Nepeta nervosa'' Royle ex Benth.", "''Nepeta nuda'' L.''Nepeta obtusicrena'' Boiss.", "& Kotschy ex Hedge''Nepeta odorifera'' Lipsky''Nepeta olgae'' Regel''Nepeta orphanidea'' Boiss.", "''Nepeta pabotii'' Mouterde''Nepeta paktiana'' Rech.f.", "''Nepeta pamirensis'' Franch.", "''Nepeta parnassica'' Heldr.", "& Sart.", "''Nepeta paucifolia'' Mukerjee''Nepeta persica'' Boiss.", "''Nepeta petraea'' Benth.", "''Nepeta phyllochlamys'' P.H.Davis''Nepeta pilinux'' P.H.Davis''Nepeta podlechii'' Rech.f.", "''Nepeta podostachys'' Benth.", "''Nepeta pogonosperma'' Jamzad & Assadi''Nepeta polyodonta'' Rech.f.", "''Nepeta praetervisa'' Rech.f.", "''Nepeta prattii'' H.Lév.", "''Nepeta prostrata'' Benth.", "''Nepeta pseudokokanica'' Pojark.", "''Nepeta pubescens'' Benth.", "''Nepeta pungens'' (Bunge) Benth.", "''Nepeta racemosa'' Lam.", "''Nepeta raphanorhiza'' Benth.", "''Nepeta rechingeri'' Hedge''Nepeta rivularis'' Bornm.", "''Nepeta roopiana'' Bordz.", "''Nepeta rtanjensis'' Diklic & Milojevic''Nepeta rubella'' A.L.Budantzev''Nepeta rugosa'' Benth.", "''Nepeta saccharata'' Bunge''Nepeta santoana'' Popov''Nepeta saturejoides'' Boiss.", "''Nepeta schiraziana'' Boiss.", "''Nepeta schmidii'' Rech.f.", "''Nepeta schugnanica'' Lipsky''Nepeta scordotis'' L.''Nepeta septemcrenata'' Ehrenb.", "ex Benth.", "''Nepeta sessilis'' C.Y.Wu & S.J.Hsuan''Nepeta shahmirzadensis'' Assadi & Jamzad''Nepeta sheilae'' Hedge & R.A.King''Nepeta sibirica'' L.''Nepeta sorgerae'' Hedge & Lamond''Nepeta sosnovskyi'' Askerova''Nepeta souliei'' H.Lév.", "''Nepeta spathulifera'' Benth.", "''Nepeta sphaciotica'' P.H.Davis''Nepeta spruneri'' Boiss.", "''Nepeta stachyoides'' Coss.", "ex Batt.", "''Nepeta staintonii'' Hedge''Nepeta stenantha'' Kotschy & Boiss.", "''Nepeta stewartiana'' Diels''Nepeta straussii'' Hausskn.", "& Bornm.", "''Nepeta stricta'' (Banks & Sol.)", "Hedge & Lamond''Nepeta suavis'' Stapf''Nepeta subcaespitosa'' Jehan''Nepeta subhastata'' Regel''Nepeta subincisa'' Benth.", "''Nepeta subintegra'' Maxim.", "''Nepeta subsessilis'' Maxim.", "''Nepeta sudanica'' F.W.Andrews''Nepeta sulfuriflora'' P.H.Davis''Nepeta sulphurea'' C. Koch''Nepeta sungpanensis'' C.Y.Wu''Nepeta supina'' Steven''Nepeta taxkorganica'' Y.F.Chang''Nepeta tenuiflora'' Diels''Nepeta tenuifolia'' Benth.", "''Nepeta teucriifolia'' Willd.", "''Nepeta teydea'' Webb & Berthel.", "''Nepeta tibestica'' Maire''Nepeta × tmolea'' Boiss.", "''Nepeta trachonitica'' Post''Nepeta transiliensis'' Pojark.", "''Nepeta trautvetteri'' Boiss.", "& Buhse''Nepeta trichocalyx'' Greuter & Burdet''Nepeta tuberosa'' L.''Nepeta tytthantha'' Pojark.", "''Nepeta uberrima'' Rech.f.", "''Nepeta ucranica'' L.''Nepeta veitchii'' Duthie''Nepeta velutina'' Pojark.", "''Nepeta viscida'' Boiss.", "''Nepeta vivianii'' (Coss.)", "Bég.", "& Vacc.", "''Nepeta wettsteinii'' Heinr.Braun''Nepeta wilsonii'' Duthie''Nepeta woodiana'' Hedge''Nepeta yanthina'' Franch.", "''Nepeta yesoensis'' (Franch.", "& Sav.)", "B.D.Jacks.", "''Nepeta zandaensis'' H.W.Li''Nepeta zangezura'' Grossh." ], [ "Gallery", "Nepeta curviflora 1.jpg\|Flower spikes of ''Nepeta curviflora''Nepeta govaniana.jpg\|''Nepeta govaniana''Nepeta grandiflora-IMG 0604.jpg\|''Nepeta grandiflora''Nepeta subsessilis 1.jpg\|''Nepeta subsessilis''" ], [ "Uses", "=== Cultivation ===Some ''Nepeta'' species are cultivated as ornamental plants.", "They can be drought tolerant – water conserving, often deer repellent, with long bloom periods from late spring to autumn.", "Some species also have repellent properties to insect pests, including aphids and squash bugs, when planted in a garden.", "''Nepeta'' species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species including ''Coleophora albitarsella'', and as nectar sources for pollinators, such as honey bees and hummingbirds.", ";Selected ornamental species ''Nepeta cataria'' (catnip, catswort) – the \"true catnip\", cultivated as an ornamental plant, has become an invasive species in some habitats.", "* ''Nepeta grandiflora'' (giant catmint, Caucasus catmint) – lusher than true catnip and has dark green leaves and dark blue flowers.", "* ''Nepeta'' × ''faassenii'' (garden catmint) – a hybrid of garden source with gray-green foliage and lavender flowers.", "It is drought-tolerant and deer-resistant.", "The cultivar 'Walker's Low' was named Perennial of the Year for 2007 by the Perennial Plant Association.", "* ''Nepeta racemosa'' (raceme catnip) – commonly used in landscaping.", "It is hardy, rated for USDA hardiness zone 5b." ], [ "References", "=== Further reading ===* " ], [ "External links", " GRIN Species Records of ''Nepeta''* Flora of Nepal: ''Nepeta'* Drugs.com: Catnip* \"Nepetalactone: What is in catnip anyway?", "\"* HowStuffWorks, Inc.: ''How does catnip work?", "''* Sciencedaily.com: \"Catnip Repels Mosquitoes More Effectively Than DEET\" – ''reported at the 2001 American Chemical Society meeting''." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Cornish Nationalist Party" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Cornish Nationalist Party''' ('''CNP'''; ) is a political party, founded by Dr James Whetter, who campaigned for independence for Cornwall." ], [ "History", "It was formed by people who left Cornwall's main nationalist party Mebyon Kernow on 28 May 1975, but it is no longer for independence.A separate party with a similar name (Cornish National Party) existed from 1969.The split with Mebyon Kernow was based on the same debate that was occurring in most of the other political parties campaigning for autonomy from the United Kingdom at the time (such as the Scottish National Party and Plaid Cymru): whether to be a centre-left party, appealing to the electorate on a social democratic line, or whether to appeal emotionally on a centre-right cultural line.", "Originally, another subject of the split was whether to embrace devolution as a first step to full independence (or as the sole step if this was what the electorate wished) or for it to be \"all or nothing\".The CNP essentially represented a more right-wing outlook from those who disagree that economic arguments were more likely to win votes than cultural.", "The CNP worked to preserve the Celtic identity of Cornwall and improve its economy, and encouraged links with Cornish people overseas and with other regions with distinct identities.", "It also gave support to the Cornish language and commemorated Thomas Flamank, a leader of the Cornish Rebellion in 1497, at an annual ceremony at Bodmin on 27 June each year.The CNP was for some time seen as more of a pressure group, as it did not put up candidates for any elections, although its visibility and influence within Cornwall is negligible.", "In April 2009, a news story reported that the CNP had re-formed following a conference in Bodmin; however, it did not contest any elections that year.Dr Whetter was the founder and editor of the CNP quarterly journal, ''The Cornish Banner'' (''An Baner Kernewek''), within the actions of the Roseland Institute.", "Since his death in 2018 the CNP has been led by Androw Hawke.A newspaper article and a revamp of the party website in October 2014 state that the party is now to contest elections once more.", "John Le Bretton, vice-chairman of the party, said: \"The CNP supports the retention of Cornwall Council as a Cornwall-wide authority running Cornish affairs and we call for the British government in Westminster to devolve powers to the council so that decisions affecting Cornwall can be made in Cornwall\".The CNP polled 227 (0.4) votes in Truro during the 1979 UK General Election, 364 (0.67) in North Cornwall in the 1983 UK General Election, and 1,892 (1.0) at the European Parliament elections in the Cornwall and Plymouth constituency in 1984.The candidate on all three occasions was the founder and first leader of the CNP, Dr James Whetter.The CNP had one parish councillor, CNP leader Androw Hawke who was elected to Polperro Community Council for the second time on 4 May 2017.The reformed party was registered with the Electoral Commission in 2014, but ceased to be registered in 2017." ], [ "Policy", "The Policy Statement and Programme of the CNP were published in 1975 and included the following points:* To look after the interests of Cornish people.", "* To preserve and enhance the identity of Kernow, an essentially Celtic identity.", "* To achieve self-government for Kernow.", "* Total sovereignty will be exercised by the Cornish state over the land within its traditional border.", "* Kernow's official language will be Cornish.", "* Better job prospects for Cornish people.", "* Reduction of unemployment to an acceptable level (2.5%).", "* The protection of the self-employed and small businesses in Cornwall.", "* Cheaper housing and priority for Cornish people.", "* Discouragement of second homes.", "* Controls over tourism.", "* The Cornish state will have control over the number and nature of immigrants.", "* The establishment of a Cornish economic department to aid the basic industries of farming, fishing, china clay and mining and secondary industries developing from these.", "* Improved transport facilities in Cornwall with greater scope for private enterprise to operate.", "* Existing medical and welfare services for Cornish people will be developed and improved.", "* Protection of Cornish natural resources, including offshore resources.", "* Conservation of the Cornish landscape and the unique Cornish environment, culture and identity.", "* Courses on Cornish language and history should be made available in schools for those who want them.", "* Recognition of the Cornish flag of St Piran and the retention of the Tamar border with England.", "* The rule of law will be upheld by the Cornish state and the judiciary will be separate from the legislative and executive functions of the state.", "* The Cornish state will create a home defence force, linked to local communities and civil units of administration.", "* Young Cornish people will be given instruction as to world religions and secular philosophies but the greatest attention will be given to Christianity and early Celtic beliefs.", "* A far greater say in government for Cornish people (by referendums if necessary) and the decentralisation of considerable powers to a Cornish nation within a united Europe - special links being established with our Celtic brothers and sisters in Scotland, Ireland, Isle of Man, Wales and Brittany.The party's policies include the following:Calling for more legislative powers to be given to Cornwall Council.", "The authority should effectively become the Cornish government, with town and parish councils acting as local government.", "Cornwall council should have a reduction in councillors, with standardisation of electoral areas and constituencies in throughout Cornwall.", "The Westminster government should appoint a Minister for Cornwall and confirm there will be no further plans to have any parliamentary constituency covering part of Cornwall and Devon." ], [ "Image", "There have been perceived image problems as the CNP has been seen as similarly styled to the BNP and NF (the nativist British National Party and National Front), and during the 1970s letters were published in the party magazine ''The Cornish Banner'' (''An Baner Kernewek'') sympathetic to the NF and critical of \"Zionist\" politicians.", "The CNP also formed a controversial uniformed wing known as the ''Greenshirts'' led by the CNP Youth Movement leader and Public Relations Officer, Wallace Simmons who also founded the pro-NF ''Cornish Front''.", "(Although the CNP and CF were sympathetic to Irish republicanism while the NF was supportive of Ulster loyalism, with the exception of leading NF figures like Patrick Harrington, who refused to condemn the IRA during an interview for the Channel 4 TV documentary ''Disciples of Chaos'')." ], [ "See also", "List of topics related to CornwallCornish self-government movementConstitutional status of Cornwall" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The CNP at the Roseland Institute* The Cornish Banner website* 2017 Spectator magazine article about Cornish Nationalism, Mebyon Kernow and the CNP" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Cryptanalysis" ], [ "Introduction", "Reconstruction of the appearance of cyclometer, a device used to break the encryption of the Enigma machine.", "Based on sketches in Marian Rejewski's memoirs'''Cryptanalysis''' (from the Greek ''kryptós'', \"hidden\", and ''analýein'', \"to analyze\") refers to the process of analyzing information systems in order to understand hidden aspects of the systems.", "Cryptanalysis is used to breach cryptographic security systems and gain access to the contents of encrypted messages, even if the cryptographic key is unknown.In addition to mathematical analysis of cryptographic algorithms, cryptanalysis includes the study of side-channel attacks that do not target weaknesses in the cryptographic algorithms themselves, but instead exploit weaknesses in their implementation.Even though the goal has been the same, the methods and techniques of cryptanalysis have changed drastically through the history of cryptography, adapting to increasing cryptographic complexity, ranging from the pen-and-paper methods of the past, through machines like the British Bombes and Colossus computers at Bletchley Park in World War II, to the mathematically advanced computerized schemes of the present.", "Methods for breaking modern cryptosystems often involve solving carefully constructed problems in pure mathematics, the best-known being integer factorization." ], [ "Overview", "In encryption, confidential information (called the ''\"plaintext\"'') is sent securely to a recipient by the sender first converting it into an unreadable form (''\"ciphertext\"'') using an encryption algorithm.", "The ciphertext is sent through an insecure channel to the recipient.", "The recipient decrypts the ciphertext by applying an inverse decryption algorithm, recovering the plaintext.", "To decrypt the ciphertext, the recipient requires a secret knowledge from the sender, usually a string of letters, numbers, or bits, called a ''cryptographic key''.", "The concept is that even if an unauthorized person gets access to the ciphertext during transmission, without the secret key they cannot convert it back to plaintext.Encryption has been used throughout history to send important military, diplomatic and commercial messages, and today is very widely used in computer networking to protect email and internet communication.The goal of cryptanalysis is for a third party, a cryptanalyst, to gain as much information as possible about the original (''\"plaintext\"''), attempting to \"break\" the encryption to read the ciphertext and learning the secret key so future messages can be decrypted and read.", "A mathematical technique to do this is called a ''cryptographic attack''.", "Cryptographic attacks can be characterized in a number of ways:===Amount of information available to the attacker===Cryptanalytical attacks can be classified based on what type of information the attacker has available.", "As a basic starting point it is normally assumed that, for the purposes of analysis, the general algorithm is known; this is Shannon's Maxim \"the enemy knows the system\" – in its turn, equivalent to Kerckhoffs's principle.", "This is a reasonable assumption in practice – throughout history, there are countless examples of secret algorithms falling into wider knowledge, variously through espionage, betrayal and reverse engineering.", "(And on occasion, ciphers have been broken through pure deduction; for example, the German Lorenz cipher and the Japanese Purple code, and a variety of classical schemes):* ''Ciphertext-only'': the cryptanalyst has access only to a collection of ciphertexts or codetexts.", "* ''Known-plaintext'': the attacker has a set of ciphertexts to which they know the corresponding plaintext.", "* ''Chosen-plaintext'' (''chosen-ciphertext''): the attacker can obtain the ciphertexts (plaintexts) corresponding to an arbitrary set of plaintexts (ciphertexts) of their own choosing.", "* ''Adaptive chosen-plaintext'': like a chosen-plaintext attack, except the attacker can choose subsequent plaintexts based on information learned from previous encryptions, similarly to the ''Adaptive chosen ciphertext attack''.", "* ''Related-key attack'': Like a chosen-plaintext attack, except the attacker can obtain ciphertexts encrypted under two different keys.", "The keys are unknown, but the relationship between them is known; for example, two keys that differ in the one bit.===Computational resources required===Attacks can also be characterised by the resources they require.", "Those resources include:* Time – the number of ''computation steps'' (e.g., test encryptions) which must be performed.", "* Memory – the amount of ''storage'' required to perform the attack.", "* Data – the quantity and type of ''plaintexts and ciphertexts'' required for a particular approach.It is sometimes difficult to predict these quantities precisely, especially when the attack is not practical to actually implement for testing.", "But academic cryptanalysts tend to provide at least the estimated ''order of magnitude'' of their attacks' difficulty, saying, for example, \"SHA-1 collisions now 252.", "\"Bruce Schneier notes that even computationally impractical attacks can be considered breaks: \"Breaking a cipher simply means finding a weakness in the cipher that can be exploited with a complexity less than brute force.", "Never mind that brute-force might require 2128 encryptions; an attack requiring 2110 encryptions would be considered a break...simply put, a break can just be a certificational weakness: evidence that the cipher does not perform as advertised.", "\"===Partial breaks===The results of cryptanalysis can also vary in usefulness.", "Cryptographer Lars Knudsen (1998) classified various types of attack on block ciphers according to the amount and quality of secret information that was discovered:* ''Total break'' – the attacker deduces the secret key.", "* ''Global deduction'' – the attacker discovers a functionally equivalent algorithm for encryption and decryption, but without learning the key.", "* ''Instance (local) deduction'' – the attacker discovers additional plaintexts (or ciphertexts) not previously known.", "* ''Information deduction'' – the attacker gains some Shannon information about plaintexts (or ciphertexts) not previously known.", "* ''Distinguishing algorithm'' – the attacker can distinguish the cipher from a random permutation.Academic attacks are often against weakened versions of a cryptosystem, such as a block cipher or hash function with some rounds removed.", "Many, but not all, attacks become exponentially more difficult to execute as rounds are added to a cryptosystem, so it's possible for the full cryptosystem to be strong even though reduced-round variants are weak.", "Nonetheless, partial breaks that come close to breaking the original cryptosystem may mean that a full break will follow; the successful attacks on DES, MD5, and SHA-1 were all preceded by attacks on weakened versions.In academic cryptography, a ''weakness'' or a ''break'' in a scheme is usually defined quite conservatively: it might require impractical amounts of time, memory, or known plaintexts.", "It also might require the attacker be able to do things many real-world attackers can't: for example, the attacker may need to choose particular plaintexts to be encrypted or even to ask for plaintexts to be encrypted using several keys related to the secret key.", "Furthermore, it might only reveal a small amount of information, enough to prove the cryptosystem imperfect but too little to be useful to real-world attackers.", "Finally, an attack might only apply to a weakened version of cryptographic tools, like a reduced-round block cipher, as a step towards breaking the full system." ], [ "History", "Cryptanalysis has coevolved together with cryptography, and the contest can be traced through the history of cryptography—new ciphers being designed to replace old broken designs, and new cryptanalytic techniques invented to crack the improved schemes.", "In practice, they are viewed as two sides of the same coin: secure cryptography requires design against possible cryptanalysis.===Classical ciphers===First page of Al-Kindi's 9th century ''Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages''Although the actual word \"''cryptanalysis''\" is relatively recent (it was coined by William Friedman in 1920), methods for breaking codes and ciphers are much older.", "David Kahn notes in ''The Codebreakers'' that Arab scholars were the first people to systematically document cryptanalytic methods.The first known recorded explanation of cryptanalysis was given by Al-Kindi (c. 801–873, also known as \"Alkindus\" in Europe), a 9th-century Arab polymath, in ''Risalah fi Istikhraj al-Mu'amma'' (''A Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages'').", "This treatise contains the first description of the method of frequency analysis.", "Al-Kindi is thus regarded as the first codebreaker in history.", "His breakthrough work was influenced by Al-Khalil (717–786), who wrote the ''Book of Cryptographic Messages'', which contains the first use of permutations and combinations to list all possible Arabic words with and without vowels.Frequency analysis is the basic tool for breaking most classical ciphers.", "In natural languages, certain letters of the alphabet appear more often than others; in English, \"E\" is likely to be the most common letter in any sample of plaintext.", "Similarly, the digraph \"TH\" is the most likely pair of letters in English, and so on.", "Frequency analysis relies on a cipher failing to hide these statistics.", "For example, in a simple substitution cipher (where each letter is simply replaced with another), the most frequent letter in the ciphertext would be a likely candidate for \"E\".", "Frequency analysis of such a cipher is therefore relatively easy, provided that the ciphertext is long enough to give a reasonably representative count of the letters of the alphabet that it contains.Al-Kindi's invention of the frequency analysis technique for breaking monoalphabetic substitution ciphers was the most significant cryptanalytic advance until World War II.", "Al-Kindi's ''Risalah fi Istikhraj al-Mu'amma'' described the first cryptanalytic techniques, including some for polyalphabetic ciphers, cipher classification, Arabic phonetics and syntax, and most importantly, gave the first descriptions on frequency analysis.", "He also covered methods of encipherments, cryptanalysis of certain encipherments, and statistical analysis of letters and letter combinations in Arabic.", "An important contribution of Ibn Adlan (1187–1268) was on sample size for use of frequency analysis.In Europe, Italian scholar Giambattista della Porta (1535–1615) was the author of a seminal work on cryptanalysis, ''De Furtivis Literarum Notis''.Successful cryptanalysis has undoubtedly influenced history; the ability to read the presumed-secret thoughts and plans of others can be a decisive advantage.", "For example, in England in 1587, Mary, Queen of Scots was tried and executed for treason as a result of her involvement in three plots to assassinate Elizabeth I of England.", "The plans came to light after her coded correspondence with fellow conspirators was deciphered by Thomas Phelippes.In Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries, the idea of a polyalphabetic substitution cipher was developed, among others by the French diplomat Blaise de Vigenère (1523–96).", "For some three centuries, the Vigenère cipher, which uses a repeating key to select different encryption alphabets in rotation, was considered to be completely secure (''le chiffre indéchiffrable''—\"the indecipherable cipher\").", "Nevertheless, Charles Babbage (1791–1871) and later, independently, Friedrich Kasiski (1805–81) succeeded in breaking this cipher.", "During World War I, inventors in several countries developed rotor cipher machines such as Arthur Scherbius' Enigma, in an attempt to minimise the repetition that had been exploited to break the Vigenère system.===Ciphers from World War I and World War II===The decrypted Zimmermann Telegram.In World War I, the breaking of the Zimmermann Telegram was instrumental in bringing the United States into the war.", "In World War II, the Allies benefitted enormously from their joint success cryptanalysis of the German ciphers – including the Enigma machine and the Lorenz cipher – and Japanese ciphers, particularly 'Purple' and JN-25.", "'Ultra' intelligence has been credited with everything between shortening the end of the European war by up to two years, to determining the eventual result.", "The war in the Pacific was similarly helped by 'Magic' intelligence.Cryptanalysis of enemy messages played a significant part in the Allied victory in World War II.", "F. W. Winterbotham, quoted the western Supreme Allied Commander, Dwight D. Eisenhower, at the war's end as describing Ultra intelligence as having been \"decisive\" to Allied victory.", "Sir Harry Hinsley, official historian of British Intelligence in World War II, made a similar assessment about Ultra, saying that it shortened the war \"by not less than two years and probably by four years\"; moreover, he said that in the absence of Ultra, it is uncertain how the war would have ended.In practice, frequency analysis relies as much on linguistic knowledge as it does on statistics, but as ciphers became more complex, mathematics became more important in cryptanalysis.", "This change was particularly evident before and during World War II, where efforts to crack Axis ciphers required new levels of mathematical sophistication.", "Moreover, automation was first applied to cryptanalysis in that era with the Polish Bomba device, the British Bombe, the use of punched card equipment, and in the Colossus computers – the first electronic digital computers to be controlled by a program.====Indicator====With reciprocal machine ciphers such as the Lorenz cipher and the Enigma machine used by Nazi Germany during World War II, each message had its own key.", "Usually, the transmitting operator informed the receiving operator of this message key by transmitting some plaintext and/or ciphertext before the enciphered message.", "This is termed the ''indicator'', as it indicates to the receiving operator how to set his machine to decipher the message.Poorly designed and implemented indicator systems allowed first Polish cryptographers and then the British cryptographers at Bletchley Park to break the Enigma cipher system.", "Similar poor indicator systems allowed the British to identify ''depths'' that led to the diagnosis of the Lorenz SZ40/42 cipher system, and the comprehensive breaking of its messages without the cryptanalysts seeing the cipher machine.====Depth====Sending two or more messages with the same key is an insecure process.", "To a cryptanalyst the messages are then said to be ''\"in depth.\"''", "1.A series of code messages reciphered with the same, or the same part of a, reciphering key especially when written under one another so that all the groups (usually one in each message) that are reciphered with the same group of the subtractor lie under each other and form a 'column'.", "(b) two or more messages in a transposition cipher that are of the same length and have been enciphered on the same key; (c) two or more messages in a machine or similar cipher that have been enciphered on the same machine-setting or on the same key.", "2.be in depth : (of messages).", "Stand to each other in any of the relationships described above.", "This may be detected by the messages having the same ''indicator'' by which the sending operator informs the receiving operator about the key generator initial settings for the message.Generally, the cryptanalyst may benefit from lining up identical enciphering operations among a set of messages.", "For example, the Vernam cipher enciphers by bit-for-bit combining plaintext with a long key using the \"exclusive or\" operator, which is also known as \"modulo-2 addition\" (symbolized by ⊕ ):::::Plaintext ⊕ Key = CiphertextDeciphering combines the same key bits with the ciphertext to reconstruct the plaintext:::::Ciphertext ⊕ Key = Plaintext(In modulo-2 arithmetic, addition is the same as subtraction.)", "When two such ciphertexts are aligned in depth, combining them eliminates the common key, leaving just a combination of the two plaintexts:::::Ciphertext1 ⊕ Ciphertext2 = Plaintext1 ⊕ Plaintext2The individual plaintexts can then be worked out linguistically by trying ''probable words'' (or phrases), also known as ''\"cribs,\"'' at various locations; a correct guess, when combined with the merged plaintext stream, produces intelligible text from the other plaintext component:::::(Plaintext1 ⊕ Plaintext2) ⊕ Plaintext1 = Plaintext2The recovered fragment of the second plaintext can often be extended in one or both directions, and the extra characters can be combined with the merged plaintext stream to extend the first plaintext.", "Working back and forth between the two plaintexts, using the intelligibility criterion to check guesses, the analyst may recover much or all of the original plaintexts.", "(With only two plaintexts in depth, the analyst may not know which one corresponds to which ciphertext, but in practice this is not a large problem.)", "When a recovered plaintext is then combined with its ciphertext, the key is revealed:::::Plaintext1 ⊕ Ciphertext1 = KeyKnowledge of a key then allows the analyst to read other messages encrypted with the same key, and knowledge of a set of related keys may allow cryptanalysts to diagnose the system used for constructing them.===Development of modern cryptography===Governments have long recognized the potential benefits of cryptanalysis for intelligence, both military and diplomatic, and established dedicated organizations devoted to breaking the codes and ciphers of other nations, for example, GCHQ and the NSA, organizations which are still very active today.The Bombe replicated the action of several Enigma machines wired together.", "Each of the rapidly rotating drums, pictured above in a Bletchley Park museum mockup, simulated the action of an Enigma rotor.Even though computation was used to great effect in the cryptanalysis of the Lorenz cipher and other systems during World War II, it also made possible new methods of cryptography orders of magnitude more complex than ever before.", "Taken as a whole, modern cryptography has become much more impervious to cryptanalysis than the pen-and-paper systems of the past, and now seems to have the upper hand against pure cryptanalysis.", "The historian David Kahn notes:Kahn goes on to mention increased opportunities for interception, bugging, side channel attacks, and quantum computers as replacements for the traditional means of cryptanalysis.", "In 2010, former NSA technical director Brian Snow said that both academic and government cryptographers are \"moving very slowly forward in a mature field.", "\"However, any postmortems for cryptanalysis may be premature.", "While the effectiveness of cryptanalytic methods employed by intelligence agencies remains unknown, many serious attacks against both academic and practical cryptographic primitives have been published in the modern era of computer cryptography:* The block cipher Madryga, proposed in 1984 but not widely used, was found to be susceptible to ciphertext-only attacks in 1998.", "* FEAL-4, proposed as a replacement for the DES standard encryption algorithm but not widely used, was demolished by a spate of attacks from the academic community, many of which are entirely practical.", "* The A5/1, A5/2, CMEA, and DECT systems used in mobile and wireless phone technology can all be broken in hours, minutes or even in real-time using widely available computing equipment.", "* Brute-force keyspace search has broken some real-world ciphers and applications, including single-DES (see EFF DES cracker), 40-bit \"export-strength\" cryptography, and the DVD Content Scrambling System.", "* In 2001, Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP), a protocol used to secure Wi-Fi wireless networks, was shown to be breakable in practice because of a weakness in the RC4 cipher and aspects of the WEP design that made related-key attacks practical.", "WEP was later replaced by Wi-Fi Protected Access.", "* In 2008, researchers conducted a proof-of-concept break of SSL using weaknesses in the MD5 hash function and certificate issuer practices that made it possible to exploit collision attacks on hash functions.", "The certificate issuers involved changed their practices to prevent the attack from being repeated.Thus, while the best modern ciphers may be far more resistant to cryptanalysis than the Enigma, cryptanalysis and the broader field of information security remain quite active." ], [ "Symmetric ciphers", "* Boomerang attack* Brute-force attack* Davies' attack* Differential cryptanalysis* Harvest now, decrypt later* Impossible differential cryptanalysis* Improbable differential cryptanalysis* Integral cryptanalysis* Linear cryptanalysis* Meet-in-the-middle attack* Mod-n cryptanalysis* Related-key attack* Sandwich attack* Slide attack* XSL attack" ], [ "Asymmetric ciphers", "Asymmetric cryptography (or public-key cryptography) is cryptography that relies on using two (mathematically related) keys; one private, and one public.", "Such ciphers invariably rely on \"hard\" mathematical problems as the basis of their security, so an obvious point of attack is to develop methods for solving the problem.", "The security of two-key cryptography depends on mathematical questions in a way that single-key cryptography generally does not, and conversely links cryptanalysis to wider mathematical research in a new way.Asymmetric schemes are designed around the (conjectured) difficulty of solving various mathematical problems.", "If an improved algorithm can be found to solve the problem, then the system is weakened.", "For example, the security of the Diffie–Hellman key exchange scheme depends on the difficulty of calculating the discrete logarithm.", "In 1983, Don Coppersmith found a faster way to find discrete logarithms (in certain groups), and thereby requiring cryptographers to use larger groups (or different types of groups).", "RSA's security depends (in part) upon the difficulty of integer factorization – a breakthrough in factoring would impact the security of RSA.In 1980, one could factor a difficult 50-digit number at an expense of 1012 elementary computer operations.", "By 1984 the state of the art in factoring algorithms had advanced to a point where a 75-digit number could be factored in 1012 operations.", "Advances in computing technology also meant that the operations could be performed much faster, too.", "Moore's law predicts that computer speeds will continue to increase.", "Factoring techniques may continue to do so as well, but will most likely depend on mathematical insight and creativity, neither of which has ever been successfully predictable.", "150-digit numbers of the kind once used in RSA have been factored.", "The effort was greater than above, but was not unreasonable on fast modern computers.", "By the start of the 21st century, 150-digit numbers were no longer considered a large enough key size for RSA.", "Numbers with several hundred digits were still considered too hard to factor in 2005, though methods will probably continue to improve over time, requiring key size to keep pace or other methods such as elliptic curve cryptography to be used.Another distinguishing feature of asymmetric schemes is that, unlike attacks on symmetric cryptosystems, any cryptanalysis has the opportunity to make use of knowledge gained from the public key." ], [ "Attacking cryptographic hash systems", "* Birthday attack* Hash function security summary* Rainbow table" ], [ "Side-channel attacks", "* Black-bag cryptanalysis* Man-in-the-middle attack* Power analysis* Replay attack* Rubber-hose cryptanalysis* Timing analysis" ], [ "Quantum computing applications for cryptanalysis", "Quantum computers, which are still in the early phases of research, have potential use in cryptanalysis.", "For example, Shor's Algorithm could factor large numbers in polynomial time, in effect breaking some commonly used forms of public-key encryption.By using Grover's algorithm on a quantum computer, brute-force key search can be made quadratically faster.", "However, this could be countered by doubling the key length." ], [ "See also", "* * * , a term for information security often used in government* , the overarching goal of most cryptography* * , the design of applications and protocols* ; vulnerabilities can include cryptographic or other flaws* * ===Historic cryptanalysts===* Conel Hugh O'Donel Alexander* Charles Babbage* Lambros D. Callimahos* Joan Clarke* Alastair Denniston* Agnes Meyer Driscoll* Elizebeth Friedman* William F. Friedman* Meredith Gardner* Friedrich Kasiski* Al-Kindi* Dilly Knox* Solomon Kullback* Marian Rejewski* Joseph Rochefort, whose contributions affected the outcome of the Battle of Midway* Frank Rowlett* Abraham Sinkov* Giovanni Soro, the Renaissance's first outstanding cryptanalyst* John Tiltman* Alan Turing* William T. Tutte* John Wallis – 17th-century English mathematician* William Stone Weedon – worked with Fredson Bowers in World War II* Herbert Yardley" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* Ibrahim A. Al-Kadi,\"The origins of cryptology: The Arab contributions\", ''Cryptologia'', 16(2) (April 1992) pp. 97–126.", "* Friedrich L. Bauer: \"Decrypted Secrets\".", "Springer 2002.", "* * * * * * Helen Fouché Gaines, \"Cryptanalysis\", 1939, Dover.", "* David Kahn, \"The Codebreakers – The Story of Secret Writing\", 1967.", "* Lars R. Knudsen: Contemporary Block Ciphers.", "Lectures on Data Security 1998: 105–126* * Abraham Sinkov, ''Elementary Cryptanalysis: A Mathematical Approach'', Mathematical Association of America, 1966.", "* Christopher Swenson, Modern Cryptanalysis: Techniques for Advanced Code Breaking, * Friedman, William F., Military Cryptanalysis, Part I, * Friedman, William F., Military Cryptanalysis, Part II, * Friedman, William F., Military Cryptanalysis, Part III, Simpler Varieties of Aperiodic Substitution Systems, * Friedman, William F., Military Cryptanalysis, Part IV, Transposition and Fractionating Systems, * Friedman, William F. and Lambros D. Callimahos, Military Cryptanalytics, Part I, Volume 1, * Friedman, William F. and Lambros D. Callimahos, Military Cryptanalytics, Part I, Volume 2, * Friedman, William F. and Lambros D. Callimahos, Military Cryptanalytics, Part II, Volume 1, * Friedman, William F. and Lambros D. Callimahos, Military Cryptanalytics, Part II, Volume 2, * * * * Transcript of a lecture given by Prof. Tutte at the University of Waterloo" ], [ "Further reading", " * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Basic Cryptanalysis (files contain 5 line header, that has to be removed first)* Distributed Computing Projects* List of tools for cryptanalysis on modern cryptography* Simon Singh's crypto corner* The National Museum of Computing* UltraAnvil tool for attacking simple substitution ciphers* How Alan Turing Cracked The Enigma Code Imperial War Museums" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Chicano" ], [ "Introduction", "M.E.Ch.A.", "CSULA is held up in a crowd (2006).", "'''Chicano''' (masculine form) or '''Chicana''' (feminine form) is an ethnic identity for Mexican Americans who have a non-Anglo self-image, embracing their Mexican Native ancestry.", "''Chicano'' was originally a classist and racist slur used toward low-income Mexicans that was reclaimed in the 1940s among youth who belonged to the Pachuco and Pachuca subculture.", "In the 1960s, ''Chicano'' was widely reclaimed in the building of a movement toward political empowerment, ethnic solidarity, and pride in being of indigenous descent (with many using the Nahuatl language or names).", "''Chicano'' developed its own meaning separate from ''Mexican American'' identity.", "Youth in ''barrios'' rejected cultural assimilation into whiteness and embraced their own identity and worldview as a form of empowerment and resistance.", "The community forged an independent political and cultural movement, sometimes working alongside the Black power movement.", "Second Ward, a Chicano neighborhood (1972)The Chicano Movement faltered by the mid-1970s as a result of external and internal pressures.", "It was under state surveillance, infiltration, and repression by U.S. government agencies, informants, and agent provocateurs, such as through COINTELPRO.", "The Chicano Movement also had a fixation on masculine pride and machismo that fractured the community through sexism toward Chicanas and homophobia toward queer Chicana/os.", "In the 1980s, assimilation and economic mobility motivated many to embrace ''Hispanic'' identity in an era of conservatism.", "The term ''Hispanic'' emerged from a collaboration between the U.S. government and Mexican-American political elites in the Hispanic Caucus of Congress.", "Likewise, the same assimilatory force associated with ''Hispanic'' has been tied to the usage of ''Latino''.", "They used the term to identify themselves and the community with mainstream American culture, depart from ''Chicanismo,'' and distance themselves from what they perceived as the \"militant\" Black Caucus.", "\"Chicana by luck, proud by choice\" at 2019 Women's March, Los AngelesAt the grassroots level, Chicana/os continued to build the feminist, gay and lesbian, and anti-apartheid movements, which kept the identity politically relevant.", "After a decade of ''Hispanic'' dominance, Chicana/o student activism in the early 1990s recession and the anti-Gulf War movement revived the identity with a demand to expand Chicana/o studies programs.", "Chicanas were active at the forefront, despite facing critiques from \"movement loyalists\", as they did in the Chicano Movement.", "Chicana feminists addressed employment discrimination, environmental racism, healthcare, sexual violence, and exploitation in their communities and in solidarity with the Third World.", "Chicanas worked to \"liberate her ''entire people''\"; not to oppress men, but to be equal partners in the movement.", "''Xicanisma'', coined by Ana Castillo in 1994, called for Chicana/os to \"reinsert the forsaken feminine into our consciousness\", to embrace one's Indigenous roots, and support Indigenous sovereignty.In the 2000s, earlier traditions of anti-imperialism in the Chicano Movement were expanded.", "Building solidarity with undocumented immigrants became more important, despite issues of legal status and economic competitiveness sometimes maintaining distance between groups.", "U.S. foreign interventions abroad were connected with domestic issues concerning the rights of undocumented immigrants in the United States.", "Chicano/a consciousness increasingly became transnational and transcultural, thinking beyond and bridging with communities over political borders.", "The identity was renewed based on Indigenous and decolonial consciousness, cultural expression, resisting gentrification, defense of immigrants, and the rights of women and queer people.", "''Xicanx'' identity also emerged in the 2010s, based on the Chicana feminist intervention of ''Xicanisma''." ], [ "Etymology", "Mexica people, originally pronounced ''Meh-Shee-Ka''.The etymology of the term ''Chicano'' is the subject of some debate by historians.", "Some believe ''Chicano'' is a Spanish language derivative of an older Nahuatl word ''Mexitli'' (\"Meh-shee-tlee\").", "Mexitli formed part of the expression ''Huitzilopochtlil Mexitli''—a reference to the historic migration of the Mexica people from their homeland of Aztlán to the Valley of Mexico.", "Mexitli is the root of the word ''Mexica'', which refers to the Mexica people, and its singular form ''Mexihcatl'' ().", "The ''x'' in Mexihcatl represents an /ʃ/ or ''sh'' sound in both Nahuatl and early modern Spanish, while the glottal stop in the middle of the Nahuatl word disappeared.The word ''Chicano'' may derive from the loss of the initial syllable of ''Mexicano'' (Mexican).", "According to Villanueva, \"given that the velar (x) is a palatal phoneme (S) with the spelling (sh),\" in accordance with the Indigenous phonological system of the Mexicas (\"Meshicas\"), it would become \"Meshicano\" or \"Mechicano.\"", "In this explanation, ''Chicano'' comes from the \"xicano\" in \"Mexicano.\"", "Some Chicanos replace the ''Ch'' with the letter ''X'', or ''Xicano'', to reclaim the Nahuatl ''sh'' sound.", "The first two syllables of ''Xicano'' are therefore in Nahuatl while the last syllable is Castilian.In Mexico's Indigenous regions, Indigenous people refer to members of the non-indigenous majority as ''mexicanos'', referring to the modern nation of Mexico.", "Among themselves, the speaker identifies by their '''' (village or tribal) identity, such as Mayan, Zapotec, Mixtec, Huastec, or any of the other hundreds of indigenous groups.", "A newly emigrated Nahuatl speaker in an urban center might have referred to his cultural relatives in this country, different from himself, as '''', shortened to ''Chicanos'' or ''Xicanos.''" ], [ "Usage of terms", "=== Early recorded use ===Closeup of the Gutiérrez 1562 New World map.", "The town of ''Chicana'' is listed in the upper left of the map, which is the earliest recorded usage of ''Chicana/o''.The town of ''Chicana'' was shown on the Gutiérrez 1562 New World map near the mouth of the Colorado River, and is probably pre-Columbian in origin.", "The town was again included on Desegno del Discoperto Della Nova Franza, a 1566 French map by Paolo Forlani.", "Roberto Cintli Rodríguez places the location of ''Chicana'' at the mouth of the Colorado River, near present-day Yuma, Arizona.", "An 18th century map of the Nayarit Missions used the name ''Xicana'' for a town near the same location of ''Chicana'', which is considered to be the oldest recorded usage of that term.A gunboat, the ''Chicana'', was sold in 1857 to Jose Maria Carvajal to ship arms on the Rio Grande.", "The King and Kenedy firm submitted a voucher to the Joint Claims Commission of the United States in 1870 to cover the costs of this gunboat's conversion from a passenger steamer.", "No explanation for the boat's name is known.The Chicano poet and writer Tino Villanueva traced the first documented use of the term as an ethnonym to 1911, as referenced in a then-unpublished essay by University of Texas anthropologist José Limón.", "Linguists Edward R. Simmen and Richard F. Bauerle report the use of the term in an essay by Mexican-American writer, Mario Suárez, published in the ''Arizona Quarterly'' in 1947.There is ample literary evidence to substantiate that ''Chicano'' is a long-standing endonym, as a large body of Chicano literature pre-dates the 1950s.=== Reclaiming the term ===Frank H. Tellez, a Pachuco youth, wears a zoot suit while arrested in the Zoot Suit Riots.", "Pachucos were the first to reclaim the word ''Chicano'' as a form of pride.In the 1940s, ''\"Chicano\"'' was reclaimed by Pachuco youth as an expression of defiance to Anglo-American society.", "At the time, ''Chicano'' was used among English and Spanish speakers as a classist and racist slur to refer to working class Mexican Americans in Spanish-speaking neighborhoods.", "In Mexico, the term was used with ''Pocho'' \"to deride Mexicans living in the United States, and especially their U.S.-born children, for losing their culture, customs, and language.\"", "Mexican anthropologist Manuel Gamio reported in 1930 that ''Chicamo'' (with an ''m'') was used as a derogatory term by Hispanic Texans for recently arrived Mexican immigrants displaced during the Mexican Revolution in the beginning of the early 20th century.By the 1950s, ''Chicano'' referred to those who resisted total assimilation, while ''Pocho'' referred (often pejoratively) to those who strongly advocated for assimilation.", "In his essay \"Chicanismo\" in ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures'' (2002), José Cuéllar, dates the transition from derisive to positive to the late 1950s, with increasing use by young Mexican-American high school students.", "These younger, politically aware Mexican Americans adopted the term \"as an act of political defiance and ethnic pride\", similar to the reclaiming of ''Black'' by African Americans.", "The Chicano Movement during the 1960s and early 1970s played a significant role in reclaiming ''\"Chicano,\"'' challenging those who used it as a term of derision on both sides of the Mexico-U.S. border.Demographic differences in the adoption of ''Chicano'' occurred at first.", "It was more likely to be used by males than females, and less likely to be used among those of higher socioeconomic status.", "Usage was also generational, with third-generation men more likely to use the word.", "This group was also younger, more political, and different from traditional Mexican cultural heritage.", "''Chicana'' was a similar classist term to refer to \"a marginalized, brown woman who is treated as a foreigner and is expected to do menial labor and ask nothing of the society in which she lives.\"", "Among Mexican Americans, ''Chicano'' and ''Chicana'' began to be viewed as a positive identity of self-determination and political solidarity.", "In Mexico, ''Chicano'' may still be associated with a Mexican American person of low importance, class, and poor morals (similar to the terms ''Cholo'', ''Chulo'' and ''Majo''), indicating a difference in cultural views.=== Chicano Movement ===''Chicano'' became widely adopted during the Chicano Movement.", "''Chicano'' was widely reclaimed in the 1960s and 1970s during the Chicano Movement to assert a distinct ethnic, political, and cultural identity that resisted assimilation into whiteness, systematic racism and stereotypes, colonialism, and the American nation-state.", "Chicano identity formed around seven themes: unity, economy, education, institutions, self-defense, culture, and political liberation, in an effort to bridge regional and class divisions.", "The notion of Aztlán, a mythical homeland claimed to be located in the southwestern United States, mobilized Mexican Americans to take social and political action.", "''Chicano'' became a unifying term for ''mestizos''.", "''Xicano'' was also used in the 1970s.In the 1970s, Chicanos developed a reverence for machismo while also maintaining the values of their original platform.", "For instance, Oscar Zeta Acosta defined machismo as the source of Chicano identity, claiming that this \"instinctual and mystical source of manhood, honor and pride... alone justifies all behavior.\"", "Armando Rendón wrote in ''Chicano Manifesto'' (1971) that machismo was \"in fact an underlying drive of the gathering identification of Mexican Americans... the essence of ''machismo'', of being ''macho'', is as much a symbolic principle for the Chicano revolt as it is a guideline for family life.", "\"From the beginning of the Chicano Movement, some Chicanas criticized the idea that machismo must guide the people and questioned if machismo was \"indeed a genuinely Mexican cultural value or a kind of distorted view of masculinity generated by the psychological need to compensate for the indignities suffered by Chicanos in a white supremacist society.\"", "Angie Chabram-Dernersesian found that most of the literature on the Chicano Movement focused on men and boys, while almost none focused on Chicanas.", "The omission of Chicanas and the machismo of the Chicano Movement led to a shift by the 1990s.=== Xicanisma ===Ana Castillo coined ''Xicanisma'' to reflect a shift in consciousness since the Chicano Movement.", "''Xicanisma'' was coined by Ana Castillo in ''Massacre of the Dreamers'' (1994) as a recognition of a shift in consciousness since the Chicano Movement and to reinvigorate Chicana feminism.", "The aim of Xicanisma is not to replace patriarchy with matriarchy, but to create \"a nonmaterialistic and nonexploitive society in which feminine principles of nurturing and community prevail\"; where the feminine is reinserted into our consciousness rather than subordinated by colonization.", "The ''X'' reflects the ''Sh'' sound in Mesoamerican languages (such as ''Tlaxcala'', which is pronounced ''Tlash-KAH-lah''), and so marked this sound with a letter X.", "More than a letter, the ''X'' in Xicanisma is also a symbol to represent being at a literal crossroads or otherwise embodying hybridity.A man with ''Xicano'' on his shirt.", "''Xicanisma'' acknowledges Indigenous survival after hundreds of years of colonization and the need to reclaim one's Indigenous roots while also being \"committed to the struggle for liberation of all oppressed people\", wrote Francesca A. López.", "Activists like Guillermo Gómez-Peña, issued \"a call for a return to the Amerindian roots of most Latinos as well as a call for a strategic alliance to give agency to Native American groups.\"", "This can include one's Indigenous roots from Mexico \"as well as those with roots centered in Central and South America,\" wrote Francisco Rios.", "Castillo argued that this shift in language was important because \"language is the vehicle by which we perceive ourselves in relation to the world\".Luis J. Rodriguez refers to ''Xicanx'' as important for gender non-conforming Mexican Americans.Among a minority of Mexican Americans, the term ''Xicanx'' may be used to refer to gender non-conformity.", "Luis J. Rodriguez states that \"even though most US Mexicans may not use this term,\" that it can be important for gender non-conforming Mexican Americans.", "''Xicanx'' may destabilize aspects of the coloniality of gender in Mexican American communities.", "Artist Roy Martinez states that it is not \"bound to the feminine or masculine aspects\" and that it may be \"inclusive to anyone who identifies with it\".", "Some prefer the -e suffix ''Xicane'' in order to be more in-line with Spanish-speaking language constructs." ], [ "Distinction from other terms", "=== ''Mexican American'' ===Mexican and Black cotton pickers inside a plantation store (1939).", "In the 1930s, the term ''Mexican American'' was promoted to attempt to define Mexicans \"as a white ethnic group that had little in common with African Americans.", "\"In the 1930s, \"community leaders promoted the term ''Mexican American'' to convey an assimilationist ideology stressing white identity,\" as noted by legal scholar Ian Haney López.", "Lisa Y. Ramos argues that \"this phenomenon demonstrates why no Black-Brown civil rights effort emerged prior to the 1960s.\"", "Chicano youth rejected the previous generation's racial aspirations to assimilate into Anglo-American society and developed a \"Pachuco culture that fashioned itself neither as Mexican nor American.", "\"In the Chicano Movement, possibilities for Black–brown unity arose: \"Chicanos defined themselves as proud members of a brown race, thereby rejecting, not only the previous generation's assimilationist orientation, but their racial pretensions as well.\"", "Chicano leaders collaborated with Black Power movement leaders and activists.", "''Mexican Americans'' insisted that Mexicans were white, while ''Chicanos'' embraced being non-white and the development of ''brown pride''.", "''Mexican American'' continued to be used by a more assimilationist faction who wanted to define Mexican Americans \"as a white ethnic group that had little in common with African Americans.\"", "Carlos Muñoz argues that the desire to separate themselves from Blackness and political struggle was rooted in an attempt to minimize \"the existence of racism toward their own people, believing they could \"deflect\" anti-Mexican sentiment in society\" through affiliating with whiteness.=== ''Hispanic'' ===Congressional Hispanic Caucus (1984).", "The Caucus played a key role in promoting the term ''Hispanic'' among Mexican Americans, partly motivated by a goal to separate themselves from how the Black Caucus was viewed.Following the decline of the Chicano Movement, ''Hispanic'' was first defined by the U.S. Federal Office of Management and Budget's (OMB) Directive No.", "15 in 1977 as \"a person of Mexican, Dominican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central or South America or other Spanish culture or origin, regardless of race.\"", "The term was promoted by Mexican American political elites to encourage cultural assimilation into whiteness and move away from ''Chicanismo''.", "The rise of Hispanic identity paralleled the emerging era of political and cultural conservatism in the United States during the 1980s.Key members of the Mexican American political elite, all of whom were middle-aged men, helped popularize the term ''Hispanic'' among Mexican Americans.", "The term was picked up by electronic and print media.", "Laura E. Gómez conducted a series of interviews with these elites and found that one of the main reasons ''Hispanic'' was promoted was to move away from ''Chicano'': \"The Chicano label reflected the more radical political agenda of Mexican-Americans in the 1960s and 1970s, and the politicians who call themselves Hispanic today are the harbingers of a more conservative, more accomadationist politics.", "\"Gómez found that some of these elites promoted ''Hispanic'' to appeal to white American sensibilities, particularly in regard to separating themselves from Black political consciousness.", "Gómez records:Another respondent agreed with this position, contrasting his white colleagues' perceptions of the Congressional Hispanic Caucus with their perception of the Congressional Black Caucus.", "'We certainly haven't been militant like the Black Caucus.", "We're seen as a power bloc—an ethnic power bloc striving to deal with mainstream issues.", "'In 1980, ''Hispanic'' was first made available as a self-identification on U.S. census forms.", "While ''Chicano'' also appeared on the 1980 U.S. census, it was only permitted to be selected as a subcategory underneath ''Spanish/Hispanic descent'', which erased the possibility of Afro-Chicanos and of Chicanos being of Indigenous descent.", "''Chicano'' did not appear on any subsequent census forms and ''Hispanic'' has remained.", "Since then, ''Hispanic'' has widely been used by politicians and the media.", "For this reason, many Chicanos reject the term ''Hispanic''.=== Other terms ===Instead of or in addition to identifying as Chicano or any of its variations, some may prefer:* Latino/a, also anglicized as \"Latin.\"", "Some US Latinos use Latin as a gender neutral alternative.", "* Latin American (especially if immigrant).", "* Mexican; ''''* \"Brown\"* Mestizo; insert racial identity '''' (e.g.", "''''); ''''.", "* '''' (or '''') / ''''; ''''; ''''.", "* Part/member of ''''.", "(Internal identifier, Spanish for \"the Race\")* American, solely." ], [ "Identity", "\"Chicano Time Trip,\" mural by East Los Streetscapers (1977)Chicano and Chicana identity reflects elements of ethnic, political, cultural and Indigenous hybridity.", "These qualities of what constitutes Chicano identity may be expressed by Chicanos differently.", "Armando Rendón wrote in the ''Chicano Manifesto'' (1971), \"I am Chicano.", "What it means to me may be different than what it means to you.\"", "Benjamin Alire Sáenz wrote \"There is no such thing as the Chicano voice: there are only Chicano and Chicana ''voices''.\"", "The identity can be somewhat ambiguous (e.g.", "in the 1991 Culture Clash play ''A Bowl of Beings'', in response to Che Guevara's demand for a definition of \"Chicano\", an \"armchair activist\" cries out, \"I still don't know!", "\").Many Chicanos understand themselves as being \"neither from here, nor from there\", as neither from the United States or Mexico.", "Juan Bruce-Novoa wrote in 1990: \"A Chicano lives in the space between the hyphen in Mexican-American.\"", "Being Chicano/a may represent the struggle of being institutionally acculturated to assimilate into the Anglo-dominated society of the United States, yet maintaining the cultural sense developed as a Latin-American cultured U.S.-born Mexican child.", "Rafael Pérez-Torres wrote, \"one can no longer assert the wholeness of a Chicano subject ...", "It is illusory to deny the nomadic quality of the Chicano community, a community in flux that yet survives and, through survival, affirms itself.", "\"=== Ethnic identity ===A man in San Antonio, Texas, with an arm tattoo of the word ''Chicano''.", "Photo by Jesse Acosta.", "''Chicano'' is a way for Mexican Americans to assert ethnic solidarity and ''Brown Pride.''", "Boxer Rodolfo Gonzales was one of the first to reclaim the term in this way.", "This ''Brown Pride'' movement established itself alongside the ''Black is Beautiful'' movement.", "Chicano identity emerged as a symbol of pride in having a non-white and non-European image of oneself.", "It challenged the U.S. census designation \"Whites with Spanish Surnames\" that was used in the 1950s.", "Chicanos asserted ethnic pride at a time when Mexican assimilation into whiteness was being promoted by the U.S. government.", "Ian Haney López argues that this was to \"serve Anglo self-interest\", who claimed Mexicans were white to try to deny racism against them.Indigenous descent from different Indigenous peoples of Mexico.", "2014 map showing languages with over 100,000 speakers.Alfred Arteaga argues that Chicano as an ethnic identity is born out of the European colonization of the Americas.", "He states that Chicano arose as hybrid ethnicity or race amidst colonial violence.", "This hybridity extends beyond a previously generalized \"Aztec\" ancestry, since the Indigenous peoples of Mexico are a diverse group of nations and peoples.", "A 2011 study found that 85 to 90% of maternal mtDNA lineages in Mexican Americans are Indigenous.", "Chicano ethnic identity may involve more than just Indigenous and Spanish ancestry.", "It may also include African ancestry (as a result of Spanish slavery or runaway slaves from Anglo-Americans).", "Arteaga concluded that \"the physical manifestation of the Chicano, is itself a product of hybridity.", "\"\"Mi Gente\" at 233x233pxRobert Quintana Hopkins argues that Afro-Chicanos are sometimes erased from the ethnic identity \"because so many people uncritically apply the 'one drop rule' in the U.S. which ignores the complexity of racial hybridity.\"", "Black and Chicano communities have engaged in close political movements and struggles for liberation, yet there have also been tensions between Black and Chicano communities.", "This has been attributed to racial capitalism and anti-Blackness in Chicano communities.", "Afro-Chicano rapper Choosey stated \"there's a stigma that Black and Mexican cultures don't get along, but I wanted to show the beauty in being a product of both.", "\"=== Political identity ===barrio'' of South Central Los Angeles arrive at Belvedere Park for La Marcha Por La Justicia (1971)\|left\|222x222pxChicano political identity developed from a reverence of Pachuco resistance in the 1940s.", "Luis Valdez wrote that \"Pachuco determination and pride grew through the 1950s and gave impetus to the Chicano Movement of the 1960s ... By then the political consciousness stirred by the 1943 Zoot Suit Riots had developed into a movement that would soon issue the Chicano Manifesto—a detailed platform of political activism.\"", "By the 1960s, the Pachuco figure \"emerged as an icon of resistance in Chicano cultural production.\"", "The Pachuca was not regarded with the same status.", "Catherine Ramírez credits this to the Pachuca being interpreted as a symbol of \"dissident femininity, female masculinity, and, in some instances, lesbian sexuality\".Brown Berets leaders in 1968.The political identity was founded on the principle that the U.S. nation-state had impoverished and exploited the Chicano people and communities.", "Alberto Varon argued that this brand of Chicano nationalism focused on the machismo subject in its calls for political resistance.", "Chicano machismo was both a unifying and fracturing force.", "Cherríe Moraga argued that it fostered homophobia and sexism, which became obstacles to the Movement.", "As the Chicano political consciousness developed, Chicanas, including Chicana lesbians of color brought attention to \"reproductive rights, especially sterilization abuse sterilization of Latinas, battered women's shelters, rape crisis centers, and welfare advocacy.\"", "Chicana texts like ''Essays on La Mujer'' (1977), ''Mexican Women in the United States'' (1980), and ''This Bridge Called My Back'' (1981) have been relatively ignored even in Chicano Studies.", "Sonia Saldívar-Hull argued that even when Chicanas have challenged sexism, their identities have been invalidated.Brown Beret in Fresno for No on Prop 187 (1994)Chicano political activist groups like the Brown Berets (1967–1972; 1992–Present) gained support in their protests of educational inequalities and demanding an end to police brutality.", "They collaborated with the Black Panthers and Young Lords, which were founded in 1966 and 1968 respectively.", "Membership in the Brown Berets was estimated to have reached five thousand in over 80 chapters (mostly centered in California and Texas).", "The Brown Berets helped organize the Chicano Blowouts of 1968 and the national Chicano Moratorium, which protested the high rate of Chicano casualties in the Vietnam War.", "Police harassment, infiltration by federal agents provacateur via COINTELPRO, and internal disputes led to the decline and disbandment of the Berets in 1972.Sánchez, then a professor at East Los Angeles College, revived the Brown Berets in 1992 prompted by the high number of Chicano homicides in Los Angeles County, hoping to replace the gang life with the Brown Berets.Reies Tijerina, who was a vocal claimant to the rights of Latin Americans and Mexican Americans and a major figure of the early Chicano Movement, wrote: \"The Anglo press degradized the word 'Chicano.'", "They use it to divide us.", "We use it to unify ourselves with our people and with Latin America.", "\"=== Cultural identity ===Lowriding is a part of Chicano culture.", "The 1964 Chevrolet Impala has been described as \"the automobile of choice among Chicano lowriders.", "\"''Chicano'' represents a cultural identity that is neither fully \"American\" or \"Mexican.\"", "Chicano culture embodies the \"in-between\" nature of cultural hybridity.", "Central aspects of Chicano culture include lowriding, hip hop, rock, graffiti art, theater, muralism, visual art, literature, poetry, and more.", "Mexican American celebrities, artists, and actors/actresses help bring Chicano culture to light and contribute to the growing influence it has on American pop culture.", "In modern day America you can now find Chicanos in all types of professions and trades.", "Notable subcultures include the Cholo, Pachuca, Pachuco, and Pinto subcultures.", "Chicano culture has had international influence in the form of lowrider car clubs in Brazil and England, music and youth culture in Japan, Māori youth enhancing lowrider bicycles and taking on cholo style, and intellectuals in France \"embracing the deterritorializing qualities of Chicano subjectivity.", "\"As early as the 1930s, the precursors to Chicano cultural identity were developing in Los Angeles, California and the Southwestern United States.", "Former zoot suiter Salvador \"El Chava\" reflects on how racism and poverty forged a hostile social environment for Chicanos which led to the development of gangs: \"we had to protect ourselves\".", "''Barrios'' and ''colonias'' (rural ''barrios'') emerged throughout southern California and elsewhere in neglected districts of cities and outlying areas with little infrastructure.", "Alienation from public institutions made some Chicano youth susceptible to gang channels, who became drawn to their rigid hierarchical structure and assigned social roles in a world of government-sanctioned disorder.Mexican American man in a drape style zoot suit.Pachuco culture, which probably originated in the El Paso-Juarez area, spread to the borderland areas of California and Texas as ''Pachuquismo'', which would eventually evolve into ''Chicanismo''.", "Chicano zoot suiters on the west coast were influenced by Black zoot suiters in the jazz and swing music scene on the East Coast.", "Chicano zoot suiters developed a unique cultural identity, as noted by Charles \"Chaz\" Bojórquez, \"with their hair done in big pompadours, and \"draped\" in tailor-made suits, they were swinging to their own styles.", "They spoke ''Cálo'', their own language, a cool jive of half-English, half-Spanish rhythms.", "... Out of the zootsuiter experience came lowrider cars and culture, clothes, music, tag names, and, again, its own graffiti language.\"", "San Antonio-based Chicano artist Adan Hernandez regarded pachucos as \"the coolest thing to behold in fashion, manner, and speech.” As described by artist Carlos Jackson, \"Pachuco culture remains a prominent theme in Chicano art because the contemporary urban ''cholo'' culture\" is seen as its heir.Family photo with lowrider bicycles at the Chicago SuperShow (2010)Many aspects of Chicano culture like lowriding cars and bicycles have been stigmatized and policed by Anglo Americans who perceive Chicanos as \"juvenile delinquents or gang members\" for their embrace of nonwhite style and cultures, much as they did Pachucos.", "These negative societal perceptions of Chicanos were amplified by media outlets such as the ''Los Angeles Times''.", "Luis Alvarez remarks how negative portrayals in the media served as a tool to advocate for increased policing of Black and Brown male bodies in particular: \"Popular discourse characterizing nonwhite youth as animal-like, hypersexual, and criminal marked their bodies as \"other\" and, when coming from city officials and the press, served to help construct for the public a social meaning of African Americans and Mexican American youth as, in their minds, justifiably criminalized.", "\"Performer at Industrial Fest in Austin, Texas (2010)Chicano rave culture in southern California provided a space for Chicanos to partially escape criminalization in the 1990s.", "Artist and archivist Guadalupe Rosales states that \"a lot of teenagers were being criminalized or profiled as criminals or gangsters, so the party scene gave access for people to escape that\".", "Numerous party crews, such as Aztek Nation, organized events and parties would frequently take place in neighborhood backyards, particularly in East and South Los Angeles, the surrounding valleys, and Orange County.", "By 1995, it was estimated that over 500 party crews were in existence.", "They laid the foundations for \"an influential but oft-overlooked Latin dance subculture that offered community for Chicano ravers, queer folk, and other marginalized youth.\"", "Ravers used map points techniques to derail police raids.", "Rosales states that a shift occurred around the late 1990s and increasing violence affected the Chicano party scene.=== Indigenous identity ===Die de los Muertos in Lincoln Park, El Paso (2012).", "A 2011 study found that 85 to 90% of maternal mtDNA lineages in Mexican Americans are Indigenous.Chicano identity functions as a way to reclaim one's Indigenous American, and often Indigenous Mexican, ancestry—to form an identity distinct from European identity, despite some Chicanos being of partial European descent—as a way to resist and subvert colonial domination.", "Rather than part of European American culture, Alicia Gasper de Alba referred to ''Chicanismo'' as an \"''alter-Native'' culture, an Other American culture Indigenous to the land base now known as the West and Southwest of the United States.\"", "While influenced by settler-imposed systems and structures, Alba refers to Chicano culture as \"not immigrant but native, not foreign but colonized, not alien but different from the overarching hegemony of white America.", "\"The Plan Espiritual de Aztlán (1969) drew from Frantz Fanon's ''The Wretched of the Earth'' (1961).", "In ''Wretched'', Fanon stated: \"the past existence of an Aztec civilization does not change anything very much in the diet of the Mexican peasant today\", elaborating that \"this passionate search for a national culture which existed before the colonial era finds its legitimate reason in the anxiety shared by native intellectuals to shrink away from that of Western culture in which they all risk being swamped ... the native intellectuals, since they could not stand wonderstruck before the history of today's barbarity, decided to go back further and to delve deeper down; and, let us make no mistake, it was with the greatest delight that they discovered that there was nothing to be ashamed of in the past, but rather dignity, glory, and solemnity.", "\"pre-Columbian Codex Boturini, depicting the Mexica's migration from Aztlán.The Chicano Movement adopted this perspective through the notion of Aztlán—a mythic Aztec homeland which Chicanos used as a way to connect themselves to a precolonial past, before the time of the gringo' invasion of our lands.\"", "Chicano scholars have described how this functioned as a way for Chicanos to reclaim a diverse or imprecise Indigenous past; while recognizing how Aztlán promoted divisive forms of Chicano nationalism that \"did little to shake the walls and bring down the structures of power as its rhetoric so firmly proclaimed\".", "As stated by Chicano historian Juan Gómez-Quiñones, the Plan Espiritual de Aztlán was \"stripped of what radical element it possessed by stressing its alleged romantic idealism, reducing the concept of Aztlán to a psychological ploy ... all of which became possible because of the Plan's incomplete analysis which, in turn, allowed it ... to degenerate into reformism.", "\"While acknowledging its romanticized and exclusionary foundations, Chicano scholars like Rafael Pérez-Torres state that Aztlán opened a subjectivity which stressed a connection to Indigenous peoples and cultures at a critical historical moment in which ''Mexican-Americans'' and Mexicans were \"under pressure to assimilate particular standards—of beauty, of identity, of aspiration.", "In a Mexican context, the pressure was to urbanize and Europeanize ... \"Mexican-Americans\" were expected to accept anti-indigenous discourses as their own.\"", "As Pérez-Torres concludes, Aztlán allowed \"for another way of aligning one's interests and concerns with community and with history ... though hazy as to the precise means in which agency would emerge, Aztlán valorized a Chicanismo that rewove into the present previously devalued lines of descent.\"", "Romanticized notions of ''Aztlán'' have declined among some Chicanos, who argue for a need to reconstruct the place of Indigeneity in relation to Chicano identity.Xiuhcoatl Danza Azteca at the San Francisco Carnaval Grand Parade in Mission DistrictDanza Azteca grew popular in the U.S. with the rise of the Chicano Movement, which inspired some \"Latinos to embrace their ethnic heritage and question the Eurocentric norms forced upon them.\"", "The use of pre-contact Aztec cultural elements has been critiqued by some Chicanos who stress a need to represent the diversity of Indigenous ancestry among Chicanos.", "Patrisia Gonzales portrays Chicanos as descendants of the Indigenous peoples of Mexico who have been displaced by colonial violence, positioning them as \"detribalized Indigenous peoples and communities.\"", "Roberto Cintli Rodríguez describes Chicanos as \"de-Indigenized,\" which he remarks occurred \"in part due to religious indoctrination and a violent uprooting from the land\", detaching millions of people from maíz-based cultures throughout the greater Mesoamerican region.", "Rodríguez asks how and why \"peoples who are clearly red or brown and undeniably Indigenous to this continent have allowed ourselves, historically, to be framed by bureaucrats and the courts, by politicians, scholars, and the media as alien, illegal, and less than human.", "\"Roberto Tinoco Durán, a Purépecha-Chícaño poet, interviewed on Native Voice TV (2017).Gloria E. Anzaldúa has addressed Chicano's detribalization: \"In the case of Chicanos, being 'Mexican' is not a tribe.", "So in a sense Chicanos and Mexicans are 'detribalized'.", "We don't have tribal affiliations but neither do we have to carry ID cards establishing tribal affiliation.\"", "Anzaldúa recognized that \"Chicanos, people of color, and 'whites have often chosen \"to ignore the struggles of Native people even when it's right in our ''caras'' (faces),\" expressing disdain for this \"willful ignorance\".", "She concluded that \"though both \"detribalized urban mixed bloods\" and Chicanos are recovering and reclaiming, this society is killing off urban mixed bloods through cultural genocide, by not allowing them equal opportunities for better jobs, schooling, and health care.\"", "Inés Hernández-Ávila argued that Chicanos should recognize and reconnect with their roots \"respectfully and humbly\" while also validating \"those peoples who still maintain their identity as original peoples of this continent\" in order to create radical change capable of \"transforming our world, our universe, and our lives\"." ], [ "Political aspects", "=== Anti-imperialism and international solidarity ===The Cuban Revolution was an inspirational event to many Chicanos as a challenge to American imperialism.During World War II, Chicano youth were targeted by white servicemen, who despised their \"cool, measured indifference to the war, as well as an increasingly defiant posture toward whites in general\".", "Historian Robin Kelley states that this \"annoyed white servicemen to no end\".", "During the Zoot Suit Riots (1943), white rage erupted in Los Angeles, which \"became the site of racist attacks on Black and Chicano youth, during which white soldiers engaged in what amounted to a ritualized stripping of the zoot.\"", "Zoot suits were a symbol of collective resistance among Chicano and Black youth against city segregation and fighting in the war.", "Many Chicano and Black zoot-suiters engaged in draft evasion because they felt it was hypocritical for them to be expected to \"fight for democracy\" abroad yet face racism and oppression daily in the U.S.This galvanized Chicano youth to focus on anti-war activism, \"especially influenced by the Third World movements of liberation in Asia, Africa, and Latin America.\"", "Historian Mario T. García reflects that \"these anti-colonial and anti-Western movements for national liberation and self-awareness touched a historical nerve among Chicanos as they began to learn that they shared some similarities with these Third World struggles.\"", "Chicano poet Alurista argued that \"Chicanos cannot be truly free until they recognize that the struggle in the United States is intricately bound with the anti-imperialist struggle in other countries.\"", "The Cuban Revolution (1953–1959) led by Fidel Castro and Che Guevara was particularly influential to Chicanos, as noted by García, who notes that Chicanos viewed the revolution as \"a nationalist revolt against 'Yankee imperialism' and neo-colonialism.", "\"Emiliano Zapata was a historical icon to some Chicanos.In the 1960s, the Chicano Movement brought \"attention and commitment to local struggles with an analysis and understanding of international struggles\".", "Chicano youth organized with Black, Latin American, and Filipino activists to form the Third World Liberation Front (TWLF), which fought for the creation of a Third World college.", "During the Third World Liberation Front strikes of 1968, Chicano artists created posters to express solidarity.", "Chicano poster artist Rupert García referred to the place of artists in the movement: \"I was critical of the police, of capitalist exploitation.", "I did posters of Che, of Zapata, of other Third World leaders.", "As artists, we climbed down from the ivory tower.\"", "Learning from Cuban poster makers of the post-revolutionary period, Chicano artists \"incorporated international struggles for freedom and self-determination, such as those of Angola, Chile, and South Africa\", while also promoting the struggles of Indigenous people and other civil rights movements through Black-brown unity.", "Chicanas organized with women of color activists to create the Third World Women's Alliance (1968-1980), representing \"visions of liberation in third world solidarity that inspired political projects among racially and economically marginalized communities\" against U.S. capitalism and imperialism.Local coverage of the Chicano MoratoriumThe Chicano Moratorium (1969–1971) against the Vietnam War was one of the largest demonstrations of Mexican-Americans in history, drawing over 30,000 supporters in East L.A.", "Draft evasion was a form of resistance for Chicano anti-war activists such as Rosalio Muñoz, Ernesto Vigil, and Salomon Baldengro.", "They faced a felony charge—a minimum of five years prison time, $10,000, or both.", "In response, Munoz wrote \"I declare my independence of the Selective Service System.", "I accuse the government of the United States of America of genocide against the Mexican people.", "Specifically, I accuse the draft, the entire social, political, and economic system of the United States of America, of creating a funnel which shoots Mexican youth into Vietnam to be killed and to kill innocent men, women, and children....\" Rodolfo Corky Gonzales expressed a similar stance: \"My feelings and emotions are aroused by the complete disregard of our present society for the rights, dignity, and lives of not only people of other nations but of our own unfortunate young men who die for an abstract cause in a war that cannot be honestly justified by any of our present leaders.", "\"Anthologies such as ''This Bridge Called My Back'': ''Writings by Radical Women of Color'' (1981) were produced in the late 1970s and early 80s by writers who identified as lesbians of color, including Cherríe Moraga, Pat Parker, Toni Cade Bambara, Chrystos (self-identified claim of Menominee ancestry), Audre Lorde, Gloria E. Anzaldúa, Cheryl Clarke, Jewelle Gomez, Kitty Tsui, and Hattie Gossett, who developed a poetics of liberation.", "Kitchen Table: Women of Color Press and Third Woman Press, founded in 1979 by Chicana feminist Norma Alarcón, provided sites for the production of women of color and Chicana literatures and critical essays.", "While first world feminists focused \"on the liberal agenda of political rights\", Third World feminists \"linked their agenda for women's rights with economic and cultural rights\" and unified together \"under the banner of Third World solidarity\".", "Maylei Blackwell identifies that this internationalist critique of capitalism and imperialism forged by women of color has yet to be fully historicized and is \"usually dropped out of the false historical narrative\".In the 1980s and 90s, Central American activists influenced Chicano leaders.", "The Mexican American Legislative Caucus (MALC) supported the Esquipulas Peace Agreement in 1987, standing in opposition to Contra aid.", "Al Luna criticized Reagan and American involvement while defending Nicaragua's Sandinista-led government: \"President Reagan cannot credibly make public speeches for peace in Central America while at the same time advocating for a three-fold increase in funding to the Contras.\"", "The Southwest Voter Research Initiative (SVRI), launched by Chicano leader Willie Velásquez, intended to educate Chicano youth about Central and Latin American political issues.", "In 1988, \"there was no significant urban center in the Southwest where Chicano leaders and activists had not become involved in lobbying or organizing to change U.S. policy in Nicaragua.\"", "In the early 1990s, Cherríe Moraga urged Chicano activists to recognize that \"the Anglo invasion of Latin America had extended well beyond the Mexican/American border\" while Gloria E. Anzaldúa positioned Central America as the primary target of a U.S. interventionism that had murdered and displaced thousands.", "However, Chicano solidarity narratives of Central Americans in the 1990s tended to center themselves, stereotype Central Americans, and filter their struggles \"through Chicana/o struggles, histories, and imaginaries.", "\"Proposition 187 in Fresno, California (1994)Chicano activists organized against the Gulf War (1990–91).", "Raul Ruiz of the Chicano Mexican Committee against the Gulf War stated that U.S. intervention was \"to support U.S. oil interests in the region.\"", "Ruiz expressed, \"we were the only Chicano group against the war.", "We did a lot of protesting in L.A. even though it was difficult because of the strong support for the war and the anti-Arab reaction that followed ... we experienced racist attacks but we held our ground.\"", "The end of the Gulf War, along with the Rodney King Riots, were crucial in inspiring a new wave of Chicano political activism.", "In 1994, one of the largest demonstrations of Mexican Americans in the history of the United States occurred when 70,000 people, largely Chicanos and Latinos, marched in Los Angeles and other cities to protest Proposition 187, which aimed to cut educational and welfare benefits for undocumented immigrants.In 2004, Mujeres against Militarism and the Raza Unida Coalition sponsored a Day of the Dead vigil against militarism within the Latino community, addressing the War in Afghanistan (2001–) and the Iraq War (2003–2011) They held photos of the dead and chanted \"no blood for oil.\"", "The procession ended with a five-hour vigil at Tia Chucha's Centro Cultural.", "They condemned \"the Junior Reserve Officers Training Corps (JROTC) and other military recruitment programs that concentrate heavily in Latino and African American communities, noting that JROTC is rarely found in upper-income Anglo communities.\"", "Rubén Funkahuatl Guevara organized a benefit concert for Latin@s Against the War in Iraq and ''Mexamérica por la Paz'' at Self-Help Graphics against the Iraq War.", "Although the events were well-attended, Guevara stated that \"the Feds know how to manipulate fear to reach their ends: world military dominance and maintaining a foothold in an oil-rich region were their real goals.", "\"=== Labor organizing against capitalist exploitation ===The U.S.-government-funded Bracero program (1942–1964) was lobbied for by grower associations in an effort to destroy local organizing efforts and depress the wages of domestic Mexican and Chicano farmworkers.Chicano and Mexican labor organizers played an active role in notable labor strikes since the early 20th century including the Oxnard strike of 1903, Pacific Electric Railway strike of 1903, 1919 Streetcar Strike of Los Angeles, Cantaloupe strike of 1928, California agricultural strikes (1931–1941), and the Ventura County agricultural strike of 1941, endured mass deportations as a form of strikebreaking in the Bisbee Deportation of 1917 and Mexican Repatriation (1929–1936), and experienced tensions with one another during the Bracero program (1942–1964).", "Although organizing laborers were harassed, sabotaged, and repressed, sometimes through warlike tactics from capitalist owners who engaged in coervice labor relations and collaborated with and received support from local police and community organizations, Chicano and Mexican workers, particularly in agriculture, have been engaged in widespread unionization activities since the 1930s.Prior to unionization, agricultural workers, many of whom were undocumented aliens, worked in dismal conditions.", "Historian F. Arturo Rosales recorded a Federal Project Writer of the period, who stated: \"It is sad, yet true, commentary that to the average landowner and grower in California the Mexican was to be placed in much the same category with ranch cattle, with this exception–the cattle were for the most part provided with comparatively better food and water and immeasurably better living accommodations.\"", "Growers used cheap Mexican labor to reap bigger profits and, until the 1930s, perceived Mexicans as docile and compliant with their subjugated status because they \"did not organize troublesome labor unions, and it was held that he was not educated to the level of unionism\".", "As one grower described, \"We want the Mexican because we can treat them as we cannot treat any other living man ... We can control them by keeping them at night behind bolted gates, within a stockade eight feet high, surrounded by barbed wire ... We can make them work under armed guards in the fields.", "\"Company housing for Mexican cotton pickers on a large ranch in Corcoran, California (1940)Unionization efforts were initiated by the Confederación de Uniones Obreras (Federation of Labor Unions) in Los Angeles, with twenty-one chapters quickly extending throughout southern California, and La Unión de Trabajadores del Valle Imperial (Imperial Valley Workers' Union).", "The latter organized the Cantaloupe strike of 1928, in which workers demanded better working conditions and higher wages, but \"the growers refused to budge and, as became a pattern, local authorities sided with the farmers and through harassment broke the strike\".", "Communist-led organizations such as the Cannery and Agricultural Workers' Industrial Union (CAWIU) supported Mexican workers, renting spaces for cotton pickers during the cotton strikes of 1933 after they were thrown out of company housing by growers.", "Capitalist owners used \"red-baiting\" techniques to discredit the strikes through associating them with communists.", "Chicana and Mexican working women showed the greatest tendency to organize, particularly in the Los Angeles garment industry with the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, led by anarchist Rose Pesotta.During World War II, the government-funded Bracero program (1942–1964) hindered unionization efforts.", "In response to the California agricultural strikes and the 1941 Ventura County strike of Chicano and Mexican, as well as Filipino, lemon pickers/packers, growers organized the Ventura County Citrus Growers Committee (VCCGC) and launched a lobbying campaign to pressure the U.S. government to pass laws to prohibit labor organizing.", "VCCGC joined with other grower associations, forming a powerful lobbying bloc in Congress, and worked to legislate for (1) a Mexican guest workers program, which would become the Bracero program, (2) laws prohibiting strike activity, and (3) military deferments for pickers.", "Their lobbying efforts were successful: unionization among farmworkers was made illegal, farmworkers were excluded from minimum wage laws, and the usage of child labor by growers was ignored.", "In formerly active areas, such as Santa Paula, union activity stopped for over thirty years as a result.Chicano demonstrators marching for farmworkers with leftWhen World War II ended, the Bracero program continued.", "Legal anthropologist Martha Menchaca states that this was \"regardless of the fact that massive quantities of crops were no longer needed for the war effort ... after the war, the braceros were used for the benefit of the large-scale growers and not for the nation's interest.\"", "The program was extended for an indefinite period in 1951.In the mid-1940s, labor organizer Ernesto Galarza founded the National Farm Workers Union (NFWU) in opposition to the Bracero Program, organizing a large-scale 1947 strike against the Di Giorgio Fruit Company in Arvin, California.", "Hundreds of Mexican, Filipino, and white workers walked out and demanded higher wages.", "The strike was broken by the usual tactics, with law enforcement on the side of the owners, evicting strikers and bringing in undocumented workers as strikebreakers.", "The NFWU folded, but served as a precursor to the United Farm Workers Union led by César Chávez.", "By the 1950s, opposition to the Bracero program had grown considerably, as unions, churches, and Mexican-American political activists raised awareness about the effects it had on American labor standards.", "On December 31, 1964, the U.S. government conceded and terminated the program.Following the closure of the Bracero program, domestic farmworkers began to organize again because \"growers could not longer maintain the peonage system\" with the end of imported laborers from Mexico.", "Labor organizing formed part of the Chicano Movement via the struggle of farmworkers against depressed wages and working conditions.", "César Chávez began organizing Chicano farmworkers in the early 1960s, first through the National Farm Workers Association (NFWA) and then merging the association with the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee (AWOC), an organization of mainly Filipino workers, to form the United Farm Workers.", "The labor organizing of Chávez was central to the expansion of unionization throughout the United States and inspired the Farm Labor Organizing Committee (FLOC), under the leadership of Baldemar Velásquez, which continues today.", "Farmworkers collaborated with local Chicano organizations, such as in Santa Paula, California, where farmworkers attended Brown Berets meetings in the 1970s and Chicano youth organized to improve working conditions and initiate an urban renewal project on the eastside of the city.United Farm Workers president Arturo Rodriguez (2015)Although Mexican and Chicano workers, organizers, and activists organized for decades to improve working conditions and increase wages, some scholars characterize these gains as minimal.", "As described by Ronald Mize and Alicia Swords, \"piecemeal gains in the interests of workers have had very little impact on the capitalist agricultural labor process, so picking grapes, strawberries, and oranges in 1948 is not so different from picking those same crops in 2008.\"", "U.S. agriculture today remains totally reliant on Mexican labor, with Mexican-born individuals now constituting about 90% of the labor force.=== Struggles in the education system ===Mendez v. Westminster (1947) overturned ''de jure'' segregation.", "Prior, most Mexican students were only allowed to attend designated \"Mexican schools\" that taught manual labor skills rather than academic education.Chicanos often endure struggles in the U.S. education system, such as being erased in curriculums and devalued as students.", "Some Chicanos identify schools as colonial institutions that exercise control over colonized students by teaching Chicanos to idolize whiteness and develop a negative self-image of themselves and their worldviews.", "School segregation between Mexican and white students was not legally ended until the late 1940s.", "In Orange County, California, 80% of Mexican students could only attend schools that taught Mexican children manual education, or gardening, bootmaking, blacksmithing, and carpentry for Mexican boys and sewing and homemaking for Mexican girls.", "White schools taught academic preparation.", "When Sylvia Mendez was told to attend a Mexican school, her parents brought suit against the court in Mendez vs. Westminster (1947) and won.Although legal segregation had been successfully challenged, ''de facto'' or segregation-in-practice continued in many areas.", "Schools with primarily Mexican American enrollment were still treated as \"Mexican schools\" much as before the legal overturning of segregation.", "Mexican American students were still treated poorly in schools.", "Continued bias in the education system motivated Chicanos to protest and use direct action, such as walkouts, in the 1960s.", "On March 5, 1968, the Chicano Blowouts at East Los Angeles High School occurred as a response to the racist treatment of Chicano students, an unresponsive school board, and a high dropout rate.", "It became known as \"the first major mass protest against racism undertaken by Mexican-Americans in the history of the United States.\"", "Sal Castro (1933–2013) inspired the East L.A. walkouts.Sal Castro, a Chicano social science teacher at the school was arrested and fired for inspiring the walkouts.", "It was led by Harry Gamboa Jr. who was named \"one of the hundred most dangerous and violent subversives in the United States\" for organizing the student walkouts.", "The day prior, FBI director J. Edgar Hoover sent out a memo to law enforcement to place top priority on \"political intelligence work to prevent the development of nationalist movements in minority communities\".", "Chicana activist Alicia Escalante protested Castro's dismissal: \"We in the Movement will at least be able to hold our heads up and say that we haven't submitted to the gringo or to the pressures of the system.", "We are brown and we are proud.", "I am at least raising my children to be proud of their heritage, to demand their rights, and as they become parents they too will pass this on until justice is done.", "\"In 1969, Plan de Santa Bárbara was drafted as a 155-page document that outlined the foundation of Chicano Studies programs in higher education.", "It called for students, faculty, employees and the community to come together as \"central and decisive designers and administrators of these programs\".", "Chicano students and activists asserted that universities should exist to serve the community.", "However, by the mid-1970s, much of the radicalism of earlier Chicano studies became deflated by the education system, aimed to alter Chicano Studies programs from within.", "Mario García argued that one \"encountered a deradicalization of the radicals\".", "Some opportunistic faculty avoided their political responsibilities to the community.", "University administrators co-opted oppositional forces within Chicano Studies programs and encouraged tendencies that led \"to the loss of autonomy of Chicano Studies programs.\"", "At the same time, \"a domesticated Chicano Studies provided the university with the facade of being tolerant, liberal, and progressive.", "\"leftSome Chicanos argued that the solution was to create \"publishing outlets that would challenge Anglo control of academic print culture with its rules on peer review and thereby publish alternative research,\" arguing that a Chicano space in the colonial academy could \"avoid colonization in higher education\".", "In an attempt to establish educational autonomy, they worked with institutions like the Ford Foundation, but found that \"these organizations presented a paradox\".", "Rodolfo Acuña argued that such institutions \"quickly became content to only acquire funding for research and thereby determine the success or failure of faculty\".", "Chicano Studies became \"much closer to the mainstream than its practitioners wanted to acknowledge.\"", "Others argued that Chicano Studies at UCLA shifted from its earlier interests in serving the Chicano community to gaining status within the colonial institution through a focus on academic publishing, which alienated it from the community.Readings of ''In Lak'ech'' (\"you are the other me\") were banned in Tucson schools along with the Mexican American Studies Programs in 2012.\|181x181pxIn 2012, the Mexican American Studies Department Programs (MAS) in Tucson Unified School District were banned after a campaign led by Anglo-American politician Tom Horne accused it of working to \"promote the overthrow of the U.S. government, promote resentment toward a race or class of people, are designed primarily for pupils of a particular ethnic group or advocate ethnic solidarity instead of the treatment of pupils as individuals.\"", "Classes on Latino literature, American history/Mexican-American perspectives, Chicano art, and an American government/social justice education project course were banned.", "Readings of In Lak'ech from Luis Valdez's poem ''Pensamiento Serpentino'' were also banned.Seven books, including Paulo Friere's ''Pedagogy of the Oppressed'' and works covering Chicano history and critical race theory, were banned, taken from students, and stored away.", "The ban was overturned in 2017 by Judge A. Wallace Tashima, who ruled that it was unconstitutional and motivated by racism by depriving Chicano students of knowledge, thereby violating their Fourteenth Amendment right.", "The Xicanx Institute for Teaching & Organizing (XITO) emerged to carry on the legacy of the MAS programs.", "Chicanos continue to support the institution of Chicano studies programs.", "In 2021, students at Southwestern College, the closest college to the Mexico-United States Border urged for the creation of a Chicanx Studies Program to service the predominately Latino student body.=== Rejection of borders ===Mexican laborers to be stripped and doused in chemicals at the border in El Paso, Texas.", "This treatment led to the 1917 Bath Riots.The Chicano concept of ''sin fronteras'' rejects the idea of borders.", "Some argued that the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo transformed the Rio Grande region from a rich cultural center to a rigid border poorly enforced by the United States government.", "At the end of the Mexican-American War, 80,000 Spanish-Mexican-Indian people were forced into sudden U.S. habitation.", "Some Chicanos identified with the idea of Aztlán as a result, which celebrated a time preceding land division and rejected the \"immigrant/foreigner\" categorization by Anglo society.", "Chicano activists have called for unionism between both Mexicans and Chicanos on both sides of the border.In the early 20th century, the border crossing had become a site of dehumanization for Mexicans.", "Protests in 1910 arose along the Santa Fe Bridge from abuses committed against Mexican workers while crossing the border.", "The 1917 Bath riots erupted after Mexicans crossing the border were required to strip naked and be disinfected with chemical agents like gasoline, kerosene, sulfuric acid, and Zyklon B, the latter of which was the fumigation of choice and would later notoriously be used in the gas chambers of Nazi Germany.", "Chemical dousing continued into the 1950s.", "During the early 20th century, Chicanos used ''corridos'' \"to counter Anglocentric hegemony.\"", "Ramón Saldivar stated that \"''corridos'' served the symbolic function of empirical events and for creating counterfactual worlds of lived experience (functioning as a substitute for fiction writing).", "\"Tijuana–San Diego border for people who have died attempting to cross the U.S.-Mexican border.", "Each coffin shows a year and the number who died.Newspaper ''Sin Fronteras'' (1976–1979) openly rejected the Mexico-United States border.", "The newspaper considered it \"to be only an artificial creation that in time would be destroyed by the struggles of Mexicans on both sides of the border\" and recognized that \"Yankee political, economic, and cultural colonialism victimized all Mexicans, whether in the U.S. or in Mexico.\"", "Similarly, the General Brotherhood of Workers (CASA), important to the development of young Chicano intellectuals and activists, identified that, as \"victims of oppression, ''Mexicanos'' could achieve liberation and self-determination only by engaging in a borderless struggle to defeat American international capitalism.", "\"Chicana theorist Gloria E. Anzaldúa notably emphasized the border as a \"1,950 mile-long wound that does not heal\".", "In referring to the border as a wound, writer Catherine Leen suggests that Anzaldúa recognizes \"the trauma and indeed physical violence very often associated with crossing the border from Mexico to the US, but also underlies the fact that the cyclical nature of this immigration means that this process will continue and find little resolution.\"", "Anzaldúa writes that ''la frontera'' signals \"the coming together of two self-consistent but habitually incompatible frames of reference which cause ''un choque'', a cultural collision\" because \"the U.S.-Mexican border ''es una herida abierta'' where the Third World grates against the first and bleeds.\"", "Chicano and Mexican artists and filmmakers continue to address \"the contentious issues of exploitation, exclusion, and conflict at the border and attempt to overturn border stereotypes\" through their work.", "Luis Alberto Urrea writes \"the border runs down the middle of me.", "I have a barbed wire fence neatly bisecting my heart.\"" ], [ "Sociological aspects", "=== Criminalization ===lynched in Santa Cruz, California in 1877.The 19th-century and early-20th-century image of the Mexican in the U.S. was \"that of the greasy Mexican bandit or ''bandito,''\" who was perceived as criminal because of Mestizo ancestry and \"Indian blood.\"", "This rhetoric fueled anti-Mexican sentiment among whites, which led to many lynchings of Mexicans in the period as an act of racist violence.", "One of the largest massacres of Mexicans was known as ''La Matanza'' in Texas, where hundreds of Mexicans were lynched by white mobs.", "Many whites viewed Mexicans as inherently criminal, which they connected to their Indigenous ancestry.", "White historian Walter P. Webb wrote in 1935, \"there is a cruel streak in the Mexican nature ... this cruelty may be a heritage from the Spanish and of the Inquisition; it may, and doubtless should be, attributed partly to Indian blood.\"", "The portrayal of Chicano men as violent criminals in U.S. media fueled the Zoot Suit Riots.", "Although attacks were initiated by U.S. servicemen, hundreds of Chicanos were arrested.The \"greasy bandito\" stereotype of the old West evolved into images of \"crazed Zoot-Suiters and pachuco killers in the 1940s, to contemporary ''cholos'', gangsters, and gang members.\"", "Pachucos were portrayed as violent criminals in American mainstream media, which fueled the Zoot Suit Riots; initiated by off-duty policemen conducting a vigilante-hunt, the riots targeted Chicano youth who wore the zoot suit as a symbol of empowerment.", "On-duty police supported the violence against Chicano zoot suiters; they \"escorted the servicemen to safety and arrested their Chicano victims.\"", "Arrest rates of Chicano youth rose during these decades, fueled by the \"criminal\" image portrayed in the media, by politicians, and by the police.", "Not aspiring to assimilate in Anglo-American society, Chicano youth were criminalized for their defiance to cultural assimilation: \"When many of the same youth began wearing what the larger society considered outlandish clothing, sporting distinctive hairstyles, speaking in their own language (''Caló''), and dripping with attitude, law enforcement redoubled their efforts to rid them from the streets.", "\"In the 1970s and subsequent decades, there was a wave of police killings of Chicanos.", "One of the most prominent cases was Luis \"Tato\" Rivera, who was a 20-year-old Chicano shot in the back by officer Craig Short in 1975.2,000 Chicano demonstrators showed up to the city hall of National City, California in protest.", "Short was indicted for manslaughter by district attorney Ed Miller and was acquitted of all charges.", "Short was later appointed acting chief of police of National City in 2003.Another high-profile case was the murder of Ricardo Falcón, a student at the University of Colorado and leader of the United Latin American Students (UMAS), by Perry Brunson, a member of the far-right American Independent Party, at a gas station.", "Bruson was tried for manslaughter and was \"acquitted by an all-White jury\".", "Falcón became a martyr for the Chicano Movement as police violence increased in the subsequent decades.", "Similar cases led sociologist Alfredo Mirandé to refer to the U.S. criminal justice system as ''gringo justice'', because \"it reflected one standard for Anglos and another for Chicanos.", "\"Cholo'' youth adopt a particular style of dress that has been attached with deviancy by authorities.The criminalization of Chicano youth in the ''barrio'' remains omnipresent.", "Chicano youth who adopt a ''cholo'' or ''chola'' identity endure hyper-criminalization in what has been described by Victor Rios as the youth control complex.", "While older residents initially \"embraced the idea of a ''chola'' or ''cholo'' as a larger subculture not necessarily associated with crime and violence (but rather with a youthful temporary identity), law enforcement agents, ignorant or disdainful of ''barrio'' life, labeled youth who wore clean white tennis shoes, shaved their heads, or long socks, as deviant.\"", "Community members were convinced by the police of cholo criminality, which led to criminalization and surveillance \"reminiscent of the criminalization of Chicana and Chicano youth during the Zoot-Suit era in the 1940s.", "\"Sociologist José S. Plascencia-Castillo refers to the ''barrio'' as a panopticon that leads to intense self-regulation, as Cholo youth are both scrutinized by law enforcement to \"stay in their side of town\" and by the community who in some cases \"call the police to have the youngsters removed from the premises\".", "The intense governance of Chicano youth, especially of cholo identity, has deep implications on youth experience, affecting their physical and mental health as well as their outlook on the future.", "Some youth feel they \"can either comply with the demands of authority figures, and become obedient and compliant, and suffer the accompanying loss of identity and self-esteem, or, adopt a resistant stance and contest social invisibility to command respect in the public sphere.", "\"=== Gender and sexuality ======= Chicanas ====\"What is the role of the Chicana in the movement?", "The men ... only think of her when they need some typing done or when their stomachs growl.", "\"Chicanas often confront objectification in Anglo society, being perceived as \"exotic\", \"lascivious\", and \"hot\" at a very young age while also facing denigration as \"barefoot\", \"pregnant\", \"dark\", and \"low-class\".", "These perceptions in society create numerous negative sociological and psychological effects, such as excessive dieting and eating disorders.", "Social media may enhance these stereotypes of Chicana women and girls.", "Numerous studies have found that Chicanas experience elevated levels of stress as a result of sexual expectations by society, as well as their parents and families.Although many Chicana youth desire open conversation of these gender roles and sexuality, as well as mental health, these issues are often not discussed openly in Chicano families, which perpetuates unsafe and destructive practices.", "While young Chicanas are objectified, middle-aged Chicanas discuss feelings of being invisible, saying they feel trapped in balancing family obligations to their parents and children while attempting to create a space for their own sexual desires.", "The expectation that Chicanas should be \"protected\" by Chicanos may also constrict the agency and mobility of Chicanas.Chicanas are often relegated to a secondary and subordinate status in families.", "Cherrie Moraga argues that this issue of patriarchal ideology in Chicano and Latino communities runs deep, as the great majority of Chicano and Latino men believe in and uphold male supremacy.", "Moraga argues that this ideology is not only upheld by men in Chicano families, but also by mothers in their relationship to their children: \"the daughter must constantly earn the mother's love, prove her fidelity to her.", "The son—he gets her love for free.", "\"==== Chicanos ====Chicanos develop their manhood within a context of marginalization in white society.", "Some argue that \"Mexican men and their Chicano brothers suffer from an inferiority complex due to the conquest and genocide inflicted upon their Indigenous ancestors,\" which leaves Chicano men feeling trapped between identifying with the so-called \"superior\" European and the so-called \"inferior\" Indigenous sense of self.", "This conflict may manifest itself in the form of hypermasculinity or machismo, in which a \"quest for power and control over others in order to feel better\" about oneself is undertaken.", "This may result in men developing abusive behaviors, the development of an impenetrable \"cold\" persona, alcohol abuse, and other destructive and self-isolating behaviors.The lack of discussion of what it means to be a Chicano man between Chicano male youth and their fathers or their mothers creates a search for identity that often leads to self-destructive behaviors.", "Chicano male youth tend to learn about sex from their peers as well as older male family members who perpetuate the idea that as men they have \"a right to engage in sexual activity without commitment\".", "The looming threat of being labeled a ''joto'' (gay) for not engaging in sexual activity also conditions many Chicanos to \"use\" women for their own sexual desires.", "Gabriel S. Estrada argues that the criminalization of Chicanos proliferates further homophobia among Chicano boys and men who may adopt hypermasculine personas to escape such association.==== Heteronormativity ====Heteronormative gender roles are typically enforced in Chicano families.", "Any deviation from gender and sexual conformity is commonly perceived as a weakening or attack of ''la familia''.", "However, Chicano men who retain a masculine or machismo performance are afforded some mobility to discreetly engage in homosexual behaviors, as long as it remains on the fringes.", "Effeminacy in Chicanos, Chicana lesbianism, and any deviation is understood as an attack on the family.Queer Chicana/os may seek refuge in their families, if possible, because it is difficult for them to find spaces where they feel safe in the dominant and hostile white gay culture.", "Chicano machismo, religious traditionalism, and homophobia creates challenges for them to feel accepted by their families.", "Gabriel S. Estrada argues that upholding \"Judeo-Christian mandates against homosexuality that are not native to Indigenous Mexico,\" exiles queer Chicana/o youth.=== Mental health ===\"Blue Race\", Chicano ParkChicanos may seek out both Western biomedical healthcare and Indigenous health practices when dealing with trauma or illness.", "The effects of colonization are proven to produce psychological distress among Indigenous communities.", "Intergenerational trauma, along with racism and institutionalized systems of oppression, have been shown to adversely impact the mental health of Chicanos and Latinos.", "Mexican Americans are three times more likely than European Americans to live in poverty.", "Chicano adolescent youth experience high rates of depression and anxiety.", "Chicana adolescents have higher rates of depression and suicidal ideation than their European-American and African-American peers.", "Chicano adolescents experience high rates of homicide, and suicide.", "Chicanos ages ten to seventeen are at a greater risk for mood and anxiety disorders than their European-American and African-American peers.", "Scholars have determined that the reasons for this are unclear due to the scarcity of studies on Chicano youth, but that intergenerational trauma, acculturative stress, and family factors are believed to contribute.Among Mexican immigrants who have lived in the United States for less than thirteen years, lower rates of mental health disorders were found in comparison to Mexican-Americans and Chicanos born in the United States.", "Scholar Yvette G. Flores concludes that these studies demonstrate that \"factors associated with living in the United States are related to an increased risk of mental disorders.\"", "Risk factors for negative mental health include historical and contemporary trauma stemming from colonization, marginalization, discrimination, and devaluation.", "The disconnection of Chicanos from their Indigeneity has been cited as a cause of trauma and negative mental health:Loss of language, cultural rituals, and spiritual practices creates shame and despair.", "The loss of culture and language often goes unmourned, because it is silenced and denied by those who occupy, conquer, or dominate.", "Such losses and their psychological and spiritual impact are passed down across generations, resulting in depression, disconnection, and spiritual distress in subsequent generations, which are manifestations of historical or intergenerational trauma.Psychological distress may emerge from Chicanos being \"othered\" in society since childhood and is linked to psychiatric disorders and symptoms which are culturally bound—''susto'' (fright), ''nervios'' (nerves), ''mal de ojo'' (evil eye), and ''ataque de nervios'' (an attack of nerves resembling a panic attack).", "Manuel X. Zamarripa discusses how mental health and spirituality are often seen as disconnected subjects in Western perspectives.", "Zamarripa states \"in our community, spirituality is key for many of us in our overall wellbeing and in restoring and giving balance to our lives\".", "For Chicanos, Zamarripa recognizes that identity, community, and spirituality are three core aspects which are essential to maintaining good mental health.=== Spirituality ===Chicana art has been cited as central to creating a new spirituality for Chicanos that rejects coloniality.Chicano spirituality has been described as a process of engaging in a journey to unite one's consciousness for the purposes of cultural unity and social justice.", "It brings together many elements and is therefore hybrid in nature.", "Scholar Regina M Marchi states that Chicano spirituality \"emphasizes elements of struggle, process, and politics, with the goal of creating a unity of consciousness to aid social development and political action\".", "Lara Medina and Martha R. Gonzales explain that \"reclaiming and reconstructing our spirituality based on non-Western epistemologies is central to our process of decolonization, particularly in these most troubling times of incessant Eurocentric, heteronormative patriarchy, misogyny, racial injustice, global capitalist greed, and disastrous global climate change.\"", "As a result, some scholars state that Chicano spirituality must involve a study of Indigenous Ways of Knowing (IWOK).", "The ''Circulo de Hombres'' group in San Diego, California spiritually heals Chicano, Latino, and Indigenous men \"by exposing them to Indigenous-based frameworks, men of this cultural group heal and rehumanize themselves through Maya-Nahua Indigenous-based concepts and teachings\", helping them process intergenerational trauma and dehumanization that has resulted from colonization.", "A study on the group reported that reconnecting with Indigenous worldviews was overwhelmingly successful in helping Chicano, Latino, and Indigenous men heal.", "As stated by Jesus Mendoza, \"our bodies remember our indigenous roots and demand that we open our mind, hearts, and souls to our reality\".Chicano spirituality is a way for Chicanos to listen, reclaim, and survive while disrupting coloniality.", "While historically Catholicism was the primary way for Chicanos to express their spirituality, this is changing rapidly.", "According to a Pew Research Center report in 2015, \"the primary role of Catholicism as a conduit to spirituality has declined and some Chicanos have changed their affiliation to other Christian religions and many more have stopped attending church altogether.\"", "Increasingly, Chicanos are considering themselves spiritual rather than religious or part of an organized religion.", "A study on spirituality and Chicano men in 2020 found that many Chicanos indicated the benefits of spirituality through connecting with Indigenous spiritual beliefs and worldviews instead of Christian or Catholic organized religion in their lives.", "Dr. Lara Medina defines spirituality as (1) Knowledge of oneself—one's gifts and one's challenges, (2) Co-creation or a relationship with communities (others), and (3) A relationship with sacred sources of life and death 'the Great Mystery' or Creator.", "Jesus Mendoza writes that, for Chicanos, \"spirituality is our connection to the earth, our pre-Hispanic history, our ancestors, the mixture of pre-Hispanic religion with Christianity ... a return to a non-Western worldview that understands all life as sacred.\"", "In her writing on Gloria Anzaldua's idea of ''spiritual activism'', AnaLouise Keating states that spirituality is distinct from organized religion and New Age thinking.", "Leela Fernandes defines spirituality as follows:When I speak of spirituality, at the most basic level I am referring to an understanding of the self as encompassing body and mind, as well as spirit.", "I am also referring to a transcendent sense of interconnection that moves beyond the knowable, visible material world.", "This sense of interconnection has been described variously as divinity, the sacred, spirit, or simply the universe.", "My understanding is also grounded in a form of lived spirituality, which is directly accessible to all and which does not need to be mediated by religious experts, institutions or theological texts; this is what is often referred to as the mystical side of spirituality... Spirituality can be as much about practices of compassion, love, ethics, and truth defined in nonreligious terms as it can be related to the mystical reinterpretations of existing religious traditions.Gloria E. Anzaldúa's concept of spiritual activism calls upon using spirituality to create social change.David Carrasco states that Mesoamerican spiritual or religious beliefs have historically always been evolving in response to the conditions of the world around them: \"These ritual and mythic traditions were not mere repetitions of ancient ways.", "New rituals and mythic stories were produced to respond to ecological, social, and economic changes and crises.\"", "This was represented through the art of the Olmecs, Maya, and Mexica.", "European colonizers sought and worked to destroy Mesoamerican worldviews regarding spirituality and replace these with a Christian model.", "The colonizers used syncreticism in art and culture, exemplified through practices such as the idea presented in the Testerian Codices that \"Jesus ate tortillas with his disciples at the last supper\" or the creation of the Virgen de Guadalupe (mirroring the Christian Mary) in order to force Christianity into Mesoamerican cosmology.Chicanos can create new spiritual traditions by recognizing this history or \"by observing the past and creating a new reality\".", "Gloria Anzaldua states that this can be achieved through nepantla spirituality or a space where, as stated by Jesus Mendoza, \"all religious knowledge can coexist and create a new spirituality ... where no one is above the other ... a place where all is useful and none is rejected.\"", "Anzaldua and other scholars acknowledge that this is a difficult process that involves navigating many internal contradictions in order to find a path towards spiritual liberation.", "Cherrie Moraga calls for a deeper self-exploration of who Chicanos are in order to reach \"a place of deeper inquiry into ourselves as a people ... possibly, we must turn our eyes away from racist America and take stock at the damages done to us.", "Possibly, the greatest risks yet to be taken are entre nosotros, where we write, paint, dance, and draw the wound for one another to build a stronger pueblo.", "The women artist seemed disposed to do this, their work often mediating the delicate area between cultural affirmation and criticism.\"", "Laura E. Pérez states in her study of Chicana art that \"the artwork itself is altar-like, a site where the disembodied—divine, emotional, or social—is acknowledged, invoked, meditated upon, and released as a shared offering.\"" ], [ "Cultural aspects", "Artist leftThe diversity of Chicano cultural production is vast.", "Guillermo Gómez-Peña wrote that the complexity and diversity of the Chicano community includes influences from Central American, Caribbean, Africans, and Asian Americans who have moved into Chicano communities as well as queer people of color.", "Many Chicano artists continue to question \"conventional, static notions of ''Chicanismo'',\" while others conform to more conventional cultural traditions.=== Film ===Sylvia Morales directed the short documentary film ''Chicana'' (1976)Chicano film has been marginalized since its inception and was established in the 1960s.", "The generally marginal status of Chicanos in the film industry has meant that many Chicano films are not released with wide theatrical distribution.", "Chicano film emerged from the creation of political plays and documentaries.", "This included El Teatro Campesino's ''Yo Soy Joaquín'' (1969), Luis Valdez's ''El Corrido'' (1976), and Efraín Gutiérrez's ''Please, Don't Bury Me Alive!''", "(1976), the latter of which is referred to as the first full-length Chicano film.Docudramas then emerged like Esperanza Vasquez's ''Agueda Martínez'' (1977), Jesús Salvador Treviño's ''Raíces de Sangre'' (1977), and Robert M. Young's ''¡Alambrista!''", "(1977).", "Luis Valdez's ''Zoot Suit'' (1981), Young's ''The Ballad of Gregorio Cortez'' (1982), Gregory Nava's, ''My Family/Mi familia'' (1995) and ''Selena'' (1997), and Josefina López's ''Real Women Have Curves'' (2002).", "Chicana/o films continue to be regarded as a small niche in the film industry that has yet to receive mainstream commercial success.", "However, Chicana/o films have been influential in shaping how Chicana/os see themselves.=== Literature ===Rudolfo Anaya (1937–2020) was one of the founders of Chicano literature.Chicano literature tends to focus on challenging the dominant narrative, while embracing notions of hybridity, including the use of Spanglish, as well as the blending of genre forms, such as fiction and autobiography.", "José Antonio Villarreal's ''Pocho'' (1959) is widely recognized as the first major Chicano novel.", "Poet Alurista wrote that Chicano literature served an important role to push back against narratives by white Anglo-Saxon Protestant culture that sought to \"keep Mexicans in their place.", "\"Lorna Dee Cervantes (2017) is one of the most influential Chicana/o poets.Rodolfo \"Corky\" Gonzales's \"Yo Soy Joaquin\" is one of the first examples of explicitly Chicano poetry.", "Other early influential poems included \"El Louie\" by José Montoya and Abelardo \"Lalo\" Delgado's poem \"Stupid America.\"", "In 1967, Octavio Romano founded Tonatiuh-Quinto Sol Publications, which was the first dedicated Chicano publication houses.", "The novel ''Chicano'' (1970) by Richard Vasquez, was the first novel about Mexican Americans to be released by a major publisher.", "It was widely read in high schools and universities during the 1970s and is now recognized as a breakthrough novel.Chicana feminist poet ire'ne lora silva (2016)Chicana feminist writers have tended to focus on themes of identity, questioning how identity is constructed, who constructs it, and for what purpose in a racist, classist, and patriarchal structure.", "Characters in books such as ''Victuum'' (1976) by Isabella Ríos, ''The House on Mango Street'' (1983) by Sandra Cisneros, ''Loving in the War Years: lo que nunca pasó por sus labios'' (1983) by Cherríe Moraga, ''The Last of the Menu Girls'' (1986) by Denise Chávez, ''Margins'' (1992) by Terri de la Peña, and ''Gulf Dreams'' (1996) by Emma Pérez have also been read regarding how they intersect with themes of gender and sexuality.", "Catrióna Rueda Esquibel performs a queer reading of Chicana literature in ''With Her Machete in Her Hand'' (2006) to demonstrate how some of the intimate relationships between girls and women contributed to a discourse on homoeroticism and queer sexuality in Chicana/o literature.Author and professor Emma Pérez (2018)Chicano characters who were gay tended to be removed from the ''barrio'' and were typically portrayed with negative attributes, such as the character of \"Joe Pete\" in ''Pocho'' and the unnamed protagonist of John Rechy's ''City of Night'' (1963).", "Other characters in the Chicano canon may also be read as queer, including the unnamed protagonist of Tomás Rivera's ''...y no se lo tragó la tierra'' (1971), and \"Antonio Márez\" in Rudolfo Anaya's ''Bless Me, Ultima'' (1972).", "Juan Bruce-Novoa wrote that homosexuality was \"far from being ignored during the 1960s and 1970s,\" despite homophobia restricting representations: \"our community is less sexually repressive than we might expect\".=== Music ===Lalo Guerrero has been lauded as the \"father of Chicano music.\"", "Beginning in the 1930s, he wrote songs in the big band and swing genres and expanded into traditional genres of Mexican music.", "During the farmworkers' rights campaign, he wrote music in support of César Chávez and the United Farm Workers.", "Other notable musicians include Selena, who sang a mixture of Mexican, Tejano, and American popular music, and died in 1995 at the age of 23; Zack de la Rocha, social activist and lead vocalist of Rage Against the Machine; and Los Lonely Boys, a Texas-style country rock band.==== Chicano electro ====215x215pxChicano techno and electronic music artists DJ Rolando, Santiago Salazar, DJ Tranzo, and Esteban Adame have released music through independent labels like Underground Resistance, Planet E, Krown Entertainment, and Rush Hour.", "In the 1990s, house music artists such as DJ Juanito (Johnny Loopz), Rudy \"Rude Dog\" Gonzalez, and Juan V. released numerous tracks through Los Angeles-based house labels Groove Daddy Records and Bust A Groove.DJ Rolando's techno track \"Knights of the Jaguar,\" released on the UR label in 1999, became the most well-known Chicano techno track after charting at #43 in the UK in 2000.Mixmag commented: \"after it was released, it spread like wildfire all over the world.", "It's one of those rare tracks that feels like it can play for an eternity without anyone batting an eyelash.\"", "It's consistently placed on Best Songs lists.", "The official video for the track features various portraits of Chicana/os in Detroit among several Chicano murals, lowrider cars and lowrider bicycles, and lifestyle.Salazar and Adame are also affiliated with Underground Resistance and have collaborated with Nomadico.", "Salazar founded music labels Major People, Ican (as in ''Mex-Ican'', with Esteban Adame) and Historia y Violencia (with Juan Mendez a.k.a.", "Silent Servant) and released his debut album ''Chicanismo'' in 2015 to positive reviews.", "Nomadico's label Yaxteq, founded in 2015, has released tracks by veteran Los Angeles techno producer Xavier De Enciso and Honduran producer Ritmos.==== Chicano folk ====A growing Tex-Mex polka band trend influenced by the '''' and '''' music of Mexican immigrants, has in turn influenced much new Chicano folk music, especially on large-market Spanish language radio stations and on television music video programs in the U.S.", "Some of these artists, like the band Quetzal, are known for the political content of political songs.==== Chicano rap ====Kid Frost (2008)Hip hop culture, which is cited as having formed in the 1980s street culture of African American, West Indian (especially Jamaican), and Puerto Rican New York City Bronx youth and characterized by DJing, rap music, graffiti, and breakdancing, was adopted by many Chicano youth by the 1980s as its influence moved westward across the United States.", "Chicano artists were beginning to develop their own style of hip hop.", "Rappers such as Ice-T and Eazy-E shared their music and commercial insights with Chicano rappers in the late 1980s.", "Chicano rapper Kid Frost, who is often cited as \"the godfather of Chicano rap\" was highly influenced by Ice-T and was even cited as his protégé.241x241px Chicano rap is a unique style of hip hop music which started with Kid Frost, who saw some mainstream exposure in the early 1990s.", "While Mellow Man Ace was the first mainstream rapper to use Spanglish, Frost's song \"La Raza\" paved the way for its use in American hip hop.", "Chicano rap tends to discuss themes of importance to young urban Chicanos.", "Some of the most prominent Chicano artists include A.L.T., Lil Rob, Psycho Realm, Baby Bash, Serio, A Lighter Shade of Brown, and Funky Aztecs.", "Chicano rap artists with less mainstream exposure, yet with popular underground followings include Cali Life Style, Ese 40'z, Sleepy Loka, Ms. Sancha, Mac Rockelle, Sir Dyno, and Choosey.Chicano R&B artists include Paula DeAnda, Amanda Perez, Frankie J, and Victor Ivan Santos (early member of the Kumbia Kings and associated with Baby Bash).==== Chicano jazz ====Although Latin jazz is most popularly associated with artists from the Caribbean (particularly Cuba) and Brazil, young Mexican Americans have played a role in its development over the years, going back to the 1930s and early 1940s, the era of the zoot suit, when young Mexican-American musicians in Los Angeles and San Jose, such as Jenni Rivera, began to experiment with '''', a jazz-like fusion genre that has grown recently in popularity among Mexican Americans==== Chicano rock ====Alice Bag, Chicana punk artist (1980s)In the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, a wave of Chicano pop music surfaced through innovative musicians Carlos Santana, Johnny Rodriguez, Ritchie Valens and Linda Ronstadt.", "Joan Baez, who is also of Mexican-American descent, included Hispanic themes in some of her protest folk songs.", "Chicano rock is rock music performed by Chicano groups or music with themes derived from Chicano culture.There are two undercurrents in Chicano rock.", "One is a devotion to the original rhythm and blues roots of Rock and roll including Ritchie Valens, Sunny and the Sunglows, and ?", "and the Mysterians.", "Groups inspired by this include Sir Douglas Quintet, Thee Midniters, Los Lobos, War, Tierra, and El Chicano, and, of course, the Chicano Blues Man himself, the late Randy Garribay.", "The second theme is the openness to Latin American sounds and influences.", "Trini Lopez, Santana, Malo, Azteca, Toro, Ozomatli and other Chicano Latin rock groups follow this approach.", "Chicano rock crossed paths of other Latin rock genres (Rock en español) by Cubans, Puerto Ricans, such as Joe Bataan and Ralphi Pagan and South America (Nueva canción).", "Rock band The Mars Volta combines elements of progressive rock with traditional Mexican folk music and Latin rhythms along with Cedric Bixler-Zavala's Spanglish lyrics.Chicano Batman is arguably the most recent popular Latin alternative band.Chicano punk is a branch of Chicano rock.", "There were many bands that emerged from the California punk scene, including The Zeros, Bags, Los Illegals, The Brat, The Plugz, Manic Hispanic, and the Cruzados; as well as others from outside of California including Mydolls from Houston, Texas and Los Crudos from Chicago, Illinois.", "Some music historians argue that Chicanos of Los Angeles in the late 1970s might have independently co-founded punk rock along with the already-acknowledged founders from European sources when introduced to the US in major cities.", "The rock band ?", "and the Mysterians, which was composed primarily of Mexican-American musicians, was the first band to be described as punk rock.", "The term was reportedly coined in 1971 by rock critic Dave Marsh in a review of their show for ''Creem'' magazine.=== Performance arts ===El Teatro Campesino poster (1966)El Teatro Campesino (The Farmworkers' Theater) was founded by Luis Valdez and Agustin Lira in 1965 as the cultural wing of the United Farm Workers (UFW) as a result of the Great Delano Grape Strike in 1965.All of the actors were farmworkers and involved in organizing for farmworkers' rights.", "Its first performances sought to recruit members for the UFW and dissuade strikebreakers.", "Many early performances were not scripted and were rather conceived through the direction of Valdez and others through ''actos'', in which a scenario would be proposed for a scene and then dialogue would simply be improvised.247x247pxChicano performance art continued with the work of Los Angeles' comedy troupe Culture Clash, Guillermo Gómez-Peña, and Nao Bustamante, known internationally for her conceptual art pieces and as a participant in ''Work of Art: The Next Great Artist''.", "Chicano performance art became popular in the 1970s, blending humor and pathos for tragicomic effect.", "Groups such as Asco and the Royal Chicano Air Force illustrated this aspect of performance art through their work.", "Asco (Spanish for ''naseau'' or ''disgust''), composed of Willie Herón, Gronk, Harry Gamboa Jr., and Patssi Valdez, created performance pieces such as the ''Walking Mural'', walking down Whittier Boulevard dressed as \"a multifaceted mural, a Christmas tree, and the Virgin of Guadalupe.", "Asco continued its conceptual performance piece until 1987.Two members of La Pocha Nostra in performance.In the 1990s, San Diego-based artist cooperative of David Avalos, Louis Hock, and Elizabeth Sisco used their National Endowment for the Arts $5,000 fellowship subversively, deciding to circulate money back to the community: \"handing 10-dollar bills to undocumented workers to spend as they please.\"", "Their piece Arte Reembolsa (Art Rebate) created controversy among the art establishment, with the documentation of the piece featuring \"footage of U.S. House and Senate members questioning whether the project was, in fact, art.", "\"One of the most well-known performance art troupes is La Pocha Nostra, which has been covered in numerous articles for various performance art pieces.", "The troupe has been active since 1993 yet has remained relevant into the 2010s and 2020s due to its political commentary, including anti-corporate stances.", "The troupe regularly uses parody and humor in their performances to make complex commentary on various social issues.", "Creating thought-provoking performances that challenge the audience to think differently is often their intention with each performance piece.=== Visual arts ===Carlos Almaraz (1979)The Chicano visual art tradition, like the identity, is grounded in community empowerment and resisting assimilation and oppression.", "Prior to the introduction of spray cans, paint brushes were used by Chicano \"shoeshine boys who marked their names on the walls with their daubers to stake out their spots on the sidewalk\" in the early 20th century.", "Pachuco graffiti culture in Los Angeles was already \"in full bloom\" by the 1930s and 1940s, pachucos developed their ''placa'', \"a distinctive calligraphic writing style\" which went on to influence contemporary graffiti tagging.", "Paño, a form of ''pinto arte'' (a ''caló'' term for male prisoner) using pen and pencil, developed in the 1930s, first using bed sheets and pillowcases as canvases.", "Paño has been described as ''rasquachismo'', a Chicano worldview and artmaking method which makes the most from the least.Chaz Bojorquez (2011)Graffiti artists, such as Charles \"Chaz\" Bojórquez, developed an original style of graffiti art known as West Coast Cholo style influenced by Mexican murals and pachuco ''placas'' (tags which indicate territorial boundaries) in the mid-20th century.", "In the 1960s, Chicano graffiti artists from San Antonio to L.A. (especially in East LA, Whittier, and Boyle Heights) used the art form to challenge authority, tagging police cars, buildings, and subways as \"a demonstration of their bravado and anger\", understanding their work as \"individual acts of pride or protest, gang declarations of territory or challenge, and weapons in a class war.\"", "Chicano graffiti artists wrote C/S as an abbreviation for ''con safos'' or the variant ''con safo'' (loosely meaning \"don't touch this\" and expressing a \"the same to you\" attitude)—a common expression among Chicanos on the eastside of Los Angeles and throughout the Southwest.", "Self-Help Graphics, East Los AngelesThe Chicano Movement and political identity had heavily influenced Chicano artists by the 1970s.", "Alongside the Black arts movement, this led to the development of institutions such as Self-Help Graphics, Los Angeles Contemporary Exhibitions, and Plaza de la Raza.", "Artists such as Harry Gamboa Jr., Gronk, and Judith Baca created art which \"stood in opposition to the commercial galleries, museums, and civic institutional mainstream\".", "This was exemplified with Asco's tagging of LACMA after \"a curator refused to even entertain the idea of a Chicano art show within its walls\" in 1972.Chicano art collectives such as the Royal Chicano Air Force, founded in 1970 by Ricardo Favela, José Montoya and Esteban Villa, supported the United Farm Workers movement through art activism, using art to create and inspire social change.", "Favela believed that it was important to keep the culture alive through their artwork.", "Favela stated \"I was dealing with art forms very foreign to me, always trying to do western art, but there was always something lacking... it was very simple: it was just my Chicano heart wanting to do Chicano art.\"", "Other Chicano visual art collectives included Con Safo in San Antonio, which included Felipe Reyes, José Esquivel, Roberto Ríos, Jesse Almazán, Jesse \"Chista\" Cantú, Jose Garza, Mel Casas, Rudy Treviño, César Martínez, Kathy Vargas, Amado Peña, Jr., Robando Briseño, and Roberto Gonzalez.", "The Mujeres Muralistas in the Mission District, San Francisco included Patricia Rodriguez, Graciela Carrillo, Consuelo Mendez, and Irene Perez.Murals at Estrada CourtsChicano muralism, which began in the 1960s, became a state-sanctioned artform in the 1970s as an attempt by outsiders to \"prevent gang violence and dissuade graffiti practices\".", "This led to the creation of murals at Estrada Courts and other sites throughout Chicano communities.", "In some instances, these murals were covered with the ''placas'' they were instituted by the state to prevent.", "Marcos Sanchez-Tranquilino states that \"rather than vandalism, the tagging of one's own murals points toward a complex sense of wall ownership and a social tension created by the uncomfortable yet approving attentions of official cultural authority.\"", "This created a division between established Chicano artists who celebrated inclusion and acceptance by the dominant culture and younger Chicano artists who \"saw greater power in renegade muralism and ''barrio'' calligraphy than in state-sanctioned pieces.\"", "Chicano poster art became prominent in the 1970s as a way to challenge political authority, with pieces such as Rupert García's ''Save Our Sister'' (1972), depicting Angela Davis, and Yolanda M. López's ''Who's the Illegal Alien, Pilgrim?''", "(1978) addressing settler colonialism.Judy Baca (1988)The oppositional current of Chicano art was bolstered in the 1980s by a rising hip hop culture.", "The Olympic freeway murals, including Frank Romero's ''Going to the Olympics'', created for the 1984 Olympic Games in Los Angeles became another site of contestation, as Chicano and other graffiti artists tagged the state-sanctioned public artwork.", "Government officials, muralists, and some residents were unable to understand the motivations for this, described it \"as \"mindless\", \"animalistic\" vandalism perpetrated by \"kids\" who simply lack respect.\"", "L.A. had developed a distinct graffiti culture by the 1990s and, with the rise of drugs and violence, Chicano youth culture gravitated towards graffiti to express themselves and to mark their territory amidst state-sanctioned disorder.", "Following the Rodney King riots and the murder of Latasha Harlins, which exemplified an explosion of racial tensions bubbling under in American society, racialized youth in L.A., \"feeling forgotten, angry, or marginalized, embraced graffiti's expressive power as a tool to push back.", "\"Nao Bustamonte, artist and performer (2012)Chicano art, although accepted into some institutional art spaces in shows like Chicano Art: Resistance and Affirmation, was still largely excluded from many mainstream art institutions in the 1990s.", "By the 2000s, attitudes towards graffiti by white hipster culture were changing, as it became known as \"street art\".", "In academic circles, \"street art\" was termed \"post-graffiti\".", "By the 2000s, where the LAPD once deployed CRASH (Community Resources Against Street Hoodlums) units in traditionally Chicano neighborhoods like Echo Park and \"often brutalized suspected taggers and gang members\", ''street art'' was now being mainstreamed by the white art world in those same neighborhoods.Alma López (2020)Despite this shift, Chicano artists continued to challenge what was acceptable to both insiders and outsiders of their communities.", "Controversy surrounding Chicana artist Alma López's \"Our Lady\" at the Museum of International Folk Art in 2001 erupted when \"local demonstrators demanded the image be removed from the state-run museum\".", "Previously, López's digital mural \"Heaven\" (2000), which depicted two Latina women embracing, had been vandalized.", "López received homophobic slurs, threats of physical violence, and over 800 hate mail inquiries for \"Our Lady.\"", "Santa Fe Archbishop Michael J Sheehan referred to the woman in López's piece as \"a tart or a street woman\".", "López stated that the response came from the conservative Catholic Church, \"which finds women's bodies inherently sinful, and thereby promotes hatred of women's bodies.\"", "The art was again protested in 2011.The Arch of Dignity, Equality, and Justice'' by Judy Baca at San José State UniversityManuel Paul's mural \"Por Vida\" (2015) at Galeria de la Raza in Mission District, San Francisco, which depicted queer and trans Chicanos, was targeted multiple times after its unveiling.", "Paul, a queer DJ and artist of the Maricón Collective, received online threats for the work.", "Ani Rivera, director of Galeria de la Raza, attributed the anger towards the mural to gentrification, which has led \"some people to associate LGBT people with non-Latino communities.\"", "The mural was meant to challenge \"long-held assumptions regarding the traditional exclusivity of heterosexuality in lowrider culture\".", "Some credited the negative response to the mural's direct challenging of machismo and heteronormativity in the community.Xandra Ibarra's video art ''Spictacle II: La Tortillera'' (2004) was censored by San Antonio's Department of Arts and Culture in 2020 from \"XicanX: New Visions\", a show which aimed to challenge \"previous and existing surveys of Chicano and Latino identity-based exhibitions\" through highlighting \"the womxn, queer, immigrant, indigenous and activist artists who are at the forefront of the movement\".", "Ibarra stated \"the video is designed to challenge normative ideals of Mexican womanhood and is in alignment with the historical lineage of LGBTQAI+ artists' strategies to intervene in homophobic and sexist violence.", "\"=== International influence ===Japanese lowrider.", "Chicano cultural influence is strong in Japan.Chicano culture has become popular in some areas internationally, most prominently in Japan, Brazil, and Thailand.", "Chicano ideas such as Chicano hybridity and borderlands theory have found influence as well, such as in decoloniality.", "In São Paulo, Chicano cultural influence has formed the \"Cho-Low\" (combination of ''Cholo'' and Lowrider) subculture that has formed a sense of cultural pride among youth.Chicano cultural influence is strong in Japan, where Chicano culture took hold in the 1980s and continued to grow with contributions from Shin Miyata, Junichi Shimodaira, Miki Style, Night Tha Funksta, and MoNa (Sad Girl).", "Miyata owns a record label, Gold Barrio Records, that re-releases Chicano music.", "Chicano fashion and other cultural aspects have also been adopted in Japan.", "There has been debate over whether this is cultural appropriation, with most arguing that it is appreciation rather than appropriation.", "In an interview asking why Chicano culture is popular in Japan, two long-time proponents of Chicano culture in Japan agreed that \"it's not about Mexico or about America: it's an alluring quality unique to the hybrid nature of Chicano and imprinted in all its resulting art forms, from lowriders in the '80s to TikTok videos today, that people relate to and appreciate, not only in Japan but around the world.", "\"Most recently, Chicano culture has found influence in Thailand among working-class men and women that is called \"Thaino\" culture.", "They state that they have disassociated the violence that Hollywood portrays of Chicanos from the Chicano people themselves.", "They have adopted rules of no cocaine or amphetamines, and only marijuana, which is legal in Thailand.", "The leader of one group stated that he was inspired by how Chicanos created a culture out of defiance \"to fight against people who were racist toward them\" and that this inspired him, since he was born in a slum in Thailand.", "He also stated \"if you look closely at Chicano culture, you'll notice how gentle it is.", "You can see this in their Latin music, dances, clothes, and how they iron their clothes.", "It's both neat and gentle.\"" ], [ "See also", "* Pocho* Caló* Casta* Chicana feminism* Chicano Moratorium* Chicano nationalism* Chicano Park* Cosmic race* Josefa Segovia* Latino punk* Mexican Americans* Race (U.S. Census)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Maylei Blackwell, ''¡Chicana Power!", ": Contested Histories of Feminism in the Chicano Movement.", "''Austin: University of Texas Press, 2011.", "* Rodolfo Acuña, ''Occupied America: A History of Chicanos'', Longman, 2006.", "* John R. Chavez, \"The Chicano Image and the Myth of Aztlan Rediscovered\", in Patrick Gerster and Nicholas Cords (eds.", "), ''Myth America: A Historical Anthology'', Volume II.", "St. James, New York: Brandywine Press, 1997.", "* John R. Chavez, ''The Lost Land: A Chicano Image of the American Southwest'', Las Cruces: New Mexico State University Publications, 1984.", "* Lorena Oropeza, ''Raza Si, Guerra No: Chicano Protest and Patriotism during the Viet Nam War Era.''", "Los Angeles:University of California Press, 2005..* Ignacio López-Calvo, ''Latino Los Angeles in Film and Fiction: The Cultural Production of Social Anxiety''.", "University of Arizona Press, 2011.", "* Natalia Molina, ''Fit to Be Citizens?", ": Public Health and Race in Los Angeles, 1879–1940''.", "Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2006.", "* Michael A. Olivas, ''Colored Men and Hombres Aquí: Hernandez V. Texas and the Emergence of Mexican American Lawyering.''", "Arte Público Press, 2006.", "* Randy J. Ontiveros, ''In the Spirit of a New People: The Cultural Politics of the Chicano Movement''.", "New York University Press, 2014.", "* Gregorio Riviera and Tino Villanueva (eds.", "), ''MAGINE: Literary Arts Journal''.", "Special Issue on Chicano Art.", "Vol.", "3, Nos.", "1 & 2.Boston: Imagine Publishers.", "1986.", "* F. Arturo Rosales, ''Chicano!", "The History of the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement''.", "Houston, Texas: Arte Publico Press, 1996.", "* Lorena Oropeza, ''The King of Adobe: Reies López Tijerina, Lost Prophet of the Chicano Movement''.", "Chapel Hill, North Carolina: The University of North Carolina Press, 2019." ], [ "External links", "* California Ethnic and Multicultural Archives – In the Chicano/Latino Collections* California Ethnic and Multicultural Archives – Digital Chicano Art* Chicano Studies Research Center* Chicano tattoo gallery* Education and the Mexican-American; Racism in America : past, present, future symposium 1968-10-03, National Records and Archives Administration, American Archive of Public Broadcasting* El Centro Chicano y Latino* ImaginArte – Interpreting and Re-imaging Chican@Art" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Canary Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Canary Islands''' (, , ), also known informally as '''the Canaries''', are a Spanish autonomous community and archipelago in Macaronesia in the Atlantic Ocean.", "At their closest point to the African mainland, they are west of Morocco.", "They are the southernmost of the autonomous communities of Spain.", "The islands have a population of 2.2 million people and are the most populous special territory of the European Union.The seven main islands are (from largest to smallest in area) Tenerife, Fuerteventura, Gran Canaria, Lanzarote, La Palma, La Gomera, and El Hierro.", "The archipelago includes many smaller islands and islets, including La Graciosa, Alegranza, Isla de Lobos, Montaña Clara, Roque del Oeste, and Roque del Este.", "It also includes a number of rocks, including Garachico and Anaga.", "In ancient times, the island chain was often referred to as \"the Fortunate Isles\".", "The Canary Islands are the southernmost region of Spain, and the largest and most populous archipelago of Macaronesia.", "Because of their location, the Canary Islands have historically been considered a link between the four continents of Africa, North America, South America, and Europe.In 2019, the Canary Islands had a population of 2,153,389, with a density of 287.39 inhabitants per km2, making it the eighth most populous autonomous community of Spain.", "The population is mostly concentrated in the two capital islands: around 43% on the island of Tenerife and 40% on the island of Gran Canaria.The Canary Islands, especially Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Fuerteventura, and Lanzarote, are a major tourist destination, with over 12 million visitors per year.", "This is due to their beaches, subtropical climate, and important natural attractions, especially Maspalomas in Gran Canaria and Mount Teide (a World Heritage Site) in Tenerife.", "Mount Teide is the highest peak in Spain and the 4th tallest volcano in the world, measured from its base on the ocean floor.", "The islands have warm summers and winters warm enough for the climate to be technically tropical at sea level.", "The amount of precipitation and the level of maritime moderation vary depending on location and elevation.", "The archipelago includes green areas as well as desert.", "The islands' high mountains are ideal for astronomical observation, because they lie above the temperature inversion layer.", "As a result, the archipelago boasts two professional observatories: the Teide Observatory on Tenerife, and Roque de los Muchachos Observatory on La Palma.In 1927, the Province of Canary Islands was split into two provinces.", "In 1982, the autonomous community of the Canary Islands was established.", "The cities of Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria are, jointly, the capitals of the islands.", "Those cities are also, respectively, the capitals of the provinces of Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas.", "Las Palmas de Gran Canaria has been the largest city in the Canaries since 1768, except for a brief period in the 1910s.", "Between the 1833 territorial division of Spain and 1927, Santa Cruz de Tenerife was the sole capital of the Canary Islands.", "In 1927, it was ordered by decree that the capital of the Canary Islands would be shared between two cities, and this arrangement persists to the present day.", "The third largest city in the Canary Islands is San Cristóbal de La Laguna (another World Heritage Site) on Tenerife.During the Age of Sail, the islands were the main stopover for Spanish galleons during the Spanish colonisation of the Americas, which sailed that far south in order to catch the prevailing northeasterly trade winds." ], [ "Etymology", "The name ''Islas Canarias'' is likely derived from the Latin name ''Canariae Insulae'', meaning \"Islands of the Dogs\", perhaps because monk seals or sea dogs were abundant, a name that was evidently generalized from the ancient name of one of these islands, ''Canaria'' – presumably Gran Canaria.", "According to the historian Pliny the Elder, the island ''Canaria'' contained \"vast multitudes of dogs of very large size\".", "The connection to dogs is retained in their depiction on the islands' coat-of-arms.Other theories speculate that the name comes from the Nukkari Berber tribe living in the Moroccan Atlas, named in Roman sources as ''Canarii'', though Pliny again mentions the relation of this term with dogs.The name of the islands is not derived from the canary bird; rather, the birds are named after the islands." ], [ "Physical geography", "upright=2Hacha Grande, a mountain in the south of Lanzarote, viewed from the road to the Playa de PapagayoPanoramic view of Gran Canaria, with Roque Nublo at the left and Roque Bentayga at the centerTenerife is the largest and most populous island of the archipelago.", "Gran Canaria, with 865,070 inhabitants, is both the Canary Islands' second most populous island, and the third most populous one in Spain after Tenerife (966,354 inhabitants) and Majorca (896,038 inhabitants).", "The island of Fuerteventura is the second largest in the archipelago and located from the African coast.The islands form the Macaronesia ecoregion with the Azores, Cape Verde, Madeira, and the Savage Isles.", "The Canary Islands is the largest and most populated archipelago of the Macaronesia region.", "The archipelago consists of seven large and several smaller islands, all of which are volcanic in origin.According to the position of the islands with respect to the north-east trade winds, the climate can be mild and wet or very dry.", "Several native species form laurisilva forests.As a consequence, the individual islands in the Canary archipelago tend to have distinct microclimates.", "Those islands such as El Hierro, La Palma and La Gomera lying to the west of the archipelago have a climate which is influenced by the moist Canary Current.", "They are well vegetated even at low levels and have extensive tracts of sub-tropical laurisilva forest.", "As one travels east toward the African coast, the influence of the current diminishes, and the islands become increasingly arid.", "Fuerteventura and Lanzarote, the islands which are closest to the African mainland, are effectively desert or semi desert.", "Gran Canaria is known as a \"continent in miniature\" for its diverse landscapes like Maspalomas and Roque Nublo.", "In terms of its climate Tenerife is particularly interesting.", "The north of the island lies under the influence of the moist Atlantic winds and is well vegetated, while the south of the island around the tourist resorts of Playa de las Américas and Los Cristianos is arid.", "The island rises to almost above sea level, and at altitude, in the cool relatively wet climate, forests of the endemic pine ''Pinus canariensis'' thrive.", "Many of the plant species in the Canary Islands, like the Canary Island pine and the dragon tree, ''Dracaena draco'' are endemic, as noted by Sabin Berthelot and Philip Barker Webb in their work, ''L'Histoire Naturelle des Îles Canaries'' (1835–50).=== Climate ===The climate is warm subtropical and generally arid, moderated by the sea and in summer by the trade winds.", "There are a number of microclimates and the classifications range mainly from semi-desert to desert.", "According to Köppen, the majority of the Canary Islands have a hot desert climate (''BWh'') and a hot semi-desert climate (''BSh''), caused partly due to the cool Canary Current.", "There also exists a subtropical humid climate which is very influenced by the ocean in the middle of the islands of La Gomera, Tenerife and La Palma, where laurisilva cloud forests grow.=== Geology ===Humid laurel forest in La GomeraThe seven major islands, one minor island, and several small islets were originally volcanic islands, formed by the Canary hotspot.", "The Canary Islands is the only place in Spain where volcanic eruptions have been recorded during the Modern Era, with some volcanoes still active (El Hierro, 2011).Volcanic islands such as those in the Canary chain often have steep ocean cliffs caused by catastrophic debris avalanches and landslides.", "The island chain's most recent eruption occurred at Cumbre Vieja, a volcanic ridge on La Palma, in 2021.The Teide volcano on Tenerife is the highest mountain in Spain, and the third tallest volcano on Earth on a volcanic ocean island.", "All the islands except La Gomera have been active in the last million years; four of them (Lanzarote, Tenerife, La Palma and El Hierro) have historical records of eruptions since European discovery.", "The islands rise from Jurassic oceanic crust associated with the opening of the Atlantic.", "Underwater magmatism commenced during the Cretaceous, and continued to the present day.", "The current islands reached the ocean's surface during the Miocene.", "The islands were once considered as a distinct physiographic section of the Atlas Mountains province, which in turn is part of the larger African Alpine System division, but are nowadays recognized as being related to a magmatic hot spot.In the summer of 2011 a series of low-magnitude earthquakes occurred beneath El Hierro.", "These had a linear trend of northeast–southwest.", "In October a submarine eruption occurred about south of Restinga.", "This eruption produced gases and pumice, but no explosive activity was reported.The following table shows the highest mountains in each of the islands:Mount Teide, the highest mountain in Spain at 3,715 metres (12,188 feet), is also one of the most visited National Parks in the world.", "Mountain Elevation Island m ft Teide Tenerife Roque de los Muchachos La Palma Pico de las Nieves Gran Canaria Pico de Malpaso El Hierro Garajonay La Gomera Pico de la Zarza Fuerteventura Peñas del Chache Lanzarote Aguja Grande La Graciosa Caldera de Alegranza Alegranza Caldera de Lobos Lobos La Mariana Montaña Clara=== Natural symbols ===The official natural symbols associated with Canary Islands are the bird ''Serinus canaria'' (canary) and the ''Phoenix canariensis'' palm.File:Serinus canaria LC0210.jpg\|''Serinus canaria''File:Phoenix canariensis ag.JPG\|''Phoenix canariensis''=== National parks ===Caldera de Taburiente National Park (La Palma)Four of Spain's thirteen national parks are located in the Canary Islands, more than any other autonomous community.", "Two of these have been declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites and the other two are part of Biosphere Reserves.", "The parks are:Park Island Area Year of Designation UNESCO Status Caldera de Taburiente National Park La Palma 1954 Part of the La Palma Biosphere Reserve since 2002 Garajonay National Park La Gomera 1981 World Heritage Site since 1986 Teide National Park Tenerife 1954 World Heritage Site since 2007 Timanfaya National Park Lanzarote 1974 Part of the Lanzarote Biosphere Reserve since 1993Teide National Park is the oldest and largest national park in the Canary Islands and one of the oldest in Spain.", "Located in the geographic centre of the island of Tenerife, it is the most visited national park in Spain.", "In 2010, it became the most visited national park in Europe and second worldwide.", "The park's highlight is the Teide volcano; standing at an altitude of , it is the highest elevation of the country and the third largest volcano on Earth from its base.", "In 2007, the Teide National Park was declared one of the 12 Treasures of Spain." ], [ "Politics", "The Province of Las PalmasThe Province of Santa Cruz de TenerifeMunicipalities in the Las Palmas ProvinceMunicipalities in the Santa Cruz de Tenerife Province===Governance===The regional executive body, the Parliament of the Canary Islands, is presided over by Fernando Clavijo Batlle (Canarian Coalition), the current President of the Canary Islands.", "The latter is invested by the members of the regional legislature, the Parliament of the Canary Islands, that consists of 70 elected legislators.", "The last regional election took place in May 2023.The islands have 14 seats in the Spanish Senate.", "Of these, 11 seats are directly elected (3 for Gran Canaria, 3 for Tenerife, and 1 each for Lanzarote (including La Graciosa), Fuerteventura, La Palma, La Gomera and El Hierro) while the other 3 are appointed by the regional legislature.=== Political geography ===The '''Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands''' consists of two provinces (), Las Palmas and Santa Cruz de Tenerife, whose capitals (Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife) are capitals of the autonomous community.", "Each of the seven major islands is ruled by an island council named ''Cabildo Insular''.", "Each island is subdivided into smaller municipalities (''municipios''); Las Palmas is divided into 34 municipalities, and Santa Cruz de Tenerife is divided into 54 municipalities.The international boundary of the Canaries is one subject of dispute in the Morocco-Spain relations.", "Moreover, in 2022 the UN has declared the Canary Island's territorial waters as Moroccan coast and Morocco has authorised gas and oil exploration in what the Canary Islands states to be Canarian territorial waters and Western Sahara waters.", "Morocco's official position is that international laws regarding territorial limits do not authorise Spain to claim seabed boundaries based on the territory of the Canaries, since the Canary Islands enjoy a large degree of autonomy.", "In fact, the islands do not enjoy any special degree of autonomy as each one of the Spanish regions is considered an autonomous community with equal status to the European ones.", "Under the Law of the Sea, the only islands not granted territorial waters or an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) are those that are not fit for human habitation or do not have an economic life of their own, which is not the case of the Canary Islands.===Canarian nationalism===There are some pro-independence political parties, like the National Congress of the Canaries (CNC) and the Popular Front of the Canary Islands, but their popular support is almost insignificant, with no presence in either the autonomous parliament or the ''cabildos insulares''.", "According to a 2012 study by the Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas, when asked about national identity, the majority of respondents from the Canary Islands (53.8%) consider themselves Spanish and Canarian in equal measures, followed by 24% who consider themselves more Canarian than Spanish.", "Only 6.1% of the respondents consider themselves only Canarian while 7% consider themselves only Spanish.===Defence===The defence of the territory is the responsibility of the Spanish Armed Forces.", "As such, various components of the Army, Navy, Air Force and the Civil Guard are based in the territory." ], [ "History", "=== Ancient and pre-Hispanic times ===Guanche mummy of a woman (830 AD).", "Museo de la Naturaleza y el Hombre, Santa Cruz de Tenerife.Before the arrival of humans, the Canaries were inhabited by prehistoric animals including the giant lizard (''Gallotia goliath''), the Tenerife and Gran Canaria giant rats, and giant prehistoric tortoises, ''Geochelone burchardi'' and ''Geochelone vulcanica''.Although the original settlement of what are now called the Canary Islands is not entirely clear, linguistic, genetic, and archaeological analyses indicate that indigenous peoples were living on the Canary Islands at least 2,000 years ago but possibly one thousand years or more before, and that they shared a common origin with the Berbers on the nearby North African coast.", "Reaching the islands may have taken place using several small boats, landing on the easternmost islands Lanzarote and Fuerteventura.", "These groups came to be known collectively as the Guanches, although ''Guanches'' had been the name for only the indigenous inhabitants of Tenerife.A selection of artefacts unearthed from the Lomo de los Gatos site on Gran CanariaAs José Farrujia describes, 'The indigenous Canarians lived mainly in natural caves, usually near the coast, 300–500m above sea level.", "These caves were sometimes isolated but more commonly formed settlements, with burial caves nearby'.", "Archaeological work has uncovered a rich culture visible through artefacts of ceramics, human figures, fishing, hunting and farming tools, plant fibre clothing and vessels, as well as cave paintings.", "At Lomo de los Gatos on Gran Canaria, a site occupied from 1,600 years ago up until the 1960s, round stone houses, complex burial sites, and associated artefacts have been found.", "Across the islands are thousands of Libyco-Berber alphabet inscriptions scattered and they have been extensively documented by many linguists.The social structure of indigenous Canarians encompassed 'a system of matrilineal descent in most of the islands, in which inheritance was passed on via the female line.", "Social status and wealth were hereditary and determined the individual's position in the social pyramid, which consisted of the king, the relatives of the king, the lower nobility, villeins, plebeians, and finally executioners, butchers, embalmers, and prisoners'.", "Their religion was animist, centring on the sun and moon, as well as natural features such as mountains.===Exploration===The islands may have been visited by the Phoenicians, the Greeks, and the Carthaginians.", "King Juba II, Caesar Augustus's Numidian protégé, is credited with discovering the islands for the Western world.", "According to Pliny the Elder, Juba found the islands uninhabited, but found \"a small temple of stone\" and \"some traces of buildings\".", "Juba dispatched a naval contingent to re-open the dye production facility at Mogador in what is now western Morocco in the early first century AD.", "That same naval force was subsequently sent on an exploration of the Canary Islands, using Mogador as their mission base.The names given by Romans to the individual islands were ''Ninguaria'' or ''Nivaria'' (Tenerife), ''Canaria'' (Gran Canaria), ''Pluvialia'' or ''Invale'' (Lanzarote), ''Ombrion'' (La Palma), ''Planasia'' (Fuerteventura), ''Iunonia'' or ''Junonia'' (El Hierro) and ''Capraria'' (La Gomera).From the 14th century onward, numerous visits were made by sailors from Majorca, Portugal and Genoa.", "Lancelotto Malocello settled on Lanzarote in 1312.The Majorcans established a mission with a bishop in the islands that lasted from 1350 to 1400.Guanche settlement of Tenerife=== Castilian conquest ===In 1402, the Castilian colonisation of the islands began with the expedition of the French explorers Jean de Béthencourt and Gadifer de la Salle, nobles and vassals of Henry III of Castile, to Lanzarote.", "From there, they went on to conquer Fuerteventura (1405) and El Hierro.", "These invasions were \"brutal cultural and military clashes between the indigenous population and the Castilians\" lasting over a century due to formidable resistance by indigenous Canarians.", "Professor Mohamed Adhikari has defined the conquest of the islands as a genocide of the Guanches.Béthencourt received the title King of the Canary Islands, but still recognised King Henry III as his overlord.", "It was not a simple military enterprise, given the aboriginal resistance on some islands.", "Neither was it politically, since the particular interests of the nobility (determined to strengthen their economic and political power through the acquisition of the islands) conflicted with those of the states, particularly Castile, which were in the midst of territorial expansion and in a process of strengthening of the Crown against the nobility.Alonso Fernández de Lugo presenting the captured native Guanche kings of Tenerife to the Catholic MonarchsHistorians distinguish two periods in the conquest of the Canary Islands:Aristocratic conquest (''Conquista señorial'').", "This refers to the early conquests carried out by the nobility, for their own benefit and without the direct participation of the Crown of Castile, which merely granted rights of conquest in exchange for pacts of vassalage between the noble conqueror and the Crown.", "One can identify within this period an early phase known as the Betancurian or Norman Conquest, carried out by Jean de Bethencourt (who was originally from Normandy) and Gadifer de la Salle between 1402 and 1405, which involved the islands of Lanzarote, El Hierro and Fuerteventura.", "The subsequent phase is known as the Castilian Conquest, carried out by Castilian nobles who acquired, through purchases, assignments and marriages, the previously conquered islands and also incorporated the island of La Gomera around 1450.Royal conquest (''Conquista realenga'').", "This defines the conquest between 1478 and 1496, carried out directly by the Crown of Castile, during the reign of the Catholic Monarchs, who armed and partly financed the conquest of those islands which were still unconquered: Gran Canaria, La Palma and Tenerife.", "This phase of the conquest came to an end in the year 1496, with the dominion of the island of Tenerife, bringing the entire Canarian Archipelago under the control of the Crown of Castile.Casa de Colón (Las Palmas de Gran Canaria), which Christopher Columbus visited during his first tripBéthencourt also established a base on the island of La Gomera, but it would be many years before the island was fully conquered.", "The natives of La Gomera, and of Gran Canaria, Tenerife, and La Palma, resisted the Castilian invaders for almost a century.", "In 1448 Maciot de Béthencourt sold the lordship of Lanzarote to Portugal's Prince Henry the Navigator, an action that was accepted by neither the natives nor the Castilians.", "Despite Pope Nicholas V ruling that the Canary Islands were under Portuguese control, the crisis swelled to a revolt which lasted until 1459 with the final expulsion of the Portuguese.", "In 1479, Portugal and Castile signed the Treaty of Alcáçovas, which settled disputes between Castile and Portugal over the control of the Atlantic.", "This treaty recognized Castilian control of the Canary Islands but also confirmed Portuguese possession of the Azores, Madeira, and the Cape Verde islands, and gave the Portuguese rights to any further islands or lands in the Atlantic that might be discovered.The Castilians continued to dominate the islands, but due to the topography and the resistance of the native Guanches, they did not achieve complete control until 1496, when Tenerife and La Palma were finally subdued by Alonso Fernández de Lugo.", "As a result of this 'the native pre-Hispanic population declined quickly due to war, epidemics, and slavery'.", "The Canaries were incorporated into the Kingdom of Castile.=== After the conquest and the introduction of slavery ===Maps of the Canary Islands drawn by William Dampier during his voyage to New Holland in 1699Coat of arms of the Castilian and Spanish Realm of Canary IslandsAfter the conquest, the Castilians imposed a new economic model, based on single-crop cultivation: first sugarcane; then wine, an important item of trade with England.", "Gran Canaria was conquered by the Crown of Castile on 6 March 1480, and Tenerife was conquered in 1496, and each had its own governor.", "There has been speculation that the abundance of ''Roccella tinctoria'' on the Canary Islands offered a profit motive for Jean de Béthencourt during his conquest of the islands.", "Lichen has been used for centuries to make dyes.", "This includes royal purple colors derived from roccella tinctoria, also known as orseille.Slave-driving in order to sell into enforced labourThe objective of the Spanish Crown to convert the islands into a powerhouse of cultivation required a much larger labour force.", "This was attained through a brutal practice of enslavement, not only of indigenous Canarians but large numbers of Africans who were forcibly taken from North and Sub-Saharan Africa.", "Whilst the first slave plantations in the Atlantic region were across Madeira, Cape Verde, and the Canary Islands, it was only the Canary Islands which had an indigenous population and were therefore invaded rather than newly occupied.This agriculture industry was largely based on sugarcane and the Castilians converted large swaths of the landscape for sugarcane production, and the processing and manufacturing of sugar, facilitated by enslaved labourers.", "The cities of Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria became a stopping point for the Spanish traders, as well as conquistadors, and missionaries on their way to the New World.", "This trade route brought great wealth to the Castilian social sectors of the islands and soon were attracting merchants and adventurers from all over Europe.", "As the wealth grew, enslaved African workers were also forced into demeaning domestic roles for the rich Castilians on the islands such as servants in their houses.", "Research on the skeletons of some of these enslaved workers from the burial site of Finca Clavijo on Gran Canaria have showed that 'all of the adults buried in Finca Clavijo undertook extensive physical activity that involved significant stress on the spine and appendicular skeleton' that result from relentless hard labour, akin to the physical abnormalities found with enslaved peoples from other sugarcane plantations around the world.", "These findings of the physical strain that the enslaved at Finca Clavijo were subjected to in order to provide wealth for the Spanish elite has inspired a poem by British writer Ralph Hoyte, entitled ''Close to the Bone''.As a result of the huge wealth generated, magnificent palaces and churches were built on La Palma during this busy, prosperous period.", "The Church of El Salvador survives as one of the island's finest examples of the architecture of the 16th century.", "Civilian architecture survives in forms such as Casas de los Sánchez-Ochando or Casa Quintana.The Canaries' wealth invited attacks by pirates and privateers.", "Ottoman Turkish admiral and privateer Kemal Reis ventured into the Canaries in 1501, while Murat Reis the Elder captured Lanzarote in 1585.The most severe attack took place in 1599, during the Dutch Revolt.", "A Dutch fleet of 74 ships and 12,000 men, commanded by Pieter van der Does, attacked the capital Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (the city had 3,500 of Gran Canaria's 8,545 inhabitants).", "The Dutch attacked the Castillo de la Luz, which guarded the harbor.", "The Canarians evacuated civilians from the city, and the Castillo surrendered (but not the city).", "The Dutch moved inland, but Canarian cavalry drove them back to Tamaraceite, near the city.The Dutch then laid siege to the city, demanding the surrender of all its wealth.", "They received 12 sheep and 3 calves.", "Furious, the Dutch sent 4,000 soldiers to attack the Council of the Canaries, who were sheltering in the village of Santa Brígida.", "Three hundred Canarian soldiers ambushed the Dutch in the village of Monte Lentiscal, killing 150 and forcing the rest to retreat.", "The Dutch concentrated on Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, attempting to burn it down.", "The Dutch pillaged Maspalomas, on the southern coast of Gran Canaria, San Sebastián on La Gomera, and Santa Cruz on La Palma, but eventually gave up the siege of Las Palmas and withdrew.In 1618 the Barbary pirates from North Africa attacked Lanzarote and La Gomera taking 1000 captives to be sold as slaves.", "Another noteworthy attack occurred in 1797, when Santa Cruz de Tenerife was attacked by a British fleet under Horatio Nelson on 25 July.", "The British were repulsed, losing almost 400 men.", "It was during this battle that Nelson lost his right arm.=== 18th to 19th century ===Amaro Pargo (1678–1741), corsair and merchant from Tenerife who participated in the Spanish treasure fleet (the Spanish-American trade route)The sugar-based economy of the islands faced stiff competition from Spain's Caribbean colonies.", "Low sugar prices in the 19th century caused severe recessions on the islands.", "A new cash crop, cochineal (''cochinilla''), came into cultivation during this time, reinvigorating the islands' economy.", "During this time the Canarian-American trade was developed, in which Canarian products such as cochineal, sugarcane and rum were sold in American ports such as Veracruz, Campeche, La Guaira and Havana, among others.By the end of the 18th century, Canary Islanders had already emigrated to Spanish American territories, such as Havana, Veracruz, and Santo Domingo, San Antonio, Texas and St. Bernard Parish, Louisiana.", "These economic difficulties spurred mass emigration during the 19th and first half of the 20th century, primarily to the Americas.", "Between 1840 and 1890 as many as 40,000 Canary Islanders emigrated to Venezuela.", "Also, thousands of Canarians moved to Puerto Rico where the Spanish monarchy felt that Canarians would adapt to island life better than other immigrants from the mainland of Spain.", "Deeply entrenched traditions, such as the Mascaras Festival in the town of Hatillo, Puerto Rico, are an example of Canarian culture still preserved in Puerto Rico.", "Similarly, many thousands of Canarians emigrated to the shores of Cuba.", "During the Spanish–American War of 1898, the Spanish fortified the islands against a possible American attack, but no such event took place.=== Romantic period and scientific expeditions ===Coast El Golfo, El HierroSirera and Renn (2004) distinguish two different types of expeditions, or voyages, during the period 1770–1830, which they term \"the Romantic period\":First are \"expeditions financed by the States, closely related with the official scientific Institutions.", "characterised by having strict scientific objectives (and inspired by) the spirit of Illustration and progress\".", "In this type of expedition, Sirera and Renn include the following travellers:* J. Edens, whose 1715 ascent and observations of Mt.", "Teide influenced many subsequent expeditions.", "* Louis Feuillée (1724), who was sent to measure the meridian of El Hierro and to map the islands.", "* Jean-Charles de Borda (1771, 1776) who more accurately measured the longitudes of the islands and the height of Mount Teide* the Baudin-Ledru expedition (1796) which aimed to recover a valuable collection of natural history objects.The second type of expedition identified by Sirera and Renn is one that took place starting from more or less private initiatives.", "Among these, the key exponents were the following:* Alexander von Humboldt (1799)* Buch and Smith (1815)* Broussonet* Webb* Sabin Berthelot.Sirera and Renn identify the period 1770–1830 as one in which \"In a panorama dominated until that moment by France and England enters with strength and brio Germany of the Romantic period whose presence in the islands will increase\".=== Early 20th century ===The port of Las Palmas in 1912At the beginning of the 20th century, the British introduced a new cash-crop, the banana, the export of which was controlled by companies such as Fyffes.30 November 1833 the Province of Canary Islands had been created with the capital being declared as Santa Cruz de Tenerife.", "The rivalry between the cities of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife for the capital of the islands led to the division of the archipelago into two provinces on 23 September 1927.During the time of the Second Spanish Republic, Marxist and anarchist workers' movements began to develop, led by figures such as Jose Miguel Perez and Guillermo Ascanio.", "However, outside of a few municipalities, these organisations were a minority and fell easily to Nationalist forces during the Spanish Civil War.=== Franco regime ===In 1936, Francisco Franco was appointed General Commandant of the Canaries.", "He joined the military revolt of 17 July which began the Spanish Civil War.", "Franco quickly took control of the archipelago, except for a few points of resistance on La Palma and in the town of Vallehermoso, on La Gomera.", "Though there was never a war in the islands, the post-war suppression of political dissent on the Canaries was most severe.During the Second World War, Winston Churchill prepared plans for the British seizure of the Canary Islands as a naval base, in the event of Gibraltar being invaded from the Spanish mainland.", "The planned operation was known as Operation Pilgrim.Opposition to Franco's regime did not begin to organise until the late 1950s, which experienced an upheaval of parties such as the Communist Party of Spain and the formation of various nationalist, leftist parties.During the Ifni War, the Franco regime set up concentration camps on the islands to extrajudicially imprison those in Western Sahara suspected of disloyalty to Spain, many of whom were colonial troops recruited on the spot but were later deemed to be potential fifth columnists and deported to the Canary Islands.", "These camps were characterised by the use of forced labour for infrastructure projects and highly unsanitary conditions resulting in the widespread occurrence of tuberculosis.=== Self-governance ===Auditorio de Tenerife by Santiago Calatrava, and an icon of contemporary architecture in the Canary Islands, (Santa Cruz de Tenerife)overseas countries and territories and outermost regions (as of 2018)After the death of Franco, there was a pro-independence armed movement based in Algeria, the Movement for the Independence and Self-determination of the Canaries Archipelago (MAIAC).", "In 1968, the Organisation of African Unity recognized the MAIAC as a legitimate African independence movement, and declared the Canary Islands as an African territory still under foreign rule.After the establishment of a democratic constitutional monarchy in Spain, autonomy was granted to the Canaries via a law passed in 1982, with a newly established autonomous devolved government and parliament.", "In 1983, the first autonomous elections were held.", "The Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) won.=== Capitals ===At present, the Canary Islands is the only autonomous community in Spain that has two capitals: Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, since the was created in 1982.The political capital of the archipelago did not exist as such until the nineteenth century.", "The first cities founded by the Europeans at the time of the conquest of the Canary Islands in the 15th century were: Telde (in Gran Canaria), San Marcial del Rubicón (in Lanzarote) and Betancuria (in Fuerteventura).", "These cities boasted the first European institutions present in the archipelago, including Catholic bishoprics.", "Although, because the period of splendor of these cities developed before the total conquest of the archipelago and its incorporation into the Crown of Castile never had a political and real control of the entire Canary archipelago.Overview of Las Palmas de Gran CanariaView of Santa Cruz de TenerifeThe function of a Canarian city with full jurisdiction for the entire archipelago only exists after the conquest of the Canary Islands, although originally ''de facto'', that is, without legal and real meaning and linked to the headquarters of the Canary Islands General Captaincy.Las Palmas de Gran Canaria was the first city that exercised this function.", "This is because the residence of the Captain General of the Canary Islands was in this city during part of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.", "In May 1661, the Captain General of the Canary Islands, Jerónimo de Benavente y Quiñones, moved the headquarters of the captaincy to the city of San Cristóbal de La Laguna on the island of Tenerife.", "This was due to the fact that this island since the conquest was the most populated, productive and with the highest economic expectations.", "La Laguna would be considered the ''de facto'' capital of the archipelago until the official status of the capital of Canary Islands in the city of Santa Cruz de Tenerife was confirmed in the 19th century, due in part to the constant controversies and rivalries between the bourgeoisies of San Cristóbal de La Laguna and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria for the economic, political and institutional hegemony of the archipelago.Already in 1723, the Captain General of the Canary Islands Lorenzo Fernandez de Villavicencio had moved the headquarters of the General Captaincy of the Canary Islands from San Cristóbal de La Laguna to Santa Cruz de Tenerife.", "This decision continued without pleasing the society of the island of Gran Canaria.", "It would be after the creation of the Province of Canary Islands in November 1833 in which Santa Cruz would become the first fully official capital of the Canary Islands (''De jure'' and not of ''de facto'' as happened previously).", "Santa Cruz de Tenerife would be the capital of the Canary archipelago until during the Government of General Primo de Rivera in 1927 the Province of Canary Islands was split in two provinces: Las Palmas with capital in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, and Santa Cruz de Tenerife with capital in the homonymous city.Finally, with the Statute of Autonomy of the Canary Islands in 1982 and the creation of the Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands, the capital of the archipelago between Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife is fixed, which is how it remains today." ], [ "Demographics", "The Canary Islands have a population of 2,153,389 inhabitants (2019), making it the eighth most populous of Spain's autonomous communities.", "The total area of the archipelago is , resulting in a population density of 287.4 inhabitants per square kilometre.The population of the islands according to the 2019 data are:* Tenerife – 917,841* Gran Canaria – 851,231* Lanzarote – 152,289 (including the population of La Graciosa)* Fuerteventura – 116,886* La Palma – 82,671* La Gomera – 21,503* El Hierro – 10,968The Canary Islands have become home to many European residents, mainly coming from Italy, Germany and the UK.", "Because of the vast immigration to Venezuela and Cuba during the second half of the 20th century and the later return to the Canary Islands of these people along with their families, there are many residents whose country of origin was Venezuela (66,593) or Cuba (41,807).", "Since the 1990s, many illegal migrants have reached the Canary Islands, Melilla and Ceuta, using them as entry points to the EU.", "Population of the Canary Islands 2019 Birthplace Population Percent Canary Islands 1,553,517 72.1 Rest of Spain 176,302 8.2 '''Total, Spain''' '''1,735,457 ''' '''80.6''' Foreign-born417,932 19.4 '''Americas''' 201,257 9.3 Venezuela 66,573 – Cuba 41,792 – Colombia 31,361 – Argentina 17,429 – Uruguay 8,687 – ''' Rest of Europe ''' 154,511 7.2 Italy 39,469 – Germany 25,921 – United Kingdom 25,339 – '''Africa''' 38,768 1.8 Morocco 24,268 – '''Asia''' 23,0821.1 China 9,848 – '''Oceania''' 3140.0 Total2,153,389100.0Source=== Religion ===Basilica of the Virgin of Candelaria (Patroness of the Canary Islands) in Candelaria, TenerifeThe Catholic Church has been the majority religion in the archipelago for more than five centuries, ever since the Conquest of the Canary Islands.", "There are also several other religious communities.==== Roman Catholic Church ====The overwhelming majority of native Canarians are Roman Catholic (76.7%) with various smaller foreign-born populations of other Christian beliefs such as Protestants.The appearance of the Virgin of Candelaria (Patron of Canary Islands) was credited with moving the Canary Islands toward Christianity.", "Two Catholic saints were born in the Canary Islands: Peter of Saint Joseph de Betancur and José de Anchieta.", "Both born on the island of Tenerife, they were respectively missionaries in Guatemala and Brazil.The Canary Islands are divided into two Catholic dioceses, each governed by a bishop:* Diócesis Canariense: Includes the islands of the Eastern Province: Gran Canaria, Fuerteventura and Lanzarote.", "Its capital was San Marcial El Rubicón (1404) and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (1483–present).", "There was a previous bishopric which was based in Telde, but it was later abolished.", "* Diócesis Nivariense: Includes the islands of the western province: Tenerife, La Palma, La Gomera and El Hierro.", "Its capital is San Cristóbal de La Laguna (1819–present).==== Other religions ====Separate from the overwhelming Christian majority are a minority of Muslims.", "Among the followers of Islam, the Islamic Federation of the Canary Islands exists to represent the Islamic community in the Canary Islands as well as to provide practical support to members of the Islamic community.", "For its part, there is also the Evangelical Council of the Canary Islands in the archipelago.Other religious faiths represented include Jehovah's Witnesses, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints as well as Hinduism.", "Minority religions are also present such as the Church of the Guanche People which is classified as a neo-pagan native religion.", "Also present are Buddhism, Judaism, Baháʼí, African religion, and Chinese religions.According to Statista in 2022, there are 80.171 Muslims in Canary Islands.==== Statistics ====The distribution of beliefs in 2012 according to the CIS Barometer Autonomy was as follows:* Catholic 84.9%* Atheist/Agnostic/Unbeliever 12.3%* Other religions 1.7%=== Population genetics ===" ], [ "Islands", "Ordered from west to east, the Canary Islands are El Hierro, La Palma, La Gomera, Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Fuerteventura, and Lanzarote.", "In addition, north of Lanzarote are the islets of La Graciosa, Montaña Clara, Alegranza, Roque del Este and Roque del Oeste, belonging to the Chinijo Archipelago, and northeast of Fuerteventura is the islet of Lobos.", "There are also a series of small adjacent rocks in the Canary Islands: the Roques de Anaga, Garachico and Fasnia in Tenerife, and those of Salmor and Bonanza in El Hierro.File:Spain Canary Islands location map El Hierro.svg\|El HierroFile:Spain Canary Islands location map La Palma.svg\|La PalmaFile:Spain Canary Islands location map La Gomera.svg\|La GomeraFile:Spain Canary Islands location map Tenerife.svg\|TenerifeFile:Spain Canary Islands location map Gran Canaria.svg\|Gran CanariaFile:Spain Canary Islands location map Fuerteventura.svg\|FuerteventuraFile:Spain Canary Islands location map Lanzarote.svg\|Lanzarote=== El Hierro ===El Hierro, the westernmost island, covers , making it the second smallest of the major islands, and the least populous with 10,798 inhabitants.", "The whole island was declared Reserve of the Biosphere in 2000.Its capital is Valverde.", "Also known as Ferro, it was once believed to be the westernmost land in the world.", "Ancient European geographers such as Ptolemy recognised the island as the prime meridian of longitude.", "That remained so until the 19th century when it was displaced by the one passing through Greenwich.=== Fuerteventura ===Fuerteventura, with a surface of , is the second largest island of the archipelago.", "It has been declared a biosphere reserve by UNESCO.", "It has a population of 113,275.The oldest of the islands, it is more eroded.", "Its highest point is the Peak of the Bramble, at a height of .", "Its capital is Puerto del Rosario.=== Gran Canaria ===View of Fataga, Gran CanariaGran Canaria has 846,717 inhabitants.", "The capital, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (377,203 inhabitants), is the most populous city and shares the status of capital of the Canaries with Santa Cruz de Tenerife.", "Gran Canaria's surface area is .", "Roque Nublo and Pico de las Nieves (\"Peak of Snow\") are located in the center of the island.", "On the south of the island are the Maspalomas Dunes (Gran Canaria).=== La Gomera ===La Gomera has an area of and is the second least populous island with 21,136 inhabitants.", "Geologically it is one of the oldest of the archipelago.", "The insular capital is San Sebastian de La Gomera.", "Garajonay National Park is located on the island.=== Lanzarote ===Lanzarote is the easternmost island and one of the oldest of the archipelago, and it has shown evidence of recent volcanic activity.", "It has a surface of , and a population of 149,183 inhabitants, including the adjacent islets of the Chinijo Archipelago.", "The capital is Arrecife, with 56,834 inhabitants.==== Chinijo Archipelago ====The Chinijo Archipelago, seen from LanzaroteThe Chinijo Archipelago includes the islands La Graciosa, Alegranza, Montaña Clara, Roque del Este and Roque del Oeste.", "It has a surface of , and only La Graciosa is populated, with 658 inhabitants.", "With , La Graciosa, is the largest island of the Chinijo Archipelago but also the smallest inhabited island of the Canaries.=== La Palma ===La Palma, with 81,863 inhabitants covering an area of , is in its entirety a biosphere reserve.", "For long it showed no signs of volcanic activity, even though the volcano Teneguía entered into eruption last in 1971.On September 19, 2021, the volcanic Cumbre Vieja on the island erupted.", "It is the second-highest island of the Canaries, with the Roque de los Muchachos at as its highest point.", "Santa Cruz de La Palma (known to those on the island as simply \"Santa Cruz\") is its capital.=== Tenerife ===San Cristóbal de La Laguna in 1880 (Tenerife)Tenerife is, with its area of , the most extensive island of the Canary Islands.", "In addition, with 904,713 inhabitants it is the most populated island of the archipelago and Spain.", "Two of the islands' principal cities are located on it: the capital, Santa Cruz de Tenerife and San Cristóbal de La Laguna (a World Heritage Site).", "San Cristóbal de La Laguna, the second city of the island is home to the oldest university in the Canary Islands, the University of La Laguna.", "Teide, with its is the highest peak of Spain and also a World Heritage Site.", "Tenerife is the site of the worst air disaster in the history of aviation, in which 583 people were killed in the collision of two Boeing 747s on 27 March 1977.=== La Graciosa ===Graciosa Island or commonly La Graciosa is a volcanic island in the Canary Islands of Spain, located 2 km (1.2 mi) north of the island of Lanzarote across the Strait of El Río.", "It was formed by the Canary hotspot.", "The island is part of the Chinijo Archipelago and the Chinijo Archipelago Natural Park (Parque Natural del Archipiélago Chinijo).", "It is administered by the municipality of Teguise.", "In 2018 La Graciosa officially became the eighth Canary Island.", "Before then, La Graciosa had the status of an islet, administratively dependent on the island of Lanzarote.", "It is the smallest and least populated of the main islands, with a population of about 700 people." ], [ "Data", "FlagCoat of armsIslandCapitalArea (km2)Population (2010)Population Density (people/km2)50px30pxEl HierroValverde268.7110,96040.7950px30pxFuerteventuraPuerto del Rosario1,660103,49262.3450px30px Gran CanariaLas Palmas de Gran Canaria1,560.1845,676542.0750px30pxLa GomeraSan Sebastián369.7622,77661.650px30px LanzaroteArrecife845.94141,437167.250px30px La PalmaSanta Cruz de La Palma708.3286,324121.8750px35px TenerifeSanta Cruz de Tenerife2,034.38906,854445.76–– La GraciosaCaleta de Sebo29.0565822.65–– Alegranza–10.3–––– Isla de Lobos–4.5–––– Montaña Clara–1.48–––– Roque del Este–0.06–––– Roque del Oeste–0.015––" ], [ "Economy and environment", "+ '''Tourism in the Canary Islands''' Year Visitors20094,002,0132008 9,210,50920079,326,11620069,530,03920059,276,96320049,427,26520039,836,78520029,778,512200110,137,20520009,975,97719936,545,396 Largest byCountry PopulationGermany2,498,847United Kingdom3,355,942The dunes of Maspalomas in Gran Canaria is one of the tourist attractions.Banana plantation in San Andrés y SaucesThe economy is based primarily on tourism, which makes up 32% of the GDP.", "The Canaries receive about 12 million tourists per year.", "Construction makes up nearly 20% of the GDP and tropical agriculture, primarily bananas and tobacco, are grown for export to Europe and the Americas.", "Ecologists are concerned that the resources, especially in the more arid islands, are being overexploited but there are still many agricultural resources like tomatoes, potatoes, onions, cochineal, sugarcane, grapes, vines, dates, oranges, lemons, figs, wheat, barley, maize, apricots, peaches and almonds.Water resources are also being overexploited, due to the high water usage by tourists.", "Also, some islands (such as Gran Canaria and Tenerife) overexploit the ground water.", "This is done in such degree that, according to European and Spanish legal regulations, the current situation is not acceptable.", "To address the problems, good governance and a change in the water use paradigm have been proposed.", "These solutions depend largely on controlling water use and on demand management.", "As this is administratively difficult and politically unpalatable, most action is currently directed at increasing the public offer of water through import from outside; a decision which is economically, politically and environmentally questionable.To bring in revenue for environmental protection, innovation, training and water sanitation a tourist tax was considered in 2018, along with a doubling of the ecotax and restrictions on holiday rents in the zones with the greatest pressure of demand.The economy is € 25 billion (2001 GDP figures).", "The islands experienced continuous growth during a 20-year period, up until 2001, at a rate of approximately 5% annually.", "This growth was fueled mainly by huge amounts of foreign direct investment, mostly to develop tourism real estate (hotels and apartments), and European Funds (near €11 billion in the period from 2000 to 2007), since the Canary Islands are labelled Region Objective 1 (eligible for euro structural funds).", "Additionally, the EU allows the Canary Islands Government to offer special tax concessions for investors who incorporate under the Zona Especial Canaria (ZEC) regime and create more than five jobs.Spain gave permission in August 2014 for Repsol and its partners to explore oil and natural gas prospects off the Canary Islands, involving an investment of €7.5 billion over four years, to commence at the end of 2016.Repsol at the time said the area could ultimately produce 100,000 barrels of oil a day, which would meet 10 percent of Spain's energy needs.", "However, the analysis of samples obtained did not show the necessary volume nor quality to consider future extraction, and the project was scrapped.Despite currently having very high dependence on fossil fuels, research on the renewable energy potential concluded that a high potential for renewable energy technologies exists on the archipelago.", "This, in such extent even that a scenario pathway to 100% renewable energy supply by 2050 has been put forward.The Canary Islands have great natural attractions, climate and beaches make the islands a major tourist destination, being visited each year by about 12 million people (11,986,059 in 2007, noting 29% of Britons, 22% of Spanish (from outside the Canaries), and 21% of Germans).", "Among the islands, Tenerife has the largest number of tourists received annually, followed by Gran Canaria and Lanzarote.", "The archipelago's principal tourist attraction is the Teide National Park (in Tenerife) where the highest mountain in Spain and third largest volcano in the world (Mount Teide), receives over 2.8 million visitors annually.The combination of high mountains, proximity to Europe, and clean air has made the Roque de los Muchachos peak (on La Palma island) a leading location for telescopes like the Grantecan.The islands, as an autonomous region of Spain, are in the European Union and the Schengen Area.", "They are in the European Union Customs Union but outside the VAT area.", "Instead of VAT there is a local Sales Tax (IGIC) which has a general rate of 7%, an increased tax rate of 13.5%, a reduced tax rate of 3% and a zero tax rate for certain basic need products and services.", "Consequently, some products are subject to additional VAT if being exported from the islands into mainland Spain or the rest of the EU.Canarian time is Western European Time (WET) (or GMT; in summer one hour ahead of GMT).", "So Canarian time is one hour behind that of mainland Spain and the same as that of the UK, Ireland and mainland Portugal all year round.=== Tourism statistics ===The number of tourists who visited the Canary Islands had been in 2018 16,150,054 and in the year 2019 15,589,290.+'''Number of tourists who visited the Canary Islands by air in 2019, by island of destination'''RankIslandNumber of Visitors1Tenerife5,889,4542Gran Canaria4,267,3853Lanzarote3,065,5754Fuerteventura2,023,1965La Palma343,680+'''Number of tourists who visited the Canary Islands by air, by island of destination'''Month Lanzarote Fuerteventura Gran Canaria Tenerife La Palma2020 May000002020 April00000 2020 March 99,407 71,988 141,692 208,696 11,531 2020 February 215,054 175,618 387,432 528,873 31,996 2020 January 209,769 149,140 405,208 512,153 36,618'''2020''''''524,230''''''396,746''''''934,332''''''1,249,722''''''80,145''' 2019 December 256,733 168,717 416,723 526,258 35,515 2019 November 231,995 159,352 405,715 487,576 29,614 2019 October 258,722 175,472 354,718 484,905 24,506 2019 September 235,534 154,056 291,855 432,241 21,106 2019 August 273,783 175,153 328,921 501,712 26,465 2019 July 270,438 171,819 333,530 481,976 22,059 2019 June 242,901 159,945 274,881 451,244 18,266 2019 May 230,821 140,370 261,250 423,740 19,447 2019 April 256,776 179,318 324,647 484,097 32,927 2019 March 295,614 201,556 447,905 579,224 39,570 2019 February 272,428 164,970 403,123 513,880 32,162 2019 January 239,830 172,468 424,117 522,601 42,043'''2019''''''3,065,575''''''2,023,196''''''4,267,385''''''5,889,454''''''343,680''' 2018 December 258,185 171,248 420,041 519,566 34,266 2018 November 256,755 163,189 410,456 513,953 40,401 2018 October 265,950 207,176 397,411 541,492 27,865 2018 September 249,877 181,272 326,673 451,957 22,094 2018 August 260,216 206,718 370,232 516,048 28,054 2018 July 258,746 208,723 374,844 485,961 23,453 2018 June 233,824 181,406 301,068 448,667 19,384 2018 May 245,563 159,808 285,178 421,763 22,702 2018 April 266,433 184,772 347,043 488,679 30,675 2018 March 299,270 223,478 441,620 572,515 35,369 2018 February 246,215 181,218 396,707 484,485 40,282 2018 January 222,283 184,199 438,555 503,856 50,215'''2018''''''3,063,317''''''2,253,207''''''4,509,828''''''5,948,942''''''374,760'''Source (05/2020):=== GDP statistics ===The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in the Canary Islands in 2015 was , per capita.", "The figures by island are as follows:+'''GDP by island in million euros'''IslandGDP Tenerife 17,615 Gran Canaria 15,812 Lanzarote 3,203 Fuerteventura 2,298 La Palma 1,423 La Gomera 394 El Hierro 178" ], [ "Transport", "A Binter Canarias Embraer 195 E2 at the Galician airport of Vigo.", "Binter is the biggest airline of the Canary Islands and labels itself as the flag carrier of the Autonomous Community (''Líneas Aéreas de Canarias'').", "Bus Station—''Estación de Guaguas'' also known as ''El Hoyo'' (The hole), on the left, out of the image—at San Telmo Park, Las Palmas de Gran CanariaTenerife TramThe Canary Islands have eight airports altogether, two of the main ports of Spain, and an extensive network of autopistas (highways) and other roads.", "For a road map see multimap.", "Traffic congestion is sometimes a problem in Tenerife and on Grand Canaria.Large ferry boats and fast ferries link most of the islands.", "Both types can transport large numbers of passengers, cargo, and vehicles.", "Fast ferries are made of aluminium and powered by modern and efficient diesel engines, while conventional ferries have a steel hull and are powered by heavy oil.", "Fast ferries travel in excess of ; conventional ferries travel in excess of , but are slower than fast ferries.", "A typical ferry ride between La Palma and Tenerife may take up to eight hours or more while a fast ferry takes about two and a half hours and between Tenerife and Gran Canaria can be about one hour.The largest airport is the Gran Canaria Airport.", "Tenerife has two airports, Tenerife North Airport and Tenerife South Airport.", "The island of Tenerife gathers the highest passenger movement of all the Canary Islands through its two airports.", "The two main islands (Tenerife and Gran Canaria) receive the greatest number of passengers.", "Tenerife 6,204,499 passengers and Gran Canaria 5,011,176 passengers.The port of Las Palmas is first in freight traffic in the islands, while the port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife is the first fishing port with approximately 7,500 tons of fish caught, according to the Spanish government publication Statistical Yearbook of State Ports.", "Similarly, it is the second port in Spain as regards ship traffic, only surpassed by the Port of Algeciras Bay.", "The port's facilities include a border inspection post (BIP) approved by the European Union, which is responsible for inspecting all types of imports from third countries or exports to countries outside the European Economic Area.", "The port of Los Cristianos (Tenerife) has the greatest number of passengers recorded in the Canary Islands, followed by the port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife.", "The Port of Las Palmas is the third port in the islands in passengers and first in number of vehicles transported.The SS America was beached at the Canary islands on 18 January 1994.However, the ocean liner broke apart after the course of several years and eventually sank beneath the surface.=== Rail transport ===The Tenerife Tram opened in 2007 and is currently the only one in the Canary Islands, travelling between the cities of Santa Cruz de Tenerife and San Cristóbal de La Laguna.Three more railway lines are being planned for the Canary Islands: Line Island Terminus A Terminus B Tren de Gran Canaria Gran Canaria Las Palmas de Gran Canaria Maspalomas Tren del Sur Tenerife Santa Cruz de Tenerife Los Cristianos Tren del Norte Tenerife Santa Cruz de Tenerife Los Realejos=== Airports ===* Tenerife South Airport – Tenerife* Tenerife North Airport – Tenerife* César Manrique-Lanzarote Airport – Lanzarote* Fuerteventura Airport – Fuerteventura* Gran Canaria Airport – Gran Canaria* La Palma Airport – La Palma* La Gomera Airport – La Gomera* El Hierro Airport – El Hierro=== Ports ===Port of Las Palmas, the largest port in the Canary Islands* Port of Puerto del Rosario – Fuerteventura* Port of Arrecife – Lanzarote* Port of Playa Blanca—Lanzarote* Port of Santa Cruz de La Palma – La Palma* Port of San Sebastián de La Gomera – La Gomera* Port of La Estaca – El Hierro* Port of Las Palmas – Gran Canaria* Port of Arinaga – Gran Canaria* Port of Agaete – Gran Canaria* Port of Los Cristianos – Tenerife* Port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife – Tenerife* Port of Garachico – Tenerife* Port of Granadilla – Tenerife" ], [ "Health", "The ''Servicio Canario de Salud'' is an autonomous body of administrative nature attached to the Ministry responsible for Health of the Government of the Canary Islands.", "The majority of the archipelago's hospitals belong to this organization:* Hospital Nuestra Señora de los Reyes – El Hierro* Hospital General de La Palma – La Palma* Hospital Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe – La Gomera* Hospital Universitario Nuestra Señora de Candelaria – Tenerife* Hospital Universitario de Canarias – Tenerife* Hospital del Sur de Tenerife – Tenerife* Hospital del Norte de Tenerife – Tenerife* Hospital Universitario de Gran Canaria Doctor Negrín – Gran Canaria* Hospital Universitario Insular de Gran Canaria – Gran Canaria* Hospital General de Lanzarote Doctor José Molina Orosa – Lanzarote* Hospital General de Fuerteventura – Fuerteventura" ], [ "Wildlife", "Canary Island spurge in Fuerteventura=== Extinct fauna ===Skull of Tenerife giant rat (''Canariomys bravoi''), an endemic species that is now extinctThe Canary Islands were previously inhabited by a variety of endemic animals, such as extinct giant lizards (''Gallotia goliath''), giant tortoises (''Centrochelys burchardi'' and ''C.", "vulcanica''), and Tenerife and Gran Canaria giant rats (''Canariomys bravoi'' and ''C.", "tamarani''), among others.", "Extinct birds known only from Pleistocene and Holocene age bones include the Canary Islands quail (''Coturnix gomerae''), Dune shearwater (''Puffinus holeae''), Lava shearwater (''P.", "olsoni''), Trias greenfinch (''Chloris triasi''), Slender-billed greenfinch (''C.", "aurelioi'') and the Long-legged bunting (''Emberiza alcoveri'').=== Current fauna ===The bird life includes European and African species, such as the black-bellied sandgrouse, Canary, Graja, a subspecies of red-billed chough endemic to La Palma, Gran Canaria blue chaffinch, Tenerife blue chaffinch, Canary Islands chiffchaff, Fuerteventura chat, Tenerife goldcrest, La Palma chaffinch, Canarian Egyptian vulture, Bolle's pigeon, Laurel pigeon, Plain swift, and Houbara bustard.Terrestrial fauna includes the El Hierro giant lizard, La Gomera giant lizard, and the La Palma giant lizard.", "Mammals include the Canarian shrew, Canary big-eared bat, the Algerian hedgehog, and the more recently introduced mouflon.=== Marine life ===A loggerhead sea turtle, by far the most common species of marine turtle in the Canary IslandsThe marine life found in the Canary Islands is also varied, being a combination of North Atlantic, Mediterranean and endemic species.", "In recent years, the increasing popularity of both scuba diving and underwater photography have provided biologists with much new information on the marine life of the islands.Fish species found in the islands include many species of shark, ray, moray eel, bream, jack, grunt, scorpionfish, triggerfish, grouper, goby, and blenny.", "In addition, there are many invertebrate species, including sponge, jellyfish, anemone, crab, mollusc, sea urchin, starfish, sea cucumber and coral.There are a total of five different species of marine turtle that are sighted periodically in the islands, the most common of these being the endangered loggerhead sea turtle.", "The other four are the green sea turtle, hawksbill sea turtle, leatherback sea turtle and Kemp's ridley sea turtle.", "Currently, there are no signs that any of these species breed in the islands, and so those seen in the water are usually migrating.", "However, it is believed that some of these species may have bred in the islands in the past, and there are records of several sightings of leatherback sea turtle on beaches in Fuerteventura, adding credibility to the theory.Marine mammals include the large varieties of cetaceans including rare and not well-known species (see more details in the ''Marine life of the Canary Islands'').", "Hooded seals have also been known to be vagrant in the Canary Islands every now and then.", "The Canary Islands were also formerly home to a population of the rarest pinniped in the world, the Mediterranean monk seal.=== Native flora gallery ===File:Arbutus canariensis2.jpg\|''Arbutus canariensis''File:Argyranthemum frutescens cv Vera 2.jpg\|''Argyranthemum frutescens''File:Bosea yervamora berries.JPG\|''Bosea yervamora''File:Canarina canariensis Tenerife (02).jpg\|''Canarina canariensis''File:Digitalis (Isoplexis) canariensis by Scott zona - 004.jpg\|''Digitalis canariensis''File:Tajinaste rojo.jpg\|''Echium wildpretii''File:Euphorbia canariensis2.jpg\|''Euphorbia canariensis''File:Gonospermum elegans.jpg\|''Gonospermum elegans''File:Lavatera acerifolia var.", "acerifolia (Jardín Botánico Canario Viera y Clavijo).jpg\|''Lavatera acerifolia var.", "acerifolia''File:Lavatera phoenicea1.jpg\|''Lavatera phoenicea''File:Lotus berthelotii1.jpg\|''Lotus berthelotii''File:Pericallis webbii.jpg\|''Pericallis webbii''File:Persea indica.jpg\|''Persea indica''File:Phoenix canariensis (Puntallana) 01.jpg\|''Phoenix canariensis''File:Sonchus palmensis (Barlovento) 04.jpg\|''Sonchus palmensis''File:Spartocytisus supranubius.jpg\|''Cytisus supranubius''" ], [ "Holidays", "The Dance of the Dwarves is one of the most important acts of the Lustral Festivities of the ''Bajada de la Virgen de las Nieves'' in Santa Cruz de La Palma.Dancers with typical costume in El Tamaduste (El Hierro)Band of Agaete in the ''Traída del Agua'' (Gran Canaria)Some holidays of those celebrated in the Canary Islands are international and national, others are regional holidays and others are of insular character.", "The official day of the autonomous community is Canary Islands Day on 30 May.", "The anniversary of the first session of the Parliament of the Canary Islands, based in the city of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, held on 30 May 1983, is commemorated with this day.The common festive calendar throughout the Canary Islands is as follows:DateNameData 1 January New Year International festival.", "6 January Epiphany Catholic festival.", "March or April Holy Thursday and Holy Friday Christian festival.", "1 May International Workers' Day International festival.", "30 May Canary Islands Day Day of the autonomous community.", "Anniversary of the first session of the Parliament of the Canary Islands.", "15 August Assumption of Mary Catholic festival.", "This day is festive in the archipelago as in all of Spain.", "Popularly, in the Canary Islands it is known as the day on which the Virgin of Candelaria (Saint Patron of the Canary Islands) is celebrated.", "12 October Fiesta Nacional de España (''Día de la Hispanidad'') National Holiday of Spain.", "Commemoration of discovery of the Americas.", "1 November All Saints' Day Catholic festival.", "6 December Constitution Day Commemoration of the Spanish constitutional referendum, 1978.8 December Immaculate Conception Catholic festival.", "The Immaculate Conception is the Saint Patron of Spain.", "25 December Christmas Christian festival.", "Commemoration of the birth of Jesus of Nazareth.In addition, each of the islands has an island festival, in which it is a holiday only on that specific island.", "These are the festivities of island patrons saints of each island.", "Organized chronologically are:DateIslandSaint/Virgin 2 February Tenerife Our Lady of Candelaria 5 August La Palma Our Lady of the Snows 8 September Gran Canaria Our Lady of the Pine 15 September Lanzarote Our Lady of Dolours Third Saturday of the month of September Fuerteventura Our Lady of the Peña 24 September El Hierro Our Lady of the Kings Monday following the first Saturday of October La Gomera Our Lady of GuadalupeParade in the Carnival of Santa Cruz de TenerifeThe most famous festivals of the Canary Islands is the carnival.", "It is the most famous and international festival of the archipelago.", "The carnival is celebrated in all the islands and all its municipalities, perhaps the two busiest are those of the two Canarian capitals; the Carnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife (''Tourist Festival of International Interest'') and the Carnival of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria.", "It is celebrated on the streets between the months of February and March.", "But the rest of the islands of the archipelago have their carnivals with their own traditions among which stand out: The Festival of the Carneros of El Hierro, the Festival of the Diabletes of Teguise in Lanzarote, Los Indianos de La Palma, the Carnival of San Sebastián de La Gomera and the Carnival of Puerto del Rosario in Fuerteventura." ], [ "Science and technology", "Gran Canaria space tracking stationIn the 1960s, Gran Canaria was selected as the location for one of the 14 ground stations in the Manned Space Flight Network (MSFN) to support the NASA space program.", "Maspalomas Station, located in the south of the island, took part in a number of space missions including the Apollo 11 Moon landings and Skylab.", "Today it continues to support satellite communications as part of the ESA network.Because of the remote location, a number of astronomical observatories are located in the archipelago, including the Teide Observatory on Tenerife, the Roque de los Muchachos Observatory on La Palma, and the Temisas Astronomical Observatory on Gran Canaria.Tenerife is the home of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias (Astrophysical Institute of the Canaries).", "There is also an Instituto de Bio-Orgánica Antonio González (Antonio González Bio-Organic Institute) at the University of La Laguna.", "Also at that university are the Instituto de Lingüística Andrés Bello (Andrés Bello Institute of Linguistics), the Centro de Estudios Medievales y Renacentistas (Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies), the Instituto Universitario de la Empresa (University Institute of Business), the Instituto de Derecho Regional (Regional Institute of Law), the Instituto Universitario de Ciencias Políticas y Sociales (University Institute of Political and Social Sciences) and the Instituto de Enfermedades Tropicales (Institute of Tropical Diseases).", "The latter is one of the seven institutions of the Red de Investigación de Centros de Enfermedades Tropicales (RICET, \"Network of Research of Centers of Tropical Diseases\"), located in various parts of Spain.", "The Instituto Volcanológico de Canarias (Volcanological Institute of the Canary Islands) is based in Tenerife." ], [ "Sports", "Heliodoro Rodríguez López Stadium in Tenerife, the stadium with the largest field area in the Canary IslandsGran Canaria Stadium, the biggest sports venue in the Canary IslandsA unique form of wrestling known as Canarian wrestling (''lucha canaria'') has opponents stand in a special area called a \"terrero\" and try to throw each other to the ground using strength and quick movements.Another sport is the \"game of the sticks\" (palo canario) where opponents fence with long sticks.", "This may have come about from the shepherds of the islands who would challenge each other using their long walking sticks.Furthermore, there is the shepherd's jump (''salto del pastor'').", "This involves using a long stick to vault over an open area.", "This sport possibly evolved from the shepherd's need to occasionally get over an open area in the hills as they were tending their sheep.The two main football teams in the archipelago are: the CD Tenerife (founded in 1912) and UD Las Palmas (founded in 1949).", "As of the 2023/2024 season, UD Las Palmas plays in La Liga, the top tier of Spanish football.", "CD Tenerife however plays in The Segunda Divisón.", "When in the same division, the clubs contest the Canary Islands derby.", "There are smaller clubs also playing in the mainland Spanish football league system, most notably UD Lanzarote and CD Laguna, although no other Canarian clubs have played in the top flight.The mountainous terrain of the Canary Islands also caters to the growing popularity of ultra running and ultramarathons as host of annual competitive long-distance events including CajaMar Tenerife Bluetrail on Tenerife, Transvulcania on La Palma, Transgrancanaria on Gran Canaria, and the Half Marathon des Sables on Fuerteventura.", "A yearly Ironman Triathlon has been taking place on Lanzarote since 1992.=== Notable athletes ===* Paco Campos, (1916–1995); a footballer who played as a forward.", "With 127 goals, 120 of which were for Atlético Madrid, he is the highest scoring player from the Canary Islands in La Liga.", "* Nicolás García Hemme, born 20 June 1988 in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, 2012 London Olympics, Taekwondo Silver Medalist in Men's Welterweight category (−80 kg).", "* Alfredo Cabrera, (1881–1964); shortstop for the St. Louis Cardinals in 1913* Sergio Rodríguez, born in San Cristóbal de La Laguna in 1986, played point guard for the Portland Trail Blazers, Sacramento Kings, and New York Knicks.", "* David Silva, born in Arguineguín in 1986, plays association football for Real Sociedad, member of the 2010 FIFA World Cup champion Spain national football team* Juan Carlos Valerón, born in Arguineguín in 1975, played association football for Deportivo la Coruna and Las Palmas.", "* Pedro, born in Santa Cruz de Tenerife in 1987, plays association football for Lazio, member of the 2010 FIFA World Cup champion Spain national football team* Carla Suárez Navarro, born in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria in 1988, professional tennis player* Paola Tirados, born in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria in 1980, synchronized swimmer, who participated in the Olympic Games of 2000, 2004 and 2008.She won the silver medal in Beijing in 2008 in the team competition category.", "* Jesé, born in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria in 1993, plays association football for Las Palmas.", "* Christo Bezuidenhout, born in Tenerife in 1970, played rugby union for Gloucester and South Africa.", "* Pedri, born in Tegueste in 2002, plays association football for Barcelona.", "* Misa Rodríguez, born in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria in 1999, plays association football for Real Madrid Femenino.", "Member of the 2023 Women's World Cup winning Spain women's national football team.", "Nico Paz, born in Santa Cruz de Tenerife in 2004, plays association football for Real Madrid." ], [ "See also", "=== History === Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife (1797)* First Battle of Acentejo* Pyramids of Güímar* Second Battle of Acentejo* Tanausu* Tenerife airport disaster; the deadliest commercial aviation disaster in history.=== Geography ===* Cumbre Vieja, a volcano on La Palma* Guatiza (Lanzarote)* La Matanza de Acentejo* Los Llanos de Aridane* Orotava Valley* San AndrésIslands of MacaronesiaAzoresMadeiraCabo Verde=== Culture === Canarian cuisine* Canarian Spanish* Religion in Canary Islands* Isleños* Military of the Canary Islands* Music of the Canary Islands* Silbo Gomero, a whistled language, is an indigenous variant of Spanish* Tortilla canaria* Virgin of Candelaria (Patron saint of Canary Islands)" ], [ "References", "=== Notes ======Citations===" ], [ "Sources", "* Alfred Crosby, ''Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900'' (Cambridge University Press) * Felipe Fernández-Armesto, ''The Canary Islands after the Conquest: The Making of a Colonial Society in the Early-Sixteenth Century'', Oxford U.", "Press, 1982.; * Sergio Hanquet, ''Diving in Canaries'', Litografía A. ROMERO, 2001.", "* Martin Wiemers: '' The butterflies of the Canary Islands.", "– A survey on their distribution, biology and ecology (Lepidoptera: Papilionoidea and Hesperioidea)'' – Linneana Belgica 15 (1995): 63–84 & 87–118" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Canary Islands Government* Official tourism website of the Canary Islands.", ".", "* Cloud vortices near the Canaries, March 2023.NASA Earth Observatory POTD for April 15, 2023." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Chuck D" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Carlton Douglas Ridenhour''' (born August 1, 1960), known professionally as '''Chuck D''', is an American rapper, best known as the leader and frontman of the hip hop group Public Enemy, which he co-founded in 1985 with Flavor Flav.", "Chuck D is also a member of the rock supergroup Prophets of Rage.", "He has released several solo albums, most notably ''Autobiography of Mistachuck'' (1996).His work with Public Enemy helped create politically and socially conscious hip hop music in the mid-1980s.", "''The Source'' ranked him at No.", "12 on its list of the Top 50 Hip-Hop Lyricists of All Time.", "Chuck D has been nominated for six Grammys throughout his career, and has received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award as a member of Public Enemy.", "He was also inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2013 as a member of Public Enemy." ], [ "Early life", "Ridenhour was born on August 1, 1960, on Long Island, New York.", "When he was a child, his mother played Motown and showtunes in the home and his father belonged to the Columbia Record Club.", "He began writing lyrics after the New York City blackout of 1977.He attended W. Tresper Clarke High School, where he was offered no formal education in music.", "He then went to Adelphi University on Long Island to study graphic design, where he met William Drayton (Flavor Flav).", "He received a Bachelor of Fine Arts from Adelphi in 1984 and later received an honorary doctorate from Adelphi in 2013.While at Adelphi, Ridenhour co-hosted hip hop radio show the ''Super Spectrum Mix Hour'' as Chuck D on Saturday nights at Long Island rock radio station WLIR, designed flyers for local hip-hop events, and drew a cartoon called ''Tales of the Skind'' for Adelphi student newspaper ''The Delphian''." ], [ "Career", "Chuck D in 1991Ridenhour (using the nickname Chuck D) formed Public Enemy in 1985 with Flavor Flav.", "Upon hearing Ridenhour's demo track \"Public Enemy Number One\", fledgling producer/upcoming music-mogul Rick Rubin insisted on signing him to his Def Jam Records.", "Their major label releases were ''Yo!", "Bum Rush the Show'' (1987), ''It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back'' (1988), ''Fear of a Black Planet'' (1990), ''Apocalypse 91...", "The Enemy Strikes Black'' (1991), the compilation album ''Greatest Misses'' (1992), and ''Muse Sick-n-Hour Mess Age'' (1994).", "They also released a full-length album soundtrack for the film ''He Got Game'' in 1998.Ridenhour also contributed (as Chuck D) to several episodes of the documentary series ''The Blues''.", "He has appeared as a featured artist on many other songs and albums, having collaborated with artists such as Janet Jackson, Kool Moe Dee, The Dope Poet Society, Run–D.M.C., Ice Cube, Boom Boom Satellites, Rage Against the Machine, Anthrax, John Mellencamp and many others.", "In 1990, he appeared on \"Kool Thing\", a song by the alternative rock band Sonic Youth, and along with Flavor Flav, he sang on George Clinton's song \"Tweakin'\", which appears on his 1989 album ''The Cinderella Theory''.", "In 1993, he was the executive producer for ''Got 'Em Running Scared'', an album by Ichiban Records group Chief Groovy Loo and the Chosen Tribe.===Later career===In 1996, Ridenhour released ''Autobiography of Mistachuck'' on Mercury Records.", "Chuck D made a rare appearance at the 1998 MTV Video Music Awards, presenting the Video Vanguard Award to the Beastie Boys, commending their musicianship.", "In November 1998, he settled out of court with Christopher \"The Notorious B.I.G.\"", "Wallace's estate over the latter's sampling of his voice in the song \"Ten Crack Commandments\".", "The specific sampling is Ridenhour counting off the numbers one to nine on the track \"Shut 'Em Down\".", "He later described the decision to sue as \"stupid\".In September 1999, he launched a multi-format \"supersite\" on the web site Rapstation.com.", "The site includes a TV and radio station with original programming, prominent hip hop DJs, celebrity interviews, free MP3 downloads (the first was contributed by rapper Coolio), downloadable ringtones by ToneThis, social commentary, current events, and regular features on turning rap careers into a viable living.", "Since 2000, he has been one of the most vocal supporters of peer-to-peer file sharing in the music industry.He loaned his voice to ''Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas'' as DJ Forth Right MC for the radio station Playback FM.", "In 2000, he collaborated with Public Enemy's Gary G-Whiz and MC Lyte on the theme music to the television show ''Dark Angel''.", "He appeared with Henry Rollins in a cover of Black Flag's \"Rise Above\" for the album ''Rise Above: 24 Black Flag Songs to Benefit the West Memphis Three''.", "In 2003, he was featured in the PBS documentary ''Godfathers and Sons'' in which he recorded a version of Muddy Waters' song \"Mannish Boy\" with Common, Electrik Mud Cats, and Kyle Jason.", "He was also featured on Z-Trip's album ''Shifting Gears'' on a track called \"Shock and Awe\"; a 12-inch of the track was released featuring artwork by Shepard Fairey.", "In 2008 he contributed a chapter to ''Sound Unbound: Sampling Digital Music and Culture'' (The MIT Press, 2008) edited by Paul D. Miller a.k.a.", "DJ Spooky, and also turned up on The Go!", "Team's album ''Proof of Youth'' on the track \"Flashlight Fight.\"", "He also fulfilled his childhood dreams of being a sports announcer by performing the play-by-play commentary in the video game ''NBA Ballers: Chosen One'' on Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3.In 2009, Ridenhour wrote the foreword to the book ''The Love Ethic: The Reason Why You Can't Find and Keep Beautiful Black Love'' by Kamau and Akilah Butler.", "He also appeared on Brother Ali's album ''Us''.In March 2011, Chuck D re-recorded vocals with The Dillinger Escape Plan for a cover of \"Fight the Power\".", "Chuck D duetted with Rock singer Meat Loaf on his 2011 album ''Hell in a Handbasket'' on the song \"Mad Mad World/The Good God Is a Woman and She Don't Like Ugly\".In 2016 Chuck D joined the band Prophets of Rage along with B-Real and former members of Rage Against the Machine.In July 2019, Ridenhour sued Terrordome Music Publishing and Reach Music Publishing for $1 million for withholding royalties.In 2023, Chuck D released a four-part documentary on PBS entitled \"Fight the Power: How Hip Hop Changed the World.\"" ], [ "Rapping technique and creative process", "Chuck D in 2013Chuck D is known for his powerful rapping.", "''How to Rap'' says he \"has a powerful, resonant voice that is often acclaimed as one of the most distinct and impressive in hip-hop\".", "Chuck says this was based on listening to Melle Mel and sportscasters such as Marv Albert.Chuck often comes up with a title for a song first.", "He writes on paper, though sometimes edits using a computer.", "He prefers to not punch in or overdub vocals.Chuck listed his favourite rap albums in ''Hip Hop Connection'' in March 2000:# N.W.A, ''Straight Outta Compton'' # Boogie Down Productions, ''Criminal Minded'' # Run-DMC, ''Tougher Than Leather'' # Big Daddy Kane, ''Looks Like a Job For...'' # Stetsasonic, ''In Full Gear''# Ice Cube, ''AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted''# Dr. Dre, ''The Chronic'' # De La Soul, ''3 Feet High and Rising'' # Eric B.", "& Rakim, ''Follow the Leader'' # Run-DMC, ''Raising Hell'' (\"It was the first record that made me realise this was an album-oriented genre\")" ], [ "Politics", "Chuck D identifies as Black, as opposed to African or African-American.", "In a 1993 issue of DIRT Magazine covering a taping of ''In the Mix'' hosted by Alimi Ballard at the Apollo, Dan Field writes, At one point, Chuck bristles a bit at the term \"African-American.\"", "He thinks of himself as Black and sees nothing wrong with the term.", "Besides, he says, having been born in the United States and lived his whole life here, he doesn't consider himself African.", "Being in Public Enemy has given him the chance to travel around the world, an experience that really opened his eyes and his mind.", "He says visiting Africa and experiencing life on a continent where the majority of people are Black gave him a new perspective and helped him get in touch with his own history.", "He also credits a trip to the ancient Egyptian pyramids at Giza with helping him appreciate the relative smallness of man.Ridenhour is politically active; he co-hosted ''Unfiltered'' on Air America Radio, testified before the United States Congress in support of peer-to-peer MP3 sharing, and was involved in a 2004 rap political convention.", "He has continued to be an activist, publisher, lecturer, and producer.Addressing the negative views associated with rap music, he co-wrote the essay book ''Fight the Power: Rap, Race, and Reality'' with Yusuf Jah.", "He argues that \"music and art and culture is escapism, and escapism sometimes is healthy for people to get away from reality\", but sometimes the distinction is blurred and that's when \"things could lead a young mind in a direction.\"", "He also founded the record company Slam Jamz and acted as narrator in Kareem Adouard's short film ''Bling: Consequences and Repercussions'', which examines the role of conflict diamonds in bling fashion.", "Despite Chuck D and Public Enemy's success, Chuck D claims that popularity or public approval was never a driving motivation behind their work.", "He is admittedly skeptical of celebrity status, revealing in a 1999 interview with ''BOMB Magazine'' that \"The key for the record companies is to just keep making more and more stars, and make the ones who actually challenge our way of life irrelevant.", "The creation of celebrity has clouded the minds of most people in America, Europe and Asia.", "It gets people off the path they need to be on as individuals.", "\"In an interview with ''Le Monde'', published January 29, 2008, Chuck D stated that rap is devolving so much into a commercial enterprise, that the relationship between the rapper and the record label is that of slave to a master.", "He believes that nothing has changed for African-Americans since the debut of Public Enemy and, although he thinks that an Obama-Clinton alliance is great, he does not feel that the establishment will allow anything of substance to be accomplished.", "He stated that French President Nicolas Sarkozy is like any other European elite: he has profited through the murder, rape, and pillaging of those less fortunate and he refuses to allow equal opportunity for those men and women from Africa.", "In this article, he defended a comment made by Professor Griff in the past that he says was taken out of context by the media.", "The real statement was a critique of the Israeli government and its treatment of the Palestinian people.", "Chuck D stated that it is Public Enemy's belief that all human beings are equal.In an interview with the magazine ''N'Digo'' published in June 2008, he spoke of today's mainstream urban music seemingly relishing the addictive euphoria of materialism and sexism, perhaps being the primary cause of many people harboring resentment towards the genre and its future.", "However, he has expressed hope for its resurrection, saying \"It's only going to be dead if it doesn't talk about the messages of life as much as the messages of death and non-movement\", citing artists such as NYOil, M.I.A.", "and The Roots as socially conscious artists who push the envelope creatively.", "\"A lot of cats are out there doing it, on the Web and all over.", "They're just not placing their career in the hands of some major corporation.", "\"In 2010, Chuck D released the track \"Tear Down That Wall.\"", "He said \"I talked about the wall not only just dividing the U.S. and Mexico but the states of California, New Mexico and Texas.", "But Arizona, it's like, come on.", "Now they're going to enforce a law that talks about basically racial profiling.", "\"He is on the board of the TransAfrica Forum, a Pan African organization that is focused on African, Caribbean and Latin American issues.He has been an activist with projects of The Revcoms, such as Refuse Fascism and Stop Mass Incarceration Network.", "Carl Dix interviewed Chuck D on The Revcoms' YouTube program ''The RNL – Revolution, Nothing Less!", "– Show''.In 2022, he endorsed Conrad Tillard, formerly the Nation of Islam Minister known as Conrad Muhammad and subsequently a Baptist Minister, in his campaign for New York State Senate in District 25 (covering part of eastern and north-central Brooklyn)." ], [ "Personal life", "Chuck D has claimed on Twitter to be a maternal great-grandson of architect George Washington Foster.As of June 2023, he has three children aged 34, 30, and 10.The two oldest by his first ex-wife Deborah McClendon and the youngest by his ex-wife Gaye Theresa Johnson.Chuck D lives in California and lost his home in the Thomas Fire that occurred from December 2017 to January 2018." ], [ "TV appearances", "* Narrated and appeared on-camera for the 2005 PBS documentary ''Harlem Globetrotters: The Team That Changed the World''.", "* Appeared on-camera for the PBS program ''Independent Lens: Hip-Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes''.", "* Appeared in an episode of ''NewsRadio'' as himself.", "* He appeared on ''The Henry Rollins Show''.", "* He was a featured panelist (with Lars Ulrich) on the May 12, 2000, episode of the ''Charlie Rose'' show.", "Host Charlie Rose was discussing the Internet, copyright infringement, Napster Inc., and the future of the music industry.", "* He appeared on an episode of ''Space Ghost Coast to Coast'' with Pat Boone.", "While there, Space Ghost tried (and failed) to show he was \"hip\" to rap, saying his favorite rapper was M. C.", "Escher.", "* He appeared on an episode of ''Johnny Bravo''.", "* He appeared via satellite to the UK, as a panelist on BBC's ''Newsnight'' on January 20, 2009, following Barack Obama's Inauguration.", "* He appeared on a Christmas episode of Adult Swim's ''Aqua Teen Hunger Force''.", "* He appeared on ''VH1 Ultimate Albums Blood Sugar Sex Magik'' talking about the Red Hot Chili Peppers.", "* He appeared on ''Foo Fighters: Sonic Highways'' in the episode talking about the beginnings of the hip-hop scene in New York City* He is featured in the 2024 documentary ''Cover Your Ears'' produced by ''Prairie Coast Films'' and directed by ''Sean Patrick Shaul'', discussing music censorship." ], [ "Music appearances", "In 1990, Chuck featured on Sonic Youth single ''Kool Thing''.", "In 1993, Chuck rapped on \"New Agenda\" from Janet Jackson's ''janet.''", "\"I loved his work, but I'd never met him,\" said Jackson.", "\"I called Chuck up and told him how much I admired their work.", "When I hear Chuck, it's like I'm hearing someone teaching, talking to a whole bunch of people.", "And instead of just having the rap in the bridge, as usual, I wanted him to do stuff all the way through.", "I sent him a tape.", "He said he loved the song, but he was afraid he was going to mess it up.", "I said 'Are you kidding?", "'\"In 1999, Chuck D appeared on Prince's hit \"Undisputed\" on the album ''Rave Un2 the Joy Fantastic''.", "In 2001, Chuck D appeared on the Japanese electronic duo Boom Boom Satellites track \"Your Reality's a Fantasy but Your Fantasy Is Killing Me\" on the album ''Umbra''.", "In 2001, Chuck D provided vocals for Public Domain's ''Rock Da Funky Beats''.", "In 2010, Chuck D made an appearance on the track \"Transformação\" (Portuguese for \"Transformation\") from Brazilian rapper MV Bill's album ''Causa E Efeito'' (meaning ''Cause and Effect'').", "In 2003 he was featured on the track \"Access to the Excess\" in Junkie XL's album ''Radio JXL: A Broadcast from the Computer Hell Cabin''.", "In 2011 Chuck D made an appearance on the track \"Mad Mad World/The Good God Is a Woman and She Don't Like Ugly\" from Meat Loaf's 2011 album ''Hell in a Handbasket''.", "In 2013, he has appeared in Mat Zo's single \"Pyramid Scheme\".", "In 2013 he performed at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Music Masters concert tribute to The Rolling Stones.", "In 2014 he performed with Jahi on \"People Get Ready\" and \"Yo!\"", "from the first album by Public Enemy spin-off project PE 2.0.", "In 2016 he appeared in ASAP Ferg's album \"Always Strive and Prosper\" on the track \"Beautiful People\".", "In 2017 he was featured on the track \"America\" on Logic's album \"Everybody\".", "In 2019, he appeared on \"Story of Everything\", a song on ''Threads'', an album by Sheryl Crow.", "The track also features Andra Day and Gary Clark Jr." ], [ "Discography", "===with Public Enemy==='''Studio albums'''* ''Yo!", "Bum Rush the Show'' (1987)* ''It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back'' (1988)* ''Fear of a Black Planet'' (1990)* ''Apocalypse 91...", "The Enemy Strikes Black'' (1991)* ''Muse Sick-n-Hour Mess Age'' (1994)* ''He Got Game'' (1998)* ''There's a Poison Goin' On'' (1999)* ''Revolverlution'' (2002)* ''New Whirl Odor'' (2005)* ''How You Sell Soul to a Soulless People Who Sold Their Soul?''", "(2007)* ''Most of My Heroes Still Don't Appear on No Stamp'' (2012)* ''The Evil Empire of Everything'' (2012)* ''Man Plans God Laughs'' (2015)* ''Nothing Is Quick in the Desert'' (2017)* ''What You Gonna Do When the Grid Goes Down?''", "(2020)===with Confrontation Camp==='''Studio albums'''''Objects in the Mirror Are Closer Than They Appear'' (2001)===with Prophets of Rage==='''Studio albums''' ''Prophets of Rage'' (2017)'''Studio EPs'''* ''The Party's Over'' (2016)===Solo==='''Studio albums'''* ''Autobiography of Mistachuck'' (1996)* ''The Black in Man'' (2014)* ''If I Can't Change the People Around Me I Change the People Around Me'' (2016)* ''Celebration of Ignorance'' (2018)'''Compilation albums'''* ''Action'' (DJ Matheos Worldwide International Remix) – Mosthifi (featuring Chuck D. and Huggy) (2010) ''Don't Rhyme for the Sake of Riddlin''' (as Mistachuck) (2012)" ], [ "References", ";Other sources" ], [ "Selected publications", "" ], [ "External links", " Public Enemy website***" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Cutaway (filmmaking)" ], [ "Introduction", "In film and video, a '''cutaway''' is the interruption of a continuously filmed action by inserting a view of something else.", "It is usually followed by a cut back to the first shot.", "A '''cutaway scene''' is the interruption of a scene with the insertion of another scene, generally unrelated or only peripherally related to the original scene.", "The interruption is usually quick, and is usually, although not always, ended by a return to the original scene.", "The effect is of commentary to the original scene and creates variety." ], [ "Usage", "The most common use of cutaway shots in dramatic films is to adjust the pace of the main action, to conceal the deletion of some unwanted part of the main shot, or to allow the joining of parts of two versions of that shot.", "For example, a scene may be improved by cutting a few frames out of an actor's pause; a brief view of a listener can help conceal the break.", "Or the actor may fumble some of his lines in a group shot; rather than discarding a good version of the shot, the director may just have the actor repeat the lines for a new shot, and cut to that alternate view when necessary.Cutaways are also used often in older horror films in place of special effects.", "For example, a shot of a zombie getting its head cut off may, for instance, start with a view of an axe being swung through the air, followed by a close-up of the actor swinging it, then followed by a cut back to the now severed head.", "George A. Romero, creator of the ''Dead Series'', and Tom Savini pioneered effects that removed the need for cutaways in horror films.In news broadcasting and documentary work, the cutaway is used much as it would be in fiction.", "On location, there is usually just one camera to film an interview, and it is usually trained on the interviewee.", "Often, there is also only one microphone.", "After the interview, the interviewer usually repeats his questions while he is being filmed, with pauses that act as if the answers are listened to.", "These shots can be used as cutaways.", "Cutaways to the interviewer, called noddies, can also be used to cover cuts.The cutaway does not necessarily contribute any dramatic content of its own, but is used to help the editor assemble a longer sequence.", "For that reason, editors choose cutaways related to the main action, such as another action or object in the same location.", "For example, if the main shot is of a man walking down an alley, possible cutaways may include a shot of a cat on a nearby dumpster or a shot of a person watching from a window overhead." ], [ "See also", "* Buffer shot* Cross-cutting* Dissolve (filmmaking)* Fast cutting* Flashback* Jump cut* L cut* Match cut* Shot reverse shot* Slow cutting* Cutscene* Cutaway gag" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Coma" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''coma''' is a deep state of prolonged unconsciousness in which a person cannot be awakened, fails to respond normally to painful stimuli, light, or sound, lacks a normal wake-sleep cycle and does not initiate voluntary actions.", "The person may experience respiratory and circulatory problems due to the body's inability to maintain normal bodily functions.", "People in a coma often require extensive medical care to maintain their health and prevent complications such as pneumonia or blood clots.", "Coma patients exhibit a complete absence of wakefulness and are unable to consciously feel, speak or move.", "Comas can be derived by natural causes, or can be medically induced.Clinically, a coma can be defined as the consistent inability to follow a one-step command.", "It can also be defined as a score of ≤ 8 on the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) lasting ≥ 6 hours.", "For a patient to maintain consciousness, the components of ''wakefulness'' and ''awareness'' must be maintained.", "Wakefulness describes the quantitative degree of consciousness, whereas awareness relates to the qualitative aspects of the functions mediated by the cortex, including cognitive abilities such as attention, sensory perception, explicit memory, language, the execution of tasks, temporal and spatial orientation and reality judgment.", "From a neurological perspective, consciousness is maintained by the activation of the cerebral cortex—the gray matter that forms the outer layer of the brain—and by the reticular activating system (RAS), a structure located within the brainstem." ], [ "Etymology", "The term 'coma', from the Greek ''koma'', meaning deep sleep, had already been used in the Hippocratic corpus (''Epidemica'') and later by Galen (second century AD).", "Subsequently, it was hardly used in the known literature up to the middle of the 17th century.", "The term is found again in Thomas Willis' (1621–1675) influential ''De anima brutorum'' (1672), where lethargy (pathological sleep), 'coma' (heavy sleeping), ''carus'' (deprivation of the senses) and apoplexy (into which ''carus'' could turn and which he localized in the white matter) are mentioned.", "The term ''carus'' is also derived from Greek, where it can be found in the roots of several words meaning soporific or sleepy.", "It can still be found in the root of the term 'carotid'.", "Thomas Sydenham (1624–89) mentioned the term 'coma' in several cases of fever (Sydenham, 1685)." ], [ "Signs and symptoms", "General symptoms of a person in a comatose state are:* Inability to voluntarily open the eyes* A non-existent sleep-wake cycle* Lack of response to physical (painful) or verbal stimuli* Depressed brainstem reflexes, such as pupils not responding to light* Abnormal, difficulty, or irregular breathing or no breathing at all when coma was caused by cardiac arrest * Scores between 3 and 8 on the Glasgow Coma Scale" ], [ "Causes", "Many types of problems can cause a coma.", "Forty percent of comatose states result from drug poisoning.", "Certain drug use under certain conditions can damage or weaken the synaptic functioning in the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) and keep the system from properly functioning to arouse the brain.", "Secondary effects of drugs, which include abnormal heart rate and blood pressure, as well as abnormal breathing and sweating, may also indirectly harm the functioning of the ARAS and lead to a coma.", "Given that drug poisoning is the cause for a large portion of patients in a coma, hospitals first test all comatose patients by observing pupil size and eye movement, through the vestibular-ocular reflex.", "(See ''Diagnosis'' below.", ")The second most common cause of coma, which makes up about 25% of cases, is lack of oxygen, generally resulting from cardiac arrest.", "The Central Nervous System (CNS) requires a great deal of oxygen for its neurons.", "Oxygen deprivation in the brain, also known as hypoxia, causes sodium and calcium from outside of the neurons to decrease and intracellular calcium to increase, which harms neuron communication.", "Lack of oxygen in the brain also causes ATP exhaustion and cellular breakdown from cytoskeleton damage and nitric oxide production.Twenty percent of comatose states result from an ischemic stroke, brain hemorrhage, or brain tumor.", "During a stroke, blood flow to part of the brain is restricted or blocked.", "An ischemic stroke, brain hemorrhage, or brain tumor may cause restriction of blood flow.", "Lack of blood to cells in the brain prevents oxygen from getting to the neurons, and consequently causes cells to become disrupted and die.", "As brain cells die, brain tissue continues to deteriorate, which may affect the functioning of the ARAS, causing unconsciousness and coma.", "Comatose cases can also result from traumatic brain injury, excessive blood loss, malnutrition, hypothermia, hyperthermia, hyperammonemia, abnormal glucose levels, and many other biological disorders.", "Furthermore, studies show that 1 out of 8 patients with traumatic brain injury experience a comatose state.Heart-related causes of coma include cardiac arrest, myocardial infarction, heart failure, arrhythmia when severe, cardiogenic shock, myocarditis, and pericarditis.", "Respiratory arrest is the only lung condition to cause coma, but many different lung conditions can cause decreased level of consciousness, but don't reach coma.Other causes of coma include severe or persistent seizures, kidney failure, liver failure, hyperglycemia, hypoglycemia, and infections involving the brain, like meningitis and encephalitis." ], [ "Pathophysiology", "Injury to either or both of the cerebral cortex or the reticular activating system (RAS) is sufficient to cause a person to enter coma.The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of neural tissue of the cerebrum of the brain.", "The cerebral cortex is composed of gray matter which consists of the nuclei of neurons, whereas the inner portion of the cerebrum is composed of white matter and is composed of the axons of neuron.", "White matter is responsible for perception, relay of the sensory input via the thalamic pathway, and many other neurological functions, including complex thinking.The RAS, on the other hand, is a more primitive structure in the brainstem which includes the reticular formation (RF).", "The RAS has two tracts, the ascending and descending tract.", "The ascending tract, or ascending reticular activating system (ARAS), is made up of a system of acetylcholine-producing neurons, and works to arouse and wake up the brain.", "Arousal of the brain begins from the RF, through the thalamus, and then finally to the cerebral cortex.", "Any impairment in ARAS functioning, a neuronal dysfunction, along the arousal pathway stated directly above, prevents the body from being aware of its surroundings.", "Without the arousal and consciousness centers, the body cannot awaken, remaining in a comatose state.The severity and mode of onset of coma depends on the underlying cause.", "There are two main subdivisions of a coma: structural and diffuse neuronal.", "A structural cause, for example, is brought upon by a mechanical force that brings about cellular damage, such as physical pressure or a blockage in neural transmission.", "While a diffuse cause is limited to aberrations of cellular function, that fall under a metabolic or toxic subgroup.", "Toxin-induced comas are caused by extrinsic substances, whereas metabolic-induced comas are caused by intrinsic processes, such as body thermoregulation or ionic imbalances(e.g.", "sodium).", "For instance, severe hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) or hypercapnia (increased carbon dioxide levels in the blood) are examples of a metabolic diffuse neuronal dysfunction.", "Hypoglycemia or hypercapnia initially cause mild agitation and confusion, but progress to obtundation, stupor, and finally, complete unconsciousness.", "In contrast, coma resulting from a severe traumatic brain injury or subarachnoid hemorrhage can be instantaneous.", "The mode of onset may therefore be indicative of the underlying cause.Structural and diffuse causes of coma are not isolated from one another, as one can lead to the other in some situations.", "For instance, coma induced by a diffuse metabolic process, such as hypoglycemia, can result in a structural coma if it is not resolved.", "Another example is if cerebral edema, a diffuse dysfunction, leads to ischemia of the brainstem, a structural issue, due to the blockage of the circulation in the brain." ], [ "Diagnosis", "Although diagnosis of coma is simple, investigating the underlying cause of onset can be rather challenging.", "As such, after gaining stabilization of the patient's airways, breathing and circulation (the basic ABCs) various diagnostic tests, such as physical examinations and imaging tools (CT scan, MRI, etc.)", "are employed to access the underlying cause of the coma.When an unconscious person enters a hospital, the hospital utilizes a series of diagnostic steps to identify the cause of unconsciousness.", "According to Young, the following steps should be taken when dealing with a patient possibly in a coma:# Perform a general examination and medical history check# Make sure the patient is in an actual comatose state and is not in a locked-in state or experiencing psychogenic unresponsiveness.", "Patients with locked-in syndrome present with voluntary movement of their eyes, whereas patients with psychogenic comas demonstrate active resistance to passive opening of the eyelids, with the eyelids closing abruptly and completely when the lifted upper eyelid is released (rather than slowly, asymmetrically and incompletely as seen in comas due to organic causes).# Find the site of the brain that may be causing coma (e.g., brainstem, back of brain...) and assess the severity of the coma with the Glasgow Coma Scale# Take blood work to see if drugs were involved or if it was a result of hypoventilation/hyperventilation# Check for levels of serum glucose, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, phosphate, urea, and creatinine# Perform brain scans to observe any abnormal brain functioning using either CT or MRI scans# Continue to monitor brain waves and identify seizures of patient using EEGs===Initial evaluation===In the initial assessment of coma, it is common to gauge the level of consciousness on the AVPU (alert, vocal stimuli, painful stimuli, unresponsive) scale by spontaneously exhibiting actions and, assessing the patient's response to vocal and painful stimuli.", "More elaborate scales, such as the Glasgow Coma Scale, quantify an individual's reactions such as eye opening, movement and verbal response in order to indicate their extent of brain injury.", "The patient's score can vary from a score of 3 (indicating severe brain injury and death) to 15 (indicating mild or no brain injury).In those with deep unconsciousness, there is a risk of asphyxiation as the control over the muscles in the face and throat is diminished.", "As a result, those presenting to a hospital with coma are typically assessed for this risk (\"airway management\").", "If the risk of asphyxiation is deemed high, doctors may use various devices (such as an oropharyngeal airway, nasopharyngeal airway or endotracheal tube) to safeguard the airway.===Imaging and testing===Imaging basically encompasses computed tomography (CAT or CT) scan of the brain, or MRI for example, and is performed to identify specific causes of the coma, such as hemorrhage in the brain or herniation of the brain structures.", "Special tests such as an EEG can also show a lot about the activity level of the cortex such as semantic processing, presence of seizures, and are important available tools not only for the assessment of the cortical activity but also for predicting the likelihood of the patient's awakening.", "The autonomous responses such as the skin conductance response may also provide further insight on the patient's emotional processing.In the treatment of traumatic brain injury (TBI), there are 4 examination methods that have proved useful: skull x-ray, angiography, computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).", "The skull x-ray can detect linear fractures, impression fractures (expression fractures) and burst fractures.", "Angiography is used on rare occasions for TBIs i.e.", "when there is suspicion of an aneurysm, carotid sinus fistula, traumatic vascular occlusion, and vascular dissection.", "A CT can detect changes in density between the brain tissue and hemorrhages like subdural and intracerebral hemorrhages.", "MRIs are not the first choice in emergencies because of the long scanning times and because fractures cannot be detected as well as CT. MRIs are used for the imaging of soft tissues and lesions in the posterior fossa which cannot be found with the use of CT.===Body movements===Assessment of the brainstem and cortical function through special reflex tests such as the oculocephalic reflex test (doll's eyes test), oculovestibular reflex test (cold caloric test), corneal reflex, and the gag reflex.", "Reflexes are a good indicator of what cranial nerves are still intact and functioning and is an important part of the physical exam.", "Due to the unconscious status of the patient, only a limited number of the nerves can be assessed.", "These include the cranial nerves number 2 (CN II), number 3 (CN III), number 5 (CN V), number 7 (CN VII), and cranial nerves 9 and 10 (CN IX, CN X).Type of reflexDescriptionOculocephalic reflexOculocephalic reflex, also known as the doll's eye, is performed to assess the integrity of the brainstem.", "* Patient's eyelids are gently elevated and the cornea is visualized.", "* The patient's head is then moved to the patient's left, to observe whether the eyes stay or deviate toward the patient's right; same maneuver is attempted on the opposite side.", "* If the patient's eyes move in a direction opposite to the direction of the rotation of the head, then the patient is said to have an intact brainstem.", "* However, failure of both eyes to move to one side can indicate damage or destruction of the affected side.", "In special cases, where only one eye deviates and the other does not, this often indicates a lesion (or damage) of the medial longitudinal fasciculus (MLF), which is a brainstem nerve tract.Pupillary light reflexPupil reaction to light is important because it shows an intact retina, and cranial nerve number 2 (CN II)* If pupils are reactive to light, then that also indicates that the cranial nerve number 3 (CN III) (or at least its parasympathetic fibers) are intact.Oculovestibular reflex(Cold Caloric Test)Caloric reflex test also evaluates both cortical and brainstem function* Cold water is injected into one ear and the patient is observed for eye movement* If the patient's eyes slowly deviate toward the ear where the water was injected, then the brainstem is intact, however failure to deviate toward the injected ear indicates damage of the brainstem on that side.", "* The cortex is responsible for a rapid nystagmus away from this deviated position and is often seen in patients who are conscious or merely lethargic.Corneal reflexThe corneal reflex assesses the proper function of the trigeminal nerve (CN 5) and facial nerve (CN 7), and is present at infancy.", "* Lightly touching the cornea with a tissue or cotton swab induces a rapid blink reflex of both eyes.", "* Touching the sclera or eyelashes, presenting a light flash, or stimulating the supraorbital nerve will induce a less rapid but still reliable response.", "* Those in a comatose state will have altered corneal reflex depending on the severity of their unconscious and the location of their lesion.Gag reflexThe gag, or pharyngeal, reflex is centered in the medulla and consists of the reflexive motor response of pharyngeal elevation and constriction with tongue retraction in response to sensory stimulation of the pharyngeal wall, posterior tongue, tonsils, or faucial pillars.", "* This reflex is examined by touching the posterior pharynx with the soft tip of a cotton applicator and visually inspecting for elevation of the pharynx.", "* Those in comatose states will often demonstrate poor gag reflexes if there has been damage to their glossopharyngeal (CN 9) or vagus nerve (CN 10).Decorticate posturing, indicating a lesion at the red nucleus or above.", "This positioning is stereotypical for upper brain stem, or cortical damage.", "The other variant is decerebrate posturing, not seen in this picture.Assessment of posture and physique is the next step.", "It involves general observation about the patient's positioning.", "There are often two stereotypical postures seen in comatose patients.", "Decorticate posturing is a stereotypical posturing in which the patient has arms flexed at the elbow, and arms adducted toward the body, with both legs extended.", "Decerebrate posturing is a stereotypical posturing in which the legs are similarly extended (stretched), but the arms are also stretched (extended at the elbow).", "The posturing is critical since it indicates where the damage is in the central nervous system.", "A decorticate posturing indicates a lesion (a point of damage) at or above the red nucleus, whereas a decerebrate posturing indicates a lesion at or below the red nucleus.", "In other words, a decorticate lesion is closer to the cortex, as opposed to a decerebrate posturing which indicates that the lesion is closer to the brainstem.=== Pupil size ===Pupil assessment is often a critical portion of a comatose examination, as it can give information as to the cause of the coma; the following table is a technical, medical guideline for common pupil findings and their possible interpretations: Pupil sizes (left eye vs. right eye) Possible interpretation 250px Normal eye with two pupils equal in size and reactive to light.", "This means that the patient is probably not in a coma and is probably lethargic, under influence of a drug, or sleeping.", "250px \"Pinpoint\" pupils indicate heroin or opiate overdose, which can be responsible for a patient's coma.", "The pinpoint pupils are still reactive to light bilaterally (in both eyes, not just one).", "Another possibility is damage to the pons.", "250px One pupil is dilated and unreactive, while the other is normal (in this case, the right eye is dilated, while the left eye is normal in size).", "This could mean damage to the oculomotor nerve (cranial nerve number 3, CN III) on the right side, or indicate the possibility of vascular involvement.", "250px Both pupils are dilated and unreactive to light.", "This could be due to overdose of certain medications, hypothermia or severe anoxia (lack of oxygen).===Severity===A coma can be classified as (1) supratentorial (above Tentorium cerebelli), (2) infratentorial (below Tentorium cerebelli), (3) metabolic or (4) diffused.", "This classification is merely dependent on the position of the original damage that caused the coma, and does not correlate with severity or the prognosis.", "The severity of coma impairment however is categorized into several levels.", "Patients may or may not progress through these levels.", "In the first level, the brain responsiveness lessens, normal reflexes are lost, the patient no longer responds to pain and cannot hear.The Rancho Los Amigos Scale is a complex scale that has eight separate levels, and is often used in the first few weeks or months of coma while the patient is under closer observation, and when shifts between levels are more frequent." ], [ "Treatment", "Treatment for people in a coma will depend on the severity and cause of the comatose state.", "Upon admittance to an emergency department, coma patients will usually be placed in an Intensive Care Unit (ICU) immediately, where maintenance of the patient's respiration and circulation become a first priority.", "Stability of their respiration and circulation is sustained through the use of intubation, ventilation, administration of intravenous fluids or blood and other supportive care as needed.=== Continued care ===Once a patient is stable and no longer in immediate danger, there may be a shift of priority from stabilizing the patient to maintaining the state of their physical wellbeing.", "Moving patients every 2–3 hours by turning them side to side is crucial to avoiding bed sores as a result of being confined to a bed.", "Moving patients through the use of physical therapy also aids in preventing atelectasis, contractures or other orthopedic deformities which would interfere with a coma patient's recovery.Pneumonia is also common in coma patients due to their inability to swallow which can then lead to aspiration.", "A coma patient's lack of a gag reflex and use of a feeding tube can result in food, drink or other solid organic matter being lodged within their lower respiratory tract (from the trachea to the lungs).", "This trapping of matter in their lower respiratory tract can ultimately lead to infection, resulting in aspiration pneumonia.Coma patients may also deal with restlessness or seizures.", "As such, soft cloth restraints may be used to prevent them from pulling on tubes or dressings and side rails on the bed should be kept up to prevent patients from falling.=== Caregivers ===Coma has a wide variety of emotional reactions from the family members of the affected patients, as well as the primary care givers taking care of the patients.", "Research has shown that the severity of injury causing coma was found to have no significant impact compared to how much time has passed since the injury occurred.", "Common reactions, such as desperation, anger, frustration, and denial are possible.", "The focus of the patient care should be on creating an amicable relationship with the family members or dependents of a comatose patient as well as creating a rapport with the medical staff.", "Although there is heavy importance of a primary care taker, secondary care takers can play a supporting role to temporarily relieve the primary care taker's burden of tasks." ], [ "Prognosis", "Comas can last from several days to, in particularly extreme cases, years.", "Some patients eventually gradually come out of the coma, some progress to a vegetative state or a minimally conscious state, and others die.", "Some patients who have entered a vegetative state go on to regain a degree of awareness; and in some cases may remain in vegetative state for years or even decades (the longest recorded period is 42 years, the Aruna Shanbaug case).Predicted chances of recovery will differ depending on which techniques were used to measure the patient's severity of neurological damage.", "Predictions of recovery are based on statistical rates, expressed as the level of chance the person has of recovering.", "Time is the best general predictor of a chance of recovery.", "For example, after four months of coma caused by brain damage, the chance of partial recovery is less than 15%, and the chance of full recovery is very low.The outcome for coma and vegetative state depends on the cause, location, severity and extent of neurological damage.", "A deeper coma alone does not necessarily mean a slimmer chance of recovery; similarly, a milder coma does not indicate a higher chance of recovery.", "The most common cause of death for a person in a vegetative state is secondary infection such as pneumonia, which can occur in patients who lie still for extended periods.=== Recovery ===People may emerge from a coma with a combination of physical, intellectual, and psychological difficulties that need special attention.", "It is common for coma patients to awaken in a profound state of confusion and experience dysarthria, the inability to articulate any speech.", "Recovery is usually gradual.", "In the first days, the patient may only awaken for a few minutes, with increased duration of wakefulness as their recovery progresses, and they may eventually recover full awareness.", "That said, some patients may never progress beyond very basic responses.There are reports of people coming out of a coma after long periods of time.", "After 19 years in a minimally conscious state, Terry Wallis spontaneously began speaking and regained awareness of his surroundings.A man with brain damage and trapped in a coma-like state for six years was brought back to consciousness in 2003 by doctors who planted electrodes deep inside his brain.", "The method, called deep brain stimulation (DBS), successfully roused communication, complex movement and eating ability in the 38-year-old American man with a traumatic brain injury.", "His injuries left him in a minimally conscious state, a condition akin to a coma but characterized by occasional, but brief, evidence of environmental and self-awareness that coma patients lack." ], [ "Society and culture", "Research by Eelco Wijdicks on the depiction of comas in movies was published in Neurology in May 2006.Wijdicks studied 30 films (made between 1970 and 2004) that portrayed actors in prolonged comas, and he concluded that only two films accurately depicted the state of a coma patient and the agony of waiting for a patient to awaken: ''Reversal of Fortune'' (1990) and ''The Dreamlife of Angels'' (1998).", "The remaining 28 were criticized for portraying miraculous awakenings with no lasting side effects, unrealistic depictions of treatments and equipment required, and comatose patients remaining muscular and tanned.=== Bioethics ===A person in a coma is said to be in an unconscious state.", "Perspectives on personhood, identity and consciousness come into play when discussing the metaphysical and bioethical views on comas.It has been argued that unawareness should be just as ethically relevant and important as a state of awareness and that there should be metaphysical support of unawareness as a state.In the ethical discussions about disorders of consciousness (DOCs), two abilities are usually considered as central: ''experiencing well-being'' and ''having interest''.", "Well-being can broadly be understood as the positive effect related to what makes life good (according to specific standards) for the individual in question.", "The only condition for well-being broadly considered is the ability to experience its 'positiveness'.", "That said, because experiencing positiveness is a basic emotional process with phylogenetic roots, it is likely to occur at a completely unaware level and therefore, introduces the idea of an unconscious well-being.", "As such, the ability of having interests, is crucial for describing two abilities which those with comas are deficient in.", "Having an interest in a certain domain can be understood as having a stake in something that can affect what makes our life good in that domain.", "An interest is what directly and immediately improves life from a certain point of view or within a particular domain, or greatly increases the likelihood of life improvement enabling the subject to realize some good.", "That said, sensitivity to reward signals is a fundamental element in the learning process, both consciously and unconsciously.", "Moreover, the unconscious brain is able to interact with its surroundings in a meaningful way and to produce meaningful information processing of stimuli coming from the external environment, including other people.According to Hawkins, \"1.A life is good if the subject is able to value, or more basically if the subject is able to care.", "Importantly, Hawkins stresses that caring has no need for cognitive commitment, i.e.", "for high-level cognitive activities: it requires being able to distinguish something, track it for a while, recognize it over time, and have certain emotional dispositions ''vis-à-vis'' something.", "2.A life is good if the subject has the capacity for relationship with others, i.e.", "for meaningfully interacting with other people.\"", "This suggests that unawareness may (at least partly) fulfill both conditions identified by Hawkins for life to be good for a subject, thus making the unconscious ethically relevant." ], [ "See also", "* Brain death, lack of activity in both cortex, and lack of brainstem function* Coma scale, a system to assess the severity of coma* Locked-in syndrome, paralysis of most muscles, except ocular muscles of the eyes, while patient is conscious* Near-death experience, type of experience registered by people in a state of coma.", "* Persistent vegetative state (vegetative coma), deep coma without detectable awareness.", "Damage to the cortex, with an intact brainstem.", "* Process Oriented Coma Work, for an approach to working with residual consciousness in comatose patients.", "* Suspended animation, the inducement of a temporary cessation or decay of main body functions." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Call of Cthulhu (role-playing game)" ], [ "Introduction", "7th edition cover by Sam Lamont, 2014'''''Call of Cthulhu''''' is a horror fiction role-playing game based on H. P. Lovecraft's story of the same name and the associated Cthulhu Mythos.", "The game, often abbreviated as ''CoC'', is published by Chaosium; it was first released in 1981 and is in its seventh edition, with licensed foreign language editions available as well.", "Its game system is based on Chaosium's Basic Role-Playing (BRP) with additions for the horror genre.", "These include special rules for sanity and luck." ], [ "Gameplay", "===Setting===''Call of Cthulhu'' is set in a darker version of our world based on H. P. Lovecraft's observation (from his essay, \"Supernatural Horror in Literature\") that \"The oldest and strongest emotion of mankind is fear, and the strongest kind of fear is fear of the unknown.\"", "The original edition, first published in 1981, uses Basic Role-Playing as its basis and is set in the 1920s, the setting of many of Lovecraft's stories.", "The ''Cthulhu by Gaslight'' supplement blends the occult and Holmesian mystery and is mostly set in England during the 1890s.", "''Cthulhu Now'' and ''Delta Green'' are set in a modern/1980s era and deal with conspiracies.", "Recent settings include 1000 AD (''Cthulhu: Dark Ages''), the 23rd century (''Cthulhu Rising'') and Ancient Rome (''Cthulhu Invictus'').", "The protagonists may also travel to places that are not of this earth, such as the Dreamlands (which can be accessed through dreams as well as being physically connected to the earth), other planets, or the voids of space.", "In keeping with the Lovecraftian theme, the gamemaster is called the Keeper of Arcane Lore (\"the keeper\"), while player characters are called Investigators of the Unknown (\"investigators\").While predominantly focused on Lovecraftian fiction and horror, playing in the Cthulhu Mythos is not required.", "The system also includes ideas for non-Lovecraft games, such as using folk horror or the settings of other authors and horror movies, or with entirely custom settings and creatures by the gamemaster and/or players.===Mechanics===\"The King in Yellow\", illustration by Earl Geier for the ''Fatal Experiments'' adventure book.", "The Yellow Sign adorning the back of the throne was designed by Kevin A. Ross for the ''Call of Cthulhu'' scenario ''Tell Me, Have You Seen the Yellow Sign?", "''''CoC'' uses the Basic Role-Playing system first developed for ''RuneQuest'' and used in other Chaosium games.", "It is skill-based, with player characters getting better with their skills by succeeding at using them for as long as they stay functionally healthy and sane.", "They do not, however, gain hit points and do not become significantly harder to kill.", "The game does not use levels.", "''CoC'' uses percentile dice (with results ranging from 1 to 100) to determine success or failure.", "Every player statistic is intended to be compatible with the notion that there is a probability of success for a particular action given what the player is capable of doing.", "For example, an artist may have a 75% chance of being able to draw something (represented by having 75 in Art skill), and thus rolling a number under 75 would yield a success.", "Rolling or less of the skill level (1-15 in the example) would be a \"special success\" (or an \"impale\" for combat skills) and would yield some extra bonus to be determined by the keeper.", "For example, the artist character might draw especially well or especially fast, or catch some unapparent detail in the drawing.The players take the roles of ordinary people drawn into the realm of the mysterious: detectives, criminals, scholars, artists, war veterans, etc.", "Often, happenings begin innocently enough, until more and more of the workings behind the scenes are revealed.", "As the characters learn more of the true horrors of the world and the irrelevance of humanity, their sanity (represented by \"Sanity Points\", abbreviated SAN) inevitably withers away.", "The game includes a mechanism for determining how damaged a character's sanity is at any given point; encountering the horrific beings usually triggers a loss of SAN points.", "To gain the tools they need to defeat the horrors – mystic knowledge and magic – the characters may end up losing some of their sanity, though other means such as pure firepower or simply outsmarting one's opponents also exist.", "''CoC'' has a reputation as a game in which it is quite common for a player character to die in gruesome circumstances or end up in a mental institution.", "Eventual triumph of the players is not guaranteed." ], [ "History", "The original conception of ''Call of Cthulhu'' was ''Dark Worlds'', a game commissioned by the publisher Chaosium but never published.", "Sandy Petersen contacted them regarding writing a supplement for their popular fantasy game ''RuneQuest'' set in Lovecraft's Dreamlands.", "He took over the writing of ''Call of Cthulhu'', and the game was released in 1981.Petersen oversaw the first four editions with only minor changes to the system.", "Once he left, development was continued by Lynn Willis, who was credited as co-author in the fifth and sixth editions.", "After the death of Willis, Mike Mason became ''Call of Cthulhu'' line editor in 2013, continuing its development with Paul Fricker.", "Together they made the most significant rules alterations than in any previous edition, culminating in the release of the 7th edition in 2014.===Editions=== Edition Published Format Notes 1st edition 1981 Boxed set Includes 16-page ''Basic Role-Playing'' booklet in addition to main rulebook.", "2nd edition 1983 Boxed set Includes a single rulebook; minor rules changes.", "3rd edition 1986 Boxed set Divides rules into separate ''Investigator's Book'' and ''Keeper's Book'' booklets.", "4th edition 1989 Softcover Includes content from the ''Cthulhu Companion'' and ''Fragments of Fear: The Second Cthulhu Companion'' supplements.", "5th edition 1992 Softcover First version to credit Lynn Willis as co-author.", "Edition 5.5 1998 Softcover Reorganized and updated version of the 5th edition, with new cover art; \"Edition 5.5\" designator appears on title page.", "Edition 5.6 1999 Hardcover Corrected revised printing; \"Edition 5.6\" designator appears on title page.", "Edition 5.6.1 2001 Hardcover Corrected revised printing; \"Edition 5.6.1\" designator appears on title page.", "20th Anniversary Edition 2001 Leather-bound hardcover book Limited edition bound in green leather, with new \"ancient tome\" layout.", "6th edition 2004 Hardcover, softcover, or electronic file Same layout and content as 20th Anniversary Edition.", "7th edition 2014 Hardcover, softcover, or electronic file Rules significantly revised by Paul Fricker and Mike Mason.", "New cover art and full-color layout.", "Print version released spring 2016.===Early releases===For those grounded in the RPG tradition, the very first release of ''Call of Cthulhu'' created a brand new framework for table-top gaming.", "Rather than the traditional format established by ''Dungeons & Dragons'', which often involved the characters wandering through caves or tunnels and fighting different types of monsters, Sandy Petersen introduced the concept of the ''Onion Skin'': Interlocking layers of information and nested clues that lead the player characters from seemingly minor investigations into a missing person to discovering mind-numbingly awful, global conspiracies to destroy the world.", "Unlike its predecessor games, ''CoC'' assumed that most investigators would not survive, alive or sane, and that the only safe way to deal with the vast majority of nasty things described in the rule books was to run away.", "A well-run ''CoC'' campaign should engender a sense of foreboding and inevitable doom in its players.", "The style and setting of the game, in a relatively modern time period, created an emphasis on real-life settings, character research, and thinking one's way around trouble.The first book of ''Call of Cthulhu'' adventures was ''Shadows of Yog-Sothoth''.", "In this work, the characters come upon a secret society's foul plot to destroy mankind, and pursue it first near to home and then in a series of exotic locations.", "This template was to be followed in many subsequent campaigns, including ''Fungi from Yuggoth'' (later known as ''Curse of Cthulhu'' and ''Day of the Beast''), ''Spawn of Azathoth'', and possibly the most highly acclaimed, ''Masks of Nyarlathotep''.", "''Shadows of Yog-Sothoth'' is important not only because it represents the first published addition to the boxed first edition of ''Call of Cthulhu'', but because its format defined a new way of approaching a campaign of linked RPG scenarios involving actual clues for the would-be detectives amongst the players to follow and link in order to uncover the dastardly plots afoot.", "Its format has been used by every other campaign-length ''Call of Cthulhu'' publication.", "The standard of ''CoC'' scenarios was well received by independent reviewers.", "''The Asylum and Other Tales'', a series of stand alone articles released in 1983, rated an overall 9/10 in Issue 47 of ''White Dwarf'' magazine.The standard of the included 'clue' material varies from scenario to scenario, but reached its zenith in the original boxed versions of the ''Masks of Nyarlathotep'' and ''Horror on the Orient Express'' campaigns.", "Inside these one could find matchbooks and business cards apparently defaced by non-player characters, newspaper cuttings and (in the case of ''Orient Express'') period passports to which players could attach their photographs, increasing the sense of immersion.", "Indeed, during the period that these supplements were produced, third party campaign publishers strove to emulate the quality of the additional materials, often offering separately-priced 'deluxe' clue packages for their campaigns.Additional milieux were provided by Chaosium with the release of ''Dreamlands'', a boxed supplement containing additional rules needed for playing within the Lovecraft Dreamlands, a large map and a scenario booklet, and ''Cthulhu By Gaslight'', another boxed set which moved the action from the 1920s to the 1890s.===''Cthulhu Now''===In 1987, Chaosium issued the supplement titled ''Cthulhu Now'', a collection of rules, supplemental source materials and scenarios for playing ''Call of Cthulhu'' in the present day.", "This proved to be a very popular alternative milieu, so much so that much of the supplemental material is now included in the core rule book.===''Lovecraft Country''===''Lovecraft Country'' was a line of supplements for ''Call of Cthulhu'' released in 1990.These supplements were overseen by Keith Herber and provided backgrounds and adventures set in Lovecraft's fictional towns of Arkham, Kingsport, Innsmouth, Dunwich, and their environs.", "The intent was to give investigators a common base, as well as to center the action on well-drawn characters with clear motivations.===''Terror Australis''===In 1987, ''Terror Australis: Call of Cthulhu in the Land Down Under'' was published.", "In 2018, a revised and updated version of the 1987 game was reissued, with about triple the content and two new games.", "It requires the ''Call of Cthulhu Keeper's Rulebook'' (7th Edition) and is usable with ''Pulp Cthulhu''.===Recent history===In the years since the collapse of the ''Mythos'' collectible card game (production ceased in 1997), the release of ''CoC'' books has been very sporadic, with up to a year between releases.", "Chaosium struggled with near bankruptcy for many years before finally starting their upward climb again.2005 was Chaosium's busiest year for many years, with 10 releases for the game.", "Chaosium took to marketing \"monographs\"—short books by individual writers with editing and layout provided out-of-house—directly to the consumer, allowing the company to gauge market response to possible new works.", "The range of times and places in which the horrors of the Mythos can be encountered was also expanded in late 2005 onward with the addition of ''Cthulhu Dark Ages'' by Stéphane Gesbert, which gives a framework for playing games set in 11th century Europe, ''Secrets of Japan'' by Michael Dziesinski for gaming in modern-day Japan, and ''Secrets of Kenya'' by David Conyers for gaming in interwar period Africa.In July 2011, Chaosium announced it would re-release a 30th anniversary edition of the ''CoC'' 6th edition role-playing game.", "This 320-page book features thick (3 mm) leatherette hardcovers with the front cover and spine stamped with gold foil.", "The interior pages are printed in black ink, on 90 gsm matte art paper.", "The binding is thread sewn, square backed.", "Chaosium offered a one-time printing of this Collector's Edition.On May 28, 2013, a crowdfunding campaign on Kickstarter for the 7th edition of ''Call of Cthulhu'' was launched with a goal of $40,000; it ended on June 29 of the same year having collected $561,836.It included many more major revisions than any previous edition, and also split the core rules into two books, a Player's Guide and Keeper's Guide.", "Problems and delays fulfilling the Kickstarters for the 7th edition of ''Call of Cthulhu'' led Greg Stafford and Sandy Petersen (who had both left in 1998) to return to an active role at Chaosium in June 2015.The print version of 7th edition became available in September 2016.The available milieux were also expanded with the release of Cthulhu Through the Ages, a supplement containing additional rules needed for playing within the Roman Empire, Mythic Iceland, a futuristic micro-setting, and the End Times, where the monsters of the mythos attempt to subjugate or destroy the world." ], [ "Licenses", "Chaosium has licensed other publishers to create supplements, video, card and board games using the setting and the ''Call of Cthulhu'' brand.", "Many, such as ''Delta Green'' by Pagan Publishing and Arkham Horror by Fantasy Flight, have moved away completely from ''Call of Cthulhu''.", "Other licensees have included Infogrames, Miskatonic River Press, Theater of the Mind Enterprises, Triad Entertainment, Games Workshop, RAFM, Goodman Games, Grenadier Models Inc. and Yog-Sothoth.com.", "These supplements may be set in different time frames or even different game universes from the original game.===''Trail of Cthulhu''===In February 2008, Pelgrane Press published ''Trail of Cthulhu'', a stand-alone game created by Kenneth Hite using the GUMSHOE System developed by Robin Laws.", "GUMSHOE is specifically designed to be used in investigative games.===''Shadows of Cthulhu''===In September 2008, Reality Deviant Publications published ''Shadows of Cthulhu'', a supplement that brings Lovecraftian gaming to Green Ronin's True20 system.===''Realms of Cthulhu''===In October 2009, Reality Blurs published ''Realms of Cthulhu'', a supplement for Pinnacle Entertainment's Savage Worlds system.===''Delta Green''===Pagan Publishing published ''Delta Green'', a series of supplements originally set in the 1990s, although later supplements add support for playing closer to the present day.", "In these, player characters are agents of a secret agency known as Delta Green, which fights against creatures from the Mythos and conspiracies related to them.", "Arc Dream Publishing released a new version of ''Delta Green'' in 2016 as a standalone game, partially using the mechanics from ''Call of Cthulhu''.===''d20 Call of Cthulhu''===In 2001, a stand-alone version of ''Call of Cthulhu'' was released by Wizards of the Coast, for the d20 system.", "Intended to preserve the feeling of the original game, the d20 conversion of the game rules were supposed to make the game more accessible to the large ''D&D'' player base.", "The d20 system also made it possible to use ''Dungeons & Dragons'' characters in ''Call of Cthulhu'', as well as to introduce the Cthulhu Mythos into ''Dungeons & Dragons'' games.", "The d20 version of the game is no longer supported by Wizards as per their contract with Chaosium.", "Chaosium included d20 stats as an appendix in three releases (see Lovecraft Country), but have since dropped the \"dual stat\" idea.===Card games===''Mythos'' was a collectible card game (CCG) based on the Cthulhu Mythos that Chaosium produced and marketed during the mid-1990s.", "While generally praised for its fast gameplay and unique mechanics, it ultimately failed to gain a very large market presence.", "It bears mention because its eventual failure brought the company to hard times that affected its ability to produce material for ''Call of Cthulhu''.", "''Call of Cthulhu: The Card Game'' is a second collectible card game, produced by Fantasy Flight Games.===Miniatures===The first licensed ''Call of Cthulhu'' gaming miniatures were sculpted by Andrew Chernack and released by Grenadier Models in boxed sets and blister packs in 1983.The license was later transferred to RAFM.", "As of 2011, RAFM still produce licensed C''all of Cthulhu'' models sculpted by Bob Murch.", "Both lines include investigator player character models and the iconic monsters of the Cthulhu mythos.As of July 2015, Reaper Miniatures started its third \" Bones Kickstarter\", a Kickstarter intended to help the company migrate some miniatures from metal to plastic, and introducing some new ones.", "Among the stretch goals was the second $50 expansion, devoted to the Mythos, with miniatures such as Cultists, Deep Ones, Mi'Go, and an extra $15 Shub-Niggurath \"miniature\" (it is, at least, 6x4 squares).", "It is expected for those miniatures to remain in the Reaper Miniatures catalogue after the Kickstarter project finishes.", "In 2020 Chaosium announced a license agreement with Ardacious for ''Call of Cthulhu'' virtual miniatures to be released on their augmented reality app Ardent Roleplay.===Video games=======''Shadow of the Comet''====''Shadow of the Comet'' (later repackaged as ''Call of Cthulhu: Shadow of the Comet'') is an adventure game developed and released by Infogrames in 1993.The game is based on H. P. Lovecraft's Cthulhu Mythos and uses many elements from Lovecraft's ''The Dunwich Horror'' and ''The Shadow Over Innsmouth''.", "A follow-up game, ''Prisoner of Ice'', is not a direct sequel.====''Prisoner of Ice''====''Prisoner of Ice'' (also ''Call of Cthulhu: Prisoner of Ice'') is an adventure game developed and released by Infogrames for the PC and Macintosh computers in 1995 in America and Europe.", "It is based on H. P. Lovecraft's Cthulhu Mythos, particularly ''At the Mountains of Madness'', and is a follow-up to Infogrames' earlier ''Shadow of the Comet''.", "In 1997, the game was ported to the Sega Saturn and PlayStation exclusively in Japan.====''Dark Corners of the Earth''====A licensed first-person shooter adventure game by Headfirst Productions, based on ''Call of Cthulhu'' campaign ''Escape from Innsmouth'' and released by Bethesda Softworks in 2005/2006 for the PC and Xbox.====''The Wasted Land''====In April 2011, Chaosium and new developer Red Wasp Design announced a joint project to produce a mobile video game based on the ''Call of Cthulhu'' RPG, entitled ''Call of Cthulhu: The Wasted Land''.", "The game was released on January 30, 2012.====''Cthulhu Chronicles''====In 2018, Metarcade produced ''Cthulhu Chronicles'', a game for iOS with a campaign of nine mobile interactive fiction stories set in 1920s England based on ''Call of Cthulhu''.", "The first five stories were released on July 10, 2018.====''Call of Cthulhu''====''Call of Cthulhu'' is a survival horror role-playing video game developed by Cyanide and published by Focus Home Interactive for PlayStation 4, Xbox One and Windows.", "The game features a semi-open world environment and incorporates themes of Lovecraftian and psychological horror into a story which includes elements of investigation and stealth.", "It is inspired by H. P. Lovecraft's short story \"The Call of Cthulhu\"." ], [ "Reception", "Multiple reviews of various editions appeared in ''Space Gamer/Fantasy Gamer''.", "* In the March 1982 edition (No.", "49), William A. Barton noted that there were some shortcomings resulting from an assumption by the designers that players would have access to rules from ''RuneQuest'' that were not in ''Call of Cthulhu'', but otherwise Barton called the game \"an excellent piece of work....", "The worlds of H. P. Lovecraft are truly open for the fantasy gamer.\"", "* In the October–November 1987 edition (No.", "80), Lisa Cohen reviewed the 3rd edition, saying, \"\"This book can be for collectors of art, players, or anyone interested in knowledge about old time occult.", "It is the one reprint that is worth the money.", "\"Multiple reviews of various editions appeared in ''White Dwarf''.", "* In the August 1982 edition (Issue 32), Ian Bailey admired much about the first edition of the game; his only criticism was that the game was too \"U.S. orientated and consequently any Keeper... who wants to set his game in the UK will have a lot of research to do.\"", "Bailey gave the game an above average rating of 9 out of 10, saying, \"''Call of Cthulhu'' is an excellent game and a welcome addition to the world of role-playing.", "\"* In the August 1986 edition (Issue 80), Ashley Shepherd thought the inclusion of much material in the 3rd edition that had been previously published as supplementary books \"makes the game incredibly good value.\"", "He concluded, \"This package is going to keep ''Call of Cthulhu'' at the front of the fantasy game genre.", "\"Several reviews of various editions and supplements also appeared in ''Dragon''.", "* In the May 1982 edition (Issue 61), David Cook thought the rules were too complex for new gamers, but said, \"It is a good game for experienced role-playing gamers and ambitious judges, especially if they like Lovecraft’s type of story.", "\"* In the August 1987 edition (Issue 124), Ken Rolston reviewed the ''Terror Australis'' supplement for 3rd edition that introduced an Australian setting in the 1920s.", "Bambra thought that \"Literate, macabre doom shambles from each page.", "Good reading, and a good campaign setting for COC adventures.", "\"* In the October 1988 edition (Issue 138), Ken Rolston gave an overview of the 3rd edition, and placed it ahead of its competitors due to superior campaign setting, tone and atmosphere, the player characters as investigators, and the use of realistic player handouts such as authentic-looking newspaper clippings.", "Rolston concluded, \"''CoC'' is one of role-playing’s acknowledged classics.", "Its various supplements over the years have maintained an exceptional level of quality; several, including ''Shadows of Yog-Sothoth'' and ''Masks of Nyarlathotep'', deserve consideration among the greatest pinnacles of the fantasy role-playing game design.", "\"* In the June 1990 edition (Issue 158), Jim Bambra liked the updated setting of the 4th edition, placing the game firmly in Lovecraft's 1920s.", "He also liked the number of adventures included in the 192-page rulebook: \"The fourth edition contains enough adventures to keep any group happily entertained and sanity blasted.\"", "However, while Cook questioned whether owners of the 2nd or 3rd edition would get good value for their money — \"You lack only the car-chase rules and the improved layout of the three books in one.", "The rest of the material has received minor editing but no substantial changes\" — Cook strongly recommended the new edition to newcomers, saying, \"If you don’t already play ''CoC'', all I can do is urge you to give it a try.... discover for yourself why it has made so many converts since its release.", "\"* In the October 1992 edition (Issue 186), Rick Swan admitted that he was skeptical that the 5th edition would offer anything new, but instead found that the new edition benefited from \"fresh material, judicious editing, and thorough polishes.\"", "He concluded, \"Few RPGs exceed the ''CoC'' game’s scope or match its skillful integration of background and game systems.", "And there’s no game more fun.", "\"In his 1990 book ''The Complete Guide to Role-Playing Games'', game critic Rick Swan gave the game a top rating of 4 out of 4, calling it \"a masterpiece, easily the best horror RPG ever published and possibly the best RPG, period ... breathtaking in scope and as richly textured as a fine novel.", "All role-players owe it to themselves to experience this truly remarkable game.", "\"In Issue 68 of ''Challenge'', Craig Sheeley reviewed the fifth edition and liked the revisions.", "\"The entire character generation process is highly streamlined and easily illustrated on a two-page flowchart.\"", "DeJong also liked the inclusion of material from all three of ''CoC''s settings (1890s, 1920s, 1990s), calling it \"One of the best features of this edition.\"", "And he was very impressed with the layout of the book, commenting, \"The organization and format of this book deserve special mention.", "I hold that every game company should study this book to learn what to do right.\"", "DeJong concluded, \"I am seriously impressed with this product.", "From cover to cover, it’s well done.", "\"In a reader poll conducted by UK magazine ''Arcane'' in 1996 to determine the 50 most popular roleplaying games of all time, ''Call of Cthulhu'' was ranked 1st.", "Editor Paul Pettengale commented: \"''Call of Cthulhu'' is fully deserved of the title as the most popular roleplaying system ever - it's a game that doesn't age, is eminently playable, and which hangs together perfectly.", "The system, even though it's over ten years old, it still one of the very best you'll find in any roleplaying game.", "Also, there's not a referee in the land who could say they've read every Lovecraft inspired book or story going, so there's a pretty-well endless supply of scenario ideas.", "It's simply marvellous.", "\"Scott Taylor for ''Black Gate'' in 2013 rated ''Call of Cthulhu'' as #4 in the top ten role-playing games of all time, saying \"With various revisions, but never a full rewrite of its percentile-based system, ''Call of Cthulhu'' might be antiquated by today's standards, but remember it is supposed to be set in the 1920s, so to me that seems more than appropriate.", "\"''Call of Cthulhu'' has been reported to be the second-most popular game played on the virtual table top platform Roll20 in 2021 (the most popular being ''Dungeons & Dragons'').", "It has also been reported to be have found success especially in Korea and Japan, and to have overtaken D&D in Japan.In his 2023 book ''Monsters, Aliens, and Holes in the Ground'', RPG historian Stu Horvath noted up to this point in time, \"roleplaying games are united in one way: In some fashion, they are all power fantasies.", "Characters go someplace, kill some things, find some loot, and maybe gain enough experience points to unlock their hidden personal potential in the form of new spells or a new power.\"", "Horvath then pointed out that this game, as the first horror RPG, had an essential difference: \"Horror, as a genre, is generally concerned with powerlessness ...", "In a complete inversion of other RPGs, characters in ''Call of Cthulhu'' are doomed.\"", "About the game itself, Horvath commented, \"I find ''Call of Cthulhu'' unabashedly fun, despite the scares and the despair ...", "The slumbering god is certainly one of the strangest of pop culture canonizations, but there seems to be an endless appetite — and deep wallets — for all things Cthulhu.", "So long as that remains true, the Great Old One will continue to loom large over RPGs.\"" ], [ "Awards", "The game has won multiple awards:* 1982, Origins Awards, ''Best Role Playing Game''* 1981, Game Designer's Guild, ''Select Award''* 1985, Games Day Award, ''Best Role Playing Game''* 1986, Games Day Award, ''Best Contemporary Role Playing Game''* 1987, Games Day Award, ''Best Other Role Playing Game''* 1993, Leeds Wargame Club, ''Best Role Playing Game''* 1994, Gamer's Choice Award, ''Hall of Fame''* 1995, Origins Award, ''Hall of Fame''* 2001, Origins Award, ''Best Graphic Presentation of a Book Product'' (for ''Call of Cthulhu'' 20th anniversary edition)* 2002 Gold Ennie Award for \"Best Graphic Design and Layout\".", "* 2003, GamingReport.com readers voted it as the number-one Gothic/Horror RPG* 2014, ENNIE Awards - Call of Cthulhu 7th Edition Quickstart - 'Best Free Product (Silver)'* 2016, UK Games Expo Awards - 'Best Roleplaying Game'* 2017, Beasts of War Awards - 'Best RPG'* 2017, Dragon Con Awards - 'Best Science Fiction or Fantasy Miniatures/Collectible Card/Role Playing Game' (for Pulp Cthulhu rules)* 2017, ENNIE Awards - 'Best Supplement (Gold)' (for Pulp Cthulhu rules)* 2017, ENNIE Awards - 'Best Cover Art (Gold)' (for Call of Cthulhu Investigator Handbook) * 2017, ENNIE Awards - 'Best Cartography (Gold)' (for Call of Cthulhu Keeper Screen Pack)* 2017, ENNIE Awards - 'Best Aid/Accessory (Gold)' (for Call of Cthulhu Keeper Screen Pack) * 2017, ENNIE Awards - 'Best Production Values (Gold)' (for Call of Cthulhu Slipcase Set)* 2018, Tabletop Gaming Magazine 'Top 150 Greatest Games of All Time' - Call of Cthulhu - Ranked #3 (Reader Poll)* 2019, ENNIE Awards - 'Best Rules (Gold)' (for Call of Cthulhu Starter Set)" ], [ "See also", "* ''Arkham Horror'' - a cooperative board game based on the Mythos.", "* ''Cthulhu Live'' - a live action role-playing game version of ''Call of Cthulhu''.", "* ''CthulhuTech'' - another role-playing game, conceived for a \"Cthulhu science-fiction setting\".", "* List of Call of Cthulhu books" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Review" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Constellations (journal)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Constellations: An International Journal of Critical and Democratic Theory''''' is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal of critical post-Marxist and democratic theory and successor of ''Praxis International''.", "It is currently edited by Simone Chambers, Cristina Lafont, and Hubertus Buchstein.", "Ertug Tombus is the managing editor of the journal since 2009.Seyla Benhabib, Nancy Fraser and Andrew Arato are the co-founding former editors.", "With an international editorial contribution, it is based at the New School in New York.Nadia Urbinati, Amy Allen, Jean L.Cohen, and Andreas Kalyvas are former co-editors." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Cape Breton Island" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cape Breton Island''' (, formerly ''''; or ''''; ) is a rugged and irregularly shaped island on the Atlantic coast of North America and part of the province of Nova Scotia, Canada.The island accounts for 18.7% of Nova Scotia's total area.", "Although the island is physically separated from the Nova Scotia peninsula by the Strait of Canso, the long Canso Causeway connects it to mainland Nova Scotia.", "The island is east-northeast of the mainland with its northern and western coasts fronting on the Gulf of Saint Lawrence with its western coast forming the eastern limits of the Northumberland Strait.", "The eastern and southern coasts front the Atlantic Ocean with its eastern coast also forming the western limits of the Cabot Strait.", "Its landmass slopes upward from south to north, culminating in the highlands of its northern cape.", "One of the world's larger saltwater lakes, (\"Arm of Gold\" in French), dominates the island's centre.The total population at the 2016 census numbered 132,010 Cape Bretoners, which is approximately 15% of the provincial population.", "Cape Breton Island has experienced a decline in population of approximately 2.9% since the 2011 census.", "Approximately 75% of the island's population is in the Cape Breton Regional Municipality (CBRM), which includes all of Cape Breton County and is often referred to as Industrial Cape Breton." ], [ "Toponymy", "Cape Breton Island takes its name from its easternmost point, Cape Breton.", "At least two theories for this name have been put forward.", "The first connects it to the Bretons of northwestern France which discovered Canada.", "A Portuguese mappa mundi of 1516–1520 includes the label \"terra q(ue) foy descuberta por Bertomes\" in the vicinity of the Gulf of St Lawrence, which means \"land discovered by Bretons\".", "The second connects it to the Gascon fishing port of Capbreton.", "Basque whalers and fishermen traded with the Miꞌkmaq of this island from the early sixteenth century.", "The name \"Cape Breton\" first appears on a map of 1516, as ''C(abo) dos Bretoes'', and became the general name for both the island and the cape toward the end of the 16th century.", "William Francis Ganong argued that the Portuguese term ''Bertomes'' referred to Britons, and that the name should be interpreted as \"Cape of the English\".", "This theory is nowadays disagreed upon, due to the Portuguese etymology of Bertomes, meaning the Brittonic speaking people of Wales, Cornwall, Brittany and Galicia, who has close ties to Portugal." ], [ "History", "Cape Breton Island's first residents were likely archaic maritime natives, ancestors of the Mi'kmaq people.", "These peoples and their progeny inhabited the island (known as Unama'ki) for several thousand years and continue to live there to this day.", "Their traditional lifestyle centred around hunting and fishing because of the unfavourable agricultural conditions of their maritime home.", "This ocean-centric lifestyle did, however, make them among the first Indigenous peoples to discover European explorers and sailors fishing in the St Lawrence Estuary.", "Italian explorer (sailing for the British crown) John Cabot reportedly visited the island in 1497.However, European histories and maps of the period are of too poor quality to be sure whether Cabot first visited Newfoundland or Cape Breton Island.", "This discovery is commemorated by Cape Breton's Cabot Trail, and by the Cabot's Landing Historic Site & Provincial Park, near the village of Dingwall.The local Mi'kmaq peoples began trading with European fishermen when the fishermen began landing in their territories as early as the 1520s.", "In about 1521–22, the Portuguese under João Álvares Fagundes established a fishing colony on the island.", "As many as two hundred settlers lived in a village, the name of which is not known, located according to some historians at what is now Ingonish on the island's northeastern peninsula.", "These fishermen traded with the local population but did not maintain a permanent settlement.", "This Portuguese colony's fate is unknown, but it is mentioned as late as 1570.During the Anglo-French War of 1627 to 1629, under King Charles I, the Kirkes took Quebec City, James Stewart, 4th Lord Ochiltree, planted a colony on Unama'ki at Baleine, Nova Scotia, and Alexander's son, William Alexander, 1st Earl of Stirling, established the first incarnation of \"New Scotland\" at Port Royal (Annapolis Royal).", "These claims, and larger ideals of European colonization were the first time the island was incorporated as European territory, though it would be several decades later that treaties would actually be signed.", "However, no copies of these treaties exist.These Scottish triumphs, which left Cape Sable as the only major French holding in North America, did not last.", "Charles I's haste to make peace with France on the terms most beneficial to him meant the new North American gains would be bargained away in the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, which established which European power had laid claim over the territories.The French quickly defeated the Scots at Baleine, and established the first European settlements on Île Royale, which is present-day Englishtown (1629) and St. Peter's (1630).", "These settlements lasted only one generation, until Nicolas Denys left in 1659.The island did not have any European settlers for another fifty years before those communities along with Louisbourg were re-established in 1713, after which point European settlement was permanently established on the island.===Île Royale===Philippe de Pastour de Costebelle, 1st Governor of Île Royale, only known image of a French GovernorKnown as ''Île Royale'' (\"Royal Island\") to the French, the island also saw active settlement by France.", "After the French ceded their claims to Newfoundland and the Acadian mainland to the British by the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, the French relocated the population of Plaisance, Newfoundland, to Île Royale and the French garrison was established in the central eastern part at Sainte Anne.", "As the harbour at Sainte Anne experienced icing problems, it was decided to build a much larger fortification at Louisbourg to improve defences at the entrance to the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and to defend France's fishing fleet on the Grand Banks.", "The French also built the Louisbourg Lighthouse in 1734, the first lighthouse in Canada and one of the first in North America.", "In addition to Cape Breton Island, the French colony of Île Royale also included Île Saint-Jean, today called Prince Edward Island, and Les Îles-de-la-Madeleine.====Seven Years' War====Siege of Louisbourg (1758)Louisbourg itself was one of the most important commercial and military centres in New France.", "Louisbourg was captured by New Englanders with British naval assistance in the Siege of Louisbourg (1745) and by British forces in 1758.The French population of Île Royale was deported to France after each siege.", "While French settlers returned to their homes in Île Royale after the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was signed in 1748, the fortress was demolished after the second siege in 1758.Île Royale remained formally part of New France until it was ceded to Great Britain by the Treaty of Paris in 1763.It was then merged with the adjacent British colony of Nova Scotia (present-day peninsular Nova Scotia and New Brunswick).", "Acadians who had been expelled from Nova Scotia and Île Royale were permitted to settle in Cape Breton beginning in 1764, and established communities in northwestern Cape Breton, near Chéticamp, and southern Cape Breton, on and near Isle Madame.Some of the first British-sanctioned settlers on the island following the Seven Years' War were Irish, although upon settlement they merged with local French communities to form a culture rich in music and tradition.", "From 1763 to 1784, the island was administratively part of the colony of Nova Scotia and was governed from Halifax.The first permanently settled Scottish community on Cape Breton Island was Judique, settled in 1775 by Michael Mor MacDonald.", "He spent his first winter using his upside-down boat for shelter, which is reflected in the architecture of the village's Community Centre.", "He composed a song about the area called \"O 's àlainn an t-àite\", or \"O, Fair is the Place.", "\"==== American Revolution ====84th Regiment, 4 January 1780, shipwrecked off Cape Breton, Nova Scotia by Robert Pollard (1784)During the American Revolution, on 1 November 1776, John Paul Jones, the father of the American Navy, set sail in command of ''Alfred'' to free hundreds of American prisoners working in the area's coal mines.", "Although winter conditions prevented the freeing of the prisoners, the mission did result in the capture of ''Mellish'', a vessel carrying a vital supply of winter clothing intended for John Burgoyne's troops in Canada.Major Timothy Hierlihy and his regiment on board ''HMS Hope'' worked in and protected the coal mines at Sydney Cape Breton from privateer attacks.", "Sydney, Cape Breton provided a vital supply of coal for Halifax throughout the war.", "The British began developing the mining site at Sydney Mines in 1777.On 14 May 1778, Major Hierlihy arrived at Cape Breton.", "While there, Hierlihy reported that he \"beat off many piratical attacks, killed some and took other prisoners.", "\"A few years into the war, there was also a naval engagement between French ships and a British convoy off Sydney, Nova Scotia, near Spanish River (1781), Cape Breton.", "French ships, fighting with the Americans, were re-coaling and defeated a British convoy.", "Six French and 17 British sailors were killed, with many more wounded.===Colony of Cape Breton===In 1784, Britain split the colony of Nova Scotia into three separate colonies: New Brunswick, Cape Breton Island, and present-day peninsular Nova Scotia, in addition to the adjacent colonies of St. John's Island (renamed Prince Edward Island in 1798) and Newfoundland.", "The colony of Cape Breton Island had its capital at Sydney on its namesake harbour fronting on Spanish Bay and the Cabot Strait.", "Its first Lieutenant-Governor was Joseph Frederick Wallet DesBarres (1784–1787) and his successor was William Macarmick (1787).A number of United Empire Loyalists emigrated to the Canadian colonies, including Cape Breton.", "David Mathews, the former Mayor of New York City during the American Revolution, emigrated with his family to Cape Breton in 1783.He succeeded Macarmick as head of the colony and served from 1795 to 1798.From 1799 to 1807, the military commandant was John Despard, brother of Edward.An order forbidding the granting of land in Cape Breton, issued in 1763, was removed in 1784.The mineral rights to the island were given over to the Duke of York by an order-in-council.", "The British government had intended that the Crown take over the operation of the mines when Cape Breton was made a colony, but this was never done, probably because of the rehabilitation cost of the mines.", "The mines were in a neglected state, caused by careless operations dating back at least to the time of the final fall of Louisbourg in 1758.Large-scale shipbuilding began in the 1790s, beginning with schooners for local trade, moving in the 1820s to larger brigs and brigantines, mostly built for British ship owners.", "Shipbuilding peaked in the 1850s, marked in 1851 by the full-rigged ship ''Lord Clarendon'', which was the largest wooden ship ever built in Cape Breton.===Merger with Nova Scotia===In 1820, the colony of Cape Breton Island was merged for the second time with Nova Scotia.", "This development is one of the factors which led to large-scale industrial development in the Sydney Coal Field of eastern Cape Breton County.", "By the late 19th century, as a result of the faster shipping, expanding fishery and industrialization of the island, exchanges of people between the island of Newfoundland and Cape Breton increased, beginning a cultural exchange that continues to this day.The 1920s were some of the most violent times in Cape Breton.", "They were marked by several severe labour disputes.", "The famous murder of William Davis by strike breakers, and the seizing of the New Waterford power plant by striking miners led to a major union sentiment that persists to this day in some circles.", "William Davis Miners' Memorial Day continues to be celebrated in coal mining towns to commemorate the deaths of miners at the hands of the coal companies.===20th century===The turn of the 20th century saw Cape Breton Island at the forefront of scientific achievement with the now-famous activities launched by inventors Alexander Graham Bell and Guglielmo Marconi.Following his successful invention of the telephone and being relatively wealthy, Bell acquired land near Baddeck in 1885.He chose the land, which he named ''Beinn Bhreagh'', largely due to its resemblance to his early surroundings in Scotland.", "He established a summer estate complete with research laboratories, working with deaf people including Helen Keller, and continued to invent.", "Baddeck would be the site of his experiments with hydrofoil technologies as well as the Aerial Experiment Association, financed by his wife Mabel Gardiner Hubbard.", "These efforts resulted in the first powered flight in Canada when the AEA ''Silver Dart'' took off from the ice-covered waters of Bras d'Or Lake.", "Bell also built the forerunner to the iron lung and experimented with breeding sheep.Marconi's contributions to Cape Breton Island were also quite significant, as he used the island's geography to his advantage in transmitting the first North American trans-Atlantic radio message from a station constructed at Table Head in Glace Bay to a receiving station at Poldhu in Cornwall, England.", "Marconi's pioneering work in Cape Breton marked the beginning of modern radio technology.", "Marconi's station at Marconi Towers, on the outskirts of Glace Bay, became the chief communication centre for the Royal Canadian Navy in World War I through to the early years of World War II.Promotions for tourism beginning in the 1950s recognized the importance of the Scottish culture to the province, as the provincial government started encouraging the use of Gaelic once again.", "The establishment of funding for the Gaelic College of Celtic Arts and Crafts and formal Gaelic language courses in public schools are intended to address the near-loss of this culture to assimilation into Anglophone Canadian culture.", "In the 1960s, the Fortress of Louisbourg was partially reconstructed by Parks Canada, using the labour of unemployed coal miners.", "Since 2009, this National Historic Site of Canada has attracted an average of 90 000 visitors per year." ], [ "Geography", "Map of select municipalities on Cape Breton IslandTravel map of Cape Breton Island, with major highways and freeways markedThe irregularly-shaped rectangular island is about 100 km wide and 150 long, for a total of in area.It lies in the southeastern extremity of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.", "Cape Breton is separated from the Nova Scotia peninsula by the very deep Strait of Canso.", "The island is joined to the mainland by the Canso Causeway.Cape Breton Island is composed of rocky shores, rolling farmland, glacial valleys, barren headlands, highlands, woods and plateaus.=== Geology ===The island is characterized by a number of elevations of ancient crystalline and metamorphic rock rising up from the south to the north, and contrasted with eroded lowlands.", "The bedrock of blocks that developed in different places around the globe, at different times, and then were fused together via tectonics.Cape Breton is formed from three terranes.", "These are fragments of the Earth's crust formed on a tectonic plate and attached by accretion or suture to crust lying on another plate.", "Each of these has its own distinctive geologic history, which is different from that of the surrounding areas.", "The southern half of the island formed from the Avalon terrane, which was once a microcontinent in the Paleozoic era.", "It is made up of volcanic rock that formed near what is now called Africa.", "Most of the northern half of the island is on the Bras d'Or terrane (part of the Ganderia terrane).", "It contains volcanic and sedimentary rock formed off the coast of what is now South America.", "The third terrane is the relatively small Blair River inlier on the far northwestern tip.", "It contains the oldest rock in the Maritimes, formed up to 1.6 billion years ago.", "These rocks, which can be seen in the Polletts Cove - Aspy Fault Wilderness Area north of Pleasant Bay, are likely part of the Canadian Shield, a large area of Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rock that forms the core of the North American continent.The Avalon and Bras d'Or terranes were pushed together about 500 million years ago when the supercontinent Gondwana was formed.", "The Blair River inlier was sandwiched in between the two when Laurussia was formed 450-360 million years ago, at which time the land was found in the tropics.", "This collision also formed the Appalachian Mountains.", "Associated rifting and faulting is now visible as the canyons of the Cape Breton Highlands.", "Then, during the Carboniferous period, the area was flooded, which created sedimentary rock layers such as sandstone, shale, gypsum, and conglomerate.", "Later, most of the island was tropical forest which later formed coal deposits.Much later, the land was shaped by repeated ice ages which left striations, till, U-shaped valleys, and carved the Bras d'Or Lake from the bedrock.", "Examples of U-shaped valleys are those of the Chéticamp, Grande Anse, and Clyburn River valleys.", "Other valleys have been eroded by water, forming V-shaped valleys and canyons.", "Cape Breton has many fault lines but few earthquakes.", "Since the North American continent is moving westward, earthquakes tend to occur on the western edge of the continent.=== Climate ===The warm summer humid continental climate is moderated by the proximity of the cold, oftentimes polar Labrador Current and its warmer counterpart the Gulf Stream, both being dominant currents in the North Atlantic Ocean.=== Ecology ======= Lowlands ====There are lowland areas in along the western shore, around Lake Ainslie, the Bras d'Or watershed, Boularderie Island, and the Sydney coalfield.", "They include salt marshes, coastal beaches, and freshwater wetlands.Starting in the 1800s, many areas were cleared for farming or timber.", "Many farms were abandoned from the 1920s to the 1950s with fields being reclaimed by white spruce, red maple, white birch, and balsam fir.", "Higher slopes are dominated by yellow birch and sugar maple.", "In sheltered areas with sun and drainage, Acadian forest is found.", "Wetter areas have tamarack, and black spruce.", "The weather station at Ingonish records more rain than anywhere else in Nova Scotia.Behind barrier beaches and dunes at Aspy Bay are salt marshes.", "The Aspy, Clyburn, and Ingonish rivers have all created floodplains which support populations of black ash, fiddle head fern, swamp loosestrife, swamp milkweed, southern twayblade, and bloodroot.Red sandstone and white gypsum cliffs can be observed throughout this area.", "Bedrock is Carboniferous sedimentary with limestone, shale, and sandstone.", "Many fluvial remains from are glaciation found here.", "Mining has been ongoing for centuries, and more than 500 mine openings can be found, mainly in the east.Karst topography is found in Dingwall, South Harbour, Plaster Provincial Park, along the Margaree and Middle Rivers, and along the north shore of Lake Ainslie.", "The presence of gypsum and limestone increases soil pH and produces some rich wetlands which support giant spear, tufted fen, and other mosses, as well as vascular plants like sedges.==== Cape Breton Hills ====This ecosystem is spread throughout Cape Breton and is defined as hills and slopes 150-300m above sea level, typically covered with Acadian forest.It includes North Mountain, Kellys Mountain, and East Bay Hills.Forests in this area were cleared for timber and agriculture and are now a mosaic of habitats depending on the local terrain, soils and microclimate.", "Typical species include ironwood, white ash, beech, sugar maple, red maple, and yellow birch.", "The understory can include striped maple, beaked hazelnut, fly honeysuckle, club mosses and ferns.", "Ephemerals are visible in the spring, such as Dutchman's breeches and spring beauty.In ravines, shade tolerant trees like hemlock, white pine, red spruce are found.", "Less well-drained areas are forested with balsam fir and black spruce.==== Highlands and the Northern Plateau ====The Highlands comprise a tableland in the northern portions of Inverness and Victoria counties.An extension of the Appalachian mountain chain, elevations average 350 metres at the edges of the plateau and rise to more than 500 metres at the centre.", "The area has broad, gently rolling hills bisected with deep valleys and steep-walled canyons.", "A majority of the land is a taiga of balsam fir, with some white birch, white spruce, mountain ash, and heart-leaf birch.The northern and western edges of the plateau, particularly at high elevations, resemble arctic tundra.", "Trees 30–90 high, overgrown with reindeer lichens, can be 150 years old.", "At very high elevations some areas are exposed bedrock without any vegetation apart from Cladonia lichens.", "There are many barrens, or heaths, dominated by bushy species of the Ericaceae family.Spruce, killed by spruce budworm in the late 1970s, has reestablished at lower elevations, but not at higher elevations due to moose browsing.", "Decomposition is slow, leaving thick layers of plant litter.", "Ground cover includes wood aster, twinflower, liverworts, wood sorrel, bluebead lily, goldthread, various ferns, and lily-of-the-valley, with bryophyte and large-leaved goldenrod at higher elevations.", "The understory can include striped maple, mountain ash, ferns, and mountain maple.Near water, bog birch, alder, and mountain-ash are found.", "There are many open wetlands populated with stunted tamarack and black spruce.", "Poor drainage has led to the formation of peatlands which can support tufted clubrush, Bartram's serviceberry, coastal sedge, and bakeapple.==== Cape Breton coastal ====The eastern shore is unique in that while not at a high elevation, it has a cool climate with much rain and fog, strong winds, and low summer temperatures.", "It is dominated by a boreal forest of black spruce and balsam fir.", "Sheltered areas support tolerant hardwoods such as white birch and red maple.", "Many salt marshes, fens, and bogs are found there.There are many beaches on the highly crenelated coastline.", "Unlike elsewhere on the island, these are rocky and support plants unlike those of sandy beaches.", "The coast provides habitat for common coast bird species like common eider, black legged kittiwake, black guillemot, whimbrel, and great cormorant.=== Hydrology ===Land is drained into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence via the rivers Aspy, Sydney, Mira, Framboise, Margaree, and Chéticamp.", "The largest freshwater lake is Lake Ainslie." ], [ "Government", "Local government on the island is provided by the Cape Breton Regional Municipality, the Municipality of the County of Inverness, the Municipality of the County of Richmond, and the Municipality of the County of Victoria, along with the Town of Port Hawkesbury.The island has five Miꞌkmaq Indian reserves: Eskasoni (the largest in population and land area), Membertou, Wagmatcook, Waycobah, and Potlotek." ], [ "Demographics", "The former Congregation Sons of Israel synagogue, in Glace Bay.", "In 1902, the synagogue was Nova Scotia's first purpose-built synagogue.", "It permanently closed in July 2010.To the left is the also closed Talmud Torah community centre.", "This was the location of the Hebrew school and functions like Bar Mitzvah and wedding dinners.The island's residents can be grouped into five main cultures: Scottish, Mi'kmaq, Acadian, Irish, and English, with respective languages Scottish Gaelic, Mi'kmaq, French, and English alongside several sign languages including Maritime Sign Language.", "English is now the primary language, including a locally distinctive Cape Breton accent, while Mi'kmaq, Scottish Gaelic and Acadian French are still spoken in some communities.", "Amongst sign languages, it is unknown to what extent LSQ is spoken amongst Acadians, but American Sign Language is certainly predominant across the island, as it has gained significant numbers of signers, especially with the steep declines in Maritime Sign Language use.Later migrations of Black Loyalists, Italians, and Eastern Europeans mostly settled in the island's eastern part around the industrial Cape Breton region.", "Cape Breton Island's population has been in decline two decades with an increasing exodus in recent years due to economic conditions.", "'''Population trend''' Census Population Change (%) 1951 157,696 1956 162,859 3.3% 1961 169,865 4.3% 1966 166,943 1.7% 1971 170,007 1.8% 1976 170,866 0.5% 1981 170,628 0.1% 1986 166,116 2.6% 1991 161,686 2.7% 1996 158,271 2.1% 2001 147,454 6.8% 2006 142,298 3.5% 2011 135,974 4.4% 2016 132,010 2.9% 2021 132,019 0.0%===Religious groups===Statistics Canada in 2001 reported a \"religion\" total of 145,525 for Cape Breton, including 5,245 with \"no religious affiliation.\"", "Major categories included:Roman Catholic: 96,260 (includes Eastern Catholic, Polish National Catholic Church, Old Catholic)Protestant: 42,390Christian, not included elsewhere: 580Orthodox: 395Jewish: 250Muslim: 145" ], [ "Economy", "Cape Breton Island's most recognizable and commonly used flagCape Breton Island's \"Eagle\" flag (1994)Cape Breton Island's second cultural flag, the \"Tartan\" flag (early 1990s)Cape Breton Island's first cultural flag, the blue-and-yellow flag, dates to the 1940s.Much of the recent economic history of Cape Breton Island can be tied to the coal industry.The island has two major coal deposits:the Sydney Coal Field in the southeastern part of the island along the Atlantic Ocean drove the Industrial Cape Breton economy throughout the 19th and 20th centuries—until after World War II, its industries were the largest private employers in Canada.", "the Inverness Coal Field in the western part of the island along the Gulf of St. Lawrence is significantly smaller but hosted several mines.Sydney has traditionally been the main port, with facilities in a large, sheltered, natural harbour.", "It is the island's largest commercial centre and home to the ''Cape Breton Post'' daily newspaper, as well as one television station, CJCB-TV (CTV), and several radio stations.", "The Marine Atlantic terminal at North Sydney is the terminal for large ferries traveling to Channel-Port aux Basques and seasonally to Argentia, both on the island of Newfoundland.Point Edward on the west side of Sydney Harbour is the location of Sydport, a former navy base () now converted to commercial use.", "The Canadian Coast Guard College is nearby at Westmount.", "Petroleum, bulk coal, and cruise ship facilities are also in Sydney Harbour.Glace Bay, the second largest urban community in population, was the island's main coal mining centre until its last mine closed in the 1980s.", "Glace Bay was the hub of the Sydney & Louisburg Railway and a major fishing port.", "At one time, Glace Bay was known as the largest town in Nova Scotia, based on population.Port Hawkesbury has risen to prominence since the completion of the Canso Causeway and Canso Canal created an artificial deep-water port, allowing extensive petrochemical, pulp and paper, and gypsum handling facilities to be established.", "The Strait of Canso is completely navigable to Seawaymax vessels, and Port Hawkesbury is open to the deepest-draught vessels on the world's oceans.", "Large marine vessels may also enter Bras d'Or Lake through the Great Bras d'Or channel, and small craft can use the Little Bras d'Or channel or St. Peters Canal.", "While commercial shipping no longer uses the St. Peters Canal, it remains an important waterway for recreational vessels.The industrial Cape Breton area faced several challenges with the closure of the Cape Breton Development Corporation's (DEVCO) coal mines and the Sydney Steel Corporation's (SYSCO) steel mill.", "In recent years, the Island's residents have tried to diversify the area economy by investing in tourism developments, call centres, and small businesses, as well as manufacturing ventures in fields such as auto parts, pharmaceuticals, and window glazings.While the Cape Breton Regional Municipality is in transition from an industrial to a service-based economy, the rest of Cape Breton Island outside the industrial area surrounding Sydney-Glace Bay has been more stable, with a mixture of fishing, forestry, small-scale agriculture, and tourism.Tourism in particular has grown throughout the post-Second World War era, especially the growth in vehicle-based touring, which was furthered by the creation of the Cabot Trail scenic drive.", "The scenery of the island is rivalled in northeastern North America by only Newfoundland; and Cape Breton Island tourism marketing places a heavy emphasis on its Scottish Gaelic heritage through events such as the Celtic Colours Festival, held each October, as well as promotions through the Gaelic College of Celtic Arts and Crafts.Whale-watching is a popular attraction for tourists.", "Whale-watching cruises are operated by vendors from Baddeck to Chéticamp.", "The most popular species of whale found in Cape Breton's waters is the pilot whale.The Cabot Trail is a scenic road circuit around and over the Cape Breton Highlands with spectacular coastal vistas; over 400,000 visitors drive the Cabot Trail each summer and fall.", "Coupled with the Fortress of Louisbourg, it has driven the growth of the tourism industry on the island in recent decades.", "The ''Condé Nast'' travel guide has rated Cape Breton Island as one of the world's best island destinations.=== Transport ===The island's primary east–west road is Highway 105, the Trans-Canada Highway, although Trunk 4 is also heavily used.", "Highway 125 is an important arterial route around Sydney Harbour in the Cape Breton Regional Municipality.", "The Cabot Trail, circling the Cape Breton Highlands, and Trunk 19, along the island's western coast, are important secondary roads.", "The Cape Breton and Central Nova Scotia Railway maintains railway connections between the port of Sydney to the Canadian National Railway in Truro.Cape Breton Island is served by several airports, the largest, the JA Douglas McCurdy Sydney Airport, situated on Trunk 4 between the communities of Sydney and Glace Bay, as well as smaller airports at Port Hawksbury, Margaree, and Baddeck." ], [ "Culture", "=== Language ===Gaelic speakers in Cape Breton, as elsewhere in Nova Scotia, constituted a large proportion of the local population from the 18th century on.", "They brought with them a common culture of poetry, traditional songs and tales, music and dance, and used this to develop distinctive local traditions.Most Gaelic settlement in Nova Scotia happened between 1770 and 1840, with probably over 50,000 Gaelic speakers emigrating from the Scottish Highlands and the Hebrides to Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island.", "Such emigration was facilitated by changes in Gaelic society and the economy, with sharp increases in rents, confiscation of land and disruption of local customs and rights.", "In Nova Scotia, poetry and song in Gaelic flourished.", "George Emmerson argues that an \"ancient and rich\" tradition of storytelling, song, and Gaelic poetry emerged during the 18th century and was transplanted from the Highlands of Scotland to Nova Scotia, where the language similarly took root there.", "The majority of those settling in Nova Scotia from the end of the 18th century through to middle of the next were from the Scottish Highlands, rather than the Lowlands, making the Highland tradition's impact more profound on the region.", "Gaelic settlement in Cape Breton began in earnest in the early nineteenth century.", "The Gaelic language became dominant from Colchester County in the west of Nova Scotia into Cape Breton County in the east.", "It was reinforced in Cape Breton in the first half of the 19th century with an influx of Highland Scots numbering approximately 50,000 as a result of the Highland Clearances.From 1892 to 1904, Jonathon MacKinnon published the Scottish Gaelic-language biweekly newspaper () in Sydney, Nova Scotia.", "During the 1920s, several Scottish Gaelic-language newspapers were printed in Sydney for distribution primarily on Cape Breton, including the (), which included Gaelic-language lessons; the United Church-affiliated (); and MacKinnon's later endeavor, ().Gaelic speakers, however, tended to be poor; they were largely illiterate and had little access to education.", "This situation persisted into the early days of the twentieth century.", "In 1921 Gaelic was approved as an optional subject in the curriculum of Nova Scotia, but few teachers could be found and children were discouraged from using the language in schools.", "By 1931 the number of Gaelic speakers in Nova Scotia had fallen to approximately 25,000, mostly in discrete pockets.", "In Cape Breton it was still a majority language, but the proportion was falling.", "Children were no longer being raised with Gaelic.From 1939 on, attempts were made to strengthen its position in the public school system in Nova Scotia, but funding, official commitment and the availability of teachers continued to be a problem.", "By the 1950s the number of speakers was less than 7,000.The advent of multiculturalism in Canada in the 1960s meant that new educational opportunities became available, with a gradual strengthening of the language at secondary and tertiary level.", "At present several schools in Cape Breton offer Gaelic Studies and Gaelic language programs, and the language is taught at Cape Breton University.The 2016 Canadian Census shows that there are only 40 reported speakers of Gaelic as a mother tongue in Cape Breton.", "On the other hand, there are families and individuals who have recommenced intergenerational transmission.", "They include fluent speakers from Gaelic-speaking areas of Scotland and speakers who became fluent in Nova Scotia and who in some cases studied in Scotland.", "Other revitalization activities include adult education, community cultural events and publishing.===Traditional music===Cape Breton is well known for its traditional fiddle music, which was brought to North America by Scottish immigrants during the Highland Clearances.", "The traditional style has been well preserved in Cape Breton, and cèilidhs have become a popular attraction for tourists.", "Inverness County in particular has a heavy concentration of musical activity, with regular performances in communities such as Mabou and Judique.", "Judique is recognized as \"\" () or the 'Home of Celtic Music', featuring the Celtic Music Interpretive Centre.", "The traditional fiddle music of Cape Breton is studied by musicians around the world, where its global recognition continues to rise.Local performers who have received significant recognition outside of Cape Breton include Angus Chisholm; Buddy MacMaster; Joseph Cormier, the first Cape Breton fiddler to record an album made available in Europe (1974); Lee Cremo; Bruce Guthro; Natalie MacMaster; Ashley MacIsaac; The Rankin Family; Aselin Debison; Gordie Sampson; John Allan Cameron; and the Barra MacNeils.The Men of the Deeps are a male choral group of current and former miners from the industrial Cape Breton area.===Film and television===* ''My Bloody Valentine'': 1981 slasher film shot on location in Sydney Mines.", "* ''The Bay Boy'': 1984 semi-autobiographical drama film about growing up in Glace Bay.", "* ''Margaret's Museum'': 1995 drama film which tells the story of a young girl living in a coal mining town where the death of men from accidents in \"the pit\" (the mines) has become almost routine.", "* ''Pit Pony'': 1999 TV series about small-town life in Glace Bay in 1904.The plot revolves around the lives of the families of the men and boys who work in the coal mines." ], [ "Photo gallery", "File:Cabotslanding.jpg\|Cabot's Landing, Victoria County, commemorating the \"first land seen\" by explorer John Cabot in 1497File:Cape breton island 1.jpgFile:Cape breton island 2.jpg\|The shoreline of Bras d'Or Lake at Marble Mountain, Inverness Co.File:Cape breton island 3.jpg\|A bulk carrier in the Strait of Canso docked at the Martin Marietta Materials quarry at Cape PorcupineFile:NS CapeBretonHighlands2 tango7174.jpg\|Cape Breton Highlands National ParkFile:NS SmeltBrook tango7174.jpg\|Smelt Brook on the northern shoreFile:CapeBretonEntrance.jpg\|Entering Cape Breton Island from Canso CausewayFile:Capebretonmainlandbridge.jpg\|Seal Island Bridge in Victoria County, the 3rd-longest in Nova ScotiaFile:Sydney Harbour aerial view.jpg\|Sydney Harbour with Point Edward, Westmount, and downtown Sydney visible" ], [ "See also", "* Canadian Gaelic* Cape Breton accent* Cape Breton Highlands National Park* Cape Breton Labour Party* Cape Breton Regional Municipality* List of people from Cape Breton* Province of Cape Breton Island* Provinces and territories of Canada* Sydney Tar Ponds" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* " ], [ "External links", " Cape Breton Island Official Travel Guide" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Cthulhu Mythos" ], [ "Introduction", "A sketch of Cthulhu drawn by Lovecraft, May 11, 1934The '''Cthulhu Mythos''' is a mythopoeia and a shared fictional universe, originating in the works of American horror writer H. P. Lovecraft.", "The term was coined by August Derleth, a contemporary correspondent and protégé of Lovecraft, to identify the settings, tropes, and lore that were employed by Lovecraft and his literary successors.", "The name \"Cthulhu\" derives from the central creature in Lovecraft's seminal short story \"The Call of Cthulhu\", first published in the pulp magazine ''Weird Tales'' in 1928.Richard L. Tierney, a writer who also wrote Mythos tales, later applied the term \"Derleth Mythos\" to distinguish Lovecraft's works from Derleth's later stories, which modify key tenets of the Mythos.", "Authors of Lovecraftian horror in particular frequently use elements of the Cthulhu Mythos." ], [ "History", "alt=A June 1934 photograph of H. P. Lovecraft, facing leftIn his essay \"H. P. Lovecraft and the Cthulhu Mythos\", Robert M. Price described two stages in the development of the Cthulhu Mythos.", "Price called the first stage the \"Cthulhu Mythos proper\".", "This stage was formulated during Lovecraft's lifetime and was subject to his guidance.", "The second stage was guided by August Derleth who, in addition to publishing Lovecraft's stories after his death, attempted to categorize and expand the Mythos.===First stage===An ongoing theme in Lovecraft's work is the complete irrelevance of mankind in the face of the cosmic horrors that apparently exist in the universe.", "Lovecraft made frequent references to the \"Great Old Ones\", a loose pantheon of ancient, powerful deities from space who once ruled the Earth and have since fallen into a deathlike sleep.", "While these monstrous deities were present in almost all of Lovecraft's published work (his second short story \"Dagon\", published in 1919, is considered the start of the Mythos), the first story to really expand the pantheon of Great Old Ones and its themes is \"The Call of Cthulhu\", which was published in 1928.Lovecraft broke with other pulp writers of the time by having his main characters' minds deteriorate when afforded a glimpse of what exists outside their perceived reality.", "He emphasized the point by stating in the opening sentence of the story that \"The most merciful thing in the world, I think, is the inability of the human mind to correlate all its contents.", "\"Writer Dirk W. Mosig noted that Lovecraft was a \"mechanistic materialist\" who embraced the philosophy of cosmic indifferentism and believed in a purposeless, mechanical, and uncaring universe.", "Human beings, with their limited faculties, can never fully understand this universe, and the cognitive dissonance caused by this revelation leads to insanity, in his view.There have been attempts at categorizing this fictional group of beings.", "Phillip A. Schreffler argues that by carefully scrutinizing Lovecraft's writings, a workable framework emerges that outlines the entire \"pantheon\"from the unreachable \"Outer Ones\" (e.g., Azathoth, who occupies the centre of the universe) and \"Great Old Ones\" (e.g., Cthulhu, imprisoned on Earth in the sunken city of R'lyeh) to the lesser castes (the lowly slave shoggoths and the Mi-Go).David E. Schultz said Lovecraft never meant to create a canonical Mythos but rather intended his imaginary pantheon to serve merely as a background element.", "Lovecraft himself humorously referred to his Mythos as \"Yog Sothothery\" (Dirk W. Mosig coincidentally suggested the term ''Yog-Sothoth Cycle of Myth'' be substituted for ''Cthulhu Mythos'').", "At times, Lovecraft even had to remind his readers that his Mythos creations were entirely fictional.The view that there was no rigid structure is expounded upon by S. T. Joshi, who saidPrice said Lovecraft's writings could at least be divided into categories and identified three distinct themes: the \"Dunsanian\" (written in a similar style as Lord Dunsany), \"Arkham\" (occurring in Lovecraft's fictionalized New England setting), and \"Cthulhu\" (the cosmic tales) cycles.", "Writer Will Murray noted that while Lovecraft often used his fictional pantheon in the stories he ghostwrote for other authors, he reserved Arkham and its environs exclusively for those tales he wrote under his own name.Although the Mythos was not formalized or acknowledged between them, Lovecraft did correspond, meet in person, and share story elements with other contemporary writers including Clark Ashton Smith, Robert E. Howard, Robert Bloch, Frank Belknap Long, Henry Kuttner, Henry S. Whitehead, and Fritz Leibera group referred to as the \"Lovecraft Circle\".For example, Robert E. Howard's character Friedrich Von Junzt reads Lovecraft's ''Necronomicon'' in the short story \"The Children of the Night\" (1931), and in turn Lovecraft mentions Howard's ''Unaussprechlichen Kulten'' in the stories \"Out of the Aeons\" (1935) and \"The Shadow Out of Time\" (1936).", "Many of Howard's original unedited ''Conan'' stories also involve parts of the Cthulhu Mythos.===Second stage===Price denotes the second stage's commencement with August Derleth, with the principal difference between Lovecraft and Derleth being Derleth's use of hope and development of the idea that the Cthulhu Mythos essentially represented a struggle between good and evil.", "Derleth is credited with creating the \"Elder Gods\".", "He stated:Price said the basis for Derleth's system is found in Lovecraft: \"Was Derleth's use of the rubric 'Elder Gods' so alien to Lovecraft's in ''At the Mountains of Madness''?", "Perhaps not.", "In fact, this very story, along with some hints from \"The Shadow over Innsmouth\", provides the key to the origin of the 'Derleth Mythos'.", "For in ''At the Mountains of Madness'' is shown the history of a conflict between interstellar races, first among them the Elder Ones and the Cthulhu-spawn.", "Derleth said Lovecraft wished for other authors to actively write about the Mythos as opposed to it being a discrete plot device within Lovecraft's own stories.", "Derleth expanded the boundaries of the Mythos by including any passing reference to another author's story elements by Lovecraft as part of the genre.", "Just as Lovecraft made passing reference to Clark Ashton Smith's ''Book of Eibon'', Derleth in turn added Smith's Ubbo-Sathla to the Mythos.Derleth also attempted to connect the deities of the Mythos to the four elements (air, earth, fire, and water), creating new beings representative of certain elements in order to legitimize his system of classification.", "He created \"Cthugha\" as a sort of fire elemental when a fan, Francis Towner Laney, complained that he had neglected to include the element in his schema.", "Laney, the editor of ''The Acolyte'', had categorized the Mythos in an essay that first appeared in the Winter 1942 issue of the magazine.Impressed by the glossary, Derleth asked Laney to rewrite it for publication in the Arkham House collection ''Beyond the Wall of Sleep'' (1943).", "Laney's essay (\"The Cthulhu Mythos\") was later republished in ''Crypt of Cthulhu #32'' (1985).", "In applying the elemental theory to beings that function on a cosmic scale (e.g., Yog-Sothoth) some authors created a fifth element that they termed ''aethyr''.+ Derleth's elemental classifications Air Earth Fire Water HasturIthaquaNyarlathotepZhar and Lloigor CyäeghaNyogthaShub-NiggurathTsathoggua Aphoom-ZhahCthughaYig CthulhuDagonGhatanothoaMother HydraZoth-Ommog Deity created by Derleth" ], [ "Fictional cults", "A number of fictional cults appear in the Cthulhu Mythos, the loosely connected series of horror stories written by Lovecraft and other writers inspired by his creations.", "Many of these cults serve the Outer God Nyarlathotep, the Crawling Chaos, a protean creature that appears in myriad guises.", "Other cults are dedicated to the cause of the Great Old Ones, a group of powerful alien beings currently imprisoned or otherwise resting in a deathlike sleep.", "These fictional cults have in some ways taken on a life of their own beyond the pages of Lovecraft's works.", "According to author John Engle, \"The very real world of esoteric magical and occult practices has adopted Lovecraft and his works into its canon, which have informed the ritual practices, or even formed the bedrock, of certain cabals and magical circles\"." ], [ "Significance", "The Cthulhu Mythos of H. P. Lovecraft is considered to have been highly influential for the speculative fiction genre.", "It has been called \"the official fictional religion of fantasy, science fiction, and horror, a grab bag for writers in need of unthinkably vast, and unthinkably indifferent, eldritch entities\"." ], [ "Biology", "''Sollasina cthulhu'', an extinct ophiocistioid echinoderm, is named after Cthulhu Mythos." ], [ "See also", "* * * * " ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " * * * * * Dziemianowicz, Stefan.", "\"The Cthulhu Mythos: Chronicle of a Controversy\".", "In The Lovecraft Society of New England (ed) ''Necronomicon: The Cthulhu Mythos Convention 1993'' (convention book).", "Boston: NecronomiCon, 1993, pp.", "25–31* * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Lovecraft Archive* * The Virtual World of H. P. Lovecraft a mapping of Lovecraft's imaginary version of New England* Lovecraft: Fear of the Unknown – full documentary at the Snagfilms company YouTube channel* Schema on Lovecraft's »The Call of Ctuhulhu« and the Cthulhu Mythos" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Crane shot" ], [ "Introduction", "Crane camera in action at Götaplatsen, Gothenburg, Sweden, during MTV World Stage 2012.In filmmaking and video production, a '''crane shot''' is a shot taken by a camera on a moving crane or jib.", "Filmmaker D. W. Griffith created the first crane for his 1916 epic film ''Intolerance'', with famed special effects pioneer Eiji Tsuburaya later constructing the first iron camera crane which is still adapted worldwide today.", "Most cranes accommodate both the camera and an operator, but some can be moved by remote control.", "Crane shots are often found in what are supposed to be emotional or suspenseful scenes.", "One example of this technique is the shots taken by remote cranes in the car-chase sequence of the 1985 film ''To Live and Die in L.A''.", "Some filmmakers place the camera on a boom arm simply to make it easier to move around between ordinary set-ups." ], [ "History", "Godzilla co-creator Eiji Tsuburaya riding the first iron shooting crane in 1934.An adaptation of this crane is still used worldwide today.D.", "W. Griffith designed the first camera crane for his 1916 epic film ''Intolerance''.", "His crane measured 140 feet tall and ascended on six four-wheeled railroad trucks.", "In 1929, future special effects pioneer Eiji Tsuburaya constructed a smaller replica of Griffith's wooden camera crane without blueprints or manuals.", "Although his wooden crane collapsed shortly after its completion, Tsuburaya created the first-ever iron shooting crane in October 1934, and an adaptation of this crane is still used worldwide today." ], [ "Camera crane types", "Camera cranes may be small, medium, or large, depending on the load capacity and length of the loading arm.", "Historically, the first camera crane provided for lifting the camera together with the operator, and sometimes an assistant.", "The range of motion of the boom was restricted because of the high load capacity and the need to ensure operator safety.", "In recent years a camera crane boom tripod with a remote control has become popular.", "It carries on the boom only a movie or television camera without an operator and allows shooting from difficult positions as a small load capacity makes it possible to achieve a long reach of the crane boom and relative freedom of movement.", "The operator controls the camera from the ground through a motorized panoramic head, using remote control and video surveillance by watching the image on the monitor.", "A separate category consists of telescopic camera cranes.", "These devices allow setting an arbitrary trajectory of the camera, eliminating the characteristic jib crane radial displacement that comes with traditional spanning shots.Large camera cranes are almost indistinguishable from the usual boom-type cranes, with the exception of special equipment for smoothly moving the boom and controlling noise.", "Small camera cranes and crane-trucks have a lightweight construction, often without a mechanical drive.", "The valves are controlled manually by balancing the load-specific counterweight, facilitating manipulation.", "To improve usability and repeatability of movement of the crane in different takes, the axis of rotation arrows are provided with limbs and a pointer.", "In some cases, the camera crane is mounted on a dolly for even greater camera mobility.", "Such devices are called crane trolleys.", "In modern films robotic cranes allow use of multiple actuators for high-accuracy repeated movement of the camera in trick photography.", "These devices are called tap-robots; some sources use the term motion control." ], [ "Manufacturers", "The major supplier of cranes in the cinema of the United States throughout the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s was the Chapman Company (later Chapman-Leonard of North Hollywood), supplanted by dozens of similar manufacturers around the world.", "The traditional design provided seats for both the director and the camera operator, and sometimes a third seat for the cinematographer as well.", "Large weights on the back of the crane compensate for the weight of the people riding the crane and must be adjusted carefully to avoid the possibility of accidents.", "During the 1960s, the tallest crane was the Chapman Titan crane, a massive design over 20 feet high that won an Academy Scientific & Engineering award.", "During the last few years, camera cranes have been miniaturized and costs have dropped so dramatically that most aspiring film makers have access to these tools.", "What was once a \"Hollywood\" effect is now available for under $400.Manufacturers of camera cranes include ABC-Products, Cambo, Filmotechnic, Polecam, Panther and Matthews Studio Equipment, Sevenoak, and Newton Nordic." ], [ "Camera crane technique", "Most such cranes were manually operated, requiring an experienced boom operator who knew how to vertically raise, lower, and \"crab\" the camera alongside actors while the crane platform rolled on separate tracks.", "The crane operator and camera operator had to precisely coordinate their moves so that focus, pan, and camera position all started and stopped at the same time, requiring great skill and rehearsal.", "On the back of the crane is a counter weight.", "This allows the crane to smooth action while in motion with minimal effort." ], [ "Notable usage", "Shooting from a manual crane* D. W. Griffith's ''Intolerance'' (1916) featured the first ever crane shot for a film.", "* Atsuo Tomioka's 1935 film ''The Chorus of a Million'' featured the first iron camera crane, which was created and employed in the film in 1934 by Eiji Tsuburaya.", "* Leni Riefenstahl had a cameraman shoot a half-circle pan shot from a crane for the 1935 Nazi propaganda film ''Triumph of the Will''.", "* A crane shot was used in Orson Welles' 1941 film ''Citizen Kane''.", "Welles also used a crane camera during the iconic opening of ''Touch of Evil'' (1958).", "The camera perched on a Chapman crane begins on a close-up of a ticking time bomb and ends three-plus minutes later with a blinding explosion.", "* The Western ''High Noon'' (1952) had a famous crane shot.", "The shot backs up and rises, in order to show Marshal Will Kane totally alone and isolated on the street.", "* The 1964 film by Mikhail Kalatozov, ''I Am Cuba'' contains two of the most astonishing tracking shots ever attempted.", "* In his film ''Sympathy for the Devil'', Jean-Luc Godard used a crane for almost every shot in the movie, giving each scene a 360-degree tour of the tableau Godard presented to the viewer.", "In the final scene, he even shows the crane he was able to rent on his limited budget by including it in the scene.", "This was one of his traits as a filmmaker — showing off his budget — as he did with Brigitte Bardot in ''Le Mepris'' (''Contempt'').", "* The closing take of Richard Attenborough's film version of ''Oh!", "What a Lovely War'' begins with a single war grave, gradually pulling back to reveal hundreds of identical crosses.", "* The 1980 comedy-drama film ''The Stunt Man'' featured a crane throughout the production of the fictitious film-within-a-film (with the director played by Peter O'Toole).", "* The television comedy ''Second City Television'' (''SCTV'') uses the concept of the crane shot as comedic material.", "After using a crane shot in one of the first NBC-produced episodes, the network complained about the exorbitant cost of renting the crane.", "SCTV writers responded by making the \"crane shot\" a ubiquitous symbol of production excess while also lampooning network executives who care nothing about artistic vision and everything about the bottom line.", "At the end of the second season, an inebriated Johnny LaRue (John Candy) is given his very own crane by Santa Claus, implying he would be able to have a crane shot whenever he wanted it.", "* Director Dario Argento included an extensive scene in ''Tenebrae'' where the camera seemingly crawled over the walls and up a house wall, all in one seamless take.", "Due to its length, the tracking shot ended up being the production's most difficult and complex part to complete.", "* The 2004 Johnnie To film ''Breaking News'' opens with an elaborate seven-minute single-take crane shot.", "* Director Dennis Dugan frequently uses top-to-bottom crane shots in his comedy films.", "* A camera crane panoramic master interior live shot opens ''The Late Late Show with James Corden'' after the pre-recorded exterior aerial-shot.", "* ''Jeopardy!''", "uses a crane to pan the camera over the audience." ], [ "See also", "* Technocrane, a telescopic camera crane* U-crane, a gyro-stabilized car-mounted telescopic camera crane" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Chariots of Fire" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Chariots of Fire''''' is a 1981 British historical sports drama film directed by Hugh Hudson, written by Colin Welland and produced by David Puttnam.", "It is based on the true story of two British athletes in the 1924 Olympics: Eric Liddell, a devout Scottish Christian who runs for the glory of God, and Harold Abrahams, an English Jew who runs to overcome prejudice.", "Ben Cross and Ian Charleson star as Abrahams and Liddell, alongside Nigel Havers, Ian Holm, John Gielgud, Lindsay Anderson, Cheryl Campbell, Alice Krige, Brad Davis and Dennis Christopher in supporting roles.", "Kenneth Branagh makes his debut in a minor role.", "''Chariots of Fire'' was nominated for seven Academy Awards and won four, including Best Picture, Best Original Screenplay and Best Original Score for Vangelis' electronic theme tune.", "At the 35th British Academy Film Awards, the film was nominated in 11 categories and won in three, including Best Film.", "It is ranked 19th in the British Film Institute's list of Top 100 British films.The film's title was inspired by the line \"Bring me my Chariot of fire!\"", "from the William Blake poem adapted into the British hymn and unofficial English anthem \"Jerusalem\"; the hymn is heard at the end of the film.", "The original phrase \"chariot(s) of fire\" is from 2 Kings 2:11 and 6:17 in the Bible." ], [ "Plot", "During a 1978 funeral service in London in honour of the life of Harold Abrahams, headed by his former colleague Lord Andrew Lindsay, there is a flashback to when he was young and in a group of athletes running along a beach.", "In 1919, Harold Abrahams enters the University of Cambridge, where he experiences antisemitism from the staff but enjoys participating in the Gilbert and Sullivan club.", "He becomes the first person ever to complete the Trinity Great Court Run, running around the college courtyard in the time it takes for the clock to strike 12, and achieves an undefeated string of victories in various national running competitions.", "Although focused on his running, he falls in love with Sybil Gordon, a leading Gilbert and Sullivan soprano.Eric Liddell, born in China to Scottish missionary parents, is in Scotland.", "His devout sister Jennie disapproves of Liddell's plans to pursue competitive running.", "Still, Liddell sees running as a way of glorifying God before returning to China to work as a missionary.", "When they first race against each other, Liddell beats Abrahams.", "Abrahams takes it poorly, but Sam Mussabini, a professional trainer he had approached earlier, offers to take him on to improve his technique.", "This attracts criticism from the Cambridge college masters, who allege it is not gentlemanly for an amateur to \"play the tradesman\" by employing a professional coach.", "Abrahams dismisses this concern, interpreting it as cover for antisemitic and class-based prejudice.", "When Liddell accidentally misses a church prayer meeting because of his running, Jennie upbraids him and accuses him of no longer caring about God.", "Eric tells her that though he intends to return eventually to the China mission, he feels divinely inspired when running and that not to run would be to dishonour God.After years of training and racing, the two athletes are accepted to represent Great Britain in the 1924 Olympics in Paris.", "Also accepted are Abrahams' Cambridge friends, Andrew Lindsay, Aubrey Montague, and Henry Stallard.", "While boarding the boat to France for the Olympics, Liddell discovers the heats for his 100-metre race will be on a Sunday.", "Despite intense pressure from the Prince of Wales and the British Olympic Committee, he refuses to run the race because his Christian convictions prevent him from running on the Lord's Day.", "A solution is found thanks to Liddell's teammate Lindsay, who, having already won a silver medal in the 400 metres hurdles, offers to give his place in the 400-metre race on the following Thursday to Liddell, who gratefully accepts.", "Liddell's religious convictions in the face of national athletic pride make headlines around the world; he delivers a sermon at the Paris Church of Scotland that Sunday, and quotes from Isaiah 40.Abrahams is badly beaten by the heavily favoured United States runners in the 200 metre race.", "He knows his last chance for a medal will be the 100 metres.", "He competes in the race and wins.", "His coach Mussabini, who was barred from the stadium, is overcome that the years of dedication and training have paid off with an Olympic gold medal.", "Now Abrahams can get on with his life and reunite with his girlfriend Sybil, whom he had neglected for the sake of running.", "Before Liddell's race, the American coach remarks dismissively to his runners that Liddell has little chance of doing well in his now, far longer, 400 metre race.", "But one of the American runners, Jackson Scholz, hands Liddell a note of support that quotes .", "Liddell defeats the American favourites and wins the gold medal.", "The British team returns home triumphant.A textual epilogue reveals that Abrahams married Sybil and became the elder statesman of British athletics while Liddell went on to do missionary work and was mourned by all of Scotland following his death in Japanese-occupied China." ], [ "Cast {{anchor\|Main cast}}", "Other actors in smaller roles include John Young as Eric and Jennie's father Reverend J.D.", "Liddell, Yvonne Gilan as their mother Mary, Benny Young as their older brother Rob, Yves Beneyton as French runner Géo André, Philip O'Brien as American coach George Collins, Patrick Doyle as Jimmie, and Ruby Wax as Bunty.", "Kenneth Branagh, who worked as a set gofer, appears as an extra in the Cambridge Society Day sequence.", "Stephen Fry has a likewise uncredited role as a Gilbert-and-Sullivan Club singer." ], [ "Production", "=== Screenplay ===Ian Charleson, who studied the Bible intensively for his role, wrote Eric Liddell's post-race inspirational speech to a working-class crowd.Producer David Puttnam was looking for a story in the mould of ''A Man for All Seasons'' (1966), regarding someone who follows his conscience, and felt that sport provided clear situations in this sense.", "He discovered Eric Liddell's story by accident in 1977, when he happened upon ''An Approved History of the Olympic Games'', a reference book on the Olympics, while housebound from the flu, in a rented house in Malibu.Screenwriter Colin Welland, commissioned by Puttnam, did an enormous amount of research for his Academy Award-winning script.", "Among other things, he took out advertisements in London newspapers seeking memories of the 1924 Olympics, went to the National Film Archives for pictures and footage of the 1924 Olympics, and interviewed everyone involved who was still alive.", "Welland just missed Abrahams, who died on 14 January 1978, but he did attend Abrahams' February 1978 memorial service, which inspired the present-day framing device of the film.", "Aubrey Montague's son saw Welland's newspaper ad and sent him copies of the letters his father had sent home – which gave Welland something to use as a narrative bridge in the film.", "Except for changes in the greetings of the letters from \"Darling Mummy\" to \"Dear Mum\" and the change from Oxford to Cambridge, all of the readings from Montague's letters are from the originals.Welland's original script also featured, in addition to Eric Liddell and Harold Abrahams, a third protagonist, 1924 Olympic gold medallist Douglas Lowe, who was presented as a privileged aristocratic athlete.", "However, Lowe refused to have anything to do with the film, and his character was written out and replaced by the fictional character of Lord Andrew Lindsay.Initial financing towards development costs was provided by Goldcrest Films, who then sold the project to Mohamed Al-Fayed's Allied Stars, but kept a percentage of the profits.Ian Charleson wrote Eric Liddell's speech to the post-race workingmen's crowd at the Scotland v. Ireland races.", "Charleson, who had studied the Bible intensively in preparation for the role, told director Hugh Hudson that he didn't feel the portentous and sanctimonious scripted speech was either authentic or inspiring.", "Hudson and Welland allowed him to write words he personally found inspirational instead.Puttnam chose Hugh Hudson, a multiple award-winning advertising and documentary filmmaker who had never helmed a feature film, to direct ''Chariots of Fire''.", "Hudson and Puttnam had known each other since the 1960s when Puttnam was an advertising executive and Hudson was making films for ad agencies.", "In 1977, Hudson had also been second-unit director on the Puttnam-produced film ''Midnight Express''.=== Casting ===Director Hugh Hudson was determined to cast young, unknown actors in all the major roles of the film, and to back them up by using veterans like John Gielgud, Lindsay Anderson, and Ian Holm as their supporting cast.", "Hudson and producer David Puttnam did months of fruitless searching for the perfect actor to play Eric Liddell.", "They then saw Scottish stage actor Ian Charleson performing the role of Pierre in the Royal Shakespeare Company's production of ''Piaf'', and knew immediately they had found their man.", "Unbeknownst to them, Charleson had heard about the film from his father, and desperately wanted to play the part, feeling it would \"fit like a kid glove\".Ben Cross, who plays Harold Abrahams, was discovered while playing Billy Flynn in ''Chicago''.", "In addition to having a natural pugnaciousness, he had the desired ability to sing and play the piano.", "Cross was thrilled to be cast, and said he was moved to tears by the film's script.20th Century-Fox, which put up half of the production budget in exchange for distribution rights outside of North America, insisted on having a couple of notable American names in the cast.", "Thus the small parts of the two American champion runners, Jackson Scholz and Charley Paddock, were cast with recent headliners: Brad Davis had recently starred in ''Midnight Express'' (also produced by Puttnam), and Dennis Christopher had recently starred, as a young bicycle racer, in the popular indie film ''Breaking Away''.All of the actors portraying runners underwent an intensive three-month training regimen with renowned running coach Tom McNab.", "This training and isolation of the actors also created a strong bond and sense of camaraderie among them.=== Filming ===The beach running scene was filmed on West Sands, St Andrews, Scotland, adjacent to the Old Course.The beach scenes showing the athletes running towards the Carlton Hotel at Broadstairs, Kent, were shot in Scotland on West Sands, St Andrews next to the 18th hole of the Old Course at St Andrews Links.", "A plaque now commemorates the filming.", "The impact of these scenes (as the athletes run in slow motion to Vangelis's music) prompted Broadstairs town council to commemorate them with a seafront plaque.All of the Cambridge scenes were actually filmed at Hugh Hudson's alma mater Eton College, because Cambridge refused filming rights, fearing depictions of anti-Semitism.", "The Cambridge administration greatly regretted the decision after the film's enormous success.Liverpool Town Hall was the setting for the scenes depicting the British Embassy in Paris.", "The Colombes Olympic Stadium in Paris was represented by the Oval Sports Centre, Bebington, Merseyside.", "The nearby Woodside ferry terminal was used to represent the embarkation scenes set in Dover.", "The railway station scenes were filmed in York, using locomotives from the National Railway Museum.", "The filming of the Scotland–France international athletic meeting took place at Goldenacre Sports Ground, owned by George Heriot's School while the Scotland–Ireland meeting was at the nearby Inverleith Sports Ground.", "The scene depicting a performance of ''The Mikado'' was filmed in the Royal Court Theatre, Liverpool, with members of the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company who were on tour.=== Editing ===The film was slightly altered for the U.S. audience.", "A brief scene depicting a pre-Olympics cricket game between Abrahams, Liddell, Montague, and the rest of the British track team appears shortly after the beginning of the original film.", "For the American audience, this brief scene was deleted.", "In the U.S., to avoid the initial G rating, which had been strongly associated with children's films and might have hindered box office sales, a different scene was used – one depicting Abrahams and Montague arriving at a Cambridge railway station and encountering two First World War veterans who use an obscenity – in order to be given a PG rating.", "An off camera retort of \"Win It For Israel\" among exhortations of Abraham's fellow students before he takes on the challenge of The Great Court Run was curiously absent from the final cuts theatrically distributed in the U.S. but can be heard in versions broadcast on such cable outlets as TCM.=== Soundtrack ===Ian Charleson (foreground) and Ben Cross (left) running in the \"Chariots of Fire\" music scene which bookends the film.Although the film is a period piece set in the 1920s, the Academy Award-winning original soundtrack composed by Vangelis (credited as Vangelis Papathanassiou) uses a contemporary 1980s electronic sound, with a strong use of synthesizer and piano among other instruments.", "This was a departure from earlier period films, which employed sweeping orchestral instrumentals.", "The title theme of the film has been used in subsequent films and television shows during slow-motion segments.Vangelis, a Greek-born electronic composer who moved to Paris in the late 1960s, had been living in London since 1974.Director Hugh Hudson had collaborated with him on documentaries and commercials, and was also particularly impressed with his 1979 albums ''Opera Sauvage'' and ''China''.", "David Puttnam also greatly admired Vangelis's body of work, having originally selected his compositions for his previous film ''Midnight Express''.", "Hudson made the choice for Vangelis and for a modern score: \"I knew we needed a piece which was anachronistic to the period to give it a feel of modernity.", "It was a risky idea but we went with it rather than have a period symphonic score.\"", "The soundtrack had a personal significance to Vangelis: after composing the theme he told Puttnam, \"My father is a runner, and this is an anthem to him.", "\"Hudson originally wanted Vangelis's 1977 tune \"L'Enfant\", from his ''Opera Sauvage'' album, to be the title theme of the film, and the beach running sequence was actually filmed with \"L'Enfant\" playing on loudspeakers for the runners to pace to.", "Vangelis finally convinced Hudson he could create a new and better piece for the film's main theme – and when he played the \"Chariots of Fire\" theme for Hudson, it was agreed the new tune was unquestionably better.", "The \"L'Enfant\" melody still made it into the film: when the athletes reach Paris and enter the stadium, a brass band marches through the field, and first plays a modified, acoustic performance of the piece.", "Vangelis's electronic \"L'Enfant\" track eventually was used prominently in the 1982 film ''The Year of Living Dangerously''.Some pieces of Vangelis's music in the film did not end up on the film's soundtrack album.", "One of them is the background music to the race Eric Liddell runs in the Scottish highlands.", "This piece is a version of \"Hymne\", the original version of which appears on Vangelis's 1979 album, ''Opéra sauvage''.", "Various versions are also included on Vangelis's compilation albums ''Themes'', ''Portraits'', and ''Odyssey: The Definitive Collection'', though none of these include the version used in the film.Five lively Gilbert and Sullivan tunes also appear in the soundtrack, and serve as jaunty period music which counterpoints Vangelis's modern electronic score.", "These are: \"He is an Englishman\" from ''H.M.S.", "Pinafore'', \"Three Little Maids From School Are We\" from ''The Mikado'', \"With Catlike Tread\" from ''The Pirates of Penzance'', \"The Soldiers of Our Queen\" from ''Patience'', and \"There Lived a King\" from ''The Gondoliers''.The film also incorporates a major traditional work: \"Jerusalem\", sung by a British choir at the 1978 funeral of Harold Abrahams.", "The words, written by William Blake in 1804–08, were set to music by Hubert Parry in 1916 as a celebration of England.", "This hymn has been described as \"England's unofficial national anthem\", concludes the film and inspired its title.", "A handful of other traditional anthems and hymns and period-appropriate instrumental ballroom-dance music round out the film's soundtrack." ], [ "Release", "The film was distributed by 20th Century-Fox and selected for the 1981 Royal Film Performance with its premiere on 30 March 1981 at the Odeon Haymarket before opening to the public the following day.", "It opened in Edinburgh on 4 April and in Oxford and Cambridge on 5 April with other openings in Manchester and Liverpool before expanding further in May into 20 additional London cinemas and 11 others nationally.", "It was shown in competition at the 1981 Cannes Film Festival on 20 May.", "The film was distributed by The Ladd Company through Warner Bros. in North America and released on 25 September 1981 in Los Angeles, California and in New York Film Festival, on 26 September 1981 in New York and on 9 April 1982 in the United States." ], [ "Reception", "Since its release, ''Chariots of Fire'' has received generally positive reviews from critics.", ", the film holds an 83% rating from the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 111 reviews, with a weighted average of 7.7/10.The site's consensus reads: \"Decidedly slower and less limber than the Olympic runners at the center of its story, ''Chariots of Fire'' nevertheless manages to make effectively stirring use of its spiritual and patriotic themes.\"", "On Metacritic, the film has a score of 78 out of 100 based on 19 critics' reviews.For its 2012 re-release, Kate Muir of ''The Times'' gave the film five stars, writing: \"In a time when drug tests and synthetic fibres have replaced gumption and moral fibre, the tale of two runners competing against each other in the 1924 Olympics has a simple, undiminished power.", "From the opening scene of pale young men racing barefoot along the beach, full of hope and elation, backed by Vangelis's now famous anthem, the film is utterly compelling.", "\"In its first four weeks at the Odeon Haymarket it grossed £106,484.The film was the highest-grossing British film for the year with theatrical rentals of £1,859,480.Its gross of almost $59 million in the United States and Canada made it the highest-grossing film import into the US (i.e.", "a film without any US input) at the time, surpassing ''Meatballs'' $43 million." ], [ "Accolades", "The film was nominated for seven Academy Awards, winning four (including Best Picture).", "When accepting his Oscar for Best Original Screenplay, Colin Welland famously announced \"The British are coming\".", "It was the first film released by Warner Bros. to win Best Picture since ''My Fair Lady'' in 1964.Award Category Nominee Result Academy Awards Best Picture David Puttnam Best Director Hugh Hudson Best Supporting Actor Ian Holm Best Screenplay – Written Directly for the Screen Colin Welland Best Costume Design Milena Canonero Best Film Editing Terry Rawlings Best Original Score Vangelis American Movie Awards Best Supporting Actor Ian Holm British Academy Film Awards Best Film David Puttnam Best Direction Hugh Hudson Best Supporting Artist Nigel Havers Ian Holm Best Screenplay Colin Welland Best Cinematography David Watkin Best Costume Design Milena Canonero Best Editing Terry Rawlings Best Original Music Vangelis Best Production Design/Art Direction Roger Hall Best Sound Clive Winter, Bill Rowe, Jim Shields British Society of Cinematographers Best Cinematography David Watkin Cannes Film Festival Palme d'Or Hugh Hudson Prize of the Ecumenical Jury – Special Mention Best Supporting Actor Ian Holm Directors Guild of America Awards Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures Hugh Hudson Golden Globe Awards Best Foreign Film Grammy Awards Best Pop Instrumental Performance \"''Chariots of Fire'' Theme (Dance Version)\" – Ernie Watts Japan Academy Film Prize Outstanding Foreign Language Film London Film Critics Circle Awards Film of the Year Screenwriter of the Year Colin Welland Los Angeles Film Critics Association Awards Best Foreign Film Best Music Vangelis National Board of Review Awards Best Film Top Ten Films New York Film Critics Circle Awards Best Film Best Director Hugh Hudson Best Cinematography David Watkin Toronto International Film Festival People's Choice Award Hugh Hudson '''American Film Institute recognition'''* 1998: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies - Nominated* 2005: AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores - Nominated* 2006: AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers - No.", "100* 2007: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) - Nominated* 2008: AFI's 10 Top 10 - Nominated Sports Movie'''Other honours'''* BFI Top 100 British films (1999) – rank 19* Hot 100 No.", "1 Hits of 1982 (USA) (8 May) – Vangelis, ''Chariots of Fire'' theme" ], [ "Historical accuracy", "''Chariots of Fire'' is a film about achieving victory through self sacrifice and moral courage.", "While the producers' intent was to make a cinematic work that was historically authentic, the film was not intended to be historically accurate.", "Numerous liberties were taken with the actual historical chronology, the inclusion and exclusion of notable people, and the creation of fictional scenes for dramatic purpose, plot pacing and exposition.=== Characters ===The film depicts Abrahams as attending Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, with three other Olympic athletes: Henry Stallard, Aubrey Montague, and Lord Andrew Lindsay.", "Abrahams and Stallard were, in fact, students there and competed in the 1924 Olympics.", "Montague also competed in the Olympics as depicted, but he attended Oxford, not Cambridge.", "Aubrey Montague sent daily letters to his mother about his time at Oxford and the Olympics; these letters were the basis of Montague's narration in the film.The character of Lindsay was based partially on Lord Burghley, a significant figure in the history of British athletics.", "Although Burghley did attend Cambridge, he was not a contemporary of Harold Abrahams, as Abrahams was an undergraduate from 1919 to 1923 and Burghley was at Cambridge from 1923 to 1927.One scene in the film depicts the Burghley-based \"Lindsay\" as practising hurdles on his estate with full champagne glasses placed on each hurdle – this was something the wealthy Burghley did, although he used matchboxes instead of champagne glasses.", "The fictional character of Lindsay was created when Douglas Lowe, who was Britain's third athletics gold medallist in the 1924 Olympics, was not willing to be involved with the film.Abrahams (left) and the Burghley-based Lindsay (right) attempt the Great Court Run.Another scene in the film recreates the Great Court Run, in which the runners attempt to run around the perimeter of the Great Court at Trinity College, Cambridge in the time it takes the clock to strike 12 at midday.", "The film shows Abrahams performing the feat for the first time in history.", "In fact, Abrahams never attempted this race, and at the time of filming the only person on record known to have succeeded was Lord Burghley, in 1927.In ''Chariots of Fire'', Lindsay, who is based on Lord Burghley, runs the Great Court Run with Abrahams in order to spur him on, and crosses the finish line just a moment too late.", "Since the film's release, the Great Court Run has also been successfully run by Trinity undergraduate Sam Dobin, in October 2007.In the film, Eric Liddell is tripped up by a Frenchman in the 400-metre event of a Scotland–France international athletic meeting.", "He recovers, makes up a 20-metre deficit, and wins.", "This was based on fact; the actual race was the 440 yards at a Triangular Contest meet between Scotland, England, and Ireland at Stoke-on-Trent in England in July 1923.His achievement was remarkable as he had already won the 100- and 220-yard events that day.", "Also unmentioned with regard to Liddell is that it was he who introduced Abrahams to Sam Mussabini.", "This is alluded to: in the film, Abrahams first encounters Mussabini while he is watching Liddell race.Abrahams and Liddell did race against each other twice, but not as depicted in the film, which shows Liddell winning the final of the 100 yards against a shattered Abrahams at the 1923 AAA Championship at Stamford Bridge.", "In fact, they raced only in a heat of the 220 yards, which Liddell won, five yards ahead of Abrahams, who did not progress to the final.", "In the 100 yards, Abrahams was eliminated in the heats and did not race against Liddell, who won the finals of both races the next day.", "They also raced against each other in the 200 m final at the 1924 Olympics, and this was also not shown in the film.Abrahams' fiancée is misidentified as Sybil Gordon, a soprano with the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company.", "In fact, in 1936, Abrahams married Sybil Evers, who also performed with D'Oyly Carte, but they did not meet until 1934.Also, in the film, Sybil is depicted as singing the role of Yum-Yum in ''The Mikado'', but neither Gordon nor Evers ever sang that role with D'Oyly Carte, although Evers was known for her charm in singing Peep-Bo, one of the two other \"little maids from school\".", "Harold Abrahams' love of and heavy involvement with Gilbert and Sullivan, as depicted in the film, is factual.Liddell's sister was several years younger than she was portrayed in the film.", "Her disapproval of Liddell's track career was creative licence; she actually fully supported his sporting work.", "Jenny Liddell Somerville cooperated fully with the making of the film and has a brief cameo in the Paris Church of Scotland during Liddell's sermon.At the memorial service for Harold Abrahams, which opens the film, Lord Lindsay mentions that he and Aubrey Montague are the only members of the 1924 Olympic team still alive.", "However, Montague died in 1948, 30 years before Abrahams' death.=== Paris Olympics 1924 ===In the film, the 100m bronze medallist is a character called \"Tom Watson\"; the real medallist was Arthur Porritt of New Zealand, who refused permission for his name to be used in the film, allegedly out of modesty, and his wish was accepted by the film's producers, even though his permission was not necessary.", "However, the brief back-story given for Watson, who is called up to the New Zealand team from the University of Oxford, substantially matches Porritt's history.", "With the exception of Porritt, all the runners in the 100m final are identified correctly when they line up for inspection by the Prince of Wales.Jackson Scholz is depicted as handing Liddell an inspirational Bible-quotation message before the 400 metres final: \"It says in the Old Book, 'He that honors me, I will honor.'", "Good luck.\"", "In reality, the note was from members of the British team, and was handed to Liddell before the race by his attending masseur at the team's Paris hotel.", "For dramatic purposes, screenwriter Welland asked Scholz if he could be depicted handing the note, and Scholz readily agreed, saying \"Yes, great, as long as it makes me look good.", "\"The events surrounding Liddell's refusal to race on a Sunday are fictional.", "In the film, he does not learn that the 100-metre heat is to be held on the Christian Sabbath until he is boarding the boat to Paris.", "In fact, the schedule was made public several months in advance; Liddell did however face immense pressure to run on that Sunday and to compete in the 100 metres, getting called before a grilling by the British Olympic Committee, the Prince of Wales, and other grandees, and his refusal to run made headlines around the world.The decision to change races was, even so, made well before embarking to Paris, and Liddell spent the intervening months training for the 400 metres, an event in which he had previously excelled.", "It is true, nonetheless, that Liddell's success in the Olympic 400m was largely unexpected.The film depicts Lindsay, having already won a medal in the 400-metre hurdles, giving up his place in the 400-metre race for Liddell.", "In fact Burghley, on whom Lindsay is loosely based, was eliminated in the heats of the 110 hurdles (he would go on to win a gold medal in the 400 hurdles at the 1928 Olympics), and was not entered for the 400 metres.The film reverses the order of Abrahams' 100m and 200m races at the Olympics.", "In reality, after winning the 100 metres race, Abrahams ran the 200 metres but finished last, Jackson Scholz taking the gold medal.", "In the film, before his triumph in the 100m, Abrahams is shown losing the 200m and being scolded by Mussabini.", "And during the following scene in which Abrahams speaks with his friend Montague while receiving a massage from Mussabini, there is a French newspaper clipping showing Scholz and Charley Paddock with a headline which states that the 200 metres was a triumph for the United States.", "In the same conversation, Abrahams laments getting \"beaten out of sight\" in the 200.The film thus has Abrahams overcoming the disappointment of losing the 200 by going on to win the 100, a reversal of the real order.Eric Liddell actually also ran in the 200m race, and finished third, behind Paddock and Scholz.", "This was the only time in reality that Liddell and Abrahams competed in the same finals race.", "While their meeting in the 1923 AAA Championship in the film was fictitious, Liddell's record win in that race did spur Abrahams to train even harder.Abrahams also won a silver medal as an opening runner for the 4 x 100 metres relay team, not shown in the film, and Aubrey Montague placed sixth in the steeplechase, as depicted." ], [ "London Olympics' 2012 revival", "''Chariots of Fire'' became a recurring theme in promotions for the 2012 Summer Olympics in London.", "The film's theme was featured at the opening of the 2012 London New Year's fireworks celebrating the Olympics.", "The runners who first tested the new Olympic Park were spurred on by the ''Chariots of Fire'' theme, and the music was also used to fanfare the carriers of the Olympic flame on parts of its route through the UK.", "The beach-running sequence was also recreated at St. Andrews and filmed as part of the Olympic torch relay.The film's theme was also performed by the London Symphony Orchestra, conducted by Simon Rattle, during the Opening Ceremony of the games; the performance was accompanied by a comedy skit by Rowan Atkinson (as Mr. Bean) which included the opening beach-running footage from the film.", "The film's theme was again played during each medal ceremony of the 2012 Olympics.As an official part of the London 2012 Festival celebrations, a new digitally re-mastered version of the film screened in 150 cinemas throughout the UK.", "The re-release began 13 July 2012, two weeks before the opening ceremony of the London Olympics.A Blu-ray of the film was released on 10 July 2012 in North America, and was released 16 July 2012 in the UK.", "The release includes nearly an hour of special features, a CD sampler, and a 32-page \"digibook\".=== Stage adaptation ===Chariots of Fire'' stage adaptation: Stars Jack Lowden and James McArdle flank Vangelis, watching the Olympic Torch Relay set to the tune, from the Gielgud Theatre, July 2012.A stage adaptation of ''Chariots of Fire'' was mounted in honour of the 2012 Olympics.", "The play, ''Chariots of Fire'', which was adapted by playwright Mike Bartlett and included the Vangelis score, ran from 9 May to 16 June 2012 at London's Hampstead Theatre, and transferred to the Gielgud Theatre in the West End on 23 June, where it ran until 5 January 2013.It starred Jack Lowden as Eric Liddell and James McArdle as Harold Abrahams, and Edward Hall directed.", "Stage designer Miriam Buether transformed each theatre into an Olympic stadium, and composer Jason Carr wrote additional music.", "Vangelis also created several new pieces of music for the production.", "The stage version for the London Olympic year was the idea of the film's director, Hugh Hudson, who co-produced the play; he stated, \"Issues of faith, of refusal to compromise, standing up for one's beliefs, achieving something for the sake of it, with passion, and not just for fame or financial gain, are even more vital today.", "\"Another play, ''Running for Glory'', written by Philip Dart, based on the 1924 Olympics, and focusing on Abrahams and Liddell, toured parts of Britain from 25 February to 1 April 2012.It starred Nicholas Jacobs as Harold Abrahams, and Tom Micklem as Eric Liddell." ], [ "See also", "* List of films about the sport of athletics* Chariots of Fire, a race, inspired by the film, held in Cambridge since 1991* Great Britain at the 1924 Summer Olympics* Sabbath breaking" ], [ "References", "* *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", " * * * * * * Critics' Picks: ''Chariots of Fire'' retrospective video by A. O. Scott, ''The New York Times'' (2008)* Four speeches from the movie in text and audio from AmericanRhetoric.com* ''Chariots of Fire'' review by Roger Ebert* ''Chariots of Fire'' review in ''Variety''* '' Chariots of Fire'' at the Arts & Faith Top 100 Spiritually Significant Films* ''Chariots of Fire'' Filming locations* ''Chariots of Fire'' screenplay, second draft, February 1980* Great Court Run* ''Chariots of Fire'' play – Hampstead Theatre" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Consequentialism" ], [ "Introduction", "Every advantage in the past is judged in the light of the final issue.", "— 283x283pxIn ethical philosophy, '''consequentialism''' is a class of normative, teleological ethical theories that holds that the consequences of one's conduct are the ultimate basis for judgement about the rightness or wrongness of that conduct.", "Thus, from a consequentialist standpoint, a morally right act (or omission from acting) is one that will produce a good outcome.", "Consequentialism, along with eudaimonism, falls under the broader category of '''teleological ethics''', a group of views which claim that the moral value of any act consists in its tendency to produce things of intrinsic value.", "Consequentialists hold in general that an act is right ''if and only if'' the act (or in some views, the rule under which it falls) will produce, will probably produce, or is intended to produce, a greater balance of good over evil than any available alternative.", "Different consequentialist theories differ in how they define moral goods, with chief candidates including pleasure, the absence of pain, the satisfaction of one's preferences, and broader notions of the \"general good\".Consequentialism is usually contrasted with deontological ethics (or ''deontology''): deontology, in which rules and moral duty are central, derives the rightness or wrongness of one's conduct from the character of the behaviour itself, rather than the outcomes of the conduct.", "It is also contrasted with both virtue ethics which focuses on the character of the agent rather than on the nature or consequences of the act (or omission) itself, and pragmatic ethics which treats morality like science: advancing collectively as a society over the course of many lifetimes, such that any moral criterion is subject to revision.Some argue that consequentialist theories (such as utilitarianism) and deontological theories (such as Kantian ethics) are not necessarily mutually exclusive.", "For example, T. M. Scanlon advances the idea that human rights, which are commonly considered a \"deontological\" concept, can only be justified with reference to the consequences of having those rights.", "Similarly, Robert Nozick argued for a theory that is mostly consequentialist, but incorporates inviolable \"side-constraints\" which restrict the sort of actions agents are permitted to do.", "Derek Parfit argued that in practice, when understood properly, rule consequentialism, Kantian deontology, and contractualism would all end up prescribing the same behavior." ], [ "Forms of consequentialism", "===Utilitarianism===Jeremy Bentham, best known for his advocacy of utilitarianismIn summary, Jeremy Bentham states that people are driven by their interests and their fears, but their interests take precedence over their fears; their interests are carried out in accordance with how people view the consequences that might be involved with their interests.", "''Happiness'', in this account, is defined as the maximization of pleasure and the minimization of pain.", "It can be argued that the existence of phenomenal consciousness and \"qualia\" is required for the experience of pleasure or pain to have an ethical significance.Historically, ''hedonistic utilitarianism'' is the paradigmatic example of a consequentialist moral theory.", "This form of utilitarianism holds that what matters is the aggregate happiness; the happiness of everyone, and not the happiness of any particular person.", "John Stuart Mill, in his exposition of hedonistic utilitarianism, proposed a hierarchy of pleasures, meaning that the pursuit of certain kinds of pleasure is more highly valued than the pursuit of other pleasures.", "However, some contemporary utilitarians, such as Peter Singer, are concerned with maximizing the satisfaction of preferences, hence ''preference utilitarianism''.", "Other contemporary forms of utilitarianism mirror the forms of consequentialism outlined below.===Rule consequentialism===In general, consequentialist theories focus on actions.", "However, this need not be the case.", "Rule consequentialism is a theory that is sometimes seen as an attempt to reconcile consequentialism with deontology, or rules-based ethics—and in some cases, this is stated as a criticism of rule consequentialism.", "Like deontology, rule consequentialism holds that moral behavior involves following certain rules.", "However, rule consequentialism chooses rules based on the consequences that the selection of those rules has.", "Rule consequentialism exists in the forms of rule utilitarianism and rule egoism.Various theorists are split as to whether the rules are the only determinant of moral behavior or not.", "For example, Robert Nozick held that a certain set of minimal rules, which he calls \"side-constraints,\" are necessary to ensure appropriate actions.", "There are also differences as to how absolute these moral rules are.", "Thus, while Nozick's side-constraints are absolute restrictions on behavior, Amartya Sen proposes a theory that recognizes the importance of certain rules, but these rules are not absolute.", "That is, they may be violated if strict adherence to the rule would lead to much more undesirable consequences.One of the most common objections to rule-consequentialism is that it is incoherent, because it is based on the consequentialist principle that what we should be concerned with is maximizing the good, but then it tells us not to act to maximize the good, but to follow rules (even in cases where we know that breaking the rule could produce better results).In ''Ideal Code, Real World'', Brad Hooker avoids this objection by not basing his form of rule-consequentialism on the ideal of maximizing the good.", "He writes:The best argument for rule-consequentialism is not that it derives from an overarching commitment to maximise the good.", "The best argument for rule-consequentialism is that it does a better job than its rivals of matching and tying together our moral convictions, as well as offering us help with our moral disagreements and uncertainties.Derek Parfit described Hooker's book as the \"best statement and defence, so far, of one of the most important moral theories.", "\"===State consequentialism===''State consequentialism'', also known as ''Mohist consequentialism'', is an ethical theory that evaluates the moral worth of an action based on how much it contributes to the welfare of a state.", "According to the ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', Mohist consequentialism, dating back to the 5th century BCE, is the \"world's earliest form of consequentialism, a remarkably sophisticated version based on a plurality of intrinsic goods taken as constitutive of human welfare.", "\"Unlike utilitarianism, which views utility as the sole moral good, \"the basic goods in Mohist consequentialist thinking are...order, material wealth, and increase in population.\"", "During the time of Mozi, war and famine were common, and population growth was seen as a moral necessity for a harmonious society.", "The \"material wealth\" of Mohist consequentialism refers to basic needs, like shelter and clothing; and \"order\" refers to Mozi's stance against warfare and violence, which he viewed as pointless and a threat to social stability.", "In ''The Cambridge History of Ancient China'', Stanford sinologist David Shepherd Nivison writes that the moral goods of Mohism \"are interrelated: more basic wealth, then more reproduction; more people, then more production and wealth...if people have plenty, they would be good, filial, kind, and so on unproblematically.", "\"The Mohists believed that morality is based on \"promoting the benefit of all under heaven and eliminating harm to all under heaven.\"", "In contrast to Jeremy Bentham's views, state consequentialism is not utilitarian because it is not hedonistic or individualistic.", "The importance of outcomes that are good for the community outweigh the importance of individual pleasure and pain.", "The term ''state consequentialism'' has also been applied to the political philosophy of the Confucian philosopher Xunzi.", "On the other hand, \"legalist\" Han Fei \"is motivated almost totally from the ruler's point of view.", "\"===Ethical egoism===Ethical egoism can be understood as a consequentialist theory according to which the consequences for the individual agent are taken to matter more than any other result.", "Thus, egoism will prescribe actions that may be beneficial, detrimental, or neutral to the welfare of others.", "Some, like Henry Sidgwick, argue that a certain degree of egoism ''promotes'' the general welfare of society for two reasons: because individuals know how to please themselves best, and because if everyone were an austere altruist then general welfare would inevitably decrease.===Ethical altruism===Ethical altruism can be seen as a consequentialist theory which prescribes that an individual take actions that have the best consequences for everyone except for himself.", "This was advocated by Auguste Comte, who coined the term ''altruism'', and whose ethics can be summed up in the phrase \"Live for others.", "\"===Two-level consequentialism===The two-level approach involves engaging in critical reasoning and considering all the possible ramifications of one's actions before making an ethical decision, but reverting to generally reliable moral rules when one is not in a position to stand back and examine the dilemma as a whole.", "In practice, this equates to adhering to rule consequentialism when one can only reason on an intuitive level, and to act consequentialism when in a position to stand back and reason on a more critical level.This position can be described as a reconciliation between ''act consequentialism''—in which the morality of an action is determined by that action's effects—and ''rule consequentialism''—in which moral behavior is derived from following rules that lead to positive outcomes.The two-level approach to consequentialism is most often associated with R. M. Hare and Peter Singer.===Motive consequentialism===Another consequentialist version is motive consequentialism, which looks at whether the state of affairs that results from the motive to choose an action is better or at least as good as each alternative state of affairs that would have resulted from alternative actions.", "This version gives relevance to the motive of an act and links it to its consequences.", "An act can therefore not be wrong if the decision to act was based on a right motive.", "A possible inference is that one can not be blamed for mistaken judgments if the motivation was to do good.===Negative consequentialism===Most consequentialist theories focus on ''promoting'' some sort of good consequences.", "However, negative utilitarianism lays out a consequentialist theory that focuses solely on minimizing bad consequences.One major difference between these two approaches is the agent's responsibility.", "''Positive'' consequentialism demands that we bring about good states of affairs, whereas ''negative'' consequentialism requires that we avoid bad ones.", "Stronger versions of negative consequentialism will require active intervention to prevent bad and ameliorate existing harm.", "In weaker versions, simple forbearance from acts tending to harm others is sufficient.", "An example of this is the slippery-slope argument, which encourages others to avoid a specified act on the grounds that it may ultimately lead to undesirable consequences.Often \"negative\" consequentialist theories assert that reducing suffering is more important than increasing pleasure.", "Karl Popper, for example, claimed that \"from the moral point of view, pain cannot be outweighed by pleasure.\"", "(While Popper is not a consequentialist per se, this is taken as a classic statement of negative utilitarianism.)", "When considering a theory of justice, negative consequentialists may use a statewide or global-reaching principle: the reduction of suffering (for the disadvantaged) is more valuable than increased pleasure (for the affluent or luxurious).===Acts and omissions===Since pure consequentialism holds that an action is to be judged solely by its result, most consequentialist theories hold that a deliberate action is no different from a deliberate decision not to act.", "This contrasts with the \"''acts and omissions doctrine''\", which is upheld by some medical ethicists and some religions: it asserts there is a significant moral distinction between acts and deliberate non-actions which lead to the same outcome.", "This contrast is brought out in issues such as voluntary euthanasia.=== Actualism and possibilism ===The normative status of an action depends on its consequences according to consequentialism.", "The consequences of the actions of an agent may include other actions by this agent.", "'''Actualism and possibilism''' disagree on how later possible actions impact the normative status of the current action by the same agent.", "Actualists assert that it is only relevant what the agent ''would'' actually do later for assessing the value of an alternative.", "Possibilists, on the other hand, hold that we should also take into account what the agent ''could'' do, even if she would not do it.For example, assume that Gifre has the choice between two alternatives, eating a cookie or not eating anything.", "Having eaten the first cookie, Gifre could stop eating cookies, which is the best alternative.", "But after having tasted one cookie, Gifre would freely decide to continue eating cookies until the whole bag is finished, which would result in a terrible stomach ache and would be the worst alternative.", "Not eating any cookies at all, on the other hand, would be the second-best alternative.", "Now the question is: should Gifre eat the first cookie or not?", "Actualists are only concerned with the actual consequences.", "According to them, Gifre should not eat any cookies at all since it is better than the alternative leading to a stomach ache.", "Possibilists, however, contend that the best possible course of action involves eating the first cookie and this is therefore what Gifre should do.One counterintuitive consequence of actualism is that agents can avoid moral obligations simply by having an imperfect moral character.", "For example, a lazy person might justify rejecting a request to help a friend by arguing that, due to her lazy character, she would not have done the work anyway, even if she had accepted the request.", "By rejecting the offer right away, she managed at least not to waste anyone's time.", "Actualists might even consider her behavior praiseworthy since she did what, according to actualism, she ought to have done.", "This seems to be a very easy way to \"get off the hook\" that is avoided by possibilism.", "But possibilism has to face the objection that in some cases it sanctions and even recommends what actually leads to the worst outcome.Douglas W. Portmore has suggested that these and other problems of actualism and possibilism can be avoided by constraining what counts as a genuine alternative for the agent.", "On his view, it is a requirement that the agent has rational control over the event in question.", "For example, eating only one cookie and stopping afterward only is an option for Gifre if she has the rational capacity to repress her temptation to continue eating.", "If the temptation is irrepressible then this course of action is not considered to be an option and is therefore not relevant when assessing what the best alternative is.", "Portmore suggests that, given this adjustment, we should prefer a view very closely associated with ''possibilism'' called ''maximalism''." ], [ "Issues", "===Action guidance===One important characteristic of many normative moral theories such as consequentialism is the ability to produce practical moral judgements.", "At the very least, any moral theory needs to define the standpoint from which the goodness of the consequences are to be determined.", "What is primarily at stake here is the ''responsibility'' of the agent.====The ideal observer====One common tactic among consequentialists, particularly those committed to an altruistic (selfless) account of consequentialism, is to employ an ideal, neutral observer from which moral judgements can be made.", "John Rawls, a critic of utilitarianism, argues that utilitarianism, in common with other forms of consequentialism, relies on the perspective of such an ideal observer.", "The particular characteristics of this ideal observer can vary from an omniscient observer, who would grasp all the consequences of any action, to an ideally informed observer, who knows as much as could reasonably be expected, but not necessarily all the circumstances or all the possible consequences.", "Consequentialist theories that adopt this paradigm hold that right action is the action that will bring about the best consequences from this ideal observer's perspective.====The real observer====In practice, it is very difficult, and at times arguably impossible, to adopt the point of view of an ideal observer.", "Individual moral agents do not know everything about their particular situations, and thus do not know all the possible consequences of their potential actions.", "For this reason, some theorists have argued that consequentialist theories can only require agents to choose the best action in line with what they know about the situation.", "However, if this approach is naïvely adopted, then moral agents who, for example, recklessly fail to reflect on their situation, and act in a way that brings about terrible results, could be said to be acting in a morally justifiable way.", "Acting in a situation without first informing oneself of the circumstances of the situation can lead to even the most well-intended actions yielding miserable consequences.", "As a result, it could be argued that there is a moral imperative for agents to inform themselves as much as possible about a situation before judging the appropriate course of action.", "This imperative, of course, is derived from consequential thinking: a better-informed agent is able to bring about better consequences.===Consequences for whom===Moral action always has consequences for certain people or things.", "Varieties of consequentialism can be differentiated by the beneficiary of the good consequences.", "That is, one might ask \"Consequences for whom?", "\"====Agent-focused or agent-neutral====A fundamental distinction can be drawn between theories which require that agents act for ends perhaps disconnected from their own interests and drives, and theories which permit that agents act for ends in which they have some personal interest or motivation.", "These are called \"agent-neutral\" and \"agent-focused\" theories respectively.", "'''Agent-neutral''' consequentialism ignores the specific value a state of affairs has for any particular agent.", "Thus, in an agent-neutral theory, an actor's personal goals do not count any more than anyone else's goals in evaluating what action the actor should take.", "'''Agent-focused''' consequentialism, on the other hand, focuses on the particular needs of the moral agent.", "Thus, in an agent-focused account, such as one that Peter Railton outlines, the agent might be concerned with the general welfare, but the agent is ''more'' concerned with the immediate welfare of herself and her friends and family.These two approaches could be reconciled by acknowledging the tension between an agent's interests as an individual and as a member of various groups, and seeking to somehow optimize among all of these interests.", "For example, it may be meaningful to speak of an action as being good for someone as an individual, but bad for them as a citizen of their town.====Human-centered?====Many consequentialist theories may seem primarily concerned with human beings and their relationships with other human beings.", "However, some philosophers argue that we should not limit our ethical consideration to the interests of human beings alone.", "Jeremy Bentham, who is regarded as the founder of utilitarianism, argues that animals can experience pleasure and pain, thus demanding that 'non-human animals' should be a serious object of moral concern.More recently, Peter Singer has argued that it is unreasonable that we do not give equal consideration to the interests of animals as to those of human beings when we choose the way we are to treat them.", "Such equal consideration does not necessarily imply identical treatment of humans and non-humans, any more than it necessarily implies identical treatment of all humans.===Value of consequences===One way to divide various consequentialisms is by the types of consequences that are taken to matter most, that is, which consequences count as good states of affairs.", "According to utilitarianism, a good action is one that results in an increase in pleasure, and the best action is one that results in the most pleasure for the greatest number.", "Closely related is eudaimonic consequentialism, according to which a full, flourishing life, which may or may not be the same as enjoying a great deal of pleasure, is the ultimate aim.", "Similarly, one might adopt an aesthetic consequentialism, in which the ultimate aim is to produce beauty.", "However, one might fix on non-psychological goods as the relevant effect.", "Thus, one might pursue an increase in material equality or political liberty instead of something like the more ephemeral \"pleasure\".", "Other theories adopt a package of several goods, all to be promoted equally.", "As the consequentialist approach contains an inherent assumption that the outcomes of a moral decision can be quantified in terms of \"goodness\" or \"badness,\" or at least put in order of increasing preference, it is an especially suited moral theory for a probabilistic and decision theoretical approach.===Virtue ethics===Consequentialism can also be contrasted with aretaic moral theories such as virtue ethics.", "Whereas consequentialist theories posit that consequences of action should be the primary focus of our thinking about ethics, virtue ethics insists that it is the character rather than the consequences of actions that should be the focal point.", "Some virtue ethicists hold that consequentialist theories totally disregard the development and importance of moral character.", "For example, Philippa Foot argues that consequences in themselves have no ethical content, unless it has been provided by a virtue such as benevolence.However, consequentialism and virtue ethics need not be entirely antagonistic.", "Iain King has developed an approach that reconciles the two schools.", "Other consequentialists consider effects on the character of people involved in an action when assessing consequence.", "Similarly, a consequentialist theory may aim at the maximization of a particular virtue or set of virtues.", "Finally, following Foot's lead, one might adopt a sort of consequentialism that argues that virtuous activity ultimately produces the best consequences.Max Weber===Ultimate end===The ''ultimate end'' is a concept in the moral philosophy of Max Weber, in which individuals act in a faithful, rather than rational, manner." ], [ "Teleological ethics", "Teleological ethics (Greek: ''telos'', 'end, purpose' + ''logos'', 'science') is a broader class of views in moral philosophy which consequentialism falls under.", "In general, proponents of teleological ethics argue that the moral value of any act consists in its tendency to produce things of intrinsic value, meaning that an act is right ''if and only if'' it, or the rule under which it falls, produces, will probably produce, or is intended to produce, a greater balance of good over evil than any alternative act.", "This concept is exemplified by the famous aphorism, \"the end justifies the means,\" variously attributed to Machiavelli or Ovid i.e.", "if a goal is morally important enough, any method of achieving it is acceptable.Teleological theories differ among themselves on the nature of the particular end that actions ought to promote.", "The two major families of views in teleological ethics are ''virtue ethics'' and ''consequentialism''.", "Teleological ethical theories are often discussed in opposition to deontological ethical theories, which hold that acts themselves are ''inherently'' good or bad, rather than good or bad because of extrinsic factors (such as the act's consequences or the moral character of the person who acts)." ], [ "Etymology", "The term ''consequentialism'' was coined by G. E. M. Anscombe in her essay \"Modern Moral Philosophy\" in 1958, to describe what she saw as the central error of certain moral theories, such as those propounded by Mill and Sidgwick.The phrase and concept of \"the end justifies the means\" are at least as old as the first century BC.", "Ovid wrote in his ''Heroides'' that ''Exitus acta probat'' (\"The result justifies the deed\")." ], [ "Criticisms", "G. E. M. Anscombe objects to the consequentialism of Sidgwick on the grounds that the moral worth of an action is premised on the predictive capabilities of the individual, relieving them of the responsibility for the \"badness\" of an act should they \"make out a case for not having foreseen\" negative consequences.The future amplification of the effects of small decisions is an important factor that makes it more difficult to predict the ethical value of consequences, even though most would agree that only predictable consequences are charged with a moral responsibility.Bernard Williams has argued that consequentialism is alienating because it requires moral agents to put too much distance between themselves and their own projects and commitments.", "Williams argues that consequentialism requires moral agents to take a strictly impersonal view of all actions, since it is only the consequences, and not who produces them, that are said to matter.", "Williams argues that this demands too much of moral agents—since (he claims) consequentialism demands that they be willing to sacrifice any and all personal projects and commitments in any given circumstance in order to pursue the most beneficent course of action possible.", "He argues further that consequentialism fails to make sense of intuitions that it can matter whether or not someone is personally the author of a particular consequence.", "For example, that participating in a crime can matter, even if the crime would have been committed anyway, or would even have been worse, without the agent's participation.Some consequentialists—most notably Peter Railton—have attempted to develop a form of consequentialism that acknowledges and avoids the objections raised by Williams.", "Railton argues that Williams's criticisms can be avoided by adopting a form of consequentialism in which moral decisions are to be determined by the sort of life that they express.", "On his account, the agent should choose the sort of life that will, on the whole, produce the best overall effects." ], [ "Notable consequentialists", "* R. M. Adams (born 1937)* Jonathan Baron (born 1944)* Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832)* Richard B. Brandt (1910–1997)* John Dewey (1857–1952)* Julia Driver (1961- )* Milton Friedman (1912–2006)* David Friedman (born 1945)* William Godwin (1756–1836)* R. M. Hare (1919–2002)* John Harsanyi (1920–2000)* Brad Hooker (born 1957)* Francis Hutcheson (1694–1746)* Shelly Kagan (born 1963)* Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527)* James Mill (1773–1836)* John Stuart Mill (1806–1873)* G. E. Moore (1873–1958)* Mozi (470–391 BCE)* Philip Pettit (born 1945)* Peter Railton (born 1950)* Henry Sidgwick (1838–1900)* Peter Singer (born 1946)* J. J. C. Smart (1920–2012)=== Notable utilitarian consequentialists ===" ], [ "See also", "* Charvaka* Demandingness objection* Dharma-yuddha* Effective altruism* Instrumental and intrinsic value* Lesser of two evils principle* Mental reservation* Mohism* Omission bias* Principle of double effect* Situational ethics* Utilitarianism* Welfarism" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * " ], [ "External links", "*** University of Texas.", "Ethics Unwrapped – Consequentialism" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Conscription" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Conscription''' is the state-mandated enlistment of people in a national service, mainly a military service.", "Conscription dates back to antiquity and it continues in some countries to the present day under various names.", "The modern system of near-universal national conscription for young men dates to the French Revolution in the 1790s, where it became the basis of a very large and powerful military.", "Most European nations later copied the system in peacetime, so that men at a certain age would serve 1–8 years on active duty and then transfer to the reserve force.Conscription is controversial for a range of reasons, including conscientious objection to military engagements on religious or philosophical grounds; political objection, for example to service for a disliked government or unpopular war; sexism, in that historically men have been subject to the draft in the most cases; and ideological objection, for example, to a perceived violation of individual rights.", "Those conscripted may evade service, sometimes by leaving the country, and seeking asylum in another country.", "Some selection systems accommodate these attitudes by providing alternative service outside combat-operations roles or even outside the military, such as (alternative civil service) in Finland and (compulsory community service) in Austria, Germany, and Switzerland.", "Several countries conscript male soldiers not only for armed forces, but also for paramilitary agencies, which are dedicated to police-like ''domestic-only'' service like internal troops, border guards or ''non-combat'' rescue duties like civil defence.As of 2023, many states no longer conscript their citizens, relying instead upon professional militaries with volunteers.", "The ability to rely on such an arrangement, however, presupposes some degree of predictability with regard to both war-fighting requirements and the scope of hostilities.", "Many states that have abolished conscription still, therefore, reserve the power to resume conscription during wartime or times of crisis.", "States involved in wars or interstate rivalries are most likely to implement conscription, and democracies are less likely than autocracies to implement conscription.", "With a few exceptions, such as Singapore and Egypt, former British colonies are less likely to have conscription, as they are influenced by British anti-conscription norms that can be traced back to the English Civil War; the United Kingdom abolished conscription in 1960." ], [ "History", "===In pre-modern times=======Ilkum====Around the reign of Hammurabi (1791–1750 BC), the Babylonian Empire used a system of conscription called ''Ilkum''.", "Under that system those eligible were required to serve in the royal army in time of war.", "During times of peace they were instead required to provide labour for other activities of the state.", "In return for this service, people subject to it gained the right to hold land.", "It is possible that this right was not to hold land ''per se'' but specific land supplied by the state.Various forms of avoiding military service are recorded.", "While it was outlawed by the Code of Hammurabi, the hiring of substitutes appears to have been practiced both before and after the creation of the code.", "Later records show that Ilkum commitments could become regularly traded.", "In other places, people simply left their towns to avoid their Ilkum service.", "Another option was to sell Ilkum lands and the commitments along with them.", "With the exception of a few exempted classes, this was forbidden by the Code of Hammurabi.====Medieval levies====Under the feudal laws on the European continent, landowners in the medieval period enforced a system whereby all peasants, freemen commoners and noblemen aged 15 to 60 living in the countryside or in urban centers, were summoned for military duty when required by either the king or the local lord, bringing along the weapons and armor according to their wealth.", "These levies fought as footmen, sergeants, and men at arms under local superiors appointed by the king or the local lord such as the arrière-ban in France.", "Arrière-ban denoted a general levy, where all able-bodied males age 15 to 60 living in the Kingdom of France were summoned to go to war by the King (or the constable and the marshals).", "Men were summoned by the bailiff (or the sénéchal in the south).", "Bailiffs were military and political administrators installed by the King to steward and govern a specific area of a province following the king's commands and orders.", "The men summoned in this way were then summoned by the lieutenant who was the King's representative and military governor over an entire province comprising many bailiwicks, seneschalties and castellanies.", "All men from the richest noble to the poorest commoner were summoned under the arrière-ban and they were supposed to present themselves to the King or his officials.In medieval Scandinavia the ''leiðangr'' (Old Norse), ''leidang'' (Norwegian), ''leding'', (Danish), ''ledung'' (Swedish), ''lichting'' (Dutch), ''expeditio'' (Latin) or sometimes ''leþing'' (Old English), was a levy of free farmers conscripted into coastal fleets for seasonal excursions and in defence of the realm.The bulk of the Anglo-Saxon English army, called the ''fyrd'', was composed of part-time English soldiers drawn from the freemen of each county.", "In the 690s laws of Ine of Wessex, three levels of fines are imposed on different social classes for neglecting military service.Some modern writers claim military service in Europe was restricted to the landowning minor nobility.", "These thegns were the land-holding aristocracy of the time and were required to serve with their own armour and weapons for a certain number of days each year.", "The historian David Sturdy has cautioned about regarding the ''fyrd'' as a precursor to a modern national army composed of all ranks of society, describing it as a \"ridiculous fantasy\":The persistent old belief that peasants and small farmers gathered to form a national army or ''fyrd'' is a strange delusion dreamt up by antiquarians in the late eighteenth or early nineteenth centuries to justify universal military conscription.Painting depicting a battle during the Ōnin WarIn feudal Japan the shogun decree of 1393 exempted money lenders from religious or military levies, in return for a yearly tax.", "The Ōnin War weakened the shogun and levies were imposed again on money lenders.", "This overlordism was arbitrary and unpredictable for commoners.", "While the money lenders were not poor, several overlords tapped them for income.", "Levies became necessary for the survival of the overlord, allowing the lord to impose taxes at will.", "These levies included ''tansen'' tax on agricultural land for ceremonial expenses.", "Y''akubu takumai'' tax was raised on all land to rebuild the Ise Grand Shrine, and ''munabechisen'' tax was imposed on all houses.", "At the time, land in Kyoto was acquired by commoners through usury and in 1422 the shogun threatened to repossess the land of those commoners who failed to pay their levies.====Military slavery====Ottoman janissariesThe system of military slaves was widely used in the Middle East, beginning with the creation of the corps of Turkic slave-soldiers (''ghulams'' or ''mamluks'') by the Abbasid caliph al-Mu'tasim in the 820s and 830s.", "The Turkish troops soon came to dominate the government, establishing a pattern throughout the Islamic world of a ruling military class, often separated by ethnicity, culture and even religion by the mass of the population, a paradigm that found its apogee in the Mamluks of Egypt and the Janissary corps of the Ottoman Empire, institutions that survived until the early 19th century.In the middle of the 14th century, Ottoman Sultan Murad I developed personal troops to be loyal to him, with a slave army called the ''Kapıkulu''.", "The new force was built by taking Christian children from newly conquered lands, especially from the far areas of his empire, in a system known as the ''devşirme'' (translated \"gathering\" or \"converting\").", "The captive children were forced to convert to Islam.", "The Sultans had the young boys trained over several years.", "Those who showed special promise in fighting skills were trained in advanced warrior skills, put into the sultan's personal service, and turned into the Janissaries, the elite branch of the ''Kapıkulu''.", "A number of distinguished military commanders of the Ottomans, and most of the imperial administrators and upper-level officials of the Empire, such as Pargalı İbrahim Pasha and Sokollu Mehmet Paşa, were recruited in this way.", "By 1609, the Sultan's ''Kapıkulu'' forces increased to about 100,000.In later years, Sultans turned to the Barbary Pirates to supply their Jannissaries corps.", "Their attacks on ships off the coast of Africa or in the Mediterranean, and subsequent capture of able-bodied men for ransom or sale provided some captives for the Sultan's system.", "Starting in the 17th century, Christian families living under the Ottoman rule began to submit their sons into the Kapikulu system willingly, as they saw this as a potentially invaluable career opportunity for their children.", "Eventually the Sultan turned to foreign volunteers from the warrior clans of Circassians in southern Russia to fill his Janissary armies.", "As a whole the system began to break down, the loyalty of the Jannissaries became increasingly suspect.", "Mahmud II forcibly disbanded the Janissary corps in 1826.Similar to the Janissaries in origin and means of development were the Mamluks of Egypt in the Middle Ages.", "The Mamluks were usually captive non-Muslim Iranian and Turkish children who had been kidnapped or bought as slaves from the Barbary coasts.", "The Egyptians assimilated and trained the boys and young men to become Islamic soldiers who served the Muslim caliphs and the Ayyubid sultans during the Middle Ages.", "The first mamluks served the Abbasid caliphs in 9th-century Baghdad.", "Over time they became a powerful military caste.", "On more than one occasion, they seized power, for example, ruling Egypt from 1250 to 1517.From 1250 Egypt had been ruled by the Bahri dynasty of Kipchak origin.", "Slaves from the Caucasus served in the army and formed an elite corps of troops.", "They eventually revolted in Egypt to form the Burgi dynasty.", "The Mamluks' excellent fighting abilities, massed Islamic armies, and overwhelming numbers succeeded in overcoming the Christian Crusader fortresses in the Holy Land.", "The Mamluks were the most successful defence against the Mongol Ilkhanate of Persia and Iraq from entering Egypt.On the western coast of Africa, Berber Muslims captured non-Muslims to put to work as laborers.", "They generally converted the younger people to Islam and many became quite assimilated.", "In Morocco, the Berber looked south rather than north.", "The Moroccan Sultan Moulay Ismail, called \"the Bloodthirsty\" (1672–1727), employed a corps of 150,000 black slaves, called his Black Guard.", "He used them to coerce the country into submission.===In modern times===Painting depicting the ''Departure of the Conscripts of 1807'' by Louis-Léopold Boilly Modern conscription, the massed military enlistment of national citizens (), was devised during the French Revolution, to enable the Republic to defend itself from the attacks of European monarchies.", "Deputy Jean-Baptiste Jourdan gave its name to the 5 September 1798 Act, whose first article stated: \"Any Frenchman is a soldier and owes himself to the defense of the nation.\"", "It enabled the creation of the , what Napoleon Bonaparte called \"the nation in arms\", which overwhelmed European professional armies that often numbered only into the low tens of thousands.", "More than 2.6 million men were inducted into the French military in this way between the years 1800 and 1813.The defeat of the Prussian Army in particular shocked the Prussian establishment, which had believed it was invincible after the victories of Frederick the Great.", "The Prussians were used to relying on superior organization and tactical factors such as order of battle to focus superior troops against inferior ones.", "Given approximately equivalent forces, as was generally the case with professional armies, these factors showed considerable importance.", "However, they became considerably less important when the Prussian armies faced Napoleon's forces that outnumbered their own in some cases by more than ten to one.", "Scharnhorst advocated adopting the , the military conscription used by France.", "The was the beginning of short-term compulsory service in Prussia, as opposed to the long-term conscription previously used.Conscription of Poles to the Russian Army in 1863 (by Aleksander Sochaczewski)In the Russian Empire, the military service time \"owed\" by serfs was 25 years at the beginning of the 19th century.", "In 1834 it was decreased to 20 years.", "The recruits were to be not younger than 17 and not older than 35.In 1874 Russia introduced universal conscription in the modern pattern, an innovation only made possible by the abolition of serfdom in 1861.New military law decreed that all male Russian subjects, when they reached the age of 20, were eligible to serve in the military for six years.In the decades prior to World War I universal conscription along broadly Prussian lines became the norm for European armies, and those modeled on them.", "By 1914 the only substantial armies still completely dependent on voluntary enlistment were those of Britain and the United States.", "Some colonial powers such as France reserved their conscript armies for home service while maintaining professional units for overseas duties.====World Wars====Young men registering for conscription during World War I, New York City, June 5, 1917The range of eligible ages for conscripting was expanded to meet national demand during the World Wars.In the United States, the Selective Service System drafted men for World War I initially in an age range from 21 to 30 but expanded its eligibility in 1918 to an age range of 18 to 45.In the case of a widespread mobilization of forces where service includes homefront defense, ages of conscripts may range much higher, with the oldest conscripts serving in roles requiring lesser mobility.Expanded-age conscription was common during the Second World War: in Britain, it was commonly known as \"call-up\" and extended to age 51.Nazi Germany termed it (\"People's Storm\") and included children as young as 16 and men as old as 60.During the Second World War, both Britain and the Soviet Union conscripted women.", "The United States was on the verge of drafting women into the Nurse Corps because it anticipated it would need the extra personnel for its planned invasion of Japan.", "However, the Japanese surrendered and the idea was abandoned.Soviet conscripts in Moscow after Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union, 1941During the Great Patriotic War, the Red Army conscripted nearly 30 million men." ], [ "Arguments against conscription", "===Sexism===Men's rights activists, feminists, and opponents of discrimination against men have criticized military conscription, or compulsory military service, as sexist.", "The National Coalition for Men, a men's rights group, sued the US Selective Service System in 2019, leading to it being declared unconstitutional by a US Federal Judge.", "The federal district judge's opinion was unanimously overturned on appeal to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 5th Circuit.", "In September 2021, the House of Representatives passed the annual Defense Authorization Act, which included an amendment that states that \"all Americans between the ages of 18 and 25 must register for selective service.\"", "This amendment omitted the word \"male,\" which would have extended a potential draft to women; however, the amendment was removed before the National Defense Authorization Act was passed.Feminists have argued, first, that military conscription is sexist because wars serve the interests of what they view as the patriarchy; second, that the military is a sexist institution and that conscripts are therefore indoctrinated into sexism; and third, that conscription of men normalizes violence by men as socially acceptable.", "Feminists have been organizers and participants in resistance to conscription in several countries.Conscription has also been criticized on the ground that, historically, only men have been subjected to conscription.", "Men who opt out or are deemed unfit for military service must often perform alternative service, such as Zivildienst in Austria, Germany and Switzerland, or pay extra taxes, whereas women do not have these obligations.", "In the US, men who do not register with the Selective Service cannot apply for citizenship, receive federal financial aid, grants or loans, be employed by the federal government, be admitted to public colleges or universities, or, in some states, obtain a driver's license.===Involuntary servitude===New York anti-draft riots of 1863Many American libertarians oppose conscription and call for the abolition of the Selective Service System, arguing that impressment of individuals into the armed forces amounts to involuntary servitude.", "For example, Ron Paul, a former U.S. Libertarian Party presidential nominee, has said that conscription \"is wrongly associated with patriotism, when it really represents slavery and involuntary servitude\".", "The philosopher Ayn Rand opposed conscription, opining that \"of all the statist violations of individual rights in a mixed economy, the military draft is the worst.", "It is an abrogation of rights.", "It negates man's fundamental right—the right to life—and establishes the fundamental principle of statism: that a man's life belongs to the state, and the state may claim it by compelling him to sacrifice it in battle.", "\"In 1917, a number of radicals and anarchists, including Emma Goldman, challenged the new draft law in federal court, arguing that it was a violation of the Thirteenth Amendment's prohibition against slavery and involuntary servitude.", "However, the Supreme Court unanimously upheld the constitutionality of the draft act in the case of ''Arver v. United States'' on 7 January 1918, on the ground that the Constitution gives Congress the power to declare war and to raise and support armies.", "The Court also relied on the principle of the reciprocal rights and duties of citizens.", "\"It may not be doubted that the very conception of a just government in its duty to the citizen includes the reciprocal obligation of the citizen to render military service in case of need and the right to compel.", "\"===Economic===It can be argued that in a cost-to-benefit ratio, conscription during peacetime is not worthwhile.", "Months or years of service performed by the most fit and capable subtract from the productivity of the economy; add to this the cost of training them, and in some countries paying them.", "Compared to these extensive costs, some would argue there is very little benefit; if there ever was a war then conscription and basic training could be completed quickly, and in any case there is little threat of a war in most countries with conscription.", "In the United States, every male resident is required by law to register with the Selective Service System within 30 days following his 18th birthday and be available for a draft; this is often accomplished automatically by a motor vehicle department during licensing or by voter registration.According to Milton Friedman the cost of conscription can be related to the parable of the broken window in anti-draft arguments.", "The cost of the work, military service, does not disappear even if no salary is paid.", "The work effort of the conscripts is effectively wasted, as an unwilling workforce is extremely inefficient.", "The impact is especially severe in wartime, when civilian professionals are forced to fight as amateur soldiers.", "Not only is the work effort of the conscripts wasted and productivity lost, but professionally skilled conscripts are also difficult to replace in the civilian workforce.", "Every soldier conscripted in the army is taken away from his civilian work, and away from contributing to the economy which funds the military.", "This may be less a problem in an agrarian or pre-industrialized state where the level of education is generally low, and where a worker is easily replaced by another.", "However, this is potentially more costly in a post-industrial society where educational levels are high and where the workforce is sophisticated and a replacement for a conscripted specialist is difficult to find.", "Even more dire economic consequences result if the professional conscripted as an amateur soldier is killed or maimed for life; his work effort and productivity are lost." ], [ "Arguments for conscription", "===Political and moral motives===Conscription in IranJean Jacques Rousseau argued vehemently against professional armies since he believed that it was the right and privilege of every citizen to participate to the defense of the whole society and that it was a mark of moral decline to leave the business to professionals.", "He based his belief upon the development of the Roman Republic, which came to an end at the same time as the Roman Army changed from a conscript to a professional force.", "Similarly, Aristotle linked the division of armed service among the populace intimately with the political order of the state.", "Niccolò Machiavelli argued strongly for conscription and saw the professional armies, made up of mercenary units, as the cause of the failure of societal unity in Italy.Other proponents, such as William James, consider both mandatory military and national service as ways of instilling maturity in young adults.", "Some proponents, such as Jonathan Alter and Mickey Kaus, support a draft in order to reinforce social equality, create social consciousness, break down class divisions and allow young adults to immerse themselves in public enterprise.", "Charles Rangel called for the reinstatement of the draft during the Iraq War not because he seriously expected it to be adopted but to stress how the socioeconomic restratification meant that very few children of upper-class Americans served in the all-volunteer American armed forces.===Economic and resource efficiency===It is estimated by the British military that in a professional military, a company deployed for active duty in peacekeeping corresponds to three inactive companies at home.", "Salaries for each are paid from the military budget.", "In contrast, volunteers from a trained reserve are in their civilian jobs when they are not deployed.It was more financially beneficial for less-educated young Portuguese men born in 1967 to participate in conscription than to participate in the highly competitive job market with men of the same age who continued to higher education." ], [ "Drafting of women", "Female Israeli soldiersThroughout history, women have only been conscripted to join armed forces in a few countries, in contrast to the universal practice of conscription from among the male population.", "The traditional view has been that military service is a test of manhood and a rite of passage from boyhood into manhood.", "In recent years, this position has been challenged on the basis that it violates gender equality, and some countries, especially in Europe, have extended conscription obligations to women.Nations that in present-day actively draft women into military service are Bolivia, Chad, Eritrea, Israel, Mozambique, Norway, North Koreaand Sweden.Norway introduced female conscription in 2015, making it the first NATO member to have a legally compulsory national service for both men and women.", "In practice only motivated volunteers are selected to join the army in Norway.Sweden introduced female conscription in 2010, but it was not activated until 2017.This made Sweden the second nation in Europe to draft women, and the second in the world to draft women on the same formal terms as men.Israel has universal female conscription, although it is possible to avoid service by claiming a religious exemption and over a third of Israeli women do so.Finland introduced voluntary female conscription in 1995, giving women between the ages of 18 and 29 an option to complete their military service alongside men.Sudanese law allows for conscription of women, but this is not implemented in practice.In the United Kingdom during World War II, beginning in 1941, women were brought into the scope of conscription but, as all women with dependent children were exempt and many women were informally left in occupations such as nursing or teaching, the number conscripted was relatively few.^ In the Soviet Union, there was never conscription of women for the armed forces, but the severe disruption of normal life and the high proportion of civilians affected by World War II after the German invasion attracted many volunteers for \"The Great Patriotic War\".", "Medical doctors of both sexes could and would be conscripted (as officers).", "Also, the Soviet university education system required Department of Chemistry students of both sexes to complete an ROTC course in NBC defense, and such female reservist officers could be conscripted in times of war.", "The United States came close to drafting women into the Nurse Corps in preparation for a planned invasion of Japan.In 1981 in the United States, several men filed lawsuit in the case ''Rostker v. Goldberg'', alleging that the Selective Service Act of 1948 violates the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment by requiring that only men register with the Selective Service System (SSS).", "The Supreme Court eventually upheld the Act, stating that \"the argument for registering women was based on considerations of equity, but Congress was entitled, in the exercise of its constitutional powers, to focus on the question of military need, rather than 'equity.'\"", "In 2013, Judge Gray H. Miller of the United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas ruled that the Service's men-only requirement was unconstitutional, as while at the time ''Rostker'' was decided, women were banned from serving in combat, the situation had since changed with the 2013 and 2015 restriction removals.", "Miller's opinion was reversed by the Fifth Circuit, stating that only the Supreme Court could overturn the Supreme Court precedence from ''Rostker''.", "The Supreme Court considered but declined to review the Fifth Circuit's ruling in June 2021.In an opinion authored by Justice Sonia Sotomayor and joined by Justices Stephen Breyer and Brett Kavanaugh, the three justices agreed that the male-only draft was likely unconstitutional given the changes in the military's stance on the roles, but because Congress had been reviewing and evaluating legislation to eliminate its male-only draft requirement via the National Commission on Military, National, and Public Service (NCMNPS) since 2016, it would have been inappropriate for the Court to act at that time.On 1 October 1999, in Taiwan, the Judicial Yuan of the Republic of China in its Interpretation 490 considered that the physical differences between males and females and the derived role differentiation in their respective social functions and lives would not make drafting only males a violation of the Constitution of the Republic of China.", "Though women are not conscripted in Taiwan, transsexual persons are exempt.In 2018, the Netherlands started including women in its draft registration system, although conscription is not currently enforced for either sex." ], [ "Conscientious objection", "A conscientious objector is an individual whose personal beliefs are incompatible with military service, or, more often, with any role in the armed forces.", "In some countries, conscientious objectors have special legal status, which augments their conscription duties.", "For example, Sweden allows conscientious objectors to choose a service in the weapons-free civil defense.The reasons for refusing to serve in the military are varied.", "Some people are conscientious objectors for religious reasons.", "In particular, the members of the historic peace churches are pacifist by doctrine, and Jehovah's Witnesses, while not strictly pacifists, refuse to participate in the armed forces on the ground that they believe that Christians should be neutral in international conflicts." ], [ "By country", "=== Table ===+Conscription by country – ExamplesCountry Conscription Conscription sex No (abolished in 1992) N/A No (abolished in 2010) N/A Yes Male Yes Male No.", "Voluntary; conscription may be ordered for specified reasons per Article 19 of Public Law No.24.429 promulgated on 5 January 1995 N/A Yes Male (Conscription) No (abolished by parliament in 1972) N/A Yes (alternative service available) Male Yes Male No N/A No (but can volunteer at Bangladesh Ansar) N/A No N/A No (suspended for peacetime in 1992 and went active in 1994) N/A No N/A No N/A Yes (when annual number of volunteers falls short of goal) Male and Female No (abolished on 1 January 2006) N/A (Conscription) Yes, but almost all recruits have been volunteers in recent years.", "(alternative service is foreseen in law, but it is not implemented) Male No (abolished by law on 1 January 2008) N/A No (occurred during 1917-1918 and 1940-1945) N/A Yes Male No (Male citizens 18 years of age and over are required to register for military service in the People's Liberation Army recruiting offices, but the policy is not enforced.", "Policy exempted in and ) N/A Yes Male No (abolished by law in 2008) N/A Yes Male (Conscription) Yes (alternative service available) Male No (abolished in 2005) N/A (Conscription) Yes by law, however a great majority of the recruits have been volunteers over the past few years.", "(alternative service available) Male No N/A No (suspended in 2008) N/A (Conscription) Yes (alternative service available) Male No.", "Legal, not practiced.", "N/A Yes (18 months by law, but often extended indefinitely) Male and female Yes (alternative service available) Male No N/A (Conscription) Yes (alternative service available) Male and Female No (suspended for peacetime in 2001)Service national universel (military and civil applications) being instituted as of 2021 Male and female No N/A (Conscription)No (suspended for peacetime by federal legislature effective from 1 July 2011)Male (Conscription) Yes (alternative service available) Male No (peacetime conscription abolished in 2004) N/A No N/A No (But has a similar system, called PKRS (''Pertahanan Keamanan Rakyat Semesta'', Universal People's Defense and Security).", "In the event of war, the government will draft all men and women).", "N/A No N/A Yes Male No (abolished in 2003) N/A (Conscription) Yes Male and female Jews, male Druze and Circassians, male and female Arab volunteers No (suspended for peacetime in 2005) N/A No N/A No (abolished in 1945).", "Enlistment in Japan Self-Defense Forces is voluntary at 18 years of age.", "N/A Yes (ended in 1992, reinstated in September 2020 for unemployed men.)", "Male Yes Male and female Yes (alternative service available) The military service law was established in 1948.Male Yes MaleYes (abolished in 2007, reintroduced on January 1, 2024)Male No (abolished in 2007) N/A Yes Male Yes (about 3000 to 4000 conscripts each year must be selected, out of whom up to 10% serve involuntarily) Male No N/A No, (Malaysian National Service) suspended from January 2015 due to government budget cuts resumed in 2016 then abolished in 2018.However, as of 2023 the government has announced its revival pending approval.", "N/A No N/A No N/A Yes Male Yes Male Yes (reintroduced in 2018) Male and female Yes Male and female Yes, enforced .", "Male and female (Conscription) No, active conscription suspended in 1997 (except for Curaçao and Aruba) Male and female No (abolished in December 1972) N/A No.", "However, under Nigeria's National Youths Service Corps Act, graduates from tertiary institutions are required to undertake national service for a year.", "The service begins with a 3-week military training.", "N/A No (abolished in 2006) N/A Yes by law, but in practice people are not forced to serve against their will.", "Also total objectors have not been punished since 2011, instead they are simply exempted from the service.", "Male and female No N/A (Conscription) No (abolished in 2016) N/A No (ended in 2009), but selective registration is still required.", "N/A No (Peacetime conscription abolished in 2004 but there remains a symbolic military obligation to all 18-year-old people, from both sexes.", "It is called National Defense Day, (''Dia da Defesa Nacional'' in Portuguese)).", "N/A (symbolic obligation is for both male and female) Yes Male No (stopped in January 2007) N/A (Conscription) Yes (alternative service available) Male No N/A No N/A (Conscription) No N/A No N/A Yes Male No (abolished on January 1, 2006)N/A No N/A No (ended in 1994, formalized in 2002) N/A No (abolished by law on 31 December 2001) N/A Yes (abolished 2010, reintroduced 2017) (alternative service available) Male and female Yes (alternative service available) Male Yes Male (Republic of China) Yes (alternative service available)According to the Defence Minister, from 2018 there will be no compulsory enlistment for military service, however all men born after 1995 have 4 months of compulsory military training, which will increase to 1 year after 2024.Male Yes, but can be exempted if completed three years of Territorial Defense Student For those who start, but don't complete the Ror Dor course at high school, they are permitted to carry on with the course for 2 more years at university.", "training or picked the black card at the conscription lottery.", "The government intents to abolish it from 2027.Male No N/A No N/A Yes Male and Female (Conscription) Yes Male Yes (alternative service available) Implemented in 2014, compulsory for male citizens aged 18–30) Male Yes (abolished 2013, reinstated 2014 due to war and ongoing) Male (Conscription) No (occurred from 1916 until 1920 and from 1939 until 31 December 1960, except Bermuda Regiment (abolished in 2018)) N/A (Conscription) No (abandoned in 1973), but registration is still required among men ages 18–25.N/A No N/A Yes Male and female=== Austria ===Every male citizen of the Republic of Austria from the age of 17 up to 50, specialists up to 65 years is liable to military service.", "However, besides mobilization, conscription calls to a six-month long basic military training in the can be done up to the age of 35.For men refusing to undergo this training, a nine-month lasting community service is mandatory.=== Belgium ===Belgium abolished the conscription in 1994.The last conscripts left active service in February 1995.To this day (2019), a small minority of the Belgian citizens supports the idea of reintroducing military conscription, for both men and women.=== Bulgaria ===Bulgaria had mandatory military service for males above 18 until conscription was ended in 2008.Due to a shortfall in the army of some 5500 soldiers, parts of the former ruling coalition have expressed their support for the return of mandatory military service, most notably Krasimir Karakachanov.", "Opposition towards this idea from the main coalition partner, GERB, saw a compromise in 2018, where instead of mandatory military service, Bulgaria could have possibly introduced a voluntary military service by 2019 where young citizens can volunteer for a period of 6 to 9 months, receiving a basic wage.", "However this has not gone forward.=== Cambodia ===Since the signing of the Peace Accord in 1993, there has been no official conscription in Cambodia.", "Also the National Assembly has repeatedly rejected to reintroduce it due to popular resentment.", "However, in November 2006, it was reintroduced.", "Although mandatory for all males between the ages of 18 and 30 (with some sources stating up to age 35), less than 20% of those in the age group are recruited amidst a downsizing of the armed forces.=== China ===terracotta soldier with his horse, China, 210–209 BCUniversal conscription in China dates back to the State of Qin, which eventually became the Qin Empire of 221 BC.", "Following unification, historical records show that a total of 300,000 conscript soldiers and 500,000 conscript labourers constructed the Great Wall of China.", "In the following dynasties, universal conscription was abolished and reintroduced on numerous occasions., universal military conscription is theoretically mandatory in China, and reinforced by law.", "However, due to the large population of China and large pool of candidates available for recruitment, the People's Liberation Army has always had sufficient volunteers, so conscription has not been required in practice.===Cuba====== Cyprus ===Military service in Cyprus has a deep rooted history entangled with the Cyprus problem.", "Military service in the Cypriot National Guard is mandatory for all male citizens of the Republic of Cyprus, as well as any male non-citizens born of a parent of Greek Cypriot descent, lasting from the 1 January of the year in which they turn 18 years of age to 31 December, of the year in which they turn 50.All male residents of Cyprus who are of military age (16 and over) are required to obtain an exit visa from the Ministry of Defense.", "Currently, military conscription in Cyprus lasts up to 14 months.=== Denmark ===Royal Life Guards in CopenhagenConscription is known in Denmark since the Viking Age, where one man out of every 10 had to serve the king.", "Frederick IV of Denmark changed the law in 1710 to every 4th man.", "The men were chosen by the landowner and it was seen as a penalty.Since 12 February 1849, every physically fit man must do military service.", "According to §81 in the Constitution of Denmark, which was promulgated in 1849: Every male person able to carry arms shall be liable with his person to contribute to the defence of his country under such rules as are laid down by Statute.", "'''— Constitution of Denmark'''The legislation about compulsory military service is articulated in the Danish Law of Conscription.", "National service takes 4–12 months.", "It is possible to postpone the duty when one is still in full-time education.", "Every male turning 18 will be drafted to the 'Day of Defence', where they will be introduced to the Danish military and their health will be tested.", "Physically unfit persons are not required to do military service.", "It is only compulsory for men, while women are free to choose to join the Danish army.", "Almost all of the men have been volunteers in recent years, 96.9% of the total number of recruits having been volunteers in the 2015 draft.After lottery, one can become a conscientious objector.", "Total objection (refusal from alternative civilian service) results in up to 4 months jailtime according to the law.", "However, in 2014 a Danish man, who signed up for the service and objected later, got only 14 days of home arrest.", "In many countries the act of desertion (objection after signing up) is punished harder than objecting the compulsory service.=== Eritrea ====== Estonia ===Estonia adopted a policy of ''ajateenistus'' (literally \"time service\") in late 1991, having inherited the concept from Soviet legislature.", "According to §124 of the 1992 constitution, \"Estonian citizens have a duty to participate in national defence on the bases and pursuant to a procedure provided by a law\", which in practice means that men aged 18–27 are subject to the draft.In the formative years, conscripts had to serve an 18-month term.", "An amendment passed in 1994 shortened this to 12 months.", "Further revisions in 2003 established an eleven-month term for draftees trained as NCOs and drivers, and an eight-month term for rank & file.", "Under the current system, the yearly draft is divided into three \"waves\" - separate batches of eleven-month conscripts start their service in January and July while those selected for an eight-month term are brought in on October.", "An estimated 3200 people go through conscript service every year.", "Conscripts serve in all branches of the Estonian Defence Forces except the air force which only relies on paid professionals due to its highly technical nature and security concerns.", "Historically, draftees could also be assigned to the border guard (before it switched to an all-volunteer model in 2000), a special rapid response unit of the police force (disbanded in 1997) or three militarized rescue companies within the Estonian Rescue Board (disbanded in 2004).=== Finland ===Finnish conscripts swearing their military oath at the end of their basic training periodConscription in Finland is part of a general compulsion for national military service for all adult males (; ) defined in the 127§ of the Constitution of Finland.Conscription can take the form of military or of civilian service.", "According to Finnish Defence Forces 2011 data slightly under 80% of Finnish males turned 30 had entered and finished the military service.", "The number of female volunteers to annually enter armed service had stabilised at approximately 300.The service period is 165, 255 or 347 days for the rank and file conscripts and 347 days for conscripts trained as NCOs or reserve officers.", "The length of civilian service is always twelve months.", "Those electing to serve unarmed in duties where unarmed service is possible serve either nine or twelve months, depending on their training.Any Finnish male citizen who refuses to perform both military and civilian service faces a penalty of 173 days in prison, minus any served days.", "Such sentences are usually served fully in prison, with no parole.", "Jehovah's Witnesses are no longer exempted from service as of 27 February 2019.The inhabitants of demilitarized Åland are exempt from military service.", "By the Conscription Act of 1951, they are, however, required to serve a time at a local institution, like the coast guard.", "However, until such service has been arranged, they are freed from service obligation.", "The non-military service of Åland has not been arranged since the introduction of the act, and there are no plans to institute it.", "The inhabitants of Åland can also volunteer for military service on the mainland.", "As of 1995, women are permitted to serve on a voluntary basis and pursue careers in the military after their initial voluntary military service.The military service takes place in Finnish Defence Forces or in the Finnish Border Guard.", "All services of the Finnish Defence Forces train conscripts.", "However, the Border Guard trains conscripts only in land-based units, not in coast guard detachments or in the Border Guard Air Wing.", "Civilian service may take place in the Civilian Service Center in Lapinjärvi or in an accepted non-profit organization of educational, social or medical nature.=== Germany ===Between 1956 and 2011 conscription was mandatory for all male citizens in the German federal armed forces (), as well as for the Federal Border Guard () in the 1970s (see Border Guard Service).", "With the end of the Cold War the German government drastically reduced the size of its armed forces.", "The low demand for conscripts led to the suspension of compulsory conscription in 2011.Since then, only volunteer professionals serve in the .=== Greece ===Evzones of the Presidential Guard in front of the Greek Parliament armed with M1 GarandsSince 1914 Greece has been enforcing mandatory military service, currently lasting 12 months (but historically up to 36 months) for all adult men.", "Citizens discharged from active service are normally placed in the reserve and are subject to periodic recalls of 1–10 days at irregular intervals.Universal conscription was introduced in Greece during the military reforms of 1909, although various forms of selective conscription had been in place earlier.", "In more recent years, conscription was associated with the state of general mobilisation declared on 20 July 1974, due to the crisis in Cyprus (the mobilisation was formally ended on 18 December 2002).The duration of military service has historically ranged between 9 and 36 months depending on various factors either particular to the conscript or the political situation in the Eastern Mediterranean.", "Although women are employed by the Greek army as officers and soldiers, they are not obliged to enlist.", "Soldiers receive no health insurance, but they are provided with medical support during their army service, including hospitalization costs.Greece enforces conscription for all male citizens aged between 19 and 45.In August 2009, duration of the mandatory service was reduced from 12 months as it was before to 9 months for the army, but remained at 12 months for the navy and the air force.", "The number of conscripts allocated to the latter two has been greatly reduced aiming at full professionalization.", "Nevertheless, mandatory military service at the army was once again raised to 12 months in March 2021, unless served in units in Evros or the North Aegean islands where duration was kept at 9 months.", "Although full professionalization is under consideration, severe financial difficulties and mismanagement, including delays and reduced rates in the hiring of professional soldiers, as well as widespread abuse of the deferment process, has resulted in the postponement of such a plan.=== Iran ===Assembling and disassembling gun parts by Iranian soldiers with closed eyes.In Iran, all men who reach the age of 18 must do about two years of compulsory military service in the IR police department or Iranian army or Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps.", "Before the 1979 revolution, women could serve in the military.", "However, after the establishment of the Islamic Republic, some Ayatollahs considered women's military service to be disrespectful to women by the Pahlavi government and banned women's military service in Iran.", "Therefore, Iranian women and girls were completely exempted from military service, which caused Iranian men and boys to oppose.In Iran, men who refuse to go to military service are deprived of their citizenship rights, such as employment, health insurance, continuing their education at university, finding a job, going abroad, opening a bank account, etc.", "Iranian men have so far opposed mandatory military service and demanded that military service in Iran become a job like in other countries, but the Islamic Republic is opposed to this demand.", "Some Iranian military commanders consider the elimination of conscription or improving the condition of soldiers as a security issue and one of Ali Khamenei's powers as the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, so they treat it with caution.", "In Iran, usually wealthy people are exempted from conscription.", "Some other men can be exempted from conscription due to their fathers serving in the Iran-Iraq war.=== Israel ===There is a mandatory military service for all men and women in Israel who are fit and 18 years old.", "Men must serve 32 months while women serve 24 months, with the vast majority of conscripts being Jewish.Some Israeli citizens are exempt from mandatory service:* Non-Jewish Arab citizens * permanent residents (non-civilian) such as the Druze of the Golan Heights* Male Ultra-Orthodox Jews can apply for deferment to study in Yeshiva and the deferment tends to become an exemption, although some do opt to serve in the military* Female religious Jews, as long as they declare they are unable to serve due to religious grounds.", "Most of whom opt for the alternative of volunteering in the national service Sherut LeumiAll of the exempt above are eligible to volunteer to the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), as long as they declare so.Male Druze and male Circassian Israeli citizens are liable for conscription, in accordance with agreement set by their community leaders (their community leaders however signed a clause in which all female Druze and female Circassian are exempt from service).A few male Bedouin Israeli citizens choose to enlist to the Israeli military in every draft (despite their Muslim-Arab background that exempt them from conscription).=== South Africa ===There was mandatory military conscription for all white men in South Africa from 1968 until the end of apartheid in 1994.Under South African defense law, young white men had to undergo two years' continuous military training after they leave school, after which they had to serve 720 days in occasional military duty over the next 12 years.", "The End Conscription Campaign began in 1983 in opposition to the requirement.", "In the same year the National Party government announced plans to extend conscription to white immigrants in the country.=== South Korea ====== Lithuania ===Lithuania abolished its conscription in 2008.In May 2015, the Lithuanian parliament voted to reintroduce conscription and the conscripts started their training in August 2015.From 2015 to 2017 there were enough volunteers to avoid drafting civilians.=== Luxembourg ===Luxembourg practiced military conscription from 1948 until 1967.=== Moldova ===Moldova has a 12-month conscription for all males between 18 and 27 years.", "=== Netherlands ===Conscription, which was called \"Service Duty\" () in the Netherlands, was first employed in 1810 by French occupying forces.", "Napoleon's brother Louis Bonaparte, who was King of Holland from 1806 to 1810, had tried to introduce conscription a few years earlier, unsuccessfully.", "Every man aged 20 years or older had to enlist.", "By means of drawing lots it was decided who had to undertake service in the French army.", "It was possible to arrange a substitute against payment.Later on, conscription was used for all men over the age of 18.Postponement was possible, due to study, for example.", "Conscientious objectors could perform an alternative civilian service instead of military service.", "For various reasons, this forced military service was criticized at the end of the twentieth century.", "Since the Cold War was over, so was the direct threat of a war.", "Instead, the Dutch army was employed in more and more peacekeeping operations.", "The complexity and danger of these missions made the use of conscripts controversial.", "Furthermore, the conscription system was thought to be unfair as only men were drafted.In the European part of Netherlands, compulsory attendance has been officially suspended since 1 May 1997.Between 1991 and 1996, the Dutch armed forces phased out their conscript personnel and converted to an all-professional force.", "The last conscript troops were inducted in 1995, and demobilized in 1996.The suspension means that citizens are no longer forced to serve in the armed forces, as long as it is not required for the safety of the country.", "Since then, the Dutch army has become an all-professional force.", "However, to this day, every male and – from January 2020 onward – female citizen aged 17 gets a letter in which they are told that they have been registered but do not have to present themselves for service.=== Norway ===Conscription was constitutionally established the 12 April 1907 with ''Kongeriket Norges Grunnlov § 119.''.", ", Norway currently employs a weak form of mandatory military service for men and women.", "In practice recruits are not forced to serve, instead only those who are motivated are selected.", "About 60,000 Norwegians are available for conscription every year, but only 8,000 to 10,000 are conscripted.", "Since 1985, women have been able to enlist for voluntary service as regular recruits.", "On 14 June 2013 the Norwegian Parliament voted to extend conscription to women, making Norway the first NATO member and first European country to make national service compulsory for both sexes.", "In earlier times, up until at least the early 2000s, all men aged 19–44 were subject to mandatory service, with good reasons required to avoid becoming drafted.", "There is a right of conscientious objection.In addition to the military service, the Norwegian government draft a total of 8,000 men and women between 18 and 55 to non-military Civil defence duty.", "(Not to be confused with Alternative civilian service.)", "Former service in the military does not exclude anyone from later being drafted to the Civil defence, but an upper limit of total 19 months of service applies.", "Neglecting mobilisation orders to training exercises and actual incidents, may impose fines.=== Serbia ===, Serbia no longer practises mandatory military service.", "Prior to this, mandatory military service lasted 6 months for men.", "Conscientious objectors could however opt for 9 months of civil service instead.On 15 December 2010, the Parliament of Serbia voted to suspend mandatory military service.", "The decision fully came into force on 1 January 2011.=== Sweden ===Swedish conscripts in 2008Sweden had conscription () for men between 1901 and 2010.During the last few decades it was selective.", "Since 1980, women have been allowed to sign up by choice, and, if passing the tests, do military training together with male conscripts.", "Since 1989 women have been allowed to serve in all military positions and units, including combat.In 2010, conscription was made gender-neutral, meaning both women and men would be conscripted on equal terms.", "The conscription system was simultaneously deactivated in peacetime.", "Seven years later, referencing increased military threat, the Swedish Government reactivated military conscription.", "Beginning in 2018, both men and women are conscripted.=== Taiwan ===Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), maintains an active conscription system.", "All qualified male citizens of military age are now obligated to receive 4-month of military training.", "In December 2022, President Tsai Ing-wen led the government to announce the reinstatement of the mandatory 1-year active duty military service from January 2024.=== United Kingdom ===The United Kingdom introduced conscription to full-time military service for the first time in January 1916 (the eighteenth month of World War I) and abolished it in 1920.Ireland, then part of the United Kingdom, was exempted from the original 1916 military service legislation, and although further legislation in 1918 gave power for an extension of conscription to Ireland, the power was never put into effect.Conscription was reintroduced in 1939, in the lead up to World War II, and continued in force until 1963.Northern Ireland was exempted from conscription legislation throughout the whole period.In all, eight million men were conscripted during both World Wars, as well as several hundred thousand younger single women.", "The introduction of conscription in May 1939, before the war began, was partly due to pressure from the French, who emphasized the need for a large British army to oppose the Germans.", "From early 1942 unmarried women age 20–30 were conscripted (unmarried women who had dependent children aged 14 or younger, including those who had illegitimate children or were widows with children were excluded).", "Most women who were conscripted were sent to the factories, but they could volunteer for the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) and other women's services.", "Some women served in the Women's Land Army: initially volunteers but later conscription was introduced.", "However, women who were already working in a skilled job considered helpful to the war effort, such as a General Post Office telephonist, were told to continue working as before.", "None was assigned to combat roles unless she volunteered.", "By 1943 women were liable to some form of directed labour up to age 51.During the Second World War, 1.4 million British men volunteered for service and 3.2 million were conscripted.", "Conscripts comprised 50% of the Royal Air Force, 60% of the Royal Navy and 80% of the British Army.The abolition of conscription in Britain was announced on 4 April 1957, by new prime minister Harold Macmillan, with the last conscripts being recruited three years later.=== United States ===Conscription in the United States ended in 1973, but males aged between 18 and 25 are required to register with the Selective Service System to enable a reintroduction of conscription if necessary.", "President Gerald Ford had suspended mandatory draft registration in 1975, but President Jimmy Carter reinstated that requirement when the Soviet Union intervened in Afghanistan five years later.", "Consequently, Selective Service registration is still required of almost all young men.", "There have been no prosecutions for violations of the draft registration law since 1986.Males between the ages of 17 and 45, and female members of the US National Guard may be conscripted for federal militia service pursuant to 10 U.S. Code § 246 and the Militia Clauses of the United States Constitution.In February 2019, the United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas ruled that male-only conscription registration breached the Fourteenth Amendment's equal protection clause.", "In ''National Coalition for Men v. Selective Service System'', a case brought by non-profit men's rights organisation the National Coalition for Men against the U.S.", "Selective Service System, judge Gray H. Miller issued a declaratory judgement that the male-only registration requirement is unconstitutional, though did not specify what action the government should take.", "That ruling was reversed by the Fifth Circuit.", "In June 2021, the U.S. Supreme Court declined to review the decision by the Court of Appeals.=== Other countries ===* Conscription in Australia* Conscription in Canada* Conscription in Egypt* Conscription in France* Conscription in Gibraltar* Conscription in Malaysia* Conscription in Mexico* Conscription in New Zealand* Conscription in Russia* Conscription in Singapore* Conscription in South Korea* Conscription in Switzerland* Conscription in Turkey* Conscription in Ukraine* Conscription in the Ottoman Empire* Conscription in the Russian Empire" ], [ "See also", "* Civil conscription* Civilian Public Service* Corvée* Economic conscription* Quota System* Male expendability* Pospolite ruszenie, mass mobilization in Poland* Bevin Boys* Counter-recruitment* Draft evasion* Ephebic Oath* Home front during World War I* Home front during World War II* List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel* Military recruitment* Timeline of women's participation in warfare* War resister" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Burk, James (April 1989).", "\"Debating the Draft in America\", Armed Forces and Society p. vol.", "15: pp. 431–48.", "* Challener, Richard D. ''The French theory of the nation in arms, 1866–1939'' (1955)* Chambers, John Whiteclay.", "''To Raise an Army: The Draft Comes to Modern America'' (1987)* * Flynn, George Q.", "(1998 33(1): 5–20).", "\"Conscription and Equity in Western Democracies, 1940–75\", ''Journal of Contemporary History'' in JSTOR* * * Looks at citizens' responses to military conscription in several democracies since the French Revolution.", "* * Krueger, Christine, and Sonja Levsen, eds.", "''War Volunteering in Modern Times: From the French Revolution to the Second World War'' (Palgrave Macmillan 2011)* * Littlewood, David.", "\"Conscription in Britain, New Zealand, Australia and Canada during the Second World War\", ''History Compass'' 18#4 (2020) online* * * * * " ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Catherine Coleman" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Catherine Grace''' \"'''Cady'''\" '''Coleman''' (born December 14, 1960) is an American chemist, engineer, former United States Air Force colonel, and retired NASA astronaut.", "She is a veteran of two Space Shuttle missions, and departed the International Space Station on May 23, 2011, as a crew member of Expedition 27 after logging 159 days in space." ], [ "Education", "Coleman graduated from Wilbert Tucker Woodson High School, Fairfax, Virginia, in 1978.In 1978–1979, she was an exchange student at Røyken Upper Secondary School in Norway with the AFS Intercultural Programs.", "She received a B.S.", "degree in chemistry from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1983 and was commissioned as graduate of the Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps (Air Force ROTC)., then received a Ph.D. degree in polymer science and engineering from the University of Massachusetts Amherst in 1991.She was advised by Professor Thomas J. McCarthy on her doctorate.", "As an undergraduate, she was a member of the intercollegiate rowing crew and was a resident of Baker House." ], [ "Military career", "Coleman continued to pursue her PhD at the University of Massachusetts Amherst as a second lieutenant.", "In 1988, she entered active duty at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base as a research chemist.", "During her work, she participated as a surface analysis consultant on the NASA Long Duration Exposure Facility experiment.", "In 1991, she received her doctorate in polymer science and engineering.", "She retired from the Air Force in November 2009 as a colonel." ], [ "NASA career", "ISS in 2011Coleman and Valentina Tereshkova at the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in December 2010Coleman was selected by NASA in 1992 to join the NASA Astronaut Corps.", "In 1995, she was a member of the STS-73 crew on the scientific mission USML-2 with experiments including biotechnology, combustion science, and the physics of fluids.", "During the flight, she reported to Houston Mission Control that she had spotted an Unidentified flying object (UFO).", "She also trained for the mission STS-83 to be the backup for Donald A. Thomas; however, as he recovered on time, she did not fly that mission.", "STS-93 was Coleman's second space flight in 1999.She was mission specialist in charge of deploying the Chandra X-ray Observatory and its Inertial Upper Stage out of the shuttle's cargo bay.Coleman served as Chief of Robotics for the Astronaut Office, to include robotic arm operations and training for all Space Shuttle and International Space Station missions.", "In October 2004, Coleman served as an aquanaut during the NEEMO 7 mission aboard the Aquarius underwater laboratory, living and working underwater for eleven days.Coleman was assigned as a backup U.S. crew member for Expeditions 19, 20 and 21 and served as a backup crew member for Expeditions 24 and 25 as part of her training for Expedition 26.Coleman launched on December 15, 2010 (December 16, 2010 Baikonur time), aboard Soyuz TMA-20 to join the Expedition 26 mission aboard the International Space Station.", "She retired from NASA on December 1, 2016.=== Spaceflight experience ===Coleman playing a flute inside the International Space Station in 2011STS-73 on Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' (October 20 to November 5, 1995) was the second United States Microgravity Laboratory (USML-2) mission.", "The mission focused on materials science, biotechnology, combustion science, the physics of fluids, and numerous scientific experiments housed in the pressurized Spacelab module.", "In completing her first space flight, Coleman orbited the Earth 256 times, traveled over 6 million miles, and logged a total of 15 days, 21 hours, 52 minutes and 21 seconds in space.STS-93 on ''Columbia'' (July 22 to 27, 1999) was a five-day mission during which Coleman was the lead mission specialist for the deployment of the Chandra X-ray Observatory.", "Designed to conduct comprehensive studies of the universe, the telescope will enable scientists to study exotic phenomena such as exploding stars, quasars, and black holes.", "Mission duration was 118 hours and 50 minutes.Soyuz TMA-20 / Expedition 26/27 (December 15, 2010, to May 23, 2011) was an extended duration mission to the International Space Station." ], [ "Personal", "Coleman is married to glass artist Josh Simpson who lives in Massachusetts.", "They have one son.", "She is part of the band Bandella, which also includes fellow NASA astronaut Stephen Robinson, Canadian astronaut Chris Hadfield, and Micki Pettit (wife of the astronaut Donald Pettit).", "Coleman is a flute player and has taken several flutes with her to the ISS, including a pennywhistle from Paddy Moloney of The Chieftains, an old Irish flute from Matt Molloy of The Chieftains, and a flute from Ian Anderson of Jethro Tull (band).", "On February 15, 2011, she played one of the instruments live from orbit on National Public Radio.", "On April 12, 2011, she played live via video link for the audience of Jethro Tull's show in Russia in honour of the 50th anniversary of Yuri Gagarin's flight, playing in orbit while Anderson played on the ground.", "On May 13 of that year, Coleman delivered a taped commencement address to the class of 2011 at the University of Massachusetts Amherst.As do many other astronauts, Coleman holds an amateur radio license (callsign: KC5ZTH).As of 2015, she is also known to be working as a guest speaker at the Baylor College of Medicine, for the children's program 'Saturday Morning Science'.In 2018, she gave a graduation address to Carter Lynch, the sole graduate of Cuttyhunk Elementary School, on Cuttyhunk Island, Massachusetts.In 2019 the Irish postal service An Post issued a set of commemorative stamps for the 50th anniversary of the Apollo Moon landings, Catherine Coleman is featured alongside fellow astronauts Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Eileen Collins." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Cady Coleman Video produced by ''Makers: Women Who Make America''*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Cervix" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''cervix''' (: '''cervices''') or '''cervix uteri''' is the lower part of the uterus (womb) in the female reproductive system of most mammals, including humans.", "The cervix is usually 2 to 3 cm long (~1 inch) and roughly cylindrical in shape, which changes during pregnancy.", "The narrow, central cervical canal runs along its entire length, connecting the uterine cavity and the lumen of the vagina.", "The opening into the uterus is called the internal os, and the opening into the vagina is called the external os.", "The lower part of the cervix, known as the vaginal portion of the cervix (or ectocervix), bulges into the top of the vagina.", "The human cervix has been documented anatomically since at least the time of Hippocrates, over 2,000 years ago.The cervical canal is a passage through which sperm must travel to fertilize an egg cell after sexual intercourse.", "Several methods of contraception, including cervical caps and cervical diaphragms, aim to block or prevent the passage of sperm through the cervical canal.", "Cervical mucus is used in several methods of fertility awareness, such as the Creighton Model and Billings method, due to its changes in consistency throughout the menstrual period.", "During vaginal childbirth, the cervix must flatten and dilate to allow the fetus to progress along the birth canal.", "Midwives and doctors use the extent of the dilation of the cervix to assist decision-making during childbirth.The cervical canal is lined with a single layer of column-shaped cells, while the ectocervix is covered with multiple layers of cells topped with flat cells.", "The two types of epithelia meet at the squamocolumnar junction.", "Infection with the human papillomavirus (HPV) can cause changes in the epithelium, which can lead to cancer of the cervix.", "Cervical cytology tests can often detect cervical cancer and its precursors, and enable early successful treatment.", "Ways to avoid HPV include avoiding sex, using condoms, and HPV vaccination.", "HPV vaccines, developed in the early 21st century, reduce the risk of cervical cancer by preventing infections from the main cancer-causing strains of HPV." ], [ "Structure", "Diagram of the uterus and part of the vagina.", "The cervix is the lower part of the uterus situated between the external os (external orifice) and internal os (internal orifice).", "The cervical canal connects the interior of the vagina and the cavity of the body of uterus.\|alt=Diagram of the uterus and part of the vagina.The cervix is part of the female reproductive system.", "Around in length, it is the lower narrower part of the uterus continuous above with the broader upper part—or body—of the uterus.", "The lower end of the cervix bulges through the anterior wall of the vagina, and is referred to as the vaginal portion of cervix (or ectocervix) while the rest of the cervix above the vagina is called the supravaginal portion of cervix.", "A central canal, known as the cervical canal, runs along its length and connects the cavity of the body of the uterus with the lumen of the vagina.", "The openings are known as the internal os and external orifice of the uterus (or external os), respectively.", "The mucosa lining the cervical canal is known as the endocervix, and the mucosa covering the ectocervix is known as the exocervix.", "The cervix has an inner mucosal layer, a thick layer of smooth muscle, and posteriorly the supravaginal portion has a serosal covering consisting of connective tissue and overlying peritoneum.vaginal speculum\|A normal cervix of an adult viewed through vagina using a bivalved vaginal speculum.", "The functional squamocolumnar junction surrounds the external os and is visible as the irregular demarcation between the lighter and darker shades of pink mucosa.Cervix before (left) and after vaginal birth (right)In front of the upper part of the cervix lies the bladder, separated from it by cellular connective tissue known as parametrium, which also extends over the sides of the cervix.", "To the rear, the supravaginal cervix is covered by peritoneum, which runs onto the back of the vaginal wall and then turns upwards and onto the rectum, forming the recto-uterine pouch.", "The cervix is more tightly connected to surrounding structures than the rest of the uterus.The cervical canal varies greatly in length and width between women or over the course of a woman's life, and it can measure 8 mm (0.3 inch) at its widest diameter in premenopausal adults.", "It is wider in the middle and narrower at each end.", "The anterior and posterior walls of the canal each have a vertical fold, from which ridges run diagonally upwards and laterally.", "These are known as ''palmate folds'', due to their resemblance to a palm leaf.", "The anterior and posterior ridges are arranged in such a way that they interlock with each other and close the canal.", "They are often effaced after pregnancy.The ectocervix (also known as the vaginal portion of the cervix) has a convex, elliptical shape and projects into the cervix between the anterior and posterior vaginal fornices.", "On the rounded part of the ectocervix is a small, depressed external opening, connecting the cervix with the vagina.", "The size and shape of the ectocervix and the external opening (external os) can vary according to age, hormonal state, and whether childbirth has taken place.", "In women who have not had a vaginal delivery, the external opening is small and circular, and in women who have had a vaginal delivery, it is slit-like.", "On average, the ectocervix is long and wide.Blood is supplied to the cervix by the descending branch of the uterine artery and drains into the uterine vein.", "The pelvic splanchnic nerves, emerging as S2–S3, transmit the sensation of pain from the cervix to the brain.", "These nerves travel along the uterosacral ligaments, which pass from the uterus to the anterior sacrum.Three channels facilitate lymphatic drainage from the cervix.", "The anterior and lateral cervix drains to nodes along the uterine arteries, travelling along the cardinal ligaments at the base of the broad ligament to the external iliac lymph nodes and ultimately the paraaortic lymph nodes.", "The posterior and lateral cervix drains along the uterine arteries to the internal iliac lymph nodes and ultimately the paraaortic lymph nodes, and the posterior section of the cervix drains to the obturator and presacral lymph nodes.", "However, there are variations as lymphatic drainage from the cervix travels to different sets of pelvic nodes in some people.", "This has implications in scanning nodes for involvement in cervical cancer.After menstruation and directly under the influence of estrogen, the cervix undergoes a series of changes in position and texture.", "During most of the menstrual cycle, the cervix remains firm, and is positioned low and closed.", "However, as ovulation approaches, the cervix becomes softer and rises to open in response to the higher levels of estrogen present.", "These changes are also accompanied by changes in cervical mucus, described below.=== Development ===As a component of the female reproductive system, the cervix is derived from the two paramesonephric ducts (also called Müllerian ducts), which develop around the sixth week of embryogenesis.", "During development, the outer parts of the two ducts fuse, forming a single urogenital canal that will become the vagina, cervix and uterus.", "The cervix grows in size at a smaller rate than the body of the uterus, so the relative size of the cervix over time decreases, decreasing from being much larger than the body of the uterus in fetal life, twice as large during childhood, and decreasing to its adult size, smaller than the uterus, after puberty.", "Previously, it was thought that during fetal development, the original squamous epithelium of the cervix is derived from the urogenital sinus and the original columnar epithelium is derived from the paramesonephric duct.", "The point at which these two original epithelia meet is called the original squamocolumnar junction.", "New studies show, however, that all the cervical as well as large part of the vaginal epithelium are derived from Müllerian duct tissue and that phenotypic differences might be due to other causes.=== Histology ===A nulliparous woman's ectocervix showing cervical ectropion, visible as the darker red mucosa surrounding the cervical os.", "Viewed on speculum exam.The endocervical mucosa is about thick and lined with a single layer of columnar mucous cells.", "It contains numerous tubular mucous glands, which empty viscous alkaline mucus into the lumen.", "In contrast, the ectocervix is covered with nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium, which resembles the squamous epithelium lining the vagina.", "The junction between these two types of epithelia is called the squamocolumnar junction.", "Underlying both types of epithelium is a tough layer of collagen.", "The mucosa of the endocervix is not shed during menstruation.", "The cervix has more fibrous tissue, including collagen and elastin, than the rest of the uterus.File:Cervix Normal Squamocolumnar Junction (565238127).jpg\|The squamocolumnar junction of the cervix, with abrupt transition: The ectocervix, with its stratified squamous epithelium, is visible on the left.", "Simple columnar epithelium, typical of the endocervix, is visible on the right.", "A layer of connective tissue is visible under both types of epithelium.File:Transformation zone types.png\|Transformation zone types:Type 1: Completely ectocervical (common under hormonal influence).Type 2: Endocervical component but fully visible (common before puberty).Type 3: Endocervical component, not fully visible (common after menopause).In prepubertal girls, the functional squamocolumnar junction is present just within the cervical canal.", "Upon entering puberty, due to hormonal influence, and during pregnancy, the columnar epithelium extends outward over the ectocervix as the cervix everts.", "Hence, this also causes the squamocolumnar junction to move outwards onto the vaginal portion of the cervix, where it is exposed to the acidic vaginal environment.", "The exposed columnar epithelium can undergo physiological metaplasia and change to tougher metaplastic squamous epithelium in days or weeks, which is very similar to the original squamous epithelium when mature.", "The new squamocolumnar junction is therefore internal to the original squamocolumnar junction, and the zone of unstable epithelium between the two junctions is called the ''transformation zone'' of the cervix.", "Histologically, the transformation zone is generally defined as surface squamous epithelium with surface columnar epithelium or stromal glands/crypts, or both.After menopause, the uterine structures involute and the functional squamocolumnar junction moves into the cervical canal.Nabothian cysts (or Nabothian follicles) form in the transformation zone where the lining of metaplastic epithelium has replaced mucous epithelium and caused a strangulation of the outlet of some of the mucous glands.", "A buildup of mucus in the glands forms Nabothian cysts, usually less than about in diameter, which are considered physiological rather than pathological.", "Both gland openings and Nabothian cysts are helpful to identify the transformation zone." ], [ "Function", "=== Fertility ===The cervical canal is a pathway through which sperm enter the uterus after being induced by estradiol after penile-vaginal intercourse, and some forms of artificial insemination.", "Some sperm remains in cervical crypts, infoldings of the endocervix, which act as a reservoir, releasing sperm over several hours and maximising the chances of fertilisation.", "A theory states the cervical and uterine contractions during orgasm draw semen into the uterus.", "Although the \"upsuck theory\" has been generally accepted for some years, it has been disputed due to lack of evidence, small sample size, and methodological errors.Some methods of fertility awareness, such as the Creighton model and the Billings method involve estimating a woman's periods of fertility and infertility by observing physiological changes in her body.", "Among these changes are several involving the quality of her cervical mucus: the sensation it causes at the vulva, its elasticity (''Spinnbarkeit''), its transparency, and the presence of ferning.=== Cervical mucus ===Several hundred glands in the endocervix produce 20–60 mg of cervical mucus a day, increasing to 600 mg around the time of ovulation.", "It is viscous because it contains large proteins known as mucins.", "The viscosity and water content varies during the menstrual cycle; mucus is composed of around 93% water, reaching 98% at midcycle.", "These changes allow it to function either as a barrier or a transport medium to spermatozoa.", "It contains electrolytes such as calcium, sodium, and potassium; organic components such as glucose, amino acids, and soluble proteins; trace elements including zinc, copper, iron, manganese, and selenium; free fatty acids; enzymes such as amylase; and prostaglandins.", "Its consistency is determined by the influence of the hormones estrogen and progesterone.", "At midcycle around the time of ovulation—a period of high estrogen levels— the mucus is thin and serous to allow sperm to enter the uterus and is more alkaline and hence more hospitable to sperm.", "It is also higher in electrolytes, which results in the \"ferning\" pattern that can be observed in drying mucus under low magnification; as the mucus dries, the salts crystallize, resembling the leaves of a fern.", "The mucus has a stretchy character described as ''Spinnbarkeit'' most prominent around the time of ovulation.At other times in the cycle, the mucus is thick and more acidic due to the effects of progesterone.", "This \"infertile\" mucus acts as a barrier to keep sperm from entering the uterus.", "Women taking an oral contraceptive pill also have thick mucus from the effects of progesterone.", "Thick mucus also prevents pathogens from interfering with a nascent pregnancy.A cervical mucus plug, called the operculum, forms inside the cervical canal during pregnancy.", "This provides a protective seal for the uterus against the entry of pathogens and against leakage of uterine fluids.", "The mucus plug is also known to have antibacterial properties.", "This plug is released as the cervix dilates, either during the first stage of childbirth or shortly before.", "It is visible as a blood-tinged mucous discharge.=== Childbirth ===When the head of the fetus pushes against the cervix, a signal (2) is sent to the brain.", "This causes a signal to be sent to the pituitary gland to release oxytocin (4).", "Oxytocin is carried in the bloodstream to the uterus, causing contractions to induce childbirth.The cervix plays a major role in childbirth.", "As the fetus descends within the uterus in preparation for birth, the presenting part, usually the head, rests on and is supported by the cervix.", "As labour progresses, the cervix becomes softer and shorter, begins to dilate, and withdraws to face the anterior of the body.", "The support the cervix provides to the fetal head starts to give way when the uterus begins its contractions.", "During childbirth, the cervix must dilate to a diameter of more than to accommodate the head of the fetus as it descends from the uterus to the vagina.", "In becoming wider, the cervix also becomes shorter, a phenomenon known as effacement.Along with other factors, midwives and doctors use the extent of cervical dilation to assist decision making during childbirth.", "Generally, the active first stage of labour, when the uterine contractions become strong and regular, begins when the cervical dilation is more than .", "The second phase of labor begins when the cervix has dilated to , which is regarded as its fullest dilation, and is when active pushing and contractions push the baby along the birth canal leading to the birth of the baby.", "The number of past vaginal deliveries is a strong factor in influencing how rapidly the cervix is able to dilate in labour.", "The time taken for the cervix to dilate and efface is one factor used in reporting systems such as the Bishop score, used to recommend whether interventions such as a forceps delivery, induction, or Caesarean section should be used in childbirth.Cervical incompetence is a condition in which shortening of the cervix due to dilation and thinning occurs, before term pregnancy.", "Short cervical length is the strongest predictor of preterm birth.=== Contraception ===Several methods of contraception involve the cervix.", "Cervical diaphragms are reusable, firm-rimmed plastic devices inserted by a woman prior to intercourse that cover the cervix.", "Pressure against the walls of the vagina maintain the position of the diaphragm, and it acts as a physical barrier to prevent the entry of sperm into the uterus, preventing fertilisation.", "Cervical caps are a similar method, although they are smaller and adhere to the cervix by suction.", "Diaphragms and caps are often used in conjunction with spermicides.", "In one year, 12% of women using the diaphragm will undergo an unintended pregnancy, and with optimal use this falls to 6%.", "Efficacy rates are lower for the cap, with 18% of women undergoing an unintended pregnancy, and 10–13% with optimal use.", "Most types of progestogen-only pills are effective as a contraceptive because they thicken cervical mucus, making it difficult for sperm to pass along the cervical canal.", "In addition, they may also sometimes prevent ovulation.", "In contrast, contraceptive pills that contain both oestrogen and progesterone, the combined oral contraceptive pills, work mainly by preventing ovulation.", "They also thicken cervical mucus and thin the lining of the uterus, enhancing their effectiveness." ], [ "Clinical significance", "===Cancer===In 2008, cervical cancer was the third-most common cancer in women worldwide, with rates varying geographically from less than one to more than 50 cases per 100,000 women.", "It is a leading cause of cancer-related death in poor countries, where delayed diagnosis leading to poor outcomes is common.", "The introduction of routine screening has resulted in fewer cases of (and deaths from) cervical cancer, however this has mainly taken place in developed countries.", "Most developing countries have limited or no screening, and 85% of the global burden occurring there.Cervical cancer nearly always involves human papillomavirus (HPV) infection.", "HPV is a virus with numerous strains, several of which predispose to precancerous changes in the cervical epithelium, particularly in the transformation zone, which is the most common area for cervical cancer to start.", "HPV vaccines, such as Gardasil and Cervarix, reduce the incidence of cervical cancer, by inoculating against the viral strains involved in cancer development.Potentially precancerous changes in the cervix can be detected by cervical screening, using methods including a Pap smear (also called a cervical smear), in which epithelial cells are scraped from the surface of the cervix and examined under a microscope.", "The colposcope, an instrument used to see a magnified view of the cervix, was invented in 1925.The Pap smear was developed by Georgios Papanikolaou in 1928.A LEEP procedure using a heated loop of platinum to excise a patch of cervical tissue was developed by Aurel Babes in 1927.In some parts of the developed world including the UK, the Pap test has been superseded with liquid-based cytology.A cheap, cost-effective and practical alternative in poorer countries is visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA).", "Instituting and sustaining cytology-based programs in these regions can be difficult, due to the need for trained personnel, equipment and facilities and difficulties in follow-up.", "With VIA, results and treatment can be available on the same day.", "As a screening test, VIA is comparable to cervical cytology in accurately identifying precancerous lesions.A result of dysplasia is usually further investigated, such as by taking a cone biopsy, which may also remove the cancerous lesion.", "Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia is a possible result of the biopsy and represents dysplastic changes that may eventually progress to invasive cancer.", "Most cases of cervical cancer are detected in this way, without having caused any symptoms.", "When symptoms occur, they may include vaginal bleeding, discharge, or discomfort.===Inflammation===Inflammation of the cervix is referred to as cervicitis.", "This inflammation may be of the endocervix or ectocervix.", "When associated with the endocervix, it is associated with a mucous vaginal discharge and sexually transmitted infections such as chlamydia and gonorrhoea.", "As many as half of pregnant women having a gonorrheal infection of the cervix are asymptomatic.", "Other causes include overgrowth of the commensal flora of the vagina.", "When associated with the ectocervix, inflammation may be caused by the herpes simplex virus.", "Inflammation is often investigated through directly visualising the cervix using a speculum, which may appear whiteish due to exudate, and by taking a Pap smear and examining for causal bacteria.", "Special tests may be used to identify particular bacteria.", "If the inflammation is due to a bacterium, then antibiotics may be given as treatment.===Anatomical abnormalities===Cervical stenosis is an abnormally narrow cervical canal, typically associated with trauma caused by removal of tissue for investigation or treatment of cancer, or cervical cancer itself.", "Diethylstilbestrol, used from 1938 to 1971 to prevent preterm labour and miscarriage, is also strongly associated with the development of cervical stenosis and other abnormalities in the daughters of the exposed women.", "Other abnormalities include: vaginal adenosis, in which the squamous epithelium of the ectocervix becomes columnar; cancers such as clear cell adenocarcinomas; cervical ridges and hoods; and development of a cockscomb cervix appearance, which is the condition wherein, as the name suggests, the cervix of the uterus is shaped like a cockscomb.", "About one third of women born to diethylstilbestrol-treated mothers (i.e.", "in-utero exposure) develop a cockscomb cervix.Enlarged folds or ridges of cervical stroma (fibrous tissues) and epithelium constitute a cockscomb cervix.", "Similarly, cockscomb polyps lining the cervix are usually considered or grouped into the same overarching description.", "It is in and of itself considered a benign abnormality; its presence, however is usually indicative of DES exposure, and as such women who experience these abnormalities should be aware of their increased risk of associated pathologies.Cervical agenesis is a rare congenital condition in which the cervix completely fails to develop, often associated with the concurrent failure of the vagina to develop.", "Other congenital cervical abnormalities exist, often associated with abnormalities of the vagina and uterus.", "The cervix may be duplicated in situations such as bicornuate uterus and uterine didelphys.Cervical polyps, which are benign overgrowths of endocervical tissue, if present, may cause bleeding, or a benign overgrowth may be present in the cervical canal.", "Cervical ectropion refers to the horizontal overgrowth of the endocervical columnar lining in a one-cell-thick layer over the ectocervix." ], [ "Other animals", "Female marsupials have paired uteri and cervices.", "Most eutherian (placental) mammal species have a single cervix and single, bipartite or bicornuate uterus.", "Lagomorphs, rodents, aardvarks and hyraxes have a duplex uterus and two cervices.", "Lagomorphs and rodents share many morphological characteristics and are grouped together in the clade Glires.", "Anteaters of the family myrmecophagidae are unusual in that they lack a defined cervix; they are thought to have lost the characteristic rather than other mammals developing a cervix on more than one lineage.", "In domestic pigs, the cervix contains a series of five interdigitating pads that hold the boar's corkscrew-shaped penis during copulation." ], [ "Etymology and pronunciation", "The word ''cervix'' () came to English from Latin, where it means \"neck\", and like its Germanic counterpart, it can refer not only to the neck of the body but also to an analogous narrowed part of an object.", "The cervix uteri (neck of the uterus) is thus the uterine cervix, but in English the word ''cervix'' used alone usually refers to it.", "Thus the adjective ''cervical'' may refer either to the neck (as in ''cervical vertebrae'' or ''cervical lymph nodes'') or to the uterine cervix (as in ''cervical cap'' or ''cervical cancer'').Latin ''cervix'' came from the Proto-Indo-European root ''ker-'', referring to a \"structure that projects\".", "Thus, the word cervix is linguistically related to the English word \"horn\", the Persian word for \"head\" ( ''sar''), the Greek word for \"head\" ( ''koruphe''), and the Welsh and Romanian words for \"deer\" (, Romanian: ''cerb'').The cervix was documented in anatomical literature in at least the time of Hippocrates; cervical cancer was first described more than 2,000 years ago, with descriptions provided by both Hippocrates and Aretaeus.", "However, there was some variation in word sense among early writers, who used the term to refer to both the cervix and the internal uterine orifice.", "The first attested use of the word to refer to the cervix of the uterus was in 1702." ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Cited texts ===" ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Compiler" ], [ "Introduction", "In computing, a '''compiler''' is a computer program that translates computer code written in one programming language (the ''source'' language) into another language (the ''target'' language).", "The name \"compiler\" is primarily used for programs that translate source code from a high-level programming language to a low-level programming language (e.g.", "assembly language, object code, or machine code) to create an executable program.There are many different types of compilers which produce output in different useful forms.", "A ''cross-compiler'' produces code for a different CPU or operating system than the one on which the cross-compiler itself runs.", "A ''bootstrap compiler'' is often a temporary compiler, used for compiling a more permanent or better optimised compiler for a language.Related software include ''decompilers'', programs that translate from low-level languages to higher level ones; programs that translate between high-level languages, usually called ''source-to-source compilers'' or ''transpilers''; language ''rewriters'', usually programs that translate the form of expressions without a change of language; and ''compiler-compilers'', compilers that produce compilers (or parts of them), often in a generic and reusable way so as to be able to produce many differing compilers.A compiler is likely to perform some or all of the following operations, often called phases: preprocessing, lexical analysis, parsing, semantic analysis (syntax-directed translation), conversion of input programs to an intermediate representation, code optimization and machine specific code generation.", "Compilers generally implement these phases as modular components, promoting efficient design and correctness of transformations of source input to target output.", "Program faults caused by incorrect compiler behavior can be very difficult to track down and work around; therefore, compiler implementers invest significant effort to ensure compiler correctness.Compilers are not the only language processor used to transform source programs.", "An interpreter is computer software that transforms and then executes the indicated operations.", "The translation process influences the design of computer languages, which leads to a preference of compilation or interpretation.", "In theory, a programming language can have both a compiler and an interpreter.", "In practice, programming languages tend to be associated with just one (a compiler or an interpreter)." ], [ "History", "A diagram of the operation of a typical multi-language, multi-target compilerTheoretical computing concepts developed by scientists, mathematicians, and engineers formed the basis of digital modern computing development during World War II.", "Primitive binary languages evolved because digital devices only understand ones and zeros and the circuit patterns in the underlying machine architecture.", "In the late 1940s, assembly languages were created to offer a more workable abstraction of the computer architectures.", "Limited memory capacity of early computers led to substantial technical challenges when the first compilers were designed.", "Therefore, the compilation process needed to be divided into several small programs.", "The front end programs produce the analysis products used by the back end programs to generate target code.", "As computer technology provided more resources, compiler designs could align better with the compilation process.It is usually more productive for a programmer to use a high-level language, so the development of high-level languages followed naturally from the capabilities offered by digital computers.", "High-level languages are formal languages that are strictly defined by their syntax and semantics which form the high-level language architecture.", "Elements of these formal languages include:* ''Alphabet'', any finite set of symbols;* ''String'', a finite sequence of symbols;* ''Language'', any set of strings on an alphabet.The sentences in a language may be defined by a set of rules called a grammar.Backus–Naur form (BNF) describes the syntax of \"sentences\" of a language.", "It was developed by John Backus and used for the syntax of Algol 60.The ideas derive from the context-free grammar concepts by linguist Noam Chomsky.", "\"BNF and its extensions have become standard tools for describing the syntax of programming notations.", "In many cases, parts of compilers are generated automatically from a BNF description.", "\"Between 1942 and 1945, Konrad Zuse designed the first (algorithmic) programming language for computers called (\"Plan Calculus\").", "Zuse also envisioned a (\"Plan assembly device\") to automatically translate the mathematical formulation of a program into machine-readable punched film stock.", "While no actual implementation occurred until the 1970s, it presented concepts later seen in APL designed by Ken Iverson in the late 1950s.", "APL is a language for mathematical computations.Between 1949 and 1951, Heinz Rutishauser proposed Superplan, a high-level language and automatic translator.", "His ideas were later refined by Friedrich L. Bauer and Klaus Samelson.High-level language design during the formative years of digital computing provided useful programming tools for a variety of applications:* FORTRAN (Formula Translation) for engineering and science applications is considered to be one of the first actually implemented high-level languages and first optimizing compiler.", "* COBOL (Common Business-Oriented Language) evolved from A-0 and FLOW-MATIC to become the dominant high-level language for business applications.", "* LISP (List Processor) for symbolic computation.Compiler technology evolved from the need for a strictly defined transformation of the high-level source program into a low-level target program for the digital computer.", "The compiler could be viewed as a front end to deal with the analysis of the source code and a back end to synthesize the analysis into the target code.", "Optimization between the front end and back end could produce more efficient target code.Some early milestones in the development of compiler technology:* ''May 1952'': Grace Hopper's team at Remington Rand wrote the compiler for the A-0 programming language (and coined the term ''compiler'' to describe it), although the A-0 compiler functioned more as a loader or linker than the modern notion of a full compiler.", "* ''1952, before September'': An Autocode compiler developed by Alick Glennie for the Manchester Mark I computer at the University of Manchester is considered by some to be the first compiled programming language.", "* ''1954–1957'': A team led by John Backus at IBM developed FORTRAN which is usually considered the first high-level language.", "In 1957, they completed a FORTRAN compiler that is generally credited as having introduced the first unambiguously complete compiler.", "* ''1959'': The Conference on Data Systems Language (CODASYL) initiated development of COBOL.", "The COBOL design drew on A-0 and FLOW-MATIC.", "By the early 1960s COBOL was compiled on multiple architectures.", "* ''1958–1960'': Algol 58 was the precursor to ALGOL 60.It introduced code blocks, a key advance in the rise of structured programming.", "ALGOL 60 was the first language to implement nested function definitions with lexical scope.", "It included recursion.", "Its syntax was defined using BNF.", "ALGOL 60 inspired many languages that followed it.", "Tony Hoare remarked: \"... it was not only an improvement on its predecessors but also on nearly all its successors.", "\"* ''1958–1962'': John McCarthy at MIT designed LISP.", "The symbol processing capabilities provided useful features for artificial intelligence research.", "In 1962, LISP 1.5 release noted some tools: an interpreter written by Stephen Russell and Daniel J. Edwards, a compiler and assembler written by Tim Hart and Mike Levin.Early operating systems and software were written in assembly language.", "In the 1960s and early 1970s, the use of high-level languages for system programming was still controversial due to resource limitations.", "However, several research and industry efforts began the shift toward high-level systems programming languages, for example, BCPL, BLISS, B, and C.BCPL (Basic Combined Programming Language) designed in 1966 by Martin Richards at the University of Cambridge was originally developed as a compiler writing tool.", "Several compilers have been implemented, Richards' book provides insights to the language and its compiler.", "BCPL was not only an influential systems programming language that is still used in research but also provided a basis for the design of B and C languages.BLISS (Basic Language for Implementation of System Software) was developed for a Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) PDP-10 computer by W. A. Wulf's Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) research team.", "The CMU team went on to develop BLISS-11 compiler one year later in 1970.Multics (Multiplexed Information and Computing Service), a time-sharing operating system project, involved MIT, Bell Labs, General Electric (later Honeywell) and was led by Fernando Corbató from MIT.", "Multics was written in the PL/I language developed by IBM and IBM User Group.", "IBM's goal was to satisfy business, scientific, and systems programming requirements.", "There were other languages that could have been considered but PL/I offered the most complete solution even though it had not been implemented.", "For the first few years of the Multics project, a subset of the language could be compiled to assembly language with the Early PL/I (EPL) compiler by Doug McIlory and Bob Morris from Bell Labs.", "EPL supported the project until a boot-strapping compiler for the full PL/I could be developed.Bell Labs left the Multics project in 1969, and developed a system programming language B based on BCPL concepts, written by Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thompson.", "Ritchie created a boot-strapping compiler for B and wrote Unics (Uniplexed Information and Computing Service) operating system for a PDP-7 in B. Unics eventually became spelled Unix.Bell Labs started the development and expansion of C based on B and BCPL.", "The BCPL compiler had been transported to Multics by Bell Labs and BCPL was a preferred language at Bell Labs.", "Initially, a front-end program to Bell Labs' B compiler was used while a C compiler was developed.", "In 1971, a new PDP-11 provided the resource to define extensions to B and rewrite the compiler.", "By 1973 the design of C language was essentially complete and the Unix kernel for a PDP-11 was rewritten in C. Steve Johnson started development of Portable C Compiler (PCC) to support retargeting of C compilers to new machines.Object-oriented programming (OOP) offered some interesting possibilities for application development and maintenance.", "OOP concepts go further back but were part of LISP and Simula language science.", "Bell Labs became interested in OOP with the development of C++.", "C++ was first used in 1980 for systems programming.", "The initial design leveraged C language systems programming capabilities with Simula concepts.", "Object-oriented facilities were added in 1983.The Cfront program implemented a C++ front-end for C84 language compiler.", "In subsequent years several C++ compilers were developed as C++ popularity grew.In many application domains, the idea of using a higher-level language quickly caught on.", "Because of the expanding functionality supported by newer programming languages and the increasing complexity of computer architectures, compilers became more complex.DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency) sponsored a compiler project with Wulf's CMU research team in 1970.The Production Quality Compiler-Compiler PQCC design would produce a Production Quality Compiler (PQC) from formal definitions of source language and the target.", "PQCC tried to extend the term compiler-compiler beyond the traditional meaning as a parser generator (e.g., Yacc) without much success.", "PQCC might more properly be referred to as a compiler generator.PQCC research into code generation process sought to build a truly automatic compiler-writing system.", "The effort discovered and designed the phase structure of the PQC.", "The BLISS-11 compiler provided the initial structure.", "The phases included analyses (front end), intermediate translation to virtual machine (middle end), and translation to the target (back end).", "TCOL was developed for the PQCC research to handle language specific constructs in the intermediate representation.", "Variations of TCOL supported various languages.", "The PQCC project investigated techniques of automated compiler construction.", "The design concepts proved useful in optimizing compilers and compilers for the (since 1995, object-oriented) programming language Ada.The Ada ''STONEMAN'' document formalized the program support environment (APSE) along with the kernel (KAPSE) and minimal (MAPSE).", "An Ada interpreter NYU/ED supported development and standardization efforts with the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the International Standards Organization (ISO).", "Initial Ada compiler development by the U.S. Military Services included the compilers in a complete integrated design environment along the lines of the ''STONEMAN'' document.", "Army and Navy worked on the Ada Language System (ALS) project targeted to DEC/VAX architecture while the Air Force started on the Ada Integrated Environment (AIE) targeted to IBM 370 series.", "While the projects did not provide the desired results, they did contribute to the overall effort on Ada development.Other Ada compiler efforts got underway in Britain at the University of York and in Germany at the University of Karlsruhe.", "In the U. S., Verdix (later acquired by Rational) delivered the Verdix Ada Development System (VADS) to the Army.", "VADS provided a set of development tools including a compiler.", "Unix/VADS could be hosted on a variety of Unix platforms such as DEC Ultrix and the Sun 3/60 Solaris targeted to Motorola 68020 in an Army CECOM evaluation.", "There were soon many Ada compilers available that passed the Ada Validation tests.", "The Free Software Foundation GNU project developed the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) which provides a core capability to support multiple languages and targets.", "The Ada version GNAT is one of the most widely used Ada compilers.", "GNAT is free but there is also commercial support, for example, AdaCore, was founded in 1994 to provide commercial software solutions for Ada.", "GNAT Pro includes the GNU GCC based GNAT with a tool suite to provide an integrated development environment.High-level languages continued to drive compiler research and development.", "Focus areas included optimization and automatic code generation.", "Trends in programming languages and development environments influenced compiler technology.", "More compilers became included in language distributions (PERL, Java Development Kit) and as a component of an IDE (VADS, Eclipse, Ada Pro).", "The interrelationship and interdependence of technologies grew.", "The advent of web services promoted growth of web languages and scripting languages.", "Scripts trace back to the early days of Command Line Interfaces (CLI) where the user could enter commands to be executed by the system.", "User Shell concepts developed with languages to write shell programs.", "Early Windows designs offered a simple batch programming capability.", "The conventional transformation of these language used an interpreter.", "While not widely used, Bash and Batch compilers have been written.", "More recently sophisticated interpreted languages became part of the developers tool kit.", "Modern scripting languages include PHP, Python, Ruby and Lua.", "(Lua is widely used in game development.)", "All of these have interpreter and compiler support.", "\"When the field of compiling began in the late 50s, its focus was limited to the translation of high-level language programs into machine code ...", "The compiler field is increasingly intertwined with other disciplines including computer architecture, programming languages, formal methods, software engineering, and computer security.\"", "The \"Compiler Research: The Next 50 Years\" article noted the importance of object-oriented languages and Java.", "Security and parallel computing were cited among the future research targets." ], [ "Compiler construction", "A compiler implements a formal transformation from a high-level source program to a low-level target program.", "Compiler design can define an end-to-end solution or tackle a defined subset that interfaces with other compilation tools e.g.", "preprocessors, assemblers, linkers.", "Design requirements include rigorously defined interfaces both internally between compiler components and externally between supporting toolsets.In the early days, the approach taken to compiler design was directly affected by the complexity of the computer language to be processed, the experience of the person(s) designing it, and the resources available.", "Resource limitations led to the need to pass through the source code more than once.A compiler for a relatively simple language written by one person might be a single, monolithic piece of software.", "However, as the source language grows in complexity the design may be split into a number of interdependent phases.", "Separate phases provide design improvements that focus development on the functions in the compilation process.=== One-pass versus multi-pass compilers ===Classifying compilers by number of passes has its background in the hardware resource limitations of computers.", "Compiling involves performing much work and early computers did not have enough memory to contain one program that did all of this work.", "As a result, compilers were split up into smaller programs which each made a pass over the source (or some representation of it) performing some of the required analysis and translations.The ability to compile in a single pass has classically been seen as a benefit because it simplifies the job of writing a compiler and one-pass compilers generally perform compilations faster than multi-pass compilers.", "Thus, partly driven by the resource limitations of early systems, many early languages were specifically designed so that they could be compiled in a single pass (e.g., Pascal).In some cases, the design of a language feature may require a compiler to perform more than one pass over the source.", "For instance, consider a declaration appearing on line 20 of the source which affects the translation of a statement appearing on line 10.In this case, the first pass needs to gather information about declarations appearing after statements that they affect, with the actual translation happening during a subsequent pass.The disadvantage of compiling in a single pass is that it is not possible to perform many of the sophisticated optimizations needed to generate high quality code.", "It can be difficult to count exactly how many passes an optimizing compiler makes.", "For instance, different phases of optimization may analyse one expression many times but only analyse another expression once.Splitting a compiler up into small programs is a technique used by researchers interested in producing provably correct compilers.", "Proving the correctness of a set of small programs often requires less effort than proving the correctness of a larger, single, equivalent program.=== Three-stage compiler structure ===Compiler designRegardless of the exact number of phases in the compiler design, the phases can be assigned to one of three stages.", "The stages include a front end, a middle end, and a back end.", "* The ''front end'' scans the input and verifies syntax and semantics according to a specific source language.", "For statically typed languages it performs type checking by collecting type information.", "If the input program is syntactically incorrect or has a type error, it generates error and/or warning messages, usually identifying the location in the source code where the problem was detected; in some cases the actual error may be (much) earlier in the program.", "Aspects of the front end include lexical analysis, syntax analysis, and semantic analysis.", "The front end transforms the input program into an intermediate representation (IR) for further processing by the middle end.", "This IR is usually a lower-level representation of the program with respect to the source code.", "* The ''middle end'' performs optimizations on the IR that are independent of the CPU architecture being targeted.", "This source code/machine code independence is intended to enable generic optimizations to be shared between versions of the compiler supporting different languages and target processors.", "Examples of middle end optimizations are removal of useless (dead-code elimination) or unreachable code (reachability analysis), discovery and propagation of constant values (constant propagation), relocation of computation to a less frequently executed place (e.g., out of a loop), or specialization of computation based on the context, eventually producing the \"optimized\" IR that is used by the back end.", "* The ''back end'' takes the optimized IR from the middle end.", "It may perform more analysis, transformations and optimizations that are specific for the target CPU architecture.", "The back end generates the target-dependent assembly code, performing register allocation in the process.", "The back end performs instruction scheduling, which re-orders instructions to keep parallel execution units busy by filling delay slots.", "Although most optimization problems are NP-hard, heuristic techniques for solving them are well-developed and implemented in production-quality compilers.", "Typically the output of a back end is machine code specialized for a particular processor and operating system.This front/middle/back-end approach makes it possible to combine front ends for different languages with back ends for different CPUs while sharing the optimizations of the middle end.", "Practical examples of this approach are the GNU Compiler Collection, Clang (LLVM-based C/C++ compiler), and the Amsterdam Compiler Kit, which have multiple front-ends, shared optimizations and multiple back-ends.==== Front end ====Lexer and parser example for C. Starting from the sequence of characters \"if(net>0.0)total+=net(1.0+tax/100.0);\", the scanner composes a sequence of tokens, and categorizes each of them, for example as , , , or .", "The latter sequence is transformed by the parser into a syntax tree, which is then treated by the remaining compiler phases.", "The scanner and parser handles the regular and properly context-free parts of the grammar for C, respectively.The front end analyzes the source code to build an internal representation of the program, called the intermediate representation (IR).", "It also manages the symbol table, a data structure mapping each symbol in the source code to associated information such as location, type and scope.While the frontend can be a single monolithic function or program, as in a scannerless parser, it was traditionally implemented and analyzed as several phases, which may execute sequentially or concurrently.", "This method is favored due to its modularity and separation of concerns.", "Most commonly, the frontend is broken into three phases: lexical analysis (also known as lexing or scanning), syntax analysis (also known as scanning or parsing), and semantic analysis.", "Lexing and parsing comprise the syntactic analysis (word syntax and phrase syntax, respectively), and in simple cases, these modules (the lexer and parser) can be automatically generated from a grammar for the language, though in more complex cases these require manual modification.", "The lexical grammar and phrase grammar are usually context-free grammars, which simplifies analysis significantly, with context-sensitivity handled at the semantic analysis phase.", "The semantic analysis phase is generally more complex and written by hand, but can be partially or fully automated using attribute grammars.", "These phases themselves can be further broken down: lexing as scanning and evaluating, and parsing as building a concrete syntax tree (CST, parse tree) and then transforming it into an abstract syntax tree (AST, syntax tree).", "In some cases additional phases are used, notably ''line reconstruction'' and ''preprocessing,'' but these are rare.The main phases of the front end include the following: '''' converts the input character sequence to a canonical form ready for the parser.", "Languages which strop their keywords or allow arbitrary spaces within identifiers require this phase.", "The top-down, recursive-descent, table-driven parsers used in the 1960s typically read the source one character at a time and did not require a separate tokenizing phase.", "Atlas Autocode and Imp (and some implementations of ALGOL and Coral 66) are examples of stropped languages whose compilers would have a ''Line Reconstruction'' phase.", "* ''Preprocessing'' supports macro substitution and conditional compilation.", "Typically the preprocessing phase occurs before syntactic or semantic analysis; e.g.", "in the case of C, the preprocessor manipulates lexical tokens rather than syntactic forms.", "However, some languages such as Scheme support macro substitutions based on syntactic forms.", "* ''Lexical analysis'' (also known as ''lexing'' or ''tokenization'') breaks the source code text into a sequence of small pieces called ''lexical tokens''.", "This phase can be divided into two stages: the ''scanning'', which segments the input text into syntactic units called ''lexemes'' and assigns them a category; and the ''evaluating'', which converts lexemes into a processed value.", "A token is a pair consisting of a ''token name'' and an optional ''token value''.", "Common token categories may include identifiers, keywords, separators, operators, literals and comments, although the set of token categories varies in different programming languages.", "The lexeme syntax is typically a regular language, so a finite state automaton constructed from a regular expression can be used to recognize it.", "The software doing lexical analysis is called a lexical analyzer.", "This may not be a separate step—it can be combined with the parsing step in scannerless parsing, in which case parsing is done at the character level, not the token level.", "* ''Syntax analysis'' (also known as ''parsing'') involves parsing the token sequence to identify the syntactic structure of the program.", "This phase typically builds a parse tree, which replaces the linear sequence of tokens with a tree structure built according to the rules of a formal grammar which define the language's syntax.", "The parse tree is often analyzed, augmented, and transformed by later phases in the compiler.", "* ''Semantic analysis'' adds semantic information to the parse tree and builds the symbol table.", "This phase performs semantic checks such as type checking (checking for type errors), or object binding (associating variable and function references with their definitions), or definite assignment (requiring all local variables to be initialized before use), rejecting incorrect programs or issuing warnings.", "Semantic analysis usually requires a complete parse tree, meaning that this phase logically follows the parsing phase, and logically precedes the code generation phase, though it is often possible to fold multiple phases into one pass over the code in a compiler implementation.==== Middle end ====The middle end, also known as ''optimizer,'' performs optimizations on the intermediate representation in order to improve the performance and the quality of the produced machine code.", "The middle end contains those optimizations that are independent of the CPU architecture being targeted.The main phases of the middle end include the following:* Analysis: This is the gathering of program information from the intermediate representation derived from the input; data-flow analysis is used to build use-define chains, together with dependence analysis, alias analysis, pointer analysis, escape analysis, etc.", "Accurate analysis is the basis for any compiler optimization.", "The control-flow graph of every compiled function and the call graph of the program are usually also built during the analysis phase.", "* Optimization: the intermediate language representation is transformed into functionally equivalent but faster (or smaller) forms.", "Popular optimizations are inline expansion, dead-code elimination, constant propagation, loop transformation and even automatic parallelization.Compiler analysis is the prerequisite for any compiler optimization, and they tightly work together.", "For example, dependence analysis is crucial for loop transformation.The scope of compiler analysis and optimizations vary greatly; their scope may range from operating within a basic block, to whole procedures, or even the whole program.", "There is a trade-off between the granularity of the optimizations and the cost of compilation.", "For example, peephole optimizations are fast to perform during compilation but only affect a small local fragment of the code, and can be performed independently of the context in which the code fragment appears.", "In contrast, interprocedural optimization requires more compilation time and memory space, but enable optimizations that are only possible by considering the behavior of multiple functions simultaneously.Interprocedural analysis and optimizations are common in modern commercial compilers from HP, IBM, SGI, Intel, Microsoft, and Sun Microsystems.", "The free software GCC was criticized for a long time for lacking powerful interprocedural optimizations, but it is changing in this respect.", "Another open source compiler with full analysis and optimization infrastructure is Open64, which is used by many organizations for research and commercial purposes.Due to the extra time and space needed for compiler analysis and optimizations, some compilers skip them by default.", "Users have to use compilation options to explicitly tell the compiler which optimizations should be enabled.==== Back end ====The back end is responsible for the CPU architecture specific optimizations and for code generation''.", "''The main phases of the back end include the following:* ''Machine dependent optimizations'': optimizations that depend on the details of the CPU architecture that the compiler targets.", "A prominent example is peephole optimizations, which rewrites short sequences of assembler instructions into more efficient instructions.", "* ''Code generation'': the transformed intermediate language is translated into the output language, usually the native machine language of the system.", "This involves resource and storage decisions, such as deciding which variables to fit into registers and memory and the selection and scheduling of appropriate machine instructions along with their associated addressing modes (see also Sethi–Ullman algorithm).", "Debug data may also need to be generated to facilitate debugging.=== Compiler correctness ===Compiler correctness is the branch of software engineering that deals with trying to show that a compiler behaves according to its language specification.", "Techniques include developing the compiler using formal methods and using rigorous testing (often called compiler validation) on an existing compiler." ], [ "Compiled versus interpreted languages", "Higher-level programming languages usually appear with a type of translation in mind: either designed as compiled language or interpreted language.", "However, in practice there is rarely anything about a language that ''requires'' it to be exclusively compiled or exclusively interpreted, although it is possible to design languages that rely on re-interpretation at run time.", "The categorization usually reflects the most popular or widespread implementations of a language – for instance, BASIC is sometimes called an interpreted language, and C a compiled one, despite the existence of BASIC compilers and C interpreters.Interpretation does not replace compilation completely.", "It only hides it from the user and makes it gradual.", "Even though an interpreter can itself be interpreted, a set of directly executed machine instructions is needed somewhere at the bottom of the execution stack (see machine language).Furthermore, for optimization compilers can contain interpreter functionality, and interpreters may include ahead of time compilation techniques.", "For example, where an expression can be executed during compilation and the results inserted into the output program, then it prevents it having to be recalculated each time the program runs, which can greatly speed up the final program.", "Modern trends toward just-in-time compilation and bytecode interpretation at times blur the traditional categorizations of compilers and interpreters even further.Some language specifications spell out that implementations ''must'' include a compilation facility; for example, Common Lisp.", "However, there is nothing inherent in the definition of Common Lisp that stops it from being interpreted.", "Other languages have features that are very easy to implement in an interpreter, but make writing a compiler much harder; for example, APL, SNOBOL4, and many scripting languages allow programs to construct arbitrary source code at runtime with regular string operations, and then execute that code by passing it to a special evaluation function.", "To implement these features in a compiled language, programs must usually be shipped with a runtime library that includes a version of the compiler itself." ], [ "Types", "One classification of compilers is by the platform on which their generated code executes.", "This is known as the ''target platform.", "''A ''native'' or ''hosted'' compiler is one whose output is intended to directly run on the same type of computer and operating system that the compiler itself runs on.", "The output of a cross compiler is designed to run on a different platform.", "Cross compilers are often used when developing software for embedded systems that are not intended to support a software development environment.The output of a compiler that produces code for a virtual machine (VM) may or may not be executed on the same platform as the compiler that produced it.", "For this reason, such compilers are not usually classified as native or cross compilers.The lower level language that is the target of a compiler may itself be a high-level programming language.", "C, viewed by some as a sort of portable assembly language, is frequently the target language of such compilers.", "For example, Cfront, the original compiler for C++, used C as its target language.", "The C code generated by such a compiler is usually not intended to be readable and maintained by humans, so indent style and creating pretty C intermediate code are ignored.", "Some of the features of C that make it a good target language include the #line directive, which can be generated by the compiler to support debugging of the original source, and the wide platform support available with C compilers.While a common compiler type outputs machine code, there are many other types:* Source-to-source compilers are a type of compiler that takes a high-level language as its input and outputs a high-level language.", "For example, an automatic parallelizing compiler will frequently take in a high-level language program as an input and then transform the code and annotate it with parallel code annotations (e.g.", "OpenMP) or language constructs (e.g.", "Fortran's DOALL statements).", "Other terms for a source-to-source compiler are transcompiler or transpiler.", "* Bytecode compilers compile to assembly language of a theoretical machine, like some Prolog implementations This Prolog machine is also known as the Warren Abstract Machine (or WAM).", " Bytecode compilers for Java, Python are also examples of this category.", "* Just-in-time compilers (JIT compiler) defer compilation until runtime.", "JIT compilers exist for many modern languages including Python, JavaScript, Smalltalk, Java, Microsoft .NET's Common Intermediate Language (CIL) and others.", "A JIT compiler generally runs inside an interpreter.", "When the interpreter detects that a code path is \"hot\", meaning it is executed frequently, the JIT compiler will be invoked and compile the \"hot\" code for increased performance.", "** For some languages, such as Java, applications are first compiled using a bytecode compiler and delivered in a machine-independent intermediate representation.", "A bytecode interpreter executes the bytecode, but the JIT compiler will translate the bytecode to machine code when increased performance is necessary.", "* Hardware compilers (also known as synthesis tools) are compilers whose input is a hardware description language and whose output is a description, in the form of a netlist or otherwise, of a hardware configuration.", " The output of these compilers target computer hardware at a very low level, for example a field-programmable gate array (FPGA) or structured application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC).", "Such compilers are said to be hardware compilers, because the source code they compile effectively controls the final configuration of the hardware and how it operates.", "The output of the compilation is only an interconnection of transistors or lookup tables.", " An example of hardware compiler is XST, the Xilinx Synthesis Tool used for configuring FPGAs.", "Similar tools are available from Altera, Synplicity, Synopsys and other hardware vendors.", "* An ''assembler'' is a program that compiles human readable assembly language to machine code, the actual instructions executed by hardware.", "The inverse program that translates machine code to assembly language is called a disassembler.", "* A program that translates from a low-level language to a higher level one is a decompiler.", "* A program that translates into an object code format that is not supported on the compilation machine is called a cross compiler and is commonly used to prepare code for execution on embedded software applications.", "* A program that rewrites object code back into the same type of object code while applying optimisations and transformations is a binary recompiler." ], [ "See also", "* Abstract interpretation* Bottom-up parsing* Compile and go system* Compile farm* List of compilers* * Metacompilation" ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * (2+xiv+270+6 pages)* * * * * * * * * * Compiler textbook references A collection of references to mainstream Compiler Construction Textbooks" ], [ "External links", "* * Incremental Approach to Compiler Constructiona PDF tutorial* * explaining the key conceptual difference between compilers and interpreters* * Let's Build a Compiler, by Jack Crenshaw*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Castrato" ], [ "Introduction", "The great 18th-century castrato Farinelli, painted by Bartolomeo NazariA '''castrato''' (Italian; : '''castrati''') is a male singer who underwent castration before puberty in order to retain singing voice equivalent to that of a soprano, mezzo-soprano, or contralto.", "The voice can also occur in one who, due to an endocrinological condition, never reaches sexual maturity.Castration before puberty (or in its early stages) prevents the larynx from being transformed by the normal physiological events of puberty.", "As a result, the vocal range of prepubescence (shared by both sexes) is largely retained, and the voice develops into adulthood in a unique way.", "Prepubescent castration for this purpose diminished greatly in the late 18th century.Methods of castration used to terminate the onset of puberty varied.", "Methods involved using opium to medically induce a coma, then submerging the boy into an ice or milk bath where the procedure of either severing the vas deferens (similar to a vasectomy), twisting the testicles until they atrophied, or complete removal via surgical cutting was performed (however the complete removal of the testicles was not a popularly used technique).", "The procedure was usually done to boys around the age of 8–10; recovery time from the procedure took around two weeks.", "The means by which future singers were prepared could lead to premature death.", "To prevent the child from experiencing the intense pain of castration, many were inadvertently administered lethal doses of opium or some other narcotic, or were killed by overlong compression of the carotid artery in the neck (intended to render them unconscious during the castration procedure).", "The geographical locations of where these procedures took place is not known specifically.", "During the 18th century, the music historian Charles Burney was sent from pillar to post in search of places where the operation was carried out: I enquired throughout Italy at what place boys were chiefly qualified for singing by castration, but could get no certain intelligence.", "I was told at Milan that it was at Venice; at Venice that it was at Bologna; but at Bologna the fact was denied, and I was referred to Florence; from Florence to Rome, and from Rome I was sent to Naples ... it is said that there are shops in Naples with this inscription: 'QUI SI CASTRANO RAGAZZI' (\"Here boys are castrated\"); but I was utterly unable to see or hear of any such shops during my residence in that city.As a castrato's body grew, his lack of testosterone meant that his epiphyses (bone-joints) did not harden in the normal manner.", "Thus, the limbs of the castrati often grew unusually long, as did their ribs.", "This, combined with intensive training, gave them unrivaled lung power and breath capacity.", "Operating through small, child-sized vocal cords, their voices were also extraordinarily flexible, and quite different from the equivalent adult female voice.", "Their vocal range was higher than that of the uncastrated adult male.", "Listening to the only surviving recordings of a castrato (see below), one can hear that the lower part of the voice sounds like a \"super-high\" tenor, with a more falsetto-like upper register above that.Castrati were rarely referred to as such: in the 18th century, the euphemism ''musico'' (: ''musici'') was much more generally used, although it usually carried derogatory implications; another synonym was ''evirato'', literally meaning \"emasculated\".", "Eunuch is a more general term since, historically, many eunuchs were castrated after puberty and thus the castration had no effect on their voices." ], [ "History", "A Byzantine castrato from the 11th centuryCastration as a means of subjugation, enslavement or other punishment has a very long history, dating back to ancient Sumer.", "In a Western context, eunuch singers are known to have existed from the early Byzantine Empire.", "In Constantinople around 400 AD, the empress Aelia Eudoxia had a eunuch choir-master, Brison, who may have established the use of castrati in Byzantine choirs, though whether Brison himself was a singer and whether he had colleagues who were eunuch singers is not certain.", "By the 9th century, eunuch singers were well-known (most in the choir of Hagia Sophia) and remained so until the sack of Constantinople by the Western forces of the Fourth Crusade in 1204.Their fate from then until their reappearance in Italy more than three hundred years later is not clear.", "It seems likely that the Spanish tradition of soprano falsettists may have hidden castrati.", "Much of Spain was under Muslim rulers during the Middle Ages, and castration had a history going back to the ancient Near East.", "Stereotypically, eunuchs served as harem guards, but they were also valued as high-level political appointees since they could not start a dynasty which would threaten the ruler." ], [ "European classical tradition", "Castrati first appeared in Italy in the mid-16th century, though at first the terms describing them were not always clear.", "The phrase ''soprano maschio'' (male soprano), which could also mean falsettist, occurs in the ''Due Dialoghi della Musica'' (Two dialogues upon music) of Luigi Dentice, an Oratorian priest, published in Rome in 1553.On 9 November 1555 Cardinal Ippolito II d'Este (famed as the builder of the Villa d'Este at Tivoli), wrote to Guglielmo Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua (1538–1587), that he has heard that the Duke was interested in his ''cantoretti'' (little singers) and offered to send him two, so that he could choose one for his own service.", "This is a rare term but probably does equate to ''castrato''.", "The Cardinal's nephew, Alfonso II d'Este, Duke of Ferrara, was another early enthusiast, inquiring about castrati in 1556.There were certainly castrati in the Sistine Chapel choir in 1558, although not described as such: on 27 April of that year, Hernando Bustamante, a Spaniard from Palencia, was admitted (the first castrati so termed who joined the Sistine choir were Pietro Paolo Folignato and Girolamo Rossini, admitted in 1599).", "Surprisingly, considering the later French distaste for castrati, they certainly existed in France at this time also, being known of in Paris, Orléans, Picardy and Normandy, though they were not abundant: the King of France himself had difficulty in obtaining them.", "By 1574, there were castrati in the Ducal court chapel at Munich, where the Kapellmeister (music director) was the famous Orlando di Lasso.", "In 1589, by the bull ''Cum pro nostro pastorali munere'', Pope Sixtus V re-organised the choir of St Peter's, Rome specifically to include castrati.Thus the castrati came to supplant both boys (whose voices broke after only a few years) and falsettists (whose voices were weaker and less reliable) from the top line in such choirs.", "Women were banned by the Pauline dictum ''mulieres in ecclesiis taceant'' (\"let women keep silent in the churches\"; see I Corinthians, ch.", "14, v. 34).The Italian castrati were often rumored to have unusually long lives, but a 1993 study found that their lifespans were average." ], [ "Opera", "A caricature of Farinelli in a female role, by Pier Leone Ghezzi, 1724Although the castrato (or musico) predates opera, there is some evidence that castrati had parts in the earliest operas.", "In the first performance of Monteverdi's ''Orfeo'' (1607), for example, they played subsidiary roles, including Speranza and (possibly) that of Euridice.", "Although female roles were performed by castrati in some of the papal states, this was increasingly rare; by 1680, they had supplanted \"normal\" male voices in lead roles, and retained their position as ''primo uomo'' for about a hundred years; an Italian opera not featuring at least one renowned castrato in a lead part would be doomed to fail.", "Because of the popularity of Italian opera throughout 18th-century Europe (except France), singers such as Ferri, Farinelli, Senesino and Pacchierotti became the first operatic superstars, earning enormous fees and hysterical public adulation.", "The strictly hierarchical organisation of ''opera seria'' favoured their high voices as symbols of heroic virtue, though they were frequently mocked for their strange appearance and bad acting.", "In his 1755 ''Reflections upon theatrical expression in tragedy'', Roger Pickering wrote:Farinelli drew every Body to the Haymarket.", "What a Pipe!", "What Modulation!", "What Extasy to the Ear!", "But, Heavens!", "What Clumsiness!", "What Stupidity!", "What Offence to the Eye!", "Reader, if of the City, thou mayest probably have seen in the Fields of Islington or Mile-End or, If thou art in the environs of St James', thou must have observed in the Park with what Ease and Agility a cow, heavy with calf, has rose up at the command of the Milk-woman's foot: thus from the mossy bank sprang the DIVINE FARINELLI.The training of the boys was rigorous.", "The regimen of one singing school in Rome (c. 1700) consisted of one hour of singing difficult and awkward pieces, one hour practising trills, one hour practising ornamented passaggi, one hour of singing exercises in their teacher's presence and in front of a mirror so as to avoid unnecessary movement of the body or facial grimaces, and one hour of literary study; all this, moreover, before lunch.", "After, half an hour would be devoted to musical theory, another to writing counterpoint, an hour copying down the same from dictation, and another hour of literary study.", "During the remainder of the day, the young castrati had to find time to practice their harpsichord playing, and to compose vocal music, either sacred or secular depending on their inclination.", "This demanding schedule meant that, if sufficiently talented, they were able to make a debut in their mid-teens with a perfect technique and a voice of a flexibility and power no woman or ordinary male singer could match.The castrato Carlo Scalzi, by Joseph Flipart, In the 1720s and 1730s, at the height of the craze for these voices, it has been estimated that upwards of 4,000 boys were castrated annually in the service of art.", "Many came from poor homes and were castrated by their parents in the hope that their child might be successful and lift them from poverty (this was the case with Senesino).", "There are, though, records of some young boys asking to be operated on to preserve their voices (e.g.", "Caffarelli, who was from a wealthy family: his grandmother gave him the income from two vineyards to pay for his studies).", "Caffarelli was also typical of many castrati in being famous for tantrums on and off-stage, and for amorous adventures with noble ladies.", "Some, as described by Casanova, preferred gentlemen (noble or otherwise).", "Only a small percentage of boys castrated to preserve their voices had successful careers on the operatic stage; the better \"also-rans\" sang in cathedral or church choirs, but because of their marked appearance and the ban on their marrying, there was little room for them in society outside a musical context.The castrati came in for a great amount of scurrilous and unkind abuse, and as their fame increased, so did the hatred of them.", "They were often castigated as malign creatures who lured men into homosexuality.", "There were homosexual castrati, as Casanova's accounts of 18th-century Italy bear witness.", "He mentions meeting an abbé whom he took for a girl in disguise, only later discovering that \"she\" was a famous castrato.", "In Rome in 1762 he attended a performance at which the prima donna was a castrato, \"the favourite pathic\" of Cardinal Borghese, who dined every evening with his protector.", "From his behaviour on stage \"it was obvious that he hoped to inspire the love of those who liked him as a man, and probably would not have done so as a woman\"." ], [ "Decline", "Alessandro Moreschi, the last of the Sistine castratiBy the late 18th century, changes in operatic taste and social attitudes spelled the end for castrati.", "They lingered on past the end of the ''ancien régime'', which their style of opera parallels, and two of their number, Pacchierotti and Crescentini, performed before Napoleon.", "The last great operatic castrato was Giovanni Battista Velluti (1781–1861), who performed the last operatic castrato role ever written: Armando in ''Il crociato in Egitto'' by Meyerbeer (Venice, 1824).", "Soon after this they were replaced definitively as the first men of the operatic stage by a new breed of heroic tenor, as first incarnated by the Frenchman Gilbert-Louis Duprez, the earliest so-called \"king of the high Cs\".", "His successors have included such singers as Enrico Tamberlik, Jean de Reszke, Francesco Tamagno, Enrico Caruso, Giovanni Martinelli, Beniamino Gigli, Jussi Björling, Franco Corelli and Luciano Pavarotti, among others.After the unification of Italy in 1861, \"eviration\" was officially made illegal, as the new Italian state had adopted the previous penal code of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which expressly forbade the practice.", "In 1878, Pope Leo XIII prohibited the hiring of new castrati by the church: only in the Sistine Chapel and in other papal basilicas in Rome did a few castrati linger.", "A group photo of the Sistine Choir taken in 1898 shows that by then only six remained, plus the ''Direttore Perpetuo'', the fine soprano castrato Domenico Mustafà.", "In 1902 a ruling was extracted from Pope Leo that no further castrati should be admitted.", "The official end to the castrati came on St. Cecilia's Day, 22 November 1903, when the new pope, Pius X, issued his ''motu proprio'', ''Tra le Sollecitudini'' (\"Amongst the Cares\"), which contained this instruction: \"Whenever ... it is desirable to employ the high voices of sopranos and contraltos, these parts must be taken by boys, according to the most ancient usage of the Church.", "\"The last Sistine castrato to survive was Alessandro Moreschi, the only castrato to have made solo recordings.", "While an interesting historical record, these discs of his give us only a glimpse of the castrato voice, although he had been renowned as \"The Angel of Rome\" at the beginning of his career, some would say he was past his prime when the recordings were made in 1902 and 1904 and he never attempted to sing opera.", "Domenico Salvatori, a castrato who was contemporary with Moreschi, made some ensemble recordings with him but has no surviving solo recordings.", "The recording technology of the day was not of modern high quality.", "Salvatori died in 1909; Moreschi retired officially in March 1913, and died in 1922.The Catholic Church's involvement in the castrato phenomenon has long been controversial, and there have recently been calls for it to issue an official apology for its role.", "As early as 1748, Pope Benedict XIV tried to ban castrati from churches, but such was their popularity at the time that he realised that doing so might result in a drastic decline in church attendance.The rumours of another castrato sequestered in the Vatican for the personal delectation of the Pontiff until as recently as 1959 have been proven false.", "The singer in question was a pupil of Moreschi's, Domenico Mancini, such a successful imitator of his teacher's voice that even Lorenzo Perosi, Direttore Perpetuo of the Sistine Choir from 1898 to 1956 and a strenuous opponent of the practice of castrato singers, thought he was a castrato.", "Mancini was in fact a moderately skillful falsettist and professional double bass player." ], [ "Modern castrati and similar voices", "A male can retain his child voice if it never changes during puberty.", "The retained voice can be the treble voice shared by both sexes in childhood and is the same as a boy soprano voice.", "But as evidence shows, many castratos, such as Senesino and Caffarelli, were actually altos (mezzo-soprano) – not sopranos.", "So-called \"natural\" or \"endocrinological castrati\" are born with hormonal anomalies, such as Klinefelter's syndrome and Kallmann's syndrome, or have undergone unusual physical or medical events during their early lives that reproduce the vocal effects of castration without being castrated.Jimmy Scott, Radu Marian and Javier Medina are examples of this type of high male voice via endocrinological diseases.", "Michael Maniaci is somewhat different, in that he has no hormonal or other anomalies, but claims that his voice did not \"break\" in the usual manner, leaving him still able to sing in the soprano register.", "Other uncastrated male adults sing soprano, generally using some form of falsetto but in a much higher range than most countertenors.", "Examples are Aris Christofellis, Jörg Waschinski, and Ghio Nannini.However, it is believed the castrati possessed more of a tenorial chest register (the aria \"Navigante che non spera\" in Leonardo Vinci's opera ''Il Medo'', written for Farinelli, requires notes down to C3, 131 Hz).", "Similar low-voiced singing can be heard from the jazz vocalist Jimmy Scott, whose range matches approximately that used by female blues singers.", "High-pitched singer Jordan Smith has demonstrated having more of a tenorial chest register.Actor Chris Colfer has stated in interviews that when his voice began to change at puberty, he sang in a high voice \"constantly\" in an effort to retain his range.", "Actor and singer Alex Newell has soprano range.", "Voice actor Walter Tetley may or may not have been a ''castrato''; Bill Scott, a co-worker of Tetley's during their later work in television, once half-jokingly quipped that Tetley's mother \"had him fixed\" to protect the child star's voice-acting career.", "Tetley did never personally divulge the exact reason for his condition, which left him with the voice of a preteen boy for his entire adult life.", "Botanist George Washington Carver was noted for his high voice, believed to be the result of pertussis and croup infections in his childhood that stunted his growth." ], [ "Notable castrati", "Francesco Bernardi, known as \"Senesino\"Loreto Vittori (1604–1670)Baldassare Ferri (1610–1680)Atto Melani (1626–1714)Giovanni Grossi (\"Siface\") (1653–1697)Pier Francesco Tosi (1654–1732)Francesco Ceccarelli (1752–1814)Nicolò Grimaldi (\"Nicolini\") (1673–1732)Gaetano Berenstadt (1687–1734)Carlo Mannelli (1640–1697)Antonio Bernacchi (1685–1756)Francesco Bernardi (\"Senesino\") (1686–1758)Valentino Urbani (\"Valentini\") (1690–1722)Francesco Paolo Masullo (1679–1733)Giacinto Fontana (\"Farfallino\") (1692–1739)Giuseppe Aprile (1731–1813)Giovanni Carestini (\"Cusanino\") ( – )Carlo Broschi (\"Farinelli\") (1705–1782)Domenico Annibali (\"Domenichino\") (1705–1779)Gaetano Majorano (\"Caffarelli\") (1710–1783)Francesco Soto de Langa (1534–1619)Felice Salimbeni (1712–1752)Gioacchino Conti (\"Gizziello\") (1714–1761)Giovanni Battista Mancini (1714–1800)Giovanni Manzuoli (1720–1782)Gaetano Guadagni (1725–1792)Giusto Fernando Tenducci ()Giuseppe Millico (\"Il Muscovita\") (1737–1802)Angelo Maria Monticelli (1710–1764)Gaspare Pacchierotti (1740–1821)Venanzio Rauzzini (1746–1810)Luigi Marchesi (\"Marchesini\") (1754–1829)Vincenzo dal Prato (1756–1828)Girolamo Crescentini (1762–1848)Francesco Antonio Pistocchi (1659–1726)Giovanni Battista \"Giambattista\" Velluti (1781–1861)Domenico Mustafà (1829–1912)Giovanni Cesari (1843–1904)Domenico Salvatori (1855–1909)Alessandro Moreschi (1858–1922)" ], [ "See also", " ''Cry to Heaven''* ''The Alteration''* ''Farinelli'' (film)* ''Sarrasine''* Eunuch* Comprachicos" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " All you would like to know about Castrati* Castrados por amor al arte* Recordings: Antonio Maria Bononcini's ''Vorrei pupille belle'', sung by Radu Marian 1904 Recording of Alessandro Moreschi singing Bach/Gounod ''Ave Maria''** Javier Medina Avila, including an audio sample (Riccardo Broschi: ''Ombra fedele anch'io'')" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Counting-out game" ], [ "Introduction", "Children Playing Akkad BakkadA '''counting-out game''' or '''counting-out rhyme''' is a simple method of 'randomly' selecting a person from a group, often used by children for the purpose of playing another game.", "It usually requires no materials, and is achieved with spoken words or hand gestures.", "The historian Henry Carrington Bolton suggested in his 1888 book ''Counting Out Rhymes of Children'' that the custom of counting out originated in the \"superstitious practices of divination by lots.", "\"Many such methods involve one person pointing at each participant in a circle of players while reciting a rhyme.", "A new person is pointed at as each word is said.", "The player who is selected at the conclusion of the rhyme is \"it\" or \"out\".", "In an alternate version, the circle of players may each put two feet in and at the conclusion of the rhyme, that player removes one foot and the rhyme starts over with the next person.", "In this case, the first player that has both feet removed is \"it\" or \"out\".", "In theory the result of a counting rhyme is determined entirely by the starting selection (and would result in a modulo operation), but in practice they are often accepted as random selections because the number of words has not been calculated beforehand, so the result is unknown until someone is selected.A variant of counting-out game, known as the Josephus problem, represents a famous theoretical problem in mathematics and computer science." ], [ "Examples", "Several simple games can be played to select one person from a group, either as a straightforward winner, or as someone who is eliminated.", "Rock, Paper, Scissors, Odd or Even and Blue Shoe require no materials and are played using hand gestures, although with the former it is possible for a player to win or lose through skill rather than luck.", "Coin flipping and drawing straws are fair methods of randomly determining a player.", "Fizz Buzz is a spoken word game where if a player slips up and speaks a word out of sequence, they are eliminated.===Common rhymes===The French rhyme : \"A ball made of gold, go out\"Igbo children from Nigeria(These rhymes may have many local or regional variants.", ")* Eeny, meeny, miny, moe* 10 Little Indians* Five Little Ducks* Ip dip* One, Two, Three, Four, Five* Tinker, Tailor (traditionally played in England)* Yan Tan Tethera* Inky Pinky Ponky* One potato, two potatoInk-a-dink * En Den Dino" ], [ "Cultural references", "=== Marx Brothers ===A scene in the Marx Brothers movie ''Duck Soup'' plays on the fact that counting-out games are not really random.", "Faced with selecting someone to go on a dangerous mission, the character Chicolini (Chico Marx) chants::''Rrringspot, vonza, twoza, zig-zag-zav, popti, vinaga, tin-lie, tav, harem, scarem, merchan, tarem, teir, tore...''only to stop as he realizes he is about to select himself.", "He then says, \"I did it wrong.", "Wait, wait, I start here\", and repeats the chant—with the same result.", "After that, he says, \"That's no good too.", "I got it!\"", "and reduces the chant to:''Rrringspot, buck!", "''And with this version he finally manages to \"randomly\" select someone else.=== Seinfeld ===A version of a counting game \"ink-a-dink\" features in the ''Seinfeld'' episode \"The Statue.\"", "The relevant scene includes a discussion between the characters of Jerry and George if the person who is \"it\" is the \"winner\" or the \"loser\": : JERRY: Alright, let's go.", "Hey, you know, you owe me one.", ": GEORGE: What?", ": JERRY: The Ink-a-dink.. you were ''It''.", ": GEORGE: ''It''s bad?", ": JERRY: ''It''s very bad." ], [ "See also", "* Repetitive song" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Videos of \"choosing songs\" a.k.a.", "Counting rhymes* Selection Rhymes at the BBC's project ''h2g2''* Counting rhymes and other songs for counting in traditional music from county of Nice, France." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Key size" ], [ "Introduction", "In cryptography, '''key size''' or '''key length''' refers to the number of bits in a key used by a cryptographic algorithm (such as a cipher).Key length defines the upper-bound on an algorithm's security (i.e.", "a logarithmic measure of the fastest known attack against an algorithm), because the security of all algorithms can be violated by brute-force attacks.", "Ideally, the lower-bound on an algorithm's security is by design equal to the key length (that is, the algorithm's design does not detract from the degree of security inherent in the key length).Most symmetric-key algorithms are designed to have security equal to their key length.", "However, after design, a new attack might be discovered.", "For instance, Triple DES was designed to have a 168-bit key, but an attack of complexity 2112 is now known (i.e.", "Triple DES now only has 112 bits of security, and of the 168 bits in the key the attack has rendered 56 'ineffective' towards security).", "Nevertheless, as long as the security (understood as \"the amount of effort it would take to gain access\") is sufficient for a particular application, then it does not matter if key length and security coincide.", "This is important for asymmetric-key algorithms, because no such algorithm is known to satisfy this property; elliptic curve cryptography comes the closest with an effective security of roughly half its key length." ], [ "Significance", "Keys are used to control the operation of a cipher so that only the correct key can convert encrypted text (ciphertext) to plaintext.", "All commonly-used ciphers are based on publicly known algorithms or are open source and so it is only the difficulty of obtaining the key that determines security of the system, provided that there is no analytic attack (i.e.", "a \"structural weakness\" in the algorithms or protocols used), and assuming that the key is not otherwise available (such as via theft, extortion, or compromise of computer systems).", "The widely accepted notion that the security of the system should depend on the key alone has been explicitly formulated by Auguste Kerckhoffs (in the 1880s) and Claude Shannon (in the 1940s); the statements are known as Kerckhoffs' principle and Shannon's Maxim respectively.A key should, therefore, be large enough that a brute-force attack (possible against any encryption algorithm) is infeasible – i.e.", "would take too long and/or would take too much memory to execute.", "Shannon's work on information theory showed that to achieve so-called 'perfect secrecy', the key length must be at least as large as the message and only used once (this algorithm is called the one-time pad).", "In light of this, and the practical difficulty of managing such long keys, modern cryptographic practice has discarded the notion of perfect secrecy as a requirement for encryption, and instead focuses on computational security, under which the computational requirements of breaking an encrypted text must be infeasible for an attacker." ], [ "Key size and encryption system", "Encryption systems are often grouped into families.", "Common families include symmetric systems (e.g.", "AES) and asymmetric systems (e.g.", "RSA and Elliptic-curve_cryptography).", "They may be grouped according to the central algorithm used (e.g.", "elliptic curve cryptography and Feistel ciphers).", "Because each of these has a different level of cryptographic complexity, it is usual to have different key sizes for the same level of security, depending upon the algorithm used.", "For example, the security available with a 1024-bit key using asymmetric RSA is considered approximately equal in security to an 80-bit key in a symmetric algorithm.The actual degree of security achieved over time varies, as more computational power and more powerful mathematical analytic methods become available.", "For this reason, cryptologists tend to look at indicators that an algorithm or key length shows signs of potential vulnerability, to move to longer key sizes or more difficult algorithms.", "For example, , a 1039-bit integer was factored with the special number field sieve using 400 computers over 11 months.", "The factored number was of a special form; the special number field sieve cannot be used on RSA keys.", "The computation is roughly equivalent to breaking a 700 bit RSA key.", "However, this might be an advance warning that 1024 bit RSA keys used in secure online commerce should be deprecated, since they may become breakable in the foreseeable future.", "Cryptography professor Arjen Lenstra observed that \"Last time, it took nine years for us to generalize from a special to a nonspecial, hard-to-factor number\" and when asked whether 1024-bit RSA keys are dead, said: \"The answer to that question is an unqualified yes.", "\"The 2015 Logjam attack revealed additional dangers in using Diffie-Hellman key exchange when only one or a few common 1024-bit or smaller prime moduli are in use.", "This practice, somewhat common at the time, allows large amounts of communications to be compromised at the expense of attacking a small number of primes." ], [ "Brute-force attack", "Even if a symmetric cipher is currently unbreakable by exploiting structural weaknesses in its algorithm, it may be possible to run through the entire space of keys in what is known as a brute-force attack.", "Because longer symmetric keys require exponentially more work to brute force search, a sufficiently long symmetric key makes this line of attack impractical.With a key of length ''n'' bits, there are 2n possible keys.", "This number grows very rapidly as ''n'' increases.", "The large number of operations (2128) required to try all possible 128-bit keys is widely considered out of reach for conventional digital computing techniques for the foreseeable future.", "However, a quantum computer capable of running Grover's algorithm would be able to search the possible keys more efficiently.", "If a suitably sized quantum computer would reduce a 128-bit key down to 64-bit security, roughly a DES equivalent.", "This is one of the reasons why AES supports key lengths of 256 bits and longer." ], [ "Symmetric algorithm key lengths", "IBM's Lucifer cipher was selected in 1974 as the base for what would become the Data Encryption Standard.", "Lucifer's key length was reduced from 128 bits to 56 bits, which the NSA and NIST argued was sufficient for non-governmental protection at the time.", "The NSA has major computing resources and a large budget; some cryptographers including Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman complained that this made the cipher so weak that NSA computers would be able to break a DES key in a day through brute force parallel computing.", "The NSA disputed this, claiming that brute-forcing DES would take them \"something like 91 years\".However, by the late 90s, it became clear that DES could be cracked in a few days' time-frame with custom-built hardware such as could be purchased by a large corporation or government.", "The book ''Cracking DES'' (O'Reilly and Associates) tells of the successful ability in 1998 to break 56-bit DES by a brute-force attack mounted by a cyber civil rights group with limited resources; see EFF DES cracker.", "Even before that demonstration, 56 bits was considered insufficient length for symmetric algorithm keys for general use.", "Because of this, DES was replaced in most security applications by Triple DES, which has 112 bits of security when using 168-bit keys (triple key).The Advanced Encryption Standard published in 2001 uses key sizes of 128, 192 or 256 bits.", "Many observers consider 128 bits sufficient for the foreseeable future for symmetric algorithms of AES's quality until quantum computers become available.", "However, as of 2015, the U.S. National Security Agency has issued guidance that it plans to switch to quantum computing resistant algorithms and now requires 256-bit AES keys for data classified up to Top Secret.In 2003, the U.S. National Institute for Standards and Technology, NIST proposed phasing out 80-bit keys by 2015.At 2005, 80-bit keys were allowed only until 2010.Since 2015, NIST guidance says that \"the use of keys that provide less than 112 bits of security strength for key agreement is now disallowed.\"", "NIST approved symmetric encryption algorithms include three-key Triple DES, and AES.", "Approvals for two-key Triple DES and Skipjack were withdrawn in 2015; the NSA's Skipjack algorithm used in its Fortezza program employs 80-bit keys." ], [ "Asymmetric algorithm key lengths", "The effectiveness of public key cryptosystems depends on the intractability (computational and theoretical) of certain mathematical problems such as integer factorization.", "These problems are time-consuming to solve, but usually faster than trying all possible keys by brute force.", "Thus, asymmetric keys must be longer for equivalent resistance to attack than symmetric algorithm keys.", "The most common methods are assumed to be weak against sufficiently powerful quantum computers in the future.Since 2015, NIST recommends a minimum of 2048-bit keys for RSA, an update to the widely-accepted recommendation of a 1024-bit minimum since at least 2002.1024-bit RSA keys are equivalent in strength to 80-bit symmetric keys, 2048-bit RSA keys to 112-bit symmetric keys, 3072-bit RSA keys to 128-bit symmetric keys, and 15360-bit RSA keys to 256-bit symmetric keys.", "In 2003, RSA Security claimed that 1024-bit keys were likely to become crackable some time between 2006 and 2010, while 2048-bit keys are sufficient until 2030.the largest RSA key publicly known to be cracked is RSA-250 with 829 bits.The Finite Field Diffie-Hellman algorithm has roughly the same key strength as RSA for the same key sizes.", "The work factor for breaking Diffie-Hellman is based on the discrete logarithm problem, which is related to the integer factorization problem on which RSA's strength is based.", "Thus, a 2048-bit Diffie-Hellman key has about the same strength as a 2048-bit RSA key.Elliptic-curve cryptography (ECC) is an alternative set of asymmetric algorithms that is equivalently secure with shorter keys, requiring only approximately twice the bits as the equivalent symmetric algorithm.", "A 256-bit ECDH key has approximately the same safety factor as a 128-bit AES key.", "A message encrypted with an elliptic key algorithm using a 109-bit long key was broken in 2004.The NSA previously recommended 256-bit ECC for protecting classified information up to the SECRET level, and 384-bit for TOP SECRET; In 2015 it announced plans to transition to quantum-resistant algorithms by 2024, and until then recommends 384-bit for all classified information." ], [ "Effect of quantum computing attacks on key strength", "The two best known quantum computing attacks are based on Shor's algorithm and Grover's algorithm.", "Of the two, Shor's offers the greater risk to current security systems.Derivatives of Shor's algorithm are widely conjectured to be effective against all mainstream public-key algorithms including RSA, Diffie-Hellman and elliptic curve cryptography.", "According to Professor Gilles Brassard, an expert in quantum computing: \"The time needed to factor an RSA integer is the same order as the time needed to use that same integer as modulus for a single RSA encryption.", "In other words, it takes no more time to break RSA on a quantum computer (up to a multiplicative constant) than to use it legitimately on a classical computer.\"", "The general consensus is that these public key algorithms are insecure at any key size if sufficiently large quantum computers capable of running Shor's algorithm become available.", "The implication of this attack is that all data encrypted using current standards based security systems such as the ubiquitous SSL used to protect e-commerce and Internet banking and SSH used to protect access to sensitive computing systems is at risk.", "Encrypted data protected using public-key algorithms can be archived and may be broken at a later time, commonly known as retroactive/retrospective decryption or \"harvest and decrypt\".Mainstream symmetric ciphers (such as AES or Twofish) and collision resistant hash functions (such as SHA) are widely conjectured to offer greater security against known quantum computing attacks.", "They are widely thought most vulnerable to Grover's algorithm.", "Bennett, Bernstein, Brassard, and Vazirani proved in 1996 that a brute-force key search on a quantum computer cannot be faster than roughly 2''n''/2 invocations of the underlying cryptographic algorithm, compared with roughly 2''n'' in the classical case.", "Thus in the presence of large quantum computers an ''n''-bit key can provide at least ''n''/2 bits of security.", "Quantum brute force is easily defeated by doubling the key length, which has little extra computational cost in ordinary use.", "This implies that at least a 256-bit symmetric key is required to achieve 128-bit security rating against a quantum computer.", "As mentioned above, the NSA announced in 2015 that it plans to transition to quantum-resistant algorithms.According to the NSA:, the NSA's Commercial National Security Algorithm Suite includes: Algorithm Usage RSA 3072-bit or larger Key establishment, digital signature Diffie-Hellman (DH) 3072-bit or larger Key establishment ECDH with NIST P-384 Key establishment ECDSA with NIST P-384 Digital signature SHA-384 Integrity AES-256 Confidentiality" ], [ "See also", "* Key stretching" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===General===* ''Recommendation for Key Management — Part 1: general,'' NIST Special Publication 800-57.March, 2007* Blaze, Matt; Diffie, Whitfield; Rivest, Ronald L.; et al.", "\"Minimal Key Lengths for Symmetric Ciphers to Provide Adequate Commercial Security\".", "January, 1996* Arjen K. Lenstra, Eric R. Verheul: Selecting Cryptographic Key Sizes.", "J. Cryptology 14(4): 255-293 (2001) — Citeseer link" ], [ "External links", "* www.keylength.com: An online keylength calculator* Articles discussing the implications of quantum computing* NIST cryptographic toolkit* Burt Kaliski: TWIRL and RSA key sizes (May 2003)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Cognitive behavioral therapy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cognitive behavioral therapy''' ('''CBT''') is a psycho-social intervention that aims to reduce symptoms of various mental health conditions, primarily depression and anxiety disorders.", "Cognitive behavioral therapy is one of the most effective means of treatment for substance abuse and co-occurring mental health disorders.", "CBT focuses on challenging and changing cognitive distortions (such as thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes) and their associated behaviors to improve emotional regulation and develop personal coping strategies that target solving current problems.", "Though it was originally designed to treat depression, its uses have been expanded to include many issues and the treatment of many mental health conditions, including anxiety, substance use disorders, marital problems, ADHD, and eating disorders.", "CBT includes a number of cognitive or behavioral psychotherapies that treat defined psychopathologies using evidence-based techniques and strategies.CBT is a common form of talk therapy based on the combination of the basic principles from behavioral and cognitive psychology.", "It is different from historical approaches to psychotherapy, such as the psychoanalytic approach where the therapist looks for the unconscious meaning behind the behaviors and then formulates a diagnosis.", "Instead, CBT is a \"problem-focused\" and \"action-oriented\" form of therapy, meaning it is used to treat specific problems related to a diagnosed mental disorder.", "The therapist's role is to assist the client in finding and practicing effective strategies to address the identified goals and to alleviate symptoms of the disorder.", "CBT is based on the belief that thought distortions and maladaptive behaviors play a role in the development and maintenance of many psychological disorders and that symptoms and associated distress can be reduced by teaching new information-processing skills and coping mechanisms.When compared to psychoactive medications, review studies have found CBT alone to be as effective for treating less severe forms of depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), tics, substance use disorders, eating disorders, and borderline personality disorder.", "Some research suggests that CBT is most effective when combined with medication for treating mental disorders, such as major depressive disorder.", "CBT is recommended as the first line of treatment for the majority of psychological disorders in children and adolescents, including aggression and conduct disorder.", "Researchers have found that other ''bona fide'' therapeutic interventions were equally effective for treating certain conditions in adults.", "Along with interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT), CBT is recommended in treatment guidelines as a psychosocial treatment of choice." ], [ "History", "=== Early roots ===The prevailing body of research consistently indicates that maintaining a faith or belief system generally contributes positively to mental well-being.", "Religious institutions have proactively established charities, such as the Samaritans, to address mental health issues.", "Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) has undergone scrutiny as studies investigating the impact of religious belief and practices have gained prominence.", "Numerous randomized controlled trials have explored the correlation of CBT within diverse religious frameworks, including Judaism, Taoism, and predominantly, Christianity.=== Islam ===Al GhazaliIslamic psychology, rooted in the Sufi tradition, traces its origins to the 11th century, notably shaped by Al Ghazali.", "Al Ghazali conceptualized the self with four integral elements: heart, spirit, soul, and intellect.", "These components align correspondingly with Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) domains, specifically emotions, behaviors, thoughts, and the capacity for reflection.=== Buddhism ===Principles originating from Buddhism have significantly impacted the evolution of various new forms of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), including Dialectical Behavior Therapy, Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy, Spirituality-Based CBT, and Compassion Focused Therapy.=== Philosophy ===Precursors of certain fundamental aspects of CBT have been identified in various ancient philosophical traditions, particularly Stoicism.", "Stoic philosophers, particularly Epictetus, believed logic could be used to identify and discard false beliefs that lead to destructive emotions, which has influenced the way modern cognitive-behavioral therapists identify cognitive distortions that contribute to depression and anxiety.", "Aaron T. Beck's original treatment manual for depression states, \"The philosophical origins of cognitive therapy can be traced back to the Stoic philosophers\".", "Another example of Stoic influence on cognitive theorists is Epictetus on Albert Ellis.", "A key philosophical figure who influenced the development of CBT was John Stuart Mill through his creation of Associationism, a predecessor of classical conditioning and behavioral theory.The modern roots of CBT can be traced to the development of behavior therapy in the early 20th century, the development of cognitive therapy in the 1960s, and the subsequent merging of the two.===Behavioral therapy===John B. WatsonGroundbreaking work of behaviorism began with John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner's studies of conditioning in 1920.Behaviorally-centered therapeutic approaches appeared as early as 1924 with Mary Cover Jones' work dedicated to the unlearning of fears in children.", "These were the antecedents of the development of Joseph Wolpe's behavioral therapy in the 1950s.", "It was the work of Wolpe and Watson, which was based on Ivan Pavlov's work on learning and conditioning, that influenced Hans Eysenck and Arnold Lazarus to develop new behavioral therapy techniques based on classical conditioning.During the 1950s and 1960s, behavioral therapy became widely used by researchers in the United States, the United Kingdom, and South Africa.", "Their inspiration was by the behaviorist learning theory of Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and Clark L. Hull.In Britain, Joseph Wolpe, who applied the findings of animal experiments to his method of systematic desensitization, applied behavioral research to the treatment of neurotic disorders.", "Wolpe's therapeutic efforts were precursors to today's fear reduction techniques.", "British psychologist Hans Eysenck presented behavior therapy as a constructive alternative.At the same time as Eysenck's work, B. F. Skinner and his associates were beginning to have an impact with their work on operant conditioning.", "Skinner's work was referred to as radical behaviorism and avoided anything related to cognition.", "However, Julian Rotter in 1954 and Albert Bandura in 1969 contributed to behavior therapy with their works on social learning theory by demonstrating the effects of cognition on learning and behavior modification.", "The work of Claire Weekes in dealing with anxiety disorders in the 1960s is also seen as a prototype of behavior therapy.The emphasis on behavioral factors has been described as the \"first wave\" of CBT.===Cognitive therapy===One of the first therapists to address cognition in psychotherapy was Alfred Adler, notably with his idea of basic mistakes and how they contributed to creation of unhealthy behavioral and life goals.Abraham Low believed that someone's thoughts were best changed by changing their actions.", "Adler and Low influenced the work of Albert Ellis, who developed the earliest cognitive-based psychotherapy called rational emotive behavioral therapy, or REBT.", "The first version of REBT was announced to the public in 1956.In the late 1950s, Aaron T. Beck was conducting free association sessions in his psychoanalytic practice.", "During these sessions, Beck noticed that thoughts were not as unconscious as Freud had previously theorized, and that certain types of thinking may be the culprits of emotional distress.", "It was from this hypothesis that Beck developed cognitive therapy, and called these thoughts \"automatic thoughts\".", "He first published his new methodology in 1967, and his first treatment manual in 1979.Beck has been referred to as \"the father of cognitive behavioral therapy\".It was these two therapies, rational emotive therapy, and cognitive therapy, that started the \"second wave\" of CBT, which emphasized cognitive factors.===Merger of behavioral and cognitive therapies===Although the early behavioral approaches were successful in many so-called neurotic disorders, they had little success in treating depression.", "Behaviorism was also losing popularity due to the cognitive revolution.", "The therapeutic approaches of Albert Ellis and Aaron T. Beck gained popularity among behavior therapists, despite the earlier behaviorist rejection of mentalistic concepts like thoughts and cognitions.", "Both of these systems included behavioral elements and interventions, with the primary focus being on problems in the present.In initial studies, cognitive therapy was often contrasted with behavioral treatments to see which was most effective.", "During the 1980s and 1990s, cognitive and behavioral techniques were merged into cognitive behavioral therapy.", "Pivotal to this merging was the successful development of treatments for panic disorder by David M. Clark in the UK and David H. Barlow in the US.Over time, cognitive behavior therapy came to be known not only as a therapy, but as an umbrella term for all cognitive-based psychotherapies.", "These therapies include, but are not limited to, REBT, cognitive therapy, acceptance and commitment therapy, dialectical behavior therapy, metacognitive therapy, metacognitive training, reality therapy/choice theory, cognitive processing therapy, EMDR, and multimodal therapy.", "This blending of theoretical and technical foundations from both behavior and cognitive therapies constituted the \"third wave\" of CBT.", "The most prominent therapies of this third wave are dialectical behavior therapy and acceptance and commitment therapy.", "Despite the increasing popularity of third-wave treatment approaches, reviews of studies reveal there may be no difference in the effectiveness compared with non-third wave CBT for the treatment of depression." ], [ "Medical uses", "In adults, CBT has been shown to be an effective part of treatment plans for anxiety disorders, body dysmorphic disorder, depression, eating disorders, chronic low back pain, personality disorders, psychosis, schizophrenia, substance use disorders, and bipolar disorder.", "It is also effective as part of treatment plans in the adjustment, depression, and anxiety associated with fibromyalgia, and with post-spinal cord injuries.In children or adolescents, CBT is an effective part of treatment plans for anxiety disorders, body dysmorphic disorder, depression and suicidality, eating disorders and obesity, obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), as well as tic disorders, trichotillomania, and other repetitive behavior disorders.", "CBT has also been applied to a variety of childhood disorders, including depressive disorders and various anxiety disorders.", "CBT has shown to be the most effective intervention for people exposed to adverse childhood experiences in the form of abuse or neglect.Criticism of CBT sometimes focuses on implementations (such as the UK IAPT) which may result initially in low quality therapy being offered by poorly trained practitioners.", "However, evidence supports the effectiveness of CBT for anxiety and depression.Evidence suggests that the addition of hypnotherapy as an adjunct to CBT improves treatment efficacy for a variety of clinical issues.The United Kingdom's National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) recommends CBT in the treatment plans for a number of mental health difficulties, including PTSD, OCD, bulimia nervosa, and clinical depression.===Depression and anxiety disorders===Cognitive behavioral therapy has been shown as an effective treatment for clinical depression.", "The American Psychiatric Association Practice Guidelines (April 2000) indicated that, among psychotherapeutic approaches, cognitive behavioral therapy and interpersonal psychotherapy had the best-documented efficacy for treatment of major depressive disorder.A 2001 meta-analysis comparing CBT and psychodynamic psychotherapy suggested the approaches were equally effective in the short term for depression.In contrast, a 2013 meta-analyses suggested that CBT, interpersonal therapy, and problem-solving therapy outperformed psychodynamic psychotherapy and behavioral activation in the treatment of depression.According to a 2004 review by INSERM of three methods, cognitive behavioral therapy was either proven or presumed to be an effective therapy on several mental disorders.", "This included depression, panic disorder, post-traumatic stress, and other anxiety disorders.CBT has been shown to be effective in the treatment of adults with anxiety disorders.", "In a 2020 Cochrane review it was determined that CBT for children and adolescents was probably more effective (short term) than wait list or no treatment and more effective than attention control.Results from a 2018 systematic review found a high strength of evidence that CBT-exposure therapy can reduce PTSD symptoms and lead to the loss of a PTSD diagnosis.", "CBT has also been shown to be effective for post-traumatic stress disorder in very young children (3 to 6 years of age).", "A Cochrane review found low quality evidence that CBT may be more effective than other psychotherapies in reducing symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents.A systematic review of CBT in depression and anxiety disorders concluded that \"CBT delivered in primary care, especially including computer- or Internet-based self-help programs, is potentially more effective than usual care and could be delivered effectively by primary care therapists.", "\"Some meta-analyses find CBT more effective than psychodynamic therapy and equal to other therapies in treating anxiety and depression.====Theoretical approaches====One etiological theory of depression is Aaron T. Beck's cognitive theory of depression.", "His theory states that depressed people think the way they do because their thinking is biased towards negative interpretations.", "According to this theory, depressed people acquire a negative schema of the world in childhood and adolescence as an effect of stressful life events, and the negative schema is activated later in life when the person encounters similar situations.Beck also described a negative cognitive triad.", "The cognitive triad is made up of the depressed individual's negative evaluations of themselves, the world, and the future.", "Beck suggested that these negative evaluations derive from the negative schemata and cognitive biases of the person.", "According to this theory, depressed people have views such as \"I never do a good job\", \"It is impossible to have a good day\", and \"things will never get better\".", "A negative schema helps give rise to the cognitive bias, and the cognitive bias helps fuel the negative schema.", "Beck further proposed that depressed people often have the following cognitive biases: arbitrary inference, selective abstraction, overgeneralization, magnification, and minimization.", "These cognitive biases are quick to make negative, generalized, and personal inferences of the self, thus fueling the negative schema.A basic concept in some CBT treatments used in anxiety disorders is ''in vivo'' exposure.", "CBT-exposure therapy refers to the direct confrontation of feared objects, activities, or situations by a patient.", "For example, a woman with PTSD who fears the location where she was assaulted may be assisted by her therapist in going to that location and directly confronting those fears.", "Likewise, a person with a social anxiety disorder who fears public speaking may be instructed to directly confront those fears by giving a speech.", "This \"two-factor\" model is often credited to O. Hobart Mowrer.", "Through exposure to the stimulus, this harmful conditioning can be \"unlearned\" (referred to as extinction and habituation).CBT for children with phobias is normally delivered over multiple sessions, but one-session treatment has been shown to be equally effective and is cheaper.====Specialized forms of CBT====CBT-SP, an adaptation of CBT for suicide prevention (SP), was specifically designed for treating youths who are severely depressed and who have recently attempted suicide within the past 90 days, and was found to be effective, feasible, and acceptable.Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) is a specialist branch of CBT (sometimes referred to as contextual CBT).", "ACT uses mindfulness and acceptance interventions and has been found to have a greater longevity in therapeutic outcomes.", "In a study with anxiety, CBT and ACT improved similarly across all outcomes from pre- to post-treatment.", "However, during a 12-month follow-up, ACT proved to be more effective, showing that it is a highly viable lasting treatment model for anxiety disorders.Computerized CBT (CCBT) has been proven to be effective by randomized controlled and other trials in treating depression and anxiety disorders, including children.", "Some research has found similar effectiveness to an intervention of informational websites and weekly telephone calls.", "CCBT was found to be equally effective as face-to-face CBT in adolescent anxiety.====Combined with other treatments====Studies have provided evidence that when examining animals and humans, that glucocorticoids may lead to a more successful extinction learning during exposure therapy for anxiety disorders.", "For instance, glucocorticoids can prevent aversive learning episodes from being retrieved and heighten reinforcement of memory traces creating a non-fearful reaction in feared situations.", "A combination of glucocorticoids and exposure therapy may be a better-improved treatment for treating people with anxiety disorders.====Prevention====For anxiety disorders, use of CBT with people at risk has significantly reduced the number of episodes of generalized anxiety disorder and other anxiety symptoms, and also given significant improvements in explanatory style, hopelessness, and dysfunctional attitudes.", "In another study, 3% of the group receiving the CBT intervention developed generalized anxiety disorder by 12 months postintervention compared with 14% in the control group.", "Individuals with subthreshold levels of panic disorder significantly benefitted from use of CBT.", "Use of CBT was found to significantly reduce social anxiety prevalence.For depressive disorders, a stepped-care intervention (watchful waiting, CBT and medication if appropriate) achieved a 50% lower incidence rate in a patient group aged 75 or older.", "Another depression study found a neutral effect compared to personal, social, and health education, and usual school provision, and included a comment on potential for increased depression scores from people who have received CBT due to greater self recognition and acknowledgement of existing symptoms of depression and negative thinking styles.", "A further study also saw a neutral result.", "A meta-study of the Coping with Depression course, a cognitive behavioral intervention delivered by a psychoeducational method, saw a 38% reduction in risk of major depression.===Bipolar disorder===Many studies show CBT, combined with pharmacotherapy, is effective in improving depressive symptoms, mania severity and psychosocial functioning with mild to moderate effects, and that it is better than medication alone.INSERM's 2004 review found that CBT is an effective therapy for several mental disorders, including bipolar disorder.", "This included schizophrenia, depression, bipolar disorder, panic disorder, post-traumatic stress, anxiety disorders, bulimia, anorexia, personality disorders and alcohol dependency.===Psychosis===In long-term psychoses, CBT is used to complement medication and is adapted to meet individual needs.", "Interventions particularly related to these conditions include exploring reality testing, changing delusions and hallucinations, examining factors which precipitate relapse, and managing relapses.", "Meta-analyses confirm the effectiveness of metacognitive training (MCT) for the improvement of positive symptoms (e.g., delusions).", "For people at risk of psychosis, in 2014 the UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) recommended preventive CBT.===Schizophrenia===INSERM's 2004 review found that CBT is an effective therapy for several mental disorders, including schizophrenia.A Cochrane review reported CBT had \"no effect on long‐term risk of relapse\" and no additional effect above standard care.", "A 2015 systematic review investigated the effects of CBT compared with other psychosocial therapies for people with schizophrenia and determined that there is no clear advantage over other, often less expensive, interventions but acknowledged that better quality evidence is needed before firm conclusions can be drawn.===Addiction and substance use disorders=======Pathological and problem gambling====CBT is also used for pathological and problem gambling.", "The percentage of people who problem gamble is 1–3% around the world.", "Cognitive behavioral therapy develops skills for relapse prevention and someone can learn to control their mind and manage high-risk cases.", "There is evidence of efficacy of CBT for treating pathological and problem gambling at immediate follow up, however the longer term efficacy of CBT for it is currently unknown.====Smoking cessation====CBT looks at the habit of smoking cigarettes as a learned behavior, which later evolves into a coping strategy to handle daily stressors.", "Since smoking is often easily accessible and quickly allows the user to feel good, it can take precedence over other coping strategies, and eventually work its way into everyday life during non-stressful events as well.", "CBT aims to target the function of the behavior, as it can vary between individuals, and works to inject other coping mechanisms in place of smoking.", "CBT also aims to support individuals with strong cravings, which are a major reported reason for relapse during treatment.In a 2008 controlled study out of Stanford University School of Medicine suggested CBT may be an effective tool to help maintain abstinence.", "The results of 304 random adult participants were tracked over the course of one year.", "During this program, some participants were provided medication, CBT, 24-hour phone support, or some combination of the three methods.", "At 20 weeks, the participants who received CBT had a 45% abstinence rate, versus non-CBT participants, who had a 29% abstinence rate.", "Overall, the study concluded that emphasizing cognitive and behavioral strategies to support smoking cessation can help individuals build tools for long term smoking abstinence.Mental health history can affect the outcomes of treatment.", "Individuals with a history of depressive disorders had a lower rate of success when using CBT alone to combat smoking addiction.A Cochrane review was unable to find evidence of any difference between CBT and hypnosis for smoking cessation.", "While this may be evidence of no effect, further research may uncover an effect of CBT for smoking cessation.====Substance use disorders====Studies have shown CBT to be an effective treatment for substance use disorders.", "For individuals with substance use disorders, CBT aims to reframe maladaptive thoughts, such as denial, minimizing and catastrophizing thought patterns, with healthier narratives.", "Specific techniques include identifying potential triggers and developing coping mechanisms to manage high-risk situations.", "Research has shown CBT to be particularly effective when combined with other therapy-based treatments or medication.INSERM's 2004 review found that CBT is an effective therapy for several mental disorders, including alcohol dependency.====Internet addiction====Research has identified Internet addiction as a new clinical disorder that causes relational, occupational, and social problems.", "Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) has been suggested as the treatment of choice for Internet addiction, and addiction recovery in general has used CBT as part of treatment planning.", "There is also evidence for the efficacy of CBT in multicenter randomized controlled trials such as STICA (Short-Term Treatment of Internet and Computer Game Addiction).", "===Eating disorders===Though many forms of treatment can support individuals with eating disorders, CBT is proven to be a more effective treatment than medications and interpersonal psychotherapy alone.", "CBT aims to combat major causes of distress such as negative cognitions surrounding body weight, shape and size.", "CBT therapists also work with individuals to regulate strong emotions and thoughts that lead to dangerous compensatory behaviors.", "CBT is the first line of treatment for bulimia nervosa, and Eating Disorder Non-Specific.", "While there is evidence to support the efficacy of CBT for bulimia nervosa and binging, the evidence is somewhat variable and limited by small study sizes.", "INSERM's 2004 review found that CBT is an effective therapy for several mental disorders, including bulimia and anorexia nervosa.===With autistic adults===Emerging evidence for cognitive behavioral interventions aimed at reducing symptoms of depression, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorder in autistic adults without intellectual disability has been identified through a systematic review.", "While the research was focused on adults, cognitive behavioral interventions have also been beneficial to autistic children.", "A 2021 Cochrane review found limited evidence regarding the efficacy of CBT for obsessive-compulsive disorder in adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder stating a need for further study.===Dementia and mild cognitive impairment===A Cochrane review in 2022 found that adults with dementia and mild cognitive impairment (MCI) who experience symptoms of depression may benefit from CBT, whereas other counselling or supportive interventions might not improve symptoms significantly.", "Across 5 different psychometric scales, where higher scores indicate severity of depression, adults receiving CBT reported somewhat lower mood scores than those receiving usual care for dementia and MCI overall.", "In this review, a sub-group analysis found clinically significant benefits only among those diagnosed with dementia, rather than MCI.The likelihood of remission from depression also appeared to be 84% higher following CBT, though the evidence for this was less certain.", "Anxiety, cognition and other neuropsychiatric symptoms were not significantly improved following CBT, however this review did find moderate evidence of improved quality of life and daily living activity scores in those with dementia and MCI.=== Post-traumatic stress ===Cognitive behavioral therapy interventions may have some benefits for people who have post-traumatic stress related to surviving rape, sexual abuse, or sexual assault.===Other uses===Evidence suggests a possible role for CBT in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), hypochondriasis, and bipolar disorder, but more study is needed and results should be interpreted with caution.", "CBT has been studied as an aid in the treatment of anxiety associated with stuttering.", "Initial studies have shown CBT to be effective in reducing social anxiety in adults who stutter, but not in reducing stuttering frequency.There is some evidence that CBT is superior in the long-term to benzodiazepines and the nonbenzodiazepines in the treatment and management of insomnia.", "Computerized CBT (CCBT) has been proven to be effective by randomized controlled and other trials in treating insomnia.", "Some research has found similar effectiveness to an intervention of informational websites and weekly telephone calls.", "CCBT was found to be equally effective as face-to-face CBT in insomnia.A Cochrane review of interventions aimed at preventing psychological stress in healthcare workers found that CBT was more effective than no intervention but no more effective than alternative stress-reduction interventions.Cochrane Reviews have found no convincing evidence that CBT training helps foster care providers manage difficult behaviors in the youths under their care, nor was it helpful in treating people who abuse their intimate partners.CBT has been applied in both clinical and non-clinical environments to treat disorders such as personality disorders and behavioral problems.", "INSERM's 2004 review found that CBT is an effective therapy for personality disorders.CBT has been used with other researchers as well to minimize chronic pain and help relieve symptoms from those suffering from irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).", "====Individuals with medical conditions====In the case of people with metastatic breast cancer, data is limited but CBT and other psychosocial interventions might help with psychological outcomes and pain management.", "A 2015 Cochrane review also found that CBT for symptomatic management of non-specific chest pain is probably effective in the short term.", "However, the findings were limited by small trials and the evidence was considered of questionable quality.", "Cochrane reviews have found no evidence that CBT is effective for tinnitus, although there appears to be an effect on management of associated depression and quality of life in this condition.", "CBT combined with hypnosis and distraction reduces self-reported pain in children.There is limited evidence to support CBT's use in managing the impact of multiple sclerosis, sleep disturbances related to aging, and dysmenorrhea, but more study is needed and results should be interpreted with caution.Previously CBT has been considered as moderately effective for treating chronic fatigue syndrome, however a National Institutes of Health Pathways to Prevention Workshop stated that in respect of improving treatment options for ME/CFS that the modest benefit from cognitive behavioral therapy should be studied as an adjunct to other methods.", "The Centres for Disease Control advice on the treatment of ME/CFS makes no reference to CBT while the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence states that cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) has sometimes been assumed to be a cure for ME/CFS, however, it should only be offered to support people who live with ME/CFS to manage their symptoms, improve their functioning and reduce the distress associated with having a chronic illness.", "\"===Age===CBT is used to help people of all ages, but the therapy should be adjusted based on the age of the patient with whom the therapist is dealing.", "Older individuals in particular have certain characteristics that need to be acknowledged and the therapy altered to account for these differences thanks to age.", "Of the small number of studies examining CBT for the management of depression in older people, there is currently no strong support." ], [ "Description", "Mainstream cognitive behavioral therapy assumes that changing maladaptive thinking leads to change in behavior and affect, but recent variants emphasize changes in one's relationship to maladaptive thinking rather than changes in thinking itself.===Cognitive distortions===Therapists use CBT techniques to help people challenge their patterns and beliefs and replace errors in thinking, known as cognitive distortions with \"more realistic and effective thoughts, thus decreasing emotional distress and self-defeating behavior\".", "Cognitive distortions can be either a pseudo-discrimination belief or an overgeneralization of something.", "CBT techniques may also be used to help individuals take a more open, mindful, and aware posture toward cognitive distortions so as to diminish their impact.Mainstream CBT helps individuals replace \"maladaptive... coping skills, cognitions, emotions and behaviors with more adaptive ones\", by challenging an individual's way of thinking and the way that they react to certain habits or behaviors, but there is still controversy about the degree to which these traditional cognitive elements account for the effects seen with CBT over and above the earlier behavioral elements such as exposure and skills training.===Phases in therapy===CBT can be seen as having six phases:# Assessment or psychological assessment;# Reconceptualization;# Skills acquisition;# Skills consolidation and application training;# Generalization and maintenance;# Post-treatment assessment follow-up.These steps are based on a system created by Kanfer and Saslow.", "After identifying the behaviors that need changing, whether they be in excess or deficit, and treatment has occurred, the psychologist must identify whether or not the intervention succeeded.", "For example, \"If the goal was to decrease the behavior, then there should be a decrease relative to the baseline.", "If the critical behavior remains at or above the baseline, then the intervention has failed.", "\"The steps in the assessment phase include:# Identify critical behaviors;# Determine whether critical behaviors are excesses or deficits;# Evaluate critical behaviors for frequency, duration, or intensity (obtain a baseline);# If excess, attempt to decrease frequency, duration, or intensity of behaviors; if deficits, attempt to increase behaviors.The re-conceptualization phase makes up much of the \"cognitive\" portion of CBT.===Delivery protocols===There are different protocols for delivering cognitive behavioral therapy, with important similarities among them.", "Use of the term CBT may refer to different interventions, including \"self-instructions (e.g.", "distraction, imagery, motivational self-talk), relaxation and/or biofeedback, development of adaptive coping strategies (e.g.", "minimizing negative or self-defeating thoughts), changing maladaptive beliefs about pain, and goal setting\".", "Treatment is sometimes manualized, with brief, direct, and time-limited treatments for individual psychological disorders that are specific technique-driven.", "CBT is used in both individual and group settings, and the techniques are often adapted for self-help applications.", "Some clinicians and researchers are cognitively oriented (e.g.", "cognitive restructuring), while others are more behaviorally oriented (e.g.", "''in vivo'' exposure therapy).", "Interventions such as imaginal exposure therapy combine both approaches.===Related techniques===CBT may be delivered in conjunction with a variety of diverse but related techniques such as exposure therapy, stress inoculation, cognitive processing therapy, cognitive therapy, metacognitive therapy, metacognitive training, relaxation training, dialectical behavior therapy, and acceptance and commitment therapy.", "Some practitioners promote a form of mindful cognitive therapy which includes a greater emphasis on self-awareness as part of the therapeutic process." ], [ "Methods of access", "===Therapist===A typical CBT program would consist of face-to-face sessions between patient and therapist, made up of 6–18 sessions of around an hour each with a gap of 1–3 weeks between sessions.", "This initial program might be followed by some booster sessions, for instance after one month and three months.", "CBT has also been found to be effective if patient and therapist type in real time to each other over computer links.Cognitive-behavioral therapy is most closely allied with the scientist–practitioner model in which clinical practice and research are informed by a scientific perspective, clear operationalization of the problem, and an emphasis on measurement, including measuring changes in cognition and behavior and the attainment of goals.", "These are often met through \"homework\" assignments in which the patient and the therapist work together to craft an assignment to complete before the next session.", "The completion of these assignments – which can be as simple as a person with depression attending some kind of social event – indicates a dedication to treatment compliance and a desire to change.", "The therapists can then logically gauge the next step of treatment based on how thoroughly the patient completes the assignment.", "Effective cognitive behavioral therapy is dependent on a therapeutic alliance between the healthcare practitioner and the person seeking assistance.", "Unlike many other forms of psychotherapy, the patient is very involved in CBT.", "For example, an anxious patient may be asked to talk to a stranger as a homework assignment, but if that is too difficult, he or she can work out an easier assignment first.", "The therapist needs to be flexible and willing to listen to the patient rather than acting as an authority figure.=== Computerized or Internet-delivered (CCBT)===Computerized cognitive behavioral therapy (CCBT) has been described by NICE as a \"generic term for delivering CBT via an interactive computer interface delivered by a personal computer, internet, or interactive voice response system\", instead of face-to-face with a human therapist.", "It is also known as internet-delivered cognitive behavioral therapy or ICBT.", "CCBT has potential to improve access to evidence-based therapies, and to overcome the prohibitive costs and lack of availability sometimes associated with retaining a human therapist.", "In this context, it is important not to confuse CBT with 'computer-based training', which nowadays is more commonly referred to as e-Learning.Although improvements in both research quality and treatment adherence is required before advocating for the global dissemination of CCBT, it has been found in meta-studies to be cost-effective and often cheaper than usual care, including for anxiety and PTSD.", "Studies have shown that individuals with social anxiety and depression experienced improvement with online CBT-based methods.", "A study assessing an online version of CBT for people with mild-to-moderate PTSD found that the online approach was as effective as, and cheaper than, the same therapy given face-to-face.", "A review of current CCBT research in the treatment of OCD in children found this interface to hold great potential for future treatment of OCD in youths and adolescent populations.", "Additionally, most internet interventions for post-traumatic stress disorder use CCBT.", "CCBT is also predisposed to treating mood disorders amongst non-heterosexual populations, who may avoid face-to-face therapy from fear of stigma.", "However presently CCBT programs seldom cater to these populations.In February 2006 NICE recommended that CCBT be made available for use within the NHS across England and Wales for patients presenting with mild-to-moderate depression, rather than immediately opting for antidepressant medication, and CCBT is made available by some health systems.", "The 2009 NICE guideline recognized that there are likely to be a number of computerized CBT products that are useful to patients, but removed endorsement of any specific product.===Smartphone app-delivered===Another new method of access is the use of mobile app or smartphone applications to deliver self-help or guided CBT.", "Technology companies are developing mobile-based artificial intelligence chatbot applications in delivering CBT as an early intervention to support mental health, to build psychological resilience, and to promote emotional well-being.", "Artificial intelligence (AI) text-based conversational application delivered securely and privately over smartphone devices have the ability to scale globally and offer contextual and always-available support.", "Active research is underway including real-world data studies that measure effectiveness and engagement of text-based smartphone chatbot apps for delivery of CBT using a text-based conversational interface.", "Recent market research and analysis of over 500 online mental healthcare solutions identified 3 key challenges in this market: quality of the content, guidance of the user and personalisation.A study compared CBT alone with a mindfulness-based therapy combined with CBT, both delivered via an app.", "It found that mindfulness-based self-help reduced the severity of depression more than CBT self-help in the short-term.", "Overall, NHS costs for the mindfulness approach were £500 less per person than for CBT.===Reading self-help materials===Enabling patients to read self-help CBT guides has been shown to be effective by some studies.", "However one study found a negative effect in patients who tended to ruminate, and another meta-analysis found that the benefit was only significant when the self-help was guided (e.g.", "by a medical professional).===Group educational course===Patient participation in group courses has been shown to be effective.", "In a meta-analysis reviewing evidence-based treatment of OCD in children, individual CBT was found to be more efficacious than group CBT." ], [ "Types", "===Brief cognitive behavioral therapy===Brief cognitive behavioral therapy (BCBT) is a form of CBT which has been developed for situations in which there are time constraints on the therapy sessions and specifically for those struggling with suicidal ideation and/or making suicide attempts.", "BCBT was based on Rudd's proposed \"suicidal mode\", an elaboration of Beck's modal theory.", "BCBT takes place over a couple of sessions that can last up to 12 accumulated hours by design.", "This technique was first implemented and developed with soldiers on active duty by Dr. M. David Rudd to prevent suicide.Breakdown of treatment# Orientation## Commitment to treatment## Crisis response and safety planning## Means restriction## Survival kit## Reasons for living card## Model of suicidality## Treatment journal## Lessons learned# Skill focus## Skill development worksheets## Coping cards## Demonstration## Practice## Skill refinement# Relapse prevention## Skill generalization## Skill refinement===Cognitive emotional behavioral therapy===Cognitive emotional behavioral therapy (CEBT) is a form of CBT developed initially for individuals with eating disorders but now used with a range of problems including anxiety, depression, obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and anger problems.", "It combines aspects of CBT and dialectical behavioral therapy and aims to improve understanding and tolerance of emotions in order to facilitate the therapeutic process.", "It is frequently used as a \"pretreatment\" to prepare and better equip individuals for longer-term therapy.===Structured cognitive behavioral training===Structured cognitive-behavioral training (SCBT) is a cognitive-based process with core philosophies that draw heavily from CBT.", "Like CBT, SCBT asserts that behavior is inextricably related to beliefs, thoughts, and emotions.", "SCBT also builds on core CBT philosophy by incorporating other well-known modalities in the fields of behavioral health and psychology: most notably, Albert Ellis's rational emotive behavior therapy.", "SCBT differs from CBT in two distinct ways.", "First, SCBT is delivered in a highly regimented format.", "Second, SCBT is a predetermined and finite training process that becomes personalized by the input of the participant.", "SCBT is designed to bring a participant to a specific result in a specific period of time.", "SCBT has been used to challenge addictive behavior, particularly with substances such as tobacco, alcohol and food, and to manage diabetes and subdue stress and anxiety.", "SCBT has also been used in the field of criminal psychology in the effort to reduce recidivism.===Moral reconation therapy===Moral reconation therapy, a type of CBT used to help felons overcome antisocial personality disorder (ASPD), slightly decreases the risk of further offending.", "It is generally implemented in a group format because of the risk of offenders with ASPD being given one-on-one therapy reinforces narcissistic behavioral characteristics, and can be used in correctional or outpatient settings.", "Groups usually meet weekly for two to six months.===Stress inoculation training===This type of therapy uses a blend of cognitive, behavioral, and certain humanistic training techniques to target the stressors of the client.", "This usually is used to help clients better cope with their stress or anxiety after stressful events.", "This is a three-phase process that trains the client to use skills that they already have to better adapt to their current stressors.", "The first phase is an interview phase that includes psychological testing, client self-monitoring, and a variety of reading materials.", "This allows the therapist to individually tailor the training process to the client.", "Clients learn how to categorize problems into emotion-focused or problem-focused so that they can better treat their negative situations.", "This phase ultimately prepares the client to eventually confront and reflect upon their current reactions to stressors, before looking at ways to change their reactions and emotions to their stressors.", "The focus is conceptualization.The second phase emphasizes the aspect of skills acquisition and rehearsal that continues from the earlier phase of conceptualization.", "The client is taught skills that help them cope with their stressors.", "These skills are then practised in the space of therapy.", "These skills involve self-regulation, problem-solving, interpersonal communication skills, etc.The third and final phase is the application and following through of the skills learned in the training process.", "This gives the client opportunities to apply their learned skills to a wide range of stressors.", "Activities include role-playing, imagery, modeling, etc.", "In the end, the client will have been trained on a preventive basis to inoculate personal, chronic, and future stressors by breaking down their stressors into problems they will address in long-term, short-term, and intermediate coping goals.===Activity-guided CBT: Group-knitting===A newly developed group therapy model based on CBT integrates knitting into the therapeutical process and has been proven to yield reliable and promising results.", "The foundation for this novel approach to CBT is the frequently emphasized notion that therapy success depends on the embeddedness of the therapy method in the patients' natural routine.", "Similar to standard group-based CBT, patients meet once a week in a group of 10 to 15 patients and knit together under the instruction of a trained psychologist or mental health professional.", "Central for the therapy is the patient's imaginative ability to assign each part of the wool to a certain thought.", "During the therapy, the wool is carefully knitted, creating a knitted piece of any form.", "This therapeutical process teaches the patient to meaningfully align thought, by (physically) creating a coherent knitted piece.", "Moreover, since CBT emphasizes the behavior as a result of cognition, the knitting illustrates how thoughts (which are tried to be imaginary tight to the wool) materialize into the reality surrounding us.===Mindfulness-based cognitive behavioral hypnotherapy===Mindfulness-based cognitive behavioral hypnotherapy (MCBH) is a form of CBT that focuses on awareness in a reflective approach, addressing subconscious tendencies.", "It is more the process that contains three phases for achieving wanted goals and integrates the principles of mindfulness and cognitive-behavioral techniques with the transformative potential of hypnotherapy.===Unified Protocol===The Unified Protocol for Transdiagnostic Treatment of Emotional Disorders (UP) is a form of CBT, developed by David H. Barlow and researchers at Boston University, that can be applied to a range of and anxiety disorders.", "The rationale is that anxiety and depression disorders often occur together due to common underlying causes and can efficiently be treated together.The UP includes a common set of components:# Psycho-education# Cognitive reappraisal# Emotion regulation# Changing behaviourThe UP has been shown to produce equivalent results to single-diagnosis protocols for specific disorders, such as OCD and social anxiety disorder.Several studies have shown that the UP is easier to disseminate as compared to single-diagnosis protocols." ], [ "Criticisms<!--[[Criticism of cognitive behavioral therapy]] redirects here. This section is also linked from other articles: do not rename without including an anchor to the previous name ([[MOS:HEAD]])-->", "===Relative effectiveness===The research conducted for CBT has been a topic of sustained controversy.", "While some researchers write that CBT is more effective than other treatments, many other researchers and practitioners have questioned the validity of such claims.", "For example, one study determined CBT to be superior to other treatments in treating anxiety and depression.", "However, researchers responding directly to that study conducted a re-analysis and found no evidence of CBT being superior to other bona fide treatments, and conducted an analysis of thirteen other CBT clinical trials and determined that they failed to provide evidence of CBT superiority.", "In cases where CBT has been reported to be statistically better than other psychological interventions in terms of primary outcome measures, effect sizes were small and suggested that those differences were clinically meaningless and insignificant.", "Moreover, on secondary outcomes (i.e., measures of general functioning) no significant differences have been typically found between CBT and other treatments.A major criticism has been that clinical studies of CBT efficacy (or any psychotherapy) are not double-blind (i.e., either the subjects or the therapists in psychotherapy studies are not blind to the type of treatment).", "They may be single-blinded, i.e.", "the rater may not know the treatment the patient received, but neither the patients nor the therapists are blinded to the type of therapy given (two out of three of the persons involved in the trial, i.e., all of the persons involved in the treatment, are unblinded).", "The patient is an active participant in correcting negative distorted thoughts, thus quite aware of the treatment group they are in.The importance of double-blinding was shown in a meta-analysis that examined the effectiveness of CBT when placebo control and blindness were factored in.", "Pooled data from published trials of CBT in schizophrenia, major depressive disorder (MDD), and bipolar disorder that used controls for non-specific effects of intervention were analyzed.", "This study concluded that CBT is no better than non-specific control interventions in the treatment of schizophrenia and does not reduce relapse rates; treatment effects are small in treatment studies of MDD, and it is not an effective treatment strategy for prevention of relapse in bipolar disorder.", "For MDD, the authors note that the pooled effect size was very low.===Declining effectiveness===Additionally, a 2015 meta-analysis revealed that the positive effects of CBT on depression have been declining since 1977.The overall results showed two different declines in effect sizes: 1) an overall decline between 1977 and 2014, and 2) a steeper decline between 1995 and 2014.Additional sub-analysis revealed that CBT studies where therapists in the test group were instructed to adhere to the Beck CBT manual had a steeper decline in effect sizes since 1977 than studies where therapists in the test group were instructed to use CBT without a manual.", "The authors reported that they were unsure why the effects were declining but did list inadequate therapist training, failure to adhere to a manual, lack of therapist experience, and patients' hope and faith in its efficacy waning as potential reasons.", "The authors did mention that the current study was limited to depressive disorders only.===High drop-out rates===Furthermore, other researchers write that CBT studies have high drop-out rates compared to other treatments.", "One meta-analysis found that CBT drop-out rates were 17% higher than those of other therapies.", "This high drop-out rate is also evident in the treatment of several disorders, particularly the eating disorder anorexia nervosa, which is commonly treated with CBT.", "Those treated with CBT have a high chance of dropping out of therapy before completion and reverting to their anorexia behaviors.Other researchers analyzing treatments for youths who self-injure found similar drop-out rates in CBT and DBT groups.", "In this study, the researchers analyzed several clinical trials that measured the efficacy of CBT administered to youths who self-injure.", "The researchers concluded that none of them were found to be efficacious.===Philosophical concerns with CBT methods===The methods employed in CBT research have not been the only criticisms; some individuals have called its theory and therapy into question.Slife and Williams write that one of the hidden assumptions in CBT is that of determinism, or the absence of free will.", "They argue that CBT holds that external stimuli from the environment enter the mind, causing different thoughts that cause emotional states: nowhere in CBT theory is agency, or free will, accounted for.Another criticism of CBT theory, especially as applied to major depressive disorder (MDD), is that it confounds the symptoms of the disorder with its causes.===Side effects===CBT is generally regarded as having very few if any side effects.", "Calls have been made by some for more appraisal of possible side effects of CBT.", "Many randomized trials of psychological interventions like CBT do not monitor potential harms to the patient.", "In contrast, randomized trials of pharmacological interventions are much more likely to take adverse effects into consideration.A 2017 meta-analysis revealed that adverse events are not common in children receiving CBT and, furthermore, that CBT is associated with fewer dropouts than either placebo or medications.", "Nevertheless, CBT therapists do sometimes report 'unwanted events' and side effects in their outpatients with \"negative wellbeing/distress\" being the most frequent.===Socio-political concerns===The writer and group analyst Farhad Dalal questions the socio-political assumptions behind the introduction of CBT.", "According to one reviewer, Dalal connects the rise of CBT with \"the parallel rise of neoliberalism, with its focus on marketization, efficiency, quantification and managerialism\", and he questions the scientific basis of CBT, suggesting that \"the 'science' of psychological treatment is often less a scientific than a political contest\".", "In his book, Dalal also questions the ethical basis of CBT." ], [ "Society and culture", "The UK's National Health Service announced in 2008 that more therapists would be trained to provide CBT at government expense as part of an initiative called Improving Access to Psychological Therapies (IAPT).", "The NICE said that CBT would become the mainstay of treatment for non-severe depression, with medication used only in cases where CBT had failed.", "Therapists complained that the data does not fully support the attention and funding CBT receives.", "Psychotherapist and professor Andrew Samuels stated that this constitutes \"a coup, a power play by a community that has suddenly found itself on the brink of corralling an enormous amount of money ... Everyone has been seduced by CBT's apparent cheapness.", "\"The UK Council for Psychotherapy issued a press release in 2012 saying that the IAPT's policies were undermining traditional psychotherapy and criticized proposals that would limit some approved therapies to CBT, claiming that they restricted patients to \"a watered down version of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), often delivered by very lightly trained staff\"." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies (ABCT)* British Association for Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapies* National Association of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapists* International Association of Cognitive Psychotherapy* Information on Research-based CBT Treatments* Associated Counsellors & Psychologists CBT Therapists" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Chinese language" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Chinese''' ( or ) is a group of languages spoken natively by the ethnic Han Chinese majority and many minority ethnic groups in China.", "Approximately 1.3 billion people, or around 16% of the global population, speak a variety of Chinese as their first language.Ying, a speaker of Henan ChineseChinese languages form the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family.", "The spoken varieties of Chinese are usually considered by native speakers to be dialects of a single language.", "However, their lack of mutual intelligibility means they are sometimes considered to be separate languages in a family.", "Investigation of the historical relationships among the varieties of Chinese is ongoing.", "Currently, most classifications posit 7 to 13 main regional groups based on phonetic developments from Middle Chinese, of which the most spoken by far is Mandarin with 66%, or around 800 million speakers, followed by Min (75 million, e.g.", "Southern Min), Wu (74 million, e.g.", "Shanghainese), and Yue (68 million, e.g.", "Cantonese).", "These branches are unintelligible to each other, and many of their subgroups are unintelligible with the other varieties within the same branch (e.g.", "Southern Min).", "There are, however, transitional areas where varieties from different branches share enough features for some limited intelligibility, including New Xiang with Southwestern Mandarin, Xuanzhou Wu Chinese with Lower Yangtze Mandarin, Jin with Central Plains Mandarin and certain divergent dialects of Hakka with Gan (though these are unintelligible with mainstream Hakka).", "All varieties of Chinese are tonal to at least some degree, and are largely analytic.The earliest Chinese written records are oracle bone inscriptions dating from the Shang dynasty .", "The phonetic categories of Old Chinese can be reconstructed from the rhymes of ancient poetry.", "During the Northern and Southern period, Middle Chinese went through several sound changes and split into several varieties following prolonged geographic and political separation.", "The ''Qieyun'', a rime dictionary, recorded a compromise between the pronunciations of different regions.", "The royal courts of the Ming and early Qing dynasties operated using a koiné language known as ''Guanhua'', based on the Nanjing dialect of Mandarin.Standard Chinese is an official language of both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (Taiwan), one of the four official languages of Singapore, and one of the six official languages of the United Nations.", "Standard Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin, and was first officially adopted in the 1930s.", "The language is written primarily using a logography of Chinese characters, largely shared by readers who may otherwise speak mutually unintelligible varieties.", "Since the 1950s, the use of Simplified characters has been promoted by the government of the People's Republic of China, with Singapore officially adopting them in 1976.Traditional characters are used in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, and among Chinese-speaking communities overseas.", "Traditional characters are also in use in mainland China, despite them not being the first choice in daily use.", "For example, practising Chinese calligraphy requires the knowledge of traditional Chinese characters." ], [ "Classification", "Linguists classify all varieties of Chinese as part of the Sino-Tibetan language family, together with Burmese, Tibetan and many other languages spoken in the Himalayas and the Southeast Asian Massif.", "Although the relationship was first proposed in the early 19th century and is now broadly accepted, reconstruction of Sino-Tibetan is much less developed than that of families such as Indo-European or Austroasiatic.", "Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, and the effects of language contact.", "In addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach and are often also sensitive border zones.", "Without a secure reconstruction of proto-Sino-Tibetan, the higher-level structure of the family remains unclear.", "A top-level branching into Chinese and Tibeto-Burman languages is often assumed, but has not been convincingly demonstrated." ], [ "History", "The first written records appeared over 3,000 years ago during the Shang dynasty.", "As the language evolved over this period, the various local varieties became mutually unintelligible.", "In reaction, central governments have repeatedly sought to promulgate a unified standard.===Old and Middle Chinese===The earliest examples of Old Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones dated to , during the late Shang.", "The next attested stage came from inscriptions on bronze artifacts of the Western Zhou period (1046–771 BCE), the ''Classic of Poetry'' and portions of the ''Book of Documents'' and ''I Ching''.", "Scholars have attempted to reconstruct the phonology of Old Chinese by comparing later varieties of Chinese with the rhyming practice of the ''Classic of Poetry'' and the phonetic elements found in the majority of Chinese characters.", "Although many of the finer details remain unclear, most scholars agree that Old Chinese differs from Middle Chinese in lacking retroflex and palatal obstruents but having initial consonant clusters of some sort, and in having voiceless nasals and liquids.", "Most recent reconstructions also describe an atonal language with consonant clusters at the end of the syllable, developing into tone distinctions in Middle Chinese.", "Several derivational affixes have also been identified, but the language lacks inflection, and indicated grammatical relationships using word order and grammatical particles.Middle Chinese was the language used during Northern and Southern dynasties and the Sui, Tang, and Song dynasties (6th–10th centuries CE).", "It can be divided into an early period, reflected by the ''Qieyun'' rime book (601 CE), and a late period in the 10th century, reflected by rhyme tables such as the constructed by ancient Chinese philologists as a guide to the ''Qieyun'' system.", "These works define phonological categories, but with little hint of what sounds they represent.", "Linguists have identified these sounds by comparing the categories with pronunciations in modern varieties of Chinese, borrowed Chinese words in Japanese, Vietnamese, and Korean, and transcription evidence.", "The resulting system is very complex, with a large number of consonants and vowels, but they are probably not all distinguished in any single dialect.", "Most linguists now believe it represents a diasystem encompassing 6th-century northern and southern standards for reading the classics.===Classical and vernacular written forms===The complex relationship between spoken and written Chinese is an example of diglossia: as spoken, Chinese varieties have evolved at different rates, while the written language used throughout China changed comparatively little, crystallizing into a prestige form known as Classical or Literary Chinese.", "Literature written distinctly in the Classical form began to emerge during the Spring and Autumn period.", "Its use in writing remained nearly universal until the late 19th century, culminating with the widespread adoption of written vernacular Chinese with the May Fourth Movement beginning in 1919.===Rise of northern dialects===After the fall of the Northern Song dynasty and subsequent reign of the Jurchen Jin and Mongol Yuan dynasties in northern China, a common speech (now called Old Mandarin) developed based on the dialects of the North China Plain around the capital.The 1324 ''Zhongyuan Yinyun'' was a dictionary that codified the rhyming conventions of new ''sanqu'' verse form in this language.Together with the slightly later ''Menggu Ziyun'', this dictionary describes a language with many of the features characteristic of modern Mandarin dialects.Up to the early 20th century, most Chinese people only spoke their local variety.Thus, as a practical measure, officials of the Ming and Qing dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a common language based on Mandarin varieties, known as .For most of this period, this language was a koiné based on dialects spoken in the Nanjing area, though not identical to any single dialect.By the middle of the 19th century, the Beijing dialect had become dominant and was essential for any business with the imperial court.In the 1930s, a standard national language, , was adopted.", "After much dispute between proponents of northern and southern dialects and an abortive attempt at an artificial pronunciation, the National Language Unification Commission finally settled on the Beijing dialect in 1932.The People's Republic founded in 1949 retained this standard but renamed it .", "The national language is now used in education, the media, and formal situations in both mainland China and Taiwan.", "Because of their colonial and linguistic history, the language used in education, the media, formal speech, and everyday life in Hong Kong and Macau is the local Cantonese, although the standard language, Mandarin, has become very influential and is being taught in schools.===Influence===The ''Tripitaka Koreana'', a Korean collection of the Chinese Buddhist canonHistorically, the Chinese language has spread to its neighbors through a variety of means.", "Northern Vietnam was incorporated into the Han empire in 111 BCE, marking the beginning of a period of Chinese control that ran almost continuously for a millennium.", "The Four Commanderies were established in northern Korea in the first century BCE, but disintegrated in the following centuries.", "Chinese Buddhism spread over East Asia between the 2nd and 5th centuries CE, and with it the study of scriptures and literature in Literary Chinese.", "Later, strong central governments modeled on Chinese institutions were established in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, with Literary Chinese serving as the language of administration and scholarship, a position it would retain until the late 19th century in Korea and (to a lesser extent) Japan, and the early 20th century in Vietnam.", "Scholars from different lands could communicate, albeit only in writing, using Literary Chinese.Although they used Chinese solely for written communication, each country had its own tradition of reading texts aloud, the so-called Sino-Xenic pronunciations.", "Chinese words with these pronunciations were also extensively imported into the Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese languages, and today comprise over half of their vocabularies.", "This massive influx led to changes in the phonological structure of the languages, contributing to the development of moraic structure in Japanese and the disruption of vowel harmony in Korean.Borrowed Chinese morphemes have been used extensively in all these languages to coin compound words for new concepts, in a similar way to the use of Latin and Ancient Greek roots in European languages.", "Many new compounds, or new meanings for old phrases, were created in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to name Western concepts and artifacts.", "These coinages, written in shared Chinese characters, have then been borrowed freely between languages.", "They have even been accepted into Chinese, a language usually resistant to loanwords, because their foreign origin was hidden by their written form.", "Often different compounds for the same concept were in circulation for some time before a winner emerged, and sometimes the final choice differed between countries.", "The proportion of vocabulary of Chinese origin thus tends to be greater in technical, abstract, or formal language.", "For example, in Japan, Sino-Japanese words account for about 35% of the words in entertainment magazines, over half the words in newspapers, and 60% of the words in science magazines.Vietnam, Korea, and Japan each developed writing systems for their own languages, initially based on Chinese characters, but later replaced with the ''hangul'' alphabet for Korean and supplemented with ''kana'' syllabaries for Japanese, while Vietnamese continued to be written with the complex ''chữ Nôm'' script.", "However, these were limited to popular literature until the late 19th century.", "Today Japanese is written with a composite script using both Chinese characters called kanji, and kana.", "Korean is written exclusively with hangul in North Korea (although knowledge of the supplementary Chinese characters (called hanja) is still required), and hanja are increasingly rarely used in South Korea.", "As a result of former French colonization, Vietnamese switched to a Latin-based alphabet.Examples of loan words in English include 'tea' from Hokkien , 'dim sum' from Cantonese , and 'kumquat' from Cantonese ." ], [ "Varieties", "Range of dialect groups in China proper and Taiwan according to the ''Language Atlas of China''Jerry Norman estimated that there are hundreds of mutually unintelligible varieties of Chinese.", "These varieties form a dialect continuum, in which differences in speech generally become more pronounced as distances increase, though the rate of change varies immensely.", "Generally, mountainous South China exhibits more linguistic diversity than the North China Plain.", "In parts of South China, a major city's dialect may only be marginally intelligible to close neighbours.", "For instance, Wuzhou is about upstream from Guangzhou, but the Yue variety spoken there is more like that of Guangzhou than is that of Taishan, southwest of Guangzhou and separated from it by several rivers.", "In parts of Fujian the speech of neighbouring counties or even villages may be mutually unintelligible.Until the late 20th century, Chinese emigrants to Southeast Asia and North America came from southeast coastal areas, where Min, Hakka, and Yue dialects are spoken.The vast majority of Chinese immigrants to North America up to the mid-20th century spoke the Taishan dialect, from a small coastal area southwest of Guangzhou.===Grouping===Local varieties of Chinese are conventionally classified into seven dialect groups, largely based on the different evolution of Middle Chinese voiced initials:* Mandarin, including Standard Chinese, the Beijing dialect, Sichuanese, and also the Dungan language spoken in Central Asia* Wu, including Shanghainese, Suzhounese, and Wenzhounese* Gan* Xiang* Min, including Fuzhounese, Hainanese, Hokkien and Teochew* Hakka* Yue, including Cantonese and TaishaneseThe classification of Li Rong, which is used in the ''Language Atlas of China'' (1987), distinguishes three further groups:* Jin, previously included in Mandarin.", "* Huizhou, previously included in Wu.", "* Pinghua, previously included in Yue.Some varieties remain unclassified, including the Danzhou dialect on Hainan, Waxianghua spoken in western Hunan, and Shaozhou Tuhua spoken in northern Guangdong.===Standard Chinese===Standard Chinese is the standard language of China (where it is called ) and Taiwan, and one of the four official languages of Singapore (where it is called either or ).", "Standard Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin.", "The governments of both China and Taiwan intend for speakers of all Chinese speech varieties to use it as a common language of communication.", "Therefore, it is used in government agencies, in the media, and as a language of instruction in schools.Diglossia is common among Chinese speakers.", "For example, a Shanghai resident may speak both Standard Chinese and Shanghainese; if they grew up elsewhere, they are also likely fluent in the dialect of their home region.", "In addition to Standard Chinese, a majority of Taiwanese people also speak Taiwanese Hokkien (also called ), Hakka, or an Austronesian language.", "A speaker in Taiwan may mix pronunciations and vocabulary from Standard Chinese and other languages of Taiwan in everyday speech.", "In part due to traditional cultural ties with Guangdong, Cantonese is used as an everyday language in Hong Kong and Macau.===Nomenclature===The designation of various Chinese branches remains controversial.", "Some linguists and most ordinary Chinese people consider all the spoken varieties as one single language, as speakers share a common national identity and a common written form.", "Others instead argue that it is inappropriate to refer to major branches of Chinese such as Mandarin, Wu and so on as \"dialects\" because the mutual unintelligibility between them is too great.", "However, calling major Chinese branches \"languages\" would also be wrong under the same criterion, since a branch such as Wu, itself contains many mutually unintelligible varieties, and could not be properly called a single language.There are also viewpoints pointing out that linguists often ignore mutual intelligibility when varieties share intelligibility with a central variety (i.e.", "prestige variety, such as Standard Mandarin), as the issue requires some careful handling when mutual intelligibility is inconsistent with language identity.The Chinese government's official Chinese designation for the major branches of Chinese is , whereas the more closely related varieties within these are called .Because of the difficulties involved in determining the difference between language and dialect, other terms have been proposed.", "These include ''topolect'', ''lect'', ''vernacular'', ''regional'', and ''variety''." ], [ "Phonology", "A man speaking Mandarin with a Malaysian accentSyllables in the Chinese languages have some unique characteristics.", "They are tightly related to the morphology and also to the characters of the writing system; and phonologically they are structured according to fixed rules.The structure of each syllable consists of a nucleus that has a vowel (which can be a monophthong, diphthong, or even a triphthong in certain varieties), preceded by an onset (a single consonant, or consonant + glide; a zero onset is also possible), and followed (optionally) by a coda consonant; a syllable also carries a tone.", "There are some instances where a vowel is not used as a nucleus.", "An example of this is in Cantonese, where the nasal sonorant consonants and can stand alone as their own syllable.In Mandarin much more than in other spoken varieties, most syllables tend to be open syllables, meaning they have no coda (assuming that a final glide is not analyzed as a coda), but syllables that do have codas are restricted to nasals , , , the retroflex approximant , and voiceless stops , , , or .", "Some varieties allow most of these codas, whereas others, such as Standard Chinese, are limited to only , , and .The number of sounds in the different spoken dialects varies, but in general there has been a tendency to a reduction in sounds from Middle Chinese.", "The Mandarin dialects in particular have experienced a dramatic decrease in sounds and so have far more polysyllabic words than most other spoken varieties.", "The total number of syllables in some varieties is therefore only about a thousand, including tonal variation, which is only about an eighth as many as English.===Tones===All varieties of spoken Chinese use tones to distinguish words.", "A few dialects of north China may have as few as three tones, while some dialects in south China have up to 6 or 12 tones, depending on how one counts.", "One exception from this is Shanghainese which has reduced the set of tones to a two-toned pitch accent system much like modern Japanese.A very common example used to illustrate the use of tones in Chinese is the application of the four tones of Standard Chinese, along with the neutral tone, to the syllable .", "The tones are exemplified by the following five Chinese words:+ Examples of the Standard Mandarin tones Character Gloss Pinyin Pitch contour 'mother' high, level 'hemp' high, rising 'horse' low falling, then rising 'scold' high falling .", "In contrast, Standard Cantonese has six tones.", "Historically, finals that end in a stop consonant were considered to be \"checked tones\" and thus counted separately for a total of nine tones.", "However, they are considered to be duplicates in modern linguistics and are no longer counted as such:+ Examples of the Standard Cantonese tones Character Gloss Jyutping Yale Pitch contour 'poem' high, level; high, falling 'history' high, rising 'assassinate' mid, level 'time' low, falling 'market' low, rising 'yes' low, level" ], [ "Grammar", "Chinese is often described as a 'monosyllabic' language.", "However, this is only partially correct.", "It is largely accurate when describing Old and Middle Chinese; in Classical Chinese, around 90% of words consist of a single character that corresponds one-to-one with a ''morpheme'', the smallest unit of meaning in a language.", "In modern varieties, it usually remains the case that a morphemes are monosyllabic—in contrast, English has many multi-syllable morphemes, both bound and free, such as 'seven', 'elephant', 'para-' and '-able'.", "Some of the more conservative modern varieties, usually found in the south, have largely monosyllabic , especially with basic vocabulary.", "However, most nouns, adjectives and verbs in modern Mandarin are disyllabic.", "A significant cause of this is phonological attrition: sound changes over time have steadily reduced the number of possible syllables in the language's inventory.", "In modern Mandarin, there are only around 1,200 possible syllables, including the tonal distinctions, compared with about 5,000 in Vietnamese (still a largely monosyllabic language), and over 8,000 in English.Most modern varieties have the tendency to form new words through polysyllabic compounds.", "In some cases, monosyllabic words have become disyllabic formed from different characters without the use of compounding, as in from ; this is especially common in Jin varieties.", "This phonological collapse has led to a corresponding increase in the number of homophones.", "As an example, the small ''Langenscheidt Pocket Chinese Dictionary'' lists six words that are commonly pronounced as in Standard Chinese: Character Gloss Cantonese 'ten' 'actual' 'recognize' 'stone' 'time' 'food' In modern spoken Mandarin, however, tremendous ambiguity would result if all of these words could be used as-is.", "The 20th century Yuen Ren Chao poem ''Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den'' exploits this, consisting of 92 characters all pronounced .", "As such, most of these words have been replaced in speech, if not in writing, with less ambiguous disyllabic compounds.", "Only the first one, , normally appears in monosyllabic form in spoken Mandarin; the rest are normally used in the polysyllabic forms of Word Pinyin Gloss 'actual-connection' 'recognize-know' 'stone-head' 'time-interval' 'foodstuff'respectively.", "In each, the homophone was disambiguated by addition of another morpheme, typically either a near-synonym or some sort of generic word (e.g.", "'head', 'thing'), the purpose of which is to indicate which of the possible meanings of the other, homophonic syllable is specifically meant.However, when one of the above words forms part of a compound, the disambiguating syllable is generally dropped and the resulting word is still disyllabic.", "For example, alone, and not , appears in compounds as meaning 'stone' such as , , , , and .", "Although many single-syllable morphemes () can stand alone as individual words, they more often than not form multi-syllable compounds known as , which more closely resembles the traditional Western notion of a word.", "A Chinese can consist of more than one character–morpheme, usually two, but there can be three or more.Examples of Chinese words of more than two syllables include , , and .All varieties of modern Chinese are analytic languages: they depend on syntax (word order and sentence structure), rather than inflectional morphology (changes in the form of a word), to indicate a word's function within a sentence.", "In other words, Chinese has very few grammatical inflections—it possesses no tenses, no voices, no grammatical number, and only a few articles.", "They make heavy use of grammatical particles to indicate aspect and mood.", "In Mandarin, this involves the use of particles such as , , and .Chinese has a subject–verb–object word order, and like many other languages of East Asia, makes frequent use of the topic–comment construction to form sentences.", "Chinese also has an extensive system of classifiers and measure words, another trait shared with neighboring languages such as Japanese and Korean.", "Other notable grammatical features common to all the spoken varieties of Chinese include the use of serial verb construction, pronoun dropping and the related subject dropping.", "Although the grammars of the spoken varieties share many traits, they do possess differences." ], [ "Vocabulary", "The entire Chinese character corpus since antiquity comprises well over 50,000 characters, of which only roughly 10,000 are in use and only about 3,000 are frequently used in Chinese media and newspapers.", "However, Chinese characters should not be confused with Chinese words.", "Because most Chinese words are made up of two or more characters, there are many more Chinese words than characters.", "A more accurate equivalent for a Chinese character is the morpheme, as characters represent the smallest grammatical units with individual meanings in the Chinese language.Estimates of the total number of Chinese words and lexicalized phrases vary greatly.", "The ''Hanyu Da Zidian'', a compendium of Chinese characters, includes 54,678 head entries for characters, including oracle bone versions.", "The ''Zhonghua Zihai'' (1994) contains 85,568 head entries for character definitions, and is the largest reference work based purely on character and its literary variants.", "The CC-CEDICT project (2010) contains 97,404 contemporary entries including idioms, technology terms and names of political figures, businesses and products.", "The 2009 version of the Webster's Digital Chinese Dictionary (WDCD), based on CC-CEDICT, contains over 84,000 entries.The most comprehensive pure linguistic Chinese-language dictionary, the 12-volume ''Hanyu Da Cidian'', records more than 23,000 head Chinese characters and gives over 370,000 definitions.", "The 1999 revised ''Cihai'', a multi-volume encyclopedic dictionary reference work, gives 122,836 vocabulary entry definitions under 19,485 Chinese characters, including proper names, phrases and common zoological, geographical, sociological, scientific and technical terms.The 2016 edition of ''Xiandai Hanyu Cidian'', an authoritative one-volume dictionary on modern standard Chinese language as used in mainland China, has 13,000 head characters and defines 70,000 words.===Loanwords===Like many other languages, Chinese has absorbed a sizable number of loanwords from other cultures.", "Most Chinese words are formed out of native Chinese morphemes, including words describing imported objects and ideas.", "However, direct phonetic borrowing of foreign words has gone on since ancient times.Some early Indo-European loanwords in Chinese have been proposed, notably , , and perhaps also , , , and .Ancient words borrowed from along the Silk Road during the Old Chinese period include , , and .", "Some words were borrowed from Buddhist scriptures, including and .", "Other words came from nomadic peoples to the north, such as .", "Words borrowed from the peoples along the Silk Road, such as , generally have Persian etymologies.", "Buddhist terminology is generally derived from Sanskrit or Pāli, the liturgical languages of northern India.", "Words borrowed from the nomadic tribes of the Gobi, Mongolian or northeast regions generally have Altaic etymologies, such as , the Chinese lute, or , but from exactly which source is not always clear.===Modern borrowings===Modern neologisms are primarily translated into Chinese in one of three ways: free translation (calques), phonetic translation (by sound), or a combination of the two.", "Today, it is much more common to use existing Chinese morphemes to coin new words to represent imported concepts, such as technical expressions and international scientific vocabulary, wherein the Latin and Greek components usually converted one-for-one into the corresponding Chinese characters.", "The word 'telephone' was initially loaned phonetically as (Shanghainese )—this word was widely used in Shanghai during the 1920s, but the later , built out of native Chinese morphemes, became prevalent.", "Other examples include 'television' 'computer' 'mobile phone' 'Bluetooth' 'blog'Occasionally, compromises between the transliteration and translation approaches become accepted, such as from + .", "Sometimes translations are designed so that they sound like the original while incorporating Chinese morphemes (phono-semantic matching), such as for the video game character 'Mario'.", "This is often done for commercial purposes, for example for 'Pentium' and for 'Subway'.Foreign words, mainly proper nouns, continue to enter the Chinese language by transcription according to their pronunciations.", "This is done by employing Chinese characters with similar pronunciations.", "For example, 'Israel' becomes , and 'Paris' becomes .", "A rather small number of direct transliterations have survived as common words, including , , , , , and .", "The bulk of these words were originally coined in Shanghai during the early 20th century, and later loaned from there into Mandarin, hence their Mandarin pronunciations occasionally being quite divergent from the English.", "For example, in Shanghainese and sound more like their English counterparts.", "Cantonese differs from Mandarin with some transliterations, such as and .Western foreign words representing Western concepts have influenced Chinese since the 20th century through transcription.", "From French, and were borrowed for 'ballet' and 'champagne' respectively; was borrowed from Italian ; 'coffee'.", "The influence of English is particularly pronounced: from the early 20th century, many English words were borrowed into Shanghainese, such as and the aforementioned .", "Later, American soft power gave rise to , , and .", "Contemporary colloquial Cantonese has distinct loanwords from English, such as , , , and .", "With the rising popularity of the Internet, there is a current vogue in China for coining English transliterations, for example, , , and .", "In Taiwan, some of these transliterations are different, such as and for 'blog'.Another result of English influence on Chinese is the appearance in of so-called spelled with letters from the English alphabet.", "These have appeared in colloquial usage, as well as in magazines and newspapers, and on websites and television:'third generation of cell phones' ← + ''G''; 'generation' + 'IT circles' ← ''IT'' + 'Cost, Insurance, Freight' ← ''CIF'' + 'e-home' ← ''e''; 'electronic' + 'wireless era' ← ''W''; 'wireless' + 'TV-watchers' ← ''TV''; 'television' + Since the 20th century, another source of words has been kanji: Japan re-molded European concepts and inventions into , and many of these words have been re-loaned into modern Chinese.", "Other terms were coined by the Japanese by giving new senses to existing Chinese terms or by referring to expressions used in classical Chinese literature.", "For example, ; in Japanese, which in the original Chinese meant 'the workings of the state', narrowed to 'economy' in Japanese; this narrowed definition was then reimported into Chinese.", "As a result, these terms are virtually indistinguishable from native Chinese words: indeed, there is some dispute over some of these terms as to whether the Japanese or Chinese coined them first.", "As a result of this loaning, Chinese, Korean, Japanese, and Vietnamese share a corpus of linguistic terms describing modern terminology, paralleling the similar corpus of terms built from Greco-Latin and shared among European languages." ], [ "Writing system", "Preface to the Poems Composed at the Orchid Pavilion\" by Wang Xizhi, written in semi-cursive styleThe Chinese orthography centers on Chinese characters, which are written within imaginary square blocks, traditionally arranged in vertical columns, read from top to bottom down a column, and right to left across columns, despite alternative arrangement with rows of characters from left to right within a row and from top to bottom across rows (like English and other Western writing systems) having become more popular since the 20th century.", "Chinese characters denote morphemes independent of phonetic variation in different languages.", "Thus the character is pronounced as in Standard Chinese, in Cantonese and in Hokkien, a form of Min.Most written Chinese documents in the modern time, especially the more formal ones, are created using the grammar and syntax of the Standard Chinese variants, regardless of dialectical background of the author or targeted audience.", "This replaced the old writing language standard of Literary Chinese before the 20th century.", "However, vocabularies from different Chinese-speaking areas have diverged, and the divergence can be observed in written Chinese.Meanwhile, colloquial forms of various Chinese language variants have also been written down by their users, especially in less formal settings.", "The most prominent example of this is Written Cantonese, which has become quite popular in tabloids, instant messaging applications, and on the internet amongst Hong-Kongers and Cantonese-speakers elsewhere.Because some Chinese variants have diverged and developed a number of unique morphemes that are not found in Standard Mandarin (despite all other common morphemes), unique characters rarely used in Standard Chinese have also been created or inherited from archaic literary standard to represent these unique morphemes.", "For example, characters like and are actively used in Cantonese and Hakka, while being archaic or unused in standard written Chinese.The Chinese had no uniform phonetic transcription system for most of its speakers until the mid-20th century, although enunciation patterns were recorded in early rime books and dictionaries.", "Early Indian translators, working in Sanskrit and Pali, were the first to attempt to describe the sounds and enunciation patterns of Chinese in a foreign language.", "After the 15th century, the efforts of Jesuits and Western court missionaries resulted in some Latin character transcription/writing systems, based on various variants of Chinese languages.", "Some of these Latin character based systems are still being used to write various Chinese variants in the modern era.In Hunan, women in certain areas write their local Chinese language variant in Nüshu, a syllabary derived from Chinese characters.", "The Dungan language, considered by many a dialect of Mandarin, is nowadays written in Cyrillic, and was previously written in the Arabic script.", "The Dungan people are primarily Muslim and live mainly in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Russia; many Hui people, living mainly in China, also speak the language.===Chinese characters=== is often used to illustrate the eight basic types of strokes of Chinese charactersEach Chinese character represents a monosyllabic Chinese word or morpheme.", "In 100 CE, the famed Han dynasty scholar Xu Shen classified characters into six categories: pictographs, simple ideographs, compound ideographs, phonetic loans, phonetic compounds and derivative characters.", "Only 4% were categorized as pictographs, including many of the simplest characters, such as , , , and .", "Between 80% and 90% were classified as phonetic compounds such as , combining a phonetic component with a semantic component of the radical , a reduced form of .", "Almost all characters created since have been made using this format.", "The 18th-century ''Kangxi Dictionary'' classified characters under a now-common set of 214 radicals.Modern characters are styled after the regular script.", "Various other written styles are also used in Chinese calligraphy, including seal script, cursive script and clerical script.", "Calligraphy artists can write in Traditional and Simplified characters, but they tend to use Traditional characters for traditional art.There are currently two systems for Chinese characters.", "Traditional characters, used in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Macau, and many overseas Chinese speaking communities, largely takes their form from received character forms dating back to the late Han dynasty and standardized during the Ming.", "Simplified characters, introduced by the PRC in 1954 to promote mass literacy, simplifies most complex traditional glyphs to fewer strokes, many to common cursive shorthand variants.", "Singapore, which has a large Chinese community, was the second nation to officially adopt simplified characters, although it has also become the de facto standard for younger ethnic Chinese in Malaysia.The Internet provides practice reading each of these systems, and most Chinese readers are capable of, if not necessarily comfortable with, reading the alternative system through experience and guesswork.A well-educated Chinese reader today recognizes approximately 4,000 to 6,000 characters; approximately 3,000 characters are required to read a mainland newspaper.", "The PRC defines literacy amongst workers as a knowledge of 2,000 characters, though this would be only functional literacy.", "School-children typically learn around 2,000 characters whereas scholars may memorize up to 10,000.A large unabridged dictionary like the ''Kangxi'' dictionary, contains over 40,000 characters, including obscure, variant, rare, and archaic characters; fewer than a quarter of these characters are now commonly used.===Romanization=== written in traditional and simplified forms, followed by various romanizationsRomanization is the process of transcribing a language into the Latin script.", "There are many systems of romanization for the Chinese varieties, due to the lack of a native phonetic transcription until modern times.", "Chinese is first known to have been written in Latin characters by Western Christian missionaries in the 16th century.Today the most common romanization standard for Standard Mandarin is ''Hanyu Pinyin'', introduced in 1956 by the PRC, and later adopted by Singapore and Taiwan.", "Pinyin is almost universally employed now for teaching standard spoken Chinese in schools and universities across the Americas, Australia, and Europe.", "Chinese parents also use Pinyin to teach their children the sounds and tones of new words.", "In school books that teach Chinese, the pinyin romanization is often shown below a picture of the thing the word represents, with the Chinese character alongside.The second-most common romanization system, the Wade–Giles, was invented by Thomas Wade in 1859 and modified by Herbert Giles in 1892.As this system approximates the phonology of Mandarin Chinese into English consonants and vowels–it is largely an anglicization, it may be particularly helpful for beginner Chinese speakers of an English-speaking background.", "Wade–Giles was found in academic use in the United States, particularly before the 1980s, and until 2009 was widely used in Taiwan.When used within European texts, the tone transcriptions in both pinyin and Wade–Giles are often left out for simplicity; Wade–Giles's extensive use of apostrophes is also usually omitted.", "Thus, most Western readers will be much more familiar with ''Beijing'' than they will be with (pinyin), and with than (Wade–Giles).", "This simplification presents syllables as homophones which really are none, and therefore exaggerates the number of homophones almost by a factor of four.For comparison:+ Comparison of Mandarin romanizations Characters Wade–Giles Pinyin Meaning China Taiwan Beijing Taipei Sun Yat-sen Mao Zedong Chiang Kai-shek ConfuciusOther systems include Gwoyeu Romatzyh, the French EFEO, the Yale system (invented for use by US troops during World War II), as well as distinct systems for the phonetic requirements of Cantonese, Min Nan, Hakka, and other varieties.===Other phonetic transcriptions===Chinese varieties have been phonetically transcribed into many other writing systems over the centuries.", "The 'Phags-pa script, for example, has been very helpful in reconstructing the pronunciations of premodern forms of Chinese.Zhuyin (colloquially ''bopomofo''), a semi-syllabary is still widely used in Taiwan's elementary schools to aid standard pronunciation.", "Although zhuyin characters are reminiscent of katakana script, there is no source to substantiate the claim that Katakana was the basis for the zhuyin system.", "A comparison table of zhuyin to pinyin exists in the zhuyin article.", "Syllables based on pinyin and zhuyin can also be compared by looking at the following articles:* Pinyin table* Zhuyin tableThere are also at least two systems of cyrillization for Chinese.", "The most widespread is the Palladius system." ], [ "As a foreign language", "Yang Lingfu, former curator of the National Museum of China, giving Chinese language instruction at the Civil Affairs Staging Area in 1945With the growing importance and influence of China's economy globally, Standard Chinese instruction has been gaining popularity in schools throughout East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Western world.Besides Mandarin, Cantonese is the only other Chinese language that is widely taught as a foreign language, largely due to the economic and cultural influence of Hong Kong and its widespread usage among significant Overseas Chinese communities.In 1991 there were 2,000 foreign learners taking China's official Chinese Proficiency Test, called Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi (HSK), comparable to the English Cambridge Certificate, but by 2005 the number of candidates had risen sharply to 117,660 and in 2010 to 750,000.The current iteration of the HSK exams is termed HSK 2.0, with the release of HSK 3.0 still undefined despite being announced by the Chinese Ministry of Education in March 2021.The new HSK system is thought to be in response to criticism of the current HSK levels not matching with the CEFR levels (Common European Framework of Reference for Languages), contrary to the Chinese Ministry of Education's claims." ], [ "See also", "* ''Chengyu''* Chinese characters* Chinese computational linguistics* Chinese exclamative particles* Chinese honorifics* Chinese language law* Chinese numerals* Chinese punctuation* Chinese word-segmented writing* Classical Chinese grammar* Han unification* Languages of China* North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics* Protection of the Varieties of Chinese" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", " On the history of the standardization of Mandarin as the Chiense primary national dialect.", "* * * * " ], [ "External links", " Classical Chinese texts – Chinese Text Project* Marjorie Chan's ChinaLinks; at the Ohio State University with hundreds of links to Chinese related web pages" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Complex analysis" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Complex analysis''', traditionally known as the '''theory of functions of a complex variable''', is the branch of mathematical analysis that investigates functions of complex numbers.", "It is helpful in many branches of mathematics, including algebraic geometry, number theory, analytic combinatorics, and applied mathematics, as well as in physics, including the branches of hydrodynamics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, and twistor theory.", "By extension, use of complex analysis also has applications in engineering fields such as nuclear, aerospace, mechanical and electrical engineering.As a differentiable function of a complex variable is equal to its Taylor series (that is, it is analytic), complex analysis is particularly concerned with analytic functions of a complex variable, that is, ''holomorphic functions''.", "The concept can be extended to functions of several complex variables." ], [ "History", "Augustin-Louis Cauchy, one of the founders of complex analysisComplex analysis is one of the classical branches in mathematics, with roots in the 18th century and just prior.", "Important mathematicians associated with complex numbers include Euler, Gauss, Riemann, Cauchy, Gösta Mittag-Leffler, Weierstrass, and many more in the 20th century.", "Complex analysis, in particular the theory of conformal mappings, has many physical applications and is also used throughout analytic number theory.", "In modern times, it has become very popular through a new boost from complex dynamics and the pictures of fractals produced by iterating holomorphic functions.", "Another important application of complex analysis is in string theory which examines conformal invariants in quantum field theory." ], [ "Complex functions", "exponential function of a discrete (integer) variable , similar to geometric progressionA complex function is a function from complex numbers to complex numbers.", "In other words, it is a function that has a subset of the complex numbers as a domain and the complex numbers as a codomain.", "Complex functions are generally assumed to have a domain that contains a nonempty open subset of the complex plane.For any complex function, the values from the domain and their images in the range may be separated into real and imaginary parts:: where are all real-valued.In other words, a complex function may be decomposed into: and i.e., into two real-valued functions (, ) of two real variables (, ).Similarly, any complex-valued function on an arbitrary set (is isomorphic to, and therefore, in that sense, it) can be considered as an ordered pair of two real-valued functions: or, alternatively, as a vector-valued function from into Some properties of complex-valued functions (such as continuity) are nothing more than the corresponding properties of vector valued functions of two real variables.", "Other concepts of complex analysis, such as differentiability, are direct generalizations of the similar concepts for real functions, but may have very different properties.", "In particular, every differentiable complex function is analytic (see next section), and two differentiable functions that are equal in a neighborhood of a point are equal on the intersection of their domain (if the domains are connected).", "The latter property is the basis of the principle of analytic continuation which allows extending every real analytic function in a unique way for getting a complex analytic function whose domain is the whole complex plane with a finite number of curve arcs removed.", "Many basic and special complex functions are defined in this way, including the complex exponential function, complex logarithm functions, and trigonometric functions." ], [ "Holomorphic functions", "Complex functions that are differentiable at every point of an open subset of the complex plane are said to be ''holomorphic on'' In the context of complex analysis, the derivative of at is defined to be: Superficially, this definition is formally analogous to that of the derivative of a real function.", "However, complex derivatives and differentiable functions behave in significantly different ways compared to their real counterparts.", "In particular, for this limit to exist, the value of the difference quotient must approach the same complex number, regardless of the manner in which we approach in the complex plane.", "Consequently, complex differentiability has much stronger implications than real differentiability.", "For instance, holomorphic functions are infinitely differentiable, whereas the existence of the ''n''th derivative need not imply the existence of the (''n'' + 1)th derivative for real functions.", "Furthermore, all holomorphic functions satisfy the stronger condition of analyticity, meaning that the function is, at every point in its domain, locally given by a convergent power series.", "In essence, this means that functions holomorphic on can be approximated arbitrarily well by polynomials in some neighborhood of every point in .", "This stands in sharp contrast to differentiable real functions; there are infinitely differentiable real functions that are ''nowhere'' analytic; see .Most elementary functions, including the exponential function, the trigonometric functions, and all polynomial functions, extended appropriately to complex arguments as functions are holomorphic over the entire complex plane, making them ''entire'' ''functions'', while rational functions , where ''p'' and ''q'' are polynomials, are holomorphic on domains that exclude points where ''q'' is zero.", "Such functions that are holomorphic everywhere except a set of isolated points are known as ''meromorphic functions''.", "On the other hand, the functions and are not holomorphic anywhere on the complex plane, as can be shown by their failure to satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann conditions (see below).An important property of holomorphic functions is the relationship between the partial derivatives of their real and imaginary components, known as the Cauchy–Riemann conditions.", "If , defined by where is holomorphic on a region then for all ,:In terms of the real and imaginary parts of the function, ''u'' and ''v'', this is equivalent to the pair of equations and , where the subscripts indicate partial differentiation.", "However, the Cauchy–Riemann conditions do not characterize holomorphic functions, without additional continuity conditions (see Looman–Menchoff theorem).Holomorphic functions exhibit some remarkable features.", "For instance, Picard's theorem asserts that the range of an entire function can take only three possible forms: or for some In other words, if two distinct complex numbers and are not in the range of an entire function then is a constant function.", "Moreover, a holomorphic function on a connected open set is determined by its restriction to any nonempty open subset." ], [ "Conformal map" ], [ "Major results", "Color wheel graph of the function.Hue represents the argument, brightness the magnitude.One of the central tools in complex analysis is the line integral.", "The line integral around a closed path of a function that is holomorphic everywhere inside the area bounded by the closed path is always zero, as is stated by the Cauchy integral theorem.", "The values of such a holomorphic function inside a disk can be computed by a path integral on the disk's boundary (as shown in Cauchy's integral formula).", "Path integrals in the complex plane are often used to determine complicated real integrals, and here the theory of residues among others is applicable (see methods of contour integration).", "A \"pole\" (or isolated singularity) of a function is a point where the function's value becomes unbounded, or \"blows up\".", "If a function has such a pole, then one can compute the function's residue there, which can be used to compute path integrals involving the function; this is the content of the powerful residue theorem.", "The remarkable behavior of holomorphic functions near essential singularities is described by Picard's theorem.", "Functions that have only poles but no essential singularities are called meromorphic.", "Laurent series are the complex-valued equivalent to Taylor series, but can be used to study the behavior of functions near singularities through infinite sums of more well understood functions, such as polynomials.A bounded function that is holomorphic in the entire complex plane must be constant; this is Liouville's theorem.", "It can be used to provide a natural and short proof for the fundamental theorem of algebra which states that the field of complex numbers is algebraically closed.If a function is holomorphic throughout a connected domain then its values are fully determined by its values on any smaller subdomain.", "The function on the larger domain is said to be analytically continued from its values on the smaller domain.", "This allows the extension of the definition of functions, such as the Riemann zeta function, which are initially defined in terms of infinite sums that converge only on limited domains to almost the entire complex plane.", "Sometimes, as in the case of the natural logarithm, it is impossible to analytically continue a holomorphic function to a non-simply connected domain in the complex plane but it is possible to extend it to a holomorphic function on a closely related surface known as a Riemann surface.All this refers to complex analysis in one variable.", "There is also a very rich theory of complex analysis in more than one complex dimension in which the analytic properties such as power series expansion carry over whereas most of the geometric properties of holomorphic functions in one complex dimension (such as conformality) do not carry over.", "The Riemann mapping theorem about the conformal relationship of certain domains in the complex plane, which may be the most important result in the one-dimensional theory, fails dramatically in higher dimensions.A major application of certain complex spaces is in quantum mechanics as wave functions." ], [ "See also", "* Complex geometry* Hypercomplex analysis* Vector calculus* List of complex analysis topics* Monodromy theorem* Real analysis* Riemann–Roch theorem* Runge's theorem" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Ablowitz, M. J.", "& A. S. Fokas, ''Complex Variables: Introduction and Applications'' (Cambridge, 2003).", "* Ahlfors, L., ''Complex Analysis'' (McGraw-Hill, 1953).", "* Cartan, H., ''Théorie élémentaire des fonctions analytiques d'une ou plusieurs variables complexes.''", "(Hermann, 1961).", "English translation, ''Elementary Theory of Analytic Functions of One or Several Complex Variables.''", "(Addison-Wesley, 1963).", "* Carathéodory, C., ''Funktionentheorie.''", "(Birkhäuser, 1950).", "English translation, ''Theory of Functions of a Complex Variable'' (Chelsea, 1954).", "2 volumes.", "* Carrier, G. F., M. Krook, & C. E. Pearson, ''Functions of a Complex Variable: Theory and Technique.''", "(McGraw-Hill, 1966).", "* Conway, J.", "B., ''Functions of One Complex Variable.''", "(Springer, 1973).", "* Fisher, S., ''Complex Variables.''", "(Wadsworth & Brooks/Cole, 1990).", "* Forsyth, A., ''Theory of Functions of a Complex Variable'' (Cambridge, 1893).", "* Freitag, E. & R. Busam, ''Funktionentheorie''.", "(Springer, 1995).", "English translation, ''Complex Analysis''.", "(Springer, 2005).", "* Goursat, E., ''Cours d'analyse mathématique, tome 2''.", "(Gauthier-Villars, 1905).", "English translation, ''A course of mathematical analysis, vol.", "2, part 1: Functions of a complex variable''.", "(Ginn, 1916).", "* Henrici, P., ''Applied and Computational Complex Analysis'' (Wiley).", "Three volumes: 1974, 1977, 1986.", "* Kreyszig, E., ''Advanced Engineering Mathematics.''", "(Wiley, 1962).", "* Lavrentyev, M. & B. Shabat, ''Методы теории функций комплексного переменного.''", "(''Methods of the Theory of Functions of a Complex Variable'').", "(1951, in Russian).", "* Markushevich, A. I., ''Theory of Functions of a Complex Variable'', (Prentice-Hall, 1965).", "Three volumes.", "* Marsden & Hoffman, ''Basic Complex Analysis.''", "(Freeman, 1973).", "* Needham, T., ''Visual Complex Analysis.''", "(Oxford, 1997).", "http://usf.usfca.edu/vca/* Remmert, R., ''Theory of Complex Functions''.", "(Springer, 1990).", "* Rudin, W., ''Real and Complex Analysis.''", "(McGraw-Hill, 1966).", "* Shaw, W. T., ''Complex Analysis with Mathematica'' (Cambridge, 2006).", "* Stein, E. & R. Shakarchi, ''Complex Analysis.''", "(Princeton, 2003).", "* Sveshnikov, A. G. & A. N. Tikhonov, ''Теория функций комплексной переменной.''", "(Nauka, 1967).", "English translation, ''The Theory Of Functions Of A Complex Variable'' (MIR, 1978).", "* Titchmarsh, E. C., ''The Theory of Functions.''", "(Oxford, 1932).", "* Wegert, E., ''Visual Complex Functions''.", "(Birkhäuser, 2012).", "* Whittaker, E. T. & G. N. Watson, ''A Course of Modern Analysis.''", "(Cambridge, 1902).", "3rd ed.", "(1920)" ], [ "External links", "* Wolfram Research's MathWorld Complex Analysis Page" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of China" ], [ "Introduction", "dynasties and states in Chinese history\|312x312pxThe '''history of China''' spans several millennia across a wide geographical area.", "Each region now considered part of the Chinese world has experienced periods of unity, fracture, prosperity, and strife.", "Chinese civilization first emerged in the Yellow River valley, which along with the Yangtze basin constitutes the geographic core of the Chinese cultural sphere.", "China maintains a rich diversity of ethnic and linguistic people groups.", "The traditional lens for viewing Chinese history is the dynastic cycle: imperial dynasties rise and fall, and are ascribed certain achievements.", "Throughout pervades the narrative that Chinese civilization can be traced as an unbroken thread many thousands of years into the past, making it one of the cradles of civilization.", "At various times, states representative of a dominant Chinese culture have directly controlled areas stretching as far west as the Tian Shan, the Tarim Basin, and the Himalayas, as far north as the Sayan Mountains, and as far south as the delta of the Red River.The Neolithic period saw increasingly complex polities begin to emerge along the Yellow and Yangtze rivers.", "The Erlitou culture in the central plains of China is sometimes identified with the Xia dynasty (3rd millennium BCE) of traditional Chinese historiography.", "The earliest surviving written Chinese dates to roughly 1250BCE, consisting of divinations inscribed on oracle bones.", "Chinese bronze inscriptions, ritual texts dedicated to ancestors, form another large corpus of early Chinese writing.", "The earliest strata of received literature in Chinese include poetry, divination, and records of official speeches.", "China is believed to be one of a very few loci of independent invention of writing, and the earliest surviving records display an already-mature written language.", "The culture remembered by the earliest extant literature is that of the Zhou dynasty ( 1046 – 256BCE), China's Axial age, during which the Mandate of Heaven was introduced, and foundations laid for philosophies such as Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism, and ''Wuxing''.China was first united under a single imperial state by Qin Shi Huang in .", "Orthography, weights, measures, and law were all standardized.", "Shortly thereafter, China entered its classical era with the Han dynasty ( – CE 220), marking a critical period.", "A term for the Chinese language is still \"Han language\", and the dominant Chinese ethnic group is known as Han Chinese.", "The Chinese empire reached some of its farthest geographical extents during this period.", "Confucianism was officially sanctioned and its core texts were edited into their received forms.", "Wealthy landholding families independent of the ancient aristocracy began to wield significant power.", "Han technology can be considered on par with that of the contemporaneous Roman Empire: mass production of paper aided the proliferation of written documents, and the written language of this period was employed for millennia afterwards.", "China became known internationally for its sericulture.", "When the Han imperial order finally collapsed after four centuries, China entered an equally lengthy period of disunity, during which Buddhism began to have a significant impact on Chinese culture, while Calligraphy, art, historiography, and storytelling flourished.", "Wealthy families in some cases became more powerful than the central government.", "The Yangtze River valley was incorporated into the dominant cultural sphere.A period of unity began in 581 with the Sui dynasty, which soon gave way to the long-lived Tang dynasty (608–907), regarded as another Chinese golden age.", "The Tang dynasty saw flourishing developments in science, technology, poetry, economics, and geographical influence.", "China's first officially recognized empress, Wu Zetian, reigned during the dynasty's first century.", "Buddhism was adopted by Tang emperors.", "\"Tang people\" is the other common demonym for the Han ethnic group.", "After the Tang fractured, the Song dynasty (960–1279) saw the maximal extent of imperial Chinese cosmopolitan development.", "Mechanical printing was introduced, and many of the earliest surviving witnesses of certain texts are wood-block prints from this era.", "Song scientific advancement led the world, on par with the contemporaneous Khwarazmian Empire, and the imperial examination system gave ideological structure to the political bureaucracy.", "Confucianism and Taoism were fully knit together in Neo-Confucianism.", "Eventually, the Mongol Empire conquered all of China, establishing the Yuan dynasty in 1271.Contact with Europe began to increase during this time.", "Achievements under the subsequent Ming dynasty (1368–1644) include global exploration, fine porcelain, and many extant public works projects, such as those restoring the Grand Canal and Great Wall.", "Three of the four Classic Chinese Novels were written during the Ming.", "The Qing dynasty that succeeded the Ming was ruled by ethnic Manchu people.", "The Qianlong emperor ( 1735–1796) commissioned a complete encyclopaedia of imperial libraries, totaling nearly a billion words.", "Imperial China reached its greatest territorial extent of during the Qing, but China came into increasing conflict with European powers, culminating in the Opium Wars and subsequent unequal treaties.", "The 1911 Xinhai Revolution, led by Sun Yat-sen and others, created the modern Republic of China.", "From 1927, a costly civil war roiled between the Republican government under Chiang Kai-shek and the Chinese Red Army, and the industrialized Empire of Japan also invaded the divided country.", "After the Communist victory, Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, with the Republic retreating to Taiwan.", "Both governments still claim sole legitimacy.", "The PRC has slowly accumulated the majority of diplomatic recognition, and Taiwan's status remains disputed.", "From 1966 to 1976, the Cultural Revolution in mainland China helped consolidate Mao's power towards the end of his life.", "After his death, the government began economic reforms under Deng Xiaoping, and became the world's fastest-growing major economy.", "China had been the most populous nation in the world for decades, until it was surpassed by India in 2023." ], [ "Prehistory", "===Paleolithic (1.7 – 12 )===The archaic human species of ''Homo erectus'' arrived in Eurasia sometime between 1.3 and 1.8 million years ago (Ma) and numerous remains of its subspecies have been found in what is now China.", "The oldest of these is the southwestern Yuanmou Man (; in Yunnan), dated to 1.7 Ma, which lived in a mixed bushland-forest environment alongside chalicotheres, deer, the elephant ''Stegodon'', rhinos, cattle, pigs, and the giant short-faced hyena.", "The better-known Peking Man (; near Beijing) of 700,000–400,000 BP, was discovered in the Zhoukoudian cave alongside scrapers, choppers, and, dated slightly later, points, burins, and awls.", "Other ''Homo erectus'' fossils have been found widely throughout the region, including the northwestern Lantian Man (; in Shaanxi) as well minor specimens in northeastern Liaoning and southern Guangdong.", "The dates of most Paleolithic sites were long debated but have been more reliably established based on modern magnetostratigraphy: Majuangou at 1.66–1.55 Ma, Lanpo at 1.6 Ma, Xiaochangliang at 1.36 Ma, Xiantai at 1.36 Ma, Banshan at 1.32 Ma, Feiliang at 1.2 Ma and Donggutuo at 1.1 Ma.", "Evidence of fire use by ''Homo erectus'' occurred between 1–1.8 million years BP at the archaeological site of Xihoudu, Shanxi Province.The circumstances surrounding the evolution of ''Homo erectus'' to contemporary ''H.", "sapiens'' is debated; the three main theories include the dominant \"Out of Africa\" theory (OOA), the regional continuity model and the admixture variant of the OOA hypothesis.", "Regardless, the earliest modern humans have been dated to China at 120,000–80,000 BP based on fossilized teeth discovered in Fuyan Cave of Dao County, Hunan.", "The larger animals which lived alongside these humans include the extinct ''Ailuropoda baconi'' panda, the ''Crocuta ultima'' hyena, the ''Stegodon'', and the giant tapir.", "Evidence of Middle Palaeolithic Levallois technology has been found in the lithic assemblage of Guanyindong Cave site in southwest China, dated to approximately 170,000–80,000 years ago.===Neolithic===The Neolithic age in China is considered to have begun about 10,000 years ago.", "Because the Neolithic is conventionally defined by the presence of agriculture, it follows that the Neolithic began at different times in the various regions of what is now China.", "Agriculture in China developed gradually, with initial domestication of a few grains and animals gradually expanding with the addition of many others over subsequent millennia.", "The earliest evidence of cultivated rice, found by the Yangtze River, was carbon-dated to 8,000 years ago.", "Early evidence for millet agriculture in the Yellow River valley was radiocarbon-dated to about 7000 BC.", "The Jiahu site is one of the best preserved early agricultural villages (7000 to 5800 BC).", "At Damaidi in Ningxia, 3,172 cliff carvings dating to 6000–5000 BC have been discovered, \"featuring 8,453 individual characters such as the sun, moon, stars, gods and scenes of hunting or grazing\", according to researcher Li Xiangshi.", "Written symbols, sometimes called proto-writing, were found at the site of Jiahu, which is dated around 7000 BC, Damaidi around 6000 BC, Dadiwan from 5800 BC to 5400 BC, and Banpo dating from the 5th millennium BC.", "With agriculture came increased population, the ability to store and redistribute crops, and the potential to support specialist craftsmen and administrators, which may have existed at late Neolithic sites like Taosi and the Liangzhu culture in the Yangtze delta.", "The cultures of the middle and late Neolithic in the central Yellow River valley are known, respectively, as the Yangshao culture (5000 BC to 3000 BC) and the Longshan culture (3000 BC to 2000 BC).", "Pigs and dogs were the earliest-domesticated animals in the region, and after about 3000 BC domesticated cattle and sheep arrived from Western Asia.", "Wheat also arrived at this time but remained a minor crop.", "Fruit such as peaches, cherries and oranges, as well as chickens and various vegetables, were also domesticated in Neolithic China.===Bronze Age===Bronze artifacts have been found at the Majiayao culture site (between 3100 and 2700 BC).", "The Bronze Age is also represented at the Lower Xiajiadian culture (2200–1600 BC) site in northeast China.", "Sanxingdui located in what is now Sichuan is believed to be the site of a major ancient city, of a previously unknown Bronze Age culture (between 2000 and 1200 BC).", "The site was first discovered in 1929 and then re-discovered in 1986.Chinese archaeologists have identified the Sanxingdui culture to be part of the ancient kingdom of Shu, linking the artifacts found at the site to its early legendary kings.Ferrous metallurgy begins to appear in the late 6th century in the Yangzi Valley.A bronze hatchet with a blade of meteoric iron excavated near the city of Gaocheng in Shijiazhuang (now Hebei) has been dated to the 14th century BC.An Iron Age culture of the Tibetan Plateau has tentatively been associated with the Zhang Zhung culture described in early Tibetan writings." ], [ "Ancient China", "Chinese historians in later periods were accustomed to the notion of one dynasty succeeding another, but the political situation in early China was much more complicated.", "Hence, as some scholars of China suggest, the Xia and the Shang can refer to political entities that existed concurrently, just as the early Zhou existed at the same time as the Shang.", "This bears similarities to how China, both contemporaneously and later, has been divided into states that were not one region, legally or culturally.The earliest period once considered historical was the legendary era of the sage-emperors Yao, Shun, and Yu.", "Traditionally, the abdication system was prominent in this period, with Yao yielding his throne to Shun, who abdicated to Yu, who founded the Xia dynasty.===Xia dynasty (2070–1600 BC)===The Xia dynasty of China (from ) is the earliest of the Three Dynasties described in ancient historical records such as Sima Qian's ''Records of the Grand Historian'' and ''Bamboo Annals''.", "The dynasty is generally considered mythical by Western scholars, but in China it is usually associated with the early Bronze Age site at Erlitou that was excavated in Henan in 1959.Since no writing was excavated at Erlitou or any other contemporaneous site, there is not enough evidence to prove whether the Xia dynasty ever existed.", "Some archaeologists claim that the Erlitou site was the capital of the Xia dynasty.", "In any case, the site of Erlitou had a level of political organization that would not be incompatible with the legends of Xia recorded in later texts.", "More importantly, the Erlitou site has the earliest evidence for an elite who conducted rituals using cast bronze vessels, which would later be adopted by the Shang and Zhou.===Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BC)===ding (cauldron) with human facesArchaeological evidence, such as oracle bones and bronzes, as well as transmitted texts attest to the historical existence of the Shang dynasty ( 1600 – 1046 BC).", "Findings from the earlier Shang period come from excavations at Erligang, in present-day Zhengzhou.", "Findings from the later Shang or Yin (殷) period, were found in profusion at Anyang, in modern-day Henan, the last of the Shang's capitals.", "The findings at Anyang include the earliest written record of the Chinese so far discovered: inscriptions of divination records in ancient Chinese writing on the bones or shells of animals—the \"oracle bones\", dating from around 1250 to 1046 BC.A series of at least twenty-nine kings reigned over the Shang dynasty.", "Throughout their reigns, according to the ''Shiji'', the capital city was moved six times.", "The final and most important move was to Yin during the reign of Pan Geng, around 1300 BC.", "The term Yin dynasty has been synonymous with the Shang dynasty in history, although it has lately been used to refer specifically to the latter half of the Shang dynasty.Although written records found at Anyang confirm the existence of the Shang dynasty, Western scholars are often hesitant to associate settlements that are contemporaneous with the Anyang settlement with the Shang dynasty.", "For example, archaeological findings at Sanxingdui suggest a technologically advanced civilization culturally unlike Anyang.", "The evidence is inconclusive in proving how far the Shang realm extended from Anyang.", "The leading hypothesis is that Anyang, ruled by the same Shang in the official history, coexisted and traded with numerous other culturally diverse settlements in the area that is now referred to as China proper.===Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC)===The Zhou dynasty (1046 BC to about 256 BC) is the longest-lasting dynasty in Chinese history, though its power declined steadily over the almost eight centuries of its existence.", "In the late 2nd millennium BC, the Zhou dynasty arose in the Wei River valley of modern western Shaanxi Province, where they were appointed Western Protectors by the Shang.", "A coalition led by the ruler of the Zhou, King Wu, defeated the Shang at the Battle of Muye.", "They took over most of the central and lower Yellow River valley and enfeoffed their relatives and allies in semi-independent states across the region.", "Several of these states eventually became more powerful than the Zhou kings.The kings of Zhou invoked the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to legitimize their rule, a concept that was influential for almost every succeeding dynasty.", "Like Shangdi, Heaven (''tian'') ruled over all the other gods, and it decided who would rule China.", "It was believed that a ruler lost the Mandate of Heaven when natural disasters occurred in great number, and when, more realistically, the sovereign had apparently lost his concern for the people.", "In response, the royal house would be overthrown, and a new house would rule, having been granted the Mandate of Heaven.The Zhou established two capitals Zongzhou (near modern Xi'an) and Chengzhou (Luoyang), with the king's court moving between them regularly.", "The Zhou alliance gradually expanded eastward into Shandong, southeastward into the Huai River valley, and southward into the Yangtze River valley.====Spring and Autumn period (722–476 BC)====In 771 BC, King You and his forces were defeated in the Battle of Mount Li by rebel states and Quanrong barbarians.", "The rebel aristocrats established a new ruler, King Ping, in Luoyang, beginning the second major phase of the Zhou dynasty: the Eastern Zhou period, which is divided into the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods.", "The former period is named after the famous ''Spring and Autumn Annals''.", "The decline of central power left a vacuum.", "The Zhou empire now consisted of hundreds of tiny states, some of them only as large as a walled town and surrounding land.", "These states began to fight against one another and vie for hegemony.", "The more powerful states tended to conquer and incorporate the weaker ones, so the number of states declined over time.", "By the 6th century BC most small states had disappeared by being annexed and just a few large and powerful principalities remained.", "Some southern states, such as Chu and Wu, claimed independence from the Zhou, who undertook wars against some of them (Wu and Yue).", "Many new cities were established in this period and society gradually became more urbanized and commercialized.", "Many famous individuals such as Laozi, Confucius and Sun Tzu lived during this chaotic period.Conflict in this period occurred both between and within states.", "Warfare between states forced the surviving states to develop better administrations to mobilize more soldiers and resources.", "Within states there was constant jockeying between elite families.", "For example, the three most powerful families in the Jin state—Zhao, Wei and Han—eventually overthrew the ruling family and partitioned the state between them.The Hundred Schools of Thought of classical Chinese philosophy began blossoming during this period and the subsequent Warring States period.", "Such influential intellectual movements as Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism and Mohism were founded, partly in response to the changing political world.", "The first two philosophical thoughts would have an enormous influence on Chinese culture.====Warring States period (476–221 BC)====The Warring States, 260BCAfter further political consolidations, seven prominent states remained during the 5th centuryBC.", "The years in which these states battled each other is known as the Warring States period.", "Though the Zhou king nominally remained as such until 256BC, he was largely a figurehead that held little real power.Numerous developments were made during this period in the areas of culture and mathematics—including the ''Zuo Zhuan'' within the ''Spring and Autumn Annals'' (a literary work summarizing the preceding Spring and Autumn period), and the bundle of 21 bamboo slips from the Tsinghua collection, dated to 305BC—being the world's earliest known example of a two-digit, base-10 multiplication table.", "The Tsinghua collection indicates that sophisticated commercial arithmetic was already established during this period.As neighboring territories of the seven states were annexed (including areas of modern Sichuan and Liaoning), they were now to be governed under an administrative system of commanderies and prefectures.", "This system had been in use elsewhere since the Spring and Autumn period, and its influence on administration would prove resilient—its terminology can still be seen in the contemporaneous ''sheng'' and ''xian'' (\"provinces\" and \"counties\") of contemporary China.The state of Qin became dominant in the waning decades of the Warring States period, conquering the Shu capital of Jinsha on the Chengdu Plain; and then eventually driving Chu from its place in the Han River valley.", "Qin imitated the administrative reforms of the other states, thereby becoming a powerhouse.", "Its final expansion began during the reign of Ying Zheng, ultimately unifying the other six regional powers, and enabling him to proclaim himself as China's first emperor—known to history as Qin Shi Huang." ], [ "Imperial China", "===Early imperial China=======Qin dynasty (221–206 BC)====The massive Terracotta Army of Qin Shi Huang, a UNESCO World Heritage SiteYing Zheng's establishment of the Qin dynasty () in 221 BC effectively formalized the region as an empire, rather than a state, and its pivotal status probably led to \"Qin\" () later evolving into the Western term \"\".", "To emphasize his sole rule, Zheng proclaimed himself (; \"First August Emperor\"); the title, derived from Chinese mythology, became the standard for subsequent rulers.", "Based in Xianyang, the empire was a centralized bureaucratic monarchy, a governing scheme which dominated the future of Imperial China.", "In an effort to improve the Zhou's perceived failures, this system consisted of more than 36 commanderies (; ), made up of counties (; ) and progressively smaller divisions, each with a local leader.Many aspects of society were informed by Legalism, a state ideology promoted by the emperor and his chancellor Li Si that was introduced at an earlier time by Shang Yang.", "In legal matters this philosophy emphasized mutual responsibility in disputes and severe punishments, while economic practices included the general encouragement of agriculture and repression of trade.", "Reforms occurred in weights and measures, writing styles (seal script) and metal currency (Ban Liang), all of which were standardized.", "Traditionally, Qin Shi Huang is regarded as ordering a mass burning of books and the live burial of scholars under the guise of Legalism, though contemporary scholars express considerable doubt on the historicity of this event.", "Despite its importance, Legalism was probably supplemented in non-political matters by Confucianism for social and moral beliefs and the five-element Wuxing () theories for cosmological thought.The Qin administration kept exhaustive records on their population, collecting information on their sex, age, social status and residence.", "Commoners, who made up over 90% of the population, \"suffered harsh treatment\" according to the historian Patricia Buckley Ebrey, as they were often conscripted into forced labor for the empire's construction projects.", "This included a massive system of imperial highways in 220 BC, which ranged around altogether.", "Other major construction projects were assigned to the general Meng Tian, who concurrently led a successful campaign against the northern Xiongnu peoples (210s BC), reportedly with 300,000 troops.", "Under Qin Shi Huang's orders, Meng supervised the combining of numerous ancient walls into what came to be known as the Great Wall of China and oversaw the building of a straight highway between northern and southern China.After Qin Shi Huang's death the Qin government drastically deteriorated and eventually capitulated in 207 BC after the Qin capital was captured and sacked by rebels, which would ultimately lead to the establishment of the Han Empire.====Han dynasty (206 BC – AD 220)=========Western Han=====Map showing the expansion of Han dynasty in the 2nd century BCThe Han dynasty was founded by Liu Bang, who emerged victorious in the Chu–Han Contention that followed the fall of the Qin dynasty.", "A golden age in Chinese history, the Han dynasty's long period of stability and prosperity consolidated the foundation of China as a unified state under a central imperial bureaucracy, which was to last intermittently for most of the next two millennia.", "During the Han dynasty, territory of China was extended to most of the China proper and to areas far west.", "Confucianism was officially elevated to orthodox status and was to shape the subsequent Chinese civilization.", "Art, culture and science all advanced to unprecedented heights.", "With the profound and lasting impacts of this period of Chinese history, the dynasty name \"Han\" had been taken as the name of the Chinese people, now the dominant ethnic group in modern China, and had been commonly used to refer to Chinese language and written characters.After the initial laissez-faire policies of Emperors Wen and Jing, the ambitious Emperor Wu brought the empire to its zenith.", "To consolidate his power, he disenfranchised the majority of imperial relatives, appointing military governors to control their former lands.", "As a further step, he extended patronage to Confucianism, which emphasizes stability and order in a well-structured society.", "Imperial Universities were established to support its study.", "At the urging of his Legalist advisors, however, he also strengthened the fiscal structure of the dynasty with government monopolies.Major military campaigns were launched to weaken the nomadic Xiongnu Empire, limiting their influence north of the Great Wall.", "Along with the diplomatic efforts led by Zhang Qian, the sphere of influence of the Han Empire extended to the states in the Tarim Basin, opened up the Silk Road that connected China to the west, stimulating bilateral trade and cultural exchange.", "To the south, various small kingdoms far beyond the Yangtze River Valley were formally incorporated into the empire.Emperor Wu also dispatched a series of military campaigns against the Baiyue tribes.", "The Han annexed Minyue in 135 BC and 111 BC, Nanyue in 111 BC, and Dian in 109 BC.", "Migration and military expeditions led to the cultural assimilation of the south.", "It also brought the Han into contact with kingdoms in Southeast Asia, introducing diplomacy and trade.After Emperor Wu the empire slipped into gradual stagnation and decline.", "Economically, the state treasury was strained by excessive campaigns and projects, while land acquisitions by elite families gradually drained the tax base.", "Various consort clans exerted increasing control over strings of incompetent emperors and eventually the dynasty was briefly interrupted by the usurpation of Wang Mang.=====Xin dynasty=====In AD 9 the usurper Wang Mang claimed that the Mandate of Heaven called for the end of the Han dynasty and the rise of his own, and he founded the short-lived Xin dynasty.", "Wang Mang started an extensive program of land and other economic reforms, including the outlawing of slavery and land nationalization and redistribution.", "These programs, however, were never supported by the landholding families, because they favored the peasants.", "The instability of power brought about chaos, uprisings, and loss of territories.", "This was compounded by mass flooding of the Yellow River; silt buildup caused it to split into two channels and displaced large numbers of farmers.", "Wang Mang was eventually killed in Weiyang Palace by an enraged peasant mob in AD 23.=====Eastern Han=====Emperor Guangwu reinstated the Han dynasty with the support of landholding and merchant families at Luoyang, ''east'' of the former capital Xi'an.", "Thus, this new era is termed the Eastern Han dynasty.", "With the capable administrations of Emperors Ming and Zhang, former glories of the dynasty were reclaimed, with brilliant military and cultural achievements.", "The Xiongnu Empire was decisively defeated.", "The diplomat and general Ban Chao further expanded the conquests across the Pamirs to the shores of the Caspian Sea, thus reopening the Silk Road, and bringing trade, foreign cultures, along with the arrival of Buddhism.", "With extensive connections with the west, the first of several Roman embassies to China were recorded in Chinese sources, coming from the sea route in AD 166, and a second one in AD 284.The Eastern Han dynasty was one of the most prolific eras of science and technology in ancient China, notably the historic invention of papermaking by Cai Lun, and the numerous scientific and mathematical contributions by the famous polymath Zhang Heng.===Six Dynasties=======Three Kingdoms (AD 220–280)====By the 2nd century, the empire declined amidst land acquisitions, invasions, and feuding between consort clans and eunuchs.", "The Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out in AD 184, ushering in an era of warlords.", "In the ensuing turmoil, three states emerged, trying to gain predominance and reunify the land, giving this historical period its name.", "The classic historical novel ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' dramatizes events of this period.The warlord Cao Cao reunified the north in 208, and in 220 his son accepted the abdication of Emperor Xian of Han, thus initiating the Wei dynasty.", "Soon, Wei's rivals Shu and Wu proclaimed their independence.", "This period was characterized by a gradual decentralization of the state that had existed during the Qin and Han dynasties, and an increase in the power of great families.In 266, the Jin dynasty overthrew the Wei and later unified the country in 280, but this union was short-lived.====Jin dynasty (AD 266–420)====The Jin dynasty reunited China proper for the first time since the end of the Han dynasty, ending the Three Kingdoms era.", "However, the Jin dynasty was severely weakened by War of the Eight Princes and lost control of northern China after non-Han Chinese settlers rebelled and captured Luoyang and Chang'an.", "In 317, the Jin prince Sima Rui, based in modern-day Nanjing, became emperor and continued the dynasty, now known as the Eastern Jin, which held southern China for another century.", "Prior to this move, historians refer to the Jin dynasty as the Western Jin.====Sixteen Kingdoms (AD 304–439)====Northern China fragmented into a series of independent states known as the Sixteen Kingdoms, most of which were founded by Xiongnu, Xianbei, Jie, Di and Qiang rulers.", "These non-Han peoples were ancestors of the Turks, Mongols, and Tibetans.", "Many had, to some extent, been \"sinicized\" long before their ascent to power.", "In fact, some of them, notably the Qiang and the Xiongnu, had already been allowed to live in the frontier regions within the Great Wall since late Han times.", "During this period, warfare ravaged the north and prompted large-scale Han Chinese migration south to the Yangtze River Basin and Delta.====Northern and Southern dynasties (AD 420–589)====In the early 5th century China entered a period known as the Northern and Southern dynasties, in which parallel regimes ruled the northern and southern halves of the country.", "In the south, the Eastern Jin gave way to the Liu Song, Southern Qi, Liang and finally Chen.", "Each of these Southern dynasties were led by Han Chinese ruling families and used Jiankang (modern Nanjing) as the capital.", "They held off attacks from the north and preserved many aspects of Chinese civilization, while northern barbarian regimes began to sinify.In the north the last of the Sixteen Kingdoms was extinguished in 439 by the Northern Wei, a kingdom founded by the Xianbei, a nomadic people who unified northern China.", "The Northern Wei eventually split into the Eastern and Western Wei, which then became the Northern Qi and Northern Zhou.", "These regimes were dominated by Xianbei or Han Chinese who had married into Xianbei families.", "During this period most Xianbei people adopted Han surnames, eventually leading to complete assimilation into the Han.Despite the division of the country, Buddhism spread throughout the land.", "In southern China, fierce debates about whether Buddhism should be allowed were held frequently by the royal court and nobles.", "By the end of the era, Buddhists and Taoists had become much more tolerant of each other.===Mid-imperial China=======Sui dynasty (581–618)====The short-lived Sui dynasty was a pivotal period in Chinese history.", "Founded by Emperor Wen in 581 in succession of the Northern Zhou, the Sui went on to conquer the Southern Chen in 589 to reunify China, ending three centuries of political division.", "The Sui pioneered many new institutions, including the government system of Three Departments and Six Ministries, imperial examinations for selecting officials from commoners, while improved on the systems of fubing system of the army conscription and the equal-field system of land distributions.", "These policies, which were adopted by later dynasties, brought enormous population growth, and amassed excessive wealth to the state.", "Standardized coinage was enforced throughout the unified empire.", "Buddhism took root as a prominent religion and was supported officially.", "Sui China was known for its numerous mega-construction projects.", "Intended for grains shipment and transporting troops, the Grand Canal was constructed, linking the capitals Daxing (Chang'an) and Luoyang to the wealthy southeast region, and in another route, to the northeast border.", "The Great Wall was also expanded, while series of military conquests and diplomatic maneuvers further pacified its borders.", "However, the massive invasions of the Korean Peninsula during the Goguryeo–Sui War failed disastrously, triggering widespread revolts that led to the fall of the dynasty.====Tang dynasty (618–907)====The Tang dynasty was a golden age of Chinese civilization, a prosperous, stable, and creative period with significant developments in culture, art, literature, particularly poetry, and technology.", "Buddhism became the predominant religion for the common people.", "Chang'an (modern Xi'an), the national capital, was the largest city in the world during its time.The first emperor, Emperor Gaozu, came to the throne on 18 June 618, placed there by his son, Li Shimin, who became the second emperor, Taizong, one of the greatest emperors in Chinese history.", "Combined military conquests and diplomatic maneuvers reduced threats from Central Asian tribes, extended the border, and brought neighboring states into a tributary system.", "Military victories in the Tarim Basin kept the Silk Road open, connecting Chang'an to Central Asia and areas far to the west.", "In the south, lucrative maritime trade routes from port cities such as Guangzhou connected with distant countries, and foreign merchants settled in China, encouraging a cosmopolitan culture.", "The Tang culture and social systems were observed and adapted by neighboring countries, most notably Japan.", "Internally the Grand Canal linked the political heartland in Chang'an to the agricultural and economic centers in the eastern and southern parts of the empire.", "Xuanzang, a Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator travelled to India on his own and returned with \"over six hundred Mahayana and Hinayana texts, seven statues of the Buddha and more than a hundred sarira relics.", "\"The prosperity of the early Tang dynasty was abetted by a centralized bureaucracy.", "The government was organized as \"Three Departments and Six Ministries\" to separately draft, review, and implement policies.", "These departments were run by royal family members and landed aristocrats, but as the dynasty wore on, were joined or replaced by scholar officials selected by imperial examinations, setting patterns for later dynasties.Under the Tang \"equal-field system\" all land was owned by the Emperor and granted to each family according to household size.", "Men granted land were conscripted for military service for a fixed period each year, a military policy known as the ''fubing'' system.", "These policies stimulated a rapid growth in productivity and a significant army without much burden on the state treasury.", "By the dynasty's midpoint, however, standing armies had replaced conscription, and land was continuously falling into the hands of private owners and religious institutions granted exemptions.The dynasty continued to flourish under the rule of Empress Wu Zetian, the only official empress regnant in Chinese history, and reached its zenith during the long reign of Emperor Xuanzong, who oversaw an empire that stretched from the Pacific to the Aral Sea with at least people.", "There were vibrant artistic and cultural creations, including works of the greatest Chinese poets, Li Bai and Du Fu.At the zenith of prosperity of the empire, the An Lushan Rebellion from 755 to 763 was a watershed event.", "War, disease, and economic disruption devastated the population and drastically weakened the central imperial government.", "Upon suppression of the rebellion, regional military governors, known as ''jiedushi'', gained increasingly autonomous status.", "With loss of revenue from land tax, the central imperial government came to rely heavily on salt monopoly.", "Externally, former submissive states raided the empire and the vast border territories were lost for centuries.", "Nevertheless, civil society recovered and thrived amidst the weakened imperial bureaucracy.In late Tang period the empire was worn out by recurring revolts of the regional military governors, while scholar-officials engaged in fierce factional strife and corrupted eunuchs amassed immense power.", "Catastrophically, the Huang Chao Rebellion, from 874 to 884, devastated the entire empire for a decade.", "The sack of the southern port Guangzhou in 879 was followed by the massacre of most of its inhabitants, especially the large foreign merchant enclaves.", "By 881, both capitals, Luoyang and Chang'an, fell successively.", "The reliance on ethnic Han and Turkic warlords in suppressing the rebellion increased their power and influence.", "Consequently, the fall of the dynasty following Zhu Wen's usurpation led to an era of division.", "In 808, 30,000 Shatuo under Zhuye Jinzhong defected from the Tibetans to Tang China and the Tibetans punished them by killing Zhuye Jinzhong as they were chasing them.", "The Uyghurs also fought against an alliance of Shatuo and Tibetans at Beshbalik.", "The Shatuo Turks under Zhuye Chixin (Li Guochang) served the Tang dynasty in fighting against their fellow Turkic people in the Uyghur Khaganate.", "In 839, when the Uyghur khaganate (Huigu) general Jueluowu (掘羅勿) rose against the rule of then-reigning Zhangxin Khan, he elicited the help from Zhuye Chixin by giving Zhuye 300 horses, and together, they defeated Zhangxin Khan, who then committed suicide, precipitating the subsequent collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate.", "In the next few years, when Uyghur Khaganate remnants tried to raid Tang borders, the Shatuo participated extensively in counterattacking the Uyghur Khaganate with other tribes loyal to Tang.", "In 843, Zhuye Chixin, under the command of the Han Chinese officer Shi Xiong with Tuyuhun, Tangut and Han Chinese troops, participated in a raid against the Uyghur khaganate that led to the slaughter of Uyghur forces at Shahu mountain.====Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907–960)====The period of political disunity between the Tang and the Song, known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, lasted from 907 to 960.During this half-century, China was in all respects a multi-state system.", "Five regimes, namely, (Later) Liang, Tang, Jin, Han and Zhou, rapidly succeeded one another in control of the traditional Imperial heartland in northern China.", "Among the regimes, rulers of (Later) Tang, Jin and Han were sinicized Shatuo Turks, which ruled over an ethnic majority of Han Chinese in the north.", "More stable and smaller regimes of mostly ethnic Han rulers coexisted in south and western China over the period, cumulatively constituted the \"Ten Kingdoms\".Amidst political chaos in the north, the strategic Sixteen Prefectures (region along today's Great Wall) were ceded to the emerging Khitan Liao dynasty, which drastically weakened the defense of China proper against northern nomadic empires.", "To the south, Vietnam gained lasting independence after being a Chinese prefecture for many centuries.", "With wars dominating in Northern China, there were mass southward migrations of population, which further enhanced the southward shift of cultural and economic centers in China.", "The era ended with the coup of Later Zhou general Zhao Kuangyin, and the establishment of the Song dynasty in 960, which eventually annihilated the remains of the \"Ten Kingdoms\" and reunified China.===Late imperial China=======Song, Liao, Jin, and Western Xia dynasties (960–1279)====In 960, the Song dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu, with its capital established in Kaifeng (then known as Bianjing).", "In 979, the Song dynasty reunified most of China proper, while large swaths of the outer territories were occupied by sinicized nomadic empires.", "The Khitan Liao dynasty, which lasted from 907 to 1125, ruled over Manchuria, Mongolia, and parts of Northern China.", "Meanwhile, in what are now the north-western Chinese provinces of Gansu, Shaanxi, and Ningxia, the Tangut tribes founded the Western Xia dynasty from 1032 to 1227.Aiming to recover the strategic sixteen prefectures lost in the previous dynasty, campaigns were launched against the Liao dynasty in the early Song period, which all ended in failure.", "Then in 1004, the Liao cavalry swept over the exposed North China Plain and reached the outskirts of Kaifeng, forcing the Song's submission and then agreement to the Chanyuan Treaty, which imposed heavy annual tributes from the Song treasury.", "The treaty was a significant reversal of Chinese dominance of the traditional tributary system.", "Yet the annual outflow of Song's silver to the Liao was paid back through the purchase of Chinese goods and products, which expanded the Song economy, and replenished its treasury.", "This dampened the incentive for the Song to further campaign against the Liao.", "Meanwhile, this cross-border trade and contact induced further sinicization within the Liao Empire, at the expense of its military might which was derived from its nomadic lifestyle.", "Similar treaties and social-economical consequences occurred in Song's relations with the Jin dynasty.Within the Liao Empire the Jurchen tribes revolted against their overlords to establish the Jin dynasty in 1115.In 1125, the devastating Jin cataphract annihilated the Liao dynasty, while remnants of Liao court members fled to Central Asia to found the Qara Khitai Empire (Western Liao dynasty).", "Jin's invasion of the Song dynasty followed swiftly.", "In 1127, Kaifeng was sacked, a massive catastrophe known as the Jingkang Incident, ending the Northern Song dynasty.", "Later the entire north of China was conquered.", "The survived members of Song court regrouped in the new capital city of Hangzhou, and initiated the Southern Song dynasty, which ruled territories south of the Huai River.", "In the ensuing years, the territory and population of China were divided between the Song dynasty, the Jin dynasty and the Western Xia dynasty.", "The era ended with the Mongol conquest, as Western Xia fell in 1227, the Jin dynasty in 1234, and finally the Southern Song dynasty in 1279.Despite its military weakness, the Song dynasty is widely considered to be the high point of classical Chinese civilization.", "The Song economy, facilitated by technology advancement, had reached a level of sophistication probably unseen in world history before its time.", "The population soared to over and the living standards of common people improved tremendously due to improvements in rice cultivation and the wide availability of coal for production.", "The capital cities of Kaifeng and subsequently Hangzhou were both the most populous cities in the world for their time, and encouraged vibrant civil societies unmatched by previous Chinese dynasties.", "Although land trading routes to the far west were blocked by nomadic empires, there was extensive maritime trade with neighboring states, which facilitated the use of Song coinage as the de facto currency of exchange.", "Giant wooden vessels equipped with compasses traveled throughout the China Seas and northern Indian Ocean.", "The concept of insurance was practised by merchants to hedge the risks of such long-haul maritime shipments.", "With prosperous economic activities, the historically first use of paper currency emerged in the western city of Chengdu, as a supplement to the existing copper coins.The Song dynasty was considered to be the golden age of great advancements in science and technology of China, thanks to innovative scholar-officials such as Su Song (1020–1101) and Shen Kuo (1031–1095).", "Inventions such as the hydro-mechanical astronomical clock, the first continuous and endless power-transmitting chain, woodblock printing and paper money were all invented during the Song dynasty.There was court intrigue between the political reformers and conservatives, led by the chancellors Wang Anshi and Sima Guang, respectively.", "By the mid-to-late 13th century, the Chinese had adopted the dogma of Neo-Confucian philosophy formulated by Zhu Xi.", "Enormous literary works were compiled during the Song dynasty, such as the innovative historical narrative ''Zizhi Tongjian'' (\"Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government\").", "The invention of movable-type printing further facilitated the spread of knowledge.", "Culture and the arts flourished, with grandiose artworks such as ''Along the River During the Qingming Festival'' and ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute'', along with great Buddhist painters such as the prolific Lin Tinggui.The Song dynasty was also a period of major innovation in the history of warfare.", "Gunpowder, while invented in the Tang dynasty, was first put into use in battlefields by the Song army, inspiring a succession of new firearms and siege engines designs.", "During the Southern Song dynasty, as its survival hinged decisively on guarding the Yangtze and Huai River against the cavalry forces from the north, the first standing navy in China was assembled in 1132, with its admiral's headquarters established at Dinghai.", "Paddle-wheel warships equipped with trebuchets could launch incendiary bombs made of gunpowder and lime, as recorded in Song's victory over the invading Jin forces at the Battle of Tangdao in the East China Sea, and the Battle of Caishi on the Yangtze River in 1161.The advances in civilization during the Song dynasty came to an abrupt end following the devastating Mongol conquest, during which the population sharply dwindled, with a marked contraction in economy.", "Despite viciously halting Mongol advance for more than three decades, the Southern Song capital Hangzhou fell in 1276, followed by the final annihilation of the Song standing navy at the Battle of Yamen in 1279.====Yuan dynasty (1271–1368)====Mongol successor khanatesThe Yuan dynasty was formally proclaimed in 1271, when the Great Khan of Mongol, Kublai Khan, one of the grandsons of Genghis Khan, assumed the additional title of Emperor of China, and considered his inherited part of the Mongol Empire as a Chinese dynasty.", "In the preceding decades, the Mongols had conquered the Jin dynasty in Northern China, and the Southern Song dynasty fell in 1279 after a protracted and bloody war.", "The Mongol Yuan dynasty became the first conquest dynasty in Chinese history to rule the entire China proper and its population as an ethnic minority.", "The dynasty also directly controlled the Mongol heartland and other regions, inheriting the largest share of territory of the eastern Mongol empire, which roughly coincided with the modern area of China and nearby regions in East Asia.", "Further expansion of the empire was halted after defeats in the invasions of Japan and Vietnam.", "Following the previous Jin dynasty, the capital of Yuan dynasty was established at Khanbaliq (also known as Dadu, modern-day Beijing).", "The Grand Canal was reconstructed to connect the remote capital city to economic hubs in southern part of China, setting the precedence and foundation where Beijing would largely remain as the capital of the successive regimes that unified China mainland.A series of Mongol civil wars in the late 13th century led to the division of the Mongol Empire.", "In 1304 the emperors of the Yuan dynasty were upheld as the nominal Khagan over western khanates (the Chagatai Khanate, the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate), which nonetheless remained ''de facto'' autonomous.", "The era was known as ''Pax Mongolica'', when much of the Asian continent was ruled by the Mongols.", "For the first and only time in history, the Silk Road was controlled entirely by a single state, facilitating the flow of people, trade, and cultural exchange.", "A network of roads and a postal system were established to connect the vast empire.", "Lucrative maritime trade, developed from the previous Song dynasty, continued to flourish, with Quanzhou and Hangzhou emerging as the largest ports in the world.", "Adventurous travelers from the far west, most notably the Venetian, Marco Polo, would settle in China for decades.", "Upon his return, his detail travel record inspired generations of medieval Europeans with the splendors of the far East.", "The Yuan dynasty was the first ancient economy, where paper currency, known at the time as ''Jiaochao'', was used as the predominant medium of exchange.", "Its unrestricted issuance in the late Yuan dynasty inflicted hyperinflation, which eventually brought the downfall of the dynasty.While the Mongol rulers of the Yuan dynasty adopted substantially to Chinese culture, their sinicization was of lesser extent compared to earlier conquest dynasties in Chinese history.", "For preserving racial superiority as the conqueror and ruling class, traditional nomadic customs and heritage from the Mongolian Steppe were held in high regard.", "On the other hand, the Mongol rulers also adopted flexibly to a variety of cultures from many advanced civilizations within the vast empire.", "Traditional social structure and culture in China underwent immense transform during the Mongol dominance.", "Large groups of foreign migrants settled in China, who enjoyed elevated social status over the majority Han Chinese, while enriching Chinese culture with foreign elements.", "The class of scholar officials and intellectuals, traditional bearers of elite Chinese culture, lost substantial social status.", "This stimulated the development of culture of the common folks.", "There were prolific works in ''zaju'' variety shows and literary songs (''sanqu''), which were written in a distinctive poetry style known as ''qu''.", "Novels of vernacular style gained unprecedented status and popularity.Before the Mongol invasion, Chinese dynasties reported approximately inhabitants; after the conquest had been completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported roughly people.", "This major decline is not necessarily due only to Mongol killings.", "Scholars such as Frederick W. Mote argue that the wide drop in numbers reflects an administrative failure to record rather than an actual decrease; others such as Timothy Brook argue that the Mongols created a system of enserfment among a huge portion of the Chinese populace, causing many to disappear from the census altogether; other historians including William McNeill and David Morgan consider that plague was the main factor behind the demographic decline during this period.", "In the 14th century China suffered additional depredations from epidemics of plague, estimated to have killed around a quarter of the population of China.Throughout the Yuan dynasty, there was some general sentiment among the populace against the Mongol dominance.", "Yet rather than the nationalist cause, it was mainly strings of natural disasters and incompetent governance that triggered widespread peasant uprisings since the 1340s.", "After the massive naval engagement at Lake Poyang, Zhu Yuanzhang prevailed over other rebel forces in the south.", "He proclaimed himself emperor and founded the Ming dynasty in 1368.The same year his northern expedition army captured the capital Khanbaliq.", "The Yuan remnants fled back to Mongolia and sustained the regime.", "Other Mongol Khanates in Central Asia continued to exist after the fall of Yuan dynasty in China.====Ming dynasty (1368–1644)====The Ming dynasty was founded by Zhu Yuanzhang in 1368, who proclaimed himself as the Hongwu Emperor.", "The capital was initially set at Nanjing, and was later moved to Beijing from Yongle Emperor's reign onward.Urbanization increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew more complex.", "Large urban centers, such as Nanjing and Beijing, also contributed to the growth of private industry.", "In particular, small-scale industries grew up, often specializing in paper, silk, cotton, and porcelain goods.", "For the most part, however, relatively small urban centers with markets proliferated around the country.", "Town markets mainly traded food, with some necessary manufactures such as pins or oil.Despite the xenophobia and intellectual introspection characteristic of the increasingly popular new school of neo-Confucianism, China under the early Ming dynasty was not isolated.", "Foreign trade and other contacts with the outside world, particularly Japan, increased considerably.", "Chinese merchants explored all of the Indian Ocean, reaching East Africa with the voyages of Zheng He.The Hongwu Emperor, being the only founder of a Chinese dynasty who was also of peasant origin, had laid the foundation of a state that relied fundamentally in agriculture.", "Commerce and trade, which flourished in the previous Song and Yuan dynasties, were less emphasized.", "Neo-feudal landholdings of the Song and Mongol periods were expropriated by the Ming rulers.", "Land estates were confiscated by the government, fragmented, and rented out.", "Private slavery was forbidden.", "Consequently, after the death of the Yongle Emperor, independent peasant landholders predominated in Chinese agriculture.", "These laws might have paved the way to removing the worst of the poverty during the previous regimes.", "Towards later era of the Ming dynasty, with declining government control, commerce, trade and private industries revived.The dynasty had a strong and complex central government that unified and controlled the empire.", "The emperor's role became more autocratic, although Hongwu Emperor necessarily continued to use what he called the \"Grand Secretariat\" to assist with the immense paperwork of the bureaucracy, including memorials (petitions and recommendations to the throne), imperial edicts in reply, reports of various kinds, and tax records.", "It was this same bureaucracy that later prevented the Ming government from being able to adapt to changes in society, and eventually led to its decline.The Yongle Emperor strenuously tried to extend China's influence beyond its borders by demanding other rulers send ambassadors to China to present tribute.", "A large navy was built, including four-masted ships displacing 1,500 tons.", "A standing army of 1 million troops was created.", "The Chinese armies conquered and occupied Vietnam for around 20 years, while the Chinese fleet sailed the China seas and the Indian Ocean, cruising as far as the east coast of Africa.", "The Chinese gained influence in eastern Moghulistan.", "Several maritime Asian nations sent envoys with tribute for the Chinese emperor.", "Domestically, the Grand Canal was expanded and became a stimulus to domestic trade.", "Over 100,000 tons of iron per year were produced.", "Many books were printed using movable type.", "The imperial palace in Beijing's Forbidden City reached its current splendor.", "It was also during these centuries that the potential of south China came to be fully exploited.", "New crops were widely cultivated and industries such as those producing porcelain and textiles flourished.In 1449 Esen Tayisi led an Oirat Mongol invasion of northern China which culminated in the capture of the Zhengtong Emperor at Tumu.", "Since then, the Ming became on the defensive on the northern frontier, which led to the Ming Great Wall being built.", "Most of what remains of the Great Wall of China today was either built or repaired by the Ming.", "The brick and granite work was enlarged, the watchtowers were redesigned, and cannons were placed along its length.At sea the Ming became increasingly isolationist after the death of the Yongle Emperor.", "The treasure voyages which sailed the Indian Ocean were discontinued, and the maritime prohibition laws were set in place banning the Chinese from sailing abroad.", "European traders who reached China in the midst of the Age of Discovery were repeatedly rebuked in their requests for trade, with the Portuguese being repulsed by the Ming navy at Tuen Mun in 1521 and again in 1522.Domestic and foreign demands for overseas trade, deemed illegal by the state, led to widespread ''wokou'' piracy attacking the southeastern coastline during the rule of the Jiajing Emperor (1507–1567), which only subsided after the opening of ports in Guangdong and Fujian and much military suppression.", "In addition to raids from Japan by the ''wokou'', raids from Taiwan and the Philippines by the Pisheye also ravaged the southern coasts.", "The Portuguese were allowed to settle in Macau in 1557 for trade, which remained in Portuguese hands until 1999.After the Spanish invasion of the Philippines, trade with the Spanish at Manila imported large quantities of Mexican and Peruvian silver from the Spanish Americas to China.", "The Dutch entry into the Chinese seas was also met with fierce resistance, with the Dutch being chased off the Penghu islands in the Sino-Dutch conflicts of 1622–1624 and were forced to settle in Taiwan instead.", "The Dutch in Taiwan fought with the Ming in the Battle of Liaoluo Bay in 1633 and lost, and eventually surrendered to the Ming loyalist Koxinga in 1662, after the fall of the Ming dynasty.In 1556, during the rule of the Jiajing Emperor, the Shaanxi earthquake killed about 830,000 people, the deadliest earthquake of all time.The Ming dynasty intervened deeply in the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98), which ended with the withdrawal of all invading Japanese forces in Korea, and the restoration of the Joseon dynasty, its traditional ally and tributary state.", "The regional hegemony of the Ming dynasty was preserved at a toll on its resources.", "Coincidentally, with Ming's control in Manchuria in decline, the Manchu (Jurchen) tribes, under their chieftain Nurhaci, broke away from Ming's rule, and emerged as a powerful, unified state, which was later proclaimed as the Qing dynasty.", "It went on to subdue the much weakened Korea as its tributary, conquered Mongolia, and expanded its territory to the outskirt of the Great Wall.", "The most elite army of the Ming dynasty was to station at the Shanhai Pass to guard the last stronghold against the Manchus, which weakened its suppression of internal peasants uprisings.====Qing dynasty (1636–1912)====The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) was the last imperial dynasty in China.", "Founded by the Manchus, it was the second conquest dynasty to rule the entirety of China proper, and roughly doubled the territory controlled by the Ming.", "The Manchus were formerly known as Jurchens, residing in the northeastern part of the Ming territory outside the Great Wall.", "They emerged as the major threat to the late Ming dynasty after Nurhaci united all Jurchen tribes and his son, Hong Taiji, declared the founding of the Qing dynasty in 1636.The Qing dynasty set up the Eight Banners system that provided the basic framework for the Qing military conquest.", "Li Zicheng's peasant rebellion captured Beijing in 1644 and the Chongzhen Emperor, the last Ming emperor, committed suicide.", "The Manchus allied with the Ming general Wu Sangui to seize Beijing, which was made the capital of the Qing dynasty, and then proceeded to subdue the Ming remnants in the south.", "During the Ming-Qing transition, when the Ming dynasty and later the Southern Ming, the emerging Qing dynasty, and several other factions like the Shun dynasty and Xi dynasty founded by peasant revolt leaders fought against each another, which, along with innumerable natural disasters at that time such as those caused by the Little Ice Age and epidemics like the Great Plague during the last decade of the Ming dynasty, caused enormous loss of lives and significant harm to the economy.", "In total, these decades saw the loss of as many as lives, but the Qing appeared to have restored China's imperial power and inaugurate another flowering of the arts.", "The early Manchu emperors combined traditions of Inner Asian rule with Confucian norms of traditional Chinese government and were considered a Chinese dynasty.The Manchus enforced a 'queue order', forcing Han Chinese men to adopt the Manchu queue hairstyle.", "Officials were required to wear Manchu-style clothing ''Changshan'' (bannermen dress and ''Tangzhuang''), but ordinary Han civilians were allowed to wear traditional Han clothing.", "Bannermen could not undertake trade or manual labor; they had to petition to be removed from banner status.", "They were considered aristocracy and were given annual pensions, land, and allotments of cloth.", "The Kangxi Emperor ordered the creation of the ''Kangxi Dictionary'', the most complete dictionary of Chinese characters that had been compiled.Over the next half-century, all areas previously under the Ming dynasty were consolidated under the Qing.", "Conquests in Central Asia in the eighteenth century extended territorial control.", "Between 1673 and 1681, the Kangxi Emperor suppressed the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, an uprising of three generals in Southern China who had been denied hereditary rule of large fiefdoms granted by the previous emperor.", "In 1683, the Qing staged an amphibious assault on southern Taiwan, bringing down the rebel Kingdom of Tungning, which was founded by the Ming loyalist Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong) in 1662 after the fall of the Southern Ming, and had served as a base for continued Ming resistance in Southern China.", "The Qing defeated the Russians at Albazin, resulting in the Treaty of Nerchinsk.By the end of Qianlong Emperor's long reign in 1796, the Qing Empire was at its zenith.", "The Qing ruled more than one-third of the world's population, and had the largest economy in the world.", "By area it was one of the largest empires ever.A map of the Qing dynasty, 1820Official map of the Qing Empire published in 1905In the 19th century the empire was internally restive and externally threatened by western powers.", "The defeat by the British Empire in the First Opium War (1840) led to the Treaty of Nanking (1842), under which Hong Kong was ceded to Britain and importation of opium (produced by British Empire territories) was allowed.", "Opium usage continued to grow in China, adversely affecting societal stability.", "Subsequent military defeats and unequal treaties with other western powers continued even after the fall of the Qing dynasty.Internally the Taiping Rebellion (1851–1864), a Christian religious movement led by the \"Heavenly King\" Hong Xiuquan swept from the south to establish the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom and controlled roughly a third of China proper for over a decade.", "The court in desperation empowered Han Chinese officials such as Zeng Guofan to raise local armies.", "After initial defeats, Zeng crushed the rebels in the Third Battle of Nanking in 1864.This was one of the largest wars in the 19th century in troop involvement; there was massive loss of life, with a death toll of about 20 million.", "A string of civil disturbances followed, including the Punti–Hakka Clan Wars, Nian Rebellion, Dungan Revolt, and Panthay Rebellion.", "All rebellions were ultimately put down, but at enormous cost and with millions dead, seriously weakening the central imperial authority.", "China never rebuilt a strong central army, and many local officials used their military power to effectively rule independently in their provinces.A scene of the Taiping RebellionYet the dynasty appeared to recover in the Tongzhi Restoration (1860–1872), led by Manchu royal family reformers and Han Chinese officials such as Zeng Guofan and his proteges Li Hongzhang and Zuo Zongtang.", "Their Self-Strengthening Movement made effective institutional reforms, imported Western factories and communications technology, with prime emphasis on strengthening the military.", "However, the reform was undermined by official rivalries, cynicism, and quarrels within the imperial family.", "The defeat of Yuan Shikai's modernized \"Beiyang Fleet\" in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) led to the formation of the New Army.", "The Guangxu Emperor, advised by Kang Youwei, then launched a comprehensive reform effort, the Hundred Days' Reform (1898).", "Empress Dowager Cixi, however, feared that precipitous change would lead to bureaucratic opposition and foreign intervention and quickly suppressed it.In the summer of 1900, the Boxer Uprising opposed foreign influence and murdered Chinese Christians and foreign missionaries.", "When Boxers entered Beijing, the Qing government ordered all foreigners to leave, but they and many Chinese Christians were besieged in the foreign legations quarter.", "An Eight-Nation Alliance sent the Seymour Expedition of Japanese, Russian, British, Italian, German, French, American, and Austrian troops to relieve the siege, but they were forced to retreat by Boxer and Qing troops at the Battle of Langfang.", "After the Alliance's attack on the Dagu Forts, the court declared war on the Alliance and authorized the Boxers to join with imperial armies.", "After fierce fighting at Tianjin, the Alliance formed the second, much larger Gaselee Expedition and finally reached Beijing; the Empress Dowager evacuated to Xi'an.", "The Boxer Protocol ended the war, exacting a tremendous indemnity.The Qing court then instituted \"New Policies\" of administrative and legal reform, including abolition of the examination system.", "But young officials, military officers, and students debated reform, perhaps a constitutional monarchy, or the overthrow of the dynasty and the creation of a republic.", "They were inspired by an emerging public opinion formed by intellectuals such as Liang Qichao and the revolutionary ideas of Sun Yat-sen. A localised military uprising, the Wuchang uprising, began on 10 October 1911, in Wuchang (today part of Wuhan), and soon spread.", "The Republic of China was proclaimed on 1 January 1912, ending 2,000 years of dynastic rule." ], [ "Modern China", "===Republic of China (since 1912)===Flag of the First Guangzhou uprisingNanjing Road during Xinhai Revolution, 1911The provisional government of the Republic of China was formed in Nanjing on 12 March 1912.Sun Yat-sen became President of the Republic of China, but he turned power over to Yuan Shikai, who commanded the New Army.", "Over the next few years, Yuan proceeded to abolish the national and provincial assemblies and declared himself as the emperor of Empire of China in late 1915.Yuan's imperial ambitions were fiercely opposed by his subordinates; faced with the prospect of rebellion, he abdicated in March 1916 and died of natural causes in June.Yuan's death in 1916 left a power vacuum; the republican government was all but shattered.", "This opened the way for the Warlord Era, during which much of China was ruled by shifting coalitions of competing provincial military leaders and the Beiyang government.", "Intellectuals, disappointed in the failure of the Republic, launched the New Culture Movement.Beijing college students rallied during the May Fourth Movement, dissatisfied with Article 156 of the Treaty of Versailles for China (Shandong Problem).In 1919, the May Fourth Movement began as a response to the pro-Japanese terms imposed on China by the Treaty of Versailles following World War I.", "It quickly became a nationwide protest movement.", "The protests were a moral success as the cabinet fell and China refused to sign the Treaty of Versailles, which had awarded German holdings of Shandong to Japan.", "Memory of the mistreatment at Versailles fuels resentment into the 21st century.Political and intellectual ferment waxed strong throughout the 1920s and 1930s.", "According to Patricia Ebrey::\"Nationalism, patriotism, progress, science, democracy, and freedom were the goals; imperialism, feudalism, warlordism, autocracy, patriarchy, and blind adherence to tradition were the enemies.", "Intellectuals struggled with how to be strong and modern and yet Chinese, how to preserve China as a political entity in the world of competing nations.", "\"Flag of the Republic of China from 1912 to 1928Flag of the Republic of China from 1928 to nowIn the 1920s Sun Yat-sen established a revolutionary base in Guangzhou and set out to unite the fragmented nation.", "He welcomed assistance from the Soviet Union (itself fresh from Lenin's Communist takeover) and he entered into an alliance with the fledgling Chinese Communist Party (CCP).", "After Sun's death from cancer in 1925, one of his protégés, Chiang Kai-shek, seized control of the Nationalist Party (KMT) and succeeded in bringing most of south and central China under its rule in the Northern Expedition (1926–1927).", "Having defeated the warlords in the south and central China by military force, Chiang was able to secure the nominal allegiance of the warlords in the North and establish the Nationalist government in Nanking.", "In 1927, Chiang turned on the CCP and relentlessly purged the Communists elements in his NRA.", "In 1934, driven from their mountain bases such as the Chinese Soviet Republic, the CCP forces embarked on the Long March across China's most desolate terrain to the northwest, where they established a guerrilla base at Yan'an in Shaanxi.", "During the Long March, the communists reorganized under a new leader, Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung).The bitter Chinese Civil War between the Nationalists and the Communists continued, openly or clandestinely, through the 14-year-long Japanese occupation of various parts of the country (1931–1945).", "The two Chinese parties nominally formed a United Front to oppose the Japanese in 1937, during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), which became a part of World War II.", "Japanese forces committed numerous war atrocities against the civilian population, including biological warfare (see Unit 731) and the Three Alls Policy (''Sankō Sakusen''), the three alls being: \"Kill All, Burn All and Loot All\".", "During the war, China was recognized as one of the Allied \"Big Four\" in the Declaration by United Nations.", "China was one of the four major Allies of World War II, and was later considered one of the primary victors in the war.Following the defeat of Japan in 1945, the war between the Nationalist government forces and the CCP resumed, after failed attempts at reconciliation and a negotiated settlement.", "By 1949, the CCP had established control over most of the country.", "Odd Arne Westad says the Communists won the Civil War because they made fewer military mistakes than Chiang, and because in his search for a powerful centralized government, Chiang antagonized too many interest groups in China.", "Furthermore, his party was weakened in the war against the Japanese.", "Meanwhile, the Communists told different groups, such as peasants, exactly what they wanted to hear, and cloaked themselves in the cover of Chinese Nationalism.", "During the civil war both the Nationalists and Communists carried out mass atrocities, with millions of non-combatants killed by both sides.", "These included deaths from forced conscription and massacres.", "When the Nationalist government forces were defeated by CCP forces in mainland China in 1949, the Nationalist government retreated to Taiwan with its forces, along with Chiang and a large number of their supporters; the Nationalist government had taken effective control of Taiwan at the end of WWII as part of the overall Japanese surrender, when Japanese troops in Taiwan surrendered to the Republic of China troops.Until the early 1970s the ROC was recognized as the sole legitimate government of China by the United Nations, the United States and most Western nations, refusing to recognize the PRC on account of the Cold War.", "This changed in 1971 when the PRC was seated in the United Nations, replacing the ROC.", "The KMT ruled Taiwan under martial law until 1987, with the stated goal of being vigilant against Communist infiltration and preparing to retake mainland China.", "Therefore, political dissent was not tolerated during that period.In the 1990s the ROC underwent a major democratic reform, beginning with the 1991 resignation of the members of the Legislative Yuan and National Assembly elected in 1947.These groups were originally created to represent mainland China constituencies.", "Also lifted were the restrictions on the use of Taiwanese languages in the broadcast media and in schools.", "This culminated with the first direct presidential election in 1996 against the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) candidate and former dissident, Peng Ming-min.", "In 2000, the KMT status as the ruling party ended when the DPP took power, only to regain its status in the 2008 election by Ma Ying-jeou.Due to the controversial nature of Taiwan's political status, the ROC is currently recognized by 12 UN member states and Holy See as of as the legitimate government of \"China\".===People's Republic of China (since 1949)===Map of the Chinese Civil WarMajor combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949 with the KMT pulling out of the mainland, with the government relocating to Taipei and maintaining control only over a few islands.", "The CCP was left in control of mainland China.", "On 1 October 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China.", "\"Communist China\" and \"Red China\" were two common names for the PRC.The PRC was shaped by a series of campaigns and five-year plans.", "The Great Leap Forward, a radical campaign that encompassed numerous attempted economic and social reforms, resulted in tens of millions of deaths.", "Mao's government carried out mass executions of landowners, instituted collectivisation and implemented the Laogai camp system.", "Execution, deaths from forced labor and other atrocities resulted in millions of deaths under Mao.", "In 1966 Mao and his allies launched the Cultural Revolution, which continued until Mao's death a decade later.", "The Cultural Revolution, motivated by power struggles within the Party and a fear of the Soviet Union, led to a major upheaval in Chinese society.In 1972, at the peak of the Sino-Soviet split, Mao and Zhou Enlai met U.S. president Richard Nixon in Beijing to establish relations with the US.", "In the same year, the PRC was admitted to the United Nations in place of the Republic of China, with permanent membership of the Security Council.A power struggle followed Mao's death in 1976.The Gang of Four were arrested and blamed for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution, marking the end of a turbulent political era in China.", "Deng Xiaoping outmaneuvered Mao's anointed successor chairman Hua Guofeng, and gradually emerged as the ''de facto'' leader over the next few years.Deng Xiaoping was the Paramount Leader of China from 1978 to 1992, although he never became the head of the party or state, and his influence within the Party led the country to significant economic reforms.", "The CCP subsequently loosened governmental control over citizens' personal lives and the communes were disbanded with many peasants receiving multiple land leases, which greatly increased incentives and agricultural production.", "In addition, there were many free market areas opened.", "The most successful free market area was Shenzhen.", "It is located in Guangdong and the property tax free area still exists today.", "This turn of events marked China's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy with an increasingly open market environment, a system termed by some as \"market socialism\", and officially by the CCP as \"Socialism with Chinese characteristics\".", "The PRC adopted its current constitution on 4 December 1982.In 1989 the death of former general secretary Hu Yaobang helped to spark the Tiananmen Square protests of that year, during which students and others campaigned for several months, speaking out against corruption and in favour of greater political reform, including democratic rights and freedom of speech.", "However, they were eventually put down on 4 June when Army troops and vehicles entered and forcibly cleared the square, with considerable numbers of fatalities.", "This event was widely reported, and brought worldwide condemnation and sanctions against the government.CCP general secretary and PRC president Jiang Zemin and PRC premier Zhu Rongji, both former mayors of Shanghai, led post-Tiananmen PRC in the 1990s.", "Under Jiang and Zhu's ten years of administration, the PRC's economic performance pulled an estimated 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual gross domestic product growth rate of 11.2%.", "The country formally joined the World Trade Organization in 2001.By 1997 and 1999, former European colonies of British Hong Kong and Portuguese Macau became the Hong Kong and Macau special administrative regions of the People's Republic of China, respectively.Although the PRC needed economic growth to spur its development, the government began to worry that rapid economic growth was degrading the country's resources and environment.", "Another concern is that certain sectors of society are not sufficiently benefiting from the PRC's economic development; one example of this is the wide gap between urban and rural areas.", "As a result, under former CCP general secretary and President Hu Jintao and Premier Wen Jiabao, the PRC initiated policies to address issues of equitable distribution of resources, but the outcome was not known .", "More than 40 million farmers were displaced from their land, usually for economic development, contributing to 87,000 demonstrations and riots across China in 2005.For much of the PRC's population, living standards improved very substantially and freedom increased, but political controls remained tight and rural areas poor.According to the U.S. Department of Defense, as many as 3 million Uyghurs and members of other Muslim minority groups are being held in China's internment camps which are located in the Xinjiang region and which American news reports often label as \"concentration camps\".", "The camps were established in late 2010s under Xi Jinping's administration.", "Human Rights Watch says that they have been used to indoctrinate Uyghurs and other Muslims since 2017 as part of a \"people's war on terror\", a policy announced in 2014.The camps have been criticized by the governments of many countries and human rights organizations for alleged human rights abuses, including mistreatment, rape, and torture, with some of them alleging genocide.The novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, which causes the disease COVID-19, was first detected in Wuhan, Hubei in 2019 and led to a global pandemic.File:PLA Enters Peking.jpg\|The People's Liberation Army enters Beijing in the Pingjin CampaignFile:China 10th Anniversary Parade in Beijing 01.jpg\|People's Republic of China 10th Anniversary Parade in BeijingFile:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg\|alt=Blue Sky White Sun Wholly Red Earth\|The flag of the People's Republic of China since 1949." ], [ "See also", "* Chinese emperors family tree** Ancient – Early – Middle – Late* Chinese exploration* Chinese historiography* Christianity in China* Economic history of China* Ethnic groups in Chinese history* Foreign relations of imperial China* Golden ages of China* History of canals in China* History of Islam in China* History of science and technology in China* History of Taiwan* History of the Great Wall of China* List of Chinese monarchs* List of rebellions in China* List of recipients of tribute from China* List of tributary states of China* Military history of China before 1912* Naval history of China* Population history of China* Timeline of Chinese history* Women in ancient and imperial China" ], [ "References", "===Notes====== Citations ======Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * ** * * " ], [ "Further reading", "* * Fairbank, John King and Goldman, Merle.", "''China: A New History.''", "2nd ed.", "(Harvard UP, 2006).", "640 pp.", "* Gernet, Jacques.", "''A History of Chinese Civilization'' (1996).", "One-volume survey.", "* Li, Xiaobing, ed.", "''China at War: An Encyclopedia''.", "(ABC-CLIO, 2012).", "* Mote, Frederick W. ''Imperial China, 900–1800'' (Harvard UP, 1999), 1,136 pp.", "Authoritative treatment of the Song, Yuan, Ming, and early Qing dynasties.", "* Perkins, Dorothy.", "''Encyclopedia of China: The Essential Reference to China, Its History and Culture'' (Facts on File, 1999).", "662 pp.", "* Roberts, J.", "A. G. ''A Concise History of China'' (Harvard U.", "Press, 1999).", "341 pp.", "* Stanford, Edward.", "''Atlas of the Chinese Empire, containing separate maps of the eighteen provinces of China'' (2nd ed., 1917).", "Legible color maps.", "* Wright, David Curtis.", "''History of China'' (2001) 257 pp." ], [ "External links", "* '' China Knowledge'', a comprehensive online encyclopedia of China from Ulrich Theobald* The '' Berkshire Encyclopedia of China'' on Oxford Reference * China Rediscovers its Own History, a lengthy lecture on Chinese history given by Yu Ying-shih" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Civil engineering" ], [ "Introduction", "Tennessee Valley Authority civil engineers monitoring hydraulics of a Tellico Dam scale model.", "'''Civil engineering''' is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including public works such as roads, bridges, canals, dams, airports, sewage systems, pipelines, structural components of buildings, and railways.Civil engineering is traditionally broken into a number of sub-disciplines.", "It is considered the second-oldest engineering discipline after military engineering, and it is defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering.", "Civil engineering can take place in the public sector from municipal public works departments through to federal government agencies, and in the private sector from locally based firms to global Fortune 500 companies." ], [ "History", "=== Civil engineering as a discipline ===Civil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles for solving the problems of society, and its history is intricately linked to advances in the understanding of physics and mathematics throughout history.", "Because civil engineering is a broad profession, including several specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of structures, materials science, geography, geology, soils, hydrology, environmental science, mechanics, project management, and other fields.Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stonemasons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder.", "Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances.", "Structures, roads, and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental.One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problems applicable to civil engineering is the work of Archimedes in the 3rd century BC, including Archimedes' principle, which underpins our understanding of buoyancy, and practical solutions such as Archimedes' screw.", "Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for excavation (volume) computations.=== Civil engineering profession ===Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence.", "The earliest practice of civil engineering may have commenced between 4000 and 2000 BC in ancient Egypt, the Indus Valley civilization, and Mesopotamia (ancient Iraq) when humans started to abandon a nomadic existence, creating a need for the construction of shelter.", "During this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel and sailing.Leonhard Euler developed the theory explaining the buckling of columns.Until modern times there was no clear distinction between civil engineering and architecture, and the term engineer and architect were mainly geographical variations referring to the same occupation, and often used interchangeably.", "The construction of pyramids in Egypt (–2500 BC) were some of the first instances of large structure constructions.", "Other ancient historic civil engineering constructions include the Qanat water management system in modern-day Iran (the oldest is older than 3000 years and longer than ,) the Parthenon by Iktinos in Ancient Greece (447–438 BC), the Appian Way by Roman engineers (), the Great Wall of China by General Meng T'ien under orders from Ch'in Emperor Shih Huang Ti () and the stupas constructed in ancient Sri Lanka like the Jetavanaramaya and the extensive irrigation works in Anuradhapura.", "The Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts, insulae, harbors, bridges, dams and roads.aqueduct built , Pont du Gard, FranceChichen Itza was a large pre-Columbian city in Mexico built by the Maya people of the Post Classic.", "The northeast column temple also covers a channel that funnels all the rainwater from the complex some away to a rejollada, a former cenote.In the 18th century, the term civil engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military engineering.", "In 1747, the first institution for the teaching of civil engineering, the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées was established in France; and more examples followed in other European countries, like Spain.", "The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton, who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse.", "In 1771 Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders of the profession who met informally over dinner.", "Though there was evidence of some technical meetings, it was little more than a social society.John Smeaton, the \"father of civil engineering\"In 1818 the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in London, and in 1820 the eminent engineer Thomas Telford became its first president.", "The institution received a Royal charter in 1828, formally recognising civil engineering as a profession.", "Its charter defined civil engineering as:===Civil engineering education===The first private college to teach civil engineering in the United States was Norwich University, founded in 1819 by Captain Alden Partridge.", "The first degree in civil engineering in the United States was awarded by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835.The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatch in 1905.In the UK during the early 19th century, the division between civil engineering and military engineering (served by the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich), coupled with the demands of the Industrial Revolution, spawned new engineering education initiatives: the Class of Civil Engineering and Mining was founded at King's College London in 1838, mainly as a response to the growth of the railway system and the need for more qualified engineers, the private College for Civil Engineers in Putney was established in 1839, and the UK's first Chair of Engineering was established at the University of Glasgow in 1840." ], [ "Education", "''Civil engineers'' typically possess an academic degree in civil engineering.", "The length of study is three to five years, and the completed degree is designated as a bachelor of technology, or a bachelor of engineering.", "The curriculum generally includes classes in physics, mathematics, project management, design and specific topics in civil engineering.", "After taking basic courses in most sub-disciplines of civil engineering, they move on to specialize in one or more sub-disciplines at advanced levels.", "While an undergraduate degree (BEng/BSc) normally provides successful students with industry-accredited qualification, some academic institutions offer post-graduate degrees (MEng/MSc), which allow students to further specialize in their particular area of interest.Surveying students with professor at the Helsinki University of Technology in the late 19th century." ], [ "Practicing engineers", "In most countries, a bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional certification, and a professional body certifies the degree program.", "After completing a certified degree program, the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements including work experience and exam requirements before being certified.", "Once certified, the engineer is designated as a professional engineer (in the United States, Canada and South Africa), a chartered engineer (in most Commonwealth countries), a chartered professional engineer (in Australia and New Zealand), or a European engineer (in most countries of the European Union).", "There are international agreements between relevant professional bodies to allow engineers to practice across national borders.The benefits of certification vary depending upon location.", "For example, in the United States and Canada, \"only a licensed professional engineer may prepare, sign and seal, and submit engineering plans and drawings to a public authority for approval, or seal engineering work for public and private clients.\"", "This requirement is enforced under provincial law such as the Engineers Act in Quebec.", "No such legislation has been enacted in other countries including the United Kingdom.", "In Australia, state licensing of engineers is limited to the state of Queensland.", "Almost all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics which all members must abide by.Engineers must obey contract law in their contractual relationships with other parties.", "In cases where an engineer's work fails, they may be subject to the law of tort of negligence, and in extreme cases, criminal charges.", "An engineer's work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations such as building codes and environmental law." ], [ "Sub-disciplines", "The Akashi Kaikyō Bridge in Japan, currently the world's longest suspension span.There are a number of sub-disciplines within the broad field of civil engineering.", "General civil engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to design grading, drainage, pavement, water supply, sewer service, dams, electric and communications supply.", "General civil engineering is also referred to as site engineering, a branch of civil engineering that primarily focuses on converting a tract of land from one usage to another.", "Site engineers spend time visiting project sites, meeting with stakeholders, and preparing construction plans.", "Civil engineers apply the principles of geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, environmental engineering, transportation engineering and construction engineering to residential, commercial, industrial and public works projects of all sizes and levels of construction.===Coastal engineering===Oosterscheldekering, a storm surge barrier in the Netherlands.", "''Coastal engineering'' is concerned with managing coastal areas.", "In some jurisdictions, the terms sea defense and coastal protection mean defense against flooding and erosion, respectively.", "Coastal defense is the more traditional term, but coastal management has become popular as well.===Construction engineering===''Construction engineering'' involves planning and execution, transportation of materials, site development based on hydraulic, environmental, structural and geotechnical engineering.", "As construction firms tend to have higher business risk than other types of civil engineering firms do, construction engineers often engage in more business-like transactions, for example, drafting and reviewing contracts, evaluating logistical operations, and monitoring prices of supplies.===Earthquake engineering===''Earthquake engineering'' involves designing structures to withstand hazardous earthquake exposures.", "Earthquake engineering is a sub-discipline of structural engineering.", "The main objectives of earthquake engineering are to understand interaction of structures on the shaky ground; foresee the consequences of possible earthquakes; and design, construct and maintain structures to perform at earthquake in compliance with building codes.===Environmental engineering===Creek contaminated with water pollution''Environmental engineering'' is the contemporary term for sanitary engineering, though sanitary engineering traditionally had not included much of the hazardous waste management and environmental remediation work covered by environmental engineering.", "Public health engineering and environmental health engineering are other terms being used.Environmental engineering deals with treatment of chemical, biological, or thermal wastes, purification of water and air, and remediation of contaminated sites after waste disposal or accidental contamination.", "Among the topics covered by environmental engineering are pollutant transport, water purification, waste water treatment, air pollution, solid waste treatment, recycling, and hazardous waste management.", "Environmental engineers administer pollution reduction, green engineering, and industrial ecology.", "Environmental engineers also compile information on environmental consequences of proposed actions.===Forensic engineering===''Forensic engineering'' is the investigation of materials, products, structures or components that fail or do not operate or function as intended, causing personal injury or damage to property.", "The consequences of failure are dealt with by the law of product liability.", "The field also deals with retracing processes and procedures leading to accidents in operation of vehicles or machinery.", "The subject is applied most commonly in civil law cases, although it may be of use in criminal law cases.", "Generally the purpose of a Forensic engineering investigation is to locate cause or causes of failure with a view to improve performance or life of a component, or to assist a court in determining the facts of an accident.", "It can also involve investigation of intellectual property claims, especially patents.===Geotechnical engineering===A phase diagram of soil indicating the weights and volumes of air, soil, water, and voids.", "''Geotechnical engineering'' studies rock and soil supporting civil engineering systems.", "Knowledge from the field of soil science, materials science, mechanics, and hydraulics is applied to safely and economically design foundations, retaining walls, and other structures.", "Environmental efforts to protect groundwater and safely maintain landfills have spawned a new area of research called geo-environmental engineering.Identification of soil properties presents challenges to geotechnical engineers.", "Boundary conditions are often well defined in other branches of civil engineering, but unlike steel or concrete, the material properties and behavior of soil are difficult to predict due to its variability and limitation on investigation.", "Furthermore, soil exhibits nonlinear (stress-dependent) strength, stiffness, and dilatancy (volume change associated with application of shear stress), making studying soil mechanics all the more difficult.", "Geotechnical engineers frequently work with professional geologists, Geological Engineering professionals and soil scientists.===Materials science and engineering===''Materials science'' is closely related to civil engineering.", "It studies fundamental characteristics of materials, and deals with ceramics such as concrete and mix asphalt concrete, strong metals such as aluminum and steel, and thermosetting polymers including polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and carbon fibers.", "''Materials engineering'' involves protection and prevention (paints and finishes).", "Alloying combines two types of metals to produce another metal with desired properties.", "It incorporates elements of applied physics and chemistry.", "With recent media attention on nanoscience and nanotechnology, materials engineering has been at the forefront of academic research.", "It is also an important part of forensic engineering and failure analysis.===Site development and planning===Plan draft of proposed mixed-use site''Site development'', also known as ''site planning'', is focused on the planning and development potential of a site as well as addressing possible impacts from permitting issues and environmental challenges.===Structural engineering===thumbtime=0:23Shallow foundation construction example''Structural engineering'' is concerned with the structural design and structural analysis of buildings, bridges, towers, flyovers (overpasses), tunnels, off shore structures like oil and gas fields in the sea, aerostructure and other structures.", "This involves identifying the loads which act upon a structure and the forces and stresses which arise within that structure due to those loads, and then designing the structure to successfully support and resist those loads.", "The loads can be self weight of the structures, other dead load, live loads, moving (wheel) load, wind load, earthquake load, load from temperature change etc.", "The structural engineer must design structures to be safe for their users and to successfully fulfill the function they are designed for (to be ''serviceable'').", "Due to the nature of some loading conditions, sub-disciplines within structural engineering have emerged, including wind engineering and earthquake engineering.Design considerations will include strength, stiffness, and stability of the structure when subjected to loads which may be static, such as furniture or self-weight, or dynamic, such as wind, seismic, crowd or vehicle loads, or transitory, such as temporary construction loads or impact.", "Other considerations include cost, constructibility, safety, aesthetics and sustainability.===Surveying=== ''Surveying'' is the process by which a surveyor measures certain dimensions that occur on or near the surface of the Earth.", "Surveying equipment such as levels and theodolites are used for accurate measurement of angular deviation, horizontal, vertical and slope distances.", "With computerisation, electronic distance measurement (EDM), total stations, GPS surveying and laser scanning have to a large extent supplanted traditional instruments.", "Data collected by survey measurement is converted into a graphical representation of the Earth's surface in the form of a map.", "This information is then used by civil engineers, contractors and realtors to design from, build on, and trade, respectively.", "Elements of a structure must be sized and positioned in relation to each other and to site boundaries and adjacent structures.Although surveying is a distinct profession with separate qualifications and licensing arrangements, civil engineers are trained in the basics of surveying and mapping, as well as geographic information systems.", "Surveyors also lay out the routes of railways, tramway tracks, highways, roads, pipelines and streets as well as position other infrastructure, such as harbors, before construction.", ";Land surveyingIn the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom and most Commonwealth countries land surveying is considered to be a separate and distinct profession.", "Land surveyors are not considered to be engineers, and have their own professional associations and licensing requirements.", "The services of a licensed land surveyor are generally required for boundary surveys (to establish the boundaries of a parcel using its legal description) and subdivision plans (a plot or map based on a survey of a parcel of land, with boundary lines drawn inside the larger parcel to indicate the creation of new boundary lines and roads), both of which are generally referred to as Cadastral surveying.BLM cadastral survey marker from 1992 in San Xavier, Arizona.", ";Construction surveyingConstruction surveying is generally performed by specialized technicians.", "Unlike land surveyors, the resulting plan does not have legal status.", "Construction surveyors perform the following tasks:* Surveying existing conditions of the future work site, including topography, existing buildings and infrastructure, and underground infrastructure when possible;* \"lay-out\" or \"setting-out\": placing reference points and markers that will guide the construction of new structures such as roads or buildings;* Verifying the location of structures during construction;* As-Built surveying: a survey conducted at the end of the construction project to verify that the work authorized was completed to the specifications set on plans.===Transportation engineering===''Transportation engineering'' is concerned with moving people and goods efficiently, safely, and in a manner conducive to a vibrant community.", "This involves specifying, designing, constructing, and maintaining transportation infrastructure which includes streets, canals, highways, rail systems, airports, ports, and mass transit.", "It includes areas such as transportation design, transportation planning, traffic engineering, some aspects of urban engineering, queueing theory, pavement engineering, Intelligent Transportation System (ITS), and infrastructure management.===Municipal or urban engineering===The engineering of this roundabout in Bristol, England, attempts to make traffic flow free-movingLake Chapultepec''Municipal engineering'' is concerned with municipal infrastructure.", "This involves specifying, designing, constructing, and maintaining streets, sidewalks, water supply networks, sewers, street lighting, municipal solid waste management and disposal, storage depots for various bulk materials used for maintenance and public works (salt, sand, etc.", "), public parks and cycling infrastructure.", "In the case of underground utility networks, it may also include the civil portion (conduits and access chambers) of the local distribution networks of electrical and telecommunications services.", "It can also include the optimizing of waste collection and bus service networks.", "Some of these disciplines overlap with other civil engineering specialties, however municipal engineering focuses on the coordination of these infrastructure networks and services, as they are often built simultaneously, and managed by the same municipal authority.", "Municipal engineers may also design the site civil works for large buildings, industrial plants or campuses (i.e.", "access roads, parking lots, potable water supply, treatment or pretreatment of waste water, site drainage, etc.", ")===Water resources engineering===Hoover Dam ''Water resources engineering'' is concerned with the collection and management of water (as a natural resource).", "As a discipline it therefore combines elements of hydrology, environmental science, meteorology, conservation, and resource management.", "This area of civil engineering relates to the prediction and management of both the quality and the quantity of water in both underground (aquifers) and above ground (lakes, rivers, and streams) resources.", "Water resource engineers analyze and model very small to very large areas of the earth to predict the amount and content of water as it flows into, through, or out of a facility.", "Although the actual design of the facility may be left to other engineers.", "''Hydraulic engineering'' is concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water.", "This area of civil engineering is intimately related to the design of pipelines, water supply network, drainage facilities (including bridges, dams, channels, culverts, levees, storm sewers), and canals.", "Hydraulic engineers design these facilities using the concepts of fluid pressure, fluid statics, fluid dynamics, and hydraulics, among others.The Falkirk Wheel in Scotland===Civil engineering systems===Civil engineering systems is a discipline that promotes the use of systems thinking to manage complexity and change in civil engineering within its wider public context.", "It posits that the proper development of civil engineering infrastructure requires a holistic, coherent understanding of the relationships between all of the important factors that contribute to successful projects while at the same time emphasizing the importance of attention to technical detail.", "Its purpose is to help integrate the entire civil engineering project life cycle from conception, through planning, designing, making, operating to decommissioning." ], [ "See also", "* Architectural engineering* Civil engineering software* Engineering drawing* Geological Engineering* Geomatics engineering* Glossary of civil engineering* Index of civil engineering articles* List of civil engineers* List of engineering branches* List of Historic Civil Engineering Landmarks* Macro-engineering* Railway engineering* Site survey=== Associations ===* American Society of Civil Engineers* Canadian Society for Civil Engineering* Chartered Institution of Civil Engineering Surveyors* Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria* Earthquake Engineering Research Institute* Engineers Australia* European Federation of National Engineering Associations* International Federation of Consulting Engineers* Indian Geotechnical Society* Institution of Civil Engineers* Institution of Structural Engineers* Institute of Engineering (Nepal)* International Society of Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering* Institution of Engineers, Bangladesh* Institution of Engineers (India)* Institution of Engineers of Ireland* Institute of Transportation Engineers* Japan Society of Civil Engineers* Pakistan Engineering Council* Philippine Institute of Civil Engineers* Transportation Research Board" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * " ], [ "External links", " The Institution of Civil Engineers* Civil Engineering Software Database* The Institution of Civil Engineering Surveyors* Civil engineering classes, from MIT OpenCourseWare" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Cantonese (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cantonese''' is a language originating in Canton, Guangdong.", "'''Cantonese''' may also refer to:* Yue Chinese, Chinese languages that include Cantonese* Cantonese cuisine, the cuisine of Guangdong Province* Cantonese people, the native people of Guangdong and Guangxi* Lingnan culture, the regional culture often referred to as Cantonese culture" ], [ "See also", "* Cantonese Braille, a Cantonese-language version of Braille in Hong Kong* Cantopop, Cantonese pop music*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Çatalhöyük" ], [ "Introduction", "Calibrated Carbon 14 dates for Çatalhöyük, as of 2013.", "'''Çatalhöyük''' (; also ''Çatal Höyük'' and ''Çatal Hüyük''; from Turkish ''çatal'' \"fork\" + ''höyük'' \"tumulus\") is a tell (a mounded accretion due to long-term human settlement) of a very large Neolithic and Chalcolithic proto-city settlement in southern Anatolia, which existed from approximately 7500 BC to 6400 BC, and flourished around 7000 BC.", "In July 2012, it was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.Çatalhöyük overlooks the Konya Plain, southeast of the present-day city of Konya (ancient Iconium) in Turkey, approximately 140 km (87 mi) from the twin-coned volcano of Mount Hasan.", "The eastern settlement forms a mound that would have risen about 20 m (66 ft) above the plain at the time of the latest Neolithic occupation.", "There is also a smaller settlement mound to the west and a Byzantine settlement a few hundred meters to the east.", "The prehistoric mound settlements were abandoned before the Bronze Age.", "A channel of the Çarşamba River once flowed between the two mounds, and the settlement was built on alluvial clay which may have been favorable for early agriculture.", "Currently the closest river to it is the Euphrates." ], [ "Archaeology", " Model of the neolithic settlement ( 7300 BC ) of Catal HöyükThe site was first excavated by James Mellaart in 1958.He later led a team which further excavated there for four seasons between 1961 and 1965.These excavations revealed this section of Anatolia as a centre of advanced culture in the Neolithic period.", "Excavation revealed 18 successive layers of buildings signifying various stages of the settlement and eras of history.", "The bottom layer of buildings can be dated as early as 7100 BC while the top layer is from 5600 BC.Mellaart was banned from Turkey for his involvement in the Dorak affair in which he published drawings of supposedly important Bronze Age artifacts that later went missing.", "After this scandal, the site lay idle until 1993, when investigations began under the leadership of Ian Hodder, then at the University of Cambridge.", "The Hodder led excavations ended in 2018.Hodder, a former student of Mellaart, chose the site as the first \"real world\" test of his then-controversial theory of post-processual archaeology.", "The site has always had a strong research emphasis upon engagement with digital methodologies, driven by the project's experimental and reflexive methodological framework.", "According to Mickel, Hodder's Çatalhöyük Research Project (ÇRP) established itself as a site for progressive methodologies - in terms of adaptable and democratized recording, integration of computerized technologies, sampling strategies, and community involvement.", "\"New excavations are being directed by Ali Umut Türkcan from Anadolu University." ], [ "Culture", "On-site restoration of a typical interior.The earliest excavations of the site.Deep trenches in the site.", "Animation showing a reconstruction of Catalhöyük, German narration with English subtitlesÇatalhöyük was composed entirely of domestic buildings, with no obvious public buildings.", "While some of the larger rooms have rather ornate murals, the purpose of others remains unclear.The population of the eastern mound has been estimated to be around 10,000 people, but the population likely varied over the community's history.", "An average population of between 5,000 and 7,000 is a reasonable estimate.", "The sites were set up as large numbers of buildings clustered together.", "Households looked to their neighbors for help, trade, and possible marriage for their children.", "The inhabitants lived in mudbrick houses that were crammed together in an aggregate structure.", "No footpaths or streets were used between the dwellings, which were clustered in a honeycomb-like maze.", "Most were accessed by holes in the ceiling and doors on the side of the houses, with doors reached by ladders and stairs.", "The rooftops were effectively streets.", "The ceiling openings also served as the only source of ventilation, allowing smoke from the houses' open hearths and ovens to escape.", "Houses had plaster interiors accessed by squared-off timber ladders or steep stairs.", "These were usually on the south wall of the room, as were cooking hearths and ovens.", "The main rooms contained raised platforms that may have been used for a range of domestic activities.", "Typical houses contained two rooms for everyday activity, such as cooking and crafting.", "All interior walls and platforms were plastered to a smooth finish.", "Ancillary rooms were used as storage, and were accessed through low openings from main rooms.All rooms were kept scrupulously clean.", "Archaeologists identified very little rubbish in the buildings, finding middens outside the ruins, with sewage and food waste, as well as significant amounts of ash from burning wood, reeds and animal dung.", "In good weather, many daily activities may also have taken place on the rooftops, which may have formed a plaza.", "In later periods, large communal ovens appear to have been built on these rooftops.", "Over time, houses were renewed by partial demolition and rebuilding on a foundation of rubble, which was how the mound was gradually built up.", "As many as eighteen levels of settlement have been uncovered.As a part of ritual life, the people of Çatalhöyük buried their dead within the village.", "Human remains have been found in pits beneath the floors and, especially, beneath hearths, the platforms within the main rooms, and under beds.", "Bodies were tightly flexed before burial and were often placed in baskets or wound and wrapped in reed mats.", "Disarticulated bones in some graves suggest that bodies may have been exposed in the open air for a time before the bones were gathered and buried.", "In some cases, graves were disturbed, and the individual's head removed from the skeleton.", "These heads may have been used in rituals, as some were found in other areas of the community.", "In a woman's grave spinning whorls were recovered and in a man's grave, stone axes.", "Some skulls were plastered and painted with ochre to recreate faces, a custom more characteristic of Neolithic sites in Syria and at Neolithic Jericho than at sites closer by.Detail of the mural showing the hind part of the aurochs, a deer and hunters.Vivid murals and figurines are found throughout the settlement, on interior and exterior walls.", "Distinctive clay figurines of women, notably the Seated Woman of Çatalhöyük, have been found in the upper levels of the site.", "Although no identifiable temples have been found, the graves, murals, and figurines suggest that the people of Çatalhöyük had a religion rich in symbols.", "Rooms with concentrations of these items may have been shrines or public meeting areas.", "Predominant images include men with erect phalluses, hunting scenes, red images of the now extinct aurochs (wild cattle) and stags, and vultures swooping down on headless figures.", "Relief figures are carved on walls, such as of lionesses facing one another.Heads of animals, especially of cattle, were mounted on walls.", "A painting of the village, with the twin mountain peaks of Hasan Dağ in the background, is frequently cited as the world's oldest map, and the first landscape painting.", "However, some archaeologists question this interpretation.", "Stephanie Meece, for example, argues that it is more likely a painting of a leopard skin instead of a volcano, and a decorative geometric design instead of a map." ], [ "Religion", "Mural, Museum of Anatolian Civilizations.Neolithic hunters attacking an aurochs, Museum of Anatolian Civilizations.Seated goddess flanked by two felines, leopards or lionessesA feature of Çatalhöyük are its female figurines.", "Mellaart, the original excavator, argued that these carefully made figurines, carved and molded from marble, blue and brown limestone, schist, calcite, basalt, alabaster, and clay, represented a female deity.", "Although a male deity existed as well, \"statues of a female deity far outnumber those of the male deity, who moreover, does not appear to be represented at all after Level VI\".", "To date, eighteen levels have been identified.", "These figurines were found primarily in areas Mellaart believed to be shrines.", "The stately goddess seated on a throne flanked by two lionesses was found in a grain bin, which Mellaart suggests might have been a means of ensuring the harvest or protecting the food supply.Whereas Mellaart excavated nearly two hundred buildings in four seasons, the current excavator, Ian Hodder, spent an entire season excavating one building alone.", "Hodder and his team, in 2004 and 2005, began to believe that the patterns suggested by Mellaart were false.", "They found one similar figurine, but the vast majority did not imitate the Mother Goddess style that Mellaart suggested.", "Instead of a Mother Goddess culture, Hodder points out that the site gives little indication of a matriarchy or patriarchy.In an article in the ''Turkish Daily News'', Hodder is reported as denying that Çatalhöyük was a matriarchal society and quoted as saying \"When we look at what they eat and drink and at their social statues, we see that men and women had the same social status.", "There was a balance of power.", "Another example is the skulls found.", "If one's social status was of high importance in Çatalhöyük, the body and head were separated after death.", "The number of female and male skulls found during the excavations is almost equal.\"", "In another article in the ''Hurriyet Daily News'' Hodder is reported to say \"We have learned that men and women were equally approached\".In a report in September 2009 on the discovery of around 2000 figurines Hodder is quoted as saying:Professor Lynn Meskell explained that while the original excavations had found only 200 figures, the new excavations had uncovered 2,000 figures, most of which depicted animals, and fewer than 5% of the figurines depicted women.Estonian folklorist Uku Masing has suggested as early as in 1976, that Çatalhöyük was probably a hunting and gathering religion and the Mother Goddess figurine did not represent a female deity.", "He implied that perhaps a longer period of time was needed to develop symbols for agricultural rites.", "His theory was developed in the paper \"Some remarks on the mythology of the people of Catal Hüyük\"." ], [ "Economy", "Çatalhöyük has strong evidence of an egalitarian society, as no houses with distinctive features (belonging to royalty or religious hierarchy, for example) have been found so far.", "The most recent investigations also reveal little social distinction based on gender, with men and women receiving equivalent nutrition and seeming to have equal social status, as typically found in Paleolithic cultures.", "Children observed domestic areas.", "They learned how to perform rituals and how to build or repair houses by watching the adults make statues, beads and other objects.Çatalhöyük's spatial layout may be due to the close kin relations exhibited amongst the people.", "It can be seen, in the layout, that the people were \"divided into two groups who lived on opposite sides of the town, separated by a gully.\"", "Furthermore, because no nearby towns were found from which marriage partners could be drawn, \"this spatial separation must have marked two intermarrying kinship groups.\"", "This would help explain how a settlement so early on would become so large.Protective roof of the archeological site.In the upper levels of the site, it becomes apparent that the people of Çatalhöyük were honing skills in agriculture and the domestication of animals.", "Female figurines have been found within bins used for storage of cereals, such as wheat and barley, and the figurines are presumed to be of a deity protecting the grain.", "Peas were also grown, and almonds, pistachios and fruit were harvested from trees in the surrounding hills.", "Sheep were domesticated and evidence suggests the beginning of cattle domestication as well.", "However, hunting continued to be a major source of food for the community.", "Pottery and obsidian tools appear to have been major industries; obsidian tools were probably both used and also traded for items such as Mediterranean sea shells and flint from Syria.", "Noting the lack of hierarchy and economic inequality, historian and anti-capitalist author Murray Bookchin has argued that Çatalhöyük was an early example of anarcho-communism.Conversely, a 2014 paper argues that the picture of Çatalhöyük is more complex and that while there seemed to have been an egalitarian distribution of cooking tools and some stone tools, unbroken quern-stones and storage units were more unevenly distributed.", "Private property existed but shared tools also existed.", "It was also suggested that Çatalhöyük was becoming less egalitarian, with greater inter-generational wealth transmission." ], [ "See also", "Boncuklu HöyükCities of the ancient Near EastCucuteni–Trypillian cultureGöbekli TepeKamyana MohylaList of largest cities throughout historyList of Stone Age artMatriarchyNeolithic RevolutionOld Europe (archaeology)Sacred bullVenus figurines" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Bailey, Douglass.", "''Prehistoric Figurines: Representation and Corporeality in the Neolithic.''", "New York: Routledge, 2005 (hardcover, ; paperback, ).", "* Balter, Michael.", "''The Goddess and the Bull: Çatalhöyük: An Archaeological Journey to the Dawn of Civilization.''", "New York: Free Press, 2004 (hardcover, ); Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press, 2006 (paperback, ).", "A highly condensed version was published in ''The Smithsonian Magazine'', May 2005.", "* Dural, Sadrettin.", "\"Protecting Catalhoyuk: Memoir of an Archaeological Site Guard.\"", "Contributions by Ian Hodder.", "Translated by Duygu Camurcuoglu Cleere.", "Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press, 2007..* Hodder, Ian.", "\"Women and Men at Çatalhöyük,\" ''Scientific American Magazine'', January 2004 (update V15:1, 2005).", "* Hodder, I.", "(2014).", "\"Çatalhöyük excavations: the 2000-2008 seasons.", "\", British Institute at Ankara, Monumenta Archaeologica 29, * Hodder, Ian.", "''Twenty-Five Years of Research at Çatalhöyük'', Near Eastern Archaeology; Chicago, vol.", "83, iss.", "2, pp.", "72–29, June 2020* Hodder, Ian.", "''The Leopard's Tale: Revealing the Mysteries of Çatalhöyük''.", "London; New York: Thames & Hudson, 2006 (hardcover, ).", "(The UK title of this work is ''Çatalhöyük: The Leopard's Tale''.", ")Hodder, Ian; Bogaard, Amy; Engel, Claudia; Pearson, Jessica; Wolfhagen, Jesse., \"Spatial autocorrelation analysis and the social organisation of crop and herd management at Çatalhöyük\", Anatolian Studies, London, vol.", "72, pp.", "1–15, 2022Mallett, Marla, \"The Goddess from Anatolia: An Updated View of the Catak Huyuk Controversy,\" in Oriental Rug Review, Vol.", "XIII, No.", "2 (December 1992/January 1993).", "* Mellaart, James.", "''Çatal Hüyük: A Neolithic Town in Anatolia.''", "London: Thames & Hudson, 1967; New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1967.Online at archive.org* ''On the Surface: Çatalhöyük 1993–95'', edited by Ian Hodder.", "Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research and British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara, 1996 ().", "* * Todd, Ian A.", "''Çatal Hüyük in Perspective''.", "Menlo Park, CA: Cummings Pub.", "Co., 1976 (; )." ], [ "External links", "* What we learned from 25 Years of Research at Catalhoyuk - Ian Hodder - Oriental Institute lecture Dec 4, 2019* Çatalhöyük — Excavations of a Neolithic Anatolian Höyük, Çatalhöyük excavation official website* Çatalhöyük photos* The First Cities: Why Settle Down?", "The Mystery of Communities, by Michael Balter, Çatalhöyük excavation official biographer* Interview with Ian Hodder March 201 \"Ian Hodder: Çatalhöyük, Religion & Templeton's 25%\"" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Clement Attlee" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Clement Richard Attlee, 1st Earl Attlee''', (3 January 18838 October 1967) was a British statesman and Labour Party politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1945 to 1951 and Leader of the Labour Party from 1935 to 1955.He was Deputy Prime Minister during the wartime coalition government under Winston Churchill, and served twice as Leader of the Opposition from 1935 to 1940 and from 1951 to 1955.Attlee remains the longest serving Labour leader and is widely considered by historians and members of the public through various polls to be one of the greatest Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom.Attlee was born into an upper-middle-class family, the son of a wealthy London solicitor.", "After attending Haileybury College and the University of Oxford, he practised as a barrister.", "The volunteer work he carried out in London's East End exposed him to poverty, and his political views shifted leftwards thereafter.", "He joined the Independent Labour Party, gave up his legal career, and began lecturing at the London School of Economics; with his work briefly interrupted by service in the First World War.", "In 1919, he became mayor of Stepney and in 1922 was elected as the Member for Limehouse.", "Attlee served in the first Labour minority government led by Ramsay MacDonald in 1924, and then joined the Cabinet during MacDonald's second minority (1929–1931).", "After retaining his seat in Labour's landslide defeat of 1931, he became the party's Deputy Leader.", "Elected Leader of the Labour Party in 1935, and at first advocating pacificism and opposing re-armament, he became a critic of Neville Chamberlain's policy of appeasement in the lead-up to the Second World War.", "Attlee took Labour into the wartime coalition government in 1940 and served under Winston Churchill, initially as Lord Privy Seal and then as Deputy Prime Minister from 1942.As the European front of WWII reached its conclusion, the war cabinet headed by Churchill was dissolved and elections were scheduled to be held.", "The Labour Party, led by Attlee, won a landslide victory in the 1945 general election, on their post-war recovery platform.", "Following the election, Attlee led the construction of the first Labour majority government.", "His government's Keynesian approach to economic management aimed to maintain full employment, a mixed economy and a greatly enlarged system of social services provided by the state.", "To this end, it undertook the nationalisation of public utilities and major industries, and implemented wide-ranging social reforms, including the passing of the National Insurance Act 1946 and National Assistance Act 1948, the formation of the National Health Service (NHS) in 1948, and the enlargement of public subsidies for council house building.", "His government also reformed trade union legislation, working practices and children's services; it created the National Parks system, passed the New Towns Act 1946 and established the town and country planning system.", "The Attlee government proved itself to be a radical, reforming government.", "From 1945 to 1948, over 200 public Acts of Parliament were passed, with eight major pieces of legislation placed on the statute book in 1946 alone.Attlee's foreign policy focused on decolonization efforts which he delegated to Ernest Bevin, but Attlee personally oversaw the partition of India (1947), the independence of Burma and Ceylon, and the dissolution of the British mandates of Palestine and Transjordan.", "Attlee and Bevin encouraged the United States to take a vigorous role in the Cold War; unable to afford military intervention in Greece during its civil war, he called on Washington to counter the communists there.", "The strategy of containment was formalized between the two nations through the Truman Doctrine.", "He supported the Marshall Plan to rebuild Western Europe with American money and, in 1949, promoted the NATO military alliance against the Soviet bloc.", "After leading Labour to a narrow victory at the 1950 general election, he sent British troops to fight alongside South Korea in the Korean War.Attlee had inherited a country close to bankruptcy following the Second World War and beset by food, housing and resource shortages; despite his social reforms and economic programme, these problems persisted throughout his premiership, alongside recurrent currency crises and dependence on US aid.", "His party was narrowly defeated by the Conservatives in the 1951 general election, despite winning the most votes.", "He continued as Labour leader but retired after losing the 1955 election and was elevated to the House of Lords, where he served until his death in 1967.In public, he was modest and unassuming, but behind the scenes his depth of knowledge, quiet demeanour, objectivity and pragmatism proved decisive.", "He is often ranked as one of the greatest British prime ministers.", "In 2004, he was voted the most successful British Prime Minister of the 20th century by a poll of 139 academics.", "The majority of those responses singled out the Attlee government's welfare state reforms and the creation of the NHS as the key 20th century domestic policy achievements.", "He is also commended for continuing the 'Special Relationship' with the US and active involvement in NATO." ], [ "Early life", "Attlee was born on 3 January 1883 in Putney, Surrey (now part of London), into an upper middle-class family, the seventh of eight children.", "His father was Henry Attlee (1841–1908), a solicitor, and his mother was Ellen Bravery Watson (1847–1920), daughter of Thomas Simons Watson, secretary for the Art Union of London.", "His parents were \"committed Anglicans\" who read prayers and psalms each morning at breakfast.Attlee grew up in a two-storey villa with a large garden and tennis court, staffed by three servants and a gardener.", "His father, a political Liberal, had inherited family interests in milling and brewing, and became a senior partner in the law firm of Druces, also serving a term as president of the Law Society of England and Wales.", "In 1898 he purchased a estate, Comarques in Thorpe-le-Soken, Essex.", "At the age of nine, Attlee was sent to board at Northaw Place, a boys' preparatory school in Hertfordshire.", "In 1896 he followed his brothers to Haileybury College, where he was a middling student.", "He was influenced by the Darwinist views of his housemaster Frederick Webb Headley, and in 1899 he published an attack on striking London cab-drivers in the school magazine, predicting they would soon have to \"beg for their fares\".In 1901, Attlee went up to University College, Oxford, reading modern history.", "He and his brother Tom \"were given a generous stipend by their father and embraced the university lifestyle—rowing, reading and socializing\".", "He was later described by a tutor as \"level-headed, industrious, dependable man with no brilliance of style ... but with excellent sound judgement\".", "At university he had little interest in politics or economics, later describing his views at this time as \"good old fashioned imperialist conservative\".", "He graduated Bachelor of Arts in 1904 with second-class honours.Attlee then trained as a barrister at the Inner Temple and was called to the bar in March 1906.He worked for a time at his father's law firm Druces and Attlee but did not enjoy the work, and had no particular ambition to succeed in the legal profession.", "He also played football for non-League club Fleet.", "Attlee's father died in 1908, leaving an estate valued for probate at £75,394 (equivalent to £ in ).=== Early career ===In 1906, he became a volunteer at Haileybury House, a charitable club for working-class boys in Stepney in the East End of London run by his old school, and from 1907 to 1909 he served as the club's manager.", "Until then, his political views had been more conservative.", "However, after his shock at the poverty and deprivation he saw while working with the slum children, he came to the view that private charity would never be sufficient to alleviate poverty and that only direct action and income redistribution by the state would have any serious effect.", "This sparked a process that caused him to convert to socialism.", "He subsequently joined the Independent Labour Party (ILP) in 1908 and became active in local politics.", "In 1909, he stood unsuccessfully at his first election, as an ILP candidate for Stepney Borough Council.He also worked briefly as a secretary for Beatrice Webb in 1909, before becoming a secretary for Toynbee Hall.", "He worked for Webb's campaign of popularisation of the Minority Report as he was very active in Fabian Society circles, in which he would go round visiting many political societies—Liberal, Conservative and socialist—to explain and popularise the ideas, as well as recruiting lecturers deemed suitable to work on the campaign.", "In 1911, he was employed by the Government as an \"official explainer\"—touring the country to explain Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George's National Insurance Act.", "He spent the summer of that year touring Essex and Somerset on a bicycle, explaining the Act at public meetings.", "A year later, he became a lecturer at the London School of Economics, teaching social science and public administration.", "=== Military service ===Following the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914, Attlee applied to join the British Army.", "Initially his application was turned down, as his age of 31 was seen as being too old; however, he was eventually commissioned as a temporary lieutenant in the 6th (Service) Battalion, South Lancashire Regiment, on 30 September 1914.On 9 February 1915 he was promoted to captain, and on 14 March was appointed battalion adjutant.", "The 6th South Lancashires were part of the 38th Brigade of the 13th (Western) Division, which served in the Gallipoli campaign in Turkey.", "Attlee's decision to fight caused a rift between him and his older brother Tom, who, as a conscientious objector, spent much of the war in prison.After a period spent fighting in Gallipoli, Attlee collapsed after falling ill with dysentery and was put on a ship bound for England to recover.", "When he woke up he wanted to get back to action as soon as possible, and asked to be let off the ship in Malta, where he stayed in hospital in order to recover.", "His hospitalisation coincided with the Battle of Sari Bair, which saw a large number of his comrades killed.", "Upon returning to action, he was informed that his company had been chosen to hold the final lines during the evacuation of Suvla.", "As such, he was the penultimate man to be evacuated from Suvla Bay, the last being General Stanley Maude.Attlee (seen in the centre) in 1916, aged 33, whilst serving in Mesopotamia.The Gallipoli Campaign had been engineered by the First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill.", "Although it was unsuccessful, Attlee believed that it was a bold strategy which could have been successful if it had been better implemented on the ground.", "This led to an admiration for Churchill as a military strategist, something which would make their working relationship in later years productive.He later served in the Mesopotamian campaign in what is now Iraq, where in April 1916 he was badly wounded, being hit in the leg by shrapnel from friendly fire while storming an enemy trench during the Battle of Hanna.", "The battle was an unsuccessful attempt to relieve the Siege of Kut, and many of Attlee's fellow soldiers were also wounded or killed.", "He was sent firstly to India, and then back to the UK to recover.", "On 18 December 1916 he was transferred to the Heavy Section of the Machine Gun Corps, and 1 March 1917 he was promoted to the temporary rank of major, leading him to be known as \"Major Attlee\" for much of the inter-war period.", "He would spend most of 1917 training soldiers at various locations in England.", "From 2 to 9 July 1917, he was the temporary commanding officer (CO) of the newly formed L (later 10th) Battalion, the Tank Corps at Bovington Camp, Dorset.", "From 9 July, he assumed command of the 30th Company of the same battalion; however, he did not deploy to France with it in December 1917, as he was transferred back to the South Lancashire Regiment on 28 November.After fully recovering from his injuries, he was sent to France in June 1918 to serve on the Western Front for the final months of the war.", "After being discharged from the Army in January 1919, he returned to Stepney, and returned to his old job lecturing part-time at the London School of Economics." ], [ "Early political career", "===Local politics===Attlee returned to local politics in the immediate post-war period, becoming mayor of the Metropolitan Borough of Stepney, one of London's most deprived inner-city boroughs, in 1919.During his time as mayor, the council undertook action to tackle slum landlords who charged high rents but refused to spend money on keeping their property in habitable condition.", "The council served and enforced legal orders on homeowners to repair their property.", "It also appointed health visitors and sanitary inspectors, reducing the infant mortality rate, and took action to find work for returning unemployed ex-servicemen.In 1920, while mayor, he wrote his first book, ''The Social Worker'', which set out many of the principles that informed his political philosophy and that were to underpin the actions of his government in later years.", "The book attacked the idea that looking after the poor could be left to voluntary action.", "He wrote that:In a civilised community, although it may be composed of self-reliant individuals, there will be some persons who will be unable at some period of their lives to look after themselves, and the question of what is to happen to them may be solved in three ways – they may be neglected, they may be cared for by the organised community as of right, or they may be left to the goodwill of individuals in the community.", "... Charity is only possible without loss of dignity between equals.", "A right established by law, such as that to an old age pension, is less galling than an allowance made by a rich man to a poor one, dependent on his view of the recipient's character, and terminable at his caprice.", "In 1921, George Lansbury, the Labour mayor of the neighbouring borough of Poplar, and future Labour Party leader, launched the Poplar Rates Rebellion; a campaign of disobedience seeking to equalise the poor relief burden across all the London boroughs.", "Attlee, who was a personal friend of Lansbury, strongly supported this.", "However, Herbert Morrison, the Labour mayor of nearby Hackney, and one of the main figures in the London Labour Party, strongly denounced Lansbury and the rebellion.", "During this period, Attlee developed a lifelong dislike of Morrison.===Member of Parliament===At the 1922 general election, Attlee became the Member of Parliament (MP) for the constituency of Limehouse in Stepney.", "At the time, he admired Ramsay MacDonald and helped him get elected as Labour Party leader at the 1922 leadership election.", "He served as MacDonald's Parliamentary Private Secretary for the brief 1922 parliament.", "His first taste of ministerial office came in 1924, when he served as Under-Secretary of State for War in the short-lived first Labour government, led by MacDonald.Attlee opposed the 1926 General Strike, believing that strike action should not be used as a political weapon.", "However, when it happened, he did not attempt to undermine it.", "At the time of the strike, he was chairman of the Stepney Borough Electricity Committee.", "He negotiated a deal with the Electrical Trade Union so that they would continue to supply power to hospitals, but would end supplies to factories.", "One firm, Scammell and Nephew Ltd, took a civil action against Attlee and the other Labour members of the committee (although not against the Conservative members who had also supported this).", "The court found against Attlee and his fellow councillors and they were ordered to pay £300 damages.", "The decision was later reversed on appeal, but the financial problems caused by the episode almost forced Attlee out of politics.In 1927, he was appointed a member of the multi-party Simon Commission, a royal commission set up to examine the possibility of granting self-rule to India.", "Due to the time he needed to devote to the commission, and contrary to a promise MacDonald made to Attlee to induce him to serve on the commission, he was not initially offered a ministerial post in the second Labour government, which entered office after the 1929 general election.", "Attlee's service on the Commission equipped him with a thorough exposure to India and many of its political leaders.", "By 1933 he argued that British rule was alien to India and was unable to make the social and economic reforms necessary for India's progress.", "He became the British leader most sympathetic to Indian independence (as a dominion), preparing him for his role in deciding on independence in 1947.In May 1930, Labour MP Oswald Mosley left the party after its rejection of his proposals for solving the unemployment problem, and Attlee was given Mosley's post of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster.", "In March 1931, he became Postmaster General, a post he held for five months until August, when the Labour government fell, after failing to agree on how to tackle the financial crisis of the Great Depression.", "That month MacDonald and a few of his allies formed a National Government with the Conservatives and Liberals, leading them to be expelled from Labour.", "MacDonald offered Attlee a job in the National Government, but he turned down the offer and opted to stay loyal to the main Labour party.After Ramsay MacDonald formed the National Government, Labour was deeply divided.", "Attlee had long been close to MacDonald and now felt betrayed—as did most Labour politicians.", "During the course of the second Labour government, Attlee had become increasingly disillusioned with MacDonald, whom he came to regard as vain and incompetent, and of whom he later wrote scathingly in his autobiography.", "He would write:In the old days I had looked up to MacDonald as a great leader.", "He had a fine presence and great oratorical power.", "The unpopular line which he took during the First World War seemed to mark him as a man of character.", "Despite his mishandling of the Red Letter episode, I had not appreciated his defects until he took office a second time.", "I then realised his reluctance to take positive action and noted with dismay his increasing vanity and snobbery, while his habit of telling me, a junior Minister, the poor opinion he had of all his Cabinet colleagues made an unpleasant impression.", "I had not, however, expected that he would perpetrate the greatest betrayal in the political history of this country ...", "The shock to the Party was very great, especially to the loyal workers of the rank-and-file who had made great sacrifices for these men.===Deputy Leader===The 1931 general election held later that year was a disaster for the Labour Party, which lost over 200 seats, returning only 52 MPs to Parliament.", "The vast majority of the party's senior figures, including the Leader Arthur Henderson, lost their seats.", "Attlee, however, narrowly retained his Limehouse seat, with his majority being slashed from 7,288 to just 551.He was one of only three Labour MPs who had experience of government to retain their seats, along with George Lansbury and Stafford Cripps.", "Accordingly, Lansbury was elected Leader unopposed with Attlee as his deputy.Most of the remaining Labour MPs after 1931 were elderly trade union officials who could not contribute much to debates, Lansbury was in his 70s, and Stafford Cripps another main figure of the Labour front bench who had entered Parliament in 1931, was inexperienced.", "As one of the most capable and experienced of the remaining Labour MPs, Attlee therefore shouldered a lot of the burden of providing an opposition to the National Government in the years 1931–35, during this time he had to extend his knowledge of subjects which he had not studied in any depth before, such as finance and foreign affairs in order to provide an effective opposition to the government.Attlee effectively served as acting leader for nine months from December 1933, after Lansbury fractured his thigh in an accident, which raised Attlee's public profile considerably.", "It was during this period, however, that personal financial problems almost forced Attlee to quit politics altogether.", "His wife had become ill, and at that time there was no separate salary for the Leader of the Opposition.", "On the verge of resigning from Parliament, he was persuaded to stay by Stafford Cripps, a wealthy socialist, who agreed to make a donation to party funds to pay him an additional salary until Lansbury could take over again.During 1932–33 Attlee flirted with, and then drew back from radicalism, influenced by Stafford Cripps who was then on the radical wing of the party.", "He was briefly a member of the Socialist League, which had been formed by former Independent Labour Party (ILP) members, who opposed the ILP's disaffiliation from the main Labour Party in 1932.At one point he agreed with the proposition put forward by Cripps that gradual reform was inadequate and that a socialist government would have to pass an emergency powers act, allowing it to rule by decree to overcome any opposition by vested interests until it was safe to restore democracy.", "He admired Oliver Cromwell's strong-armed rule and use of major generals to control England.", "After looking more closely at Hitler, Mussolini, Stalin, and even his former colleague Oswald Mosley, leader of the new blackshirt fascist movement in Britain, Attlee retreated from his radicalism, and distanced himself from the League, and argued instead that the Labour Party must adhere to constitutional methods and stand forthright for democracy and against totalitarianism of either the left or right.", "He always supported the crown, and as Prime Minister was close to King George VI.===Leader of the Opposition===George Lansbury, a committed pacifist, resigned as the Leader of the Labour Party at the 1935 Party Conference on 8 October, after delegates voted in favour of sanctions against Italy for its aggression against Abyssinia.", "Lansbury had strongly opposed the policy, and felt unable to continue leading the party.", "Taking advantage of the disarray in the Labour Party, the Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin announced on 19 October that a general election would be held on 14 November.", "With no time for a leadership contest, the party agreed that Attlee should serve as interim leader, on the understanding that a leadership election would be held after the general election.", "Attlee therefore led Labour through the 1935 election, which saw the party stage a partial comeback from its disastrous 1931 performance, winning 38 per cent of the vote, the highest share Labour had won up to that point, and gaining over one hundred seats.Attlee stood in the subsequent leadership election, held soon afterward, where he was opposed by Herbert Morrison, who had just re-entered parliament in the recent election, and Arthur Greenwood: Morrison was seen as the favourite, but was distrusted by many sections of the party, especially the left wing.", "Arthur Greenwood meanwhile was a popular figure in the party; however, his leadership bid was severely hampered by his alcohol problem.", "Attlee was able to come across as a competent and unifying figure, particularly having already led the party through a general election.", "He went on to come first in both the first and second ballots, formally being elected Leader of the Labour Party on 3 December 1935.Throughout the 1920s and most of the 1930s, the Labour Party's official policy had been to oppose rearmament, instead supporting internationalism and collective security under the League of Nations.", "At the 1934 Labour Party Conference, Attlee declared that, \"We have absolutely abandoned any idea of nationalist loyalty.", "We are deliberately putting a world order before our loyalty to our own country.", "We say we want to see put on the statute book something which will make our people citizens of the world before they are citizens of this country\".", "During a debate on defence in Commons a year later, Attlee said \"We are told (in the White Paper) that there is danger against which we have to guard ourselves.", "We do not think you can do it by national defence.", "We think you can only do it by moving forward to a new world.", "A world of law, the abolition of national armaments with a world force and a world economic system.", "I shall be told that that is quite impossible\".", "Shortly after those comments, Adolf Hitler proclaimed that German rearmament offered no threat to world peace.", "Attlee responded the next day noting that Hitler's speech, although containing unfavourable references to the Soviet Union, created \"A chance to call a halt in the armaments race ... We do not think that our answer to Herr Hitler should be just rearmament.", "We are in an age of rearmaments, but we on this side cannot accept that position\".Attlee played little part in the events that would lead up to the abdication of Edward VIII, for despite Baldwin's threat to step down if Edward attempted to remain on the throne after marrying Wallis Simpson, Labour was widely accepted not to be a viable alternative government, owing to the National Government's overwhelming majority in the Commons.", "Attlee, along with Liberal leader Archibald Sinclair, was eventually consulted with by Baldwin on 24 November 1936, and Attlee agreed with both Baldwin and Sinclair that Edward could not remain on the throne, firmly eliminating any prospect of any alternative government forming were Baldwin to resign.In April 1936, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Neville Chamberlain, introduced a Budget which increased the amount spent on the armed forces.", "Attlee made a radio broadcast in opposition to it, saying:In June 1936, the Conservative MP Duff Cooper called for an Anglo-French alliance against possible German aggression and called for all parties to support one.", "Attlee condemned this: \"We say that any suggestion of an alliance of this kind—an alliance in which one country is bound to another, right or wrong, by some overwhelming necessity—is contrary to the spirit of the League of Nations, is contrary to the Covenant, is contrary to Locarno is contrary to the obligations which this country has undertaken, and is contrary to the professed policy of this Government\".", "At the Labour Party conference at Edinburgh in October Attlee reiterated that \"There can be no question of our supporting the Government in its rearmament policy\".However, with the rising threat from Nazi Germany, and the ineffectiveness of the League of Nations, this policy eventually lost credibility.", "By 1937, Labour had jettisoned its pacifist position and came to support rearmament and oppose Neville Chamberlain's policy of appeasement.At the end of 1937, Attlee and a party of three Labour MPs visited Spain and visited the British Battalion of the International Brigades fighting in the Spanish Civil War.", "One of the companies was named the \"Major Attlee Company\" in his honour.", "Attlee was supportive of the Republican government, and at the 1937 Labour conference moved the wider Labour Party towards opposing what he considered the \"farce\" of the Non-Intervention Committee organised by the British and French governments.", "In the House of Commons, Attlee stated, \"I cannot understand the delusion that if Franco wins with Italian and German aid, he will immediately become independent.", "I think it is a ridiculous proposition.\"", "Dalton, the Labour Party's spokesman on foreign policy, also thought that Franco would ally with Germany and Italy.", "However, Franco's subsequent behaviour proved it was not such a ridiculous proposition.", "As Dalton later acknowledged, Franco skilfully maintained Spanish neutrality, whereas Hitler would likely have occupied Spain if Franco had lost the Civil War.In 1938, Attlee opposed the Munich Agreement, in which Chamberlain negotiated with Hitler to give Germany the German-speaking parts of Czechoslovakia, the Sudetenland: We all feel relief that war has not come this time... we cannot, however, feel that peace has been established, but that we have nothing but an armistice in a state of war.", "We have been unable to go in for care-free rejoicing.", "We have felt that we are in the midst of a tragedy... and humiliation.", "This has not been a victory for reason and humanity.", "It has been a victory for brute force.", "At every stage of the proceedings there have been time limits laid down... the terms laid down as ultimata.", "We have seen to-day a gallant, civilised and democratic people betrayed and handed over to a ruthless despotism...", "The events of these last few days constitute one of the greatest diplomatic defeats that this country and France have ever sustained.", "There can be no doubt that it is a tremendous victory for Herr Hitler.", "Without firing a shot, by the mere display of military force, he has achieved a dominating position in Europe which Germany failed to win after four years of war.", "He has overturned the balance of power in Europe... and destroyed the last fortress of democracy in Eastern Europe which stood in the way of his ambition.", "He has opened his way to the food, the oil and the resources which he requires in order to consolidate his military power, and he has successfully defeated and reduced to impotence the forces that might have stood against the rule of violence.", "...", "The cause of the crisis which we have undergone was not the existence of minorities in Czechoslovakia; it was not that the position of the Sudeten Germans had become intolerable.", "It was not the wonderful principle of self-determination.", "It was because Herr Hitler had decided that the time was ripe for another step forward in his design to dominate Europe...", "The minorities question is no new one.", "... And short of a drastic and entire reshuffling of these populations there is no possible solution to the problem of minorities in Europe except toleration.However, the new Czechoslovakian state did not provide equal rights to the Slovaks and Sudeten Germans, with the historian Arnold J. Toynbee already having noted that \"for the Germans, Magyars and Poles, who account between them for more than one quarter of the whole population, the present regime in Czechoslovakia is not essentially different from the regimes in the surrounding countries\".", "Anthony Eden in the Munich debate acknowledged that there had been \"discrimination, even severe discrimination\" against the Sudeten Germans.In 1937, Attlee wrote a book entitled ''The Labour Party in Perspective'' that sold fairly well in which he set out some of his views.", "He argued that there was no point in Labour compromising on its socialist principles in the belief that this would achieve electoral success.", "He wrote: \"I find that the proposition often reduces itself to this – that if the Labour Party would drop its socialism and adopt a Liberal platform, many Liberals would be pleased to support it.", "I have heard it said more than once that if Labour would only drop its policy of nationalisation everyone would be pleased, and it would soon obtain a majority.", "I am convinced it would be fatal for the Labour Party.\"", "He also wrote that there was no point in \"watering down Labour's socialist creed in order to attract new adherents who cannot accept the full socialist faith.", "On the contrary, I believe that it is only a clear and bold policy that will attract this support\".In the late 1930s, Attlee sponsored a Jewish mother and her two children, enabling them to leave Germany in 1939 and move to the UK.", "On arriving in Britain, Attlee invited one of the children into his home in Stanmore, north-west London, where he stayed for several months." ], [ "Deputy Prime Minister", "Attlee as Lord Privy Seal, visiting a munitions factory in 1941Attlee remained as Leader of the Opposition when the Second World War broke out in September 1939.The ensuing disastrous Norwegian campaign would result in a motion of no confidence in Neville Chamberlain.", "Although Chamberlain survived this, the reputation of his administration was so badly and publicly damaged that it became clear a coalition government would be necessary.", "Even if Attlee had personally been prepared to serve under Chamberlain in an emergency coalition government, he would never have been able to carry Labour with him.", "Consequently, Chamberlain tendered his resignation, and Labour and the Conservatives entered a coalition government led by Winston Churchill on 10 May 1940, with Attlee joining the Cabinet as Lord Privy Seal on 12 May.Attlee and Churchill quickly agreed that the War Cabinet would consist of three Conservatives (initially Churchill, Chamberlain and Lord Halifax) and two Labour members (initially himself and Arthur Greenwood) and that Labour should have slightly more than one third of the posts in the coalition government.", "Attlee and Greenwood played a vital role in supporting Churchill during a series of War Cabinet debates over whether or not to negotiate peace terms with Hitler following the Fall of France in May 1940; both supported Churchill and gave him the majority he needed in the War Cabinet to continue Britain's resistance.Only Attlee and Churchill remained in the War Cabinet from the formation of the Government of National Unity in May 1940 through to the election in May 1945.Attlee was initially the Lord Privy Seal, before becoming Britain's first ever Deputy Prime Minister in 1942, as well as becoming the Dominions Secretary and Lord President of the Council on 28 September 1943.Attlee himself played a generally low key but vital role in the wartime government, working behind the scenes and in committees to ensure the smooth operation of government.", "In the coalition government, three inter-connected committees effectively ran the country.", "Churchill chaired the first two, the War cabinet and the Defence Committee, with Attlee deputising for him in these, and answering for the government in Parliament when Churchill was absent.", "Attlee himself instituted, and later chaired the third body, the Lord President's Committee, which was responsible for overseeing domestic affairs.", "As Churchill was most concerned with overseeing the war effort, this arrangement suited both men.", "Attlee himself had largely been responsible for creating these arrangements with Churchill's backing, streamlining the machinery of government and abolishing many committees.", "He also acted as a conciliator in the government, smoothing over tensions which frequently arose between Labour and Conservative Ministers.Many Labour activists were baffled by the top leadership role for a man they regarded as having little charisma; Beatrice Webb wrote in her diary in early 1940::He looked and spoke like an insignificant elderly clerk, without distinction in the voice, manner or substance of his discourse.", "To realise that this little nonentity is the Parliamentary Leader of the Labour Party ... and presumably the future P.M. Prime Minister is pitiable\".Attlee meeting King George VI following Labour's 1945 election victory=== 1945 election ===Following the defeat of Nazi Germany and the end of the War in Europe in May 1945, Attlee and Churchill favoured the coalition government remaining in place until Japan had been defeated.", "However, Herbert Morrison made it clear that the Labour Party would not be willing to accept this, and Churchill was forced to tender his resignation as Prime Minister and call an immediate election.The war had set in motion profound social changes within Britain and had ultimately led to a widespread popular desire for social reform.", "This mood was epitomised in the Beveridge Report of 1942, by the Liberal economist William Beveridge.", "The ''Report'' assumed that the maintenance of full employment would be the aim of post-war governments, and that this would provide the basis for the welfare state.", "Immediately upon its release, it sold hundreds of thousands of copies.", "All major parties committed themselves to fulfilling this aim, but most historians say that Attlee's Labour Party was seen by the electorate as the party most likely to follow it through.Labour campaigned on the theme of \"Let Us Face the Future\", positioning themselves as the party best placed to rebuild Britain following the war, and were widely viewed as having run a strong and positive campaign, while the Conservative campaign centred entirely on Churchill.", "Despite opinion polls indicating a strong Labour lead, opinion polls were then viewed as a novelty which had not proven their worth, and most commentators expected that Churchill's prestige and status as a \"war hero\" would ensure a comfortable Conservative victory.", "Before polling day, ''The Manchester Guardian'' surmised that \"the chances of Labour sweeping the country and obtaining a clear majority ... are pretty remote\".", "The ''News of the World'' predicted a working Conservative majority, while in Glasgow a pundit forecast the result as Conservatives 360, Labour 220, Others 60.Churchill, however, made some costly errors during the campaign.", "In particular, his suggestion during one radio broadcast that a future Labour Government would require \"some form of a gestapo\" to implement their policies was widely regarded as being in very bad taste and massively backfired.When the results of the election were announced on 26 July, they came as a surprise to most, including Attlee himself.", "Labour had won power by a huge landslide, winning 47.7 per cent of the vote to the Conservatives' 36 per cent.", "This gave them 393 seats in the House of Commons, a working majority of 146.This was the first time in history that the Labour Party had won a majority in Parliament.", "When Attlee went to see King George VI at Buckingham Palace to be appointed Prime Minister, the notoriously laconic Attlee and the famously tongue-tied King stood in silence; Attlee finally volunteered the remark, \"I've won the election\".", "The King replied \"I know.", "I heard it on the Six O'Clock News\"." ], [ "Prime Minister<span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Premiership\"></span><!-- linked from redirects [[Premiership of Clement Attlee]], [[Prime ministership of Clement Attlee]] -->", "===Domestic policy===Francis (1995) argues there was consensus both in the Labour's national executive committee and at party conferences on a definition of socialism that stressed moral improvement as well as material improvement.", "The Attlee government was committed to rebuilding British society as an ethical commonwealth, using public ownership and controls to abolish extremes of wealth and poverty.", "Labour's ideology contrasted sharply with the contemporary Conservative Party's defence of individualism, inherited privileges, and income inequality.", "On 5 July 1948, Clement Attlee replied to a letter dated 22 June from James Murray and ten other MPs who raised concerns about West Indians who arrived on board the .", "As for the prime minister himself, he was not much focused on economic policy, letting others handle the issues.====Nationalisation====Attlee's government also carried out their manifesto commitment for nationalisation of basic industries and public utilities.", "The Bank of England and civil aviation were nationalised in 1946.Coal mining, the railways, road haulage, canals and Cable and Wireless were nationalised in 1947, and electricity and gas followed in 1948.The steel industry was nationalised in 1951.By 1951 about 20 per cent of the British economy had been taken into public ownership.Nationalisation failed to provide workers with a greater say in the running of the industries in which they worked.", "It did, however, bring about significant material gains for workers in the form of higher wages, reduced working hours, and improvements in working conditions, especially in regards to safety.", "As historian Eric Shaw noted of the years following nationalisation, the electricity and gas supply companies became \"impressive models of public enterprise\" in terms of efficiency, and the National Coal Board was not only profitable, but working conditions for miners had significantly improved as well.Within a few years of nationalisation, a number of progressive measures had been carried out which did much to improve conditions in the mines, including better pay, a five-day working week, a national safety scheme (with proper standards at all the collieries), a ban on boys under the age of 16 going underground, the introduction of training for newcomers before going down to the coalface, and the making of pithead baths into a standard facility.The newly established National Coal Board offered sick pay and holiday pay to miners.", "As noted by Martin Francis:Union leaders saw nationalisation as a means to pursue a more advantageous position within a framework of continued conflict, rather than as an opportunity to replace the old adversarial form of industrial relations.", "Moreover, most workers in nationalised industries exhibited an essentially instrumentalist attitude, favouring public ownership because it secured job security and improved wages rather than because it promised the creation of a new set of socialist relationships in the workplace.====Agriculture====The Attlee government placed strong emphasis on improving the quality of life in rural areas, benefiting both farmers and other consumers.", "Security of tenure for farmers was introduced, while consumers were protected by food subsidies and the redistributive effects of deficiency payments.", "Between 1945 and 1951, the quality of rural life was improved by improvements in gas, electricity, and water services, as well as in leisure and public amenities.", "In addition, the 1947 Transport Act improved provision of rural bus services, while the Agriculture Act 1947 established a more generous subsidy system for farmers.", "Legislation was also passed in 1947 and 1948 which established a permanent Agricultural Wages Board to fix minimum wages for agricultural workers.Attlee's government made it possible for farm workers to borrow up to 90 per cent of the cost of building their own houses, and received a subsidy of £15 a year for 40 years towards that cost.", "Grants were also made to meet up to half the cost of supplying water to farm buildings and fields, the government met half the cost of bracken eradication and lime spreading, and grants were paid for bringing hill farming land into use that had previously been considered unfit for farming purposes.In 1946, the National Agricultural Advisory Service was set up to supply agricultural advice and information." ], [ "Return to opposition", "Following the defeat in 1951, Attlee continued to lead the party as Leader of the Opposition.", "His last four years as leader were, however, widely seen as one of the Labour Party's weaker periods.The period was dominated by infighting between the Labour Party's right wing, led by Hugh Gaitskell, and its left, led by Aneurin Bevan.", "Many Labour MPs felt that Attlee should have retired following 1951 election and allowed a younger man to lead the party.", "Bevan openly called for him to stand down in the summer of 1954.One of his main reasons for staying on as leader was to frustrate the leadership ambitions of Herbert Morrison, whom Attlee disliked for both political and personal reasons.", "At one time, Attlee had favoured Aneurin Bevan to succeed him as leader, but this became problematic after Bevan almost irrevocably split the party.Attlee, now aged 72, contested the 1955 general election against Anthony Eden, which saw Labour lose 18 seats, and the Conservatives increase their majority.In an interview with the ''News Chronicle'' columnist Percy Cudlipp in mid-September 1955, Attlee made clear his own thinking together with his preference for the leadership succession, stating:He retired as Leader of the Labour Party on 7 December 1955, having led the party for twenty years, and on 14 December Hugh Gaitskell was elected as his successor." ], [ "Global policy", "He was one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting a world constitution.", "As a result, for the first time in human history, a World Constituent Assembly convened to draft and adopt a Constitution for the Federation of Earth." ], [ "Retirement", "Attlee with John F. Kennedy in 1961He subsequently retired from the House of Commons and was elevated to the peerage as '''Earl Attlee''' and '''Viscount Prestwood''' on 16 December 1955, taking his seat in the House of Lords on 25 January.", "He believed Eden had been forced into taking a strong stand on the Suez Crisis by his backbenchers.", "In 1958, Attlee, along with numerous notables, established the Homosexual Law Reform Society: this campaigned for the decriminalisation of homosexual acts in private by consenting adults, a reform that was voted through Parliament nine years later.", "In May 1961, he travelled to Washington, D.C., to meet with President Kennedy.In 1962, he spoke twice in the House of Lords against the British government's application for the UK to join the European Communities (\"Common Market\").", "In his second speech delivered in November, Attlee claimed that Britain had a separate parliamentary tradition from the Continental European countries that comprised the EC.", "He also claimed that if Britain became a member, EC rules would prevent the British government from planning the economy and that Britain's traditional policy had been outward-looking rather than Continental.He attended Winston Churchill's funeral in January 1965.He was frail by that time, and had to remain seated in the freezing cold as the coffin was carried, having tired himself out by standing at the rehearsal the previous day.", "He lived to see the Labour Party return to power under Harold Wilson in 1964, and also to see his old constituency of Walthamstow West fall to the Conservatives in a by-election in September 1967." ], [ "Death", "Attlee died peacefully in his sleep of pneumonia, at the age of 84 at Westminster Hospital on 8 October 1967.Two thousand people attended his funeral in November, including the then-Prime Minister Harold Wilson and the Duke of Kent, representing the Queen.", "He was cremated and his ashes were buried at Westminster Abbey.Upon his death, the title passed to his son Martin Richard Attlee, 2nd Earl Attlee (1927–1991), who defected from Labour to the SDP in 1981.It is now held by Clement Attlee's grandson John Richard Attlee, 3rd Earl Attlee.", "The third earl (a member of the Conservative Party) retained his seat in the Lords as one of the hereditary peers to remain under an amendment to Labour's House of Lords Act 1999.Attlee's estate was sworn for probate purposes at a value of £7,295, (equivalent to £ in ) a relatively modest sum for so prominent a figure, and only a fraction of the £75,394 in his father's estate when he died in 1908." ], [ "Legacy", "Portrait by George Harcourt, 1946The quotation about Attlee, \"A modest man, but then he has so much to be modest about\", is commonly ascribed to Churchill—though Churchill denied saying it, and respected Attlee's service in the War cabinet.", "Attlee's modesty and quiet manner hid a great deal that has only come to light with historical reappraisal.", "Attlee himself is said to have responded to critics with a limerick: \"There were few who thought him a starter, Many who thought themselves smarter.", "But he ended PM, CH and OM, an Earl and a Knight of the Garter\".The journalist and broadcaster Anthony Howard called him \"the greatest Prime Minister of the 20th century\".His leadership style of consensual government, acting as a chairman rather than a president, won him much praise from historians and politicians alike.", "Christopher Soames, the British Ambassador to France during the Conservative government of Edward Heath and cabinet minister under Margaret Thatcher, remarked that \"Mrs Thatcher was not really running a team.", "Every time you have a Prime Minister who wants to make all the decisions, it mainly leads to bad results.", "Attlee didn't.", "That's why he was so damn good\".Thatcher herself wrote in her 1995 memoirs, which charted her life from her beginnings in Grantham to her victory at the 1979 general election, that she admired Attlee, writing: \"Of Clement Attlee, however, I was an admirer.", "He was a serious man and a patriot.", "Quite contrary to the general tendency of politicians in the 1990s, he was all substance and no show\".Attlee's government presided over the successful transition from a wartime economy to peacetime, tackling problems of demobilisation, shortages of foreign currency, and adverse deficits in trade balances and government expenditure.", "Further domestic policies that he brought about included the creation of the National Health Service and the post-war Welfare state, which became key to the reconstruction of post-war Britain.", "Attlee and his ministers did much to transform the UK into a more prosperous and egalitarian society during their time in office with reductions in poverty and a rise in the general economic security of the population.Statue of Attlee in its former position outside Limehouse LibraryIn foreign affairs, he did much to assist with the post-war economic recovery of Europe.", "He proved a loyal ally of the US at the onset of the Cold War.", "Due to his style of leadership, it was not he, but Ernest Bevin who masterminded foreign policy.", "It was Attlee's government that decided Britain should have an independent nuclear weapons programme, and work on it began in 1947.Bevin, Attlee's Foreign Secretary, famously stated that \"We've got to have it nuclear weapons and it's got to have a bloody Union Jack on it\".", "The first operational British nuclear bomb was not detonated until October 1952, about one year after Attlee had left office.", "Independent British atomic research was prompted partly by the US McMahon Act, which nullified wartime expectations of postwar US–UK collaboration in nuclear research, and prohibited Americans from communicating nuclear technology even to allied countries.", "British atomic bomb research was kept secret even from some members of Attlee's own cabinet, whose loyalty or discretion seemed uncertain.Although a socialist, Attlee still believed in the British Empire of his youth.", "He thought of it as an institution that was a power for good in the world.", "Nevertheless, he saw that a large part of it needed to be self-governing.", "Using the Dominions of Canada, Australia, and New Zealand as a model, he continued the transformation of the empire into the modern-day British Commonwealth.His greatest achievement, surpassing many of these, was perhaps the establishment of a political and economic consensus about the governance of Britain that all three major parties subscribed to for three decades, fixing the arena of political discourse until the late-1970s.", "In 2004, he was voted the most successful British Prime Minister of the 20th century by a poll of 139 academics organised by Ipsos MORI.Blue plaque erected in 1984 by Greater London Council at 17 Monkhams AvenueA blue plaque unveiled in 1979 commemorates Attlee at 17 Monkhams Avenue, in Woodford Green in the London Borough of Redbridge.Attlee was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1947.Attlee was awarded an Honorary Fellowship of Queen Mary College on 15 December 1948.In the 1960s a new suburb near Curepipe in British Mauritius was given the name ''Cité Atlee'' in his honour.=== Statues ===The Statue of Clement Attlee in its new position at Queen Mary University of LondonOn 30 November 1988, a bronze statue of Clement Attlee was unveiled by Harold Wilson (the next Labour Prime Minister after Attlee) outside Limehouse Library in Attlee's former constituency.", "By then Wilson was the last surviving member of Attlee's cabinet, and the unveiling of the statue would be one of the last public appearances by Wilson, who was by that point in the early stages of Alzheimer's disease; he died at the age of 79 in May 1995.Limehouse Library was closed in 2003, after which the statue was vandalised.", "The council surrounded it with protective hoarding for four years, before eventually removing it for repair and recasting in 2009.The restored statue was unveiled by Peter Mandelson in April 2011, in its new position less than a mile away at the Queen Mary University of London's Mile End campus.There is also a statue of Clement Attlee in the Houses of Parliament that was erected, instead of a bust, by parliamentary vote in 1979.The sculptor was Ivor Roberts-Jones.=== Cultural depictions ===" ], [ "Personal life", "Attlee met Violet Millar while on a long trip with friends to Italy in 1921.They fell in love and were soon engaged, marrying at Christ Church, Hampstead, on 10 January 1922.It would come to be a devoted marriage, with Attlee providing protection and Violet providing a home that was an escape for Attlee from political turmoil.", "She died in 1964.They had four children:* Lady Janet Helen (1923–2019), she married the scientist Harold Shipton (1920–2007) at Ellesborough Parish Church in 1947.", "* Lady Felicity Ann (1925–2007), married the business executive John Keith Harwood (1926–1989) at Little Hampden in 1955* Martin Richard, Viscount Prestwood, later 2nd Earl Attlee (1927–1991), married Anne Henderson on 16 February 1955.", "* Lady Alison Elizabeth (1930–2016), married Richard Davis at Great Missenden in 1952.=== Religious views ===Although his parents were devout Anglicans, with one of his brothers becoming a clergyman and one of his sisters a missionary, Attlee himself is usually regarded as an agnostic.", "In an interview he described himself as \"incapable of religious feeling\", saying that he believed in \"the ethics of Christianity\" but not \"the mumbo-jumbo\".", "When asked whether he was an agnostic, Attlee replied \"I don't know\"." ], [ "Honours and arms" ], [ "See also", "Briggs PlanEthical socialismInformation Research DepartmentMalayan EmergencyNew villagePostwar Britain" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Notes ===" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", "'''Biographical''' Beckett, Francis.", "''Clem Attlee'' (1998) – updated and revised and expanded edition, ''Clem Attlee: Labour's Great Reformer'' (2015)* Bew, John.", "''Citizen Clem: A Biography of Attlee,'' (London: 2016, British edition); ''Clement Attlee: The Man Who Made Modern Britain'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017, U.S. edition)* Burridge, Trevor.", "''Clement Attlee: A Political Biography'' (1985), scholarly* Cohen, David.", "''Churchill & Attlee: The Unlikely Allies who Won the War'' (Biteback Publishing, 2018), popular* Crowcroft, Robert.", "''Attlee's War: World War II and the Making of a Labour Leader'' (IB Tauris, 2011)* Harris, Kenneth.", "''Attlee'' (1982), scholarly authorised biography* Howell, David.", "''Attlee'' (2006)* Jago, Michael.", "''Clement Attlee: The Inevitable Prime Minister'' (2014)* Pearce, Robert.", "''Attlee'' (1997), 206pp* Thomas-Symonds, Nicklaus.", "''Attlee: A Life in Politics'' (IB Tauris, 2010).", "* Whiting, R. C. \"Attlee, Clement Richard, first Earl Attlee (1883–1967)\", ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'', 2004; online edn, Jan 2011 accessed 12 June 2013 doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/30498'''Biographies of his cabinet and associates'''* Rosen, Greg.", "ed.", "''Dictionary of Labour Biography''.", "(Politicos Publishing, 2002); * Morgan, Kenneth O.", "''Labour people: Leaders and Lieutenants, Hardie to Kinnock'' (1987)'''Scholarly studies'''* Addison, Paul.", "''No Turning Back: The Peaceful Revolutions of Post-War Britain'' (2011) excerpt and text search* , detailed coverage of nationalisation, welfare state and planning.", "* Crowcroft, Robert, and Kevin Theakston.", "\"The Fall of the Attlee Government, 1951\", in Timothy Heppell and Kevin Theakston, eds.", "''How Labour Governments Fall'' (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2013).", "PP 61–82.", "* Francis, Martin.", "''Ideas and policies under Labour, 1945–1951: building a new Britain'' (Manchester University Press, 1997).", "* Golant, W. \"The Emergence of CR Attlee as Leader of the Parliamentary Labour Party in 1935\", ''Historical Journal'', 13#2 (1970): 318–332.in JSTOR* * Jackson, Ben.", "\"Citizen and Subject: Clement Attlee's Socialism\", ''History Workshop Journal'' (2018).", "Vol.", "86 pp 291–298.online.", "* Jeffreys, Kevin.", "\"The Attlee Years, 1935–1955\", in Brivati, Brian, and Heffernan, Richard, eds., ''The Labour Party: A Centenary History'', Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2000.68–86.", "* Kynaston, David.", "''Austerity Britain, 1945–1951'' (2008).", "* Mioni, Michele.", "\"The Attlee government and welfare state reforms in post-war Italian Socialism (1945–51): Between universalism and class policies\", ''Labor History'', 57#2 (2016): 277–297.DOI:10.1080/0023656X.2015.1116811* Morgan, Kenneth O.", "''Labour in Power 1945–1951'' (1984), 564 pp.", "* Ovendale, R.", "ed., ''The foreign policy of the British Labour governments, 1945–51'' (1984) ·* Pugh, Martin.", "''Speak for Britain!", ": A New History of the Labour Party'' (2011) excerpt and text search* * Swift, John.", "''Labour in Crisis: Clement Attlee & the Labour Party in Opposition, 1931–1940'' (2001)* Tomlinson, Jim.", "''Democratic Socialism and Economic Policy: The Attlee Years, 1945–1951'' (2002) Excerpt and text search* Weiler, Peter.", "\"British Labour and the cold war: the foreign policy of the Labour governments, 1945–1951\", ''Journal of British Studies'', 26#1 (1987): 54–82.in JSTOR=== Works ===* Clement Attlee published his memoirs, ''As it Happened'', in 1954.", "* Francis Williams' ''A Prime Minister Remembers'', based on interviews with Attlee, was published in 1961.;Attlee's other publications* ''The Social Worker'' (1920)* ''Metropolitan Borough Councils Their Constitution, Powers and Duties'' – Fabian Tract No 190 (1920)* ''The Town Councillor'' (1925)* ''The Will and the Way to Socialism'' (1935)* ''The Labour Party in Perspective'' (1937)* ''Collective Security Under the United Nations'' (1958)* ''Empire into Commonwealth'' (1961)" ], [ "External links", "* * Clement Attlee – Thanksgiving Speech 1950 – UK Parliament Living Heritage* More about Clement Attlee on the Downing Street website.", "* * * * * Annotated bibliography for Clement Attlee from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues* * * Drawing of Clement Attlee in the UK Parliamentary Collections" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Catullus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gaius Valerius Catullus''' (; 84 - 54 BCE), often referred to simply as '''Catullus''' (), was a Latin poet of the late Roman Republic who wrote chiefly in the neoteric style of poetry, focusing on personal life rather than classical heroes.", "His surviving works are still read widely and continue to influence poetry and other forms of art.Catullus's poems were widely appreciated by contemporary poets, significantly influencing Ovid and Virgil, among others.", "After his rediscovery in the Late Middle Ages, Catullus again found admirers such as Petrarch.", "The explicit sexual imagery which he uses in some of his poems has shocked many readers.", "Yet, at many instruction levels, Catullus is considered a resource for teachers of Latin." ], [ "Life", "Gāius Valerius Catullus was born to a leading equestrian family of Verona, in Cisalpine Gaul.", "The social prominence of the Catullus family allowed the father of Gaius Valerius to entertain Julius Caesar when he was the Promagistrate (proconsul) of both Gallic provinces.", "In a poem, Catullus describes his happy homecoming to the family villa at Sirmio, on Lake Garda, near Verona; he also owned a villa near the resort of Tibur (modern Tivoli).Catullus appears to have spent most of his young adult years in Rome.", "His friends there included the poets Licinius Calvus, and Helvius Cinna, Quintus Hortensius (son of the orator and rival of Cicero) and the biographer Cornelius Nepos, to whom Catullus dedicated a ''libellus'' of poems, the relation of which to the extant collection remains a matter of debate.", "He appears to have been acquainted with the poet Marcus Furius Bibaculus.", "A number of prominent contemporaries appear in his poetry, including Cicero, Caesar and Pompey.", "According to an anecdote preserved by Suetonius, Caesar did not deny that Catullus's lampoons left an indelible stain on his reputation, but when Catullus apologized, he invited the poet for dinner the very same day.", "''Catullus at Lesbia's'' by Sir Lawrence Alma-TademaIt was probably in Rome that Catullus fell deeply in love with the \"Lesbia\" of his poems, who is usually identified with Clodia Metelli, a sophisticated woman from the aristocratic house of patrician family Claudii Pulchri, sister of the infamous Publius Clodius Pulcher, and wife to proconsul Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer.", "In his poems Catullus describes several stages of their relationship: initial euphoria, doubts, separation, and his wrenching feelings of loss.", "Clodia had several other partners; \"From the poems one can adduce no fewer than five lovers in addition to Catullus: Egnatius (poem 37), Gellius (poem 91), Quintius (poem 82), Rufus (poem 77), and Lesbius (poem 79).\"", "There is also some question surrounding her husband's mysterious death in 59 BCE, with some critics believing he was domestically poisoned.", "However, a sensitive and passionate Catullus could not relinquish his flame for Clodia, regardless of her obvious indifference to his desire for a deep and permanent relationship.", "In his poems, Catullus wavers between devout, sweltering love and bitter, scornful insults that he directs at her blatant infidelity (as demonstrated in poems 11 and 58).", "His passion for her is unrelenting—yet it is unclear when exactly the couple split up for good.", "Catullus's poems about the relationship display striking depth and psychological insight.He spent the provincial command year from summer 57 to summer 56 BCE in Bithynia on the staff of the commander Gaius Memmius.", "While in the East, he traveled to the Troad to perform rites at his brother's tomb, an event recorded in a moving poem.Bithynia within the Roman EmpireNo ancient biography of Catullus has survived.", "His life has to be pieced together from scattered references to him in other ancient authors and from his poems.", "Thus it is uncertain when he was born and when he died.", "Jerome stated that he was born in 87 BCE and died in Rome on his 30th year.", "However, Catullus’ poems include references to events of 55 and 54 BCE.", "Since the Roman consular fasti make it somewhat easy to confuse 87–57 BCE with 84–54 BCE, many scholars accept the dates 84 BC–54 BCE, supposing that his latest poems and the publication of his ''libellus'' coincided with the year of his death.", "Other authors suggest 52 or 51 BCE as the year of the poet's death.", "Though upon his elder brother's death Catullus lamented that their \"whole house was buried along\" with the deceased, the existence (and prominence) of ''Valerii Catulli'' is attested in the following centuries.", "T.P.", "Wiseman argues that after the brother's death Catullus could have married, and that, in this case, the later ''Valerii Catulli'' may have been his descendants." ], [ "Poetry", "''Catullus et in eum commentarius'' (1554)===Sources and organization===Catullus's poems have been preserved in an anthology of 116 ''carmina'' (the actual number of poems may slightly vary in various editions), which can be divided into three parts according to their form: sixty short poems in varying meters, called ''polymetra'', eight longer poems, and forty-eight epigrams.There is no scholarly consensus on whether Catullus himself arranged the order of the poems.", "The longer poems differ from the ''polymetra'' and the epigrams not only in length but also in their subjects: There are seven hymns and one mini-epic, or epyllion, the most highly prized form for the \"new poets\".The ''polymetra'' and the epigrams can be divided into four major thematic groups (ignoring a rather large number of poems that elude such categorization):* poems to and about his friends (e.g., an invitation like poem 13).", "* erotic poems: some of them (eg., 50, 9, 99) etc.", "are about his attraction toward other men, but others are about women, especially about one he calls \"Lesbia\" (which served as a false name for his married girlfriend, Clodia, source and inspiration of many of his poems).", "In modern terms, he would likely be called bisexual, though the Romans had no labels such as this.", "* invectives: often rude and sometimes downright obscene poems targeted at friends-turned-traitors (e.g., poem 16), other lovers of Lesbia, well-known poets, politicians (e.g., Julius Caesar) and rhetors, including Cicero.", "* condolences: some poems of Catullus are solemn in nature.", "96 comforts a friend in the death of a loved one; several others, most famously 101, lament the death of his brother.All these poems describe the lifestyle of Catullus and his friends, who, despite Catullus's temporary political post in Bithynia, lived their lives withdrawn from politics.", "They were interested mainly in poetry and love.", "Above all other qualities, Catullus seems to have valued ''venustas'', or charm, in his acquaintances, a theme which he explores in a number of his poems.", "The ancient Roman concept of ''virtus'' (i.e., of virtue that had to be proved by a political or military career), which Cicero suggested as the solution to the societal problems of the late Republic, meant little to them.However Catullus does not reject traditional notions, but rather their particular application to the ''vita activa'' of politics and war.", "Indeed, he tries to reinvent these notions from a personal point of view and to introduce them into human relationships.", "For example, he applies the word ''fides'', which traditionally meant faithfulness towards one's political allies, to his relationship with Lesbia and reinterprets it as unconditional faithfulness in love.", "So, despite the seeming frivolity of his lifestyle, Catullus measured himself and his friends by quite ambitious standards.===Intellectual influences===''Lesbia'', 1878 painting by John Reinhard Weguelin inspired by the poems of CatullusCatullus's poetry was influenced by the innovative poetry of the Hellenistic Age, and especially by Callimachus and the Alexandrian school, which had propagated a new style of poetry that deliberately turned away from the classical epic poetry in the tradition of Homer.", "Cicero called these local innovators ''neoteroi'' () or \"moderns\" (in Latin ''poetae novi'' or 'new poets'), in that they cast off the heroic model handed down from Ennius in order to strike new ground and ring a contemporary note.", "Catullus and Callimachus did not describe the feats of ancient heroes and gods (except perhaps in re-evaluating and predominantly artistic circumstances, e.g.", "poems 63 and 64), focusing instead on small-scale personal themes.", "Although these poems sometimes seem quite superficial and their subjects often are mere everyday concerns, they are accomplished works of art.", "Catullus described his work as ''expolitum'', or polished, to show that the language he used was very carefully and artistically composed.Catullus was also an admirer of Sappho, a female poet of the seventh century BCE.", "Catullus 51 partly translates, partly imitates, and transforms Sappho 31.Some hypothesize that 61 and 62 were perhaps inspired by lost works of Sappho but this is purely speculative.", "Both of the latter are ''epithalamia'', a form of laudatory or erotic wedding-poetry that Sappho was famous for.", "Catullus twice used a meter that Sappho was known for, called the Sapphic stanza, in poems 11 and 51, perhaps prompting his successor Horace's interest in the form.Catullus, as was common to his era, was greatly influenced by stories from Greek and Roman myth.", "His longer poems—such as 63, 64, 65, 66, and 68—allude to mythology in various ways.", "Some stories he refers to are the wedding of Peleus and Thetis, the departure of the Argonauts, Theseus and the Minotaur, Ariadne's abandonment, Tereus and Procne, as well as Protesilaus and Laodamia.===Style===Catullus wrote in many different meters including hendecasyllabic verse and elegiac couplets (common in love poetry).", "A great part of his poetry shows strong and occasionally wild emotions, especially in regard to Lesbia (e.g., poems 5 and 7).", "His love poems are very emotional and ardent, and are relatable to this day.", "Catullus describes his Lesbia as having multiple suitors and often showing little affection towards him.", "He also demonstrates a great sense of humour such as in Catullus 13." ], [ "Musical settings", "The Hungarian born British composer Matyas Seiber set poem 31 for unaccompanied mixed chorus Sirmio in 1957.The American composer Ned Rorem set Catullus 101 to music for voice and piano; the song, \"Catallus: On the Burial of His Brother\", was originally published in 1969.", "''Catullus Dreams'' (2011) is a song cycle by David Glaser set to texts of Catullus, scored for soprano and seven instruments; it premiered at Symphony Space in New York by soprano Linda Larson and Sequitur Ensemble.", "\"Carmina Catulli\" is a song cycle arranged from 17 of Catullus's poems by American composer Michael Linton.", "The cycle was recorded in December 2013 and premiered at Carnegie Hall's Weill Recital Hall in March 2014 by French baritone Edwin Crossley-Mercer and pianist Jason Paul Peterson.Thomas Campion also wrote a lute-song using his own translation of the first six lines of Catullus 5 followed by two verses of his own; the translation by Richard Crashaw was set to music in a four-part glee by Samuel Webbe Jr.", "It was also set to music, in a three-part glee by John Stafford Smith.", "Catullus 5, the love poem \"Vivamus mea Lesbia atque amemus\", in the translation by Ben Jonson, was set to music, (lute accompanied song) by Alfonso Ferrabosco the younger.", "Dutch composer Bertha Tideman-Wijers used Catullus's text for her composition ''Variations on Valerius \"Where that one already turns or turns.\"''", "The Icelandic composer Jóhann Jóhannsson set Catullus 85 to music; entitled \"Odi Et Amo\", the song is found on Jóhannsson's album ''Englabörn'', and is sung through a vocoder, and the music is played by a string quartet and piano.", "''Catulli Carmina'' is a cantata by Carl Orff set to the texts of Catullus.", "Finnish jazz singer Reine Rimón has recorded poems of Catullus set to standard jazz tunes." ], [ "Cultural depictions", "* The 1888 play ''Lesbia'' by Richard Davey depicts the relationship between Catullus and Lesbia, based on incidents from his poems.", "* Catullus was the main protagonist of the historical novel ''Farewell, Catullus'' (1953) by Pierson Dixon.", "The novel shows the corruption of Roman society.", "Vladimir Nabokov's novel ''Lolita'' makes multiple explicit and implicit allusions to Catullus' work.W.", "G. Hardy's novel ''The City of Libertines'' (1957) tells the fictionalized story of Catullus and a love affair during the time of Julius Caesar.", "The ''Financial Post'' described the book as \"an authentic story of an absorbing era\".", "* A poem by Catullus is being recited to Cleopatra in the eponymous 1963 film when Julius Caesar comes to visit her; they talk about him (Cleopatra: 'Catullus doesn't approve of you.", "Why haven't you had him killed?'", "Caesar: 'Because I approve of him.')", "and Caesar then recites other poems by him.", "The American poet Louis Zukofsky in 1969 wrote a set of homophonic translations of Catullus that attempted in English to replicate the sound as primary emphasis, rather than the more common emphasis on sense of the originals (although the relationship between sound and sense there is often misrepresented and has been clarified by careful study); his Catullus versions have had extensive influence on contemporary innovative poetry and homophonic translation, including the work of poets Robert Duncan, Robert Kelly, and Charles Bernstein.", "Catullus is the protagonist of Tom Holland's 1995 novel ''Attis''.", "Catullus appears in Steven Saylor's novel ''The Venus Throw'' as the embittered ex-lover of Clodia, sister of Publius Clodius Pulcher, whom he calls Lesbia." ], [ "See also", "Codex Vaticanus Ottobonianus Latinus 1829Poetry of CatullusProsody (Latin)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * Calinski, T. (2021).", "''''.", "Darmstadt: WBG Academic* Claes, P. (2002).", "''Concatenatio Catulliana, A New Reading of the Carmina.''", "Amsterdam: J.C. Gieben * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Hild, Christian (2013).", "''''.", "St. Ingbert: Röhrig.", ".", "* Kaggelaris, N. (2015), \"Wedding Cry: Sappho (Fr.", "109 LP, Fr.", "104(a) LP)- Catullus (c. 62.20-5)- modern greek folk songs\" in Greek in Avdikos, E.- Koziou-Kolofotia, B.", "(ed.)''", "Modern Greek folk songs and history'', Karditsa, pp.", "260–70 * * * * * * * * * Radici Colace, P., , 1985, pp. 53–71.", "* Radici Colace, P., , 1987, 39-57.", "* Radici Colace, P., , Reggio Calabria 1989, 137-142.", "* Radici Colace, P., , in AA.VV., '''', Pisa 1992, 1-13.", "* Radici Colace, P., , Messana n.s.15, 1993, 23-44.", "* Radici Colace, P., , (Napoli 9 maggio 1995)—A.I.O.N.‖ XVIII, 1996, 155-167.", "* Radici Colace, P., , in Paideia‖ LXIV, 2009, 553-561* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Works by Catullus at Perseus Digital Library* * * * Catullus translations: Catullus's work in Latin and multiple (ten or more) modern languages, including scanned versions of every poem* Catullus in Latin and English* Catullus translated exclusively in English Translated by A. S. Kline* Catullus Online: searchable Latin text, repertory of conjectures, and images of the most important manuscripts* Catullus: Latin text, concordances and frequency list* Catullus purified: a brief history of Carmen 16 by Thomas Nelson Winter* SORGLL: Catullus 5, read by Robert Sonkowsky" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "C. S. Forester" ], [ "Introduction", "English heritage blue plaque in East Dulwich, south London'''Cecil Louis Troughton Smith''' (27 August 1899 – 2 April 1966), known by his pen name '''Cecil Scott''' \"'''C.", "S.'''\" '''Forester''', was an English novelist known for writing tales of naval warfare, such as the 12-book Horatio Hornblower series depicting a Royal Navy officer during the Napoleonic Wars.", "The Hornblower novels ''A Ship of the Line'' and ''Flying Colours'' were jointly awarded the James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction in 1938.His other works include ''The African Queen'' (1935; turned into a 1951 film by John Huston) and ''The Good Shepherd'' (1955; turned into a 2020 film, ''Greyhound'', adapted by and starring Tom Hanks).", "During the Second World War he moved to Washington D.C. where he worked for the British Ministry of Information, writing propaganda for the Allied cause." ], [ "Early years", "Forester was born in Cairo on 27 August 1899 to English parents George Foster Smith and Sarah Medhurst Troughton.", "His father George Smith was an English school teacher in Cairo in a school set up by the British protectorate to give upper-class Egyptian boys a taste of English schooling.", "The family broke up when he was young and his mother took him to London, where he was educated at Alleyn's School and Dulwich College.", "He began to study medicine at Guy's Hospital, but left without completing his degree.", "He was of good height and somewhat athletic, but wore glasses and had a slender physique.", "He failed his Army physical and was told that there was no chance that he would be accepted.", "He began writing seriously, using his pen name, in around 1921." ], [ "Second World War", "During the Second World War Forester moved to the United States, where he worked for the British Ministry of Information and wrote propaganda to encourage the U.S. to join the Allies.", "He eventually settled in Berkeley, California.In 1942, while he was living in Washington, D.C., he met the young British diplomat Roald Dahl and encouraged him to write about his experiences in the Royal Air Force.", "According to Dahl's autobiography, ''Lucky Break'', Forester asked him about his experiences as a fighter pilot, and this prompted Dahl to write his first story, \"A Piece of Cake\"." ], [ "Literary career", "Forester's 1934 science fiction novel ''The Peacemaker'' was reprinted in ''Famous Fantastic Mysteries'' in 1948.Forester wrote many novels, but he is best known for the 12-book Horatio Hornblower series about an officer in the Royal Navy during the Napoleonic Wars.", "He began the series with Hornblower fairly high in rank in the first novel, which was published in 1937, but demand for more stories led him to fill in Hornblower's life story, and he wrote novels detailing his rise from the rank of midshipman.", "The last completed novel was published in 1962.Hornblower's fictional adventures were based on real events, but Forester wrote the body of the works carefully to avoid entanglements with real world history, so that Hornblower is always off on another mission when a great naval battle occurs during the Napoleonic Wars.Forester's other novels include ''The African Queen'' (1935) and ''The General'' (1936); two novels about the Peninsular War, ''Death to the French'' (published in the United States as ''Rifleman Dodd'') and ''The Gun'' (filmed as ''The Pride and the Passion'' in 1957); and seafaring stories that do not involve Hornblower, such as ''Brown on Resolution'' (1929), ''The Captain from Connecticut'' (1941), ''The Ship'' (1943), and ''Hunting the Bismarck'' (1959), which was used as the basis of the screenplay for the film ''Sink the Bismarck!''", "(1960).", "Several of his novels have been filmed, including ''The African Queen'' (1951), directed by John Huston.", "Forester is also credited as story writer on several films not based on his published novels, including ''Commandos Strike at Dawn'' (1942).Forester also wrote several volumes of short stories set during the Second World War.", "Those in ''The Nightmare'' (1954) were based on events in Nazi Germany, ending at the Nuremberg trials.", "The linked stories in ''The Man in the Yellow Raft'' (1969) follow the career of the destroyer USS ''Boon'', while many of the stories in ''Gold from Crete'' (1971) follow the destroyer HMS ''Apache''.", "The last of the stories in ''Gold from Crete'' is ''If Hitler Had Invaded England'', which offers an imagined sequence of events starting with Hitler's attempt to implement Operation Sea Lion and culminating in the early military defeat of Nazi Germany in the summer of 1941.His non-fiction works about seafaring include ''The Age of Fighting Sail'' (1956), an account of the sea battles between Great Britain and the United States in the War of 1812.Forester also published the crime novels ''Payment Deferred'' (1926) and ''Plain Murder'' (1930), as well as two children's books.", "''Poo-Poo and the Dragons'' (1942) was created as a series of stories told to his son George to encourage him to finish his meals.", "George had mild food allergies and needed encouragement to eat.", "''The Barbary Pirates'' (1953) is a children's history of early 19th-century pirates.Forester appeared as a contestant on the television quiz programme ''You Bet Your Life'', hosted by Groucho Marx, in an episode broadcast on 1 November 1956.A previously unknown novel of Forester's, ''The Pursued'', was discovered in 2003 and published by Penguin Classics on 3 November 2011." ], [ "Personal life", "Forester married Kathleen Belcher in 1926.They had two sons, John, born in 1929, and George, born in 1933.The couple divorced in 1945.In 1947 he married Dorothy Foster.", "Kathleen Belcher’s great uncle was Capt.", "Edward Belcher, RN, who achieved renown as a hydrographer and explorer.", "After his retirement, Belcher devoted much of his time to writing.", "After penning biographical material, he turned his hand to naval fiction, inventing a character called ''Horatio Howard Brenton'', and attributing great feats and adventures to him.", "It is possible that Forester found some inspiration in these stories for his own ''Horatio Hornblower''.Forester died in Fullerton, California on 2 April 1966.John Forester wrote a two-volume biography of his father, including many elements of Forester's life which became clear to his son only after his father's death." ], [ "Bibliography", "===Horatio Hornblower===# 1950 ''Mr Midshipman Hornblower''.", "Michael Joseph.# 1941 \"The Hand of Destiny\".", "''Collier's''# 1950 \"Hornblower and the Widow McCool\" (\"Hornblower’s Temptation\" \"\"Hornblower and the Big Decision\").", "''The Saturday Evening Post''# 1952 ''Lieutenant Hornblower''.", "Michael Joseph.# 1962 ''Hornblower and the Hotspur''.", "Michael Joseph.# 1967 ''Hornblower and the Crisis, an unfinished novel''.", "Michael Joseph.", "Published in the US as ''Hornblower During the Crisis'' (posthumous)# 1953 ''Hornblower and the Atropos''.", "Michael Joseph.# 1937 ''The Happy Return''.", "Michael Joseph.", "Published in the US as ''Beat to Quarters''# 1938 ''A Ship of the Line''.", "Michael Joseph.# 1941 ''\"Hornblower's Charitable Offering\"''.", "''Argosy''# 1938 ''Flying Colours''.", "Michael Joseph.# 1941 \"Hornblower and His Majesty\".", "''Collier's''# 1945 ''The Commodore''.", "Michael Joseph.", "Published in the US as ''Commodore Hornblower''# 1946 ''Lord Hornblower''.", "Michael Joseph.# 1958 ''Hornblower in the West Indies''.", "Michael Joseph.", "Published in the US as ''Admiral Hornblower in the West Indies''# 1967 \"The Last Encounter\".", "Sunday Mirror, 8 May 1966 (posthumous).# 1964 ''The Hornblower Companion''.", "Michael Joseph.", "(Supplementary book comprising another short story, \"The Point and the Edge\" only as an outline, \"The Hornblower Atlas\" and \"Some Personal Notes\")====Omnibus====# 1964 ''The Young Hornblower''.", "(a compilation of books 1, 2 & 3).", "Michael Joseph.# 1965 ''Captain Hornblower'' (a compilation of books 5, 6 & 7).", "Michael Joseph.# 1968 ''Admiral Hornblower'' (a compilation of books 8, 9, 10 & 11).", "Michael Joseph.# 2011 ''Hornblower Addendum – Five Short Stories'' (originally published in magazines)===Other novels===* 1924 ''A Pawn among Kings''.", "Methuen.", "* 1924 ''The Paid Piper''.", "Methuen.", "* 1926 ''Payment Deferred''.", "Methuen.", "* 1927 ''Love Lies Dreaming''.", "John Lane.", "* 1927 ''The Wonderful Week''.", "John Lane.", "* 1928 ''The Daughter of the Hawk''.", "John Lane.", "* 1929 ''Brown on Resolution''.", "John Lane.", "* 1930 ''Plain Murder''.", "John Lane.", "* 1931 ''Two-and-Twenty''.", "John Lane.", "* 1932 ''Death to the French''.", "John Lane.", "Published in the U.S. as ''Rifleman Dodd''.", "Little Brown.", "* 1933 ''The Gun''.", "John Lane.", "* 1934 ''The Peacemaker''.", "Heinemann.", "* 1935 ''The African Queen''.", "Heinemann.", "* 1935 ''The Pursued'' (a lost novel rediscovered in 1999 and published by Penguin Classics in 2011)* 1936 ''The General''.", "Michael Joseph.", "First published as a serial in the ''News Chronicle'' 14–18 January 1935* 1940 ''The Earthly Paradise''.", "Michael Joseph.", "Published in the U.S. as ''To the Indies''.", "* 1941 ''The Captain from Connecticut''.", "Michael Joseph.", "* 1942 ''Poo-Poo and the Dragons''.", "Michael Joseph.", "* 1943 ''The Ship''.", "Michael Joseph.", "* 1948 ''The Sky and the Forest''.", "Michael Joseph.", "* 1951 ''Randall and the River of Time''.", "Michael Joseph.", "* 1955 ''The Good Shepherd''.", "Michael Joseph.====Short stories====\"The Wandering Gentile\", ''Liverpool Echo'', 1955===Posthumous=== 1967 ''Long before Forty'' (autobiographical).", "Michael Joseph.", "* 1971 ''Gold from Crete'' (short stories).", "Michael Joseph.", "* 2011 ''The Pursued'' (novel).", "Penguin.===Collections===* 1944 ''The Bedchamber Mystery''; to which is added the story of ''The Eleven Deckchairs'' and ''Modernity and Maternity''.", "S. J. Reginald Saunders.", "Published in the US as ''Three Matronly Mysteries''.", "eNet Press* 1954 ''The Nightmare''.", "Michael Joseph* 1969 ''The Man in the Yellow Raft''.", "Michael Joseph (posthumous)===Plays in three acts; John Lane===* 1931 ''U 97''* 1933 ''Nurse Cavell''.", "(with C. E. Bechhofer Roberts)===Non-fiction===* 1922 ''Victor Emmanuel II''.", "Methuen (?", ")* 1927 ''Victor Emmanuel II and the Union of Italy''.", "Methuen.", "* 1924 ''Napoleon and his Court''.", "Methuen.", "* 1925 ''Josephine, Napoleon’s Empress''.", "Methuen.", "* 1928 ''Louis XIV, King of France and Navarre''.", "Methuen.", "* 1929 ''Lord Nelson''.", "John Lane.", "* 1929 ''The Voyage of the Annie Marble''.", "John Lane.", "* 1930 ''The Annie Marble in Germany''.", "John Lane.", "* 1936 ''Marionettes at Home''.", "Michael Joseph Ltd.* 1953 ''The Adventures of John Wetherell''.", "Doubleday & Company, Inc.* 1953 ''The Barbary Pirates''.", "Landmark Books, Random House.", "Published in the UK in 1956 by Macdonald & Co.* 1957 ''The Naval War of 1812''.", "Michael Joseph.", "Published in the US as ''The Age of Fighting Sail''* 1959 ''Hunting the Bismarck''.", "Michael Joseph.", "Published in the US as ''The Last Nine Days of the Bismark'' and ''Sink the Bismarck''====Non-fiction short pieces====\"Calmness under Air Raids in Franco Territory\".", "''Western Mail'', 28 April 1937\"Who Is Financing Franco?\".", "''Aberdeen Press & Journal'', 5 May 1937”Sabotage\".", "Sunday Graphic, 11 September 1938\"Saga of the Submarines\".", "''Falkirk Herald'', 1 August 1945\"Hollywood Coincidence\".", "''Leicester Chronicle'', 3 September 1955" ], [ "Film adaptations", "In addition to providing the source material for numerous adaptations (not all of which are listed below), Forester was also credited as \"adapted for the screen by\" for ''Captain Horatio Hornblower''.", " ''Payment Deferred'' (1932), based on a 1931 play which was in turn based on Forester's novel of the same name* ''Brown on Resolution'' (1935), based on the novel of the same name* ''Eagle Squadron'' (1942), story* ''Commandos Strike at Dawn'' (1942), short story \"The Commandos\"* ''Forever and a Day'' (1943), story* ''Captain Horatio Hornblower'' (1951), based on the novels ''The Happy Return'', ''A Ship of the Line'' and ''Flying Colours''* ''The African Queen'' (1951), the novel of the same name* ''Sailor of the King'' (1953), the novel ''Brown on Resolution''* ''The Pride and the Passion'' (1957), the novel ''The Gun''* ''Sink the Bismarck!''", "(1960), the novel ''The Last Nine Days of the Bismarck''* ''Hornblower'' (1998–2003 series of made-for-television movies), based on the novels ''Mr.", "Midshipman Hornblower'', ''Lieutenant Hornblower'' and ''Hornblower and the Hotspur''* ''Greyhound'' (2020), the novel ''The Good Shepherd''" ], [ "See also", "* Honor Harrington – a fictional space captain and admiral in the Honorverse novels by David Weber, inspired by Horatio Hornblower (see dedication in ''On Basilisk Station'')* Patrick O'Brian – author of the Aubrey–Maturin series* Dudley Pope – author of the Ramage series* Richard Woodman – author of the Nathaniel Drinkwater series* Douglas Reeman (writing as Alexander Kent) – The Bolitho novels" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Sternlicht, Sanford V., ''C.S.", "Forester and the Hornblower saga'' (Syracuse University Press, 1999)* Van der Kiste, John, ''C.S.", "Forester's Crime Noir: A view of the murder stories'' (KDP, 2018)" ], [ "External links", "* C. S. Forester Collection at the Harry Ransom Center* * * C. S. Forester Society, which publishes the e-journal ''Reflections''* * * C. S. Forester on ''You Bet Your Life'' in 1956" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "List of country calling codes" ], [ "Introduction", "Worldwide distribution of country calling codes.", "Regions are coloured by first digit.", "'''Country calling codes''', '''country dial-in codes''', '''international subscriber dialing''' ('''ISD''') codes, or most commonly, telephone '''country codes''' are telephone number prefixes for reaching telephone subscribers in foreign countries or areas via international telecommunication networks.", "Country codes are defined by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in ITU-T standards E.123 and E.164.The prefixes enable international direct dialing (IDD).Country codes constitute the international telephone numbering plan.", "They are used only when dialing a telephone number in a country or world region other than the caller's.", "Country codes are dialed before the national telephone number, but require at least one additional prefix, the international call prefix which is an exit code from the national numbering plan to the international one.", "In most countries, this prefix is ''00'', an ITU recommendation; it is ''011'' in the countries of the North American Numbering Plan while a minority of countries use other prefixes." ], [ "Overview", "The nine world zones are generally organized geographically, with exceptions for political and historical alignment.", "* Zone 1 uses an integrated numbering plan; four digits (1xxx) determine the area served in Canada, the United States and its territories, and much of the Caribbean.", "* Zone 2 uses two 2-digit codes (20, 27) and eight sets of 3-digit codes (21x–26x, 28x, 29x), mostly to serve Africa, but also Aruba, Faroe Islands, Greenland and British Indian Ocean Territory.", "* Zones 3 and 4 use sixteen 2-digit codes (30–34, 36, 39–41, 43–49) and four sets of 3-digit codes (35x, 37x, 38x, 42x) to serve Europe.", "* Zone 5 uses eight 2-digit codes (51–58) and two sets of 3-digit codes (50x, 59x) to serve South and Central America.", "* Zone 6 uses seven 2-digit codes (60–66) and three sets of 3-digit codes (67x–69x) to serve Southeast Asia and Oceania.", "* Zone 7 uses an integrated numbering plan; two digits (7x) determine the area served: Russia or Kazakhstan.", "* Zone 8 uses four 2-digit codes (81, 82, 84, 86) and four sets of 3-digit codes (80x, 85x, 87x, 88x) to serve East Asia, South Asia and special services.", "83x and 89x are unallocated.", "* Zone 9 uses seven 2-digit codes (90–95, 98) and three sets of 3-digit codes (96x, 97x, 99x) to serve the Middle East, West Asia, Central Asia, parts of South Asia and Eastern Europe." ], [ "Ordered by world zone", "World zones are organized principally, but only approximately, by geographic location.", "Exceptions exist for political and historical alignments.===Zone 1: North American Numbering Plan (NANP)===NANP members are assigned three-digit numbering plan area (NPA) codes under the common country prefix ''1'', shown in the format ''1 (NPA)''.", "1 North American Numbering Plan 1 – , including United States territories: 1 (340) – 1 (670) – 1 (671) – 1 (684) – ** 1 (787, 939) – * 1 – * Caribbean nations, Dutch and British Overseas Territories: 1 (242) – 1 (246) – 1 (264) – 1 (268) – 1 (284) – 1 (345) – 1 (441) – 1 (473) – 1 (649) – 1 (658, 876) – 1 (664) – 1 (721) – 1 (758) – 1 (767) – 1 (784) – 1 (809, 829, 849) – 1 (868) – 1 (869) – ===Zone 2: Mostly Africa===(but also Aruba, Faroe Islands, Greenland and British Indian Ocean Territory)* 20 – * 210 – ''unassigned''* 211 – * 212 – (including Western Sahara)* 213 – * 214 – ''unassigned''* 215 – ''unassigned''* 216 – * 217 – ''unassigned''* 218 – * 219 – ''unassigned''* 220 – * 221 – * 222 – * 223 – * 224 – * 225 – * 226 – * 227 – * 228 – * 229 – * 230 – * 231 – * 232 – * 233 – * 234 – * 235 – * 236 – * 237 – * 238 – * 239 – * 240 – * 241 – * 242 – * 243 – * 244 – * 245 – * 246 – * 247 – * 248 – * 249 – * 250 – * 251 – * 252 – (including )* 253 – * 254 – * 255 – ** 255 (24) – , ''in place of never-implemented 259''* 256 – * 257 – * 258 – * 259 – ''unassigned (was intended for People's Republic of Zanzibar but never implemented – see 255 Tanzania)''* 260 – * 261 – * 262 – ** 262 (269,639) – ''(formerly at 269 Comoros)''* 263 – * 264 – ''(formerly 27 (6x) as South West Africa)''* 265 – * 266 – * 267 – * 268 – * 269 – ''(formerly assigned to Mayotte, now at 262)''* 27 – * 28x – ''unassigned (reserved for country code expansion)''* 290 – ** 290 (8) – * 291 – * 292 – ''unassigned''* 293 – ''unassigned''* 294 – ''unassigned''* 295 – ''unassigned (formerly assigned to San Marino, now at 378)''* 296 – ''unassigned''* 297 – * 298 – * 299 – ===Zones 3–4: Europe===Some of the larger countries were assigned two-digit codes to compensate for their usually longer domestic numbers.", "Small countries were assigned three-digit codes, which also has been the practice since the 1980s.", "* 30 – * 31 – * 32 – * 33 – * 34 – * 350 – * 351 – 351 (291) – (landlines only) 351 (292) – (landlines only, Horta, Azores area) 351 (295) – (landlines only, Angra do Heroísmo area) 351 (296) – (landlines only, Ponta Delgada and São Miguel Island area)* 352 – * 353 – * 354 – * 355 – * 356 – * 357 – (including )* 358 – ** 358 (18) – * 359 – * 36 – ''(formerly assigned to Turkey, now at 90)''* 37 – ''formerly assigned to East Germany until its reunification with West Germany, now part of 49 Germany''* 370 – ''(formerly 7/012 as Lithuanian SSR)''* 371 – ''(formerly 7/013 as Latvian SSR)''* 372 – ''(formerly 7/014 as Estonian SSR)''* 373 – ''(formerly 7/042 as Moldavian SSR)''* 374 – ''(formerly 7/885 as Armenian SSR)''* 375 – 376 – ''(formerly 33 628)'' 377 – ''(formerly 33 93)''* 378 – ''(interchangeably with 39 0549; earlier was allocated 295 but never used)''379 – ''(assigned but uses 39 06698)''.", " 38 – ''formerly assigned to Yugoslavia until its break-up in 1991''* 380 – * 381 – * 382 – * 383 – * 384 – ''unassigned''* 385 – * 386 – * 387 – * 388 – ''unassigned'' ''(formerly assigned to the European Telephony Numbering Space)''* 389 – * 39 – 39 (0549) – ''(interchangeably with 378)'' 39 (06 698) – ''(assigned 379 but not in use)''* 40 – * 41 – ** 41 (91) – 24x24px Campione d'Italia, an Italian enclave* 42 – ''formerly'' ''assigned to'' ''Czechoslovakia until its breakup in 1993''* 420 – * 421 – * 422 – ''unassigned''* 423 – ''(formerly at 41 (75))''* 424 – ''unassigned''* 425 – ''unassigned''* 426 – ''unassigned''* 427 – ''unassigned''* 428 – ''unassigned''* 429 – ''unassigned''* 43 – * 44 – 44 (1481) – 44 (1534) – ** 44 (1624) – * 45 – * 46 – * 47 – ** 47 (79) – * 48 – * 49 – ===Zone 5: South and Central Americas===* 500 – ** 500 – * 501 – * 502 – * 503 – * 504 – * 505 – * 506 – * 507 – * 508 – * 509 – * 51 – * 52 – * 53 – * 54 – * 55 – * 56 – * 57 – * 58 – * 590 – (including Saint Barthélemy, Saint Martin)* 591 – * 592 – * 593 – * 594 – * 595 – * 596 – (''formerly assigned to Peru, now 51'')* 597 – * 598 – * 599 – Former , now grouped as follows: 599 3 – 599 4 – 599 5 – ''unassigned (formerly assigned to Sint Maarten, now included in NANP as 1 (721))'' 599 7 – 599 8 – ''unassigned (formerly assigned to Aruba, now at 297)'' 599 9 – ===Zone 6: Southeast Asia and Oceania===* 60 – * 61 – ''(see also 672 below)'' 61 (8 9162) – 61 (8 9164) – * 62 – * 63 – * 64 – ** 64 – * 65 – * 66 – * 670 – ''(formerly 62/39 during the Indonesian occupation;'' ''formerly'' ''assigned to'' ''Northern Mariana Islands,'' ''now part of'' ''NANP as 1 (670))''* 671 – ''unassigned (formerly'' ''assigned to'' ''Guam, now part of NANP as 1 (671))''* 672 – Australian External Territories ''(see also 61 Australia above); formerly assigned to Portuguese Timor (see 670)'' 672 (1) – Australian Antarctic Territory 672 (3) – * 673 – * 674 – * 675 – * 676 – * 677 – * 678 – * 679 – * 680 – * 681 – * 682 – * 683 – * 684 ''– unassigned (formerly assigned to American Samoa, now part of NANP as 1 (684))''* 685 – * 686 – * 687 – * 688 – * 689 – * 690 – * 691 – * 692 – * 693 – ''unassigned''* 694 – ''unassigned''* 695 – ''unassigned''* 696 – ''unassigned''* 697 – ''unassigned''* 698 – ''unassigned''* 699 – ''unassigned''===Zone 7: Russia and neighboring regions ===Formerly assigned to the Soviet Union until its dissolution in 1991.", "* 7 (1–5, 8, 9) – 7 (840, 940) – ''(formerly 995 (44))'' 7 (850, 929) – ''(formerly 995 (34))''* 7 (6, 7) – ''(reserved 997 but abandoned in November 2023)''===Zone 8: East Asia, South Asia and special services===* ''800 – Universal International Freephone Service (UIFN)''* 801 – ''unassigned''* 802 – ''unassigned''* 803 – ''unassigned''* 804 – ''unassigned''* 805 – ''unassigned''* 806 – ''unassigned''* 807 – ''unassigned''* ''808 – Universal International Shared Cost Numbers''* 809 – ''unassigned''* 81 – * 82 – * 83x – ''unassigned (reserved for country code expansion)''* 84 – * 850 – * 851 – ''unassigned''* 852 – * 853 – * 854 – ''unassigned''* 855 – * 856 – * 857 – ''unassigned (formerly assigned to ANAC satellite service)''* 858 – ''unassigned (formerly assigned to ANAC satellite service)''* 859 – ''unassigned''* 86 – * ''870 – Global Mobile Satellite System (Inmarsat)'' * 871 – ''unassigned (formerly assigned to Inmarsat Atlantic East, discontinued in 2008)''* 872 – ''unassigned (formerly assigned to Inmarsat Pacific, discontinued in 2008)''* 873 – ''unassigned (formerly assigned to Inmarsat Indian, discontinued in 2008)''* 874 – ''unassigned (formerly assigned to Inmarsat Atlantic West, discontinued in 2008)''* 875 – ''unassigned (reserved for future maritime mobile service)''* 876 – ''unassigned (reserved for future maritime mobile service)''* 877 – ''unassigned (reserved for future maritime mobile service)''* 878 – ''unassigned (formerly used for Universal Personal Telecommunications Service, discontinued in 2022)''* 879 – ''unassigned (reserved for national non-commercial purposes)''* 880 – * ''881 – Global Mobile Satellite System''* ''882 – International Networks''* ''883 – International Networks''* 884 – ''unassigned''* 885 – ''unassigned''* 886 – * 887 – ''unassigned''* 888 – ''unassigned (formerly assigned to OCHA for Telecommunications for Disaster Relief service)''* 889 – ''unassigned''* 89x – ''unassigned (reserved for country code expansion)''===Zone 9: Mostly Middle East, West Asia, Central Asia, parts of South Asia and Eastern Europe ===* 90 – ** 90 (392) – * 91 – 91 (191) – Jammu 91 (194) – Kashmir* 92 – 92 (581) – 92 (582) – * 93 – * 94 – * 95 – * 960 – * 961 – * 962 – * 963 – * 964 – * 965 – * 966 – * 967 – * 968 – * 969 – ''unassigned (formerly assigned to South Yemen until its unification with North Yemen, now part of 967 Yemen)''* 970 – ''(interchangeably with 972)''* 971 – * 972 – ''(also , interchangeably with 970)''* 973 – * 974 – * 975 – * 976 – * 977 – * 978 – ''unassigned (formerly assigned to Dubai, now part of 971 United Arab Emirates)''* 979 – ''Universal International Premium Rate Service (UIPRS);'' ''(formerly assigned to Abu Dhabi, now part of 971 United Arab Emirates)''* 98 – * 990 – ''unassigned''* 991 – ''unassigned (formerly used for International Telecommunications Public Correspondence Service)''* 992 – * 993 – * 994 – * 995 – 995 (34) – ''formerly (now 7 (850, 929))'' 995 (44) – ''formerly '' ''(now 7 (840, 940))''* 996 – * 997 – ''(reserved but abandoned in November 2023; uses 7 (6xx, 7xx))''* 998 – * 999 – ''unassigned (reserved for future global service)''" ], [ "Alphabetical order", " Serving Code Time (UTC ±) Zone DST 93 +04:30 358 (18) +02:00 +03:00 355 +01:00 +02:00 213 +01:00 1 (684) −11:00 376 +01:00 +02:00 244 +01:00 1 (264) −04:00 1 (268)−04:00 54 −03:00 374 +04:00 297 −04:00 247 +00:00 61 +08:00to10:30 +08:00to11:00 43 +01:00 +02:00 994 +04:00 1 (242) −05:00 −04:00 973 +03:00 880 +06:00 1 (246) −04:00 375 +03:00 32 +01:00 +02:00 501 −06:00 229 +01:00 1 (441) −04:00 −03:00 975 +06:00 591 −04:00 599 (7) −04:00 387 +01:00 +02:00 267 +02:00 55 −05:00to–02:00 (Diego Garcia) 246 +06:00 1 (284) −04:00 673 +08:00 359 +02:00 +03:00 226 +00:00 257 +02:00 238 −01:00 855 +07:00 237 +01:00 1 −08:00to–03:30 −07:00to–02:30 599 (3,4,7) −04:00 1 (345) −05:00 236 +01:00 235 +01:00 56 −06:00to–04:00 −05:00to–03:00 86 +08:00 61 (89164) +07:00 61 (89162) +06:30 57 −05:00 269 +03:00 242 +01:00 243 +01:00to02:00 682 −10:00 506 −06:00 (Côte d'Ivoire) 225 +00:00 385 +01:00 +02:00 53 −05:00 −04:00 599 (9) −04:00 357 +02:00 +03:00 420 +01:00 +02:00 45 +01:00 +02:00 253 +03:00 1 (767) −04:00 1 (809, 829, 849) −04:00 56 −06:00 −05:00 593 −06:00to–05:00 20 +02:00 +03:00 503 −06:00 Ellipso (Mobile Satellite service) 881 (2, 3) EMSAT (Mobile Satellite service) 882 (13) 240 +01:00 291 +03:00 372 +02:00 +03:00 268 +02:00 251 +03:00 500 −03:00 298 +00:00 +01:00 679 +12:00 +13:00 358 +02:00 +03:00 33 +01:00 +02:00 French Antilles 596 594 −03:00 689 −10:00to–09:00 241 +01:00 220 +00:00 995 +04:00 49 +01:00 +02:00 233 +00:00 350 +01:00 +02:00 Global Mobile Satellite System (GMSS) 881 Globalstar (Mobile Satellite Service) 881 (8, 9) 30 +02:00 +03:00 299 −04:00to01:00 −03:00to00:00 1 (473) −04:00 590 −04:00 1 (671) +10:00 502 −06:00 44 (1481, 7781, 7839, 7911) +00:00 +01:00 224 +00:00 245 +00:00 592 −04:00 509 −05:00 −04:00 504 −06:00 852 +08:00 36 +01:00 +02:00 354 +00:00 ICO Global (Mobile Satellite Service) 881 (0, 1) 91 +05:30 62 +07:00to09:00 Inmarsat SNAC 870 International Freephone Service (UIFN) 800 International Networks 882, 883 International Premium Rate Service 979 International Shared Cost Service (ISCS) 808 98 +03:30 +04:30 964 +03:00 353 +00:00 +01:00 Iridium (Mobile Satellite service) 881 (6, 7) 44 (1624, 7524, 7624, 7924) +00:00 +01:00 972 +02:00 +03:00 39 +01:00 +02:00 1 (658, 876) −05:00 47 (79) +01:00 +02:00 81 +09:00 44 (1534) +00:00 +01:00 962 +02:00 +03:00 7 (6, 7) (997 assigned but now abandoned) +05:00to06:00 254 +03:00 686 +12:00to14:00 850 +09:00 82 +09:00 383 +01:00 +02:00 965 +03:00 996 +06:00 856 +07:00 371 +02:00 +03:00 961 +02:00 +03:00 266 +02:00 231 +00:00 218 +02:00 423 +01:00 +02:00 370 +02:00 +03:00 352 +01:00 +02:00 853 +08:00 261 +03:00 265 +02:00 60 +08:00 960 +05:00 223 +00:00 356 +01:00 +02:00 692 +12:00 596 −04:00 222 +00:00 230 +04:00 262 (269, 639) +03:00 52 −08:00to–05:00 −07:00to–05:00 691 +10:00to11:00 373 +02:00 +03:00 377 +01:00 +02:00 976 +07:00to08:00 382 +01:00 +02:00 1 (664) −04:00 212 +01:00 258 +02:00 95 +06:30 264 +02:00 674 +12:00 977 +05:45 31 +01:00 +02:00 1 (869)−04:00 687 +11:00 64 +12:00 +13:00 505 −06:00 227 +01:00 234 +01:00 683 −11:00 672 (3) +11:00 389 +01:00 +02:00 90 (392) +02:00 +03:00 44 (28) +00:00 +01:00 1 (670) +10:00 47 +01:00 +02:00 968 +04:00 92 +05:00 680 +09:00 970 +02:00 +03:00 507 −05:00 675 +10:00to11:00 595 −04:00 −03:00 51 −05:00 63 +08:00 64 −08:00 48 +01:00 +02:00 351 +00:00 +01:00 1 (787, 939) −04:00 974 +03:00 262 +04:00 40 +02:00 +03:00 7 +02:00to12:00 250 +02:00 599 (4) −04:00 590 −04:00 290 +00:00 1 (869) −04:00 1 (758) −04:00 590 −04:00 508 −03:00 −02:00 1 (784) −04:00 685 +13:00 +14:00 378 +01:00 +02:00 239 +00:00 966 +03:00 221 +00:00 381 +01:00 +02:00 248 +04:00 232 +00:00 65 +08:00 599 (3) −04:00 1 (721) −04:00 421 +01:00 +02:00 386 +01:00 +02:00 677 +11:00 252 +03:00 27 +02:00 500 −02:00 995 (34) +03:00 211 +02:00 34 +01:00 +02:00 94 +05:30 249 +02:00 597 −03:00 47 (79) +01:00 +02:00 46 +01:00 +02:00 41 +01:00 +02:00 963 +02:00 +03:00 886 +08:00 992 +05:00 255 +03:00 66 +07:00 Thuraya (Mobile Satellite service) 882 (16) (Timor-Leste) 670 +09:00 228 +00:00 690 +13:00 676 +13:00 373 (2, 5) +02:00 +03:00 1 (868) −04:00 290 (8) +00:00 216 +01:00 90 +03:00 993 +05:00 1 (649) −05:00 −04:00 688 +12:00 256 +03:00 380 +02:00 +03:00 971 +04:00 44 +00:00 +01:00 1 −10:00to–05:00 −10:00to–04:00 598 −03:00 1 (340) −04:00 998 +05:00 678 +11:00 (Holy See) 39 (06698),assigned 379 +01:00 +02:00 58 −04:00 84 +07:00 Wake Island, USA 1 (808) +12:00 681 +12:00 967 +03:00 260 +02:00 255 (24) +03:00 263 +02:00" ], [ "Summary", "This table lists in its first column the initial digits of the country code shared by each country in each row, which is arranged in columns for the last digit.", "When three-digit codes share a common leading pair, the two-digit code is unassigned, being ambiguous (denoted by \"ambig.\").", "Unassigned codes are denoted by a dash (—).", "Countries are identified by ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country codes; codes for non-geographic services are denoted by two asterisks ().", "x = 0 x = 1 x = 2 x = 3 x = 4 x = 5 x = 6 x = 7 x = 8 x = 9 1 1: North American Numbering Plan: Integrated numbering plan for US, CA plus other countries listed below1 (242): BS1 (246): BB1 (264): AI1 (268): AG1 (284): VG1 (340): VI1 (345): KY1 (441): BM1 (473): GD1 (649): TC1 (658): JM1 (664): MS1 (670): MP1 (671): GU1 (684): AS1 (721): SX1 (758): LC1 (767): DM1 (784): VC1 (787): PR1 (809): DO1 (829): DO1 (849): DO1 (868): TT1 (869): KN1 (876): JM1 (939): PR 2x 20: EG 21: ambig.", "22: ambig.", "23: ambig.", "24: ambig.", "25: ambig.", "26: ambig.", "27: ZA 28: — 29: ambig.", "21x 210: — 211: SS 212: MA, EH 213: DZ 214: — 215: — 216: TN 217: — 218: LY 219: — 22x 220: GM 221: SN 222: MR 223: ML 224: GN 225: CI 226: BF 227: NE 228: TG 229: BJ 23x 230: MU 231: LR 232: SL 233: GH 234: NG 235: TD 236: CF 237: CM 238: CV 239: ST 24x 240: GQ 241: GA 242: CG 243: CD 244: AO 245: GW 246: IO 247: AC 248: SC 249: SD 25x 250: RW 251: ET 252: SO 253: DJ 254: KE 255: TZ 256: UG 257: BI 258: MZ 259: — 26x 260: ZM 261: MG 262: RE, YT,TF 263: ZW 264: NA 265: MW 266: LS 267: BW 268: SZ 269: KM 29x 290: SH, TA 291: ER 292: — 293: — 294: — 295: — 296: — 297: AW 298: FO 299: GL 3x 30: GR 31: NL 32: BE 33: FR 34: ES 35: ambig.", "36: HU 37: ambig.", "38: ambig.", "39: IT, VA 35x 350: GI 351: PT 352: LU 353: IE 354: IS 355: AL 356: MT 357: CY 358: FI, AX 359: BG 37x 370: LT 371: LV 372: EE 373: MD 374: AM, ''QN'' 375: BY 376: AD 377: MC 378: SM 379: VA 38x 380: UA 381: RS 382: ME 383: XK 384: — 385: HR 386: SI 387: BA 388: — 389: MK 4x 40: RO 41: CH 42: ambig.", "43: AT 44: GB, GG, IM, JE 45: DK 46: SE 47: NO, SJ BV 48: PL 49: DE 42x 420: CZ 421: SK 422: — 423: LI 424: — 425: — 426: — 427: — 428: — 429: — 5x 50: ambig.", "51: PE 52: MX 53: CU 54: AR 55: BR 56: CL 57: CO 58: VE 59: ambig.", "50x 500: FK, GS 501: BZ 502: GT 503: SV 504: HN 505: NI 506: CR 507: PA 508: PM 509: HT 59x 590: GP, BL, MF 591: BO 592: GY 593: EC 594: GF 595: PY 596: MQ 597: SR 598: UY 599: BQ, CW 6x 60: MY 61: AU, CX, CC 62: ID 63: PH 64: NZ, PN 65: SG 66: TH 67: ambig.", "68: ambig.", "69: ambig.", "67x 670: TL 671: — 672: NF, AQ 673: BN 674: NR 675: PG 676: TO 677: SB 678: VU 679: FJ 68x 680: PW 681: WF 682: CK 683: NU 684: — 685: WS 686: KI 687: NC 688: TV 689: PF 69x 690: TK 691: FM 692: MH 693: — 694: — 695: — 696: — 697: — 698: — 699: — 7x 7: Integrated numbering plan for KZ, RU 7 (1): RU 7 (3): RU 7 (4): RU7 (5): RU 7 (6): KZ 7 (7): KZ 7 (8): RU 7 (9): RU 8x 80: ambig.", "81: JP 82: KR 83: — 84: VN 85: ambig.", "86: CN 87: ambig.", "88: ambig.", "89: — 80x 800: 801: — 802: — 803: — 804: — 805: — 806: — 807: — 808: 809: — 85x 850: KP 851: — 852: HK 853: MO 854: — 855: KH 856: LA 857: — 858: — 859: — 87x 870: 871: — 872: — 873: — 874: — 875: — 876: — 877: — 878: 879: — 88x 880: BD 881: 882: 883: 884: — 885: — 886: TW 887: — 888: UN 889: — 9x 90: TR, CT 91: IN 92: PK 93: AF 94: LK 95: MM 96: ambig.", "97: ambig.", "98: IR 99: ambig.", "96x 960: MV 961: LB 962: JO 963: SY 964: IQ 965: KW 966: SA 967: YE 968: OM 969: — 97x 970: PS 971: AE 972: IL, PS 973: BH 974: QA 975: BT 976: MN 977: NP 978: — 979: 99x 990: — 991: 992: TJ 993: TM 994: AZ 995: GE 996: KG 997: — 998: UZ 999: — x = 0 x = 1 x = 2 x = 3 x = 4 x = 5 x = 6 x = 7 x = 8 x = 9" ], [ "Locations with no country code", "In Antarctica, telecommunication services are provided by the parent country of each base: Base CallingCode Country Note Almirante Brown Antarctic Base 54 Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station 1 Artigas Base 598 Asuka Station 81 Base Presidente Eduardo Frei Montalva and Villa Las Estrellas 56 Belgrano II 54 Bellingshausen Station 7 Bernardo O'Higgins Station 56 Byrd Station 1 Captain Arturo Prat Base 56 Casey Station 672 can be direct dialed Comandante Ferraz Brazilian Antarctic Base 55 Concordia Station 39 33 Davis Station 672 can be direct dialed Dome Fuji Station 81 Dumont d'Urville Station 33 Esperanza Base 54 Gabriel de Castilla Spanish Antarctic Station 34 Georg von Neumayer Station (Replaced by Neumayer Station) 49 Gonzalez Videla Station 56 Great Wall Station 86 Halley Research Station 44 Henryk Arctowski Polish Antarctic Station 48 Jang Bogo Station 82 Jinnah Antarctic Station 92 Juan Carlos I Base 34 Jubany 54 King Sejong Station 82 Kohnen-Station 49 Kunlun Station 852 Law-Racoviță-Negoiță Station 40 Leningradskaya Station 7 Machu Picchu Research Station 51 Macquarie Island Station 672 can be direct dialed Maitri Station 91 Marambio Base 54 Mario Zucchelli Station 39 Mawson Station 672 can be direct dialed McMurdo Station 1 can be reached by 64 code to Scott Base (NZ) Mendel Polar Station 420 Mirny Station 7 Mizuho Station 81 Molodyozhnaya Station 7 375 Neumayer Station 49 Novolazarevskaya Station 7 Orcadas Base 54 Palmer Station 1 Princess Elisabeth Base 32 Professor Julio Escudero Base 56 Progress Station 7 Rothera Research Station 44 Russkaya Station 7 San Martín Base 54 SANAE IV (South African National Antarctic Expeditions) 27 Signy Research Station 44 St. Kliment Ohridski Base 359 Scott Base 64 can be reached via 64 2409 and four digits on McMurdo exchange Showa Station 81 Svea 46 Tor Station 47 Troll Station 47 Wasa Research Station 46 Vostok Station 7 Vernadsky Research Base 380 Zhongshan Station 86 Other places with no country codes in use, although a code may be reserved: Location Calling Code Country Reasons for no Code Kerguelen Archipelago 262 No permanent local switches Pitcairn Islands 64 On-island phone network is connected to and uses numbering from an exchange in New Zealand." ], [ "See also", "* List of mobile telephone prefixes by country* National conventions for writing telephone numbers" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Christopher Marlowe" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Christopher Marlowe''', also known as '''Kit Marlowe''' (; baptised 26 February 156430 May 1593), was an English playwright, poet and translator of the Elizabethan era.", "Marlowe is among the most famous of the Elizabethan playwrights.", "Based upon the \"many imitations\" of his play ''Tamburlaine'', modern scholars consider him to have been the foremost dramatist in London in the years just before his mysterious early death.", "Some scholars also believe that he greatly influenced William Shakespeare, who was baptised in the same year as Marlowe and later succeeded him as the pre-eminent Elizabethan playwright.", "Marlowe was the first to achieve critical reputation for his use of blank verse, which became the standard for the era.", "His plays are distinguished by their overreaching protagonists.", "Themes found within Marlowe's literary works have been noted as humanistic with realistic emotions, which some scholars find difficult to reconcile with Marlowe's \"anti-intellectualism\" and his catering to the prurient tastes of his Elizabethan audiences for generous displays of extreme physical violence, cruelty, and bloodshed.Events in Marlowe's life were sometimes as extreme as those found in his plays.", "Differing sensational reports of Marlowe's death in 1593 abounded after the event and are contested by scholars today owing to a lack of good documentation.", "There have been many conjectures as to the nature and reason for his death, including a vicious bar-room fight, blasphemous libel against the church, homosexual intrigue, betrayal by another playwright, and espionage from the highest level: the Privy Council of Elizabeth I.", "An official coroner's account of Marlowe's death was discovered only in 1925, and it did little to persuade all scholars that it told the whole story, nor did it eliminate the uncertainties present in his biography." ], [ "Early life", "Marlowe was christened at St George's Church, Canterbury.", "The tower, shown here, is all that survived destruction during the Baedeker air raids of 1942.Christopher Marlowe, the second of nine children, and oldest child after the death of his sister Mary in 1568, was born to Canterbury shoemaker John Marlowe and his wife Katherine, daughter of William Arthur of Dover.", "He was baptised at St George's Church, Canterbury, on 26 February 1564 (1563 in the old style dates in use at the time, which placed the new year on 25 March).", "Marlowe's birth was likely to have been a few days before, making him about two months older than William Shakespeare, who was baptised on 26 April 1564 in Stratford-upon-Avon.By age 14, Marlowe was a pupil at The King's School, Canterbury on a scholarship and two years later a student at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, where he also studied through a scholarship with expectation that he would become an Anglican clergyman.", "Instead, he received his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1584.Marlowe mastered Latin during his schooling, reading and translating the works of Ovid.", "In 1587, the university hesitated to award his Master of Arts degree because of a rumour that he intended to go to the English seminary at Reims in northern France, presumably to prepare for ordination as a Roman Catholic priest.", "If true, such an action on his part would have been a direct violation of royal edict issued by Queen Elizabeth I in 1585 criminalising any attempt by an English citizen to be ordained in the Roman Catholic Church.Large-scale violence between Protestants and Catholics on the European continent has been cited by scholars as the impetus for the Protestant English Queen's defensive anti-Catholic laws issued from 1581 until her death in 1603.Despite the dire implications for Marlowe, his degree was awarded on schedule when the Privy Council intervened on his behalf, commending him for his \"faithful dealing\" and \"good service\" to the Queen.", "The nature of Marlowe's service was not specified by the council, but its letter to the Cambridge authorities has provoked much speculation by modern scholars, notably the theory that Marlowe was operating as a secret agent for Privy Council member Sir Francis Walsingham.", "The only surviving evidence of the Privy Council's correspondence is found in their minutes, the letter being lost.", "There is no mention of espionage in the minutes, but its summation of the lost Privy Council letter is vague in meaning, stating that \"it was not Her Majesties pleasure\" that persons employed as Marlowe had been \"in matters touching the benefit of his country should be defamed by those who are ignorant in th'affaires he went about.\"", "Scholars agree the vague wording was typically used to protect government agents, but they continue to debate what the \"matters touching the benefit of his country\" actually were in Marlowe's case and how they affected the 23-year-old writer as he launched his literary career in 1587." ], [ "Adult life and legend", "Little is known about Marlowe's adult life.", "All available evidence, other than what can be deduced from his literary works, is found in legal records and other official documents.", "Writers of fiction and non-fiction have speculated about his professional activities, private life, and character.", "Marlowe has been described as a spy, a brawler, and a heretic, as well as a \"magician\", \"duellist\", \"tobacco-user\", \"counterfeiter\" and \"rakehell\".", "While J.", "A. Downie and Constance Kuriyama have argued against the more lurid speculations, it is the usually circumspect J.", "B. Steane who remarked, \"it seems absurd to dismiss all of these Elizabethan rumours and accusations as 'the Marlowe myth.", "Much has been written on his brief adult life, including speculation of: his involvement in royally-sanctioned espionage; his vocal declaration as an atheist; his (possibly same-sex) sexual interests; and the puzzling circumstances surrounding his death.===Spying===The corner of Old Court of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, where Marlowe stayed while a Cambridge student and, possibly, during the time he was recruited as a spy Marlowe is alleged to have been a government spy.", "Park Honan and Charles Nicholl speculate that this was the case and suggest that Marlowe's recruitment took place when he was at Cambridge.", "In 1587, when the Privy Council ordered the University of Cambridge to award Marlowe his degree as Master of Arts, it denied rumours that he intended to go to the English Catholic college in Rheims, saying instead that he had been engaged in unspecified \"affaires\" on \"matters touching the benefit of his country\".", "Surviving college records from the period also indicate that, in the academic year 1584–1585, Marlowe had had a series of unusually lengthy absences from the university which violated university regulations.", "Surviving college buttery accounts, which record student purchases for personal provisions, show that Marlowe began spending lavishly on food and drink during the periods he was in attendance; the amount was more than he could have afforded on his known scholarship income.Portrait of alleged \"spymaster\" Sir Francis Walsingham ''c.''", "1585; attributed to John de CritzIt has been speculated that Marlowe was the \"Morley\" who was tutor to Arbella Stuart in 1589.This possibility was first raised in a ''Times Literary Supplement'' letter by E. St John Brooks in 1937; in a letter to ''Notes and Queries'', John Baker has added that only Marlowe could have been Arbella's tutor owing to the absence of any other known \"Morley\" from the period with an MA and not otherwise occupied.", "If Marlowe was Arbella's tutor, it might indicate that he was there as a spy, since Arbella, niece of Mary, Queen of Scots, and cousin of James VI of Scotland, later James I of England, was at the time a strong candidate for the succession to Elizabeth's throne.", "Frederick S. Boas dismisses the possibility of this identification, based on surviving legal records which document Marlowe's \"residence in London between September and December 1589\".", "Marlowe had been party to a fatal quarrel involving his neighbours and the poet Thomas Watson in Norton Folgate and was held in Newgate Prison for a fortnight.", "In fact, the quarrel and his arrest occurred on 18 September, he was released on bail on 1 October and he had to attend court, where he was acquitted on 3 December, but there is no record of where he was for the intervening two months.In 1592 Marlowe was arrested in the English garrison town of Flushing (Vlissingen) in the Netherlands, for alleged involvement in the counterfeiting of coins, presumably related to the activities of seditious Catholics.", "He was sent to the Lord Treasurer (Burghley), but no charge or imprisonment resulted.", "This arrest may have disrupted another of Marlowe's spying missions, perhaps by giving the resulting coinage to the Catholic cause.", "He was to infiltrate the followers of the active Catholic plotter William Stanley and report back to Burghley.===Philosophy===Sir Walter Raleigh, shown here in 1588, was the alleged centre of the \"School of Atheism\" ''c.''", "1592.Marlowe was reputed to be an atheist, which held the dangerous implication of being an enemy of God and the state, by association.", "With the rise of public fears concerning The School of Night, or \"School of Atheism\" in the late 16th century, accusations of atheism were closely associated with disloyalty to the Protestant monarchy of England.Some modern historians consider that Marlowe's professed atheism, as with his supposed Catholicism, may have been no more than a sham to further his work as a government spy.", "Contemporary evidence comes from Marlowe's accuser in Flushing, an informer called Richard Baines.", "The governor of Flushing had reported that each of the men had \"of malice\" accused the other of instigating the counterfeiting and of intending to go over to the Catholic \"enemy\"; such an action was considered atheistic by the Church of England.", "Following Marlowe's arrest in 1593, Baines submitted to the authorities a \"note containing the opinion of one Christopher Marly concerning his damnable judgment of religion, and scorn of God's word\".", "Baines attributes to Marlowe a total of eighteen items which \"scoff at the pretensions of the Old and New Testament\" such as, \"Christ was a bastard and his mother dishonest unchaste\", \"the woman of Samaria and her sister were whores and that Christ knew them dishonestly\", \"St John the Evangelist was bedfellow to Christ and leaned always in his bosom\" (cf.", "John 13:23–25) and \"that he used him as the sinners of Sodom\".", "He also implied that Marlowe had Catholic sympathies.", "Other passages are merely sceptical in tone: \"he persuades men to atheism, willing them not to be afraid of bugbears and hobgoblins\".", "The final paragraph of Baines's document reads:Portrait often claimed to be Thomas Harriot (1602), which hangs in Trinity College, OxfordSimilar examples of Marlowe's statements were given by Thomas Kyd after his imprisonment and possible torture (see above); Kyd and Baines connect Marlowe with mathematician Thomas Harriot's and Sir Walter Raleigh's circle.", "Another document claimed about that time that \"one Marlowe is able to show more sound reasons for Atheism than any divine in England is able to give to prove divinity, and that ... he hath read the Atheist lecture to Sir Walter Raleigh and others\".Some critics believe that Marlowe sought to disseminate these views in his work and that he identified with his rebellious and iconoclastic protagonists.", "Plays had to be approved by the Master of the Revels before they could be performed and the censorship of publications was under the control of the Archbishop of Canterbury.", "Presumably these authorities did not consider any of Marlowe's works to be unacceptable other than the ''Amores''.===Sexuality===Title page to 1598 edition of Marlowe's ''Hero and Leander''It has been claimed that Marlowe was homosexual.", "Some scholars argue that the identification of an Elizabethan as gay or homosexual in the modern sense is \"anachronistic,\" claiming that for the Elizabethans the terms were more likely to have been applied to homoerotic affections or sexual acts rather than to what we currently understand as a settled sexual orientation or personal role identity.", "Other scholars argue that the evidence is inconclusive and that the reports of Marlowe's homosexuality may be rumours produced after his death.", "Richard Baines reported Marlowe as saying: \"all they that love not Tobacco & Boies were fools\".", "David Bevington and Eric C. Rasmussen describe Baines's evidence as \"unreliable testimony\" and \"these and other testimonials need to be discounted for their exaggeration and for their having been produced under legal circumstances we would now regard as a witch-hunt\".J.", "B. Steane considered there to be \"no evidence for Marlowe's homosexuality at all\".", "Other scholars point to the frequency with which Marlowe explores homosexual themes in his writing: in ''Hero and Leander'', Marlowe writes of the male youth Leander: \"in his looks were all that men desire...\" ''Edward the Second'' contains the following passage enumerating homosexual relationships:Marlowe wrote the only play about the life of Edward II up to his time, taking the humanist literary discussion of male sexuality much further than his contemporaries.", "The play was extremely bold, dealing with a star-crossed love story between Edward II and Piers Gaveston.", "Though it was a common practice at the time to reveal characters as homosexual to give audiences reason to suspect them as culprits in a crime, Christopher Marlowe's Edward II is portrayed as a sympathetic character.", "The decision to start the play ''Dido, Queen of Carthage'' with a homoerotic scene between Jupiter and Ganymede that bears no connection to the subsequent plot has long puzzled scholars.===Arrest and death===Marlowe was buried in an unmarked grave in the churchyard of St Nicholas, Deptford.", "This modern plaque is on the east wall of the churchyard.In early May 1593, several bills were posted about London threatening the Protestant refugees from France and the Netherlands who had settled in the city.", "One of these, the \"Dutch church libel\", written in rhymed iambic pentameter, contained allusions to several of Marlowe's plays and was signed, \"Tamburlaine\".", "On 11 May the Privy Council ordered the arrest of those responsible for the libels.", "The next day, Marlowe's colleague Thomas Kyd was arrested, his lodgings were searched and a three-page fragment of a heretical tract was found.", "In a letter to Sir John Puckering, Kyd asserted that it had belonged to Marlowe, with whom he had been writing \"in one chamber\" some two years earlier.", "In a second letter, Kyd described Marlowe as blasphemous, disorderly, holding treasonous opinions, being an irreligious reprobate and \"intemperate & of a cruel hart\".", "They had both been working for an aristocratic patron, probably Ferdinando Stanley, Lord Strange.", "A warrant for Marlowe's arrest was issued on 18 May, when the Privy Council apparently knew that he might be found staying with Thomas Walsingham, whose father was a first cousin of the late Sir Francis Walsingham, Elizabeth's principal secretary in the 1580s and a man more deeply involved in state espionage than any other member of the Privy Council.", "Marlowe duly presented himself on 20 May but there apparently being no Privy Council meeting on that day, was instructed to \"give his daily attendance on their Lordships, until he shall be licensed to the contrary\".", "On Wednesday, 30 May, Marlowe was killed.Title page to the 1598 edition of ''Palladis Tamia'' by Francis Meres, which contains one of the earliest descriptions of Marlowe's deathVarious accounts of Marlowe's death were current over the next few years.", "In his ''Palladis Tamia'', published in 1598, Francis Meres says Marlowe was \"stabbed to death by a bawdy serving-man, a rival of his in his lewd love\" as punishment for his \"epicurism and atheism\".", "In 1917, in the ''Dictionary of National Biography'', Sir Sidney Lee wrote, on slender evidence, that Marlowe was killed in a drunken fight.", "His claim was not much at variance with the official account, which came to light only in 1925, when the scholar Leslie Hotson discovered the coroner's report of the inquest on Marlowe's death, held two days later on Friday 1 June 1593, by the Coroner of the Queen's Household, William Danby.", "Marlowe had spent all day in a house in Deptford, owned by the widow Eleanor Bull, with three men: Ingram Frizer, Nicholas Skeres and Robert Poley.", "All three had been employed by one or other of the Walsinghams.", "Skeres and Poley had helped snare the conspirators in the Babington plot and Frizer was a servant to Thomas Walsingham probably in the role of a financial or business agent, as he was for Walsingham's wife Audrey a few years later.", "These witnesses testified that Frizer and Marlowe had argued over payment of the bill (now famously known as the 'Reckoning') exchanging \"divers malicious words\" while Frizer was sitting at a table between the other two and Marlowe was lying behind him on a couch.", "Marlowe snatched Frizer's dagger and wounded him on the head.", "In the ensuing struggle, according to the coroner's report, Marlowe was stabbed above the right eye, killing him instantly.", "The jury concluded that Frizer acted in self-defence and within a month he was pardoned.", "Marlowe was buried in an unmarked grave in the churchyard of St. Nicholas, Deptford, immediately after the inquest, on 1 June 1593.The complete text of the inquest report was published by Leslie Hotson in his book, ''The Death of Christopher Marlowe'', in the introduction to which Prof. George Kittredge said, \"The mystery of Marlowe's death, heretofore involved in a cloud of contradictory gossip and irresponsible guess-work, is now cleared up for good and all on the authority of public records of complete authenticity and gratifying fullness\", but this confidence proved fairly short-lived.", "Hotson had considered the possibility that the witnesses had \"concocted a lying account of Marlowe's behaviour, to which they swore at the inquest, and with which they deceived the jury\" but came down against that scenario.", "Others began to suspect that this scenario was indeed the case.", "Writing to the ''Times Literary Supplement'' shortly after the book's publication, Eugénie de Kalb disputed that the struggle and outcome as described were even possible and Samuel A. Tannenbaum insisted the following year that such a wound could not have possibly resulted in instant death, as had been claimed.", "Even Marlowe's biographer John Bakeless acknowledged that \"some scholars have been inclined to question the truthfulness of the coroner's report.", "There is something queer about the whole episode\" and said that Hotson's discovery \"raises almost as many questions as it answers\".", "It has also been discovered more recently that the apparent absence of a local county coroner to accompany the Coroner of the Queen's Household would, if noticed, have made the inquest null and void.One of the main reasons for doubting the truth of the inquest concerns the reliability of Marlowe's companions as witnesses.", "As an ''agent provocateur'' for the late Sir Francis Walsingham, Robert Poley was a consummate liar, the \"very genius of the Elizabethan underworld\" and is on record as saying \"I will swear and forswear myself, rather than I will accuse myself to do me any harm\".", "The other witness, Nicholas Skeres, had for many years acted as a confidence trickster, drawing young men into the clutches of people in the money-lending racket, including Marlowe's apparent killer, Ingram Frizer, with whom he was engaged in such a swindle.", "Despite their being referred to as ''generosi'' (gentlemen) in the inquest report, the witnesses were professional liars.", "Some biographers, such as Kuriyama and Downie, take the inquest to be a true account of what occurred, but in trying to explain what really happened if the account was ''not'' true, others have come up with a variety of murder theories:* Jealous of her husband Thomas's relationship with Marlowe, Audrey Walsingham arranged for the playwright to be murdered.", "* Sir Walter Raleigh arranged the murder, fearing that under torture Marlowe might incriminate him.", "* With Skeres the main player, the murder resulted from attempts by the Earl of Essex to use Marlowe to incriminate Sir Walter Raleigh.", "* He was killed on the orders of father and son Lord Burghley and Sir Robert Cecil, who thought that his plays contained Catholic propaganda.", "* He was accidentally killed while Frizer and Skeres were pressuring him to pay back money he owed them.", "* Marlowe was murdered at the behest of several members of the Privy Council, who feared that he might reveal them to be atheists.", "* The Queen ordered his assassination because of his subversive atheistic behaviour.", "* Frizer murdered him because he envied Marlowe's close relationship with his master Thomas Walsingham and feared the effect that Marlowe's behaviour might have on Walsingham's reputation.", "* Marlowe's death was faked to save him from trial and execution for subversive atheism.Since there are only written documents on which to base any conclusions and since it is probable that the most crucial information about his death was never committed to paper, it is unlikely that the full circumstances of Marlowe's death will ever be known." ], [ "Reputation among contemporary writers", "For his contemporaries in the literary world, Marlowe was above all an admired and influential artist.", "Within weeks of his death, George Peele remembered him as \"Marley, the Muses' darling\"; Michael Drayton noted that he \"Had in him those brave translunary things / That the first poets had\" and Ben Jonson even wrote of \"Marlowe's mighty line\".", "Thomas Nashe wrote warmly of his friend, \"poor deceased Kit Marlowe,\" as did the publisher Edward Blount in his dedication of ''Hero and Leander'' to Sir Thomas Walsingham.", "Among the few contemporary dramatists to say anything negative about Marlowe was the anonymous author of the Cambridge University play ''The Return from Parnassus'' (1598) who wrote, \"Pity it is that wit so ill should dwell, / Wit lent from heaven, but vices sent from hell\".The most famous tribute to Marlowe was paid by Shakespeare in ''As You Like It'', where he not only quotes a line from ''Hero and Leander'' (\"Dead Shepherd, now I find thy saw of might, 'Who ever lov'd that lov'd not at first sight?)", "but also gives to the clown Touchstone the words \"When a man's verses cannot be understood, nor a man's good wit seconded with the forward child, understanding, it strikes a man more dead than a great reckoning in a little room.\"", "This appears to be a reference to Marlowe's murder which involved a fight over the \"reckoning,\" the bill, as well as to a line in Marlowe's ''Jew of Malta'', \"Infinite riches in a little room.", "\"Shakespeare was much influenced by Marlowe in his work, as can be seen in the use of Marlovian themes in ''Antony and Cleopatra'', ''The Merchant of Venice'', ''Richard II'' and ''Macbeth'' (''Dido'', ''Jew of Malta'', ''Edward II'' and ''Doctor Faustus'', respectively).", "In ''Hamlet'', after meeting with the travelling actors, Hamlet requests the Player perform a speech about the Trojan War, which at 2.2.429–432 has an echo of Marlowe's ''Dido, Queen of Carthage''.", "In ''Love's Labour's Lost'' Shakespeare brings on a character \"Marcade\" (three syllables) in conscious acknowledgement of Marlowe's character \"Mercury\", also attending the King of Navarre, in ''Massacre at Paris''.", "The significance, to those of Shakespeare's audience who were familiar with ''Hero and Leander'', was Marlowe's identification of himself with the god Mercury." ], [ "Shakespeare authorship theory", "An argument has arisen about the notion that Marlowe faked his death and then continued to write under the assumed name of William Shakespeare.", "Academic consensus rejects alternative candidates for authorship of Shakespeare's plays and sonnets, including Marlowe." ], [ "Literary career", "===Plays===Six dramas have been attributed to the authorship of Christopher Marlowe either alone or in collaboration with other writers, with varying degrees of evidence.", "The writing sequence or chronology of these plays is mostly unknown and is offered here with any dates and evidence known.", "Among the little available information we have, ''Dido'' is believed to be the first Marlowe play performed, while it was ''Tamburlaine'' that was first to be performed on a regular commercial stage in London in 1587.Believed by many scholars to be Marlowe's greatest success, ''Tamburlaine'' was the first English play written in blank verse and, with Thomas Kyd's ''The Spanish Tragedy'', is generally considered the beginning of the mature phase of the Elizabethan theatre.The play ''Lust's Dominion'' was attributed to Marlowe upon its initial publication in 1657, though scholars and critics have almost unanimously rejected the attribution.", "He may also have written or co-written ''Arden of Faversham''.===Poetry and translations===Publication and responses to the poetry and translations credited to Marlowe primarily occurred posthumously, including:* ''Amores'', first book of Latin elegiac couplets by Ovid with translation by Marlowe (''c''.", "1580s); copies publicly burned as offensive in 1599.", "* ''The Passionate Shepherd to His Love'', by Marlowe.", "(''c.''", "1587–1588); a popular lyric of the time.", "* ''Hero and Leander'', by Marlowe (''c.''", "1593, unfinished; completed by George Chapman, 1598; printed 1598).", "* ''Pharsalia'', Book One, by Lucan with translation by Marlowe.", "(''c.''", "1593; printed 1600)===Collaborations===Modern scholars still look for evidence of collaborations between Marlowe and other writers.", "In 2016, one publisher was the first to endorse the scholarly claim of a collaboration between Marlowe and the playwright William Shakespeare:* ''Henry VI'' by William Shakespeare is now credited as a collaboration with Marlowe in the New Oxford Shakespeare series, published in 2016.Marlowe appears as co-author of the three ''Henry VI'' plays, though some scholars doubt any actual collaboration.Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham, Lord High Admiral, shown here ''c.''", "1601 in a procession for Elizabeth I of England, was patron of the Admiral's Men during Marlowe's lifetime.===Contemporary reception===Marlowe's plays were enormously successful, possibly because of the imposing stage presence of his lead actor, Edward Alleyn.", "Alleyn was unusually tall for the time and the haughty roles of Tamburlaine, Faustus and Barabas were probably written for him.", "Marlowe's plays were the foundation of the repertoire of Alleyn's company, the Admiral's Men, throughout the 1590s.", "One of Marlowe's poetry translations did not fare as well.", "In 1599, Marlowe's translation of Ovid was banned and copies were publicly burned as part of Archbishop Whitgift's crackdown on offensive material." ], [ "Chronology of dramatic works", "(Patrick Cheney's 2004 ''Cambridge Companion to Christopher Marlowe'' presents an alternative timeline based upon printing dates.", ")===''Dido, Queen of Carthage'' (–1587)===Dido, Queen of Carthage'''''First official record''' 1594'''First published''' 1594; posthumously'''First recorded performance''' between 1587 and 1593 by the Children of the Chapel, a company of boy actors in London.", "'''Significance''' This play is believed by many scholars to be the first play by Christopher Marlowe to be performed.", "'''Attribution''' The title page attributes the play to Marlowe and Thomas Nashe, yet some scholars question how much of a contribution Nashe made to the play.", "'''Evidence''' No manuscripts by Marlowe exist for this play.=== ''Tamburlaine, Part I'' (); ''Part II'' (–1588) ===Title page of the earliest published edition of ''Tamburlaine'' (1590)'''First official record''' 1587, Part I'''First published''' 1590, Parts I and II in one octavo, London.", "No author named.", "'''First recorded performance''' 1587, Part I, by the Admiral's Men, London.", "'''Significance''' ''Tamburlaine'' is the first example of blank verse used in the dramatic literature of the Early Modern English theatre.", "'''Attribution''' Author name is missing from first printing in 1590.Attribution of this work by scholars to Marlowe is based upon comparison to his other verified works.", "Passages and character development in ''Tamburlane'' are similar to many other Marlowe works.", "'''Evidence''' No manuscripts by Marlowe exist for this play.", "Parts I and II were entered into the Stationers' Register on 14 August 1590.The two parts were published together by the London printer, Richard Jones, in 1590; a second edition in 1592, and a third in 1597.The 1597 edition of the two parts were published separately in quarto by Edward White; part I in 1605, and part II in 1606.=== ''The Jew of Malta'' (–1590) ===''The Jew of Malta'' title page from 1633 quarto'''First official record''' 1592'''First published''' 1592; earliest extant edition, 1633'''First recorded performance''' 26 February 1592, by Lord Strange's acting company.", "'''Significance''' The performances of the play were a success and it remained popular for the next fifty years.", "This play helps to establish the strong theme of \"anti-authoritarianism\" that is found throughout Marlowe's works.", "'''Evidence''' No manuscripts by Marlowe exist for this play.", "The play was entered in the Stationers' Register on 17 May 1594 but the earliest surviving printed edition is from 1633.===''Doctor Faustus'' (–1592)===Frontispiece to a 1631 printing of ''Doctor Faustus'' showing Faustus conjuring Mephistophilis'''First official record''' 1594–1597'''First published''' 1601, no extant copy; first extant copy, 1604 (A text) quarto; 1616 (B text) quarto.", "'''First recorded performance''' 1594–1597; 24 revival performances occurred between these years by the Lord Admiral's Company, Rose Theatre, London; earlier performances probably occurred around 1589 by the same company.", "'''Significance''' This is the first dramatised version of the Faust legend of a scholar's dealing with the devil.", "Marlowe deviates from earlier versions of \"The Devil's Pact\" significantly: Marlowe's protagonist is unable to \"burn his books\" or repent to a merciful God to have his contract annulled at the end of the play; he is carried off by demons; and, in the 1616 quarto, his mangled corpse is found by the scholar characters.", "'''Attribution''' The 'B text' was highly edited and censored, owing in part to the shifting theatre laws regarding religious words onstage during the seventeenth-century.", "Because it contains several additional scenes believed to be the additions of other playwrights, particularly Samuel Rowley and William Bird (''alias'' Borne), a recent edition attributes the authorship of both versions to \"Christopher Marlowe and his collaborator and revisers.\"", "This recent edition has tried to establish that the 'A text' was assembled from Marlowe's work and another writer, with the 'B text' as a later revision.", "'''Evidence''' No manuscripts by Marlowe exist for this play.", "The two earliest-printed extant versions of the play, A and B, form a textual problem for scholars.", "Both were published after Marlowe's death and scholars disagree which text is more representative of Marlowe's original.", "Some editions are based on a combination of the two texts.", "Late-twentieth-century scholarly consensus identifies 'A text' as more representative because it contains irregular character names and idiosyncratic spelling, which are believed to reflect the author's handwritten manuscript or \"foul papers\".", "In comparison, 'B text' is highly edited with several additional scenes possibly written by other playwrights.===''Edward the Second'' ()===Edward II'' (1594)'''First official record''' 1593'''First published''' 1590; earliest extant edition 1594 octavo'''First recorded performance''' 1592, performed by the Earl of Pembroke's Men.", "'''Significance''' Considered by recent scholars as Marlowe's \"most modern play\" because of its probing treatment of the private life of a king and unflattering depiction of the power politics of the time.", "The 1594 editions of ''Edward II'' and of ''Dido'' are the first published plays with Marlowe's name appearing as the author.", "'''Attribution''' Earliest extant edition of 1594.", "'''Evidence''' The play was entered into the Stationers' Register on 6 July 1593, five weeks after Marlowe's death.===''The Massacre at Paris'' (–1593)==='''First official record ''', alleged foul sheet by Marlowe of \"Scene 19\"; although authorship by Marlowe is contested by recent scholars, the manuscript is believed written while the play was first performed and with an unknown purpose.", "'''First published''' undated, or later, octavo, London; while this is the most complete surviving text, it is near half the length of Marlowe's other works and possibly a reconstruction.", "The printer and publisher credit, \"E.A.", "for Edward White,\" also appears on the 1605/06 printing of Marlowe's ''Tamburlaine''.", "'''First recorded performance''' 26 Jan 1593, by Lord Strange's Men, at Henslowe's Rose Theatre, London, under the title ''The Tragedy of the Guise''; 1594, in the repertory of the Admiral's Men.", "'''Significance''' ''The Massacre at Paris'' is considered Marlowe's most dangerous play, as agitators in London seized on its theme to advocate the murders of refugees from the low countries of the Spanish Netherlands, and it warns Elizabeth I of this possibility in its last scene.", "It features the silent \"English Agent\", whom tradition has identified with Marlowe and his connexions to the secret service.", "Highest grossing play for Lord Strange's Men in 1593.", "'''Attribution''' A 1593 loose manuscript sheet of the play, called a foul sheet, is alleged to be by Marlowe and has been claimed by some scholars as the only extant play manuscript by the author.", "It could also provide an approximate date of composition for the play.", "When compared with the extant printed text and his other work, other scholars reject the attribution to Marlowe.", "The only surviving printed text of this play is possibly a reconstruction from memory of Marlowe's original performance text.", "Current scholarship notes that there are only 1147 lines in the play, half the amount of a typical play of the 1590s.", "Other evidence that the extant published text may not be Marlowe's original is the uneven style throughout, with two-dimensional characterisations, deteriorating verbal quality and repetitions of content.", "'''Evidence''' Never appeared in the Stationer's Register." ], [ "Memorials", "''The Muse of Poetry'', a bronze sculpture by Edward Onslow Ford references Marlowe and his work.", "It was erected on Buttermarket, Canterbury in 1891, and now stands outside the Marlowe Theatre in the city.In July 2002, a memorial window to Marlowe was unveiled by the Marlowe Society at Poets' Corner in Westminster Abbey.", "Controversially, a question mark was added to his generally accepted date of death.", "On 25 October 2011 a letter from Paul Edmondson and Stanley Wells was published by ''The Times'' newspaper, in which they called on the Dean and Chapter to remove the question mark on the grounds that it \"flew in the face of a mass of unimpugnable evidence\".", "In 2012, they renewed this call in their e-book ''Shakespeare Bites Back'', adding that it \"denies history\" and again the following year in their book ''Shakespeare Beyond Doubt''.The Marlowe Theatre in Canterbury, Kent, UK, was named for Marlowe in 1949." ], [ "Marlowe in fiction", "Marlowe has been used as a character in books, theatre, film, television, games and radio." ], [ "Modern compendia", "Modern scholarly collected works of Marlowe include:* ''The Complete Works of Christopher Marlowe'' (edited by Roma Gill in 1986; Clarendon Press published in partnership with Oxford University Press)* ''The Complete Plays of Christopher Marlowe'' (edited by J.", "B. Steane in 1969; edited by Frank Romany and Robert Lindsey, Revised Edition, 2004, Penguin)" ], [ "Works of Marlowe in performance", "WPA Federal Theatre Project production of ''Doctor Faustus''===Radio===* BBC Radio broadcast adaptations of Marlowe's six plays from May to October 1993.===Royal Shakespeare Company===Royal Shakespeare Company* ''Dido, Queen of Carthage'', directed by Kimberly Sykes, with Chipo Chung as Dido.", "Swan Theatre, 2017.", "* ''Tamburlaine the Great'', directed by Terry Hands, with Anthony Sher as Tamburlaine.", "Swan Theatre, 1992; Barbican Theatre, 1993.", "* ''Tamburlaine the Great'' directed by Michael Boyd, with Jude Owusu as Tamburlaine.", "Swan Theatre, 2018.", "* ''The Jew of Malta'', directed by Barry Kyle, with Jasper Britton as Barabas.", "Swan Theatre, 1987; People's Theatre, and Barbican Theatre, 1988.", "* ''The Jew of Malta'', directed by Justin Audibert, with Jasper Britton as Barabas.", "Swan Theatre, 2015.", "* ''Edward II'', directed by Gerard Murphy, with Simon Russell Beale as Edward.", "Swan Theatre, 1990.", "* ''Doctor Faustus'', directed by John Barton, with Ian McKellen as Faustus.", "Nottingham Playhouse and Aldwych Theatre, 1974, and Royal Shakespeare Theatre, 1975.", "* ''Doctor Faustus'' directed by Barry Kyle with Gerard Murphy as Faustus, Swan Theatre and Pit Theatre, 1989.", "* ''Doctor Faustus'' directed by Maria Aberg, with Sandy Grierson and Oliver Ryan sharing the roles of Faustus and Mephistophilis.", "Swan Theatre and Barbican Theatre, 2016.===Royal National Theatre===Royal National Theatre* ''Tamburlaine'', directed by Peter Hall, with Albert Finney as Tamburlaine.", "Olivier Theatre, 1976.", "* ''Dido, Queen of Carthage'', directed by James McDonald with Anastasia Hille as Dido.", "Cottesloe Theatre, 2009.", "* ''Edward II'', directed by Joe Hill-Gibbins, with John Heffernan as Edward.", "Olivier Theatre, 2013.===Shakespeare's Globe===Shakespeare's Globe''Dido, Queen of Carthage'', directed by Tim Carroll, with Rakie Ayola as Dido, 2003.", " ''Edward II'', directed by Timothy Walker, with Liam Brennan as Edward, 2003.===Malthouse Theatre===The Marlowe Sessions''Dido, Queen of Carthage'', Directed/Produced by Ray Mia, Performance direction by Stephen Unwin, with Thalissa Teixeira as Dido, 2022.", "''Tamburlaine The Great, Part 1'', Directed/Produced by Ray Mia, Performance direction by Phillip Breen, with Alan Cox as Tamburlaine, 2022.", "''The Jew Of Malta'', Directed/Produced by Ray Mia, Performance direction by Stephen Unwin, with Adrian Schiller as Barrabus, 2022.", "''Tamburlaine The Great, Part 2'', Directed/Produced by Ray Mia, Performance direction by Phillip Breen, with Alan Cox as Tamburlaine, 2022.", "''Edward The Second'', Directed/Produced by Ray Mia, Performance direction by Abigail Rokison, with Jack Holden as Edward II, 2022.", "''The Massacre At Paris'', Directed/Produced by Ray Mia, Performance direction by Abigail Rokison, with Michael Maloney as Guise, 2022.", "''Dr Faustus'', Directed/Produced by Ray Mia, Performance direction by Phillip Breen, with Dominic West as Faustus and Talulah Riley as Mephistopheles, 2022.", "''The Poetry of Christopher Marlowe'', Directed/Produced by Ray Mia, Performance direction by Philip Bird, read by Jack Holden, Fisayo Akinade and Philip Bird, 2022.===Other stage===* ''Tamburlaine''.", "Yale University, 1919.", "* ''Tamburlaine'', directed by Tyrone Guthrie, with Donald Wolfit as Tamburlaine.", "The Old Vic, 1951.", "* ''Doctor Faustus'', co-directed by Orson Welles and John Houseman, with Welles as Faustus and Jack Carter as Mephistopheles.", "Maxine Elliott's Theatre, 1937.", "* ''Doctor Faustus'', directed by Adrian Noble.", "Royal Exchange, 1981.", "* ''Edward II'', directed by Toby Robertson, with John Barton as Edward.", "Cambridge, 1951.", "* ''Edward II'', directed by Toby Robertson, with Derek Jacobi as Edward.", "Cambridge, 1958.", "* ''Edward II'', directed by Toby Robertson, with Ian McKellen as Edward.", "Assembly Rooms, 1969.", "* ''Edward II'', directed by Jim Stone, Washington Stage Company, 1993;* ''Edward II'', directed by Jozsef Ruszt.", "Budapest, 1998;* ''Edward II'', directed by Michael Grandage, with Joseph Fiennes as Edward.", "Crucible Theatre, 2001.", "* ''The Massacre in Paris'', directed by Patrice Chéreau.", "France, 1972.===Stage adaptations===* ''Edward II'', Phoenix Society, London, 1923.", "* ''Leben Eduards des Zweiten von England'', by Bertolt Brecht (the first play he directed).", "Munich Chamber Theatre, Germany, 1924.", "* ''The Life of Edward II of England'', by Marlowe and Bertold Brecht, directed by Frank Dunlop.", "National Theatre, 1968.", "* ''Edward II'', adapted as a ballet, choreographed by David Bintley.", "Stuttgart Ballet, 1995.", "* ''Doctor Faustus'', additional text by Colin Teevan, directed by Jamie Lloyd, with Kit Harington as Faustus.", "Duke of York's Theatre, 2016.", "* ''Faustus, That Damned Woman'' by Chris Bush, directed by Caroline Byrne.", "Lyric Theatre, 2020.===Film===* ''Doctor Faustus'', based on Nevill Coghill's 1965 production, adapted for Richard Burton and Elizabeth Taylor, 1967.", "* ''Edward II'', directed by Derek Jarman, 1991.", "* ''Faust'', with some Marlowe dialogue, directed by Jan Švankmajer, 1994." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "'''Sources'''* * Via Google Books * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Bevington, David, and Eric Rasmussen, eds.", "''Doctor Faustus and Other Plays''.", "Oxford English Drama.", "Oxford University Press, 1998.", "* Conrad, B.", "''Der wahre Shakespeare: Christopher Marlowe''.", "(German non-Fiction book) 5th Edition, 2016.", "* Cornelius R. M. ''Christopher Marlowe's Use of the Bible''u.", "New York: P. Lang, 1984.", "* Marlowe, Christopher.", "''Complete Works''.", "Vol.", "3: ''Edward II.", "'', ed.", "R. Rowland.", "Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994.(pp.", "xxii–xxiii)* Oz, Avraham, ed.", "''Marlowe''.", "New Casebooks.", "Houndmills, Basingstoke and London: Palgrave/Macmillan, 2003.", "* Parker, John.", "''The Aesthetics of Antichrist: From Christian Drama to Christopher Marlowe''.", "Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2007.", "* Shepard, Alan.", "''Marlowe's Soldiers: Rhetorics of Masculinity in the Age of the Armada'', Ashgate, 2002.", "* Sim, James H. ''Dramatic Uses of Biblical Allusions in Marlowe and Shakespeare'', Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1966.", "* * Wraight A. D.; Stern, Virginia F. ''In Search of Christopher Marlowe: A Pictorial Biography'', London: Macdonald, 1965." ], [ "External links", "* * * * * The Marlowe Society* The works of Marlowe at Perseus Project* The complete works , with modernised spelling, on Peter Farey's Marlowe page.", "* BBC audio file.", "''In Our Time'' Radio 4 discussion programme on Marlowe and his work* The Marlowe Bibliography Online is an initiative of the Marlowe Society of America and the University of Melbourne.", "Its purpose is to facilitate scholarship on the works of Christopher Marlowe by providing a searchable annotated bibliography of relevant scholarship*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Cricket (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cricket''' is a bat-and-ball sport contested by two teams.", "'''Cricket''' also commonly refers to:* Cricket (insect)'''Cricket(s)''' or '''The Cricket(s)''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Film and television", "* ''The Cricket'' (1917 film), a silent American drama film* ''The Cricket'' (1980 film), an erotic drama film* ''Crickets'' (film), a 2006 Japanese drama film* Christine Blair or Cricket, a character in ''The Young and the Restless''* Cricket, a character in ''To Have and Have Not''* Matthew \"Rickety Cricket\" Mara, a character in ''It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia''* Cricket, a character in ''Big City Greens''* \"Cricket\", 5th episode of ''Servant'' (TV Series)" ], [ "Literature", "''Cricket'' (magazine), an American literary magazine for children''The Cricket'' (magazine), a 1960s music magazine\"Chrząszcz\" or \"Cricket\", a poem by Jan Brzechwa Cricket, a character in ''Fire on the Mountain''" ], [ "Music", "* The Crickets, a rock and roll band formed by Buddy Holly* ''Cricket'' (musical), a musical by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice* ''Crickets'' (album), by Joe Nichols, 2013* Cricket (producer), Kosovo-Albanian record producer* ''Crickets'', a video album by Dredg released alongside their 2002 album ''El Cielo''* \"Crickets\", a song by Drop City Yacht Club* \"Cricket\", a song by the Kinks from ''Preservation Act 1''" ], [ "Vehicles", "Cricket (1914 automobile), an early American automobilePlymouth Cricket (disambiguation), two automobiles''Cricket''-class coastal destroyer, a 1906 class of Royal Navy shipsHMS ''Cricket'' (1915), an ''Insect''-class gunboatHMS ''Cricket'' (shore establishment), Hampshire, 1943-1946" ], [ "Other uses", " Cricket (darts), a game using the standard 20-number dartboard* Cricket (roofing), a ridge structure designed to divert water on a roof* ''Cricket'' (series), a series of cricket video games* Cricket (warning sound), an audible warning in the cockpits of commercial aircraft* Cricket dolls, a talking doll released by Playmates Toys in 1986* Cricket, North Carolina* Cricket Wireless, wireless service provider, a subsidiary of AT&T Inc.* Programmable Cricket, robotic toys* Clicker or cricket, a noisemaker* Cricket, a variation of the float breakdancing technique* Cricket, a data collection software on top of RRDtool" ], [ "See also", "Colomban Cri-cri, a light plane Cricket House and Cricket Park, in Cricket St Thomas, EnglandHMS ''Cricket'', a list of Royal Navy ships Shturcite, a Bulgarian band, translated as The Crickets, or an album by them* Tettigoniidae, known as katydids or bush-crickets* Cricut, a cutting machine for home crafters*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Caving" ], [ "Introduction", "Caving in a muddy section of Black Chasm Cave in California\|alt=A man caving in muddy passage with helictite formations on the walls and ceilingStephens Gap, a vertical cave in Alabama'''Caving''', also known as '''spelunking''' (United States and Canada) and '''potholing''' (United Kingdom and Ireland), is the recreational pastime of exploring wild cave systems (as distinguished from show caves).", "In contrast, speleology is the scientific study of caves and the cave environment.The challenges involved in caving vary according to the cave being visited; in addition to the total absence of light beyond the entrance, negotiating pitches, squeezes, and water hazards can be difficult.", "Cave diving is a distinct, and more hazardous, sub-speciality undertaken by a small minority of technically proficient cavers.", "In an area of overlap between recreational pursuit and scientific study, the most devoted and serious-minded cavers become accomplished at the surveying and mapping of caves and the formal publication of their efforts.", "These are usually published freely and publicly, especially in the UK and other European countries, although in the US, these are generally private.", "Sometimes categorized as an \"extreme sport\", it is not commonly considered as such by longtime enthusiasts, who may dislike the term for its connotation of disregard for safety.Many caving skills overlap with those involved in canyoning and mine and urban exploration." ], [ "Motivation", "Caving is often undertaken for the enjoyment of the outdoor activity or for physical exercise, as well as original exploration, similar to mountaineering or diving.", "Physical or biological science is also an important goal for some cavers, while others are engaged in cave photography.", "Virgin cave systems comprise some of the last unexplored regions on Earth and much effort is put into trying to locate, enter and survey them.", "In well-explored regions (such as most developed nations), the most accessible caves have already been explored, and gaining access to new caves often requires cave digging or cave diving.One old technique used by hill people in the United States to find caves worth exploring was to yell into a hole and listen for an echo.", "On finding a hole, the size of which did not matter, the would-be cave explorer would yell into the opening and listen for an echo.", "If there was none, the hole was just a hole.", "If there was an echo, the size of the cave could be determined by the length and strength of the echoes.", "This method is simple, cheap, and effective.", "The explorer could then enlarge the hole to make an entrance.", "Meriwether Lewis, of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, used the yelling technique to find caves in Kentucky when he was a boy.", "Since caves were dark, and flashlights had not been invented, Lewis, and other explorers, made torches out of knots of pine tree branches.", "Such torches burned a long time and cast a bright light.Caving, in certain areas, has also been utilized as a form of eco and adventure tourism, for example in New Zealand.", "Tour companies have established an industry leading and guiding tours into and through caves.", "Depending on the type of cave and the type of tour, the experience could be adventure-based or ecological-based.", "There are tours led through lava tubes by a guiding service (e.g.", "Lava River Cave, the oceanic islands of Tenerife, Iceland and Hawaii).Caving has also been described as an \"individualist's team sport\" by some, as cavers can often make a trip without direct physical assistance from others but will generally go in a group for companionship or to provide emergency help if needed.", "Some however consider the assistance cavers give each other as a typical team sport activity." ], [ "Etymology", "The term ''Potholing'' refers to the act of exploring ''potholes'', a word originating in the north of England for predominantly vertical caves.Caving in the north of England, an area that is also popular for pothole exploringClay Perry, an American caver of the 1940s, wrote about a group of men and boys who explored and studied caves throughout New England.", "This group referred to themselves as ''spelunkers'', a term derived from the Latin '''' (\"cave, cavern, den\"), itself from the Greek ''spēlynks'' (\"cave\").", "This is regarded as the first use of the word in the Americas.", "Throughout the 1950s, ''spelunking'' was the general term used for exploring caves in US English.", "It was used freely, without any positive or negative connotations, although only rarely outside the US.In the 1960s, the terms ''spelunking'' and ''spelunker'' began to be considered déclassé among experienced enthusiasts.", "In 1985, Steve Knutson – editor of the National Speleological Society (NSS) publication ''American Caving Accidents'' – made the following distinction:This sentiment is exemplified by bumper stickers and T-shirts displayed by some cavers: \"Cavers rescue spelunkers\".", "Nevertheless, outside the caving community, \"spelunking\" and \"spelunkers\" predominately remain neutral terms referring to the practice and practitioners, without any respect to skill level." ], [ "History", "In the mid-nineteenth century, John Birkbeck explored potholes in England, notably Gaping Gill in 1842 and Alum Pot in 1847–8, returning there in the 1870s.", "In the mid-1880s, Herbert E. Balch began exploring Wookey Hole Caves and in the 1890s, Balch was introduced to the caves of the Mendip Hills.", "One of the oldest established caving clubs, Yorkshire Ramblers' Club, was founded in 1892.Caving as a specialized pursuit was pioneered by Édouard-Alfred Martel (1859–1938), who first achieved the descent and exploration of the Gouffre de Padirac, in France, as early as 1889 and the first complete descent of a 110-metre wet vertical shaft at Gaping Gill in 1895.He developed his own techniques based on ropes and metallic ladders.", "Martel visited Kentucky and notably Mammoth Cave National Park in October 1912.In the 1920s famous US caver Floyd Collins made important explorations in the area and in the 1930s, as caving became increasingly popular, small exploration teams both in the Alps and in the karstic high plateaus of southwest France (Causses and Pyrenees) transformed cave exploration into both a scientific and recreational activity.", "Robert de Joly, Guy de Lavaur and Norbert Casteret were prominent figures of that time, surveying mostly caves in Southwest France.", "During World War II, an alpine team composed of Pierre Chevalier, Fernand Petzl, Charles Petit-Didier and others explored the Dent de Crolles cave system near Grenoble, which became the deepest explored system in the world (-658m) at that time.", "The lack of available equipment during the war forced Pierre Chevalier and the rest of the team to develop their own equipment, leading to technical innovation.", "The scaling-pole (1940), nylon ropes (1942), use of explosives in caves (1947) and mechanical rope-ascenders (Henri Brenot's \"monkeys\", first used by Chevalier and Brenot in a cave in 1934) can be directly associated to the exploration of the Dent de Crolles cave system.In 1941, American cavers organized themselves into the National Speleological Society (NSS) to advance the exploration, conservation, study and understanding of caves in the United States.", "American caver Bill Cuddington, known as \"Vertical Bill\", further developed the single-rope technique (SRT) in the late 1950s.", "In 1958, two Swiss alpinists, Juesi and Marti teamed together, creating the first rope ascender known as the Jumar.", "In 1968 Bruno Dressler asked Fernand Petzl, who worked as a metals machinist, to build a rope-ascending tool, today known as the Petzl Croll, that he had developed by adapting the Jumar to vertical caving.", "Pursuing these developments, Petzl started in the 1970s a caving equipment manufacturing company named Petzl.", "The development of the rappel rack and the evolution of mechanical ascension systems extended the practice and safety of vertical exploration to a wider range of cavers." ], [ "Practice and equipment", "Caver in an Alabama cave showing common caving wear: coveralls, helmet-mounted lights, heavy boots and gloves.Hard hats are worn to protect the head from bumps and falling rocks.", "The caver's primary light source is usually mounted on the helmet in order to keep the hands free.", "Electric LED lights are most common.", "Many cavers carry two or more sources of light – one as primary and the others as backup in case the first fails.", "More often than not, a second light will be mounted to the helmet for quick transition if the primary fails.", "Carbide lamp systems are an older form of illumination, inspired by miner's equipment, and are still used by some cavers, particularly on remote expeditions where electric charging facilities are not available.The type of clothes worn underground varies according to the environment of the cave being explored, and the local culture.", "In cold caves, the caver may wear a warm base layer that retains its insulating properties when wet, such as a fleece (\"furry\") suit or polypropylene underwear, and an oversuit of hard-wearing (e.g., cordura) or waterproof (e.g., PVC) material.", "Lighter clothing may be worn in warm caves, particularly if the cave is dry, and in tropical caves thin polypropylene clothing is used, to provide some abrasion protection while remaining as cool as possible.", "Wetsuits may be worn if the cave is particularly wet or involves stream passages.", "On the feet boots are worn – hiking-style boots in drier caves, or rubber boots (such as wellies) often with neoprene socks (\"wetsocks\") in wetter caves.", "Knee-pads (and sometimes elbow-pads) are popular for protecting joints during crawls.", "Depending on the nature of the cave, gloves are sometimes worn to protect the hands against abrasion or cold.", "In pristine areas and for restoration, clean oversuits and powder-free, non-latex surgical gloves are used to protect the cave itself from contaminants.Ropes are used for descending or ascending pitches (single rope technique or SRT) or for protection.", "Knots commonly used in caving are the figure-of-eight- (or figure-of-nine-) loop, bowline, alpine butterfly, and Italian hitch.", "Ropes are usually rigged using bolts, slings, and carabiners.", "In some cases cavers may choose to bring and use a flexible metal ladder.In addition to the equipment already described, cavers frequently carry packs containing first-aid kits, emergency equipment, and food.", "Containers for securely transporting urine are also commonly carried.", "On longer trips, containers for securely transporting feces out of the cave are carried.During very long trips, it may be necessary to camp in the cave – some cavers have stayed underground for many days, or in particularly extreme cases, for weeks at a time.", "This is particularly the case when exploring or mapping extensive cave systems, where it would be impractical to retrace the route back to the surface regularly.", "Such long trips necessitate the cavers carrying provisions, sleeping, and cooking equipment." ], [ "Safety", "A caver begins rope descent of a vertical shaft using an abseil rack.Caves can be dangerous places; hypothermia, falling, flooding, falling rocks and physical exhaustion are the main risks.", "Rescuing people from underground is difficult and time-consuming, and requires special skills, training, and equipment.", "Full-scale cave rescues often involve the efforts of dozens of rescue workers (often other long-time cavers who have participated in specialized courses, as normal rescue staff are not sufficiently experienced in cave environments), who may themselves be put in jeopardy in effecting the rescue.", "This said, caving is not necessarily a high-risk sport (especially if it does not involve difficult climbs or diving).", "As in all physical sports, knowing one's limitations is key.Caving in warmer climates carries the risk of contracting histoplasmosis, a fungal infection that is contracted from bird or bat droppings.", "It can cause pneumonia and can disseminate in the body to cause continued infections.In many parts of the world, leptospirosis (\"a type of bacterial infection spread by animals\" including rats) is a distinct threat, owing to the presence of rat urine in rainwater or precipitation that enters the caves water system.", "Complications are uncommon, but can be serious.Safety risks while caving can be minimized by using a number of techniques:Checking that there is no danger of flooding during the expedition.", "Rainwater funneled underground can flood a cave very quickly, trapping people in cut-off passages and drowning them.", "In the UK, drowning accounts for almost half of all caving fatalities (see List of UK caving fatalities).", "Using teams of several cavers, preferably at least four.", "If an injury occurs, one caver stays with the injured person while the other two go out for help, providing assistance to each other on their way out.", "Notifying people outside the cave as to the intended return time.", "After an appropriate delay without a return, these will then organize a search party (usually made up by other cavers trained in cave rescues, as even professional emergency personnel are unlikely to have the skills to effect a rescue in difficult conditions).", "Use of helmet-mounted lights (hands-free) with extra batteries.", "American cavers recommend a minimum of three independent sources of light per person, but two lights is common practice among European cavers.", "Sturdy clothing and footwear, as well as a helmet, are necessary to reduce the impact of abrasions, falls, and falling objects.", "Synthetic fibers and woolens, which dry quickly, shed water, and are warm when wet, are vastly preferred to cotton materials, which retain water and increase the risk of hypothermia.", "It is also helpful to have several layers of clothing, which can be shed (and stored in the pack) or added as needed.", "In watery cave passages, polypropylene thermal underwear or wetsuits may be required to avoid hypothermia.", "Cave passages look different from different directions.", "In long or complex caves, even experienced cavers can become lost.", "To reduce the risk of becoming lost, it is necessary to memorize the appearance of key navigational points in the cave as they are passed by the exploring party.", "Each member of a cave party shares responsibility for being able to remember the route out of the cave.", "In some caves it may be acceptable to mark a small number of key junctions with small stacks or \"cairns\" of rocks, or to leave a non-permanent mark such as high-visibility flagging tape tied to a projection.", "Vertical caving uses ladders or single rope technique (SRT) to avoid the need for climbing passages that are too difficult.", "SRT is a complex skill and requires proper training and well-maintained equipment.", "Some drops that are abseiled down may be as deep as several hundred meters (for example Harwoods Hole)." ], [ "Cave conservation", "Many cave environments are very fragile.", "Many speleothems can be damaged by even the slightest touch and some by impacts as slight as a breath.", "Research suggests that increased carbon dioxide levels can lead to \"a higher equilibrium concentration of calcium within the drip waters feeding the speleothems, and hence causes dissolution of existing features.\"", "In 2008, researchers found evidence that respiration from cave visitors may generate elevated carbon dioxide concentrations in caves, leading to increased temperatures of up to 3 °C and a dissolution of existing features.Pollution is also of concern.", "Since water that flows through a cave eventually comes out in streams and rivers, any pollution may ultimately end up in someone's drinking water, and can even seriously affect the surface environment, as well.", "Even minor pollution such as dropping organic material can have a dramatic effect on the cave biota.Cave-dwelling species are also very fragile, and often, a particular species found in a cave may live within that cave alone, and be found nowhere else in the world, such as Alabama cave shrimp.", "Cave-dwelling species are accustomed to a near-constant climate of temperature and humidity, and any disturbance can be disruptive to the species' life cycles.", "Though cave wildlife may not always be immediately visible, it is typically nonetheless present in most caves.Bats are one such fragile species of cave-dwelling animal.", "Bats which hibernate are most vulnerable during the winter season, when no food supply exists on the surface to replenish the bat's store of energy should it be awakened from hibernation.", "Bats which migrate are most sensitive during the summer months when they are raising their young.", "For these reasons, visiting caves inhabited by hibernating bats is discouraged during cold months; and visiting caves inhabited by migratory bats is discouraged during the warmer months when they are most sensitive and vulnerable.", "Due to an affliction affecting bats in the northeastern US known as white nose syndrome (WNS), the US Fish & Wildlife Service has called for a moratorium effective March 26, 2009, on caving activity in states known to have hibernacula (MD, NY, VT, NH, MA, CT, NJ, PA, VA, and WV) affected by WNS, as well as adjoining states.Some cave passages may be marked with flagging tape or other indicators to show biologically, aesthetically, or archaeologically sensitive areas.", "Marked paths may show ways around notably fragile areas such as a pristine floor of sand or silt which may be thousands of years old, dating from the last time water flowed through the cave.", "Such deposits may easily be spoiled forever by a single misplaced step.", "Active formations such as flowstone can be similarly marred with a muddy footprint or handprint, and ancient human artifacts, such as fiber products, may even crumble to dust under all but the most gentle touch.In 1988, concerned that cave resources were becoming increasingly damaged through unregulated use, Congress enacted the Federal Cave Resources Protection Act, giving land management agencies in the United States expanded authority to manage cave conservation on public land." ], [ "Caving organizations", "Cavers in many countries have created organizations for the administration and oversight of caving activities within their nations.", "The oldest of these is the French Federation of Speleology (originally Société de spéléologie) founded by Édouard-Alfred Martel in 1895, which produced the first periodical journal in speleology, ''Spelunca''.", "The first University-based speleological institute in the world was founded in 1920 in Cluj-Napoca, Romania, by Emil Racovita, a Romanian biologist, zoologist, speleologist and explorer of Antarctica.The British Speleological Association was established in 1935 and the National Speleological Society in the US was founded in 1941 (originally formed as the Speleological Society of the District of Columbia on May 6, 1939).An international speleological congress was proposed at a meeting in Valence-sur-Rhone, France in 1949 and first held in 1953 in Paris.", "The International Union of Speleology (UIS) was founded in 1965." ], [ "See also", " * * *" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Cave" ], [ "Introduction", "Lechuguilla Cave, New Mexico, United StatesA '''cave''' or '''cavern''' is a natural void in the ground, specifically a space large enough for a human to enter.", "Caves often form by the weathering of rock and often extend deep underground.", "The word ''cave'' can refer to smaller openings such as sea caves, rock shelters, and grottos, that extend a relatively short distance into the rock and they are called ''exogene'' caves.", "Caves which extend further underground than the opening is wide are called ''endogene'' caves.Speleology is the science of exploration and study of all aspects of caves and the cave environment.", "Visiting or exploring caves for recreation may be called ''caving'', ''potholing'', or ''spelunking''." ], [ "Formation types", "The formation and development of caves is known as ''speleogenesis''; it can occur over the course of millions of years.", "Caves can range widely in size, and are formed by various geological processes.", "These may involve a combination of chemical processes, erosion by water, tectonic forces, microorganisms, pressure, and atmospheric influences.", "Isotopic dating techniques can be applied to cave sediments, to determine the timescale of the geological events which formed and shaped present-day caves.It is estimated that a cave cannot be more than vertically beneath the surface due to the pressure of overlying rocks.", "This does not, however, impose a maximum depth for a cave which is measured from its highest entrance to its lowest point, as the amount of rock above the lowest point is dependent on the topography of the landscape above it.", "For karst caves the maximum depth is determined on the basis of the lower limit of karst forming processes, coinciding with the base of the soluble carbonate rocks.", "Most caves are formed in limestone by dissolution.Caves can be classified in various other ways as well, including a contrast between active and relict: active caves have water flowing through them; relict caves do not, though water may be retained in them.", "Types of active caves include inflow caves (\"into which a stream sinks\"), outflow caves (\"from which a stream emerges\"), and through caves (\"traversed by a stream\").Speleothems in Hall of the Mountain King of Ogof Craig a Ffynnon, a solutional cave in South Wales.===Solutional==='''Solutional caves''' or '''karst caves''' are the most frequently occurring caves.", "Such caves form in rock that is soluble; most occur in limestone, but they can also form in other rocks including chalk, dolomite, marble, salt, and gypsum.", "Except for salt caves, solutional caves result when rock is dissolved by natural acid in groundwater that seeps through bedding planes, faults, joints, and comparable features.", "Over time cracks enlarge to become caves and cave systems.The largest and most abundant solutional caves are located in limestone.", "Limestone dissolves under the action of rainwater and groundwater charged with H2CO3 (carbonic acid) and naturally occurring organic acids.", "The dissolution process produces a distinctive landform known as ''karst'', characterized by sinkholes and underground drainage.", "Limestone caves are often adorned with calcium carbonate formations produced through slow precipitation.", "These include flowstones, stalactites, stalagmites, helictites, soda straws and columns.", "These secondary mineral deposits in caves are called ''speleothems''.The portions of a solutional cave that are below the water table or the local level of the groundwater will be flooded.Lechuguilla Cave in New Mexico and nearby Carlsbad Cavern are now believed to be examples of another type of solutional cave.", "They were formed by H2S (hydrogen sulfide) gas rising from below, where reservoirs of oil give off sulfurous fumes.", "This gas mixes with groundwater and forms H2SO4 (sulfuric acid).", "The acid then dissolves the limestone from below, rather than from above, by acidic water percolating from the surface.===Primary===Exploring a lava tube in Hawaii.Caves formed at the same time as the surrounding rock are called '''primary caves'''.Lava tubes are formed through volcanic activity and are the most common primary caves.", "As lava flows downhill, its surface cools and solidifies.", "Hot liquid lava continues to flow under that crust, and if most of it flows out, a hollow tube remains.", "Such caves can be found in the Canary Islands, Jeju-do, the basaltic plains of Eastern Idaho, and in other places.", "Kazumura Cave near Hilo, Hawaii is a remarkably long and deep lava tube; it is .Lava caves include but are not limited to lava tubes.", "Other caves formed through volcanic activity include rifts, lava molds, open vertical conduits, inflationary, blisters, among others.===Sea or littoral===Painted Cave, a large sea cave, Santa Cruz Island, CaliforniaSea caves are found along coasts around the world.", "A special case is littoral caves, which are formed by wave action in zones of weakness in sea cliffs.", "Often these weaknesses are faults, but they may also be dykes or bedding-plane contacts.", "Some wave-cut caves are now above sea level because of later uplift.", "Elsewhere, in places such as Thailand's Phang Nga Bay, solutional caves have been flooded by the sea and are now subject to littoral erosion.", "Sea caves are generally around in length, but may exceed .===Corrasional or erosional===Salt cave in Mount SodomCorrasional or erosional caves are those that form entirely by erosion by flowing streams carrying rocks and other sediments.", "These can form in any type of rock, including hard rocks such as granite.", "Generally there must be some zone of weakness to guide the water, such as a fault or joint.", "A subtype of the erosional cave is the wind or aeolian cave, carved by wind-born sediments.", "Many caves formed initially by solutional processes often undergo a subsequent phase of erosional or vadose enlargement where active streams or rivers pass through them.===Glacier===Glacier cave in Big Four Glacier, Big Four Mountain, Washington, 1920Glacier caves are formed by melting ice and flowing water within and under glaciers.", "The cavities are influenced by the very slow flow of the ice, which tends to collapse the caves again.", "Glacier caves are sometimes misidentified as \"ice caves\", though this latter term is properly reserved for bedrock caves that contain year-round ice formations.===Fracture===Fracture caves are formed when layers of more soluble minerals, such as gypsum, dissolve out from between layers of less soluble rock.", "These rocks fracture and collapse in blocks of stone.===Talus===Talus caves are formed by the openings among large boulders that have fallen down into a random heap, often at the bases of cliffs.", "These unstable deposits are called talus or scree, and may be subject to frequent rockfalls and landslides.===Anchialine===Anchialine caves are caves, usually coastal, containing a mixture of freshwater and saline water (usually sea water).", "They occur in many parts of the world, and often contain highly specialized and endemic fauna." ], [ "Physical patterns", "''Branchwork caves'' resemble surface dendritic stream patterns; they are made up of passages that join downstream as tributaries.", "Branchwork caves are the most common of cave patterns and are formed near sinkholes where groundwater recharge occurs.", "Each passage or branch is fed by a separate recharge source and converges into other higher order branches downstream.", "''Angular network caves'' form from intersecting fissures of carbonate rock that have had fractures widened by chemical erosion.", "These fractures form high, narrow, straight passages that persist in widespread closed loops.", "''Anastomotic caves'' largely resemble surface braided streams with their passages separating and then meeting further down drainage.", "They usually form along one bed or structure, and only rarely cross into upper or lower beds.", "''Spongework caves'' are formed when solution cavities are joined by mixing of chemically diverse water.", "The cavities form a pattern that is three-dimensional and random, resembling a sponge.", "''Ramiform caves'' form as irregular large rooms, galleries, and passages.", "These randomized three-dimensional rooms form from a rising water table that erodes the carbonate rock with hydrogen-sulfide enriched water.", "''Pit caves'' (vertical caves, potholes, or simply \"pits\") consist of a vertical shaft rather than a horizontal cave passage.", "They may or may not be associated with one of the above structural patterns." ], [ "Geographic distribution", "Domica Cave in Slovak Karst (Slovakia)An entrance of the Torhola Cave in Lohja (Finland)Caves are found throughout the world, although the distribution of documented cave system is heavily skewed towards those countries where caving has been popular for many years (such as France, Italy, Australia, the UK, the United States, etc.).", "As a result, explored caves are found widely in Europe, Asia, North America and Oceania, but are sparse in South America, Africa, and Antarctica.This is a rough generalization, as large expanses of North America and Asia contain no documented caves, whereas areas such as the Madagascar dry deciduous forests and parts of Brazil contain many documented caves.", "As the world's expanses of soluble bedrock are researched by cavers, the distribution of documented caves is likely to shift.", "For example, China, despite containing around half the world's exposed limestone—more than —has relatively few documented caves." ], [ "Records and superlatives", "The cave system with the ''greatest total length'' of surveyed passage is Mammoth Cave in Kentucky, US, at .", "The longest surveyed ''underwater cave'', and second longest overall, is Sistema Ox Bel Ha in Yucatán, Mexico at .", "The ''deepest known cave''—measured from its highest entrance to its lowest point—is Veryovkina Cave in Abkhazia, Georgia, with a depth of .", "This was the first cave to be explored to a depth of more than .", "(The first cave to be descended below was Gouffre Berger in France.)", "The Sarma and Illyuzia-Mezhonnogo-Snezhnaya caves in Georgia, (, and respectively) are the current second- and third-deepest caves.", "The deepest outside Georgia is Lamprechtsofen Vogelschacht Weg Schacht in Austria, which is deep.", "The ''deepest vertical shaft'' in a cave is in Vrtoglavica Cave in Slovenia.", "The second deepest is Ghar-e-Ghala at in the Parau massif near Kermanshah in Iran.", "* The deepest ''underwater cave'' bottomed by a remotely operated underwater vehicle at , is the Hranice Abyss in the Czech Republic.", "The Miao Room is the world's ''largest known room by volume'', with a measured volume of .", "The ''largest known room by surface'' is Sarawak Chamber, in the Gunung Mulu National Park (Miri, Sarawak, Borneo, Malaysia), a sloping, boulder strewn chamber with an area of .", "The largest room in a show cave is the Salle de la Verna in the French Pyrenees.", "The ''largest passage'' ever discovered is in the Son Doong Cave in Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park in Quảng Bình Province, Vietnam.", "It is in length, high and wide over most of its length, but over high and wide for part of its length.===Five longest surveyed===# Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, US# Sistema Ox Bel Ha, Mexico# Sistema Sac Actun/Sistema Dos Ojos, Mexico# Jewel Cave, South Dakota, US# Shuanghedong Cave Network, China" ], [ "Ecology", "Townsend's big-eared bats in a cave in CaliforniaOlms in a Slovenian caveCave-inhabiting animals are often categorized as troglobites (cave-limited species), troglophiles (species that can live their entire lives in caves, but also occur in other environments), trogloxenes (species that use caves, but cannot complete their life cycle fully in caves) and accidentals (animals not in one of the previous categories).", "Some authors use separate terminology for aquatic forms (for example, stygobites, stygophiles, and stygoxenes).Of these animals, the troglobites are perhaps the most unusual organisms.", "Troglobitic species often show a number of characteristics, termed troglomorphic, associated with their adaptation to subterranean life.", "These characteristics may include a loss of pigment (often resulting in a pale or white coloration), a loss of eyes (or at least of optical functionality), an elongation of appendages, and an enhancement of other senses (such as the ability to sense vibrations in water).", "Aquatic troglobites (or stygobites), such as the endangered Alabama cave shrimp, live in bodies of water found in caves and get nutrients from detritus washed into their caves and from the feces of bats and other cave inhabitants.", "Other aquatic troglobites include cave fish, and cave salamanders such as the olm and the Texas blind salamander.Cave insects such as Oligaphorura (formerly Archaphorura) schoetti are troglophiles, reaching in length.", "They have extensive distribution and have been studied fairly widely.", "Most specimens are female, but a male specimen was collected from St Cuthberts Swallet in 1969.Bats, such as the gray bat and Mexican free-tailed bat, are trogloxenes and are often found in caves; they forage outside of the caves.", "Some species of cave crickets are classified as trogloxenes, because they roost in caves by day and forage above ground at night.Because of the fragility of cave ecosystems, and the fact that cave regions tend to be isolated from one another, caves harbor a number of endangered species, such as the Tooth cave spider, liphistius trapdoor spider, and the gray bat.Caves are visited by many surface-living animals, including humans.", "These are usually relatively short-lived incursions, due to the lack of light and sustenance.Cave entrances often have typical florae.", "For instance, in the eastern temperate United States, cave entrances are most frequently (and often densely) populated by the bulblet fern, ''Cystopteris bulbifera''." ], [ "Archaeological and cultural importance", "Taíno petroglyphs in a cave in Puerto RicoThroughout history, primitive peoples have made use of caves.", "The earliest human fossils found in caves come from a series of caves near Krugersdorp and Mokopane in South Africa.", "The cave sites of Sterkfontein, Swartkrans, Kromdraai B, Drimolen, Malapa, Cooper's D, Gladysvale, Gondolin and Makapansgat have yielded a range of early human species dating back to between three and one million years ago, including ''Australopithecus africanus'', ''Australopithecus sediba'' and ''Paranthropus robustus''.", "However, it is not generally thought that these early humans were living in the caves, but that they were brought into the caves by carnivores that had killed them.The first early hominid ever found in Africa, the Taung Child in 1924, was also thought for many years to come from a cave, where it had been deposited after being predated on by an eagle.", "However, this is now debated (Hopley et al., 2013; Am.", "J. Phys.", "Anthrop.).", "Caves do form in the dolomite of the Ghaap Plateau, including the Early, Middle and Later Stone Age site of Wonderwerk Cave; however, the caves that form along the escarpment's edge, like that hypothesised for the Taung Child, are formed within a secondary limestone deposit called tufa.", "There is numerous evidence for other early human species inhabiting caves from at least one million years ago in different parts of the world, including ''Homo erectus'' in China at Zhoukoudian, ''Homo rhodesiensis'' in South Africa at the Cave of Hearths (Makapansgat), ''Homo neanderthalensis'' and ''Homo heidelbergensis'' in Europe at Archaeological Site of Atapuerca, ''Homo floresiensis'' in Indonesia, and the Denisovans in southern Siberia.In southern Africa, early modern humans regularly used sea caves as shelter starting about 180,000 years ago when they learned to exploit the sea for the first time.", "The oldest known site is PP13B at Pinnacle Point.", "This may have allowed rapid expansion of humans out of Africa and colonization of areas of the world such as Australia by 60–50,000 years ago.", "Throughout southern Africa, Australia, and Europe, early modern humans used caves and rock shelters as sites for rock art, such as those at Giant's Castle.", "Caves such as the yaodong in China were used for shelter; other caves were used for burials (such as rock-cut tombs), or as religious sites (such as Buddhist caves).", "Among the known sacred caves are China's Cave of a Thousand Buddhas and the sacred caves of Crete." ], [ "Caves and acoustics", "The importance of sound in caves predates a modern understanding of acoustics.", "Archaeologists have uncovered relationships between paintings of dots and lines, in specific areas of resonance, within the caves of Spain and France, as well as instruments depicting paleolithic motifs, indicators of musical events and rituals.", "Clusters of paintings were often found in areas with notable acoustics, sometimes even replicating the sounds of the animals depicted on the walls.", "The human voice was also theorized to be used as an echolocation device to navigate darker areas of the caves where torches were less useful.", "Dots of red ochre are often found in spaces with the highest resonance, where the production of paintings was too difficult.Caves continue to provide usage for modern-day explorers of acoustics.", "Today Cumberland Caverns provides one of the best examples for modern musical usages of caves.", "Not only are the caves utilized for reverberation, but for the dampening qualities of their abnormal faces as well.", "The irregularities in the walls of the Cumberland Caverns diffuse sounds bouncing off the walls and give the space an almost recording studio-like quality.", "During the 20th century musicians began to explore the possibility of using caves as locations as clubs and concert halls, including the likes of Dinah Shore, Roy Acuff, and Benny Goodman.", "Unlike today, these early performances were typically held in the mouths of the caves, as the lack of technology made depths of the interior inaccessible with musical equipment.", "In Luray Caverns, Virginia, a functioning organ has been developed that generates sound by mallets striking stalactites, each with a different pitch." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Chinese numerals" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Chinese numerals''' are words and characters used to denote numbers in written Chinese.Today, speakers of Chinese languages use three written numeral systems: the system of Arabic numerals used worldwide, and two indigenous systems.", "The more familiar indigenous system is based on Chinese characters that correspond to numerals in the spoken language.", "These may be shared with other languages of the Chinese cultural sphere such as Korean, Japanese, and Vietnamese.", "Most people and institutions in China primarily use the Arabic or mixed Arabic-Chinese systems for convenience, with traditional Chinese numerals used in finance, mainly for writing amounts on cheques, banknotes, some ceremonial occasions, some boxes, and on commercials.The other indigenous system consists of the Suzhou numerals, or ''huama'', a positional system, the only surviving form of the rod numerals.", "These were once used by Chinese mathematicians, and later by merchants in Chinese markets, such as those in Hong Kong until the 1990s, but were gradually supplanted by Arabic numerals." ], [ "Characters used as numerals", "Hwy G209 ()The Chinese character numeral system consists of the Chinese characters used by the Chinese written language to write spoken numerals.", "Similar to spelling-out numbers in English (e.g., \"one thousand nine hundred forty-five\"), it is not an independent system ''per se''.", "Since it reflects spoken language, it does not use the positional system as in Arabic numerals, in the same way that spelling out numbers in English does not.=== Ordinary numerals ===There are characters representing the numbers zero through nine, and other characters representing larger numbers such as tens, hundreds, thousands, ten thousands and hundred millions.", "There are two sets of characters for Chinese numerals: one for everyday writing, known as (), and one for use in commercial, accounting or financial contexts, known as ().", "The latter arose because the characters used for writing numerals are geometrically simple, so simply using those numerals cannot prevent forgeries in the same way spelling numbers out in English would.", "A forger could easily change the everyday characters 三十 (30) to 五千 (5000) just by adding a few strokes.", "That would not be possible when writing using the financial characters 參拾 (30) and 伍仟 (5000).", "They are also referred to as \"banker's numerals\", \"anti-fraud numerals\", or \"banker's anti-fraud numerals\".", "For the same reason, rod numerals were never used in commercial records.", "Value Financial Ordinary Pinyin Jyutping Tai Lo Wugniu Notes Traditional Simplified Traditional Simplified 0 or Usually is preferred, but in some areas, 〇 may be a more common informal way to represent zero.", "The original Chinese character is or , is referred as remainder something less than 1 yet not nil referred.", "The traditional is more often used in schools.", "In Unicode, 〇 is treated as a Chinese symbol or punctuation, rather than a Chinese ideograph.", "1 Also (obsolete financial), can be easily manipulated into or .", "2 Also (obsolete, financial), can be easily manipulated into or .", "Also 3 Also (obsolete financial), which can be easily manipulated into or .", "4 Also (obsolete financial)5 6 7 8 9 10 Although some people use as financial, it is not ideal because it can be easily manipulated into or .100 1,000 104Chinese numbers group by ten-thousands; see Reading and transcribing numbers below.108For variant meanings and words for higher values, see Large numbers below.=== Characters with regional usage === Financial Normal Value Pinyin (Mandarin) Standard alternative Notes 空 0 零 Historically, the use of 空 for 'zero' predates 零.", "This is now archaic in most varieties of Chinese, but it is still used in Southern Min.", "洞 0 零 Literally means 'a hole' and is analogous to the shape of '0' and '', it is used to unambiguously pronounce '#0' in radio communication.", "幺 1 一 Literally means 'the smallest', it is used to unambiguously pronounce '#1' in radio communication.", "This usage is not observed in Cantonese except for (a special winning hand) in Mahjong.", "蜀 1 一 In most Min varieties, there are two words meaning 'one'.", "For example, in Hokkien, is used before a classifier: 'one person' is , not .", "In written Hokkien, is often used for both and , but some authors differentiate, writing for and for .", "兩(T) or 两(S) 2 二 Used instead of before a classifier.", "For example, 'two people' is , not .", "However, in some lects, such as Shanghainese, is the generic term used for two in most contexts, such as and not .", "It appears where 'a pair of' would in English, but is always used in such cases.", "It is also used for numbers, with usage varying from dialect to dialect, even person to person.", "For example, '2222' can be read as , , or even in Mandarin.", "It is used to unambiguously pronounce '#2' in radio communication.", "倆(T) or 俩(S) 2 兩 In regional dialects of Northeastern Mandarin, represents a \"lazy\" pronunciation of within the local dialect.", "It can be used as an alternative for (e.g.", ", as opposed to .", "A measure word never follows .", "仨 3 三 In regional dialects of Northeastern Mandarin, represents a \"lazy\" pronunciation of three within the local dialect.", "It can be used as a general number to represent \"three\" (e.g.", "; , or as an alternative for (e.g.", ", as opposed to ).", "Regardless of usage, a measure word never follows .", "拐 7 七 Literally means 'a turn' or 'a walking stick' and is analogous to the shape of '7' and , it is used to unambiguously pronounce '#7' in radio communication.", "勾 9 九 Literally means \"a hook\" and is analogous to the shape of \"9\", it is used to unambiguously pronounce \"#9\" in radio communication.呀10 十In spoken Cantonese, (aa6) can be used in place of when it is used in the middle of a number, preceded by a multiplier and followed by a ones digit, e.g.", ", 63; it is not used by itself to mean 10.This usage is not observed in Mandarin.念廿20二十A contraction of .", "The written form is still used to refer to dates, especially Chinese calendar dates.Spoken form is still used in various dialects of Chinese.", "See Reading and transcribing numbers section below.In spoken Cantonese, (jaa6) can be used in place of when followed by another digit such as in numbers 21-29 (e.g.", ", 23), a measure word (e.g.", "), a noun, or in a phrase like (\"twenty-something\"); it is not used by itself to mean 20.卄 is a rare variant.卅30三十A contraction of .", "The written form is still used to abbreviate date references in Chinese.", "For example, May 30 Movement ().Spoken form is still used in various dialects of Chinese.In spoken Cantonese, (saa1) can be used in place of when followed by another digit such as in numbers 31–39, a measure word (e.g.", "), a noun, or in phrases like (\"thirty-something\"); it is not used by itself to mean 30.When spoken is pronounced as (saa1 aa6).", "Thus (31), is pronounced as saa1 aa6 jat1.卌40四十A contraction of .", "Found in historical writings written in Classical Chinese.Spoken form is still used in various dialects of Chinese, albeit very rare.", "See Reading and transcribing numbers section below.In spoken Cantonese (sei3) can be used in place of when followed by another digit such as in numbers 41–49, a measure word (e.g.", "), a noun, or in phrases like (\"forty-something\"); it is not used by itself to mean 40.When spoken, is pronounced as (sei3 aa6).", "Thus (41), is pronounced as sei3 aa6 jat1.皕200二百Very rarely used; one example is in the name of a library in Huzhou, .", "===Large numbers===For numbers larger than 10,000, similarly to the long and short scales in the West, there have been four systems in ancient and modern usage.", "The original one, with unique names for all powers of ten up to the 14th, is ascribed to the Yellow Emperor in the 6th century book by Zhen Luan, .", "In modern Chinese, only the second system is used, in which the same ancient names are used, but each represents a myriad, 萬 times the previous: Character (T) 萬億兆京垓秭穰溝澗正載 Factor of increase Character (S) 万亿沟涧载 Pinyin Jyutping Tai Lo Shanghainese ve i zau cín ké tsy gnian kéu ké tsen tseAlternative經/经𥝱壤Rank1234567891011=n\"short scale\"()104105106107108109 10101011101210131014=10n+3Each numeral is 10 () times the previous.", "\"myriad scale\"(, current usage)104108101210161020102410281032103610401044=104nEach numeral is 10,000 () times the previous.", "\"mid-scale\"()104108101610241032104010481056106410721080=108(n-1)Starting with , each numeral is 108 () times the previous.", "\"long scale\"()104108101610321064101281025610512101024102048104096=102n+1Each numeral is the square of the previous.", "This is similar to the -yllion system.In practice, this situation does not lead to ambiguity, with the exception of , which means 1012 according to the system in common usage throughout the Chinese communities as well as in Japan and Korea, but has also been used for 106 in recent years (especially in mainland China for megabyte).", "To avoid problems arising from the ambiguity, the PRC government never uses this character in official documents, but uses (wànyì) or instead.", "Partly due to this, combinations of and are often used instead of the larger units of the traditional system as well, for example instead of .", "The ROC government in Taiwan uses to mean 1012 in official documents.=== Large numbers from Buddhism ===Numerals beyond zǎi come from Buddhist texts in Sanskrit, but are mostly found in ancient texts.", "Some of the following words are still being used today, but may have transferred meanings.", "Character (T) Character (S) Pinyin Jyutping Tai Lo Shanghainese Value Notes極极jígik1ke̍kjiq51048Literally means \"Extreme\".恆河沙恒河沙héng hé shāhang4 ho4 sa1hîng-hô-suaghen3-wu-so1052Literally means \"Sands of the Ganges\"; a metaphor used in a number of Buddhist texts referring to the grains of sand in the Ganges River.阿僧祇ā sēng qíaa1 zang1 kei4a-sing-kîa1-sen-ji1056From Sanskrit Asaṃkhyeya असंख्येय, meaning \"incalculable, innumerable, infinite\".", "那由他nà yóu tānaa5 jau4 taa1ná-iû-thannna1-yeu-tha1060From Sanskrit nayuta नियुत, meaning \"myriad\".不可思議不可思议bùkě sīyìbat1 ho2 si1 ji3put-khó-su-gīpeq4-khu sy1-gni1064Literally translated as \"unfathomable\".", "This word is commonly used in Chinese as a chengyu, meaning \"unimaginable\", instead of its original meaning of the number 1064.無量大數无量大数wú liàng dà shùmou4 loeng6 daai6 sou3bû-liōng tāi-siàum3-lian du3-su1068\"\" literally translated as \"without measure\", and can mean 1068.This word is also commonly used in Chinese as a commendatory term, means \"no upper limit\".", "E.g.", ": lit.", "front journey no limit, which means \"a great future\". \"\"", "literally translated as \"a large number; the great number\", and can mean 1072.===Small numbers===The following are characters used to denote small order of magnitude in Chinese historically.", "With the introduction of SI units, some of them have been incorporated as SI prefixes, while the rest have fallen into disuse.Character(s) (T)Character(s) (S)Pinyin Value Notes漠mò10−12(Ancient Chinese)皮 corresponds to the SI prefix pico-.渺miǎo10−11(Ancient Chinese)埃āi10−10(Ancient Chinese)塵尘chén10−9Literally, \"Dust\"奈 (T) or 纳 (S) corresponds to the SI prefix nano-.沙shā10−8Literally, \"Sand\"纖纤xiān10−7Literally, \"Fiber\"微wēi10−6still in use, corresponds to the SI prefix micro-.忽hū10−5(Ancient Chinese)絲丝sī10−4also 秒.", "Literally, \"Thread\"毫háo10−3also 毛. still in use, corresponds to the SI prefix milli-.厘lí10−2also 釐. still in use, corresponds to the SI prefix centi-.分fēn10−1still in use, corresponds to the SI prefix deci-.===Small numbers from Buddhism===Character(s) (T)Character(s) (S)Pinyin Value Notes涅槃寂靜涅槃寂静niè pán jì jìng10−24Literally, \"Nirvana's Tranquility\"攸 (T) or 幺 (S) corresponds to the SI prefix yocto-.阿摩羅阿摩罗ā mó luó10−23(Ancient Chinese, from Sanskrit अमल amala)阿頼耶阿赖耶ā lài yē10−22(Ancient Chinese, from Sanskrit आलय ālaya)清靜清净qīng jìng10−21Literally, \"Quiet\"介 (T) or 仄 (S) corresponds to the SI prefix zepto-.虛空虚空xū kōng10−20Literally, \"Void\"六德liù dé10−19(Ancient Chinese)剎那刹那chà nà10−18Literally, \"Brevity\", from Sanskrit क्षण ksaṇa阿 corresponds to the SI prefix atto-.彈指弹指tán zhǐ10−17Literally, \"Flick of a finger\".", "Still commonly used in the phrase \"\" (A very short time)瞬息shùn xī10−16Literally, \"Moment of Breath\".", "Still commonly used in Chengyu \"\" (Many things changed in a very short time)須臾须臾xū yú10−15(Ancient Chinese, rarely used in Modern Chinese as \"a very short time\")飛 (T) or 飞 (S) corresponds to the SI prefix femto-.逡巡qūn xún10−14(Ancient Chinese)模糊mó hu10−13Literally, \"Blurred\"===SI prefixes===In the People's Republic of China, the early translation for the SI prefixes in 1981 was different from those used today.", "The larger (, , , , ) and smaller Chinese numerals (, , , , ) were defined as translation for the SI prefixes as ''mega'', ''giga'', ''tera'', ''peta'', ''exa'', ''micro'', ''nano'', ''pico'', ''femto'', ''atto'', resulting in the creation of yet more values for each numeral.The Republic of China (Taiwan) defined as the translation for ''mega'' and as the translation for ''tera''.", "This translation is widely used in official documents, academic communities, informational industries, etc.", "However, the civil broadcasting industries sometimes use 兆赫 to represent \"megahertz\".Today, the governments of both China and Taiwan use phonetic transliterations for the SI prefixes.", "However, the governments have each chosen different Chinese characters for certain prefixes.", "The following table lists the two different standards together with the early translation.+ '''SI Prefixes''' Value Symbol English Early translation PRC standard ROC standard1030Qquetta- 昆 kūn 奎 kuí1027Rronna- 容 róng 羅 luó1024Yyotta- 尧 yáo 佑 yòu1021Zzetta- 泽 zé 皆jiē1018Eexa- 穰 ráng 艾 ài 艾ài1015Ppeta- 秭 zǐ 拍 pāi 拍pāi1012Ttera- 垓 gāi 太 tài 兆zhào109Ggiga- 京 jīng 吉 jí 吉 jí106Mmega- 兆 zhào 兆 zhào 百萬 bǎiwàn103kkilo- 千 qiān 千 qiān 千 qiān102hhecto- 百 bǎi 百 bǎi 百 bǎi101dadeca- 十 shí 十 shí 十 shí100(base)one 一 yī 一 yī10−1ddeci- 分 fēn 分 fēn 分 fēn10−2ccenti- 厘 lí 厘 lí 厘 lí10−3mmilli- 毫 háo 毫 háo 毫 háo10−6µmicro- 微 wēi 微 wēi 微 wēi10−9nnano- 纖 xiān 纳 nà 奈 nài10−12ppico- 沙 shā 皮 pí 皮 pí10−15ffemto- 塵 chén 飞 fēi 飛 fēi10−18aatto- 渺 miǎo 阿 à 阿 à10−21zzepto- 仄 zè 介 jiè10−24yyocto- 幺 yāo 攸 yōu10−27rronto- 柔 róu10−30qquecto- 亏 kuī" ], [ "Reading and transcribing numbers", "=== Whole numbers ===Multiple-digit numbers are constructed using a multiplicative principle; first the digit itself (from 1 to 9), then the place (such as 10 or 100); then the next digit.In Mandarin, the multiplier (''liǎng'') is often used rather than (''èr'') for all numbers 200 and greater with the \"2\" numeral (although as noted earlier this varies from dialect to dialect and person to person).", "Use of both (''liǎng'') or (''èr'') are acceptable for the number 200.When writing in the Cantonese dialect, (''yi6'') is used to represent the \"2\" numeral for all numbers.", "In the southern Min dialect of Chaozhou (Teochew), (''no6'') is used to represent the \"2\" numeral in all numbers from 200 onwards.", "Thus: Number Structure Characters Mandarin Cantonese Chaozhou Shanghainese 60 6 10 20 2 10 or 20 or 200 2 (èr or liǎng) 100 or or 2000 2 (èr or liǎng) 1000 or or 45 4 10 5 or 2,362 2 1000 3 100 6 10 2 For the numbers 11 through 19, the leading \"one\" () is usually omitted.", "In some dialects, like Shanghainese, when there are only two significant digits in the number, the leading \"one\" and the trailing zeroes are omitted.", "Sometimes, the one before \"ten\" in the middle of a number, such as 213, is omitted.", "Thus: Number Strict Putonghua Colloquial or dialect usage Structure Characters Structure Characters 14 10 4 12000 1 10000 2 1000 1 10000 2 or 114 1 100 1 10 4 1 100 10 4 1158 1 1000 1 100 5 10 8 ''See note 1 below''Notes:# Nothing is ever omitted in large and more complicated numbers such as this.In certain older texts like the Protestant Bible or in poetic usage, numbers such as 114 may be ''written'' as 100 10 4 ().Outside of Taiwan, digits are sometimes grouped by myriads instead of thousands.", "Hence it is more convenient to think of numbers here as in groups of four, thus 1,234,567,890 is regrouped here as 12,3456,7890.Larger than a myriad, each number is therefore four zeroes longer than the one before it, thus 10000 × () = ().", "If one of the numbers is between 10 and 19, the leading \"one\" is omitted as per the above point.", "Hence (numbers in parentheses indicate that the number has been written as one number rather than expanded): Number Structure Taiwan Mainland China 12,345,678,902,345(12,3456,7890,2345) (12) 1,0000,0000,0000 (3456) 1,0000,0000 (7890) 1,0000 (2345) In Taiwan, pure Arabic numerals are officially always and only grouped by thousands.", "Unofficially, they are often not grouped, particularly for numbers below 100,000.Mixed Arabic-Chinese numerals are often used in order to denote myriads.", "This is used both officially and unofficially, and come in a variety of styles: Number Structure Mixed numerals 12,345,000 (1234) 1,0000 (5) 1,000 1,234萬5千123,450,000(1) 1,0000,0000 (2345) 1,000012,345(1) 1,0000 (2345) Interior zeroes before the unit position (as in 1002) must be spelt explicitly.", "The reason for this is that trailing zeroes (as in 1200) are often omitted as shorthand, so ambiguity occurs.", "One zero is sufficient to resolve the ambiguity.", "Where the zero is before a digit other than the units digit, the explicit zero is not ambiguous and is therefore optional, but preferred.", "Thus: Number Structure Characters 205 2 100 0 5 100,004(10,0004) 10 10,000 0 4 10,050,026(1005,0026) (1005) 10,000 (026) or(1005) 10,000 (26) or===Fractional values===To construct a fraction, the denominator is written first, followed by , then the literary possessive particle , and lastly the numerator.", "This is the opposite of how fractions are read in English, which is numerator first.", "Each half of the fraction is written the same as a whole number.", "For example, to express \"two thirds\", the structure \"three parts of-this two\" is used.", "Mixed numbers are written with the whole-number part first, followed by , then the fractional part.", "Fraction Structure 3 Percentages are constructed similarly, using as the denominator.", "(The number 100 is typically expressed as , like the English \"one hundred\".", "However, for percentages, is used on its own.)", "Percentage Structure 25% 110% Because percentages and other fractions are formulated the same, Chinese are more likely than not to express 10%, 20% etc.", "as \"parts of 10\" (or 1/10, 2/10, etc.", "i.e.", "; ''shí fēnzhī yī'', ; ''shí fēnzhī èr'', etc.)", "rather than \"parts of 100\" (or 10/100, 20/100, etc.", "i.e.", "; ''bǎi fēnzhī shí'', ; ''bǎi fēnzhī èrshí'', etc.", ")In Taiwan, the most common formation of percentages in the spoken language is the number per hundred followed by the word , a contraction of the Japanese ; ''pāsento'', itself taken from the English \"percent\".", "Thus 25% is ; ''èrshíwǔ pā''.Decimal numbers are constructed by first writing the whole number part, then inserting a point (), and finally the fractional part.", "The fractional part is expressed using only the numbers for 0 to 9, similarly to English.", "Decimal expression Structure 16.98 12345.6789 75.4025 0.1 functions as a number and therefore requires a measure word.", "For example: .===Ordinal numbers===Ordinal numbers are formed by adding (\"sequence\") before the number.", "Ordinal Structure 1st 2nd 82nd The Heavenly Stems are a traditional Chinese ordinal system.===Negative numbers===Negative numbers are formed by adding fù () before the number.", "Number Structure −1158 −3 5/6 −75.4025 ===Usage===Chinese grammar requires the use of classifiers (measure words) when a numeral is used together with a noun to express a quantity.", "For example, \"three people\" is expressed as , \"three ( particle) person\", where / '''' is a classifier.", "There exist many different classifiers, for use with different sets of nouns, although / is the most common, and may be used informally in place of other classifiers.Chinese uses cardinal numbers in certain situations in which English would use ordinals.", "For example, (literally \"three story/storey\") means \"third floor\" (\"second floor\" in British ).", "Likewise, (literally \"twenty-one century\") is used for \"21st century\".Numbers of years are commonly spoken as a sequence of digits, as in (\"two zero zero one\") for the year 2001.Names of months and days (in the Western system) are also expressed using numbers: (\"one month\") for January, etc.", "; and (\"week one\") for Monday, etc.", "There is only one exception: Sunday is , or informally , both literally \"week day\".", "When meaning \"week\", \"\" and \"\" are interchangeable. \"\"", "or \"\" means \"day of worship\".", "Chinese Catholics call Sunday \"\" '''', \"Lord's day\".Full dates are usually written in the format 2001年1月20日 for January 20, 2001 (using \"year\", \"month\", and \"day\") – all the numbers are read as cardinals, not ordinals, with no leading zeroes, and the year is read as a sequence of digits.", "For brevity the , and may be dropped to give a date composed of just numbers.", "For example \"6-4\" in Chinese is \"six-four\", short for \"month six, day four\" i.e.", "June Fourth, a common Chinese shorthand for the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests (because of the violence that occurred on June 4).", "For another example 67, in Chinese is sixty seven, short for year nineteen sixty seven, a common Chinese shorthand for the Hong Kong 1967 leftist riots." ], [ "Counting rod and Suzhou numerals", "Counting rod numeralsIn the same way that Roman numerals were standard in ancient and medieval Europe for mathematics and commerce, the Chinese formerly used the rod numerals, which is a positional system.", "The Suzhou numerals () system is a variation of the Southern Song rod numerals.", "Nowadays, the ''huāmǎ'' system is only used for displaying prices in Chinese markets or on traditional handwritten invoices." ], [ "Hand gestures", "Hand symbol for the number sixThere is a common method of using of one hand to signify the numbers one to ten.", "While the five digits on one hand can easily express the numbers one to five, six to ten have special signs that can be used in commerce or day-to-day communication." ], [ "Historical use of numerals in China", "Shang oracle bone numerals of 14th century B.C.", "West Zhou dynasty bronze scriptCounting rod numeral example from the Yongle Encyclopedia showing the number 71,824Japanese counting board with gridsMost Chinese numerals of later periods were descendants of the Shang dynasty oracle numerals of the 14th century BC.", "The oracle bone script numerals were found on tortoise shell and animal bones.", "In early civilizations, the Shang were able to express any numbers, however large, with only nine symbols and a counting board though it was still not positional .Some of the bronze script numerals such as 1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 11, 12, and 13 became part of the system of rod numerals.In this system, horizontal rod numbers are used for the tens, thousands, hundred thousands etc.", "It is written in ''Sunzi Suanjing'' that \"one is vertical, ten is horizontal\".", "20px 20px 20px 20px 20px 7 1 8 2 4The counting rod numerals system has place value and decimal numerals for computation, and was used widely by Chinese merchants, mathematicians and astronomers from the Han dynasty to the 16th century.In 690 AD, Empress Wǔ promulgated Zetian characters, one of which was \"〇\".", "The word is now used as a synonym for the number zero.Alexander Wylie, Christian missionary to China, in 1853 already refuted the notion that \"the Chinese numbers were written in words at length\", and stated that in ancient China, calculation was carried out by means of counting rods, and \"the written character is evidently a rude presentation of these\".", "After being introduced to the rod numerals, he said \"Having thus obtained a simple but effective system of figures, we find the Chinese in actual use of a method of notation depending on the theory of local value i.e.", "place-value, several centuries before such theory was understood in Europe, and while yet the science of numbers had scarcely dawned among the Arabs.", "\"During the Ming and Qing dynasties (after Arabic numerals were introduced into China), some Chinese mathematicians used Chinese numeral characters as positional system digits.", "After the Qing period, both the Chinese numeral characters and the Suzhou numerals were replaced by Arabic numerals in mathematical writings." ], [ "Cultural influences", "Traditional Chinese numeric characters are also used in Japan and Korea and were used in Vietnam before the 20th century.", "In vertical text (that is, read top to bottom), using characters for numbers is the norm, while in horizontal text, Arabic numerals are most common.", "Chinese numeric characters are also used in much the same formal or decorative fashion that Roman numerals are in Western cultures.", "Chinese numerals may appear together with Arabic numbers on the same sign or document." ], [ "See also", "* Numbers in Chinese culture* Celestial stem" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Computer program" ], [ "Introduction", "Source code for a computer program written in the JavaScript languageA '''computer program''' is a sequence or set of instructions in a programming language for a computer to execute.", "It is one component of software, which also includes documentation and other intangible components.A ''computer program'' in its human-readable form is called source code.", "Source code needs another computer program to execute because computers can only execute their native machine instructions.", "Therefore, source code may be translated to machine instructions using a compiler written for the language.", "(Assembly language programs are translated using an assembler.)", "The resulting file is called an executable.", "Alternatively, source code may execute within an interpreter written for the language.If the executable is requested for execution, then the operating system loads it into memory and starts a process.", "The central processing unit will soon switch to this process so it can fetch, decode, and then execute each machine instruction.If the source code is requested for execution, then the operating system loads the corresponding interpreter into memory and starts a process.", "The interpreter then loads the source code into memory to translate and execute each statement.", "Running the source code is slower than running an executable.", "Moreover, the interpreter must be installed on the computer." ], [ "Example computer program", "\"Hello, World!\"", "program by Brian Kernighan (1978)The \"Hello, World!\"", "program is used to illustrate a language's basic syntax.", "The syntax of the language BASIC (1964) was intentionally limited to make the language easy to learn.", "For example, variables are not declared before being used.", "Also, variables are automatically initialized to zero.", "Here is an example computer program, in Basic, to average a list of numbers:10 INPUT \"How many numbers to average?", "\", A20 FOR I = 1 TO A30 INPUT \"Enter number:\", B40 LET C = C + B50 NEXT I60 LET D = C/A70 PRINT \"The average is\", D80 ENDOnce the mechanics of basic computer programming are learned, more sophisticated and powerful languages are available to build large computer systems." ], [ "History", "Improvements in software development are the result of improvements in computer hardware.", "At each stage in hardware's history, the task of computer programming changed dramatically.===Analytical Engine===Lovelace's description from Note GIn 1837, Jacquard's loom inspired Charles Babbage to attempt to build the Analytical Engine.The names of the components of the calculating device were borrowed from the textile industry.", "In the textile industry, yarn was brought from the store to be milled.", "The device had a \"store\" which consisted of memory to hold 1,000 numbers of 50 decimal digits each.", "Numbers from the \"store\" were transferred to the \"mill\" for processing.", "It was programmed using two sets of perforated cards.", "One set directed the operation and the other set inputted the variables.", "However, the thousands of cogged wheels and gears never fully worked together.Ada Lovelace worked for Charles Babbage to create a description of the Analytical Engine (1843).", "The description contained Note G which completely detailed a method for calculating Bernoulli numbers using the Analytical Engine.", "This note is recognized by some historians as the world's first ''computer program''.===Universal Turing machine===rightIn 1936, Alan Turing introduced the Universal Turing machine, a theoretical device that can model every computation.It is a finite-state machine that has an infinitely long read/write tape.", "The machine can move the tape back and forth, changing its contents as it performs an algorithm.", "The machine starts in the initial state, goes through a sequence of steps, and halts when it encounters the halt state.", "All present-day computers are Turing complete.===ENIAC===Glenn A. Beck changing a tube in ENIACThe Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer (ENIAC) was built between July 1943 and Fall 1945.It was a Turing complete, general-purpose computer that used 17,468 vacuum tubes to create the circuits.", "At its core, it was a series of Pascalines wired together.", "Its 40 units weighed 30 tons, occupied , and consumed $650 per hour (in 1940s currency) in electricity when idle.", "It had 20 base-10 accumulators.", "Programming the ENIAC took up to two months.", "Three function tables were on wheels and needed to be rolled to fixed function panels.", "Function tables were connected to function panels by plugging heavy black cables into plugboards.", "Each function table had 728 rotating knobs.", "Programming the ENIAC also involved setting some of the 3,000 switches.", "Debugging a program took a week.", "It ran from 1947 until 1955 at Aberdeen Proving Ground, calculating hydrogen bomb parameters, predicting weather patterns, and producing firing tables to aim artillery guns.===Stored-program computers===Instead of plugging in cords and turning switches, a stored-program computer loads its instructions into memory just like it loads its data into memory.", "As a result, the computer could be programmed quickly and perform calculations at very fast speeds.", "Presper Eckert and John Mauchly built the ENIAC.", "The two engineers introduced the ''stored-program concept'' in a three-page memo dated February 1944.Later, in September 1944, Dr. John von Neumann began working on the ENIAC project.", "On June 30, 1945, von Neumann published the ''First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC'', which equated the structures of the computer with the structures of the human brain.", "The design became known as the von Neumann architecture.", "The architecture was simultaneously deployed in the constructions of the EDVAC and EDSAC computers in 1949.The IBM System/360 (1964) was a family of computers, each having the same instruction set architecture.", "The Model 20 was the smallest and least expensive.", "Customers could upgrade and retain the same application software.", "The Model 195 was the most premium.", "Each System/360 model featured multiprogramming—having multiple processes in memory at once.", "When one process was waiting for input/output, another could compute.IBM planned for each model to be programmed using PL/1.A committee was formed that included COBOL, Fortran and ALGOL programmers.", "The purpose was to develop a language that was comprehensive, easy to use, extendible, and would replace Cobol and Fortran.", "The result was a large and complex language that took a long time to compile.Switches for manual input on a Data General Nova 3, manufactured in the mid-1970sComputers manufactured until the 1970s had front-panel switches for manual programming.", "The computer program was written on paper for reference.", "An instruction was represented by a configuration of on/off settings.", "After setting the configuration, an execute button was pressed.", "This process was then repeated.", "Computer programs also were automatically inputted via paper tape, punched cards or magnetic-tape.", "After the medium was loaded, the starting address was set via switches, and the execute button was pressed.===Very Large Scale Integration===die A major milestone in software development was the invention of the Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) circuit (1964).", "Following World War II, tube-based technology was replaced with point-contact transistors (1947) and bipolar junction transistors (late 1950s) mounted on a circuit board.", "During the 1960s, the aerospace industry replaced the circuit board with an integrated circuit chip.Robert Noyce, co-founder of Fairchild Semiconductor (1957) and Intel (1968), achieved a technological improvement to refine the production of field-effect transistors (1963).", "The goal is to alter the electrical resistivity and conductivity of a semiconductor junction.", "First, naturally occurring silicate minerals are converted into polysilicon rods using the Siemens process.", "The Czochralski process then converts the rods into a monocrystalline silicon, boule crystal.", "The crystal is then thinly sliced to form a wafer substrate.", "The planar process of photolithography then ''integrates'' unipolar transistors, capacitors, diodes, and resistors onto the wafer to build a matrix of metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) transistors.", "The MOS transistor is the primary component in ''integrated circuit chips''.Originally, integrated circuit chips had their function set during manufacturing.", "During the 1960s, controlling the electrical flow migrated to programming a matrix of read-only memory (ROM).", "The matrix resembled a two-dimensional array of fuses.", "The process to embed instructions onto the matrix was to burn out the unneeded connections.", "There were so many connections, firmware programmers wrote a ''computer program'' on another chip to oversee the burning.", "The technology became known as Programmable ROM.", "In 1971, Intel installed the computer program onto the chip and named it the Intel 4004 microprocessor.IBM's System/360 (1964) CPU was not a microprocessor.The terms ''microprocessor'' and central processing unit (CPU) are now used interchangeably.", "However, CPUs predate microprocessors.", "For example, the IBM System/360 (1964) had a CPU made from circuit boards containing discrete components on ceramic substrates.===Sac State 8008===Artist's depiction of Sacramento State University's Intel 8008 microcomputer (1972)The Intel 4004 (1971) was a 4-bit microprocessor designed to run the Busicom calculator.", "Five months after its release, Intel released the Intel 8008, an 8-bit microprocessor.", "Bill Pentz led a team at Sacramento State to build the first microcomputer using the Intel 8008: the ''Sac State 8008'' (1972).", "Its purpose was to store patient medical records.", "The computer supported a disk operating system to run a Memorex, 3-megabyte, hard disk drive.", "It had a color display and keyboard that was packaged in a single console.", "The disk operating system was programmed using IBM's Basic Assembly Language (BAL).", "The medical records application was programmed using a BASIC interpreter.", "However, the computer was an evolutionary dead-end because it was extremely expensive.", "Also, it was built at a public university lab for a specific purpose.", "Nonetheless, the project contributed to the development of the Intel 8080 (1974) instruction set.===x86 series===The original IBM Personal Computer (1981) used an Intel 8088 microprocessor.In 1978, the modern software development environment began when Intel upgraded the Intel 8080 to the Intel 8086.Intel simplified the Intel 8086 to manufacture the cheaper Intel 8088.IBM embraced the Intel 8088 when they entered the personal computer market (1981).", "As consumer demand for personal computers increased, so did Intel's microprocessor development.", "The succession of development is known as the x86 series.", "The x86 assembly language is a family of backward-compatible machine instructions.", "Machine instructions created in earlier microprocessors were retained throughout microprocessor upgrades.", "This enabled consumers to purchase new computers without having to purchase new application software.", "The major categories of instructions are:* Memory instructions to set and access numbers and strings in random-access memory.", "* Integer arithmetic logic unit (ALU) instructions to perform the primary arithmetic operations on integers.", "* Floating point ALU instructions to perform the primary arithmetic operations on real numbers.", "* Call stack instructions to push and pop words needed to allocate memory and interface with functions.", "* Single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) instructions to increase speed when multiple processors are available to perform the same algorithm on an array of data.===Changing programming environment===DEC VT100 (1978) was a widely used computer terminal.VLSI circuits enabled the programming environment to advance from a computer terminal (until the 1990s) to a graphical user interface (GUI) computer.", "Computer terminals limited programmers to a single shell running in a command-line environment.", "During the 1970s, full-screen source code editing became possible through a text-based user interface.", "Regardless of the technology available, the goal is to program in a programming language." ], [ "Programming paradigms and languages", "Programming language features exist to provide building blocks to be combined to express programming ideals.", "Ideally, a programming language should:* express ideas directly in the code.", "* express independent ideas independently.", "* express relationships among ideas directly in the code.", "* combine ideas freely.", "* combine ideas only where combinations make sense.", "* express simple ideas simply.The programming style of a programming language to provide these building blocks may be categorized into programming paradigms.", "For example, different paradigms may differentiate:* procedural languages, functional languages, and logical languages.", "* different levels of data abstraction.", "* different levels of class hierarchy.", "* different levels of input datatypes, as in container types and generic programming.Each of these programming styles has contributed to the synthesis of different ''programming languages''.A ''programming language'' is a set of keywords, symbols, identifiers, and rules by which programmers can communicate instructions to the computer.", "They follow a set of rules called a syntax.", "* ''Keywords'' are reserved words to form declarations and statements.", "* ''Symbols'' are characters to form operations, assignments, control flow, and delimiters.", "* ''Identifiers'' are words created by programmers to form constants, variable names, structure names, and function names.", "* ''Syntax Rules'' are defined in the Backus–Naur form.", "''Programming languages'' get their basis from formal languages.", "The purpose of defining a solution in terms of its ''formal language'' is to generate an algorithm to solve the underlining problem.", "An ''algorithm'' is a sequence of simple instructions that solve a problem.===Generations of programming language===The evolution of programming language began when the EDSAC (1949) used the first stored computer program in its von Neumann architecture.", "Programming the EDSAC was in the first generation of programming language.", "* The first generation of programming language is machine language.", "''Machine language'' requires the programmer to enter instructions using ''instruction numbers'' called machine code.", "For example, the ADD operation on the PDP-11 has instruction number 24576.", "* The second generation of programming language is assembly language.", "''Assembly language'' allows the programmer to use mnemonic instructions instead of remembering instruction numbers.", "An assembler translates each assembly language mnemonic into its machine language number.", "For example, on the PDP-11, the operation 24576 can be referenced as ADD in the source code.", "The four basic arithmetic operations have assembly instructions like ADD, SUB, MUL, and DIV.", "Computers also have instructions like DW (Define Word) to reserve memory cells.", "Then the MOV instruction can copy integers between registers and memory.", ":* The basic structure of an assembly language statement is a label, operation, operand, and comment.", "::* ''Labels'' allow the programmer to work with variable names.", "The assembler will later translate labels into physical memory addresses.", "::* ''Operations'' allow the programmer to work with mnemonics.", "The assembler will later translate mnemonics into instruction numbers.", "::* ''Operands'' tell the assembler which data the operation will process.", "::* ''Comments'' allow the programmer to articulate a narrative because the instructions alone are vague.", ":: The key characteristic of an assembly language program is it forms a one-to-one mapping to its corresponding machine language target.", "* The third generation of programming language uses compilers and interpreters to execute computer programs.", "The distinguishing feature of a ''third generation'' language is its independence from particular hardware.", "Early languages include Fortran (1958), COBOL (1959), ALGOL (1960), and BASIC (1964).", "In 1973, the C programming language emerged as a high-level language that produced efficient machine language instructions.", "Whereas ''third-generation'' languages historically generated many machine instructions for each statement, C has statements that may generate a single machine instruction.", "Moreover, an optimizing compiler might overrule the programmer and produce fewer machine instructions than statements.", "Today, an entire paradigm of languages fill the imperative, ''third generation'' spectrum.", "* The fourth generation of programming language emphasizes what output results are desired, rather than how programming statements should be constructed.", "Declarative languages attempt to limit side effects and allow programmers to write code with relatively few errors.", "One popular ''fourth generation'' language is called Structured Query Language (SQL).", "Database developers no longer need to process each database record one at a time.", "Also, a simple statement can generate output records without having to understand how they are retrieved.===Imperative languages===A computer program written in an imperative language''Imperative languages'' specify a sequential algorithm using declarations, expressions, and statements:* A ''declaration'' introduces a variable name to the ''computer program'' and assigns it to a datatype – for example: var x: integer;* An ''expression'' yields a value – for example: 2 + 2 yields 4* A ''statement'' might assign an expression to a variable or use the value of a variable to alter the program's control flow – for example: x := 2 + 2; if x = 4 then do_something();====Fortran====FORTRAN (1958) was unveiled as \"The IBM Mathematical FORmula TRANslating system.\"", "It was designed for scientific calculations, without string handling facilities.", "Along with declarations, expressions, and statements, it supported:* arrays.", "* subroutines.", "* \"do\" loops.It succeeded because:* programming and debugging costs were below computer running costs.", "* it was supported by IBM.", "* applications at the time were scientific.However, non-IBM vendors also wrote Fortran compilers, but with a syntax that would likely fail IBM's compiler.", "The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) developed the first Fortran standard in 1966.In 1978, Fortran 77 became the standard until 1991.Fortran 90 supports:* records.", "* pointers to arrays.====COBOL====COBOL (1959) stands for \"COmmon Business Oriented Language.\"", "Fortran manipulated symbols.", "It was soon realized that symbols did not need to be numbers, so strings were introduced.", "The US Department of Defense influenced COBOL's development, with Grace Hopper being a major contributor.", "The statements were English-like and verbose.", "The goal was to design a language so managers could read the programs.", "However, the lack of structured statements hindered this goal.COBOL's development was tightly controlled, so dialects did not emerge to require ANSI standards.", "As a consequence, it was not changed for 15 years until 1974.The 1990s version did make consequential changes, like object-oriented programming.====Algol====ALGOL (1960) stands for \"ALGOrithmic Language.\"", "It had a profound influence on programming language design.", "Emerging from a committee of European and American programming language experts, it used standard mathematical notation and had a readable, structured design.", "Algol was first to define its syntax using the Backus–Naur form.", "This led to syntax-directed compilers.", "It added features like:* block structure, where variables were local to their block.", "* arrays with variable bounds.", "* \"for\" loops.", "* functions.", "* recursion.Algol's direct descendants include Pascal, Modula-2, Ada, Delphi and Oberon on one branch.", "On another branch the descendants include C, C++ and Java.====Basic====BASIC (1964) stands for \"Beginner's All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code.\"", "It was developed at Dartmouth College for all of their students to learn.", "If a student did not go on to a more powerful language, the student would still remember Basic.", "A Basic interpreter was installed in the microcomputers manufactured in the late 1970s.", "As the microcomputer industry grew, so did the language.Basic pioneered the interactive session.", "It offered operating system commands within its environment:* The 'new' command created an empty slate.", "* Statements evaluated immediately.", "* Statements could be programmed by preceding them with a line number.", "* The 'list' command displayed the program.", "* The 'run' command executed the program.However, the Basic syntax was too simple for large programs.", "Recent dialects added structure and object-oriented extensions.", "Microsoft's Visual Basic is still widely used and produces a graphical user interface.====C====C programming language (1973) got its name because the language BCPL was replaced with B, and AT&T Bell Labs called the next version \"C.\" Its purpose was to write the UNIX operating system.", "C is a relatively small language, making it easy to write compilers.", "Its growth mirrored the hardware growth in the 1980s.", "Its growth also was because it has the facilities of assembly language, but uses a high-level syntax.", "It added advanced features like:* inline assembler.", "* arithmetic on pointers.", "* pointers to functions.", "* bit operations.", "* freely combining complex operators.Computer memory map''C'' allows the programmer to control which region of memory data is to be stored.", "Global variables and static variables require the fewest clock cycles to store.", "The stack is automatically used for the standard variable declarations.", "Heap memory is returned to a pointer variable from the malloc() function.", "* The ''global and static data'' region is located just above the ''program'' region.", "(The program region is technically called the ''text'' region.", "It's where machine instructions are stored.", "):* The global and static data region is technically two regions.", "One region is called the ''initialized data segment'', where variables declared with default values are stored.", "The other region is called the ''block started by segment'', where variables declared without default values are stored.", ":* Variables stored in the ''global and static data'' region have their addresses set at compile-time.", "They retain their values throughout the life of the process.", ":* The global and static region stores the ''global variables'' that are declared on top of (outside) the main() function.", "Global variables are visible to main() and every other function in the source code.", ": On the other hand, variable declarations inside of main(), other functions, or within { } block delimiters are ''local variables''.", "Local variables also include ''formal parameter variables''.", "Parameter variables are enclosed within the parenthesis of function definitions.", "They provide an interface to the function.", ":* ''Local variables'' declared using the static prefix are also stored in the ''global and static data'' region.", "Unlike global variables, static variables are only visible within the function or block.", "Static variables always retain their value.", "An example usage would be the function int increment_counter(){static int counter = 0; counter++; return counter;}* The stack region is a contiguous block of memory located near the top memory address.", "Variables placed in the stack are populated from top to bottom.", "A stack pointer is a special-purpose register that keeps track of the last memory address populated.", "Variables are placed into the stack via the ''assembly language'' PUSH instruction.", "Therefore, the addresses of these variables are set during runtime.", "The method for stack variables to lose their scope is via the POP instruction.", ":* ''Local variables'' declared without the static prefix, including formal parameter variables, are called ''automatic variables'' and are stored in the stack.", "They are visible inside the function or block and lose their scope upon exiting the function or block.", "* The heap region is located below the stack.", "It is populated from the bottom to the top.", "The operating system manages the heap using a ''heap pointer'' and a list of allocated memory blocks.", "Like the stack, the addresses of heap variables are set during runtime.", "An out of memory error occurs when the heap pointer and the stack pointer meet.", ":* ''C'' provides the malloc() library function to allocate heap memory.", "Populating the heap with data is an additional copy function.", "Variables stored in the heap are economically passed to functions using pointers.", "Without pointers, the entire block of data would have to be passed to the function via the stack.====C++====In the 1970s, software engineers needed language support to break large projects down into modules.", "One obvious feature was to decompose large projects ''physically'' into separate files.", "A less obvious feature was to decompose large projects ''logically'' into abstract data types.", "At the time, languages supported concrete (scalar) datatypes like integer numbers, floating-point numbers, and strings of characters.", "Abstract datatypes are structures of concrete datatypes, with a new name assigned.", "For example, a list of integers could be called integer_list.In object-oriented jargon, abstract datatypes are called classes.", "However, a ''class'' is only a definition; no memory is allocated.", "When memory is allocated to a class and bound to an identifier, it's called an object.", "''Object-oriented imperative languages'' developed by combining the need for classes and the need for safe functional programming.", "A function, in an object-oriented language, is assigned to a class.", "An assigned function is then referred to as a method, member function, or ''operation''.", "''Object-oriented programming'' is executing ''operations'' on ''objects''.", "''Object-oriented languages'' support a syntax to model subset/superset relationships.", "In set theory, an element of a subset inherits all the attributes contained in the superset.", "For example, a student is a person.", "Therefore, the set of students is a subset of the set of persons.", "As a result, students inherit all the attributes common to all persons.", "Additionally, students have unique attributes that other people do not have.", "''Object-oriented languages'' model ''subset/superset'' relationships using inheritance.", "''Object-oriented programming'' became the dominant language paradigm by the late 1990s.C++ (1985) was originally called \"C with Classes.\"", "It was designed to expand C's capabilities by adding the object-oriented facilities of the language Simula.An object-oriented module is composed of two files.", "The definitions file is called the header file.", "Here is a C++ ''header file'' for the ''GRADE class'' in a simple school application:// grade.h// -------// Used to allow multiple source files to include// this header file without duplication errors.// ----------------------------------------------#ifndef GRADE_H#define GRADE_Hclass GRADE {public: // This is the constructor operation.", "// ---------------------------------- GRADE ( const char letter ); // This is a class variable.", "// ------------------------- char letter; // This is a member operation.", "// --------------------------- int grade_numeric( const char letter ); // This is a class variable.", "// ------------------------- int numeric;};#endifA constructor operation is a function with the same name as the class name.", "It is executed when the calling operation executes the new statement.A module's other file is the ''source file''.", "Here is a C++ source file for the ''GRADE class'' in a simple school application:// grade.cpp// ---------#include \"grade.h\"GRADE::GRADE( const char letter ){ // Reference the object using the keyword 'this'.", "// ---------------------------------------------- this->letter = letter; // This is Temporal Cohesion // ------------------------- this->numeric = grade_numeric( letter );}int GRADE::grade_numeric( const char letter ){ if ( ( letter == 'A' letter == 'a' ) ) return 4; else if ( ( letter == 'B' letter == 'b' ) ) return 3; else if ( ( letter == 'C' letter == 'c' ) ) return 2; else if ( ( letter == 'D' letter == 'd' ) ) return 1; else if ( ( letter == 'F' letter == 'f' ) ) return 0; else return -1;}Here is a C++ ''header file'' for the ''PERSON class'' in a simple school application:// person.h// --------#ifndef PERSON_H#define PERSON_Hclass PERSON {public: PERSON ( const char name ); const char name;};#endifHere is a C++ ''source file'' for the ''PERSON class'' in a simple school application:// person.cpp// ----------#include \"person.h\"PERSON::PERSON ( const char name ){ this->name = name;}Here is a C++ ''header file'' for the ''STUDENT class'' in a simple school application:// student.h// ---------#ifndef STUDENT_H#define STUDENT_H#include \"person.h\"#include \"grade.h\"// A STUDENT is a subset of PERSON.// --------------------------------class STUDENT : public PERSON{public: STUDENT ( const char name ); GRADE grade;};#endifHere is a C++ ''source file'' for the ''STUDENT class'' in a simple school application:// student.cpp// -----------#include \"student.h\"#include \"person.h\"STUDENT::STUDENT ( const char name ): // Execute the constructor of the PERSON superclass.", "// ------------------------------------------------- PERSON( name ){ // Nothing else to do.", "// -------------------}Here is a driver program for demonstration:// student_dvr.cpp// ---------------#include #include \"student.h\"int main( void ){ STUDENT student = new STUDENT( \"The Student\" ); student->grade = new GRADE( 'a' ); std::cout // Notice student inherits PERSON's name name grade->numeric Here is a makefile to compile everything:# makefile# --------all: student_dvrclean: rm student_dvr .ostudent_dvr: student_dvr.cpp grade.o student.o person.o c++ student_dvr.cpp grade.o student.o person.o -o student_dvrgrade.o: grade.cpp grade.h c++ -c grade.cppstudent.o: student.cpp student.h c++ -c student.cppperson.o: person.cpp person.h c++ -c person.cpp===Declarative languages===''Imperative languages'' have one major criticism: assigning an expression to a ''non-local'' variable may produce an unintended side effect.", "Declarative languages generally omit the assignment statement and the control flow.", "They describe ''what'' computation should be performed and not ''how'' to compute it.", "Two broad categories of declarative languages are functional languages and logical languages.The principle behind a ''functional language'' is to use lambda calculus as a guide for a well defined semantic.", "In mathematics, a function is a rule that maps elements from an ''expression'' to a range of ''values''.", "Consider the function:times_10(x) = 10 * xThe ''expression'' 10 * x is mapped by the function times_10() to a range of ''values''.", "One ''value'' happens to be 20.This occurs when x is 2.So, the application of the function is mathematically written as:times_10(2) = 20A ''functional language'' compiler will not store this value in a variable.", "Instead, it will ''push'' the value onto the computer's stack before setting the program counter back to the calling function.", "The calling function will then ''pop'' the value from the stack.", "''Imperative languages'' do support functions.", "Therefore, ''functional programming'' can be achieved in an imperative language, if the programmer uses discipline.", "However, a ''functional language'' will force this discipline onto the programmer through its syntax.", "Functional languages have a syntax tailored to emphasize the ''what''.A functional program is developed with a set of primitive functions followed by a single driver function.", "Consider the snippet:function max( a, b ){/* code omitted /}function min( a, b ){/ code omitted /}function range( a, b, c ) {:return max( a, max( b, c ) ) - min( a, min( b,c ) );}The primitives are max() and min().", "The driver function is range().", "Executing:put( range( 10, 4, 7) ); will output 6.", "''Functional languages'' are used in computer science research to explore new language features.", "Moreover, their lack of side-effects have made them popular in parallel programming and concurrent programming.", "However, application developers prefer the object-oriented features of ''imperative languages''.====Lisp====Lisp (1958) stands for \"LISt Processor.\"", "It is tailored to process lists.", "A full structure of the data is formed by building lists of lists.", "In memory, a tree data structure is built.", "Internally, the tree structure lends nicely for recursive functions.", "The syntax to build a tree is to enclose the space-separated elements within parenthesis.", "The following is a list of three elements.", "The first two elements are themselves lists of two elements:((A B) (HELLO WORLD) 94)Lisp has functions to extract and reconstruct elements.", "The function head() returns a list containing the first element in the list.", "The function tail() returns a list containing everything but the first element.", "The function cons() returns a list that is the concatenation of other lists.", "Therefore, the following expression will return the list x:cons(head(x), tail(x))One drawback of Lisp is when many functions are nested, the parentheses may look confusing.", "Modern Lisp environments help ensure parenthesis match.", "As an aside, Lisp does support the ''imperative language'' operations of the assignment statement and goto loops.", "Also, ''Lisp'' is not concerned with the datatype of the elements at compile time.", "Instead, it assigns (and may reassign) the datatypes at runtime.", "Assigning the datatype at runtime is called dynamic binding.", "Whereas dynamic binding increases the language's flexibility, programming errors may linger until late in the software development process.Writing large, reliable, and readable Lisp programs requires forethought.", "If properly planned, the program may be much shorter than an equivalent ''imperative language'' program.", "''Lisp'' is widely used in artificial intelligence.", "However, its usage has been accepted only because it has ''imperative language'' operations, making unintended side-effects possible.====ML====ML (1973) stands for \"Meta Language.\"", "ML checks to make sure only data of the same type are compared with one another.", "For example, this function has one input parameter (an integer) and returns an integer:''ML'' is not parenthesis-eccentric like ''Lisp''.", "The following is an application of times_10(): times_10 2It returns \"20 : int\".", "(Both the results and the datatype are returned.", ")Like ''Lisp'', ''ML'' is tailored to process lists.", "Unlike ''Lisp'', each element is the same datatype.", "Moreover, ''ML'' assigns the datatype of an element at compile-time.", "Assigning the datatype at compile-time is called static binding.", "Static binding increases reliability because the compiler checks the context of variables before they are used.====Prolog====Prolog (1972) stands for \"PROgramming in LOGic.\"", "It is a logic programming language, based on formal logic.", "The language was developed by Alain Colmerauer and Philippe Roussel in Marseille, France.", "It is an implementation of Selective Linear Definite clause resolution, pioneered by Robert Kowalski and others at the University of Edinburgh.The building blocks of a Prolog program are ''facts'' and ''rules''.", "Here is a simple example:cat(tom).", "% tom is a catmouse(jerry).", "% jerry is a mouseanimal(X) :- cat(X).", "% each cat is an animalanimal(X) :- mouse(X).", "% each mouse is an animalbig(X) :- cat(X).", "% each cat is bigsmall(X) :- mouse(X).", "% each mouse is smalleat(X,Y) :- mouse(X), cheese(Y).", "% each mouse eats each cheeseeat(X,Y) :- big(X), small(Y).", "% each big animal eats each small animalAfter all the facts and rules are entered, then a question can be asked:: Will Tom eat Jerry?", "?- eat(tom,jerry).trueThe following example shows how Prolog will convert a letter grade to its numeric value:numeric_grade('A', 4).numeric_grade('B', 3).numeric_grade('C', 2).numeric_grade('D', 1).numeric_grade('F', 0).numeric_grade(X, -1) :- not X = 'A', not X = 'B', not X = 'C', not X = 'D', not X = 'F'.grade('The Student', 'A').", "?- grade('The Student', X), numeric_grade(X, Y).X = 'A',Y = 4Here is a comprehensive example:1) All dragons billow fire, or equivalently, a thing billows fire if the thing is a dragon:billows_fire(X) :- is_a_dragon(X).2) A creature billows fire if one of its parents billows fire:billows_fire(X) :- is_a_creature(X), is_a_parent_of(Y,X), billows_fire(Y).3) A thing X is a parent of a thing Y if X is the mother of Y or X is the father of Y: is_a_parent_of(X, Y):- is_the_mother_of(X, Y).is_a_parent_of(X, Y):- is_the_father_of(X, Y).4) A thing is a creature if the thing is a dragon:is_a_creature(X) :- is_a_dragon(X).5) Norberta is a dragon, and Puff is a creature.", "Norberta is the mother of Puff.is_a_dragon(norberta).", "is_a_creature(puff).is_the_mother_of(norberta, puff).Rule (2) is a recursive (inductive) definition.", "It can be understood declaratively, without the need to understand how it is executed.Rule (3) shows how functions are represented by using relations.", "Here, the mother and father functions ensure that every individual has only one mother and only one father.Prolog is an untyped language.", "Nonetheless, inheritance can be represented by using predicates.", "Rule (4) asserts that a creature is a superclass of a dragon.Questions are answered using backward reasoning.", "Given the question: ?- billows_fire(X).", "Prolog generates two answers :X = norbertaX = puff Practical applications for Prolog are knowledge representation and problem solving in artificial intelligence.===Object-oriented programming===Object-oriented programming is a programming method to execute operations (functions) on objects.", "The basic idea is to group the characteristics of a phenomenon into an object container and give the container a name.", "The ''operations'' on the phenomenon are also grouped into the container.", "''Object-oriented programming'' developed by combining the need for containers and the need for safe functional programming.", "This programming method need not be confined to an ''object-oriented language''.", "In an object-oriented language, an object container is called a class.", "In a non-object-oriented language, a data structure (which is also known as a record) may become an object container.", "To turn a data structure into an object container, operations need to be written specifically for the structure.", "The resulting structure is called an abstract datatype.", "However, inheritance will be missing.", "Nonetheless, this shortcoming can be overcome.Here is a C programming language ''header file'' for the ''GRADE abstract datatype'' in a simple school application:/ grade.h // ------- // Used to allow multiple source files to include // this header file without duplication errors.", "// ---------------------------------------------- /#ifndef GRADE_H#define GRADE_Htypedef struct{ char letter;} GRADE;/ Constructor // ----------- /GRADE grade_new( char letter );int grade_numeric( char letter );#endifThe grade_new() function performs the same algorithm as the C++ constructor operation.Here is a C programming language ''source file'' for the ''GRADE abstract datatype'' in a simple school application:/* grade.c // ------- /#include \"grade.h\"GRADE grade_new( char letter ){ GRADE grade; / Allocate heap memory / / -------------------- / if ( !", "( grade = calloc( 1, sizeof ( GRADE ) ) ) ) { fprintf(stderr, \"ERROR in %s/%s/%d: calloc() returned empty.\\n\", __FILE__, __FUNCTION__, __LINE__ ); exit( 1 ); } grade->letter = letter; return grade;}int grade_numeric( char letter ){ if ( ( letter == 'A' letter == 'a' ) ) return 4; else if ( ( letter == 'B' letter == 'b' ) ) return 3; else if ( ( letter == 'C' letter == 'c' ) ) return 2; else if ( ( letter == 'D' letter == 'd' ) ) return 1; else if ( ( letter == 'F' letter == 'f' ) ) return 0; else return -1;}In the constructor, the function calloc() is used instead of malloc() because each memory cell will be set to zero.Here is a C programming language ''header file'' for the ''PERSON abstract datatype'' in a simple school application:/ person.h // -------- /#ifndef PERSON_H#define PERSON_Htypedef struct{ char name;} PERSON;/* Constructor // ----------- /PERSON person_new( char name );#endifHere is a C programming language ''source file'' for the ''PERSON abstract datatype'' in a simple school application:/ person.c // -------- /#include \"person.h\"PERSON person_new( char name ){ PERSON person; if ( !", "( person = calloc( 1, sizeof ( PERSON ) ) ) ) { fprintf(stderr, \"ERROR in %s/%s/%d: calloc() returned empty.\\n\", __FILE__, __FUNCTION__, __LINE__ ); exit( 1 ); } person->name = name; return person;}Here is a C programming language ''header file'' for the ''STUDENT abstract datatype'' in a simple school application:/* student.h // --------- /#ifndef STUDENT_H#define STUDENT_H#include \"person.h\"#include \"grade.h\"typedef struct{ / A STUDENT is a subset of PERSON.", "/ / -------------------------------- / PERSON person; GRADE grade;} STUDENT;/ Constructor // ----------- /STUDENT student_new( char name );#endifHere is a C programming language ''source file'' for the ''STUDENT abstract datatype'' in a simple school application:/ student.c // --------- /#include \"student.h\"#include \"person.h\"STUDENT student_new( char name ){ STUDENT student; if ( !", "( student = calloc( 1, sizeof ( STUDENT ) ) ) ) { fprintf(stderr, \"ERROR in %s/%s/%d: calloc() returned empty.\\n\", __FILE__, __FUNCTION__, __LINE__ ); exit( 1 ); } /* Execute the constructor of the PERSON superclass.", "/ / ------------------------------------------------- / student->person = person_new( name ); return student;}Here is a driver program for demonstration:/ student_dvr.c // ------------- /#include #include \"student.h\"int main( void ){ STUDENT student = student_new( \"The Student\" ); student->grade = grade_new( 'a' ); printf( \"%s: Numeric grade = %d\\n\", /* Whereas a subset exists, inheritance does not.", "/ student->person->name, / Functional programming is executing functions just-in-time (JIT) / grade_numeric( student->grade->letter ) );\treturn 0;}Here is a makefile to compile everything:# makefile# --------all: student_dvrclean: rm student_dvr .ostudent_dvr: student_dvr.c grade.o student.o person.o gcc student_dvr.c grade.o student.o person.o -o student_dvrgrade.o: grade.c grade.h gcc -c grade.cstudent.o: student.c student.h gcc -c student.cperson.o: person.c person.h gcc -c person.cThe formal strategy to build object-oriented objects is to:* Identify the objects.", "Most likely these will be nouns.", "* Identify each object's attributes.", "What helps to describe the object?", "* Identify each object's actions.", "Most likely these will be verbs.", "* Identify the relationships from object to object.", "Most likely these will be verbs.For example:* A person is a human identified by a name.", "* A grade is an achievement identified by a letter.", "* A student is a person who earns a grade.===Syntax and semantics===The syntax of a programming language is a list of production rules which govern its ''form''.", "A programming language's ''form'' is the correct placement of its declarations, expressions, and statements.", "Complementing the syntax of a language are its semantics.", "The ''semantics'' describe the meanings attached to various syntactic constructs.", "A syntactic construct may need a semantic description because a form may have an invalid interpretation.", "Also, different languages might have the same syntax; however, their behaviors may be different.The syntax of a language is formally described by listing the ''production rules''.", "Whereas the syntax of a natural language is extremely complicated, a subset of the English language can have this production rule listing:# a '''sentence''' is made up of a '''noun-phrase''' followed by a '''verb-phrase''';# a '''noun-phrase''' is made up of an '''article''' followed by an '''adjective''' followed by a '''noun''';# a '''verb-phrase''' is made up of a '''verb''' followed by a '''noun-phrase''';# an '''article''' is 'the';# an '''adjective''' is 'big' or# an '''adjective''' is 'small';# a '''noun''' is 'cat' or# a '''noun''' is 'mouse';# a '''verb''' is 'eats';The words in '''bold-face''' are known as \"non-terminals\".", "The words in 'single quotes' are known as \"terminals\".From this production rule listing, complete sentences may be formed using a series of replacements.", "The process is to replace ''non-terminals'' with either a valid ''non-terminal'' or a valid ''terminal''.", "The replacement process repeats until only ''terminals'' remain.", "One valid sentence is:* '''sentence'''* '''noun-phrase''' '''verb-phrase'''* '''article''' '''adjective''' '''noun''' '''verb-phrase'''* ''the'' '''adjective''' '''noun''' '''verb-phrase'''* ''the'' ''big'' '''noun''' '''verb-phrase'''* ''the'' ''big'' ''cat'' '''verb-phrase'''* ''the'' ''big'' ''cat'' '''verb''' '''noun-phrase'''* ''the'' ''big'' ''cat'' ''eats'' '''noun-phrase'''* ''the'' ''big'' ''cat'' ''eats'' '''article''' '''adjective''' '''noun'''* ''the'' ''big'' ''cat'' ''eats'' ''the'' '''adjective''' '''noun'''* ''the'' ''big'' ''cat'' ''eats'' ''the'' ''small'' '''noun'''* ''the'' ''big'' ''cat'' ''eats'' ''the'' ''small'' ''mouse''However, another combination results in an invalid sentence:* ''the'' ''small'' ''mouse'' ''eats'' ''the'' ''big'' ''cat''Therefore, a ''semantic'' is necessary to correctly describe the meaning of an ''eat'' activity.One ''production rule'' listing method is called the Backus–Naur form (BNF).", "BNF describes the syntax of a language and itself has a ''syntax''.", "This recursive definition is an example of a meta-language.", "The ''syntax'' of BNF includes:* ::= which translates to ''is made up of an'' when a non-terminal is to its right.", "It translates to ''is'' when a terminal is to its right.", "* \| which translates to ''or''.", "* and > which surround '''non-terminals'''.Using BNF, a subset of the English language can have this ''production rule'' listing: ::= ::= ::= ::= the ::= big \| small ::= cat \| mouse ::= eatsUsing BNF, a signed-integer has the ''production rule'' listing: ::= ::= + \| - ::= ::= 0 \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| 6 \| 7 \| 8 \| 9Notice the recursive production rule: ::= This allows for an infinite number of possibilities.", "Therefore, a ''semantic'' is necessary to describe a limitation of the number of digits.Notice the leading zero possibility in the production rules: ::= ::= 0 \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| 6 \| 7 \| 8 \| 9Therefore, a ''semantic'' is necessary to describe that leading zeros need to be ignored.Two formal methods are available to describe ''semantics''.", "They are denotational semantics and axiomatic semantics." ], [ "Software engineering and computer programming", "Betty Jennings and Fran Bilas programmed the ENIAC by moving cables and setting switches.Software engineering is a variety of techniques to produce quality ''computer programs''.", "Computer programming is the process of writing or editing source code.", "In a formal environment, a systems analyst will gather information from managers about all the organization's processes to automate.", "This professional then prepares a detailed plan for the new or modified system.", "The plan is analogous to an architect's blueprint.===Performance objectives===The systems analyst has the objective to deliver the right information to the right person at the right time.", "The critical factors to achieve this objective are:# The quality of the output.", "Is the output useful for decision-making?# The accuracy of the output.", "Does it reflect the true situation?# The format of the output.", "Is the output easily understood?# The speed of the output.", "Time-sensitive information is important when communicating with the customer in real time.===Cost objectives===Achieving performance objectives should be balanced with all of the costs, including:# Development costs.# Uniqueness costs.", "A reusable system may be expensive.", "However, it might be preferred over a limited-use system.# Hardware costs.# Operating costs.Applying a systems development process will mitigate the axiom: the later in the process an error is detected, the more expensive it is to correct.===Waterfall model===The waterfall model is an implementation of a ''systems development process''.", "As the ''waterfall'' label implies, the basic phases overlap each other:# The ''investigation phase'' is to understand the underlying problem.# The ''analysis phase'' is to understand the possible solutions.# The ''design phase'' is to plan the best solution.# The ''implementation phase'' is to program the best solution.# The ''maintenance phase'' lasts throughout the life of the system.", "Changes to the system after it is deployed may be necessary.", "Faults may exist, including specification faults, design faults, or coding faults.", "Improvements may be necessary.", "Adaption may be necessary to react to a changing environment.===Computer programmer===A computer programmer is a specialist responsible for writing or modifying the source code to implement the detailed plan.", "A programming team is likely to be needed because most systems are too large to be completed by a single programmer.", "However, adding programmers to a project may not shorten the completion time.", "Instead, it may lower the quality of the system.", "To be effective, program modules need to be defined and distributed to team members.", "Also, team members must interact with one another in a meaningful and effective way.Computer programmers may be programming in the small: programming within a single module.", "Chances are a module will execute modules located in other source code files.", "Therefore, computer programmers may be programming in the large: programming modules so they will effectively couple with each other.", "Programming-in-the-large includes contributing to the application programming interface (API).===Program modules===Modular programming is a technique to refine ''imperative language'' programs.", "Refined programs may reduce the software size, separate responsibilities, and thereby mitigate software aging.", "A ''program module'' is a sequence of statements that are bounded within a block and together identified by a name.", "Modules have a ''function'', ''context'', and ''logic'':* The ''function'' of a module is what it does.", "* The ''context'' of a module are the elements being performed upon.", "* The ''logic'' of a module is how it performs the function.The module's name should be derived first by its ''function'', then by its ''context''.", "Its ''logic'' should not be part of the name.", "For example, function compute_square_root( x ) or function compute_square_root_integer( i : integer ) are appropriate module names.", "However, function compute_square_root_by_division( x ) is not.The degree of interaction ''within'' a module is its level of cohesion.", "''Cohesion'' is a judgment of the relationship between a module's name and its ''function''.", "The degree of interaction ''between'' modules is the level of coupling.", "''Coupling'' is a judgement of the relationship between a module's ''context'' and the elements being performed upon.===Cohesion===The levels of cohesion from worst to best are:* ''Coincidental Cohesion'': A module has coincidental cohesion if it performs multiple functions, and the functions are completely unrelated.", "For example, function read_sales_record_print_next_line_convert_to_float().", "Coincidental cohesion occurs in practice if management enforces silly rules.", "For example, \"Every module will have between 35 and 50 executable statements.", "\"* Logical Cohesion: A module has logical cohesion if it has available a series of functions, but only one of them is executed.", "For example, function perform_arithmetic( perform_addition, a, b ).", "* ''Temporal Cohesion'': A module has temporal cohesion if it performs functions related to time.", "One example, function initialize_variables_and_open_files().", "Another example, stage_one(), stage_two(), ...* ''Procedural Cohesion'': A module has procedural cohesion if it performs multiple loosely related functions.", "For example, function read_part_number_update_employee_record().", "* ''Communicational Cohesion'': A module has communicational cohesion if it performs multiple closely related functions.", "For example, function read_part_number_update_sales_record().", "* ''Informational Cohesion'': A module has informational cohesion if it performs multiple functions, but each function has its own entry and exit points.", "Moreover, the functions share the same data structure.", "Object-oriented classes work at this level.", "* ''Functional Cohesion'': a module has functional cohesion if it achieves a single goal working only on local variables.", "Moreover, it may be reusable in other contexts.===Coupling===The levels of coupling from worst to best are:* ''Content Coupling'': A module has content coupling if it modifies a local variable of another function.", "COBOL used to do this with the ''alter'' verb.", "* ''Common Coupling'': A module has common coupling if it modifies a global variable.", "* ''Control Coupling'': A module has control coupling if another module can modify its control flow.", "For example, perform_arithmetic( perform_addition, a, b ).", "Instead, control should be on the makeup of the returned object.", "* ''Stamp Coupling'': A module has stamp coupling if an element of a data structure passed as a parameter is modified.", "Object-oriented classes work at this level.", "* '' Data Coupling'': A module has data coupling if all of its input parameters are needed and none of them are modified.", "Moreover, the result of the function is returned as a single object.===Data flow analysis===A sample function-level data-flow diagram''Data flow analysis'' is a design method used to achieve modules of ''functional cohesion'' and ''data coupling''.", "The input to the method is a data-flow diagram.", "A data-flow diagram is a set of ovals representing modules.", "Each module's name is displayed inside its oval.", "Modules may be at the executable level or the function level.The diagram also has arrows connecting modules to each other.", "Arrows pointing into modules represent a set of inputs.", "Each module should have only one arrow pointing out from it to represent its single output object.", "(Optionally, an additional exception arrow points out.)", "A daisy chain of ovals will convey an entire algorithm.", "The input modules should start the diagram.", "The input modules should connect to the transform modules.", "The transform modules should connect to the output modules." ], [ "Functional categories", "user interacts with the application software.", "The application software interacts with the operating system, which interacts with the hardware.", "''Computer programs'' may be categorized along functional lines.", "The main functional categories are application software and system software.", "System software includes the operating system, which couples computer hardware with application software.", "The purpose of the operating system is to provide an environment where application software executes in a convenient and efficient manner.", "Both application software and system software execute utility programs.", "At the hardware level, a microcode program controls the circuits throughout the central processing unit.===Application software===Application software is the key to unlocking the potential of the computer system.", "Enterprise application software bundles accounting, personnel, customer, and vendor applications.", "Examples include enterprise resource planning, customer relationship management, and supply chain management software.Enterprise applications may be developed in-house as a one-of-a-kind proprietary software.", "Alternatively, they may be purchased as off-the-shelf software.", "Purchased software may be modified to provide custom software.", "If the application is customized, then either the company's resources are used or the resources are outsourced.", "Outsourced software development may be from the original software vendor or a third-party developer.The potential advantages of in-house software are features and reports may be developed exactly to specification.", "Management may also be involved in the development process and offer a level of control.", "Management may decide to counteract a competitor's new initiative or implement a customer or vendor requirement.", "A merger or acquisition may necessitate enterprise software changes.", "The potential disadvantages of in-house software are time and resource costs may be extensive.", "Furthermore, risks concerning features and performance may be looming.The potential advantages of off-the-shelf software are upfront costs are identifiable, the basic needs should be fulfilled, and its performance and reliability have a track record.", "The potential disadvantages of off-the-shelf software are it may have unnecessary features that confuse end users, it may lack features the enterprise needs, and the data flow may not match the enterprise's work processes.One approach to economically obtaining a customized enterprise application is through an application service provider.", "Specialty companies provide hardware, custom software, and end-user support.", "They may speed the development of new applications because they possess skilled information system staff.", "The biggest advantage is it frees in-house resources from staffing and managing complex computer projects.", "Many application service providers target small, fast-growing companies with limited information system resources.", "On the other hand, larger companies with major systems will likely have their technical infrastructure in place.", "One risk is having to trust an external organization with sensitive information.", "Another risk is having to trust the provider's infrastructure reliability.===Operating system===Process vs. Thread Scheduling, Preemption, Context Switching\|upright=1.8An operating system is the low-level software that supports a computer's basic functions, such as scheduling processes and controlling peripherals.In the 1950s, the programmer, who was also the operator, would write a program and run it.", "After the program finished executing, the output may have been printed, or it may have been punched onto paper tape or cards for later processing.", "More often than not the program did not work.", "The programmer then looked at the console lights and fiddled with the console switches.", "If less fortunate, a memory printout was made for further study.", "In the 1960s, programmers reduced the amount of wasted time by automating the operator's job.", "A program called an ''operating system'' was kept in the computer at all times.The term ''operating system'' may refer to two levels of software.", "The operating system may refer to the kernel program that manages the processes, memory, and devices.", "More broadly, the operating system may refer to the entire package of the central software.", "The package includes a kernel program, command-line interpreter, graphical user interface, utility programs, and editor.====Kernel Program====A kernel connects the application software to the hardware of a computer.The kernel's main purpose is to manage the limited resources of a computer:* The kernel program should perform process scheduling, which is also known as a context switch.", "The kernel creates a process control block when a program is selected for execution.", "However, an executing program gets exclusive access to the central processing unit only for a time slice.", "To provide each user with the appearance of continuous access, the kernel quickly preempts each process control block to execute another one.", "The goal for system developers is to minimize dispatch latency.Physical memory is scattered around RAM and the hard disk.", "Virtual memory is one continuous block.", "* The kernel program should perform memory management.", ":* When the kernel initially loads an executable into memory, it divides the address space logically into regions.", "The kernel maintains a master-region table and many per-process-region (pregion) tables—one for each running process.", "These tables constitute the virtual address space.", "The master-region table is used to determine where its contents are located in physical memory.", "The pregion tables allow each process to have its own program (text) pregion, data pregion, and stack pregion.", ":The program pregion stores machine instructions.", "Since machine instructions do not change, the program pregion may be shared by many processes of the same executable.", ": To save time and memory, the kernel may load only blocks of execution instructions from the disk drive, not the entire execution file completely.", ":The kernel is responsible for translating virtual addresses into physical addresses.", "The kernel may request data from the memory controller and, instead, receive a page fault.", "If so, the kernel accesses the memory management unit to populate the physical data region and translate the address.", ": The kernel allocates memory from the ''heap'' upon request by a process.", "When the process is finished with the memory, the process may request for it to be freed.", "If the process exits without requesting all allocated memory to be freed, then the kernel performs garbage collection to free the memory.", ":* The kernel also ensures that a process only accesses its own memory, and not that of the kernel or other processes.", "* The kernel program should perform file system management.", "The kernel has instructions to create, retrieve, update, and delete files.", "* The kernel program should perform device management.", "The kernel provides programs to standardize and simplify the interface to the mouse, keyboard, disk drives, printers, and other devices.", "Moreover, the kernel should arbitrate access to a device if two processes request it at the same time.", "* The kernel program should perform network management.", "The kernel transmits and receives packets on behalf of processes.", "One key service is to find an efficient route to the target system.", "* The kernel program should provide system level functions for programmers to use.", " Programmers access files through a relatively simple interface that in turn executes a relatively complicated low-level I/O interface.", "The low-level interface includes file creation, file descriptors, file seeking, physical reading, and physical writing.", " Programmers create processes through a relatively simple interface that in turn executes a relatively complicated low-level interface.", "** Programmers perform date/time arithmetic through a relatively simple interface that in turn executes a relatively complicated low-level time interface.", "* The kernel program should provide a communication channel between executing processes.", "For a large software system, it may be desirable to engineer the system into smaller processes.", "Processes may communicate with one another by sending and receiving signals.Originally, operating systems were programmed in assembly; however, modern operating systems are typically written in higher-level languages like C, Objective-C, and Swift.===Utility program===A utility program is designed to aid system administration and software execution.", "Operating systems execute hardware utility programs to check the status of disk drives, memory, speakers, and printers.", "A utility program may optimize the placement of a file on a crowded disk.", "System utility programs monitor hardware and network performance.", "When a metric is outside an acceptable range, a trigger alert is generated.Utility programs include compression programs so data files are stored on less disk space.", "Compressed programs also save time when data files are transmitted over the network.", "Utility programs can sort and merge data sets.", "Utility programs detect computer viruses.===Microcode program===NOT gateNAND gateNOR gateAND gateOR gateA microcode program is the bottom-level interpreter that controls the data path of software-driven computers.", "(Advances in hardware have migrated these operations to hardware execution circuits.)", "Microcode instructions allow the programmer to more easily implement the digital logic level—the computer's real hardware.", "The digital logic level is the boundary between computer science and computer engineering.A logic gate is a tiny transistor that can return one of two signals: on or off.", "* Having one transistor forms the NOT gate.", "* Connecting two transistors in series forms the NAND gate.", "* Connecting two transistors in parallel forms the NOR gate.", "* Connecting a NOT gate to a NAND gate forms the AND gate.", "* Connecting a NOT gate to a NOR gate forms the OR gate.These five gates form the building blocks of binary algebra—the digital logic functions of the computer.Microcode instructions are mnemonics programmers may use to execute digital logic functions instead of forming them in binary algebra.", "They are stored in a central processing unit's (CPU) control store.These hardware-level instructions move data throughout the data path.The micro-instruction cycle begins when the microsequencer uses its microprogram counter to ''fetch'' the next machine instruction from random-access memory.", "The next step is to ''decode'' the machine instruction by selecting the proper output line to the hardware module.The final step is to ''execute'' the instruction using the hardware module's set of gates.A symbolic representation of an ALUInstructions to perform arithmetic are passed through an arithmetic logic unit (ALU).", "The ALU has circuits to perform elementary operations to add, shift, and compare integers.", "By combining and looping the elementary operations through the ALU, the CPU performs its complex arithmetic.Microcode instructions move data between the CPU and the memory controller.", "Memory controller microcode instructions manipulate two registers.", "The memory address register is used to access each memory cell's address.", "The memory data register is used to set and read each cell's contents.Microcode instructions move data between the CPU and the many computer buses.", "The disk controller bus writes to and reads from hard disk drives.", "Data is also moved between the CPU and other functional units via the peripheral component interconnect express bus." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Crime" ], [ "Introduction", "In ordinary language, a '''crime''' is an unlawful act punishable by a state or other authority.", "The term ''crime'' does not, in modern criminal law, have any simple and universally accepted definition, though statutory definitions have been provided for certain purposes.", "The most popular view is that crime is a category created by law; in other words, something is a crime if declared as such by the relevant and applicable law.", "One proposed definition is that a crime or '''offence''' (or '''criminal offence''') is an act harmful not only to some individual but also to a community, society, or the state (\"a public wrong\").", "Such acts are forbidden and punishable by law.The notion that acts such as murder, rape, and theft are to be prohibited exists worldwide.", "What precisely is a criminal offence is defined by the criminal law of each relevant jurisdiction.", "While many have a catalogue of crimes called the criminal code, in some common law nations no such comprehensive statute exists.The state (government) has the power to severely restrict one's liberty for committing a crime.", "In modern societies, there are procedures to which investigations and trials must adhere.", "If found guilty, an offender may be sentenced to a form of reparation such as a community sentence, or, depending on the nature of their offence, to undergo imprisonment, life imprisonment or, in some jurisdictions, death.", "Usually, to be classified as a crime, the \"act of doing something criminal\" (''actus reus'') mustwith certain exceptionsbe accompanied by the \"intention to do something criminal\" (''mens rea'').While every crime violates the law, not every violation of the law counts as a crime.", "Breaches of private law (torts and breaches of contract) are not automatically punished by the state, but can be enforced through civil procedure." ], [ "Definition", "The exact definition of crime is a philosophical issue without an agreed upon answer.", "Fields such as law, politics, sociology, and psychology define crime in different ways.", "Crimes may be variously considered as wrongs against individuals, against the community, or against the state.", "The criminality of an action is dependent on its context; acts of violence will be seen as crimes in many circumstances but as permissible or desirable in others.", "Crime was historically seen as a manifestation of evil, but this has been superseded by modern criminal theories.=== Legalism ===Legal and political definitions of crime consider actions that are banned by authorities or punishable by law.", "Crime is defined by the criminal law of a given jurisdiction, including all actions that are subject to criminal procedure.", "There is no limit to what can be considered a crime in a legal system, so there may not be a unifying principle used to determine whether an action should be designated as a crime.", "From a legal perspective, crimes are generally wrong actions that are severe enough to warrant punishment that infringes on the perpetrator's liberties.", "English criminal law and the related common law of Commonwealth countries can define offences that the courts alone have developed over the years, without any actual legislation: common law offences.", "The courts used the concept of ''malum in se'' to develop various common law offences.=== Sociology ===As a sociological concept, crime is associated with actions that cause harm and violate social norms.", "Under this definition, crime is a type of social construct, and societal attitudes determine what is considered criminal.", "In legal systems based on legal moralism, the predominant moral beliefs of society determine the legal definition as well as the social definition of crime.", "This system is less prominent in liberal democratic societies that prioritize individualism and multiculturalism over other moral beliefs.Paternalism defines crime not only as harm to others or to society, but also as harm to the self.=== Psychology ===Psychological definitions consider the state of mind of perpetrators and their relationship with their environment." ], [ "Study", "The study of crime is called ''criminology''.", "Criminology is a subfield of sociology that addresses issues of social norms, social order, deviance, and violence.", "It includes the motivations and consequences of crime and its perpetrators, as well as preventative measures, either studying criminal acts on an individual level or the relationship of crime and the community.", "Due to the wide range of concepts associated with crime and the disagreement on a precise definition, the focus of criminology can vary considerably.", "Various theories within criminology provide different descriptions and explanations for crime, including social control theory, subcultural theory, strain theory, differential association, and labeling theory.Subfields of criminology and related fields of study include crime prevention, criminal law, crime statistics, anthropological criminology, criminal psychology, criminal sociology, criminal psychiatry, victimology, penology, and forensic science.", "Besides sociology, criminology is often associated with law and psychology.Information and statistics about crime in a given jurisdiction are collected as crime estimates, typically produced by national or international agencies.", "Methods to collect crime statistics may vary, even between jurisdictions within the same nation.", "Under-reporting of crime is common, particularly in developing nations.", "Victim studies may be used to determine the frequency of crime in a given population." ], [ "Foundational systems", "=== Natural-law theory ===Justifying the state's use of force to coerce compliance with its laws has proven a consistent theoretical problem.", "One of the earliest justifications involved the theory of natural law.", "This posits that the nature of the world or of human beings underlies the standards of morality or constructs them.", "Thomas Aquinas wrote in the 13th century: \"the rule and measure of human acts is the reason, which is the first principle of human acts\".", "He regarded people as by nature rational beings, concluding that it becomes morally appropriate that they should behave in a way that conforms to their rational nature.", "Thus, to be valid, any law must conform to natural law and coercing people to conform to that law is morally acceptable.", "In the 1760s, William Blackstone described the thesis:: \"This law of nature, being co-eval with mankind and dictated by God himself, is of course superior in obligation to any other.", "It is binding over all the globe, in all countries, and at all times: no human laws are of any validity, if contrary to this; and such of them as are valid derive all their force, and all their authority, mediately or immediately, from this original.", "\"But John Austin (1790–1859), an early positivist, applied utilitarianism in accepting the calculating nature of human beings and the existence of an objective morality.", "He denied that the legal validity of a norm depends on whether its content conforms to morality.", "Thus, in Austinian terms, a moral code can objectively determine what people ought to do, the law can embody whatever norms the legislature decrees to achieve social utility, but every individual remains free to choose what to do.", "Similarly, H.L.A.", "Hart saw the law as an aspect of sovereignty, with lawmakers able to adopt any law as a means to a moral end.Thus the necessary and sufficient conditions for the truth of a proposition of law involved internal logic and consistency, and that the state's agents used state power with responsibility.", "Ronald Dworkin rejects Hart's theory and proposes that all individuals should expect the equal respect and concern of those who govern them as a fundamental political right.", "He offers a theory of compliance overlaid by a theory of deference (the citizen's duty to obey the law) and a theory of enforcement, which identifies the legitimate goals of enforcement and punishment.", "Legislation must conform to a theory of legitimacy, which describes the circumstances under which a particular person or group is entitled to make law, and a theory of legislative justice, which describes the law they are entitled or obliged to make.There are natural-law theorists who have accepted the idea of enforcing the prevailing morality as a primary function of the law.", "This view entails the problem that it makes any moral criticism of the law impossible: if conformity with natural law forms a necessary condition for legal validity, all valid law must, by definition, count as morally just.", "Thus, on this line of reasoning, the legal validity of a norm necessarily entails its moral justice." ], [ "History", "=== Early history ===Restrictions on behavior existed in all prehistoric societies.", "Crime in early human society was seen as a personal transgression and was addressed by the community as a whole rather than through a formal legal system, often through the use of custom, religion, or the rule of a tribal leader.", "Some of the oldest extant writings are ancient criminal codes.", "The earliest known criminal code was the Code of Ur-Nammu (), and the known first criminal code that incorporated retaliatory justice was the Code of Hammurabi.", "The latter influenced the conception of crime across several civilizations over the following millennia.The Romans systematized law and applied their system across the Roman Empire.", "The initial rules of Roman law regarded assaults as a matter of private compensation.", "The most significant Roman law concept involved ''dominion''.", "Most acts recognized as crimes in ancient societies, such as violence and theft, have persisted to the modern era.", "The criminal justice system of Imperial China existed unbroken for over 2,000 years.Many of the earliest conceptions of crime are associated with sin and corresponded to acts that were believed to invoke the anger of a deity.", "This idea was further popularized with the development of the Abrahamic religions.", "The understanding of crime and sin were closely associated with one another for much of history, and conceptions of crime took on many of the ideas associated with sin.", "Islamic law developed its own system of criminal justice as Islam spread in the seventh and eighth centuries.=== Post-classical era ===In post-classical Europe and East Asia, central government was limited and crime was defined locally.", "Towns established their own criminal justice systems, while crime in the countryside was defined by the social hierarchies of feudalism.", "In some places, such as the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Italy, feudal justice survived into the 19th century.Common law first developed in England under the rule of Henry II in the 12th century.", "He established a system of traveling judges that tried accused criminals in each region of England by applying precedent from previous rulings.", "Legal developments in 12th century England also resulted in the earliest known recording of official crime data.=== Modern era ===In the modern era, crime came to be seen as an issue affecting society rather than conflicts between individuals.", "Writers such as Thomas Hobbes saw crime as a societal issue as early as the 17th century.", "Imprisonment developed as a long-term penalty for crime in the 18th century.", "Increasing urbanization and industrialization in the 19th century caused crime to become an immediate issue that affected society, prompting government intervention in crime and the establishment of criminology as its own field.Anthropological criminology was popularized by Cesare Lombroso in the late-19th century.", "This was a biological determinist school of thought based in social darwinism, arguing that certain people are naturally born as criminals.", "The eugenics movement of the early-20th century similarly held that crime was caused primarily by genetic factors.The concept of crime underwent a period of change as modernism was widely accepted in the years following World War II.", "Crime increasingly came to be seen as a societal issue, and criminal law was seen as a means to protect the public from antisocial behavior.", "This idea was associated with a larger trend in the western world toward social democracy and centre-left politics.Through most of history, reporting of crime was generally local.", "The advent of mass media through radio and television in the mid-20th century allowed for the sensationalism of crime.", "This created well-known stories of criminals such as Jeffrey Dahmer, and it allowed for dramatization that perpetuates misconceptions about crime.", "Forensic science was popularized in the 1980s, establishing DNA profiling as a new method to prevent and analyze crime." ], [ "Types", "=== Violent crime ===Violent crime is crime that involves an act of violent aggression against another person.", "Common examples of violent crime include homicide, assault, sexual assault, and robbery.", "Some violent crimes, such as assault, may be committed with the intention of causing harm.", "Other violent crimes, such as robbery, may use violence to further another goal.", "Violent crime is distinct from noncriminal types of violence, such as self-defense, use of force, and acts of war.", "Acts of violence are most often perceived as deviant when they are committed as an overreaction or a disproportionate response to provocation.=== Property crime ===Common examples of property crime include burglary, theft, and vandalism.Examples of financial crimes include counterfeiting, smuggling, tax evasion, and bribery.", "The scope of financial crimes has expanded significantly since the beginning of modern economics in the 17th century.", "In occupational crime, the complexity and anonymity of computer systems may help criminal employees camouflage their operations.", "The victims of the most costly scams include banks, brokerage houses, insurance companies, and other large financial institutions.=== Public order crime ===Public order crime is crime that violates a society's norms about what constitutes socially acceptable behavior.", "Examples of public order crimes include gambling, drug-related crime, public intoxication, prostitution, loitering, breach of the peace, panhandling, vagrancy, street harassment, excessive noise, and littering.", "Public order crime is associated with the broken windows theory, which posits that public order crimes increase the likelihood of other types of crime.", "Some public order crimes are considered victimless crimes in which no specific victim can be identified.", "Most nations in the Western world have moved toward decriminalization of victimless crimes in the modern era.Adultery, fornication, blasphemy, apostasy, and invoking the name of God are commonly recognized as crimes in theocratic societies or those heavily influenced by religion.=== Political crime ===Political crime is crime that directly challenges or threatens the state.", "Examples of political crimes include subversion, rebellion, treason, mutiny, espionage, sedition, terrorism, riot, and unlawful assembly.", "Political crimes are associated with the political agenda of a given state, and they are necessarily applied against political dissidents.", "Due to their unique relation to the state, political crimes are often encouraged by one nation against another, and it is political alignment rather than the act itself that determines criminality.", "State crime that is carried out by the state to repress law-abiding citizens may also be considered political crime.=== Inchoate crime ===Inchoate crime is crime that is carried out in anticipation of other illegal actions but does not cause direct harm.", "Examples of inchoate crimes include attempt and conspiracy.", "Inchoate crimes are defined by substantial action to facilitate a crime with the intention of the crime's occurrence.", "This is distinct from simple preparation for or consideration of criminal activity.", "They are unique in that renunciation of criminal intention is generally enough to absolve the perpetrator of criminal liability, as their actions are no longer facilitating a potential future crime." ], [ "Participants", "=== Criminal ===A criminal is an individual who commits a crime.", "What constitutes a criminal can vary depending on the context and the law, and it often carries a pejorative connotation.", "Criminals are often seen as embodying certain stereotypes or traits and are seen as a distinct type of person from law-abiding citizens.", "Despite this, no mental or physical trend is identifiable that differentiates criminals from non-criminals.", "Public response to criminals may be indignant or sympathetic.", "Indignant responses involve resentment and a desire for vengeance, wishing to see criminals removed from society or made to suffer for harm that they cause.", "Sympathetic responses involve compassion and understanding, seeking to rehabilitate or forgive criminals and absolve them of blame.=== Victim ===A victim is an individual who has been treated unjustly or made to suffer.", "In the context of crime, the victim is the individual that is harmed by a violation of criminal law.", "Victimization is associated with post-traumatic stress and a long-term decrease in quality of life.", "Victimology is the study of victims, including their role in crime and how they are affected.Several factors affect an individual's likelihood of becoming a victim.", "Some factors may cause victims of crime to experience short-term or long-term \"repeat victimization\".", "Common long-term victims are those that have close relationships with the criminal, manifesting in crimes such as domestic violence, embezzlement, child abuse, and bullying.", "Repeat victimization may also occur when a potential victim appears to be a viable target, such as when indicating wealth in a less affluent region.", "Many of the traits that indicate criminality also indicate victimality; victims of crime are more likely to engage in unlawful behavior and respond to provocation.", "Overall demographic trends of victims and criminals are often similar, and victims are more likely to have engaged in criminal activities themselves.The victims may only want compensation for the injuries suffered, while remaining indifferent to a possible desire for deterrence.", "Victims, on their own, may lack the economies of scale that could allow them to administer a penal system, let alone to collect any fines levied by a court.", "Historically, from ancient times until the 19th century, many societies believed that non-human animals were capable of committing crimes, and prosecuted and punished them accordingly.", "Prosecutions of animals gradually dwindled during the 19th century, although a few were recorded as late as the 1910s and 1920s." ], [ "Criminal law", "Virtually all countries in the 21st century have criminal law grounded in civil law, common law, Islamic law, or socialist law.", "Historically, criminal codes have often divided criminals by class or caste, prescribing different penalties depending on status.", "In some tribal societies, an entire clan is recognized as liable for a crime.", "In many cases, disputes over a crime in this system lead to a feud that lasts over several generations.=== Criminalization ===The state determines what actions are considered criminal in the scope of the law.", "Criminalization has significant human rights considerations, as it can infringe on rights of autonomy and subject individuals to unjust punishment.=== Criminal justice ======= Law enforcement ====The enforcement of criminal law seeks to prevent crime and sanction crimes that do occur.", "This enforcement is carried out by the state through law enforcement agencies, such as police, which are empowered to arrest suspected perpetrators of crimes.", "Law enforcement may focus on policing individual crimes, or it may focus on bringing down overall crime rates.", "One common variant, community policing, seeks to prevent crime by integrating police into the community and public life.==== Criminal procedure ====When the perpetrator of a crime is found guilty of the crime, the state delivers a sentence to determine the penalty for the crime.==== Corrections and punishment ====Authorities may respond to crime through corrections, carrying out punishment as a means to censure the criminal act.", "Punishment is generally reserved for serious offenses.", "Individuals regularly engage in activity that could be scrutinized under criminal law but are deemed inconsequential.", "Retributive justice seeks to create a system of accountability and punish criminals in a way that knowingly causes suffering.", "This may arise out of a feeling that criminals deserve to suffer and that punishment should exist for its own sake.", "The existence of punishment also creates an effect of deterrence that discourages criminal action for fear of punishment.", "Rehabilitation seeks to understand and mitigate the causes of a criminal's unlawful action to prevent recidivism.", "Different criminological theories propose different methods of rehabilitation, including strengthening social networks, reducing poverty, influencing values, and providing therapy for physical and mental ailments.", "Rehabilitative programs may include counseling or vocational education.Developed nations are less likely to use physical punishments.", "Instead, they will impose financial penalties or imprisonment.", "In places with widespread corruption or limited rule of law, crime may be punished extralegally through mob rule and lynching.Whether a crime can be resolved through financial compensation varies depending on the culture and the specific context of the crime.", "Historically, many societies have absolved acts of homicide through compensation to the victim's relatives.=== Liability ===If a crime is committed, the individual responsible is considered to be liable for the crime.", "For liability to exist, the individual must be capable of understanding the criminal process and the relevant authority must have legitimate power to establish what constitutes a crime.=== International criminal law ===International criminal law typically addresses serious offenses, such as genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes.", "As with all international law, these laws are created through treaties and international custom, and they are defined through the consensus of the involved states.", "International crimes are not prosecuted through a standard legal system, though international organizations may establish tribunals to investigate and rule on egregious offenses such as genocide." ], [ "Causes and correlates", "Basic analysis of criminal behavior is determined by a cost–benefit analysis.", "A person that commits a criminal act typically believes that its benefits will outweigh the risk of being caught and punished.", "Negative economic factors (such as unemployment and income inequality) significantly increase the incentive to commit crime, while severe punishments decrease the incentive in some cases.Social factors similarly affect the likelihood of criminal activity.", "Crime corresponds heavily with social integration; groups that are less integrated with society or that are forcibly integrated with society are more likely to engage in crime.", "Involvement in the community, such as through a church, decreases the likelihood of crime, while associating with criminals increases the likelihood of becoming a criminal as well.There is no known genetic cause of crime.", "Some genes have been found to affect traits that may incline individuals toward criminal activity, but no biological or physiological trait has been found to directly cause or compel criminal actions.", "One biological factor is the disparity between men and women, as men are significantly more likely to commit crimes than women in virtually all cultures.", "Crimes committed by men also tend to be more severe than those committed by women." ], [ "Public perception", "Crime is often a high priority political issue in developed countries, regardless of the country's crime rates.", "People that are not regularly exposed to crime most often experience it through media, including news reporting and crime fiction.", "Exposure of crime through news stories is associated with alarmism and inaccurate perceptions of crime trends.", "Selection bias in new stories about criminals significantly over-represent the prevalence of violent crime, and news reporting will often overemphasize a specific type of crime for a period of time, creating a \"crime wave\" effect.As public opinion of morality changes over time, actions that were once condemned as crimes may be considered justifiable." ], [ "See also", "* Crime displacement* Law and order (politics)* Rule of law* Organized crime" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * Polinsky, A. Mitchell.", "(1980).", "\"Private versus Public Enforcement of Fines\".", "''The Journal of Legal Studies'', Vol.", "IX, No.", "1, (January), pp. 105–127.", "* Polinsky, A. Mitchell & Shavell, Steven.", "(1997). ''", "On the Disutility and Discounting of Imprisonment and the Theory of Deterrence'', NBER Working Papers 6259, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.* * * * * ** * * *" ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "California Institute of Technology" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''California Institute of Technology '''(branded as '''Caltech''') is a private research university in Pasadena, California.", "The university is responsible for many modern scientific advancements and is among a small group of institutes of technology in the United States which are strongly devoted to the instruction of pure and applied sciences.", "Due to its history of technological innovation, Caltech has been considered to be one of the world's most prestigious universities.The institution was founded as a preparatory and vocational school by Amos G. Throop in 1891 and began attracting influential scientists such as George Ellery Hale, Arthur Amos Noyes, and Robert Andrews Millikan in the early 20th century.", "The vocational and preparatory schools were disbanded and spun off in 1910, and the college assumed its present name in 1920.In 1934, Caltech was elected to the Association of American Universities, and the antecedents of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, which Caltech continues to manage and operate, were established between 1936 and 1943 under Theodore von Kármán.Caltech has six academic divisions with strong emphasis on science and engineering, managing $332 million in sponsored research in 2011.Its primary campus is located approximately northeast of downtown Los Angeles, in Pasadena.", "First-year students are required to live on campus, and 95% of undergraduates remain in the on-campus housing system at Caltech.", "Student life is governed by an honor code that allows faculty to assign take-home examinations.", "The Caltech Beavers compete in 13 intercollegiate sports in the NCAA Division III's Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (SCIAC).Scientists and engineers at or from the university have played an essential role in many modern scientific breakthroughs and innovations, including advances in sustainability science, quantum physics, earthquake monitoring, protein engineering, and soft robotics.", ", there are 79 Nobel laureates who have been affiliated with Caltech, making it the institution with the highest number of Nobelists per capita in America.", "This includes 46 alumni and faculty members (47 prizes, with chemist Linus Pauling being the only individual in history to win two unshared prizes).", "In addition, four Fields Medalists and six Turing Award winners have been affiliated with Caltech." ], [ "History", "=== Throop College ===Throop Polytechnic Institute on its original campus at downtown PasadenaCaltech started as a vocational school founded in present-day Old Pasadena on Fair Oaks Avenue and Chestnut Street on September 23, 1891, by local businessman and politician Amos G. Throop.", "The school was known successively as '''Throop University''', '''Throop Polytechnic Institute''' (and Manual Training School) and '''Throop College of Technology''' before acquiring its current name in 1920.The vocational school was disbanded and the preparatory program was split off to form the independent Polytechnic School in 1907.At a time when scientific research in the United States was still in its infancy, George Ellery Hale, a solar astronomer from the University of Chicago, founded the Mount Wilson Observatory in 1904.He joined Throop's board of trustees in 1907, and soon began developing the university, and the whole of Pasadena, into a major scientific and cultural destination.", "He engineered the appointment of James A.", "B. Scherer, a literary scholar untutored in science but very capable in administration and fund-raising, to Throop's presidency in 1908.Scherer persuaded retired businessman and trustee Charles W. Gates to donate $25,000 in seed money to build Gates Laboratory, the first science building on campus.=== World Wars ===Throop Hall, 1912Construction of Norman Bridge Laboratory of Physics in 1921Aerial view of Caltech in 1922In 1910, Throop moved to its current site.", "Arthur Fleming donated the land for the permanent campus site.", "Theodore Roosevelt delivered an address at Throop Institute on March 21, 1911, and he declared:I want to see institutions like Throop turn out perhaps ninety-nine of every hundred students as men who are to do given pieces of industrial work better than any one else can do them; I want to see those men do the kind of work that is now being done on the Panama Canal and on the great irrigation projects in the interior of this country—and the one-hundredth man I want to see with the kind of cultural scientific training that will make him and his fellows the matrix out of which you can occasionally develop a man like your great astronomer, George Ellery Hale.In the same year, a bill was introduced in the California Legislature calling for the establishment of a publicly funded \"California Institute of Technology\", with an initial budget of a million dollars, ten times the budget of Throop at the time.", "The board of trustees offered to turn Throop over to the state, but the presidents of Stanford University and the University of California successfully lobbied to defeat the bill, which allowed Throop to develop as the only scientific research-oriented education institute in southern California, public or private, until the onset of the World War II necessitated the broader development of research-based science education.", "The promise of Throop attracted physical chemist Arthur Amos Noyes from MIT to develop the institution and assist in establishing it as a center for science and technology.With the onset of World War I, Hale organized the National Research Council to coordinate and support scientific work on military problems.", "While he supported the idea of federal appropriations for science, he took exception to a federal bill that would have funded engineering research at land-grant colleges, and instead sought to raise a $1 million national research fund entirely from private sources.", "To that end, as Hale wrote in ''The New York Times'':Throop College of Technology, in Pasadena California has recently afforded a striking illustration of one way in which the Research Council can secure co-operation and advance scientific investigation.", "This institution, with its able investigators and excellent research laboratories, could be of great service in any broad scheme of cooperation.", "President Scherer, hearing of the formation of the council, immediately offered to take part in its work, and with this object, he secured within three days an additional research endowment of one hundred thousand dollars.Through the National Research Council, Hale simultaneously lobbied for science to play a larger role in national affairs, and for Throop to play a national role in science.", "The new funds were designated for physics research, and ultimately led to the establishment of the Norman Bridge Laboratory, which attracted experimental physicist Robert Andrews Millikan from the University of Chicago in 1917.During the course of the war, Hale, Noyes and Millikan worked together in Washington on the NRC.", "Subsequently, they continued their partnership in developing Caltech.Under the leadership of Hale, Noyes, and Millikan (aided by the booming economy of Southern California), Caltech grew to national prominence in the 1920s and concentrated on the development of Roosevelt's \"Hundredth Man\".", "On November 29, 1921, the trustees declared it to be the express policy of the institute to pursue scientific research of the greatest importance and at the same time \"to continue to conduct thorough courses in engineering and pure science, basing the work of these courses on exceptionally strong instruction in the fundamental sciences of mathematics, physics, and chemistry; broadening and enriching the curriculum by a liberal amount of instruction in such subjects as English, history, and economics; and vitalizing all the work of the Institute by the infusion in generous measure of the spirit of research\".", "In 1923, Millikan was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics.", "In 1925, the school established a department of geology and hired William Bennett Munro, then chairman of the division of History, Government, and Economics at Harvard University, to create a division of humanities and social sciences at Caltech.", "In 1928, a division of biology was established under the leadership of Thomas Hunt Morgan, the most distinguished biologist in the United States at the time, and discoverer of the role of genes and the chromosome in heredity.", "In 1930, Kerckhoff Marine Laboratory was established in Corona del Mar under the care of Professor George MacGinitie.", "In 1926, a graduate school of aeronautics was created, which eventually attracted Theodore von Kármán.", "Kármán later helped create the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and played an integral part in establishing Caltech as one of the world's centers for rocket science.", "In 1928, construction of the Palomar Observatory began.Richard C. Tolman and Albert Einstein at Caltech, 1932Millikan served as \"Chairman of the Executive Council\" (effectively Caltech's president) from 1921 to 1945, and his influence was such that the institute was occasionally referred to as \"Millikan's School\".", "Millikan initiated a visiting-scholars program soon after joining Caltech.", "Notable scientists who accepted his invitation include Paul Dirac, Erwin Schrödinger, Werner Heisenberg, Hendrik Lorentz and Niels Bohr.", "Albert Einstein arrived on the Caltech campus for the first time in 1931 to polish up his Theory of General Relativity, and he returned to Caltech subsequently as a visiting professor in 1932 and 1933.During World War II, Caltech was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission.", "The United States Navy also maintained a naval training school for aeronautical engineering, resident inspectors of ordinance and naval material, and a liaison officer to the National Defense Research Committee on campus.=== Project Vista ===The campus in 1944From April to December 1951, Caltech was the host of a federal classified study, Project Vista.", "The selection of Caltech as host for the project was based on the university's expertise in rocketry and nuclear physics.", "In response to the war in Korea and the pressure from the Soviet Union, the project was Caltech's way of assisting the federal government in its effort to increase national security.", "The project was created to study new ways of improving the relationship between tactical air support and ground troops.", "The Army, Air Force, and Navy sponsored the project; however, it was under contract with the Army.", "The study was named after the hotel, Vista del Arroyo Hotel, which housed the study.", "The study operated under a committee with the supervision of President Lee A. DuBridge.", "William A. Fowler, a professor at Caltech, was selected as research director.", "More than a fourth of Caltech's faculty and a group of outside scientists staffed the project.", "Moreover, the number increases if one takes into account visiting scientists, military liaisons, secretarial, and security staff.", "In compensation for its participation, the university received about $750,000.=== Post-war growth ===From the 1950s to 1980s, Caltech was the home of Murray Gell-Mann and Richard Feynman, whose work was central to the establishment of the Standard Model of particle physics.", "Feynman was also widely known outside the physics community as an exceptional teacher and a colorful, unconventional character.During Lee A. DuBridge's tenure as Caltech's president (1946–1969), Caltech's faculty doubled and the campus tripled in size.", "DuBridge, unlike his predecessors, welcomed federal funding of science.", "New research fields flourished, including chemical biology, planetary science, nuclear astrophysics, and geochemistry.", "A 200-inch telescope was dedicated on nearby Palomar Mountain in 1948 and remained the world's most powerful optical telescope for over forty years.Caltech opened its doors to female undergraduates during the presidency of Harold Brown in 1970, and they made up 14% of the entering class.", "The portion of female undergraduates has been increasing since then.Protests by Caltech students are rare.", "The earliest was a 1968 protest outside the NBC Burbank studios, in response to rumors that NBC was to cancel ''Star Trek''.", "In 1973, the students from Dabney House protested a presidential visit with a sign on the library bearing the simple phrase \"Impeach Nixon\".", "The following week, Ross McCollum, president of the National Oil Company, wrote an open letter to Dabney House stating that in light of their actions he had decided not to donate one million dollars to Caltech.", "The Dabney family, being Republicans, disowned Dabney House after hearing of the protest.=== 21st century ===Since 2000, the Einstein Papers Project has been located at Caltech.", "The project was established in 1986 to assemble, preserve, translate, and publish papers selected from the literary estate of Albert Einstein and from other collections.The new Annenberg Center for Information Science and TechnologyIn fall 2008, the freshman class was 42% female, a record for Caltech's undergraduate enrollment.", "In the same year, the Institute concluded a six-year-long fund-raising campaign.", "The campaign raised more than $1.4 billion from about 16,000 donors.", "Nearly half of the funds went into the support of Caltech programs and projects.In 2010, Caltech, in partnership with Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and headed by Professor Nathan Lewis, established a DOE Energy Innovation Hub aimed at developing revolutionary methods to generate fuels directly from sunlight.", "This hub, the Joint Center for Artificial Photosynthesis, will receive up to $122 million in federal funding over five years.Since 2012, Caltech began to offer classes through massive open online courses (MOOCs) under Coursera, from 2013, edX, and bootcamps.Jean-Lou Chameau, the eighth president, announced on February 19, 2013, that he would be stepping down to accept the presidency at King Abdullah University of Science and Technology.", "Thomas F. Rosenbaum was announced to be the ninth president of Caltech on October 24, 2013, and his term began on July 1, 2014.In 2019, Caltech received a gift of $750 million for sustainability research from the Resnick family of The Wonderful Company.", "The gift is the largest ever for environmental sustainability research and the second-largest private donation to a US academic institution (after Bloomberg's gift of $1.8 billion to Johns Hopkins University in 2018).On account of President Robert A. Millikan's affiliation with the Human Betterment Foundation, in January 2021, the Caltech Board of Trustees authorized the removal of Millikan's name (and the names of five other historical figures affiliated with the Foundation), from campus buildings." ], [ "Campus", "Aerial view of Caltech in Pasadena, CaliforniaThe Millikan Library, the tallest building on campus.", "In January 2021, the Caltech Board of Trustees authorized removal of Millikan's name from campus buildings.Caltech's primary campus is located in Pasadena, California, approximately northeast of downtown Los Angeles.", "It is within walking distance of Old Town Pasadena and the Pasadena Playhouse District and therefore the two locations are frequent getaways for Caltech students.In 1917 Hale hired architect Bertram Goodhue to produce a master plan for the campus.", "Goodhue conceived the overall layout of the campus and designed the physics building, Dabney Hall, and several other structures, in which he sought to be consistent with the local climate, the character of the school, and Hale's educational philosophy.", "Goodhue's designs for Caltech were also influenced by the traditional Spanish mission architecture of Southern California.The Beckman AuditoriumBeckman Institute at CaltechDuring the 1960s, Caltech underwent considerable expansion, in part due to the philanthropy of alumnus Arnold O. Beckman.", "In 1953, Beckman was asked to join the Caltech Board of Trustees.", "In 1964, he became its chairman.", "Over the next few years, as Caltech's president emeritus David Baltimore describes it, Arnold Beckman and his wife Mabel \"shaped the destiny of Caltech\".In 1971 a magnitude-6.6 earthquake in San Fernando caused some damage to the Caltech campus.", "Engineers who evaluated the damage found that two historic buildings dating from the early days of the Institute—Throop Hall and the Goodhue-designed Culbertson Auditorium—had cracked.New additions to the campus include the Cahill Center for Astronomy and Astrophysics and the Walter and Leonore Annenberg Center for Information Science and Technology, which opened in 2009, and the Warren and Katherine Schlinger Laboratory for Chemistry and Chemical Engineering followed in March 2010.The institute also concluded an upgrading of the South Houses in 2006.In late 2010, Caltech completed a 1.3 MW solar array projected to produce approximately 1.6 GWh in 2011." ], [ "Organization and administration", "The Bridge Laboratory of PhysicsCaltech is incorporated as a non-profit corporation and is governed by a privately appointed 46-member board of trustees who serve five-year terms of office and retire at the age of 72.The trustees elect a president to serve as the chief executive officer of the institute and administer the affairs on the institute on behalf of the board, a provost who serves as the chief academic officer of the institute below the president, and ten other vice presidential and other senior positions.", "Thomas F. Rosenbaum became the ninth president of Caltech in 2014.Caltech's endowment is governed by a permanent trustee committee and administered by an investment office.The institute is organized into six primary academic divisions: Biology and Biological Engineering, Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Engineering and Applied Science, Geological and Planetary Sciences, Humanities and Social Sciences, Physics, Mathematics, and Astronomy.", "The voting faculty of Caltech include all professors, instructors, research associates and fellows, and the University Librarian.", "Faculty are responsible for establishing admission requirements, academic standards, and curricula.", "The Faculty Board is the faculty's representative body and consists of 18 elected faculty representatives as well as other senior administration officials.", "Full-time professors are expected to teach classes, conduct research, advise students, and perform administrative work such as serving on committees.Founded in 1930s, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) is a federally funded research and development center (FFRDC) owned by NASA and operated as a division of Caltech through a contract between NASA and Caltech.", "In 2008, JPL spent over $1.6 billion on research and development and employed over 5,000 project-related and support employees.", "The JPL Director also serves as a Caltech Vice President and is responsible to the President of the Institute for the management of the laboratory." ], [ "Academics", "Caltech is a small four-year, highly residential research university with slightly more students in graduate programs than undergraduate.", "The institute has been accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges since 1949.Caltech is on the quarter system: the fall term starts in late September and ends before Christmas, the second term starts after New Year's Day and ends in mid-March, and the third term starts in late March or early April and ends in early June.===Rankings===National Program Rankings(as of 2022) Program Ranking Chemistry 1 Earth Sciences 1 Physics 3 Biological Sciences 4 Engineering 4 Mathematics 9 Computer Science 11Global Subject Rankings(as of 2019) Program Ranking Space Science 1 Geosciences 1 Physics 6 Chemistry 10 Biology & Biochemistry 29 Engineering 52 Materials Science 57 Molecular Biology & Genetics 57 Neuroscience & Behavior 77 Mathematics 80 Electrical & Electronic Engineering 100Caltech is consistently ranked within the top ten universities in the world, and within the top four in the United States, by major global ranking systems.", "In 2021, Caltech ranked 6th globally based on aggregate world university rankings of ''THE'', QS, and ''ARWU.''", "For 2022, ''U.S.", "News & World Report'' ranked Caltech as tied for 9th in the United States among national universities overall, 11th for most innovative, and 15th for best value.", "''U.S.", "News & World Report'' also ranked the graduate programs in chemistry and earth sciences first among national universities.Caltech was ranked 1st internationally between 2011 and 2016 by the ''Times Higher Education World University Rankings''.", "Caltech was ranked as the best university in the world in two categories: Engineering & Technology and Physical Sciences.", "It was also found to have the highest faculty citation rate in the world.=== Admissions===Admission to Caltech is extremely rigorous.", "Prior to going test blind, Caltech students had some of the highest test scores in the nation.", "In 2022, Caltech was ranked by CBS News as the 3rd hardest college in America to gain acceptance to.", "For the freshmen who enrolled in 2019 (Class of 2023) the middle 50% range of SAT were 740–780 for evidence-based reading and writing and 790–800 for math, and 1530–1570 total.", "The middle 50% range ACT Composite score was 35–36.The SAT Math Level 2 middle 50% range was 800–800.The middle 50% range for the SAT Physics Subject Test was 760–800; SAT Chemistry Subject Test was 760–800; SAT Biology Subject Tests was 760–800.In June 2020, Caltech announced a test-blind policy where they would not require nor consider test scores for the next two years; in July 2021, the moratorium was extended by another year and then extended further.", "The institute is need-blind for domestic applicants.For the Class of 2026 (enrolled Fall 2022), Caltech received 16,662 applications and accepted 448 applicants for a 2.7% admit rate; 224 enrolled.", "The class included 48% women and 52% men.", "For the Class of 2025, 32% were of underrepresented ancestry (which includes students who self-identify as American Indian/Alaska Native, Hispanic/Latino, Black/African American, and/or Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander), and 6% were foreign students.", "For the Class of 2027 (enrolled Fall 2023), Caltech had over 270 commits of 412 admits, at a yield rate of 66–67%.=== Tuition and financial aid ===Undergraduate tuition for the 2021–2022 school year was $56,394 and total annual costs were estimated to be $79,947 excluding the Caltech Student Health Insurance Plan.", "In 2012–2013, Caltech awarded $17.1 million in need-based aid, $438k in non-need-based aid, and $2.51 million in self-help support to enrolled undergraduate students.", "The average financial aid package of all students eligible for aid was $38,756 and students graduated with an average debt of $15,090.=== Undergraduate program ===Breezeway of Arms LaboratoryThe full-time, four-year undergraduate program emphasizes instruction in the arts and sciences and has high graduate coexistence.", "Caltech offers 28 majors (called \"options\") and 12 minors across all six academic divisions.", "Caltech also offers interdisciplinary programs in Applied Physics, Biochemistry, Bioengineering, Computation and Neural Systems, Control and Dynamical Systems, Environmental Science and Engineering, Geobiology and Astrobiology, Geochemistry, and Planetary Astronomy.", "The most popular options are Chemical Engineering, Computer Science, Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Physics.", "The most popular majors of the class of 2023 were Computer Science, Mechanical Engineering, Physics, and Electrical Engineering.The Kerckhoff Laboratory of the Biological SciencesPrior to the entering class of 2013, Caltech required students to take a core curriculum of five terms of mathematics, five terms of physics, two terms of chemistry, one term of biology, two terms of lab courses, one term of scientific communication, three terms of physical education, and 12 terms of humanities and social science.", "Since 2013, only three terms each of mathematics and physics have been required by the institute, with the remaining two terms each required by certain options.A typical class is worth 9 academic units and given the extensive core curriculum requirements in addition to individual options' degree requirements, students need to take an average of 40.5 units per term (more than four classes) to graduate in four years.", "36 units is the minimum full-time load, 48 units is considered a heavy load, and registrations above 51 units require an overload petition.", "Approximately 20 percent of students double-major.", "This is achievable since the humanities and social sciences majors have been designed to be done in conjunction with a science major.", "Although choosing two options in the same division is discouraged, it is still possible.First-year students are enrolled in first-term classes based upon results of placement exams in math, physics, chemistry, and writing and take all classes in their first two terms on a Pass/Fail basis.", "There is little competition; collaboration on homework is encouraged and the honor system encourages take-home tests and flexible homework schedules.", "Caltech offers co-operative programs with other schools, such as the Pasadena Art Center College of Design and Occidental College.According to a PayScale study, Caltech graduates earn a median early career salary of $83,400 and $143,100 mid-career, placing them in the top 5 among graduates of US colleges and universities.", "The average net return on investment over a period of 20 years is $887,000, the tenth-highest among US colleges.Caltech offers Army and Air Force ROTC in cooperation with the University of Southern California.=== Graduate program ===Doctoral regalia of the California Institute of TechnologyThe graduate instructional programs emphasize doctoral studies and are dominated by science, technology, engineering, and mathematics fields.", "The institute offers graduate degree programs for the Master of Science, Engineer's Degree, Doctor of Philosophy, BS/MS and MD/PhD, with the majority of students in the PhD program.", "The most popular options are Chemistry, Physics, Biology, Electrical Engineering, and Chemical Engineering.", "Admission to Caltech's graduate study is highly competitive, with the faculty evaluating factors such as academic preparation, experience, research interests, and recommendations from teachers or mentors.", "A key aspect of the admission process is the matching of faculty and an applicant's research interests.", "GRE tests (general and advanced subject) are no longer required, and in most programs, scores will not be considered for admission, though some departments offer the option to submit self-reported scores.Initially, most new graduate students are assigned a temporary advisor, allowing time to select a permanent advisor.", "To aid in this, some graduate options include rotations in research labs, facilitating a better match with faculty research groups that align with the students' scientific interests.", "Up to three rotations in the first year are allowed in some options.", "Caltech provides on-campus housing options for incoming graduate students.", "All new graduate students are guaranteed housing in their first year, with a variety of living experiences available to suit different needs.", "Approximately half of Caltech's graduate student population resides in campus housing.", "The application period for new student housing opens on April 15, 2023, and closes on April 30, 2023.Post-first year, students participate in a housing lottery, with the results announced two months prior to the contract end date, aiding in planning for those who need to seek off-campus housing.The research facilities at Caltech are available to graduate students, but there are opportunities for students to work in facilities of other universities, research centers (such as NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory), and private industries.", "The graduate student to faculty ratio is 4:1.A joint program also exists between Caltech and the Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, and the UCLA David Geffen School of Medicine grants MD/PhD degrees.", "Students in this program do their preclinical and clinical work at USC or UCLA, and their PhD work with any member of the Caltech faculty, including the Biology, Chemistry, and Engineering and Applied Sciences Divisions.", "The MD degree would be from USC or UCLA and the PhD would be awarded from Caltech.Approximately 99 percent of doctoral students have full financial support.", "Financial support for graduate students comes in the form of fellowships, research assistantships, teaching assistantships or a combination of fellowship and assistantship support.Graduate students are bound by the same honor code as the undergraduates, allowing for take-home examinations.", "The Graduate Honor Council oversees any violations of the code." ], [ "Research", "Chemists working at Caltech in 1923The new Schlinger Laboratory for Chemistry and Chemical EngineeringCaltech is classified among \"R1: Doctoral Universities – Very High Research Activity\".", "Caltech was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1934 and remains a research university with \"very high\" research activity, primarily in STEM fields.", "Caltech manages research expenditures of $270 million annually, 66th among all universities in the U.S. and 17th among private institutions without medical schools for 2008.The largest federal agencies contributing to research are NASA, National Science Foundation, Department of Health and Human Services, Department of Defense, and Department of Energy.", "Caltech received $144 million in federal funding for the physical sciences, $40.8 million for the life sciences, $33.5 million for engineering, $14.4 million for environmental sciences, $7.16 million for computer sciences, and $1.97 million for mathematical sciences in 2008.The institute was awarded an all-time high funding of $357 million in 2009.Active funding from the National Science Foundation Directorate of Mathematical and Physical Science (MPS) for Caltech stands at $343 million , the highest for any educational institution in the nation, and higher than the total funds allocated to any state except California and New York.In 2005, Caltech had dedicated to research: to physical sciences, to engineering, and to biological sciences.In addition to managing JPL, Caltech also operates the Palomar Observatory in San Diego County, the Owens Valley Radio Observatory in Bishop, California, the Submillimeter Observatory and W. M. Keck Observatory at the Mauna Kea Observatory, the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory at Livingston, Louisiana and Richland, Washington, and Kerckhoff Marine Laboratory in Corona del Mar, California.", "The Institute launched the Kavli Nanoscience Institute at Caltech in 2006, the Keck Institute for Space Studies in 2008, and is also the current home for the Einstein Papers Project.", "The Spitzer Science Center (SSC), part of the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center located on the Caltech campus, is the data analysis and community support center for NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope.Caltech partnered with UCLA to establish a Joint Center for Translational Medicine (UCLA-Caltech JCTM), which conducts experimental research into clinical applications, including the diagnosis and treatment of diseases such as cancer.Caltech operates several TCCON stations as part of an international collaborative effort of measuring greenhouse gases globally.", "One station is on campus.The Cahill Center for Astronomy and AstrophysicsUndergraduates at Caltech are also encouraged to participate in research.", "About 80% of the class of 2010 did research through the annual Summer Undergraduate Research Fellowships (SURF) program at least once during their stay, and many continued during the school year.", "Students write and submit SURF proposals for research projects in collaboration with professors, and about 70 percent of applicants are awarded SURFs.", "The program is open to both Caltech and non-Caltech undergraduate students.", "It serves as preparation for graduate school and helps to explain why Caltech has the highest percentage of alumni who go on to receive a PhD of all the major universities.The licensing and transferring of technology to the commercial sector is managed by the Office of Technology Transfer (OTT).", "OTT protects and manages the intellectual property developed by faculty members, students, other researchers, and JPL technologists.", "Caltech receives more invention disclosures per faculty member than any other university in the nation.", ", 1891 patents were granted to Caltech researchers since 1969." ], [ "Student life", "=== House system ===During the early 20th century, a Caltech committee visited several universities and decided to transform the undergraduate housing system from fraternities to a house system.", "Four South Houses (or ''Hovses'', as styled in the stone engravings) were built: Blacker House, Dabney House, Fleming House and Ricketts House.", "In the 1960s, three North Houses were built: Lloyd House, Page House, and Ruddock House, and during the 1990s, Avery House.", "The four South Houses closed for renovation in 2005 and reopened in 2006.The latest addition to residential life at Caltech is Bechtel Residence, which opened in 2018.It is not affiliated with the house system.", "All first- and second-year students live on campus in the house system or in the Bechtel Residence.On account of Albert B. Ruddock's affiliation with the Human Betterment Foundation, in January 2021, the Caltech Board of Trustees authorized the removal of Ruddock's name from campus buildings.", "Ruddock House was renamed as the Grant D. Venerable House.=== Athletics ===The Caltech Beavers' logoCaltech has athletic teams in baseball, men's and women's basketball, cross country, men's and women's soccer, swimming and diving, men's and women's tennis, track and field, women's volleyball, and men's and women's water polo.", "Caltech's mascot is the Beaver, a homage to nature's engineer.", "Its teams are members of the NCAA Division III and compete in the Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (SCIAC), which Caltech co-founded in 1915.On January 6, 2007, the Beavers' men's basketball team snapped a 207-game losing streak to Division III schools, beating Bard College 81–52.It was their first Division III victory since 1996.Until their win over Occidental College on February 22, 2011 the team had not won a game in SCIAC play since 1985.Ryan Elmquist's free throw with 3.3 seconds in regulation gave the Beavers the victory.", "The documentary film ''Quantum Hoops'' concerns the events of the Beavers' 2005–06 season.On January 13, 2007, the Caltech women's basketball team snapped a 50-game losing streak, defeating the Pomona-Pitzer Sagehens 55–53.The women's program, which entered the SCIAC in 2002, garnered their first conference win.", "On the bench as honorary coach for the evening was Robert Grubbs, 2005 Nobel laureate in Chemistry.", "The team went on to beat Whittier College on February 10, for its second SCIAC win, and placed its first member on the All Conference team.In 2007, 2008, and 2009, the women's table tennis team (a club team) competed in nationals.", "The women's Ultimate club team, known as \"Snatch\", has also been very successful in recent years, ranking 44 of over 200 college teams in the Ultimate Player's Association.On February 2, 2013, the Caltech baseball team ended a 228-game losing streak, the team's first win in nearly 10 years.The track and field team's home venue is at the South Athletic Field in Tournament Park, the site of the first Rose Bowl Game.The school also sponsored an intercollegiate football team from 1973 through 1977, and played part of its home schedule at the Rose Bowl.=== Performing and visual arts ===The Caltech/Occidental College Orchestra is a full seventy-piece orchestra composed of students, faculty, and staff at Caltech and nearby Occidental College.", "The orchestra gives three pairs of concerts annually, at both Caltech and Occidental College.", "There are also two Caltech Jazz Bands and a Concert Band, as well as an active chamber music program.", "For vocal music, Caltech has a mixed-voice Glee Club and the smaller Chamber Singers.", "The theater program at Caltech is known as TACIT, or Theater Arts at the California Institute of Technology.", "There are two to three plays organized by TACIT per year, and they were involved in the production of the PHD Movie, released in 2011.=== Student life traditions ======= Annual events ====Every Halloween, Dabney House conducts the infamous \"Millikan pumpkin-drop experiment\" from the top of Millikan Library, the highest point on campus.", "According to tradition, a claim was once made that the shattering of a pumpkin frozen in liquid nitrogen and dropped from a sufficient height would produce a triboluminescent spark.", "This yearly event involves a crowd of observers, who try to spot the elusive spark.", "The title of the event is an oblique reference to the famous Millikan oil-drop experiment which measured ''e'', the elemental unit of electrical charge.On Ditch Day, the seniors ditch school, leaving behind elaborately designed tasks and traps at the doors of their rooms to prevent underclassmen from entering.", "Over the years this has evolved to the point where many seniors spend months designing mechanical, electrical, and software obstacles to confound the underclassmen.", "Each group of seniors designs a \"stack\" to be solved by a handful of underclassmen.", "The faculty have been drawn into the event as well, and cancel all classes on Ditch Day so the underclassmen can participate in what has become a highlight of the academic year.Another long-standing tradition is the playing of Wagner's \"Ride of the Valkyries\" at 7:00 each morning during finals week with the largest, loudest speakers available.", "The playing of that piece is not allowed at any other time (except if one happens to be listening to the entire 14 hours and 5 minutes of ''The Ring Cycle''), and any offender is dragged into the showers to be drenched in cold water fully dressed.", "==== Pranks ====The Fleming cannonCaltech students have been known for their many pranks (also known as \"RFs\").The two most famous in recent history are the changing of the Hollywood Sign to read \"Caltech\", by judiciously covering up certain parts of the letters, and the changing of the scoreboard to read Caltech 38, MIT 9 during the 1984 Rose Bowl Game.", "But the most famous of all occurred during the 1961 Rose Bowl Game, where Caltech students altered the flip-cards that were raised by the stadium attendees to display \"Caltech\", and several other \"unintended\" messages.", "This event is now referred to as the Great Rose Bowl Hoax.In recent years, pranking has been officially encouraged by Tom Mannion, Caltech's Assistant VP for Student Affairs and Campus Life.", "\"The grand old days of pranking have gone away at Caltech, and that's what we are trying to bring back,\" reported the ''Boston Globe''.In December 2011, Caltech students went to New York and pulled a prank in Manhattan's Greenwich Village.", "The prank involved making The Cube sculpture look like the Aperture Science Weighted Companion Cube from the video game ''Portal''.Caltech pranks have been documented in three Legends of Caltech books, the most recent of which was edited by alumni Autumn Looijen '99 and Mason Porter '98 and published in May 2007.===== Rivalry with MIT =====In 2005, a group of Caltech students pulled a string of pranks during MIT's Campus Preview Weekend for admitted students.", "These include covering up the word Massachusetts in the \"Massachusetts Institute of Technology\" engraving on the main building façade with a banner so that it read \"That Other Institute of Technology\".", "A group of MIT hackers responded by altering the banner so that the inscription read \"The Only Institute of Technology.\"", "Caltech students also passed out T-shirts to MIT's incoming freshman class that had MIT written on the front and \"...because not everyone can go to Caltech\" along with an image of a palm tree on the back.MIT retaliated in April 2006, when students posing as the Howe & Ser (Howitzer) Moving Company stole the 130-year-old, 1.7-ton Fleming House cannon and moved it over 3,000 miles to their campus in Cambridge, Massachusetts for their 2006 Campus Preview Weekend, repeating a similar prank performed by nearby Harvey Mudd College in 1986.Thirty members of Fleming House traveled to MIT and reclaimed their cannon on April 10, 2006.On April 13, 2007 (Friday the 13th), a group of students from ''The California Tech'', Caltech's campus newspaper, arrived and distributed fake copies of ''The Tech'', MIT's campus newspaper, while prospective students were visiting for their Campus Preview Weekend.", "Articles included \"MIT Invents the Interweb\", \"Architects Deem Campus 'Unfortunate, and \"Infinite Corridor Not Actually Infinite\".In December 2009, some Caltech students declared that MIT had been sold and had become the Caltech East campus.", "A \"sold\" banner was hung on front of the MIT dome building and a \"Welcome to Caltech East: School of the Humanities\" banner over the Massachusetts Avenue Entrance.", "Newspapers and T-shirts were distributed, and door labels and fliers in the infinite corridor were put up in accordance with the \"curriculum change.", "\"In September 2010, MIT students attempted to put a TARDIS, the time machine from the BBC's ''Doctor Who'', onto a roof.", "Caught in mid-act, the prank was aborted.", "In January 2011, Caltech students in conjunction with MIT students helped put the TARDIS on top of Baxter.", "Caltech students then moved the TARDIS to UC Berkeley and Stanford.In April 2014, during MIT's Campus Preview Weekend, a group of Caltech students handed out mugs emblazoned with the MIT logo on the front and the words \"The Institute of Technology\" on the back.", "When heated, the mugs turn orange, display a palm tree, and read \"Caltech The Hotter Institute of Technology.\"", "Identical mugs continue to be sold at the Caltech campus store.==== Honor code ====Life in the Caltech community is governed by the honor code, which simply states: \"No member of the Caltech community shall take unfair advantage of any other member of the Caltech community.\"", "This is enforced by a Board of Control, which consists of undergraduate students, and by a similar body at the graduate level, called the Graduate Honor Council.The honor code aims at promoting an atmosphere of respect and trust that allows Caltech students to enjoy privileges that make for a more relaxed atmosphere.", "For example, the honor code allows professors to make the majority of exams as take-home, allowing students to take them on their own schedule and in their preferred environment.Through the late 1990s, the only exception to the honor code, implemented earlier in the decade in response to changes in federal regulations, concerned the sexual harassment policy.", "Today, there are myriad exceptions to the honor code in the form of new Institute policies such as the fire policy and alcohol policy.", "Although both policies are presented in the Honor System Handbook given to new members of the Caltech community, some undergraduates regard them as a slight against the honor code and the implicit trust and respect it represents within the community.", "In recent years, the Student Affairs Office has also taken up pursuing investigations independently of the Board of Control and Conduct Review Committee, an implicit violation of both the honor code and written disciplinary policy that has contributed to further erosion of trust between some parts of the undergraduate community and the administration." ], [ "Notable people", "As of October 2022, Caltech has 46 Nobel laureates to its name awarded to 30 alumni (26 graduates and 4 postdocs), including 5 Caltech professors who are also alumni (Carl D. Anderson, Linus Pauling, William A. Fowler, Edward B. Lewis, and Kip Thorne), and 16 non-alumni professors (14 at the time of the award, not including David Baltimore and Renato Dulbecco).", "The total number of Nobel Prizes is 47 because Pauling received prizes in both Chemistry and Peace.", "Eight faculty and alumni have received a Crafoord Prize from the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, while 58 have been awarded the U.S. National Medal of Science, and 11 have received the National Medal of Technology.", "One alumnus, Stanislav Smirnov, won the Fields Medal in 2010.Other distinguished researchers have been affiliated with Caltech as postdoctoral scholars (for example, Barbara McClintock, James D. Watson, Sheldon Glashow and John Gurdon) or visiting professors (for example, Albert Einstein, Stephen Hawking and Edward Witten).=== Students ===Student body composition as of July 16, 2023 Race and ethnicityTotal Asian White Hispanic Other Foreign national Black Economic diversity Low-income Affluent Caltech enrolled 987 undergraduate students and 1,410 graduate students for the 2021–2022 school year.", "Women made up 45% of the undergraduate and 33% of the graduate student body.", "The racial demographics of the school substantially differ from those of the nation as a whole.The four-year graduation rate is 79% and the six-year rate is 92%, which is low compared to most leading U.S. universities, but substantially higher than it was in the 1960s and 1970s.", "Students majoring in STEM fields traditionally have graduation rates below 70%.=== Alumni ===There are 22,930 total living alumni in the U.S. and around the world.", "As of October 2022, 30 alumni and 16 non-alumni faculty have won the Nobel Prize.", "The Turing Award, the \"Nobel Prize of Computer Science\", has been awarded to six alumni, and one has won the Fields Medal.Many alumni have participated in scientific research.", "Some have concentrated their studies on the very small universe of atoms and molecules.", "Nobel laureate Carl D. Anderson (BS 1927, PhD 1930) proved the existence of positrons and muons, Nobel laureate Edwin McMillan (BS 1928, MS 1929) synthesized the first transuranium element, Nobel laureate Leo James Rainwater (BS 1939) investigated the non-spherical shapes of atomic nuclei, and Nobel laureate Douglas D. Osheroff (BS 1967) studied the superfluid nature of helium-3.Donald Knuth (PhD 1963), the \"father\" of the analysis of algorithms, wrote ''The Art of Computer Programming'' and created the TeX computer typesetting system, which is commonly used in the scientific community.", "Bruce Reznick (BS 1973) is a mathematician noted for his contributions to number theory and the combinatorial-algebraic-analytic investigations of polynomials.", "Narendra Karmarkar (MS 1979) is known for the interior point method, a polynomial algorithm for linear programming known as Karmarkar's algorithm.Other alumni have turned their gaze to the universe.", "C. Gordon Fullerton (BS 1957, MS 1958) piloted the third Space Shuttle mission.", "Astronaut (and later, United States Senator) Harrison Schmitt (BS 1957) was the only geologist to have walked on the surface of the Moon.", "Astronomer Eugene Merle Shoemaker (BS 1947, MS 1948) co-discovered Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 (a comet which crashed into the planet Jupiter) and was the first person buried on the Moon (by having his ashes crashed into the Moon).", "Astronomer George O. Abell (BS 1951, MS 1952, PhD 1957) while a grad student at Caltech participated in the National Geographic Society-Palomar Sky Survey.", "This ultimately resulted in the publication of the ''Abell Catalogue of Clusters of Galaxies,'' the definitive work in the field.Undergraduate alumni founded, or co-founded, companies such as LCD manufacturer Varitronix, Hotmail, Compaq, MathWorks (which created Matlab), and database provider Imply, while graduate students founded, or co-founded, companies such as Intel, TRW, and the non-profit educational organization, the Exploratorium.Arnold Beckman (PhD 1928) invented the pH meter and commercialized it with the founding of Beckman Instruments.", "His success with that company enabled him to provide seed funding for William Shockley (BS 1932), who had co-invented semiconductor transistors and wanted to commercialize them.", "Shockley became the founding Director of the Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory division of Beckman Instruments.", "Shockley had previously worked at Bell Labs, whose first president was another alumnus, Frank Jewett (BS 1898).", "Because his aging mother lived in Palo Alto, California, Shockley established his laboratory near her in Mountain View, California.", "Shockley was a co-recipient of the Nobel Prize in physics in 1956, but his aggressive management style and odd personality at the Shockley Lab became unbearable.", "In late 1957, eight of his researchers resigned and with support from Sherman Fairchild formed Fairchild Semiconductor.", "Among the \"traitorous eight\" was Gordon E. Moore (PhD 1954), who later left Fairchild to co-found Intel.", "Other offspring companies of Fairchild Semiconductor include National Semiconductor and Advanced Micro Devices, which in turn spawned more technology companies in the area.", "Shockley's decision to use silicon instead of germanium as the semiconductor material, coupled with the abundance of silicon semiconductor related companies in the area, gave rise to the term \"Silicon Valley\" to describe that geographic region surrounding Palo Alto.Caltech alumni also held public offices, with Mustafa A.G. Abushagur (PhD 1984) the Deputy Prime Minister of Libya and Prime Minister-Elect of Libya, James Fletcher (PhD 1948) the 4th and 7th Administrator of NASA, Steven Koonin (PhD 1972) the Undersecretary of Energy for Science, and Regina Dugan (PhD 1993) the 19th director of DARPA.", "The 20th director for DARPA, Arati Prabhakar, is also a Caltech alumna (PhD 1984) as well as Charles Elachi (Phd 1971), former director of the Jet Propulsion Lab.", "Arvind Virmani is a former Chief Economic Adviser to the Government of India.", "In 2013, President Obama announced the nomination of France Cordova (PhD 1979) as the director of the National Science Foundation and Ellen Williams (PhD 1982) as the director for ARPA-E.File:Carl anderson.1937.jpg\|Nobel laureate Carl David Anderson, BS 1927, PhD 1930, discoverer of the positron and the muonFile:Douglas Osheroff.jpg\|Nobel laureate Douglas D. Osheroff, BS 1967File:William Shockley, Stanford University.jpg\|Nobel laureate William Shockley, BS 1932, co-inventor of the solid state transistor, father of Silicon ValleyFile:Edwin McMillan Nobel.jpg\|Nobel laureate Edwin McMillan, BS 1928, MS 1929File:VernonSmith2.jpg\|Nobel laureate Vernon Smith, BS 1949File:Fernando Corbato.jpg\|Turing Award laureate Fernando J. Corbató, BS 1950File:KnuthAtOpenContentAlliance.jpg\|Turing Award laureate Donald Knuth, PhD 1963, \"father\" of the analysis of algorithms, creator of TeX typesetting systemFile:John McCarthy Stanford.jpg\|Turing Award laureate John McCarthy, BS 1948, inventor of the Lisp programming languageFile:Gordon Fullerton 1989.jpg\|Astronaut C. Gordon Fullerton, BS 1957, MS 1958File:Harrison H. Schmitt.jpg\|Astronaut and United States Senator Harrison Schmitt, BS 1957, the only geologist to have walked on the MoonFile:Dr Mustafa Abushagur.JPG\|Libyan Deputy Prime Minister & Libyan Prime Minister-Elect Mustafa A.G. Abushagur, PhD 1984File:Tsien Hsue-shen.jpg\|Qian Xuesen, PhD 1939, co-founder of JPL, \"Father\" of Chinese rocketryFile:Arnold Beckman early portrait 2.65.tif\|Arnold Orville Beckman, PhD 1928, inventor of the pH meter, founder of Beckman Instruments and the Arnold and Mabel Beckman FoundationFile:Gordon Moore.jpg\|Gordon Moore, PhD 1954, co-founder of Intel, coined the observation Moore's LawFile:Carver Mead at CHM Apr-2005.jpg\|National Medal of Technology laureate Carver Mead, BS 1956, MS 1957, PhD 1960File:Benoit Mandelbrot mg 1804b.jpg\|Benoit Mandelbrot, MS 1948, Engineering 1949, father of fractal geometry, namesake of the Mandelbrot setFile:Charlie Munger (cropped).jpg\|Charlie Munger, studied meteorology at Caltech, investor, Vice Chairman of Berkshire HathawayFile:Frank Capra.JPG\|Frank Capra, BS Chemical Engineering 1918 (when Caltech was known as the \"Throop Institute\"); winner of six Academy Awards in directing and producing; producer and director of ''It's a Wonderful Life''File:Kip Thorne at Caltech.jpg\|Nobel laureate Kip Thorne, BS 1962, known for his prolific contributions in gravitation physics and astrophysics and co-founding of LIGOFile:France A. Córdova official photo.jpg\|France A. Córdova, PhD 1978, Astrophysicist and 14th Director of the National Science FoundationFile:Stephen Wolfram PR.jpg\|Stephen Wolfram, PhD 1979, creator of Mathematica and Wolfram Alpha; one of the first MacArthur Fellows in 1981File:Stanislav Smirnov.jpg\|Stanislav Smirnov, PhD 1996, 2010 Fields Medal winner for his work on the mathematical foundations of statistical physics, particularly finite lattice modelsFile:Carolyn Porco 01.jpg\|Carolyn Porco, PhD 1983, planetary scientist who led the imaging team on the ''Cassini'' mission in orbit around SaturnFile:Eric Betzig.jpg\|Nobel laureate Eric Betzig, BS 1983, known for his work on fluorescence microscopy and photoactivated localization microscopyFile:DARPA Director Dr regina dugan.jpeg\|Regina E. Dugan, PhD 1993, businesswoman and inventor, first female director of the Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)File:Ardem Patapoutian by C Michel 67.jpg\|Ardem Patapoutian, PhD 1996, 2021 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, known for his work in characterizing receptors that detect pressure, menthol, and temperatureFile:John Francis Clauser (cropped).jpg\|John Clauser, BS 1964, 2022 Nobel Prize in Physics, known for the Clauser–Horne–Shimony–Holt inequality in quantum physics=== Faculty and staff ===Broad Center for Biological SciencesRichard Feynman was among the most well-known physicists associated with Caltech, having published the ''Feynman Lectures on Physics'', an undergraduate physics text, and popular science texts such as ''Six Easy Pieces'' for the general audience.", "The promotion of physics made him a public figure of science, although his Nobel-winning work in quantum electrodynamics was already very established in the scientific community.", "Murray Gell-Mann, a Nobel-winning physicist, introduced a classification of hadrons and went on to postulate the existence of quarks, which is currently accepted as part of the Standard Model.", "Long-time Caltech President Robert Andrews Millikan was the first to calculate the charge of the electron with his well-known oil-drop experiment, while Richard Chace Tolman is remembered for his contributions to cosmology and statistical mechanics.", "2004 Nobel Prize in Physics winner H. David Politzer is a current professor at Caltech, as is astrophysicist and author Kip Thorne and eminent mathematician Barry Simon.", "Linus Pauling pioneered quantum chemistry and molecular biology, and went on to discover the nature of the chemical bond in 1939.Seismologist Charles Richter, also an alumnus, developed the magnitude scale that bears his name, the Richter magnitude scale for measuring the power of earthquakes.", "One of the founders of the geochemistry department, Clair Patterson was the first to accurately determine the age of the Earth via lead:uranium ratio in meteorites.", "In engineering, Theodore von Kármán made many key advances in aerodynamics, notably his work on supersonic and hypersonic airflow characterization.", "A repeating pattern of swirling vortices is named after him, the von Kármán vortex street.", "Participants in von Kármán's GALCIT project included Frank Malina, who helped develop the WAC Corporal, which was the first U.S. rocket to reach the edge of space, Jack Parsons, a pioneer in the development of liquid and solid rocket fuels who designed the first castable composite-based rocket motor, and Qian Xuesen, who was dubbed the \"Father of Chinese Rocketry\".", "More recently, Michael Brown, a professor of planetary astronomy, discovered many trans-Neptunian objects, most notably the dwarf planet Eris, which prompted the International Astronomical Union to redefine the term \"planet\".David Baltimore, the Robert A. Millikan Professor of Biology, and Alice Huang, Senior Faculty Associate in Biology, served as the presidents of AAAS from 2007 to 2008 and 2010 to 2011, respectively.33% of the faculty are members of the National Academy of Sciences or Engineering and/or fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.", "This is the highest percentage of any faculty in the country with the exception of the graduate institution Rockefeller University.The average salary for assistant professors at Caltech is $111,300, associate professors $121,300, and full professors $172,800.Caltech faculty are active in applied physics, astronomy and astrophysics, biology, biochemistry, biological engineering, chemical engineering, computer science, geology, mechanical engineering, and physics.==== Presidents ====James Augustin Brown Scherer (1908–1920) (president of Throop College of Technology before the name change)Robert A. Millikan (1921–1945), experimental physicist, Nobel laureate in physics for 1923 (his official title was \"Chairman of the Executive Council\")Lee A. DuBridge (1946–1969), experimental physicist (first to officially hold the title of President)Harold Brown (1969–1977), physicist and public servant (left Caltech to serve as United States Secretary of Defense in the administration of Jimmy Carter)Robert F. Christy (1977–1978), astrophysicist (acting president)Marvin L. Goldberger (1978–1987), theoretical physicist (left to serve as Director of Institute for Advanced Study)Thomas E. Everhart (1987–1997), experimental physicistDavid Baltimore (1997–2006), molecular biologist, Nobel laureate in Physiology or Medicine for 1975Jean-Lou Chameau (2006–2013), civil engineer and educational administrator (left to serve as president of King Abdullah University of Science and Technology)Thomas F. Rosenbaum (2014–), condensed matter physicist and administrator" ], [ "Caltech startups", "Over the years Caltech has actively promoted the commercialization of technologies developed within its walls.", "Through its Office of Technology Transfer & Corporate Partnerships, scientific breakthroughs have led to the transfer of numerous technologies in a wide variety of scientific-related fields such as photovoltaic, radio-frequency identification (RFID), semiconductors, hyperspectral imaging, electronic devices, protein design, solid state amplifiers and many more.", "Companies such as Quora, Contour Energy Systems, Impinj, Fulcrum Microsystems, Nanosys, Inc., Photon etc., Xencor, and Wavestream Wireless have emerged from Caltech." ], [ "In media and popular culture", "Caltech has appeared in many works of popular culture, both as itself and in disguised form.", "On television, it played a prominent role and was the workplace of all four male lead characters and one female lead character in the sitcom ''The Big Bang Theory''.", "Caltech is also the inspiration, and frequent film location, for the California Institute of Science in ''Numb3rs''.", "On film, the Pacific Tech of ''The War of the Worlds'' and ''Real Genius'' is based on Caltech.In nonfiction, two 2007 documentaries examine aspects of Caltech: ''Curious'', its researchers, and ''Quantum Hoops'', its men's basketball team.Caltech is also prominently featured in many comics and television series by Marvel Entertainment.", "In Marvel Comics, the university serves as the alma mater of Hulk, Mister Fantastic, Bill Foster (Black Goliath), and Madman.", "In the Marvel Cinematic Universe, Bruno Carrelli (Kamala Khan's best friend and love interest) attends Caltech in the miniseries ''Ms.", "Marvel''.Given its Los Angeles-area location, the grounds of the Institute are often host to short scenes in movies and television.", "The Athenaeum dining club appears in the ''Beverly Hills Cop'' series, ''The X-Files'', ''True Romance'', and ''The West Wing''." ], [ "See also", "* Engineering education* US-China University Presidents Roundtable" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Official athletics website" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Carlo Goldoni" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Carlo Osvaldo Goldoni''' (, also , ; 25 February 1707 – 6 February 1793) was an Italian playwright and librettist from the Republic of Venice.", "His works include some of Italy's most famous and best-loved plays.", "Audiences have admired the plays of Goldoni for their ingenious mix of wit and honesty.", "His plays offered his contemporaries images of themselves, often dramatizing the lives, values, and conflicts of the emerging middle classes.", "Though he wrote in French and Italian, his plays make rich use of the Venetian language, regional vernacular, and colloquialisms.", "Goldoni also wrote under the pen name and title ''Polisseno Fegeio, Pastor Arcade'', which he claimed in his memoirs the \"Arcadians of Rome\" bestowed on him." ], [ "Biography", "=== Memoirs ===There is an abundance of autobiographical information on Goldoni, most of which comes from the introductions to his plays and from his ''Memoirs''.", "However, these memoirs are known to contain many errors of fact, especially about his earlier years.In these memoirs, he paints himself as a born comedian, careless, light-hearted and with a happy temperament, proof against all strokes of fate, yet thoroughly respectable and honorable.=== Early life and studies ===''Palazzo Centani'' birthplace of Goldoni in VeniceGoldoni was born in Venice in 1707, the son of Margherita Salvioni (or Saioni) and Giulio Goldoni.", "In his memoirs, Goldoni describes his father as a physician, and claims that he was introduced to theatre by his grandfather Carlo Alessandro Goldoni.", "In reality, it seems that Giulio was an apothecary; as for the grandfather, he had died four years before Carlo's birth.", "In any case, Goldoni was deeply interested in theatre from his earliest years, and all attempts to direct his activity into other channels were of no avail; his toys were puppets, and his books, plays.His father placed him under the care of the philosopher Caldini at Rimini but the youth soon ran away with a company of strolling players and returned to Venice.", "In 1723 his father matriculated him into the stern Collegio Ghislieri in Pavia, which imposed the tonsure and monastic habits on its students.", "However, he relates in his ''Memoirs'' that a considerable part of his time was spent in reading Greek and Latin comedies.", "He had already begun writing at this time and, in his third year, he composed a libellous poem (''Il colosso'') in which he ridiculed the daughters of certain Pavian families.", "As a result of that incident (and/or of a visit paid with some schoolmates to a local brothel) he was expelled from the school and had to leave the city (1725).", "He studied law at Udine, and eventually took his degree at University of Modena.", "He was employed as a law clerk at Chioggia and Feltre, after which he returned to his native city and began practicing.Monument to Goldoni in Venice (sculpted by Antonio Dal Zotto)Educated as a lawyer, and holding lucrative positions as secretary and counsellor, he seemed, indeed, at one time to have settled down to the practice of law, but following an unexpected summons to Venice, after an absence of several years, he changed his career, and thenceforth he devoted himself to writing plays and managing theatres.", "His father died in 1731.In 1732, to avoid an unwanted marriage, he left the town for Milan and then for Verona where the theatre manager Giuseppe Imer helped him on his way to becoming a comical poet as well as introducing him to his future wife, Nicoletta Conio.", "Goldoni returned with her to Venice, where he stayed until 1743.=== Theatrical career ===Monument to Goldoni in Florence (sculpted by Ulisse Cambi)Goldoni entered the Italian theatre scene with a tragedy, ''Amalasunta'', produced in Milan.", "The play was a critical and financial failure.Submitting it to Count Prata, director of the opera, he was told that his piece \"was composed with due regard for the rules of Aristotle and Horace, but not according to those laid down for the Italian drama.\"", "\"In France\", continued the count, \"you can try to please the public, but here in Italy it is the actors and actresses whom you must consult, as well as the composer of the music and the stage decorators.", "Everything must be done according to a certain form which I will explain to you.", "\"Goldoni thanked his critic, went back to his inn and ordered a fire, into which he threw the manuscript of his ''Amalasunta''.His next play, ''Belisario'', written in 1734, was more successful, though of its success he afterward professed himself ashamed.During this period he also wrote librettos for opera seria and served for a time as literary director of the San Giovanni Grisostomo, Venice's most distinguished opera house.He wrote other tragedies for a time, but he was not long in discovering that his bent was for comedy.", "He had come to realize that the Italian stage needed reforming; adopting Molière as his model, he went to work in earnest and in 1738 produced his first real comedy, ''L'uomo di mondo'' (\"The Man of the World\").", "During his many wanderings and adventures in Italy, he was constantly at work and when, at Livorno, he became acquainted with the manager Medebac, he determined to pursue the profession of playwriting in order to make a living.", "He was employed by Medebac to write plays for his theater in Venice.", "He worked for other managers and produced during his stay in that city some of his most characteristic works.", "He also wrote ''Momolo Cortesan'' in 1738.By 1743, he had perfected his hybrid style of playwriting (combining the model of Molière with the strengths of Commedia dell'arte and his own wit and sincerity).", "This style was typified in ''La Donna di garbo'', the first Italian comedy of its kind.After 1748, Goldoni collaborated with the composer Baldassare Galuppi, making significant contributions to the new form of 'opera buffa'.", "Galuppi composed the score for more than twenty of Goldoni's librettos.", "As with his comedies, Goldoni's ''opera buffa'' integrate elements of the Commedia dell'arte with recognisable local and middle-class realities.", "His operatic works include two of the most successful musical comedies of the eighteenth century, ''Il filosofo di campagna'' (''The Country Philosopher''), set by Galuppi (1752) and ''La buona figliuola'' (''The Good Girl''), set by Niccolò Piccinni (1760).In 1753, following his return from Bologna, he defected to the Teatro San Luca of the Vendramin family, where he performed most of his plays to 1762.=== Move to France and death ===Notre Dame in ParisIn 1757, he engaged in a bitter dispute with playwright Carlo Gozzi, which left him utterly disgusted with the tastes of his countrymen; so much so that in 1761 he moved to Paris, where he received a position at court and was put in charge of the Théâtre-Italien.", "He spent the rest of his life in France, composing most of his plays in French and writing his memoirs in that language.Among the plays which he wrote in French, the most successful was ''Le bourru bienfaisant'', dedicated to the Marie Adélaïde, a daughter of Louis XV and aunt to the dauphin, the future Louis XVI of France.", "It premiered on 4 February 1771, almost nine months after the dauphin's marriage to Marie Antoinette.", "Goldoni enjoyed considerable popularity in France; in 1769, when he retired to Versailles, the King gave him a pension.", "He lost this pension after the French Revolution.", "The Convention eventually voted to restore his pension the day after his death.", "It was restored to his widow, at the pleading of the poet André Chénier; \"She is old\", he urged, \"she is seventy-six, and her husband has left her no heritage save his illustrious name, his virtues and his poverty.", "\"''Commedie del dottore Carlo Goldoni'' (1753)" ], [ "Goldoni's impact on Italian theatre", "In his ''Memoirs'' Goldoni amply discusses the state of Italian comedy when he began writing.", "At that time, Italian comedy revolved around the conventionality of the Commedia dell'arte, or improvised comedy.", "Goldoni took to himself the task of superseding the comedy of masks and the comedy of intrigue by representations of actual life and manners through the characters and their behaviors.", "He maintained that Italian life and manners were susceptible of artistic treatment such as had not been given them before.His works are a lasting monument to the changes that he initiated: a dramatic revolution that had been attempted but not achieved before.", "Goldoni's importance lay in providing good examples rather than precepts.", "Goldoni says that he took for his models the plays of Molière and that whenever a piece of his own succeeded he whispered to himself: \"Good, but not yet Molière.\"", "Goldoni's plays are gentler and more optimistic in tone than Molière's.It was this very success that was the object of harsh critiques by Carlo Gozzi, who accused Goldoni of having deprived the Italian theatre of the charms of poetry and imagination.", "The great success of Gozzi's fairy dramas so irritated Goldoni that it led to his self-exile to France.Goldoni gave to his country a classical form, which, though it has since been cultivated, has yet to be cultivated by a master." ], [ "Themes", "Goldoni's plays that were written while he was still in Italy ignore religious and ecclesiastical subjects.", "This may be surprising, considering his staunch Catholic upbringing.", "No thoughts are expressed about death or repentance in his memoirs or in his comedies.", "After his move to France, his position became clearer, as his plays took on a clear anti-clerical tone and often satirized the hypocrisy of monks and of the Church.Goldoni was inspired by his love of humanity and the admiration he had for his fellow men.", "He wrote, and was obsessed with, the relationships that humans establish with one another, their cities and homes, the Humanist movement, and the study of philosophy.", "The moral and civil values that Goldoni promotes in his plays are those of rationality, civility, humanism, the importance of the rising middle-class, a progressive stance to state affairs, honor and honesty.", "Goldoni had a dislike for arrogance, intolerance and the abuse of power.Goldoni's main characters are no abstract examples of human virtue, nor monstrous examples of human vice.", "They occupy the middle ground of human temperament.", "Goldoni maintains an acute sensibility for the differences in social classes between his characters as well as environmental and generational changes.", "Goldoni pokes fun at the arrogant nobility and the pauper who lacks dignity." ], [ "Venetian and Tuscan", "As in other theatrical works of the time and place, the characters in Goldoni's Italian comedies spoke originally either the literary Tuscan variety (which became modern Italian) or the Venetian dialect, depending on their station in life.", "However, in some printed editions of his plays he often turned the Venetian texts into Tuscan, too." ], [ "Goldoni in popular culture", "Goldoni on a Soviet stamp, 1958One of his best known works is the comic play ''Servant of Two Masters'', which has been translated and adapted internationally numerous times.", "In 1966 it was adapted into an opera buffa by the American composer Vittorio Giannini.", "In 2011, Richard Bean adapted the play for the National Theatre of Great Britain as ''One Man, Two Guvnors''.", "Its popularity led to a transfer to the West End and in 2012 to Broadway.The film ''Carlo Goldoni – Venice, Grand Theatre of the World'', directed by Alessandro Bettero, was released in 2007 and is available in English, Italian, French, and Japanese." ], [ "Selected works", "The following is a small sampling of Goldoni's enormous output.=== Tragedies ===* ''Rosmonda'' (1734)* ''Griselda'' (1734)=== Tragicomedies ===''Belisario'' (1734)''Don Giovanni Tenorio'' o sia ''Il dissoluto'', \"The Dissolute\" (1735)''Rinaldo di Montalbano'' (1736)=== Comedies ===''Il servitore di due padroni'', (1745) \"The Servant of Two Masters\" (now often retitled ''Arlecchino servitore di due padroni'' \"Harlequin Servant of two Masters\")''I due gemelli veneziani'', \"The Two Venetian Twins\" (1747)''La vedova scaltra'', \"The Shrewd Widow\" (1748)''La putta onorata'', \"The Honorable Maid\" (1749)''Il cavaliere e la dama'', \"The Gentleman and the Lady\" (1749)''La famiglia dell'antiquario'', \"The Antiquarian's Family\" (1750)''Il teatro comico'', \"The Comical Theatre\" (1750–1751)''Il bugiardo'', \"The Liar\" (1750–1751)''Il vero amico'', \"The True Friend\" (1750) translated by Anna Cuffaro''I pettegolezzi delle donne'', \"Women's Gossip\" (1750–1751)''La locandiera'', \"The Mistress of the Inn\" (1751)''Il feudatario'' \"The Feudal Lord\" (1752)''Gl'innamorati'', \"The Lovers\" (1759)''I rusteghi'', \"The Boors\" (1760)''Le baruffe chiozzotte'', \"The Chioggia Scuffles\" (1762)''Gli amori di Zelinda e Lindoro'', \"The Love of Zelinda and Lindoro\" (1764)=== Opera seria libretti === ''Amalasunta'' (1732)* ''Gustavo primo, re di Svezia'' (c. 1738)* ''Oronte, re de' Sciti'' (1740)* ''Statira'' (c. 1740)===Opera buffa libretti===* ''La contessina'' (''The Young Countess'') by Maccari (1743)* ''L'Arcadia in Brenta'' (''The Arcadia in Brenta'') by Galuppi (1749)* ''Il mondo della luna'' (''The World on the Moon''), set to music by Galuppi (1750), Haydn (1777), Paisiello (1782) and other composers.", "* ''Il filosofo di campagna'' (''The Country Philosopher'') by Galuppi (1754)* ''Il mercato di Malmantile'' (''The Malmantile Market'') by Fischietti (1757)* ''Buovo d'Antona'', set to music by Tommaso Traetta (1758, incorrectly recorded as 1750 in Zatta's edition)* ''La buona figliuola'' (''The Good Girl'') by Niccolò Piccinni (1760)* ''Lo speziale'' (''The Apothecary'') by Joseph Haydn (1768)* ''La finta semplice'' (''The Fake Innocent'') by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1769)* ''Le pescatrici'' (''The Fisherwomen'') by Haydn (1770), Florian Leopold Gassmann (1771)=== Intermezzo libretti ===* ''Le donne vendicate'', \"The Revenge of the Women\" (1751)=== Cantatas and serenades ===* ''La ninfa saggia'', \"The Wise Nymph\" (17??", ")* ''Gli amanti felici'', \"The Happy Lovers\" (17??", ")=== Poetry ===* ''Il colosso'', a satire against Pavia girls which led to Goldoni being expelled from Collegio Ghislieri (1725)* ''Il quaresimale in epilogo'' (1725–1726)=== Books ===* ''Nuovo teatro comico'', \"New Comic Theater\", plays.", "Pitteri, Venice (1757)* ''Mémoires'', \"Memoirs\".", "Paris (1787)* Goldoni's collected works.", "Zalta, Venice (1788–1795)=== Selected translations of Goldoni's works===* ''Il vero amico'', \"The True Friend\" translated by Anna Cuffaro.", "Publisher: Sparkling Books.", "* ''Archifanfaro'' translated by W. H. Auden with an introduction by Michael Andre in ''Unmuzzled OX''." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Bates, Alfred, editor (1903).", "\"Goldoni\", vol.", "5, , in ''The Drama: Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization''.", "London/New York: Smart and Stanley.", "* * Richards, Kenneth (1995).", "\"Goldoni, Carlo\", pp.", "432–434, in ''The Cambridge Guide to Theatre'', second edition, edited by Martin Banham.", "Cambridge University Press.", ".", "" ], [ "External links", " www.carlogoldoni.net – the English website dedicated to Goldoni* * * * * www.sparklingbooks.com for bilingual edition English/Italian of The True Friend/Il vero amico* Webpage devoted to Carlo Goldoni (lletrA (UOC), Catalan Literature Online) * Detailed biography, prepared for the 200th anniversary of his death (1993) * Gli Innamorati * La Locandiera * La Avventura Della Villeggiatura * Works by Goldoni at Progetto Manuzio* Works by Goldoni (text, concordances and frequency list)* Venice Carnival 2007, Tricentenary of Carlo Goldoni* A riotous delight of commedia dell'arte* Carlo Goldoni – biography in the Catholic Encyclopedia* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Cumulative distribution function" ], [ "Introduction", "Cumulative distribution function for the exponential distributionCumulative distribution function for the normal distributionIn probability theory and statistics, the '''cumulative distribution function''' ('''CDF''') of a real-valued random variable , or just '''distribution function''' of , evaluated at , is the probability that will take a value less than or equal to .Every probability distribution supported on the real numbers, discrete or \"mixed\" as well as continuous, is uniquely identified by a right-continuous monotone increasing function (a càdlàg function) satisfying and .In the case of a scalar continuous distribution, it gives the area under the probability density function from negative infinity to .", "Cumulative distribution functions are also used to specify the distribution of multivariate random variables." ], [ "Definition", "The cumulative distribution function of a real-valued random variable is the function given bywhere the right-hand side represents the probability that the random variable takes on a value less than or equal to .The probability that lies in the semi-closed interval , where , is thereforeIn the definition above, the \"less than or equal to\" sign, \"≤\", is a convention, not a universally used one (e.g.", "Hungarian literature uses \"<\"), but the distinction is important for discrete distributions.", "The proper use of tables of the binomial and Poisson distributions depends upon this convention.", "Moreover, important formulas like Paul Lévy's inversion formula for the characteristic function also rely on the \"less than or equal\" formulation.If treating several random variables etc.", "the corresponding letters are used as subscripts while, if treating only one, the subscript is usually omitted.", "It is conventional to use a capital for a cumulative distribution function, in contrast to the lower-case used for probability density functions and probability mass functions.", "This applies when discussing general distributions: some specific distributions have their own conventional notation, for example the normal distribution uses and instead of and , respectively.The probability density function of a continuous random variable can be determined from the cumulative distribution function by differentiating using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus; i.e.", "given ,as long as the derivative exists.The CDF of a continuous random variable can be expressed as the integral of its probability density function as follows:In the case of a random variable which has distribution having a discrete component at a value ,If is continuous at , this equals zero and there is no discrete component at ." ], [ "Properties", "From top to bottom, the cumulative distribution function of a discrete probability distribution, continuous probability distribution, and a distribution which has both a continuous part and a discrete part.Example of a cumulative distribution function with a countably infinite set of discontinuities.Every cumulative distribution function is non-decreasing and right-continuous, which makes it a càdlàg function.", "Furthermore,Every function with these four properties is a CDF, i.e., for every such function, a random variable can be defined such that the function is the cumulative distribution function of that random variable.If is a purely discrete random variable, then it attains values with probability , and the CDF of will be discontinuous at the points :If the CDF of a real valued random variable is continuous, then is a continuous random variable; if furthermore is absolutely continuous, then there exists a Lebesgue-integrable function such thatfor all real numbers and .", "The function is equal to the derivative of almost everywhere, and it is called the probability density function of the distribution of .If has finite L1-norm, that is, the expectation of is finite, then the expectation is given by the Riemann–Stieltjes integral and for any ,CDF plot with two red rectangles, illustrating and .as shown in the diagram.In particular, we have" ], [ "Examples", "As an example, suppose is uniformly distributed on the unit interval .Then the CDF of is given bySuppose instead that takes only the discrete values 0 and 1, with equal probability.Then the CDF of is given bySuppose is exponential distributed.", "Then the CDF of is given byHere ''λ'' > 0 is the parameter of the distribution, often called the rate parameter.Suppose is normal distributed.", "Then the CDF of is given byHere the parameter is the mean or expectation of the distribution; and is its standard deviation.A table of the CDF of the standard normal distribution is often used in statistical applications, where it is named the standard normal table, the '''unit normal table''', or the '''Z table'''.Suppose is binomial distributed.", "Then the CDF of is given byHere is the probability of success and the function denotes the discrete probability distribution of the number of successes in a sequence of independent experiments, and is the \"floor\" under , i.e.", "the greatest integer less than or equal to ." ], [ "Derived functions", "===Complementary cumulative distribution function (tail distribution)===Sometimes, it is useful to study the opposite question and ask how often the random variable is ''above'' a particular level.", "This is called the '''''' ('''''') or simply the '''''' or '''''', and is defined asThis has applications in statistical hypothesis testing, for example, because the one-sided p-value is the probability of observing a test statistic ''at least'' as extreme as the one observed.", "Thus, provided that the test statistic, ''T'', has a continuous distribution, the one-sided p-value is simply given by the ccdf: for an observed value of the test statisticIn survival analysis, is called the survival function and denoted , while the term ''reliability function'' is common in engineering.", ";Properties* For a non-negative continuous random variable having an expectation, Markov's inequality states that * As , and in fact provided that is finite.", "Proof: Assuming has a density function , for any Then, on recognizing and rearranging terms, as claimed.", "* For a random variable having an expectation, and for a non-negative random variable the second term is 0.If the random variable can only take non-negative integer values, this is equivalent to ===Folded cumulative distribution===Example of the folded cumulative distribution for a normal distribution function with an expected value of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.While the plot of a cumulative distribution often has an S-like shape, an alternative illustration is the '''folded cumulative distribution''' or '''mountain plot''', which folds the top half of the graph over, that is:where denotes the indicator function and the second summand is the survivor function, thus using two scales, one for the upslope and another for the downslope.", "This form of illustration emphasises the median, dispersion (specifically, the mean absolute deviation from the median) and skewness of the distribution or of the empirical results.===Inverse distribution function (quantile function)===If the CDF ''F'' is strictly increasing and continuous then is the unique real number such that .", "This defines the '''inverse distribution function''' or quantile function.Some distributions do not have a unique inverse (for example if for all , causing to be constant).", "In this case, one may use the '''generalized inverse distribution function''', which is defined as:* Example 1: The median is .", "* Example 2: Put .", "Then we call the 95th percentile.Some useful properties of the inverse cdf (which are also preserved in the definition of the generalized inverse distribution function) are:# is nondecreasing# # # if and only if # If has a distribution then is distributed as .", "This is used in random number generation using the inverse transform sampling-method.# If is a collection of independent -distributed random variables defined on the same sample space, then there exist random variables such that is distributed as and with probability 1 for all .The inverse of the cdf can be used to translate results obtained for the uniform distribution to other distributions.=== Empirical distribution function ===The empirical distribution function is an estimate of the cumulative distribution function that generated the points in the sample.", "It converges with probability 1 to that underlying distribution.", "A number of results exist to quantify the rate of convergence of the empirical distribution function to the underlying cumulative distribution function." ], [ "Multivariate case", "===Definition for two random variables===When dealing simultaneously with more than one random variable the '''joint cumulative distribution function''' can also be defined.", "For example, for a pair of random variables , the joint CDF is given bywhere the right-hand side represents the probability that the random variable takes on a value less than or equal to '''and''' that takes on a value less than or equal to .Example of joint cumulative distribution function:For two continuous variables ''X'' and ''Y'': For two discrete random variables, it is beneficial to generate a table of probabilities and address the cumulative probability for each potential range of ''X'' and ''Y'', and here is the example:given the joint probability mass function in tabular form, determine the joint cumulative distribution function.", "''Y'' = 2''Y'' = 4''Y'' = 6''Y'' = 8''X'' = 100.100.1''X'' = 3000.20''X'' = 50.3000.15''X'' = 7000.150Solution: using the given table of probabilities for each potential range of ''X'' and ''Y'', the joint cumulative distribution function may be constructed in tabular form:''Y'' < 22 ≤ ''Y'' < 44 ≤ ''Y'' < 66 ≤ ''Y'' < 8''Y'' ≥ 8''X'' < 1000001 ≤ ''X'' < 3000.10.10.23 ≤ ''X'' < 5000.10.30.45 ≤ ''X'' < 700.30.40.60.85''X'' ≥ 700.30.40.751===Definition for more than two random variables===For random variables , the joint CDF is given byInterpreting the random variables as a random vector yields a shorter notation:===Properties===Every multivariate CDF is:# Monotonically non-decreasing for each of its variables,# Right-continuous in each of its variables,# # Not every function satisfying the above four properties is a multivariate CDF, unlike in the single dimension case.", "For example, let for or or and let otherwise.", "It is easy to see that the above conditions are met, and yet is not a CDF since if it was, then as explained below.The probability that a point belongs to a hyperrectangle is analogous to the 1-dimensional case:" ], [ "Complex case", "===Complex random variable===The generalization of the cumulative distribution function from real to complex random variables is not obvious because expressions of the form make no sense.", "However expressions of the form make sense.", "Therefore, we define the cumulative distribution of a complex random variables via the joint distribution of their real and imaginary parts:===Complex random vector===Generalization of yieldsas definition for the CDS of a complex random vector ." ], [ "Use in statistical analysis", "The concept of the cumulative distribution function makes an explicit appearance in statistical analysis in two (similar) ways.", "Cumulative frequency analysis is the analysis of the frequency of occurrence of values of a phenomenon less than a reference value.", "The empirical distribution function is a formal direct estimate of the cumulative distribution function for which simple statistical properties can be derived and which can form the basis of various statistical hypothesis tests.", "Such tests can assess whether there is evidence against a sample of data having arisen from a given distribution, or evidence against two samples of data having arisen from the same (unknown) population distribution.===Kolmogorov–Smirnov and Kuiper's tests===The Kolmogorov–Smirnov test is based on cumulative distribution functions and can be used to test to see whether two empirical distributions are different or whether an empirical distribution is different from an ideal distribution.", "The closely related Kuiper's test is useful if the domain of the distribution is cyclic as in day of the week.", "For instance Kuiper's test might be used to see if the number of tornadoes varies during the year or if sales of a product vary by day of the week or day of the month." ], [ "See also", "* Descriptive statistics* Distribution fitting* Ogive (statistics)* Modified half-normal distribution with the pdf on is given as , where denotes the Fox–Wright Psi function." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Central tendency" ], [ "Introduction", "In statistics, a '''central tendency''' (or '''measure of central tendency''') is a central or typical value for a probability distribution.Colloquially, measures of central tendency are often called ''averages.''", "The term ''central tendency'' dates from the late 1920s.The most common measures of central tendency are the arithmetic mean, the median, and the mode.", "A middle tendency can be calculated for either a finite set of values or for a theoretical distribution, such as the normal distribution.", "Occasionally authors use central tendency to denote \"the tendency of quantitative data to cluster around some central value.", "\"The central tendency of a distribution is typically contrasted with its ''dispersion'' or ''variability''; dispersion and central tendency are the often characterized properties of distributions.", "Analysis may judge whether data has a strong or a weak central tendency based on its dispersion." ], [ "Measures", "The following may be applied to one-dimensional data.", "Depending on the circumstances, it may be appropriate to transform the data before calculating a central tendency.", "Examples are squaring the values or taking logarithms.", "Whether a transformation is appropriate and what it should be, depend heavily on the data being analyzed.", "; Arithmetic mean or simply, mean: the sum of all measurements divided by the number of observations in the data set.", "; Median: the middle value that separates the higher half from the lower half of the data set.", "The median and the mode are the only measures of central tendency that can be used for ordinal data, in which values are ranked relative to each other but are not measured absolutely.", "; Mode: the most frequent value in the data set.", "This is the only central tendency measure that can be used with nominal data, which have purely qualitative category assignments.", "; Generalized mean: A generalization of the Pythagorean means, specified by an exponent.", "; Geometric mean: the ''n''th root of the product of the data values, where there are ''n'' of these.", "This measure is valid only for data that are measured absolutely on a strictly positive scale.", "; Harmonic mean: the reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of the reciprocals of the data values.", "This measure too is valid only for data that are measured absolutely on a strictly positive scale.", "; Weighted arithmetic mean: an arithmetic mean that incorporates weighting to certain data elements.", "; Truncated mean or trimmed mean: the arithmetic mean of data values after a certain number or proportion of the highest and lowest data values have been discarded.", "; Interquartile mean: a truncated mean based on data within the interquartile range.", "; Midrange: the arithmetic mean of the maximum and minimum values of a data set.", "; Midhinge: the arithmetic mean of the first and third quartiles.", "; Quasi-arithmetic mean: A generalization of the generalized mean, specified by a continuous injective function.", "; Trimean: the weighted arithmetic mean of the median and two quartiles.", "; Winsorized mean: an arithmetic mean in which extreme values are replaced by values closer to the median.Any of the above may be applied to each dimension of multi-dimensional data, but the results may not be invariant to rotations of the multi-dimensional space.", "; Geometric median: the point minimizing the sum of distances to a set of sample points.", "This is the same as the median when applied to one-dimensional data, but it is not the same as taking the median of each dimension independently.", "It is not invariant to different rescaling of the different dimensions.", "; Quadratic mean (often known as the root mean square): useful in engineering, but not often used in statistics.", "This is because it is not a good indicator of the center of the distribution when the distribution includes negative values.", "; Simplicial depth: the probability that a randomly chosen simplex with vertices from the given distribution will contain the given center; Tukey median: a point with the property that every halfspace containing it also contains many sample points" ], [ "Solutions to variational problems", "Several measures of central tendency can be characterized as solving a variational problem, in the sense of the calculus of variations, namely minimizing variation from the center.", "That is, given a measure of statistical dispersion, one asks for a measure of central tendency that minimizes variation: such that variation from the center is minimal among all choices of center.", "In a quip, \"dispersion precedes location\".", "These measures are initially defined in one dimension, but can be generalized to multiple dimensions.", "This center may or may not be unique.", "In the sense of spaces, the correspondence is: dispersion central tendency variation ratio mode average absolute deviation median (geometric median) standard deviation mean (centroid) maximum deviation midrangeThe associated functions are called -norms: respectively 0-\"norm\", 1-norm, 2-norm, and ∞-norm.", "The function corresponding to the 0 space is not a norm, and is thus often referred to in quotes: 0-\"norm\".In equations, for a given (finite) data set , thought of as a vector , the dispersion about a point is the \"distance\" from to the constant vector in the -norm (normalized by the number of points )::For and these functions are defined by taking limits, respectively as and .", "For the limiting values are and or , so the difference becomes simply equality, so the 0-norm counts the number of ''unequal'' points.", "For the largest number dominates, and thus the ∞-norm is the maximum difference.===Uniqueness===The mean (''L''2 center) and midrange (''L''∞ center) are unique (when they exist), while the median (''L''1 center) and mode (''L''0 center) are not in general unique.", "This can be understood in terms of convexity of the associated functions (coercive functions).The 2-norm and ∞-norm are strictly convex, and thus (by convex optimization) the minimizer is unique (if it exists), and exists for bounded distributions.", "Thus standard deviation about the mean is lower than standard deviation about any other point, and the maximum deviation about the midrange is lower than the maximum deviation about any other point.The 1-norm is not ''strictly'' convex, whereas strict convexity is needed to ensure uniqueness of the minimizer.", "Correspondingly, the median (in this sense of minimizing) is not in general unique, and in fact any point between the two central points of a discrete distribution minimizes average absolute deviation.The 0-\"norm\" is not convex (hence not a norm).", "Correspondingly, the mode is not unique – for example, in a uniform distribution ''any'' point is the mode.===Clustering===Instead of a single central point, one can ask for multiple points such that the variation from these points is minimized.", "This leads to cluster analysis, where each point in the data set is clustered with the nearest \"center\".", "Most commonly, using the 2-norm generalizes the mean to ''k''-means clustering, while using the 1-norm generalizes the (geometric) median to ''k''-medians clustering.", "Using the 0-norm simply generalizes the mode (most common value) to using the ''k'' most common values as centers.Unlike the single-center statistics, this multi-center clustering cannot in general be computed in a closed-form expression, and instead must be computed or approximated by an iterative method; one general approach is expectation–maximization algorithms.===Information geometry===The notion of a \"center\" as minimizing variation can be generalized in information geometry as a distribution that minimizes divergence (a generalized distance) from a data set.", "The most common case is maximum likelihood estimation, where the maximum likelihood estimate (MLE) maximizes likelihood (minimizes expected surprisal), which can be interpreted geometrically by using entropy to measure variation: the MLE minimizes cross-entropy (equivalently, relative entropy, Kullback–Leibler divergence).A simple example of this is for the center of nominal data: instead of using the mode (the only single-valued \"center\"), one often uses the empirical measure (the frequency distribution divided by the sample size) as a \"center\".", "For example, given binary data, say heads or tails, if a data set consists of 2 heads and 1 tails, then the mode is \"heads\", but the empirical measure is 2/3 heads, 1/3 tails, which minimizes the cross-entropy (total surprisal) from the data set.", "This perspective is also used in regression analysis, where least squares finds the solution that minimizes the distances from it, and analogously in logistic regression, a maximum likelihood estimate minimizes the surprisal (information distance)." ], [ "Relationships between the mean, median and mode", "For unimodal distributions the following bounds are known and are sharp:: : : where ''μ'' is the mean, ''ν'' is the median, ''θ'' is the mode, and ''σ'' is the standard deviation.For every distribution,:" ], [ "See also", "Central momentExpected valueLocation parameterMeanPopulation meanSample mean" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Celebrity" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Celebrity''' is a condition of fame and broad public recognition of a person or group as a result of the attention given to them by mass media.", "An individual may attain a celebrity status from having great wealth, their participation in sports or the entertainment industry, their position as a political figure, or even from their connection to another celebrity.", "'Celebrity' usually implies a favorable public image, as opposed to the neutrals 'famous' or 'notable', or the negatives 'infamous' and 'notorious'." ], [ "History", "In his 2020 book ''Dead Famous: An Unexpected History Of Celebrity'', British historian Greg Jenner uses the definition:Although his book is subtitled \"from Bronze Age to Silver Screen\", and despite the fact that \"Until very recently, sociologists argued that ''celebrity'' was invented just over 100 years ago, in the flickering glimmer of early Hollywood\" and the suggestion that some medieval saints might qualify, Jenner asserts that the earliest celebrities lived in the early 1700s, his first example being Henry Sacheverell.Choregos and theater actors, from the House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii, Italy.", "Naples National Archeological Museum.Athletes in Ancient Greece were welcomed home as heroes, had songs and poems written in their honor, and received free food and gifts from those seeking celebrity endorsement.", "Ancient Rome similarly lauded actors and notorious gladiators, and Julius Caesar appeared on a coin in his own lifetime (a departure from the usual depiction of battles and divine lineage).In the early 12th century, Thomas Becket became famous following his murder.", "He was promoted by the Christian Church as a martyr and images of him and scenes from his life became widespread in just a few years.", "In a pattern often repeated, what started as an explosion of popularity (often referred to with the suffix 'mania') turned into long-lasting fame: pilgrimages to Canterbury Cathedral where he was killed became instantly fashionable and the fascination with his life and death have inspired plays and films.Charles Dickens was an international literary celebrity by the mid 19th century.", "The reaction at his public readings, where \"people sometimes fainted at his shows\", have been compared to those of a contemporary pop star.The cult of personality (particularly in the west) can be traced back to the Romantics in the 18th century, whose livelihood as artists and poets depended on the currency of their reputation.", "The establishment of cultural hot-spots became an important factor in the process of generating fame: for example, London and Paris in the 18th and 19th centuries.", "Newspapers started including gossip columns and certain clubs and events became places to be seen in order to receive publicity.", "David Lodge called Charles Dickens the \"first writer to feel the intense pressure of being simultaneously an artist and an object of unrelenting public interest and adulation\", and Juliet John backed up the claim for Dickens \"to be called the first self-made global media star of the age of mass culture.", "\"Theatrical actors were often celebrities.", "Restaurants near theaters, where actors would congregate, began putting up caricatures or photographs of actors on celebrity walls in the late 19th century.", "The subject of widespread public and media interest, Lillie Langtry made her West End theatre debut in 1881 causing a sensation in London by becoming the first socialite to appear on stage.", "The following year she became the poster-girl for Pears Soap, becoming the first celebrity to endorse a commercial product.", "In 1895, poet and playwright Oscar Wilde became the subject of \"one of the first celebrity trials\".Another example of celebrities in the entertainment industry was in music, beginning in the mid 19th century.", "Never seen before in music, many people engaged in an immense fan frenzy dubbed as Lisztomania, that began in 1841.This created the basis for the behavior fans have around their favorite musicians in modern society.Charlie Chaplin as the Tramp in 1915 The movie industry spread around the globe in the first half of the 20th century and now, the familiar concept of the instantly recognizable faces of its superstars.", "Yet, celebrity was not always tied to actors in films, especially when cinema was starting as a medium.", "As Paul McDonald states in ''The Star System: Hollywood's Production of Popular Identities'', \"in the first decade of the twentieth century, American film production companies withheld the names of film performers, despite requests from audiences, fearing that public recognition would drive performers to demand higher salaries.\"", "Public fascination went well beyond the on-screen exploits of movie stars and their private lives became headline news: for example, in Hollywood the marriages of Elizabeth Taylor and in Bollywood the affairs of Raj Kapoor in the 1950s.", "Like theatrical actors before them, movie actors were the subjects of celebrity walls in restaurants they frequented, near movie studios, most notably at Sardi's in Hollywood.Pelé became a global star following the 1958 World Cup.The second half of the century saw television and popular music bring new forms of celebrity, such as the rock star and the pop group, epitomised by Elvis Presley and the Beatles, respectively.", "John Lennon's highly controversial 1966 quote: \"We're more popular than Jesus now\", which he later insisted was not a boast, and that he was not in any way comparing himself with Christ, gives an insight into both the adulation and notoriety that fame can bring.", "Unlike movies, television created celebrities who were not primarily actors; for example, presenters, talk show hosts, and newsreaders.", "However, most of these are only famous within the regions reached by their particular broadcaster, and only a few such as Oprah Winfrey, Jerry Springer, or David Frost could be said to have broken through into wider stardom.", "Television also gave exposure to sportspeople, notably Pelé after his emergence at the 1958 FIFA World Cup, with Barney Ronay in ''The Guardian'' stating, \"What is certain is that Pelé invented this game, the idea of individual global sporting superstardom, and in a way that is unrepeatable now.", "\"In the '60s and early '70s, the book publishing industry began to persuade major celebrities to put their names on autobiographies and other titles in a genre called celebrity publishing.", "In most cases, the book was not written by the celebrity but by a ghostwriter, but the celebrity would then be available for a book tour and appearances on talk shows." ], [ "Wealth", "===''Forbes'' Celebrity 100===''Forbes'' magazine releases an annual ''Forbes'' Celebrity 100 list of the highest-paid celebrities in the world.", "The total earnings for all top celebrity 100 earners totaled $4.5 billion in 2010 alone.For instance, ''Forbes'' ranked media mogul and talk show host, Oprah Winfrey as the top earner \"Forbes magazine's annual ranking of the most powerful celebrities\", with earnings of $290 million in the past year.", "Forbes cites that Lady Gaga reportedly earned over $90 million in 2010.In 2011, golfer Tiger Woods was one of highest-earning celebrity athletes, with an income of $74 million and is consistently ranked one of the highest-paid athletes in the world.", "In 2013, Madonna was ranked as the fifth most powerful and the highest-earning celebrity of the year with earnings of $125 million.", "She has consistently been among the most powerful and highest-earning celebrities in the world, occupying the third place in Forbes Celebrity 100 2009 with $110 million of earnings, and getting the tenth place in the 2011 edition of the list with annual earnings equal to $58 million.", "Beyoncé has also appeared in the top ten in 2008, 2009, 2010, 2013, 2017, and topped the list in 2014 with earnings of $115 million.", "Cristiano Ronaldo followed by Lionel Messi in 2020 became the first two athletes in a team sport to surpass $1 billion in earnings during their careers.", "''Forbes'' also lists the top-earning dead celebrities, with singer Michael Jackson, fantasy author J. R. R. Tolkien and children's author Roald Dahl each topping the annual list with earnings of $500 million over the course of a year.===Entrepreneurship and endorsements===LeBron James has had endorsement contracts with AT&T, The Coca-Cola Company, Crypto.com, General Motors, PepsiCo, McDonald's, Nike, Upper Deck, Walmart, and State Farm.Celebrity endorsements have proven very successful around the world where, due to increasing consumerism, a person owns a status symbol by purchasing a celebrity-endorsed product.", "Although it has become commonplace for celebrities to place their name with endorsements onto products just for quick money, some celebrities have gone beyond merely using their names and have put their entrepreneurial spirit to work by becoming entrepreneurs by attaching themselves in the business aspects of entertainment and building their own business brand beyond their traditional salaried activities.", "Along with investing their salaried wages into growing business endeavors, several celebrities have become innovative business leaders in their respective industries, gaining the admiration of their peers and contributing to the country's economy.Waxwork of Spielberg at Madame Tussauds, LondonNumerous celebrities have ventured into becoming business moguls and established themselves as entrepreneurs, idolizing many well known business leaders such as Bill Gates, Richard Branson and Warren Buffett.", "For instance, former basketball player Michael Jordan became an entrepreneur involved with many sports-related ventures including investing a minority stake in the Charlotte Bobcats, Paul Newman started his own salad dressing business after leaving behind a distinguished acting career, and rap musician Birdman started his own record label, clothing line, and an oil business while maintaining a career as a rap artist.", "In 2014, David Beckham became co-owner of new Major League Soccer team Inter Miami, which began playing in 2020.Former Brazil striker and World Cup winner Ronaldo became the majority owner of La Liga club Real Valladolid in 2018.Other celebrities such as Tyler Perry, George Lucas, and Steven Spielberg have become successful entrepreneurs through starting their own film production companies and running their own movie studios beyond their traditional activities of screenwriting, directing, animating, producing, and acting.Tabloid magazines and talk TV shows bestow a great deal of attention to celebrities.", "To stay in the public eye and build wealth in addition to their salaried labor, numerous celebrities have participating and branching into various business ventures and endorsements.", "Many celebrities have participated in many different endorsement opportunities that include: animation, publishing, fashion designing, cosmetics, consumer electronics, household items and appliances, cigarettes, soft drinks and alcoholic beverages, hair care, hairdressing, jewelry design, fast food, credit cards, video games, writing, and toys.In addition to various endorsements, some celebrities have been involved with some business and investment-related ventures also include: and toddler related items, sports team ownership, fashion retailing, establishments such as restaurants, cafes, hotels, and casinos, movie theaters, advertising and event planning, management-related ventures such as sports management, financial services, model management, and talent management, record labels, film production, television production, publishing such as book and music publishing, massage therapy, salons, health and fitness, and real estate.Although some celebrities have achieved additional financial success from various business ventures, the vast majority of celebrities are not successful businesspeople and still rely on salaried labored wages to earn a living.", "Most businesses and investments are well known to have a 90 to 95 percent failure rate within the first five years of operation.", "Not all celebrities eventually succeed with their businesses and other related side ventures.", "Some celebrities either went broke or filed for bankruptcy as a result of dabbling with such side businesses or endorsements.", "Though some might question such validity since celebrities themselves are already well known, have mass appeal, and are well exposed to the general public.", "The average entrepreneur who is not well known and reputable to the general public does not the same marketing flexibility and status-quo as most celebrities allow and have.", "Therefore, compared to the average person who starts a business, celebrities already have all the cards and odds stacked in their favor.", "This means they can have an unfair advantage to expose their business ventures and endorsements and can easily capture a more significant amount of market share than the average entrepreneur." ], [ "Mass media phenomena", "Kim Kardashian, reality TV starCelebrities often have fame comparable to royalty.", "As a result, there is a strong public curiosity about their private affairs.", "The release of Kim Kardashian's sex tape with rapper Ray J in 2003 brought her to a new level of fame, leading to magazine covers, book deals, and reality TV series.Celebrities may be resented for their accolades, and the public may have a love/hate relationship with celebrities.", "Due to the high visibility of celebrities' private lives, their successes and shortcomings are often made very public.", "Celebrities are alternately portrayed as glowing examples of perfection, when they garner awards, or as decadent or immoral if they become associated with a scandal.", "When seen in a positive light, celebrities are frequently portrayed as possessing skills and abilities beyond average people; for example, celebrity actors are routinely celebrated for acquiring new skills necessary for filming a role within a very brief time, and to a level that amazes the professionals who train them.", "Similarly, some celebrities with very little formal education can sometimes be portrayed as experts on complicated issues.", "Some celebrities have been very vocal about their political views.", "For example, Matt Damon expressed his displeasure with 2008 US vice presidential nominee Sarah Palin, as well as with the 2011 United States debt-ceiling crisis." ], [ "Famous for being famous", "American socialite Paris Hilton is one celebrity that is commonly described as \"famous for being famous\".", "''Famous for being famous'', in popular culture terminology, refers to someone who attains celebrity status for no particular identifiable reason, or who achieves fame through association with a celebrity.", "The term is a pejorative, suggesting the target has no particular talents or abilities.", "British journalist Malcolm Muggeridge made the first known usage of the phrase in the introduction to his book ''Muggeridge Through The Microphone: BBC Radio and Television'' (1967) in which he wrote:In the past if someone was famous or notorious, it was for something—as a writer or an actor or a criminal; for some talent or distinction or abomination.", "Today one is famous for being famous.", "People who come up to one in the street or in public places to claim recognition nearly always say: \"I've seen you on the telly!", "\"The coinages \"famesque\" and \"celebutante\" are of similar pejorative gist." ], [ "Internet", "Also known as being ''internet famous''.===Asia===A report by the BBC highlighted a longtime trend of Asian internet celebrities called Wanghong in Chinese.", "According to the BBC, there are two kinds of online celebrities in China—those who create original content, such as Papi Jiang, who is regularly censored by Chinese authorities for cursing in her videos, and Wanghongs fall under the second category, as they have clothing and cosmetics businesses on Taobao, China's equivalent of Amazon.===Social networking and video hosting===YouTube personality MrBeast at the 2023 Kids' Choice AwardsMost high-profile celebrities participate in social networking services and photo or video hosting platforms such as YouTube, Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, and Snapchat.", "Social networking services allow celebrities to communicate directly with their fans, removing the middle-man known as traditional media.Through social media many persons outside entertainment and sports sphere become celebrity in their own sphere.", "Social media humanizes celebrities in a way that arouses public fascination as evident by the success of magazines such as ''Us Weekly'' and ''People Weekly''.", "Celebrity blogging have also spawned stars such as Perez Hilton who is well known for not only blogging but also outing celebrities.Social media and the rise of the smartphone have changed how celebrities are treated and how people gain the platform of fame.", "Not everything is as concealed as it was back in old Hollywood because now everything is put out on the internet by fans or even the celebrity themselves.", "Websites like Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, and YouTube allow people to become a celebrity overnight.", "For example, Justin Bieber got his start on YouTube by posting videos of him singing and got discovered.", "All of his fans got direct contact with his content and were able to interact with him on several social media platforms.", "Social media has substantially changed what it means to be a celebrity.", "Instagram and YouTube allow regular people to become rich and famous all from inside their home.", "It also allows fans to connect with their favorite celebrity without ever meeting them in person.", "Everything is being shared on social media so it makes it harder for celebrities to live private lives.Social media sites have also contributed to the fame of some celebrities, such as Tila Tequila who became known through MySpace." ], [ "Access restriction", "Access to celebrities is strictly controlled by their entourage of staff which includes managers, publicists, agents, personal assistants, and bodyguards.", "Even journalists find it difficult to access celebrities for interviews.", "Writer and actor Michael Musto said, \"You have to go through many hoops just to talk to a major celebrity.", "You have to get past three different sets of publicists: the publicist for the event, the publicist for the movie, and then the celebrity's personal publicist.", "They all have to approve you.", "\"Celebrities also typically have security staff at their home, to protect them from similar threats." ], [ "Fifteen minutes of fame", "\"15 minutes of fame\" is a phrase often used in reference to short-lived publicity, and mistakenly attributed to Andy Warhol.", "Certain \"15 minutes of fame\" celebrities can be average people seen with an A-list celebrity, who are sometimes noticed on entertainment news channels such as E!", "News.", "These persons are ordinary people becoming celebrities, often based on the ridiculous things they do.", "\"In fact, many reality show contestants fall into this category: the only thing that qualifies them to be on TV is that they're real.\"" ], [ "Health implications", "Common threats such as stalking have spawned celebrity worship syndrome where a person becomes overly involved with the details of a celebrity's personal life.", "Psychologists have indicated that though many people obsess over glamorous film, television, sport and music stars, the disparity in salaries in society seems to value professional athletes and entertainment industry-based professionals.", "One study found that singers, musicians, actors and athletes die younger on average than writers, composers, academics, politicians and businesspeople, with a greater incidence of cancer and especially lung cancer.", "However, it was remarked that the reasons for this remained unclear, with theories including innate tendencies towards risk-taking as well as the pressure or opportunities of particular types of fame.Fame might have negative psychological effects, and may lead to increasingly selfish tendencies and psychopathy.", "An academic study on the subject said that fame has an addictive quality to it.", "When a celebrity's fame recedes over time, the celebrity may find it difficult to adjust psychologically.Recently, there has been more attention toward the impact celebrities have on health decisions of the population at large.", "It is believed that the public will follow celebrities' health advice to some extent.", "This can have positive impacts when the celebrities give solid, evidence-informed health advice, however, it can also have detrimental effects if the health advice is not accurate enough." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited references", "* Goldman, Jonathan (2011) ''Modernism Is the Literature of Celebrity''.", "Austin: University of Texas Press, 2011..* Grinin, Leonid (2009) \" 'People of Celebrity' as a New Social Stratum and Elite\".", "In ''Hierarchy and Power in the History of Civilizations: Cultural Dimensions'' (pp. 183–206).", "Ed.", "by Leonid E. Grinin and Andrey V. Korotayev.", "Moscow: KRASAND/Editorial URSS, 2009.", "* * Schikel, Richard.", "''Intimate Strangers: The Culture of Celebrity''.", "New York: Doubleday, 1985.." ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", " *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Cluster sampling" ], [ "Introduction", "Cluster sampling.", "A group of twelve people are divided into pairs, and two pairs are then selected at random.", "In statistics, '''cluster sampling''' is a sampling plan used when mutually homogeneous yet internally heterogeneous groupings are evident in a statistical population.", "It is often used in marketing research.", "In this sampling plan, the total population is divided into these groups (known as clusters) and a simple random sample of the groups is selected.", "The elements in each cluster are then sampled.", "If all elements in each sampled cluster are sampled, then this is referred to as a \"one-stage\" cluster sampling plan.", "If a simple random subsample of elements is selected within each of these groups, this is referred to as a \"two-stage\" cluster sampling plan.", "A common motivation for cluster sampling is to reduce the total number of interviews and costs given the desired accuracy.", "For a fixed sample size, the expected random error is smaller when most of the variation in the population is present internally within the groups, and not between the groups." ], [ "Cluster elemental", "The population within a cluster should ideally be as heterogeneous as possible, but there should be homogeneity between clusters.", "Each cluster should be a small-scale representation of the total population.", "The clusters should be mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive.", "A random sampling technique is then used on any relevant clusters to choose which clusters to include in the study.", "In single-stage cluster sampling, all the elements from each of the selected clusters are sampled.", "In two-stage cluster sampling, a random sampling technique is applied to the elements from each of the selected clusters.The main difference between cluster sampling and stratified sampling is that in cluster sampling the cluster is treated as the sampling unit so sampling is done on a population of clusters (at least in the first stage).", "In stratified sampling, the sampling is done on elements within each stratum.", "In stratified sampling, a random sample is drawn from each of the strata, whereas in cluster sampling only the selected clusters are sampled.", "A common motivation for cluster sampling is to reduce costs by increasing sampling efficiency.", "This contrasts with stratified sampling where the motivation is to increase precision.There is also multistage cluster sampling, where at least two stages are taken in selecting elements from clusters." ], [ "When clusters are of different sizes", "Without modifying the estimated parameter, cluster sampling is unbiased when the clusters are approximately the same size.", "In this case, the parameter is computed by combining all the selected clusters.", "When the clusters are of different sizes there are several options:One method is to sample clusters and then survey all elements in that cluster.", "Another method is a two-stage method of sampling a fixed proportion of units (be it 5% or 50%, or another number, depending on cost considerations) from within each of the selected clusters.", "Relying on the sample drawn from these options will yield an unbiased estimator.", "However, the sample size is no longer fixed upfront.", "This leads to a more complicated formula for the standard error of the estimator, as well as issues with the optics of the study plan (since the power analysis and the cost estimations often relate to a specific sample size).A third possible solution is to use probability proportionate to size sampling.", "In this sampling plan, the probability of selecting a cluster is proportional to its size, so a large cluster has a greater probability of selection than a small cluster.", "The advantage here is that when clusters are selected with probability proportionate to size, the same number of interviews should be carried out in each sampled cluster so that each unit sampled has the same probability of selection." ], [ "Applications of cluster sampling", "An example of cluster sampling is area sampling or geographical cluster sampling.", "Each cluster is a geographical area in an area sampling frame.", "Because a geographically dispersed population can be expensive to survey, greater economy than simple random sampling can be achieved by grouping several respondents within a local area into a cluster.", "It is usually necessary to increase the total sample size to achieve equivalent precision in the estimators, but cost savings may make such an increase in sample size feasible.For the organization of a population census, the first step is usually dividing the overall geographic area into enumeration areas or census tracts for the field work organization.", "Enumeration areas may be also useful as first-stage units for cluster sampling in many types of surveys.", "When a population census is outdated, the list of individuals should not be directly used as sampling frame for a socio-economic survey.", "Updating the whole census is economically unfeasable.", "A good alternative may be keeping the old enumeration areas, with some update in higly dynamic areas, such as urban suburbs, selecting a sample of enumeration areas and updating the list of individuals or households only in the selected enumeration areas.", "Cluster sampling is used to estimate low mortalities in cases such as wars, famines and natural disasters.=== Fisheries science ===It is almost impossible to take a simple random sample of fish from a population, which would require that individuals are captured individually and at random.", "This is because fishing gears capture fish in groups (or clusters).", "In commercial fisheries sampling, the costs of operating at sea are often too large to select hauls individually and at random.", "Therefore, observations are further clustered by either vessel or fishing trip." ], [ "Advantages", "* Can be cheaper than other sampling plans – e.g.", "fewer travel expenses, and administration cost.", "Feasibility: This sampling plan takes large populations into account.", "Since these groups are so small, deploying any other sampling plan would be very costly.", "Economy: The regular two major concerns of expenditure, i.e., traveling and listing, are greatly reduced in this method.", "For example: Compiling research information about every household in a city would be very costly, whereas compiling information about various blocks of the city will be more economical.", "Here, traveling as well as listing efforts will be greatly reduced.", "Reduced variability: in the rare case of a negative intraclass correlation between subjects within a cluster, the estimators produced by cluster sampling will yield more accurate estimates than data obtained from a simple random sample (i.e.", "the design effect will be larger than 1).", "This is not a commonplace scenario.", "Major use: when the sampling frame of all elements is not available we can resort only to cluster sampling." ], [ "Disadvantages", " Higher sampling error, which can be expressed by the design effect: the ratio between the variance of an estimator made from the samples of the cluster study and the variance of an estimator obtained from a sample of subjects in an equally reliable, randomly sampled unclustered study.", "The larger the intraclass correlation is between subjects within a cluster the worse the design effect becomes (i.e.", "the larger it gets from 1.Indicating a larger expected increase in the variance of the estimator).", "In other words, the more there is heterogeneity between clusters and more homogeneity between subjects within a cluster, the less accurate our estimators become.", "This is because in such cases we are better on sampling as many clusters as we can and making do with a small sample of subjects from within each cluster (i.e.", "two-stage cluster sampling).Complexity.", "Cluster sampling is more sophisticated and requires more attention with how to plan and how to analyze (i.e.", ": to take into account the weights of subjects during the estimation of parameters, confidence intervals, etc.)" ], [ "More on cluster sampling", "===Two-stage cluster sampling===Two-stage cluster sampling, a simple case of multistage sampling, is obtained by selecting cluster samples in the first stage and then selecting a sample of elements from every sampled cluster.", "Consider a population of ''N'' clusters in total.", "In the first stage, ''n'' clusters are selected using the ordinary cluster sampling method.", "In the second stage, simple random sampling is usually used.", "It is used separately in every cluster and the numbers of elements selected from different clusters are not necessarily equal.", "The total number of clusters ''N'', the number of clusters selected ''n'', and the numbers of elements from selected clusters need to be pre-determined by the survey designer.", "Two-stage cluster sampling aims at minimizing survey costs and at the same time controlling the uncertainty related to estimates of interest.", "This method can be used in health and social sciences.", "For instance, researchers used two-stage cluster sampling to generate a representative sample of the Iraqi population to conduct mortality surveys.", "Sampling in this method can be quicker and more reliable than other methods, which is why this method is now used frequently.===Inference when the number of clusters is small===Cluster sampling methods can lead to significant bias when working with a small number of clusters.", "For instance, it can be necessary to cluster at the state or city-level, units that may be small and fixed in number.", "Microeconometrics methods for panel data often use short panels, which is analogous to having few observations per clusters and many clusters.", "The small cluster problem can be viewed as an incidental parameter problem.", "While the point estimates can be reasonably precisely estimated, if the number of observations per cluster is sufficiently high, we need the number of clusters for the asymptotics to kick in.", "If the number of clusters is low the estimated covariance matrix can be downward biased.Small numbers of clusters are a risk when there is serial correlation or when there is intraclass correlation as in the Moulton context.", "When having few clusters, we tend to underestimate serial correlation across observations when a random shock occurs, or the intraclass correlation in a Moulton setting.", "Several studies have highlighted the consequences of serial correlation and highlighted the small-cluster problem.In the framework of the Moulton factor, an intuitive explanation of the small cluster problem can be derived from the formula for the Moulton factor.", "Assume for simplicity that the number of observations per cluster is fixed at ''n''.", "Below, stands for the covariance matrix adjusted for clustering, stands for the covariance matrix not adjusted for clustering, and ρ stands for the intraclass correlation:: The ratio on the left-hand side indicates how much the unadjusted scenario overestimates the precision.", "Therefore, a high number means a strong downward bias of the estimated covariance matrix.", "A small cluster problem can be interpreted as a large n: when the data is fixed and the number of clusters is low, the number of data within a cluster can be high.", "It follows that inference, when the number of clusters is small, will not have the correct coverage.Several solutions for the small cluster problem have been proposed.", "One can use a bias-corrected cluster-robust variance matrix, make T-distribution adjustments, or use bootstrap methods with asymptotic refinements, such as the percentile-t or wild bootstrap, that can lead to improved finite sample inference.", "Cameron, Gelbach and Miller (2008) provide microsimulations for different methods and find that the wild bootstrap performs well in the face of a small number of clusters." ], [ "See also", " Multistage sampling* Sampling (statistics)* Simple random sampling* Stratified sampling" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Charles Baudelaire" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Charles Pierre Baudelaire''' (, ; ; 9 April 1821 – 31 August 1867) was a French poet who also worked as an essayist, art critic and translator.", "His poems are described as exhibiting mastery of rhyme and rhythm, containing an exoticism inherited from Romantics, and are based on observations of real life.His most famous work, a book of lyric poetry titled ''Les Fleurs du mal'' (''The Flowers of Evil''), expresses the changing beauty of nature in the rapidly industrialising Paris caused by Haussmann's renovation of Paris during the mid-19th century.", "Baudelaire's original style of prose-poetry influenced a generation of poets including Paul Verlaine, Arthur Rimbaud and Stéphane Mallarmé.", "He coined the term modernity (''modernité'') to designate the fleeting experience of life in an urban metropolis, and the responsibility of artistic expression to capture that experience.", "Marshall Berman has credited Baudelaire as being the first Modernist." ], [ "Early life", "Baudelaire was born in Paris, France, on 9 April 1821, and baptized two months later at Saint-Sulpice Roman Catholic Church.", "His father, Joseph-François Baudelaire (1759–1827), a senior civil servant and amateur artist, who at 60, was 34 years older than Baudelaire's 26-year-old mother, Caroline (née Dufaÿs) (1794–1871); she was his second wife.", "Joseph-François died during Baudelaire's childhood, at rue Hautefeuille, Paris, on 10 February 1827.The following year, Caroline married Lieutenant Colonel , who later became a French ambassador to various noble courts.", "Baudelaire's biographers have often seen this as a crucial moment, considering that finding himself no longer the sole focus of his mother's affection left him with a trauma, which goes some way to explaining the excesses later apparent in his life.", "He stated in a letter to her that, \"There was in my childhood a period of passionate love for you.\"", "Baudelaire regularly begged his mother for money throughout his career, often promising that a lucrative publishing contract or journalistic commission was just around the corner.Baudelaire was educated in Lyon, where he boarded.", "At 14, he was described by a classmate as \"much more refined and distinguished than any of our fellow pupils...we are bound to one another...by shared tastes and sympathies, the precocious love of fine works of literature.\"", "Baudelaire was erratic in his studies, at times diligent, at other times prone to \"idleness\".", "Later, he attended the Lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris, studying law, a popular course for those not yet decided on any particular career.", "He began to frequent prostitutes and may have contracted gonorrhea and syphilis during this period.", "He also began to run up debts, mostly for clothes.", "Upon gaining his degree in 1839, he told his brother \"I don't feel I have a vocation for anything.\"", "His stepfather had in mind a career in law or diplomacy, but instead Baudelaire decided to embark upon a literary career.", "His mother later recalled: \"Oh, what grief!", "If Charles had let himself be guided by his stepfather, his career would have been very different...He would not have left a name in literature, it is true, but we should have been happier, all three of us.", "\"Portrait of Baudelaire at 23 years old, painted in 1844 by Émile Deroy (1820–1846)His stepfather sent him on a voyage to Calcutta, India in 1841 in the hope of ending his dissolute habits.", "The trip provided strong impressions of the sea, sailing, and exotic ports, that he later employed in his poetry.", "Baudelaire later exaggerated his aborted trip to create a legend about his youthful travels and experiences, including \"riding on elephants\".", "On returning to the taverns of Paris, he began to compose some of the poems of \"Les Fleurs du Mal\".", "At 21, he received a sizable inheritance but squandered much of it within a few years.", "His family obtained a decree to place his property in trust, which he resented bitterly, at one point arguing that allowing him to fail financially would have been the one sure way of teaching him to keep his finances in order.Baudelaire became known in artistic circles as a dandy and free-spender, going through much of his inheritance and allowance in a short period of time.", "During this time, Jeanne Duval, a Haitian born actress became his mistress.", "She was rejected by his family.", "His mother thought Duval a \"Black Venus\" who \"tortured him in every way\" and drained him of money at every opportunity.", "Baudelaire made a suicide attempt during this period.He took part in the Revolutions of 1848 and wrote for a revolutionary newspaper.", "However, his interest in politics was passing, as he was later to note in his journals.In the early 1850s, Baudelaire struggled with poor health, pressing debts, and irregular literary output.", "He often moved from one lodging to another to escape creditors.", "He undertook many projects that he was unable to complete, though he did finish translations of stories by Edgar Allan Poe.Upon the death of his stepfather in 1857, Baudelaire received no mention in the will but he was heartened nonetheless that the division with his mother might now be mended.", "At 36, he wrote to her: \"believe that I belong to you absolutely, and that I belong only to you.\"", "His mother died on 16 August 1871, outliving her son by almost four years." ], [ "Publishing career", "His first published work, under the pseudonym Baudelaire Dufaÿs, was his art review \"Salon of 1845\", which attracted immediate attention for its boldness.", "Many of his critical opinions were novel in their time, including his championing of Delacroix, and some of his views seem remarkably in tune with the future theories of the Impressionist painters.In 1846, Baudelaire wrote his second Salon review, gaining additional credibility as an advocate and critic of Romanticism.", "His continued support of Delacroix as the foremost Romantic artist gained widespread notice.", "The following year Baudelaire's novella ''La Fanfarlo'' was published.===''The Flowers of Evil''===The first edition of ''Les Fleurs du mal'' with author's notesBaudelaire was a slow and very attentive worker.", "However, he often was sidetracked by indolence, emotional distress and illness, and it was not until 1857 that he published ''Les Fleurs du mal'' (''The Flowers of Evil''), his first and most famous volume of poems.", "Some of these poems had already appeared in the ''Revue des deux mondes'' (''Review of Two Worlds'') in 1855, when they were published by Baudelaire's friend Auguste Poulet-Malassis.", "Some of the poems had appeared as \"fugitive verse\" in various French magazines during the previous decade.The poems found a small, yet appreciative audience.", "However, greater public attention was given to their subject matter.", "The effect on fellow artists was, as Théodore de Banville stated, \"immense, prodigious, unexpected, mingled with admiration and with some indefinable anxious fear\".", "Gustave Flaubert, recently attacked in a similar fashion for ''Madame Bovary'' (and acquitted), was impressed and wrote to Baudelaire: \"You have found a way to rejuvenate Romanticism...You are as unyielding as marble, and as penetrating as an English mist.", "\"The principal themes of sex and death were considered scandalous for the period.", "He also touched on lesbianism, sacred and profane love, metamorphosis, melancholy, the corruption of the city, lost innocence, the oppressiveness of living, and wine.", "Notable in some poems is Baudelaire's use of imagery of the sense of smell and of fragrances, which is used to evoke feelings of nostalgia and past intimacy.The book, however, quickly became a byword for unwholesomeness among mainstream critics of the day.", "Some critics called a few of the poems \"masterpieces of passion, art and poetry,\" but other poems were deemed to merit no less than legal action to suppress them.", "J. Habas led the charge against Baudelaire, writing in : \"Everything in it which is not hideous is incomprehensible, everything one understands is putrid.\"", "Baudelaire responded to the outcry in a prophetic letter to his mother:\"You know that I have always considered that literature and the arts pursue an aim independent of morality.", "Beauty of conception and style is enough for me.", "But this book, whose title (''Fleurs du mal'') says everything, is clad, as you will see, in a cold and sinister beauty.", "It was created with rage and patience.", "Besides, the proof of its positive worth is in all the ill that they speak of it.", "The book enrages people.", "Moreover, since I was terrified myself of the horror that I should inspire, I cut out a third from the proofs.", "They deny me everything, the spirit of invention and even the knowledge of the French language.", "I don't care a rap about all these imbeciles, and I know that this book, with its virtues and its faults, will make its way in the memory of the lettered public, beside the best poems of V. Hugo, Th.", "Gautier and even Byron.", "\"Illustration cover for ''Les Épaves'', by Baudelaire's friend Félicien RopsBaudelaire, his publisher and the printer were successfully prosecuted for creating an offense against public morals.", "They were fined, but Baudelaire was not imprisoned.", "Six of the poems were suppressed, but printed later as ''Les Épaves'' (''The Wrecks'') (Brussels, 1866).", "Another edition of ''Les Fleurs du mal'', without these poems, but with considerable additions, appeared in 1861.Many notables rallied behind Baudelaire and condemned the sentence.", "Victor Hugo wrote to him: \"Your ''fleurs du mal'' shine and dazzle like stars...I applaud your vigorous spirit with all my might.\"", "Baudelaire did not appeal the judgment, but his fine was reduced.", "Nearly 100 years later, on 11 May 1949, Baudelaire was vindicated, the judgment officially reversed, and the six banned poems reinstated in France.In the poem \"Au lecteur\" (\"To the Reader\") that prefaces ''Les Fleurs du mal'', Baudelaire accuses his readers of hypocrisy and of being as guilty of sins and lies as the poet::...", "If rape or arson, poison or the knife:Has wove no pleasing patterns in the stuff:Of this drab canvas we accept as life—:It is because we are not bold enough!", "::(Roy Campbell's translation)" ], [ "Final years", "Nadar, 1855Baudelaire next worked on a translation and adaptation of Thomas De Quincey's ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater''.", "Other works in the years that followed included ''Petits Poèmes en prose'' (''Small Prose poems''); a series of art reviews published in the ''Pays, Exposition universelle'' (''Country, World Fair''); studies on Gustave Flaubert (in ''L'Artiste'', 18 October 1857); on Théophile Gautier (''Revue contemporaine'', September 1858); various articles contributed to Eugène Crépet's ''Poètes français''; ''Les Paradis artificiels: opium et haschisch'' (''French poets; Artificial Paradises: opium and hashish'') (1860); and ''Un Dernier Chapitre de l'histoire des oeuvres de Balzac'' (''A Final Chapter of the history of works of Balzac'') (1880), originally an article \"Comment on paye ses dettes quand on a du génie\" (\"How one pays one's debts when one has genius\"), in which his criticism turns against his friends Honoré de Balzac, Théophile Gautier, and Gérard de Nerval.Jeanne Duval, painted by Édouard Manet in 1862 (Budapest Museum of Fine Arts)Apollonie Sabatier, muse and one-time mistress, painted by Vincent VidalBy 1859, his illnesses, his long-term use of laudanum, his life of stress, and his poverty had taken a toll and Baudelaire had aged noticeably.", "But at last, his mother relented and agreed to let him live with her for a while at Honfleur.", "Baudelaire was productive and at peace in the seaside town, his poem ''Le Voyage'' being one example of his efforts during that time.", "In 1860, he became an ardent supporter of Richard Wagner.His financial difficulties increased again, however, particularly after his publisher Poulet Malassis went bankrupt in 1861.In 1864, he left Paris for Belgium, partly in the hope of selling the rights to his works and to give lectures.", "His long-standing relationship with Jeanne Duval continued on-and-off, and he helped her to the end of his life.", "Baudelaire's relationships with actress Marie Daubrun and with courtesan Apollonie Sabatier, though the source of much inspiration, never produced any lasting satisfaction.", "He smoked opium, and in Brussels he began to drink to excess.", "Baudelaire suffered a massive stroke in 1866 and paralysis followed.", "After more than a year of aphasia, he received the last rites of the Catholic Church.", "The last year of his life was spent in a semi-paralyzed state in various \"maisons de santé\" in Brussels and in Paris, where he died on 31 August 1867.Baudelaire is buried in the Cimetière du Montparnasse, Paris.Many of Baudelaire's works were published posthumously.", "After his death, his mother paid off his substantial debts, and she found some comfort in Baudelaire's emerging fame.", "\"I see that my son, for all his faults, has his place in literature.\"", "She lived another four years." ], [ "Poetry", "Baudelaire is one of the major innovators in French literature.", "His poetry is influenced by the French romantic poets of the earlier 19th century, although its attention to the formal features of verse connects it more closely to the work of the contemporary \"Parnassians\".", "As for theme and tone, in his works we see the rejection of the belief in the supremacy of nature and the fundamental goodness of man as typically espoused by the romantics and expressed by them in rhetorical, effusive and public voice in favor of a new urban sensibility, an awareness of individual moral complexity, an interest in vice (linked with decadence) and refined sensual and aesthetic pleasures, and the use of urban subject matter, such as the city, the crowd, individual passers-by, all expressed in highly ordered verse, sometimes through a cynical and ironic voice.", "Formally, the use of sound to create atmosphere, and of \"symbols\" (images that take on an expanded function within the poem), betray a move towards considering the poem as a self-referential object, an idea further developed by the Symbolists Verlaine and Mallarmé, who acknowledge Baudelaire as a pioneer in this regard.Beyond his innovations in versification and the theories of symbolism and \"correspondences\", an awareness of which is essential to any appreciation of the literary value of his work, aspects of his work that regularly receive much critical discussion include the role of women, the theological direction of his work and his alleged advocacy of \"satanism\", his experience of drug-induced states of mind, the figure of the dandy, his stance regarding democracy and its implications for the individual, his response to the spiritual uncertainties of the time, his criticisms of the bourgeois, and his advocacy of modern music and painting (e.g., Wagner, Delacroix).", "He made Paris the subject of modern poetry.", "He brought the city's details to life in the eyes and hearts of his readers." ], [ "Critiques", "Portrait by Gustave Courbet, 1848Baudelaire was an active participant in the artistic life of his times.", "As critic and essayist, he wrote extensively and perceptively about the luminaries and themes of French culture.", "He was frank with friends and enemies, rarely took the diplomatic approach and sometimes responded violently verbally, which often undermined his cause.", "His associations were numerous, including Gustave Courbet, Honoré Daumier, Félicien Rops, Franz Liszt, Champfleury, Victor Hugo, Gustave Flaubert, and Balzac.===Edgar Allan Poe===In 1847, Baudelaire became acquainted with the works of Poe, in which he found tales and poems that had, he claimed, long existed in his own brain but never taken shape.", "Baudelaire saw in Poe a precursor and tried to be his French contemporary counterpart.", "From this time until 1865, he was largely occupied with translating Poe's works; his translations were widely praised.", "Baudelaire was not the first French translator of Poe, but his \"scrupulous translations\" were considered among the best.", "These were published as ''Histoires extraordinaires'' (''Extraordinary stories'') (1856), ''Nouvelles histoires extraordinaires'' (''New extraordinary stories'') (1857), ''Aventures d'Arthur Gordon Pym'', ''Eureka'', and ''Histoires grotesques et sérieuses'' (''Grotesque and serious stories'') (1865).", "Two essays on Poe are to be found in his ''Œuvres complètes'' (''Complete works'') (vols.", "v. and vi.", ").===Eugène Delacroix===A strong supporter of the Romantic painter Delacroix, Baudelaire called him \"a poet in painting\".", "Baudelaire also absorbed much of Delacroix's aesthetic ideas as expressed in his journals.", "As Baudelaire elaborated in his \"Salon of 1846\", \"As one contemplates his series of pictures, one seems to be attending the celebration of some grievous mystery...This grave and lofty melancholy shines with a dull light.. plaintive and profound like a melody by Weber.\"", "Delacroix, though appreciative, kept his distance from Baudelaire, particularly after the scandal of ''Les Fleurs du mal''.", "In private correspondence, Delacroix stated that Baudelaire \"really gets on my nerves\" and he expressed his unhappiness with Baudelaire's persistent comments about \"melancholy\" and \"feverishness\".===Richard Wagner===Baudelaire had no formal musical training, and knew little of composers beyond Beethoven and Weber.", "Weber was in some ways Wagner's precursor, using the leitmotif and conceiving the idea of the \"total art work\" (\"Gesamtkunstwerk\"), both of which gained Baudelaire's admiration.", "Before even hearing Wagner's music, Baudelaire studied reviews and essays about him, and formulated his impressions.", "Later, Baudelaire put them into his non-technical analysis of Wagner, which was highly regarded, particularly his essay \"Richard Wagner et Tannhäuser à Paris\".", "Baudelaire's reaction to music was passionate and psychological.", "\"Music engulfs (possesses) me like the sea.\"", "After attending three Wagner concerts in Paris in 1860, Baudelaire wrote to the composer: \"I had a feeling of pride and joy in understanding, in being possessed, in being overwhelmed, a truly sensual pleasure like that of rising in the air.\"", "Baudelaire's writings contributed to the elevation of Wagner and to the cult of Wagnerism that swept Europe in the following decades.===Théophile Gautier===Gautier, writer and poet, earned Baudelaire's respect for his perfection of form and his mastery of language, though Baudelaire thought he lacked deeper emotion and spirituality.", "Both strove to express the artist's inner vision, which Heinrich Heine earlier stated: \"In artistic matters, I am a supernaturalist.", "I believe that the artist can not find all his forms in nature, but that the most remarkable are revealed to him in his soul.\"", "Gautier's frequent meditations on death and the horror of life are themes which influenced Baudelaire's writings.", "In gratitude for their friendship and commonality of vision, Baudelaire dedicated ''Les Fleurs du mal'' to Gautier.===Édouard Manet=== (1869 print of 1865 etching) by Édouard Manet Manet and Baudelaire became constant companions from around 1855.In the early 1860s, Baudelaire accompanied Manet on daily sketching trips and often met him socially.", "Manet also lent Baudelaire money and looked after his affairs, particularly when Baudelaire went to Belgium.", "Baudelaire encouraged Manet to strike out on his own path and not succumb to criticism.", "\"Manet has great talent, a talent which will stand the test of time.", "But he has a weak character.", "He seems to me crushed and stunned by shock.\"", "In his painting ''Music in the Tuileries'', Manet includes portraits of his friends Théophile Gautier, Jacques Offenbach, and Baudelaire.", "While it's difficult to differentiate who influenced whom, both Manet and Baudelaire discussed and expressed some common themes through their respective arts.", "Baudelaire praised the modernity of Manet's subject matter: \"almost all our originality comes from the stamp that 'time' imprints upon our feelings.\"", "When Manet's famous ''Olympia'' (1865), a portrait of a nude prostitute, provoked a scandal for its blatant realism mixed with an imitation of Renaissance motifs, Baudelaire worked privately to support his friend, though he offered no public defense (he was, however, ill at the time).", "When Baudelaire returned from Belgium after his stroke, Manet and his wife were frequent visitors at the nursing home and she played passages from Wagner for Baudelaire on the piano.===Nadar===Nadar (Félix Tournachon) was a noted caricaturist, scientist and important early photographer.", "Baudelaire admired Nadar, one of his close friends, and wrote: \"Nadar is the most amazing manifestation of vitality.\"", "They moved in similar circles and Baudelaire made many social connections through him.", "Nadar's ex-mistress Jeanne Duval became Baudelaire's mistress around 1842.Baudelaire became interested in photography in the 1850s, and denouncing it as an art form, advocated its return to \"its real purpose, which is that of being the servant to the sciences and arts\".", "Photography should not, according to Baudelaire, encroach upon \"the domain of the impalpable and the imaginary\".", "Nadar remained a stalwart friend right to Baudelaire's last days and wrote his obituary notice in ." ], [ "Philosophy", "Many of Baudelaire's philosophical proclamations were considered scandalous and intentionally provocative in his time.", "He wrote on a wide range of subjects, drawing criticism and outrage from many quarters.", "Along with Poe, Baudelaire named the arch-reactionary Joseph de Maistre as his ''maître à penser'' and adopted increasingly aristocratic views.", "In his journals, he wrote:" ], [ "Influence and legacy", "Cenotaph of Charles Baudelaire, Montparnasse CemeteryGrave of Baudelaire in Cimetière du MontparnasseBaudelaire's influence on the direction of modern French (and English) language literature was considerable.", "The most significant French writers to come after him were generous with tributes; four years after his death, Arthur Rimbaud praised him in a letter as \"the king of poets, a true God\".", "In 1895, Stéphane Mallarmé published \"Le Tombeau de Charles Baudelaire\", a sonnet in Baudelaire's memory.", "Marcel Proust, in an essay published in 1922, stated that, along with Alfred de Vigny, Baudelaire was \"the greatest poet of the nineteenth century\".In the English-speaking world, Edmund Wilson credited Baudelaire as providing an initial impetus for the Symbolist movement by virtue of his translations of Poe.", "In 1930, T. S. Eliot, while asserting that Baudelaire had not yet received a \"just appreciation\" even in France, claimed that the poet had \"great genius\" and asserted that his \"technical mastery which can hardly be overpraised...has made his verse an inexhaustible study for later poets, not only in his own language\".", "In a lecture delivered in French on \"Edgar Allan Poe and France\" (Edgar Poe et la France) in Aix-en-Provence in April 1948, Eliot stated that \"I am an English poet of American origin who learnt his art under the aegis of Baudelaire and the Baudelairian lineage of poets.\"", "Eliot also alluded to Baudelaire's poetry directly in his own poetry.", "For example, he quoted the last line of Baudelaire's \"Au Lecteur\" in the last line of Section I of ''The Waste Land''.At the same time that Eliot was affirming Baudelaire's importance from a broadly conservative and explicitly Christian viewpoint, left-wing critics such as Wilson and Walter Benjamin were able to do so from a dramatically different perspective.", "Benjamin translated Baudelaire's ''Tableaux Parisiens'' into German and published a major essay on translation as the foreword.In the late 1930s, Benjamin used Baudelaire as a starting point and focus for ''Das Passagenwerk'', his monumental attempt at a materialist assessment of 19th-century culture.", "For Benjamin, Baudelaire's importance lay in his anatomies of the crowd, of the city and of modernity.", "He says that, in ''Les Fleurs du mal'', \"the specific devaluation of the world of things, as manifested in the commodity, is the foundation of Baudelaire's allegorical intention.", "\"François Porche published a poetry collection called ''Charles Baudelaire: Poetry Collection'' in memory of Baudelaire.The novel ''A Singular Conspiracy'' (1974) by Barry Perowne is a fictional treatment of the unaccounted period in Edgar Allan Poe's life from January to May 1844, in which (among other things) Poe becomes involved with a young Baudelaire in a plot to expose Baudelaires' stepfather to blackmail, to free up Baudelaires' patrimony.Vanderbilt University has \"assembled one of the world's most comprehensive research collections on...Baudelaire\".", "''Les Fleurs du mal'' has a number of scholarly references." ], [ "Works", "Baudelaire, Bibliothèque de la Pléiade, ''Œuvres complètes'' (''Complete Works''), volume I.", "* ''Salon de 1845'', 1845* ''Salon de 1846'', 1846* ''La Fanfarlo'', 1847* ''Les Fleurs du mal'', 1857* ''Les paradis artificiels'', 1860* ''Réflexions sur Quelques-uns de mes Contemporains'', 1861* ''Le Peintre de la Vie Moderne'', 1863* ''Curiosités Esthétiques'', 1868* ''L'art romantique'', 1868* ''Le Spleen de Paris'', 1869.", "''Paris Spleen'' (Contra Mundum Press: 2021)* ''Translations from Charles Baudelaire'', 1869 (Early English translation of several of Baudelaire's poems, by Richard Herne Shepherd)* ''Œuvres Posthumes et Correspondance Générale'', 1887–1907* ''Fusées'', 1897* ''Mon Cœur Mis à Nu'', 1897.", "''My Heart Laid Bare & Other Texts'' (Contra Mundum Press: 2017; 2020)* ''Œuvres Complètes'', 1922–53 (19 vols.", ")* ''Mirror of Art'', 1955* ''The Essence of Laughter'', 1956* ''Curiosités Esthétiques'', 1962* ''The Painter of Modern Life and Other Essays'', 1964* ''Baudelaire as a Literary Critic'', 1964* ''Arts in Paris 1845–1862'', 1965* ''Selected Writings on Art and Artists'', 1972* ''Selected Letters of Charles Baudelaire'', 1986* ''Twenty Prose Poems'', 1988* ''Critique d'art; Critique musicale'', 1992* ''Belgium Stripped Bare'' (Contra Mundum Press: 2019)===Musical adaptations===* French composer Claude Debussy set five of Baudelaire's poems to music in 1890: ''Cinq poèmes de Charles Baudelaire'' (''Le Balcon'', ''Harmonie du soir'', ''Le Jet d'eau'', ''Recueillement'' and ''La Mort des amants'').", "* French composer Henri Duparc set two of Baudelaire's poems to music: \"L'Invitation au voyage\" in 1870, and \"La vie antérieure\" in 1884.", "* English composer Mark-Anthony Turnage composed settings of two of Baudelaire's poems, \"Harmonie du soir\" and \"L'Invitation au voyage\", for soprano and seven instruments.", "* American electronic musician Ruth White recorded some of Baudelaire's poems in ''Les Fleurs du Mal'' as chants over electronic music in a 1969 recording, ''Flowers of Evil''.", "* French singer-songwriter Léo Ferré devoted himself to set Baudelaire's poetry into music in three albums: ''Les Fleurs du mal'' in 1957 (12 poems), ''Léo Ferré chante Baudelaire'' in 1967 (24 poems, including one from ''Le Spleen de Paris''), and the posthumous ''Les Fleurs du mal (suite et fin)'' (21 poems), recorded in 1977 but released in 2008.", "* Soviet/Russian composer David Tukhmanov has set Baudelaire's poem to music (cult album ''On a Wave of My Memory'', 1975).", "* American avant-garde composer, vocalist and performer Diamanda Galás made an interpretation in original French of ''Les Litanies de Satan'' from ''Les Fleurs du mal'', in her debut album titled ''The Litanies of Satan'', which consists of tape and electronics effects with layers of her voice.", "* French singer David TMX recorded the poems \"Lesbos\" and \"Une Charogne\" from ''The Flowers of Evil''.", "* French metal/shoegaze groups Alcest and Amesoeurs used his poetry for the lyrics of the tracks \"Élévation\" (on ''Le Secret'') and \"Recueillement\" (on ''Amesoeurs''), respectively.", "Celtic Frost used his poem ''Tristesses de la lune'' as a lyrics for song on album ''Into the Pandemonium''.", "* French Black Metal bands Mortifera and Peste Noire used Baudelaire's poems as lyrics for the songs \"Le revenant\" and \"Ciel brouillé\" (on ''Vastiia Tenebrd Mortifera'' by Mortifera) and \"Le mort joyeux\" and \"Spleen\" (on ''La Sanie des siècles – Panégyrique de la dégénérescence'' by Peste Noire)* Israeli singer Maor Cohen's 2005 album, the Hebrew name of which translates to French as \"Les Fleurs du Mal\", is a compilation of songs from Baudelaire's book of the same name.", "The texts were translated to Hebrew by Israeli poet Dori Manor, and the music was composed by Cohen.", "* Italian singer Franco Battiato set ''Invitation au voyage'' to music as ''Invito Al Viaggio'' on his 1999 album ''Fleurs (Esempi Affini di Scritture e Simili)''.", "* American composer Gérard Pape set ''Tristesses de la lune/Sorrows of the Moon'' from ''Fleurs du Mal'' for voice and electronic tape.", "* French band Marc Seberg wrote an adaptation of Recueillement for their 1985 album ''Le Chant Des Terres''.", "Dutch composer Marjo Tal set several of Baudelaire's poems to music.", " Russian heavy metal band Black Obelisk used Russian translations of several Baudelaire poems as lyrics for their songs.", "* French singer Mylène Farmer performed \"L'Horloge\" to music by Laurent Boutonnat on the album ''Ainsi soit je'' and the opening number of her 1989 concert tour.", "On her latest album \"Désobéissance\" (2018) she recorded Baudelaire's preface to \"Les Fleurs du Mal\", \"Au lecteur\".", "The French journalist Hugues Royer mentioned several allusions and interpretations of Baudelaire's poems and quotations used by Farmer in various songs in his book \"Mylène\" (published in 2008).", "* In 2009 the Italian rock band C.F.F.", "e il Nomade Venerabile released ''Un jour noir'', a song inspired by ''Spleen'', contained in the album ''Lucidinervi'' (Otium Records / Compagnia Nuove Indye).", "The video clip is available on YouTube.", "* German aggrotech band C-Drone-Defect used the translation of \"Le Rebelle\" by Roy Campbell as lyrics for the song \"Rebellis\" on their 2009 album ''Dystopia''.", "* English rock band The Cure used the translation of \"Les yeux des pauvres\" as lyrics for the song \"How Beautiful You Are\".", "* French singer-songwriter and musician Serge Gainsbourg has set Baudelaire's poem \"Dancing Snake\" (Le serpent qui danse) to music in his 1964 song \"Baudelaire\".", "* Greek black metal band Rotting Christ adapted Baudelaire's poem \"Les Litanies de Satan\" from ''Fleurs du mal'' for a song of the same name in their 2016 album ''Rituals''.", "Fellow Greek band Necromantia has also adapted the same poem on their 1993 debut ''Crossing the Fiery Path''.", "* Belgian female-fronted band Exsangue released the debut video for the single \"A une Malabaraise\", and the lyrics are based on Baudelaire's same-named sonnet in 2016.", "* Belgian electronic music band Modern Cubism has released two albums where poems of Baudelaire are used as lyrics, ''Les Plaintes d'un Icare'' in 2008, and live album ''Live Complaints'' in 2010.", "* American rapper Tyler, the Creator released his album ''Call Me If You Get Lost'' in 2021.Throughout the album, Tyler, the Creator refers to himself as \"Tyler Baudelaire\".", "* Canadian singer-songwriter Pierre Lapointe set Baudelaire's poem \"Le serpent qui danse\" to music on his 2022 album ''L'heure mauve''.", "\"L'Invitation au voyage\" makes up the lyrics to two tracks on ''I've Seen a Way'' from Mandy, Indiana in 2023." ], [ "See also", " ''Épater la bourgeoisie''" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Sources===* * Pichois, Claude, ''Baudelaire'' (Hamish Hamilton, 1989) translated by Graham Robb, with research by Jean Ziegler.", "" ], [ "External links", " Charles Baudelaire's Cats* The Baudelaire Song Project – site of The Baudelaire Song Project, a UK-based AHRC-funded academic project examining song settings of Baudelaire's poetry* Twilight to Dawn: Charles Baudelaire – Cordite Poetry Review* www.baudelaire.cz – largest Internet site dedicated to Charles Baudelaire.", "Poems and prose are available in English, French and Czech.", "* Charles Baudelaire – site dedicated to Baudelaire's poems and prose, containing ''Fleurs du mal'', ''Petit poemes et prose'', ''Fanfarlo'' and more in French* Charles Baudelaire International Association* Nikolas Kompridis on Baudelaire's poetry, art, and the \"memory of loss\" (Flash/HTML5)* baudelaireetbengale.blogspot.com – the influence of Baudelaire on Bengali poetry Harmonie du soir – Tina Noiret===Online texts===*** Charles Baudelaire – largest site dedicated to Baudelaire's poems and prose, containing ''Fleurs du mal'', ''Petit poemes et prose'', ''Fanfarlo'' and more in French* Poems by Charles Baudelaire – selected works at Poetry Archive* Baudelaire's poems at Poems Found in Translation* Baudelaire – Eighteen Poems* \"baudelaire in english\", Onedit.net – Sean Bonney's experimental translations of Baudelaire (humor)* Works by Charles Baudelaire * Baudelaire par ses Amis====Single works====* FleursDuMal.org – Definitive online presentation of ''Fleurs du mal'', featuring the original French alongside multiple English translations* An illustrated version (8 Mb) of ''Les Fleurs du Mal'', 1861 edition (Charles Baudelaire / une édition illustrée par inkwatercolor.com)* \"The Rebel\" – poem by Baudelaire* Les Foules (The Crowds) – English translation" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Casey at the Bat" ], [ "Introduction", "\"Casey at the Bat\" as it first appeared, June 3, 1888\"'''Casey at the Bat: A Ballad of the Republic, Sung in the Year 1888'''\" is a mock-heroic poem written in 1888 by Ernest Thayer.", "It was first published anonymously in ''The San Francisco Examiner'' (then called ''The Daily Examiner'') on June 3, 1888, under the pen name \"Phin\", based on Thayer's college nickname, \"Phinney\".", "Featuring a dramatic narrative about a baseball game, the poem was later popularized by DeWolf Hopper in many vaudeville performances.", "It has become one of the best-known poems in American literature." ], [ "Synopsis", "A baseball team from the fictional town of \"Mudville\" (the home team) is losing by two runs in its last inning.", "Both the team and its fans, a crowd of 5,000, believe that they can win if Casey, Mudville's star player, gets to bat.", "However, Casey is scheduled to be the fifth batter of the inning, and the first two batters (Cooney and Barrows) fail to get on base.", "The next two batters (Flynn and Jimmy Blake) are perceived to be weak hitters with little chance of reaching base to allow Casey a chance to bat.Surprisingly, Flynn hits a single, and Blake follows with a double that allows Flynn to reach third base.", "Both runners are now in scoring position and Casey represents the potential winning run.", "Casey is so sure of his abilities that he does not swing at the first two pitches, both called strikes.", "On the last pitch, the overconfident Casey strikes out swinging, ending the game and sending the crowd home unhappy." ], [ "Text", "The text is filled with references to baseball as it was in 1888, which in many ways is not far removed from today's version.", "As a work, the poem encapsulates much of the appeal of baseball, including the involvement of the crowd.", "It also has a fair amount of baseball jargon that can pose challenges for the uninitiated.This is the complete poem as it originally appeared in ''The Daily Examiner''.", "After publication, various versions with minor changes were produced." ], [ "Inspiration", "Thayer said he chose the name \"Casey\" after a non-player of Irish ancestry he once knew named Daniel H. Casey; it is open to debate whom, if anyone, he modeled the character after.", "It has been reported that Thayer's best friend Samuel Winslow, who played baseball at Harvard, was the inspiration for Casey.Another candidate is National League player Mike \"King\" Kelly, who became famous when Boston paid Chicago a record $10,000 for him.", "He had a personality that fans liked to cheer or jeer.", "After the 1887 season, Kelly went on a playing tour to San Francisco.", "Thayer, who wrote \"Casey\" in 1888, covered the San Francisco leg for the ''San Francisco Examiner''.Thayer, in a letter he wrote in 1905, mentions Kelly as showing \"impudence\" in claiming to have written the poem.", "The author of the 2004 definitive biography of Kelly—which included a close tracking of his vaudeville career—did not find Kelly claiming to have been the author." ], [ "Composition and publication history", "\"Casey at the Bat\" was first published in ''The Daily Examiner'' on June 3, 1888.A month after the poem was published, it was reprinted as \"Kelly at the Bat\" in the ''New York Sporting Times''.Aside from omitting the first five verses, the only changes from the original are substitutions of Kelly for Casey, and Boston for Mudville.", "King Kelly, then of the Boston Beaneaters, was one of baseball's two biggest stars at the time (along with Cap Anson).In 1897, the magazine ''Current Literature'' noted the two versions and said, \"The locality, as originally given, is Mudville, not Boston; the latter was substituted to give the poem local color.\"" ], [ "Live performances", "1909 theatrical poster with DeWolf Hopper in A Matinee IdolDeWolf Hopper gave the poem's first stage recitation on August 14, 1888, at New York's Wallack Theatre as part of the comic opera ''Prinz Methusalem'' in the presence of the Chicago White Stockings and New York Giants baseball teams; August 14, 1888 was also Thayer's 25th birthday.", "Hopper became known as an orator of the poem, and recited it more than 10,000 times (by his count—some tabulations are as much as four times higher) before his death.On stage in the early 1890s, baseball star Kelly recited the original \"Casey\" a few dozen times and not the parody.", "For example, in a review in 1893 of a variety show he was in, the ''Indianapolis News'' said, \"Many who attended the performance had heard of Kelly's singing and his reciting, and many had heard De Wolf Hopper recite 'Casey at the Bat' in his inimitable way.", "Kelly recited this in a sing-song, school-boy fashion.\"", "Upon Kelly's death, a writer would say he gained \"considerable notoriety by his ludicrous rendition of 'Casey at the Bat,' with which he concluded his 'turn' act at each performance.", "\"During the 1980s, the magic/comedy team Penn & Teller performed a version of \"Casey at the Bat\" with Teller (the \"silent\" partner) struggling to escape a straitjacket while suspended upside-down over a platform of sharp steel spikes.", "The set-up was that Penn Jillette would leap off his chair upon finishing the poem, releasing the rope which supported Teller, and send Teller to a gruesome death if Teller had failed to free himself by that time.", "Jillette enhanced the drama of the performance by drastically accelerating the pace of his recital after the first few stanzas, greatly reducing the time that Teller had left to work free from his bonds." ], [ "Recordings", "The first recorded version of \"Casey at the Bat\" was made by Russell Hunting, speaking in a broad Irish accent, in 1893; an 1898 cylinder recording of the text made for the Columbia Graphophone label by Hunting can be accessed from the Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Project at the University of California, Santa Barbara Library.DeWolf Hopper's more famous recorded recitation was released in October 1906.In 1946, Walt Disney released a recording of the narration of the poem by Jerry Colonna, which accompanied the studio's animated cartoon adaptation of the poem (see below).In 1973, the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra commissioned its former Composer-in-Residence, Frank Proto, to create a work to feature Baseball Hall-of-Famer Johnny Bench with the orchestra.", "The result \"Casey At The Bat – an American Folk Tale for Narrator and Orchestra\" was an immediate hit and recorded by Bench and the orchestra.", "It has since been performed more than 800 times by nearly every major and Metropolitan orchestra in the U.S. and Canada.In 1980, baseball pitcher Tug McGraw recorded ''Casey at The Bat—an American Folk Tale for Narrator and Orchestra'' by Frank Proto with Peter Nero and the Philly Pops.In 1996, actor James Earl Jones recorded the poem with arranger/composer Steven Reineke and the Cincinnati Pops Orchestra.On a 1997 CD set with memorable moments and stories from the game of baseball titled ''Take Me Out to the Ball Game'' produced by Jerry Hoffman and Douglas Duer, a Vincent Price oration of the poem is a slightly altered version of the original.In 1998, actor Sir Derek Jacobi recorded the poem with composer/arranger Randol Alan Bass and the National Symphony of London, with the composer conducting.", "This work, titled \"Casey at the Bat\", has been recorded by the Boston Pops Orchestra, Keith Lockhart conducting.In 2013, Dave Jageler and Charlie Slowes, both radio announcers for the Washington Nationals, each made recordings of the poem for the Library of Congress to mark the 125th anniversary of its first publication.In 2022 The Rose Theatre Co. recorded it as an episode on ''The Rose Rhapsody'' podcast featuring a performance by veteran DC actor and vocal artist Jim Brady." ], [ "Mudville", "A rivalry of sorts has developed between two cities claiming to be the Mudville described in the poem.Holliston, Massachusetts – Mudville Village, Statue and Plaque Dedicated to \"Casey\" of \"Casey at the Bat\" Holliston, Massachusetts – Mudville Village, Welcome SignResidents of Holliston, Massachusetts, where there is a neighborhood called Mudville, claim it as the Mudville described in the poem.", "Thayer grew up in nearby Worcester, Massachusetts, where he wrote the poem in 1888; his family owned a wool mill less than from Mudville's baseball field.However, residents of Stockton, California—which was known for a time as Mudville prior to incorporation in 1850—also lay claim to being the inspiration for the poem.", "In 1887, Thayer covered baseball for ''The Daily Examiner''—owned by his Harvard classmate William Randolph Hearst—and is said to have covered the local California League team, the Stockton Ports.", "For the 1902 season, after the poem became popular, Stockton's team was renamed the Mudville Nine.", "The team reverted to the Mudville Nine moniker for the 2000 and 2001 seasons.", "The Visalia Rawhide, another California League team, currently keeps Mudville alive playing in Mudville jerseys on June 3 each year.Despite the towns' rival claims, Thayer himself told the ''Syracuse Post-Standard'' that \"the poem has no basis in fact.\"" ], [ "Adaptations", "Tim Wiles, former Director of Research at the Baseball Hall of Fame Library in Cooperstown, frequently dresses as Casey to recite the poem.The poem has been adapted to diverse types of media:===Books===Ralph Andreano's 1965 book, ''No Joy in Mudville'', laments the death of heroes in modern baseball.", "In the book ''Faithful'' by Steward O'Nan and Stephen King, describing the 2004 season of the Boston Red Sox, a chapter contributed by King is named \"The Gloom is gone from Mudville\".", "Wallace Tripp illustrated a popular 1978 book of the poem.", "Kurtis Scaletta's 2009 children's novel, ''Mudville'', is about a town where it has been raining for 22 years, delaying a baseball game between two rival towns.", "Christopher Bing's 2000 children's book, an illustrated version of the original poem by Thayer, won a Caldecott Honor for its line drawing illustrations made to look like newspaper articles from 1888.", "Del Leonard Jones’ 2020 historical novel ''At The Bat: The Strikeout That Shamed America'', is based on the poem as told from the umpire's point of view.", "Goodreads ranks it as the third best baseball novel.===Comics===Marvel Comics published a spoof in August 1969, in the 9th issue of ''Not Brand Echh'', featuring parodies of their popular heroes and villains, and the Bulk (parody of the Hulk) as Casey.", "DC Comics' series ''Fables'' from the Vertigo Comics imprint featured an adaptation titled \"Out to the Ball Game\", which features a similar baseball match, with Weyland Smith playing the part of Casey against a team of goblins.===Film===In 1922, Lee De Forest recorded DeWolf Hopper reciting the poem in DeForest's Phonofilm sound-on-film process.", "In 1927, a feature-length silent film ''Casey at the Bat'' was released, starring Wallace Beery, Ford Sterling, and ZaSu Pitts.", "At least three other films based on Thayer's poem preceded this 1927 release: an Edison short in 1899, another short starring Harry T. Morey in 1913, and a five-reel feature starring DeWolf Hopper in 1916.", "Walt Disney Productions produced an Animated Segment adaptation of the poem for the film ''Make Mine Music'' (1946) and uses the original text, but is set in 1902 according to the opening song's lyrics, instead of 1888.This version is recited by Jerry Colonna.", "It was later released as an individual short on July 16, 1954.Several differences and expansions from the original text include, but are not limited to; the team playing against Mudville is identified as Burbank, Barrows failing to get on base when he smacks the ball back into the pitcher's mitt, Flynn hitting a single (much to his own surprise) due to trying to get his bat out of his mustache which got caught in it.", "Blake got a double due to an attempt by the visiting team's catcher to set his foot on fire.", "All the human characters in this cartoon have hands with 4 fingers instead of the real-life 5 fingers.", "There is also an ending when at the now-storm racked pitch following Casey's strike out, Casey takes out his failure by chasing the ball across the pitch whilst trying to hit it.", "A sequel short was also produced Casey Bats Again and released on June 18, 1954.", "The poem is cited in Frederic Wiseman's documentary ''High School'' (1968) by a teacher in a classroom.", "A 1976 animated short adaptation, featuring narration by Paul Frees, was released in 1976 by Fine Arts Films.", "In 1986, Elliott Gould starred as \"Casey\" in the ''Shelley Duvall's Tall Tales and Legends'' adaptation of the story, which also starred Carol Kane, Howard Cosell, Bob Uecker, Bill Macy and Rae Dawn Chong.", "The screenplay, adapted from the poem, was written by Andy Borowitz and the production was directed by David Steinberg.", "In ''The Dream Team'' (1989), Michael Keaton's character announces that \"there is no joy in Mudville\" after giving a fellow mental patient three \"strikes\" for psychotic behavior.", "In 1993 the last paragraph is quoted in the film ''Short Cuts'' (by Robert Altman), when Lyle Lovett as Andy Bitkower is calling anonymously Andie MacDowell as Ann Finnigan in minute 01:34:58.", "In the film ''What Women Want'' (2000), Mel Gibson's character tries to block out his daughter's thoughts by muttering the poem under his breath.", "The poem is briefly cited in the revised version of ''Bad News Bears'' (2005).=== Radio ===The poem was adapted for an episode of ''On Stage'' that aired on CBS on April 16, 1953.It was written by E. Jack Neuman and starred Elliott Lewis, Cathy Lewis, Hy Averback, Herb Butterfield, Byron Kane, Peter Leeds, Hal March, Howard McNear, and Sidney Miller.", "Radio personality Casey Kasem self-identified on-air as \"Casey at the mic.", "\"===Television===Jackie Gleason in his \"Reginald Van Gleason III\" persona (in full Mudville baseball uniform) performed a recitation of the poem on his ''And Awaaaay We Go!''", "album.", "Season 1, episode 35 of ''The Twilight Zone'', \"The Mighty Casey\", concerns a baseball player who is actually a robot (June 17, 1960).", "In the ''Northern Exposure'' episode \"The Graduate\", Chris Stevens gains his Master's degree in Comparative literature by subjecting his assessors to a spirited re-enactment of the poem.", "In ''General Hospital'', Steve Hardy performs the poem during the 1994 Nurses' Ball while dressed in a Mudville baseball uniform.", "He concludes by telling the audience not to worry because Casey is married to the Mudville owner's daughter.", "In ''How I Met Your Mother'', the episode \"Bedtime Stories\" (which is done entirely in rhymes) features a subplot called \"Mosby At The Bat\".", "The start of that section of the episode begins with \"The outlook wasn't brilliant for poor Ted's romantic life\", a line based on the opening of the original poem.", "In ''One Tree Hill'', season 8 episode \"The Man Who Sailed Around His Soul\" was a flashback-heavy episode revolving around a baseball game with Jamie Scott narrating the poem throughout.", "Magician Rick Lax recited the entire poem while performing a card trick on an episode ''Penn & Teller: Fool Us''.===Music===Art-song composer Sidney Homer turned the poem into a song.", "Sheet music was published by G. Schirmer in 1920 as part of ''Six Cheerful Songs to Poems of American Humor.", "''William Schuman composed an opera, ''The Mighty Casey'' (1953), based on the poem.", "The song \"No Joy in Mudville\" from Death Cab for Cutie's album ''We Have the Facts and We're Voting Yes'' directly references the poem.", "The song \"Centerfield\" by John Fogerty includes the line \"Well, I spent some time in the Mudville Nine, watchin' it from the bench.", "You know I took some lumps when the Mighty Casey struck out.", "\"The song \"No Joy In Pudville\" by Steroid Maximus is a reference to this poem.", "Joe Walsh's 1973 song \"Rocky Mountain Way\" features the lyrics \"Bases are loaded/ And Casey's at bat/ Playin' it play-by-play/ Time to change the batter.", "\"In 2008 American composer Randol Alan Bass used the song \"Take Me Out to the Ball Game\" by Alfred Von Tilzer and Jack Norworth in ''Casey at the Bat'', a setting of the poem for concert band and narrator.", "* the ska band Mustard plug made a rewrite of the song Casey at the bat for their 1993 album ''Big daddy multitude'' and the song itself is a reference to a baseball game along with ska music the song is actually called \"Ball Park Skank\"===Theatre===\"Casey at the Bat\" was adapted into a 1953 opera by American composer William Schuman.", "Allen Feinstein composed an adaptation for orchestra with a narrator.", "An orchestral version was composed by Stephen Simon in 1976 for the US bicentennial; Maestro Classics' has recorded it with the London Philharmonic Orchestra, Stephen Simon conducting with Yadu (Dr. Konrad Czynski) narrating.", "An orchestral adaptation by composer Frank Proto has been recorded by the Cincinnati Pops orchestra conducted by Erich Kunzel with baseball star Johnny Bench narrating.", "The Dallas Symphony commissioned an arrangement of \"Casey\" by Randol Alan Bass in 2001, which he later arranged for concert band.", "A version for wind band and narrator by Donald Shirer based on the song \"Take Me Out to the Ball Game\" had its world premiere in July 2008." ], [ "Derivations", "For a relatively short poem apparently dashed off quickly (and denied by its author for years), \"Casey at the Bat\" had a profound effect on American popular culture.", "It has been recited, re-enacted, adapted, dissected, parodied, and subjected to just about every other treatment one could imagine.===Sequels===\"Casey's Revenge\", by Grantland Rice (1907), gives Casey another chance against the pitcher who had struck him out in the original story.", "It was written in 1906, and its first known publication was in the quarterly magazine ''The Speaker'' in June 1907, under the pseudonym of James Wilson.", "In this version, Rice cites the nickname \"Strike-Out Casey\", hence the influence on Casey Stengel's name.", "Casey's team is down ''three'' runs by the last of the ninth, and once again Casey is down to two strikes—with the bases full this time.", "However, he connects, and hits the ball so far that it is never found.", "\"Casey - Twenty Years Later\", by Clarence P. McDonald (1908), imagines a different redemption for Casey, long after his retirement.", "The poem, which was indeed published twenty years after the original, in the San Francisco Examiner, sees Casey attending a championship game between the fictional team of \"Bugville\" and an unspecified opponent.", "In a losing effort, Bugville's players are benched and injured throughout the game, until the captain is forced to call for a volunteer from the attendees.", "An aged Casey answers the call and fills the role surprisingly well, culminating with him hitting the game-winning home run, in his first swing at bat.", "He then reveals his identity to the joyous fans and players.", "In response to the popularity of the 1946 Walt Disney animated adaptation, Disney made a sequel, ''Casey Bats Again'' (1954), in which Casey's nine daughters redeem his reputation.", "In 1988, on the 100th anniversary of the poem, ''Sports Illustrated'' writer Frank Deford constructed a fanciful story (later expanded to book form) for what happened before and after the famous ball game.===Parodies===Of the many parodies made of the poem, some of the notable ones include:''Mad'' magazine republished the original version of the poem in the 1950s with artwork by Jack Davis and no alterations to the text.", "Later lampoons in ''Mad'' included \"'Cool' Casey at the Bat\" (1960), an interpretation of the poem in beatnik style, with artwork by Don Martin although the ending still has Casey striking out; \"Casey at the Dice\" in 1969, about a professional gambler; \"Casey at the Contract Talks\" in 1974 (which ends with the owner telling Casey to \"practice hard at home this year 'cause now you've struck out twice\"); Casey at the Talks\" in 1977, a \"modern\" version of the famed poem in which Mudville tries unsuccessfully to sign free agent Casey the last line of which is \"Mighty Casey has held out\"; \"Baseball at the Bat\", a satire on baseball itself, \"Howard at the Mike\", about Howard Cosell; \"Casey at the Byte\" (1985), a tale of a cocky young computer expert who accidentally erases the White House Budget Plan; \"Clooney as the Bat\", a mockery of George Clooney's role as Batman in ''Batman and Robin''; and in 2006 as \"Barry at the Bat\", poking fun at Barry Bonds' alleged involvement in the BALCO scandal; in 2001, \"Jordan at the Hoop\", satirizing Michael Jordan's return to the NBA and his time with the Washington Wizards; and in 2012, \"Casey at the Trial\", satirizing Casey Anthony's acquittal in the case of the death of her daughter Caylee.", "It also includes a \"Poetry Round Robin\" where famous poems are rewritten in the style of the next poet in line, featured Casey at the Bat as written by Edgar Allan Poe.", "Sportswriter Leonard Koppett claimed in a 1979 tongue-in-cheek article that the published poem omits 18 lines penned by Thayer, which changed the overall theme of the poem.", "Koppett added lines, claiming to have transcribed them off an old phonograph recording, that take the pitch count on Casey to full.", "Meanwhile, his uncle Arnold stirs up wagering action in the stands, before a wink passes between them.", "Casey throws the game.", "Foster Brooks (\"the Lovable Lush\" from the ''Dean Martin Show'') wrote \"Riley on the Mound\", which recounts the story from the pitcher's perspective.", "In his 1987 Baseball Abstract, Bill James published \"Casey Chases A Knuckler\", which employed a five-line stanza and AAAAB structure, about former MLB knuckleball pitcher Charlie HoughAuthor Phil Bolsta penned a parody entitled \"Hrbek at the Bat\" about Twins slugger Kent Hrbek which was published in 1987 in the Minneapolis Review of Baseball.", "Radio performer Garrison Keillor's parodic version of the poem reimagines the game as a road game, instead of a home game, for the Mudville team.", "The same events occur with Casey striking out in the ninth inning as in the original poem, but with everything told from the perspective of other team.", "An episode of ''Tiny Toon Adventures'' featured a short titled \"Buster at the Bat\", where Sylvester provides narration as Buster goes up to bat.", "The poem was parodied again for an episode of ''Animaniacs'', this time with Wakko as the title character and Yakko narrating.", "Both versions end on a happier note with the main character hitting a home run.", "In the fourth season of ''Garfield and Friends'' the episode entitled \"Mind Over Matter/Orson at the Bat/Multiple Choice Cartoon\" features Wade Duck narrating a parody of the poem as Orson Pig experiences it in a dream sequence.", "In ''The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius'' episode \"Return of the Nanobots\", Cindy's poem is identical to the ending of \"Casey at the Bat\" but replaces Mudville with Retroville and the last famed line with \"cause Jimmy is an idiot!", "\"The New York Times published a parody by Hart Seely and Frank Cammuso in which the poem was narrated by Phil Rizzuto, a New York Yankees announcer who was known to veer off on tangents while calling the game.", "The poem was later published in Seely and Cammuso's book, ''2007 Eleven And Other American Comedies''.", "David Pogue penned a parody version titled 'A Desktop Critic: Steven Saves the Mac' for Macworld magazine that ran in their October 1999 issue.", "It tells the story of Steve Jobs' triumphant return to a struggling Apple Inc and his early efforts to reverse the company's fortunes.", "Dick Flavin wrote a version titled Teddy at the Bat, after Boston Red Sox legend Ted Williams died in July 2002.Flavin performed the poem at Fenway Park during the night-long tribute to Williams done at the park later that month.", "The poem replaced Flynn and Blake with Bobby Doerr and Johnny Pesky, the batters who preceded Williams in the 1946 Red Sox lineup.", "In 2000, Michael J. Farrand adapted the rhyming scheme, tone, and theme of the poem—while reversing the outcome—to create his poem \"The Man Who Gave All the Dreamers in Baseball Land Bigger Dreams to Dream\" about Kirk Gibson's home run off Dennis Eckersley in Game 1 of the 1988 World Series.", "The poem appears at the Baseball Almanac.", "Norman Jackman wrote a reversed-outcome version in 1951 called \"Bobby Thomson at the Bat,\" which went unknown for over 60 years until the San Francisco Giants published it in 2012.It's about Thomson's famous home run in a 1951 Giant-Dodger playoff game.", "In 2016, the poem was accepted into the poetry files of the National Baseball Library and Archive of the Hall of Fame.", "The New York Times best-selling author and poet laureate of The Ringer, Shea Serrano, penned a loving tribute to NBA player Gordon Hayward in the vein of \"Casey at the Bat\" in 2017.", "Canadian comedy duo Wayne and Shuster created \"Shakespearean Baseball\", featuring William Shakespeare-esque characters and dialogue in a skit based upon the poem.", "They performed the play on ''The Ed Sullivan Show'' and on Canadian TV numerous times between the 1950s and 1980s.", "Baseball writer and Villanova professor Mitchell Nathanson updated the poem for contemporary times in 2019, publishing \"Casey @ the Bat\" in ''The Washington Post''.===Translations===There are three known translations of the poem into a foreign language, one in French, written in 2007 by French Canadian linguist Paul Laurendeau, with the title ''Casey au bâton'', and two in Hebrew.", "One by the sports journalist Menachem Less titled \"התור של קייסי לחבוט\" Hator Shel Casey Lachbot, and the other more recent and more true to the original cadence and style by Jason H. Elbaum called קֵיסִי בַּמַּחְבֵּט Casey BaMachbayt.===Names===Casey Stengel describes in his autobiography how his original nickname \"K.C.\"", "(for his hometown, Kansas City, Missouri) evolved into \"Casey\".", "It was influenced not just by the name of the poem, which was widely popular in the 1910s, but also because he tended to strike out frequently in his early career so fans and writers started calling him \"strikeout Casey\"." ], [ "Contemporary culture", "===Video games===The poem is referenced in the Super Nintendo Entertainment System game ''EarthBound'', where a weapon is named the Casey Bat, which is the strongest weapon in the game, but will only hit 25% of the time.===Television===A recurring character in the ''Pokémon'' anime, a girl who is a very enthusiastic fan of baseball, is named \"Casey\" in the English version in reference to the poem.", "Season 1, episode 35 of ''The Twilight Zone'' was named \"The Mighty Casey\" in reference to the poem's lead character, though the plot is unrelated.", "The title of Season 3, episode 17 of ''The Simpsons'', \"Homer at the Bat\", is a reference to the poem.", "A third-season episode of ''Storm Chasers'' was titled \"Sean Casey At Bat\".", "The episode featured Casey (a chaser) intercepting a tornado for the first time in TIV 2.", "In the show ''Friends'', Ross clarifies how to spell \"Casey\" as in \"at the bat\" in the Season 2, episode 14 titled \"The One with the Prom Video.", "\"In the show ''Containment'', Season 1, episode 6 takes its name, \"He Stilled the Rising Tumult\", from the poem.", "In the show ''Black Mirror'', Season 6, episode 3, \"Beyond the Sea\" quotes the poem.===Theme parks===Casey's Corner is a baseball-themed restaurant in Walt Disney World's Magic Kingdom, which serves primarily hotdogs.", "Pictures of Casey and the pitcher from the Disney animated adaptation are hanging on the walls, and a life-size statue of a baseball player identified as \"Casey\" stands just outside the restaurant.", "Additionally, the scoreboard in the restaurant shows that Mudville lost to the visitors by two runs.", "A hot dog restaurant featuring the Disney character can be found at Disneyland Paris' Disneyland Park since its opening in 1992, under the name Casey's Corner.", "A game called Casey at the Bat is in the Games of the Boardwalk at the Disneyland Resort's Disney California Adventure.===Theatre===In ''Cabaret'' (1993) Clifford Bradshaw recites the end of \"Mighty Casey\" to Sally Bowles.===Postage stamp===On July 11, 1996, the United States Postal Service issued a commemorative stamp depicting \"Mighty Casey.\"", "The stamp was part of a set commemorating American folk heroes.", "Other stamps in the set depicted Paul Bunyan, John Henry, and Pecos Bill." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " \"Casey at the Bat\" on MLB.com.", "Hear Hopper recite the poem.", " Library of Congress essay on its inclusion into the National Recording Registry.", "* ''Casey at the Bat'' cylinder recording by Russell Hunting, from the Cylinder Audio Archive at the University of California, Santa Barbara Library.", "* \"Casey at the Bat\" Web site with biographical details on Thayer, Hopper, Mike \"King\" Kelly and chronology of the poem's publication.", "* \"Casey at the Bat\" as told in baseball cards* \"Casey at the Bat” and its Long Post-Game Show\" an essay on its composition and legacy by Michael J. Astrue* Poems about Casey's later life, including another by Grantland Rice, and one by Garrison Keillor* * Caseyatthe.blog is a site dedicated to preserving and promoting the literary legacy of \"Casey at the Bat\" and the biography of \"Casey's\" author, Ernest Lawrence Thayer" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Classical guitar" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''classical guitar''', also called '''Spanish guitar''', is a member of the guitar family used in classical music and other styles.", "An acoustic wooden string instrument with strings made of gut or nylon, it is a precursor of the modern steel-string acoustic and electric guitars, both of which use metal strings.", "Classical guitars derive from the Spanish vihuela and gittern of the 15th and 16th century.", "Those instruments evolved into the 17th and 18th-century baroque guitar—and by the mid-19th century, early forms of the modern classical guitar.", "Today's ''modern classical guitar'' was established by the late designs of the 19th-century Spanish luthier, Antonio Torres Jurado.For a right-handed player, the traditional classical guitar has 12 frets clear of the body and is properly held up by the left leg, so that the hand that plucks or strums the strings does so near the back of the sound hole (this is called the classical position).", "However, the right-hand may move closer to the fretboard to achieve different tonal qualities.", "The player typically holds the left leg higher by the use of a foot rest.", "The modern steel string guitar, on the other hand, usually has 14 frets clear of the body (see Dreadnought) and is commonly held with a strap around the neck and shoulder.The phrase \"classical guitar\" may refer to either of two concepts other than the instrument itself:* The instrumental finger technique common to classical guitar—individual strings plucked with the fingernails or, less frequently, fingertips* The instrument's classical music repertoireThe term ''modern classical guitar'' sometimes distinguishes the classical guitar from older forms of guitar, which are in their broadest sense also called ''classical'', or more specifically, ''early guitars''.", "Examples of early guitars include the six-string early romantic guitar ( – 1880), and the earlier baroque guitars with five courses.The materials and the methods of classical guitar construction may vary, but the typical shape is either ''modern classical guitar'' or that ''historic classical guitar'' similar to the early romantic guitars of France and Italy.", "Classical guitar strings once made of gut are now made of materials such as nylon or fluoropolymers, typically with silver-plated copper fine wire wound about the acoustically lower (d-A-E in standard tuning) strings.A guitar family tree may be identified.", "The flamenco guitar derives from the modern classical, but has differences in material, construction and sound." ], [ "Contexts", "The classical guitar has a long history and one is able to distinguish various:instrumentsrepertoire (composers and their compositions, arrangements, improvisations)Both instrument and repertoire can be viewed from a combination of various perspectives:'''Historical''' (chronological period of time)Baroque guitar – 1600 to 1750Early romantic guitars – 1750 to 1850 (for music from the Classical and Romantic periods)Modern classical guitars'''Geographical'''Spanish guitars (Torres) and French guitars (René Lacôte, ...), French guitars (René Lacôte, ...), German guitars (Herrmann Hauser), etc.", "'''Cultural'''Baroque court music, nineteenth-century opera and its influences, nineteenth-century folk songs, Latin American music" ], [ "Historical perspective", "===Early guitars===Guitars from the Museum Cité de la Musique in Paris (which houses almost 200 classical guitars)While \"classical guitar\" is today mainly associated with the modern classical guitar design, there is an increasing interest in early guitars; and understanding the link between historical repertoire and the particular period guitar that was originally used to perform this repertoire.", "The musicologist and author Graham Wade writes:Nowadays it is customary to play this repertoire on reproductions of instruments authentically modelled on concepts of musicological research with appropriate adjustments to techniques and overall interpretation.", "Thus over recent decades we have become accustomed to specialist artists with expertise in the art of vihuela (a 16th-century type of guitar popular in Spain), lute, Baroque guitar, 19th-century guitar, etc.Different types of guitars have different sound aesthetics, e.g.", "different colour-spectrum characteristics (the way the sound energy is spread in the fundamental frequency and the overtones), different response, etc.", "These differences are due to differences in construction; for example, modern classical guitars usually use a different bracing (fan-bracing) from that used in earlier guitars (they had ladder-bracing); and a different voicing was used by the luthier.There is a historical parallel between musical styles (baroque, classical, romantic, flamenco, jazz) and the style of \"sound aesthetic\" of the musical instruments used, for example: Robert de Visée played a baroque guitar with a very different sound aesthetic from the guitars used by Mauro Giuliani and Luigi Legnani – they used 19th-century guitars.", "These guitars in turn sound different from the Torres models used by Segovia that are suited for interpretations of romantic-modern works such as Moreno Torroba.When considering the guitar from a historical perspective, the musical instrument used is as important as the musical language and style of the particular period.", "As an example: It is impossible to play a historically informed de Visee or Corbetta (baroque guitarist-composers) on a modern classical guitar.", "The reason is that the baroque guitar used courses, which are two strings close together (in unison), that are plucked together.", "This gives baroque guitars an unmistakable sound characteristic and tonal texture that is an integral part of an interpretation.", "Additionally, the sound aesthetic of the baroque guitar (with its strong overtone presence) is very different from modern classical type guitars, as is shown below.Today's use of Torres and post-Torres type guitars for repertoire of all periods is sometimes critically viewed: Torres and post-Torres style modern guitars (with their fan-bracing and design) have a thick and strong tone, very suitable for modern-era repertoire.", "However, they are considered to emphasize the fundamental too heavily (at the expense of overtone partials) for earlier repertoire (Classical/Romantic: Carulli, Sor, Giuliani, Mertz, ...; Baroque: de Visee, ...; etc.).", "\"Andrés Segovia presented the Spanish guitar as a versatile model for all playing styles\" to the extent, that still today, \"many guitarists have tunnel-vision of the world of the guitar, coming from the modern Segovia tradition\".19th century guitar made by Manuel de Soto y Solares, held by Spanish guitarist Rafael SerralletWhile fan-braced modern classical Torres and post-Torres style instruments coexisted with traditional ladder-braced guitars at the beginning of the 20th century, the older forms eventually fell away.", "Some attribute this to the popularity of Segovia, considering him \"the catalyst for change toward the Spanish design and the so-called 'modern' school in the 1920s and beyond.\"", "The styles of music performed on ladder-braced guitars were becoming unfashionable—and, e.g., in Germany, more musicians were turning towards folk music (Schrammel-music and the Contraguitar).", "This was localized in Germany and Austria and became unfashionable again.", "On the other hand, Segovia was playing concerts around the world, popularizing modern classical guitar—and, in the 1920s, Spanish romantic-modern style with guitar works by Moreno Torroba, de Falla, etc.The 19th-century classical guitarist Francisco Tárrega first popularized the Torres design as a classical solo instrument.", "However, some maintain that Segovia's influence led to its domination over other designs.", "Factories around the world began producing them in large numbers.====Characteristics====Vihuela, renaissance guitars and baroque guitars have a bright sound, rich in overtones, and their courses (double strings) give the sound a very particular texture.", "Early guitars of the classical and romantic period (early romantic guitars) have single strings, but their design and voicing are still such that they have their tonal energy more in the overtones (but without starved fundamental), giving a bright intimate tone.", "Later in Spain a style of music emerged that favoured a stronger fundamental:\"With the change of music a stronger fundamental was demanded and the fan bracing system was approached. ...", "the guitar tone has been changed from a transparent tone, rich in higher partials to a more 'broad' tone with a strong fundamental.", "\"Thus modern guitars with fan bracing (fan strutting) have a design and voicing that gives them a thick, heavy sound, with far more tonal energy found in the fundamental." ], [ "Style periods", "===Renaissance===Composers of the Renaissance period who wrote for four-course guitar include Alonso Mudarra, Miguel de Fuenllana, Adrian Le Roy, , Guillaume de Morlaye, and .", ";InstrumentFour-course guitar===Baroque===Some well known composers of the Baroque guitar were Gaspar Sanz, Robert de Visée, Francesco Corbetta and Santiago de Murcia.", ";Examples of instrumentsBaroque guitar by Nicolas Alexandre Voboam II: This French instrument has the typical design of the period with five courses of double-strings and a flat back.", "Baroque guitar attributed to Matteo Sellas : This Italian instrument has five courses and a rounded back.===Classical and romantic===From approximately 1780 to 1850, the guitar had numerous composers and performers including:Filippo Gragnani (1767–1820)Antoine de Lhoyer (1768–1852)Ferdinando Carulli (1770–1841)Wenzel Thomas Matiegka (1773–1830)Francesco Molino (1774–1847)Fernando Sor (1778–1839) ( – 1850)Mauro Giuliani (1781–1829)Niccolò Paganini (1782–1840)Dionisio Aguado (1784–1849)Luigi Legnani (1790–1877)Matteo Carcassi (1792–1853)Napoléon Coste (1805–1883)Johann Kaspar Mertz (1806–1856)Giulio Regondi (1822–1872)Hector Berlioz studied the guitar as a teenager; Franz Schubert owned at least two and wrote for the instrument; and Ludwig van Beethoven, after hearing Giuliani play, commented the instrument was \"a miniature orchestra in itself\".", "Niccolò Paganini was also a guitar virtuoso and composer.", "He once wrote: \"I love the guitar for its harmony; it is my constant companion in all my travels\".", "He also said, on another occasion: \"I do not like this instrument, but regard it simply as a way of helping me to think.", "\"===Francisco Tárrega===The guitarist and composer Francisco Tárrega (November 21, 1852 – December 15, 1909) was one of the great guitar virtuosos and teachers and is considered the father of modern classical guitar playing.", "As a professor of guitar at the conservatories of Madrid and Barcelona, he defined many elements of the modern classical technique and elevated the importance of the guitar in the classical music tradition.===Modern period===At the beginning of the 1920s, Andrés Segovia popularized the guitar with tours and early phonograph recordings.", "Segovia collaborated with the composers Federico Moreno Torroba and Joaquín Turina with the aim of extending the guitar repertoire with new music.", "Segovia's tour of South America revitalized public interest in the guitar and helped the guitar music of Manuel Ponce and Heitor Villa-Lobos reach a wider audience.", "The composers Alexandre Tansman and Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco were commissioned by Segovia to write new pieces for the guitar.", "Luiz Bonfá popularized Brazilian musical styles such as the newly created Bossa Nova, which was well received by audiences in the USA.====\"New music\" – avant-garde====The classical guitar repertoire also includes modern contemporary works – sometimes termed \"New Music\" – such as Elliott Carter's ''Changes'', Cristóbal Halffter's ''Codex I'', Luciano Berio's ''Sequenza XI'', Maurizio Pisati's ''Sette Studi'', Maurice Ohana's ''Si Le Jour Paraît'', Sylvano Bussotti's ''Rara (eco sierologico)'', Ernst Krenek's ''Suite für Guitarre allein, Op.", "164'', Franco Donatoni's ''Algo: Due pezzi per chitarra'', Paolo Coggiola's ''Variazioni Notturne'', etc.Performers who are known for including modern repertoire include Jürgen Ruck, Elena Càsoli, Leo Brouwer (when he was still performing), John Schneider, Reinbert Evers, Maria Kämmerling, Siegfried Behrend, David Starobin, Mats Scheidegger, Magnus Andersson, etc.This type of repertoire is usually performed by guitarists who have particularly chosen to focus on the avant-garde in their performances.Within the contemporary music scene itself, there are also works which are generally regarded as extreme.", "These include works such as Brian Ferneyhough's ''Kurze Schatten II'', Sven-David Sandström's ''away from'' and Rolf Riehm's ''Toccata Orpheus'' etc.", "which are notorious for their extreme difficulty.There are also a variety of databases documenting modern guitar works such as Sheer Pluck and others." ], [ "Background", "The evolution of the classical guitar and its repertoire spans more than four centuries.", "It has a history that was shaped by contributions from earlier instruments, such as the lute, the vihuela, and the baroque guitar." ], [ "History", "===Overview of the classical guitar's history===The origins of the modern guitar are not known with certainty.", "Some believe it is indigenous to Europe, while others think it is an imported instrument.", "Guitar-like instruments appear in ancient carvings and statues recovered from Egyptian, Sumerian, and Babylonian civilizations.", "This means that contemporary Iranian instruments such as the tanbur and setar are distantly related to the European guitar, as they all derive ultimately from the same ancient origins, but by very different historical routes and influences.", "The time where the most changes were made to the guitar was in the 1500s to the 1800s but during the late Middle Ages, gitterns called \"guitars\" were in use, but their construction and tuning were different from modern guitars.", "The ''guitarra latina'' in Spain had curved sides and a single hole.", "The ''guitarra morisca'', which appears to have had Moorish influences, had an oval soundbox and many sound holes on its soundboard.", "By the 15th century, a four-course double-string instrument called the ''vihuela de mano'', which was tuned like the later modern guitar except on one string and similar construction, first appeared in Spain and spread to France and Italy.", "In the 16th century, a fifth double-string was added.", "During this time, composers wrote mostly in tablature notation.", "In the middle of the 16th century, influences from the vihuela and the Renaissance guitar were combined and the baroque five-string guitar appeared in Spain.", "The baroque guitar quickly superseded the vihuela in popularity in Spain, France and Italy and Italian players and composers became prominent.", "In the late 18th century the six-string guitar quickly became popular at the expense of the five-string guitars.", "During the 19th century, the Spanish luthier and player Antonio de Torres gave the modern classical guitar its definitive form, with a broadened body, increased waist curve, thinned belly, and improved internal bracing.", "The modern classical guitar replaced an older form for the accompaniment of song and dance called flamenco, and a modified version, known as the flamenco guitar, was created.===Renaissance guitar===Alonso de Mudarra's book ''Tres Libros de Música'', published in Spain in 1546, contains the earliest known written pieces for a four-course guitarra.", "This four-course \"guitar\" was popular in France, Spain, and Italy.", "In France this instrument gained popularity among aristocrats.", "A considerable volume of music was published in Paris from the 1550s to the 1570s: Simon Gorlier's Le Troysième Livre... mis en tablature de Guiterne was published in 1551.In 1551 Adrian Le Roy also published his Premier Livre de Tablature de Guiterne, and in the same year he also published Briefve et facile instruction pour apprendre la tablature a bien accorder, conduire, et disposer la main sur la Guiterne.", "Robert Ballard, Grégoire Brayssing from Augsburg, and Guillaume Morlaye ( – ) significantly contributed to its repertoire.", "Morlaye's Le Premier Livre de Chansons, Gaillardes, Pavannes, Bransles, Almandes, Fantasies – which has a four-course instrument illustrated on its title page – was published in partnership with Michel Fedenzat, and among other music, they published six books of tablature by lutenist Albert de Rippe (who was very likely Guillaume's teacher).===Vihuela===The written history of the classical guitar can be traced back to the early 16th century with the development of the ''vihuela'' in Spain.", "While the lute was then becoming popular in other parts of Europe, the Spaniards did not take to it well because of its association with the Moors.", "Instead, the lute-like vihuela appeared with two more strings that gave it more range and complexity.", "In its most developed form, the vihuela was a guitar-like instrument with six double strings made of gut, tuned like a modern classical guitar with the exception of the third string, which was tuned half a step lower.", "It has a high sound and is rather large to hold.", "Few have survived and most of what is known today come from diagrams and paintings.===Baroque guitar======\"Early romantic guitar\" or \"Guitar during the Classical music era\"===The earliest extant six-string guitar is believed to have been built in 1779 by Gaetano Vinaccia (1759 – after 1831) in Naples, Italy; however, the date on the label is a little ambiguous.", "The Vinaccia family of luthiers is known for developing the mandolin.", "This guitar has been examined and does not show tell-tale signs of modifications from a double-course guitar.The authenticity of guitars allegedly produced before the 1790s is often in question.", "This also corresponds to when Moretti's 6-string method appeared, in 1792.===Modern classical guitar===Eminent Paraguayan classical guitarist and composer Agustín Barrios The modern classical guitar was developed in the 19th century by Antonio de Torres Jurado, Ignacio Fleta, Hermann Hauser Sr., and Robert Bouchet.", "Earlier similar instruments include the Spanish vihuela and gittern of the 15th and 16th century.", "Those instruments evolved into the 17th and 18th-century baroque guitar—and by the mid-19th century, early forms of the modern classical guitar.===Technique===The fingerstyle is used fervently on the modern classical guitar.", "The thumb traditionally plucks the bass – or root note – whereas the fingers ring the melody and its accompanying parts.", "Often classical guitar technique involves the use of the nails of the right hand to pluck the notes.", "Noted players were: Francisco Tárrega, Emilio Pujol, Andrés Segovia, Julian Bream, Agustín Barrios, and John Williams (guitarist)." ], [ "Performance", "Popular song (public domain): Spanish Romance.The modern classical guitar is usually played in a seated position, with the instrument resting on the left lap – and the left foot placed on a footstool.", "Alternatively – if a footstool is not used – a ''guitar support'' can be placed between the guitar and the left lap (the support usually attaches to the instrument's side with suction cups).", "(There are of course exceptions, with some performers choosing to hold the instrument another way.", ")Right-handed players use the fingers of the right hand to pluck the strings, with the thumb plucking from the top of a string downwards (downstroke) and the other fingers plucking from the bottom of the string upwards (upstroke).", "The little finger in classical technique as it evolved in the 20th century is used only to ride along with the ring finger without striking the strings and to thus physiologically facilitate the ring finger's motion.In contrast, Flamenco technique, and classical compositions evoking Flamenco, employ the little finger semi-independently in the Flamenco four-finger rasgueado, that rapid strumming of the string by the fingers in reverse order employing the back of the fingernail—a familiar characteristic of Flamenco.Flamenco technique, in the performance of the rasgueado also uses the upstroke of the four fingers and the downstroke of the thumb: the string is hit not only with the inner, fleshy side of the fingertip but also with the outer, fingernail side.", "This was also used in a technique of the vihuela called dedillo which has recently begun to be introduced on the classical guitar.Some modern guitarists, such as Štěpán Rak and Kazuhito Yamashita, use the little finger independently, compensating for the little finger's shortness by maintaining an extremely long fingernail.", "Rak and Yamashita have also generalized the use of the upstroke of the four fingers and the downstroke of the thumb (the same technique as in the rasgueado of the Flamenco: as explained above the string is hit not only with the inner, fleshy side of the fingertip but also with the outer, fingernail side) both as a free stroke and as a rest stroke.===Direct contact with strings===As with other plucked instruments (such as the lute), the musician directly touches the strings (usually plucking) to produce the sound.", "This has important consequences: Different tone/timbre (of a single note) can be produced by plucking the string in different manners (apoyando or tirando) and in different positions (such as closer and further away from the guitar bridge).", "For example, plucking an open string will sound brighter than playing the same note(s) on a fretted position (which would have a warmer tone).The instrument's versatility means it can create a variety of tones, but this finger-picking style also makes the instrument harder to learn than a standard acoustic guitar's strumming technique.===Fingering notation=== In guitar ''scores'' the five fingers of the right-hand (which pluck the strings) are designated by the first letter of their Spanish names namely p = thumb (''pulgar''), i = index finger (''índice''), m = middle finger (''mayor''), a = ring finger (''anular''), c = little finger or pinky (''meñique/chiquito'')The four fingers of the left hand (which fret the strings) are designated 1 = index, 2 = major, 3 = ring finger, 4 = little finger.", "0 designates an open string—a string not stopped by a finger and whose full length thus vibrates when plucked.", "It is rare to use the left hand thumb in performance, the neck of a classical guitar being too wide for comfort, and normal technique keeps the thumb behind the neck.", "However Johann Kaspar Mertz, for example, is notable for specifying the thumb to fret bass notes on the sixth string, notated with an up arrowhead (⌃).Scores (contrary to ''tablatures'') do not systematically indicate the string to pluck (though the choice is usually obvious).", "When indicating the string is useful, the score uses the numbers 1 to 6 inside circles (highest-pitch sting to lowest).Scores do not systematically indicate fretboard positions (where to put the first finger of the fretting hand), but when helpful (mostly with barrés chords) the score indicates positions with Roman numerals from the first position I (index finger on the 1st fret: F-B flat-E flat-A flat-C-F) to the twelfth position XII (index finger on the 12th fret: E-A-D-G-B-E.", "The 12th fret is where the body begins) or even higher up to position XIX (the classical guitar most often having 19 frets, with the 19th fret being most often split and not being usable to fret the 3rd and 4th strings).===Alternation=== To achieve tremolo effects and rapid, fluent scale passages, the player must practice alternation, that is, never plucking a string with the same finger twice in a row.", "Using '''p''' to indicate the thumb, '''i''' the index finger, '''m''' the middle finger and '''a''' the ring finger, common alternation patterns include:* ''i-m-i-m'' : Basic melody line on the treble strings.", "Has the appearance of \"walking along the strings\".", "This is often used for playing Scale (music) passages.", "* ''p-i-m-a-i-m-a'' : Arpeggio pattern example.", "However, there are many arpeggio patterns incorporated into the classical guitar repertoire.", "* ''p-a-m-i-p-a-m-i'' : Classical guitar tremolo pattern.", "* ''p-m-p-m'' : A way of playing a melody line on the lower strings." ], [ "Repertoire", "Music written specifically for the classical guitar dates from the addition of the sixth string (the baroque guitar normally had five pairs of strings) in the late 18th century.A guitar recital may include a variety of works, e.g., works written originally for the lute or vihuela by composers such as John Dowland (b. England 1563) and Luis de Narváez (b. Spain ), and also music written for the harpsichord by Domenico Scarlatti (b. Italy 1685), for the baroque lute by Sylvius Leopold Weiss (b. Germany 1687), for the baroque guitar by Robert de Visée (b. France ) or even Spanish-flavored music written for the piano by Isaac Albéniz (b. Spain 1860) and Enrique Granados (b. Spain 1867).", "The most important composer who did not write for the guitar but whose music is often played on it is Johann Sebastian Bach (b. Germany 1685), whose baroque lute, violin, and cello works have proved highly adaptable to the instrument.Of music written originally for guitar, the earliest important composers are from the classical period and include Fernando Sor (b. Spain 1778) and Mauro Giuliani (b. Italy 1781), both of whom wrote in a style strongly influenced by Viennese classicism.", "In the 19th-century guitar composers such as Johann Kaspar Mertz (b. Slovakia, Austria 1806) were strongly influenced by the dominance of the piano.", "Not until the end of the nineteenth century did the guitar begin to establish its own unique identity.", "Francisco Tárrega (b. Spain 1852) was central to this, sometimes incorporating stylized aspects of flamenco's Moorish influences into his romantic miniatures.", "This was part of late 19th century mainstream European musical nationalism.", "Albéniz and Granados were central to this movement; their evocation of the guitar was so successful that their compositions have been absorbed into the standard guitar repertoire.The steel-string and electric guitars characteristic to the rise of rock and roll in the post-WWII era became more widely played in North America and the English-speaking world.", "Agustín Barrios Mangoré of Paraguay composed many works and brought into the mainstream the characteristics of Latin American music, as did the Brazilian composer Heitor Villa-Lobos.", "Andrés Segovia commissioned works from Spanish composers such as Federico Moreno Torroba and Joaquín Rodrigo, Italians such as Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco and Latin American composers such as Manuel Ponce of Mexico.", "Other prominent Latin American composers are Leo Brouwer of Cuba, Antonio Lauro of Venezuela and Enrique Solares of Guatemala.", "Julian Bream of Britain managed to get nearly every British composer from William Walton and Benjamin Britten to Peter Maxwell Davies to write significant works for guitar.", "Bream's collaborations with tenor Peter Pears also resulted in song cycles by Britten, Lennox Berkeley and others.", "There are significant works by composers such as Hans Werner Henze of Germany, Gilbert Biberian of England and Roland Chadwick of Australia.The classical guitar also became widely used in popular music and rock & roll in the 1960s after guitarist Mason Williams popularized the instrument in his instrumental hit Classical Gas.", "Guitarist Christopher Parkening is quoted in the book ''Classical Gas: The Music of Mason Williams'' as saying that it is the most requested guitar piece besides Malagueña and perhaps the best-known instrumental guitar piece today.In the field of New Flamenco, the works and performances of Spanish composer and player Paco de Lucía are known worldwide.Not many classical guitar concertos were written through history.", "Nevertheless, some guitar concertos are nowadays widely known and popular, especially Joaquín Rodrigo's ''Concierto de Aranjuez'' (with the famous theme from 2nd movement) and ''Fantasía para un gentilhombre''.", "Composers, who also wrote famous guitar concertos are: Antonio Vivaldi (originally for mandolin or lute), Mauro Giuliani, Heitor Villa-Lobos, Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Manuel Ponce, Leo Brouwer, Lennox Berkeley and Malcolm Arnold.", "Nowadays, more and more contemporary composers decide to write a guitar concerto, among them ''Bosco Sacro'' by Federico Biscione, for guitar and string orchestra, is one of the most inspired." ], [ "Physical characteristics", "The classical guitar is distinguished by a number of characteristics:It is an acoustic instrument.", "The sound of the plucked string is amplified by the soundboard and resonant cavity of the guitar.", "It has six strings, though some classical guitars have seven or more strings.", "All six strings are made from nylon, or nylon wrapped with metal, as opposed to the metal strings found on other acoustic guitars.", "Nylon strings also have a much lower tension than steel strings, as do the predecessors to nylon strings, gut strings (made from ox or sheep gut).", "The lower three strings ('bass strings') are wound with metal, commonly silver-plated copper.", "Because of the low string tension The neck can be made entirely of wood without a steel truss rod The interior bracing can be lighterTypical modern six-string classical guitars are 48–54 mm wide at the nut, compared to around 42 mm for electric guitars.", " Classical fingerboards are normally flat and without inlaid fret markers, or just have dot inlays on the side of the neck—steel string fingerboards usually have a slight radius and inlays.", "Classical guitarists use their right hand to pluck the strings.", "Players may shape their fingernails for a brighter tone and feel against the strings.", "Strumming is a less common technique in classical guitar, and is often referred to by the Spanish term \"rasgueo\", or for strumming patterns \"rasgueado\", and uses the backs of the fingernails.", "Rasgueado is integral to Flamenco guitar.", "Machine heads at the headstock of a classical guitar point backwards—in contrast to most steel-string guitars, which have machine heads that point outward.", "The overall design of a Classical Guitar is very similar to the slightly lighter and smaller Flamenco guitar.===Parts===Diagram showing exterior parts of the classical guitarParts of typical classical guitars include:* Headstock* Nut* Machine heads (or pegheads, tuning keys, tuning machines, tuners)* Frets* Neck* Heel* Body* Bridge* Bottom deck* Soundboard* Body sides* Sound hole, with rosette inlay* Strings* Saddle (Bridge nut)* Fretboard====Fretboard====The fretboard (also called the '''fingerboard''') is a piece of wood embedded with metal frets that constitutes the top of the neck.", "It is flat or slightly curved.", "The curvature of the fretboard is measured by the fretboard radius, which is the radius of a hypothetical circle of which the fretboard's surface constitutes a segment.", "The smaller the fretboard radius, the more noticeably curved the fretboard is.", "Fretboards are most commonly made of ebony, but may also be made of rosewood, some other hardwood, or of phenolic composite (\"micarta\").====Frets====Frets are the metal strips (usually nickel alloy or stainless steel) embedded along the fingerboard and placed at points that divide the length of string mathematically.", "The strings' vibrating length is determined when the strings are pressed down behind the frets.", "Each fret produces a different pitch and each pitch spaced a half-step apart on the 12 tone scale.", "The ratio of the widths of two consecutive frets is the twelfth root of two (), whose numeric value is about 1.059463.The twelfth fret divides the string into two exact halves and the 24th fret (if present) divides the string in half yet again.", "Every twelve frets represents one octave.", "This arrangement of frets results in equal tempered tuning.====Neck====A classical guitar's frets, fretboard, tuners, headstock, all attached to a long wooden extension, collectively constitute its neck.", "The wood for the fretboard usually differs from the wood in the rest of the neck.", "The bending stress on the neck is considerable, particularly when heavier gauge strings are used.", "The most common scale length for classical guitar is 650mm (calculated by measuring the distance between the end of the nut and the center of the 12th fret, then doubling that measurement).", "However, scale lengths may vary from 635-664mm or more.====Neck joint or 'heel'====This is the point where the neck meets the body.", "In the traditional Spanish neck joint, the neck and block are one piece with the sides inserted into slots cut in the block.", "Other necks are built separately and joined to the body either with a dovetail joint, mortise or flush joint.", "These joints are usually glued and can be reinforced with mechanical fasteners.", "Recently many manufacturers use bolt-on fasteners.", "Bolt-on neck joints were once associated only with less expensive instruments but now some top manufacturers and hand builders are using variations of this method.", "Some people believed that the Spanish-style one piece neck/block and glued dovetail necks have better sustain, but testing has failed to confirm this.While most traditional Spanish style builders use the one-piece neck/heel block, Fleta, a prominent Spanish builder, used a dovetail joint due to the influence of his early training in violin making.One reason for the introduction of mechanical joints was to make it easier to repair necks.", "This is more of a problem with steel string guitars than with nylon strings, which have about half the string tension.", "This is why nylon string guitars often do not include a truss rod either.====Body====A photo of a contemporary \"double-top\" construction guitar made by Gernot Wagner in 2013 and owned by Jason Vieaux.The body of the instrument is a major determinant of the overall sound variety for acoustic guitars.", "The guitar top, or soundboard, is a finely crafted and engineered element often made of spruce or red cedar.", "Considered the most prominent factor in determining the sound quality of a guitar, this thin (often 2 or 3 mm thick) piece of wood has a uniform thickness and is strengthened by different types of internal bracing.", "The back is made in rosewood and Brazilian rosewood is especially coveted, but mahogany or other decorative woods are sometimes used.The majority of the sound is caused by the vibration of the guitar top as the energy of the vibrating strings is transferred to it.", "Different patterns of wood bracing have been used through the years by luthiers (Torres, Hauser, Ramírez, Fleta, and C.F.", "Martin being among the most influential designers of their times); to not only strengthen the top against collapsing under the tremendous stress exerted by the tensioned strings, but also to affect the resonance of the top.", "Some contemporary guitar makers have introduced new construction concepts such as \"double-top\" consisting of two extra-thin wooden plates separated by Nomex, or carbon-fiber reinforced lattice – pattern bracing.", "The back and sides are made out of a variety of woods such as mahogany, maple, cypress Indian rosewood and highly regarded Brazilian rosewood (''Dalbergia nigra'').", "Each one is chosen for its aesthetic effect and structural strength, and such choice can also play a role in determining the instrument's timbre.", "These are also strengthened with internal bracing, and decorated with inlays and purfling.Antonio de Torres Jurado proved that it was the top, and not the back and sides of the guitar that gave the instrument its sound, in 1862 he built a guitar with back and sides of papier-mâché.", "(This guitar resides in the Museu de la Musica in Barcelona, and before the year 2000 it was restored to playable condition by the brothers Yagüe, Barcelona).", "The body of a classical guitar is a resonating chamber that projects the vibrations of the body through a ''sound hole'', allowing the acoustic guitar to be heard without amplification.", "The sound hole is normally a single round hole in the top of the guitar (under the strings), though some have different placement, shapes, or numbers of holes.", "How much air an instrument can move determines its maximum volume.====Binding, purfling and kerfing====The top, back and sides of a classical guitar body are very thin, so a flexible piece of wood called ''kerfing'' (because it is often scored, or ''kerfed'' so it bends with the shape of the rim) is glued into the corners where the rim meets the top and back.", "This interior reinforcement provides 5 to 20 mm of solid gluing area for these corner joints.During final construction, a small section of the outside corners is carved or routed out and filled with binding material on the outside corners and decorative strips of material next to the binding, which are called ''purfling''.", "This binding serves to seal off the endgrain of the top and back.", "Binding and purfling materials are generally made of either wood or high-quality plastic materials.====Bridge====The main purpose of the bridge on a classical guitar is to transfer the vibration from the strings to the soundboard, which vibrates the air inside of the guitar, thereby amplifying the sound produced by the strings.", "The bridge holds the strings in place on the body.", "Also, the position of the saddle, usually a strip of bone or plastic that supports the strings off the bridge, determines the distance to the nut (at the top of the fingerboard).===Sizes===The modern full-size classical guitar has a scale length of around , with an overall instrument length of .", "The scale length has remained quite consistent since it was chosen by the originator of the instrument, Antonio de Torres.", "This length may have been chosen because it's twice the length of a violin string.", "As the guitar is tuned to one octave below that of the violin, the same size gut could be used for the first strings of both instruments.Smaller-scale instruments are produced to assist children in learning the instrument as the smaller scale leads to the frets being closer together, making it easier for smaller hands.", "The scale-size for the smaller guitars is usually in the range , with an instrument length of .", "Full-size instruments are sometimes referred to as 4/4, while the smaller sizes are 3/4, 1/2, 1/4, and even as small as 1/8 for very small children.", "However, there is not a standardized set of dimensions for fractional guitars, and their size difference is not linear from a full size guitar." ], [ "Tuning", "A variety of different tunings are used.", "The most common by far, which one could call the \"standard tuning\" is:eI – b – g – d – A – EThe above order is the tuning from the ''1st string'' (highest-pitched string e'—spatially the bottom string in playing position) to the ''6th string'' – lowest-pitched string E—spatially the upper string in playing position, and hence comfortable to pluck with the thumb.The explanation for this \"asymmetrical\" tuning (in the sense that the maj 3rd is not between the two middle strings, as in the tuning of the viola da gamba) is probably that the guitar originated as a 4-string instrument (actually an instrument with 4 double courses of strings, see above) with a maj 3rd between the 2nd and 3rd strings, and it only became a 6-string instrument by gradual addition of a 5th string and then a 6th string tuned a 4th apart:\"The development of the modern tuning can be traced in stages.", "One of the tunings from the 16th century is C-F-A-D.", "This is equivalent to the top four strings of the modern guitar tuned a tone lower.", "However, the absolute pitch for these notes is not equivalent to modern \"concert pitch\".", "The tuning of the four-course guitar was moved up by a tone and toward the end of the 16th century, five-course instruments were in use with an added lower string tuned to A.", "This produced A-D-G-B-E, one of a wide number of variant tunings of the period.", "The low E string was added during the 18th century.\"", "String Sci.", "pitch Helmholtz pitch Interval from middle C Semitones from A440 Freq., if using an Equal temperament tuning (using ) 1st (highest pitch) E4 e' major third above −5 '''329.63 Hz''' 2nd B3 b minor second below −10 '''246.94 Hz''' 3rd G3 g perfect fourth below −14 '''196.00 Hz''' 4th D3 d minor seventh below −19 '''146.83 Hz''' 5th A2 A minor tenth below −24 '''110 Hz''' 6th (lowest pitch) E2 E minor thirteenth below −29 '''82.41 Hz'''This tuning is such that neighboring strings are at most 5 semitones apart.There are also a variety of commonly used alternate tunings.", "The most common is known as Drop D tuning which has the 6th string tuned down from an E to a D." ], [ "Bibliography", "''The Guitar and its Music (From the Renaissance to the Classical Era)'' (2007) by James Tyler, Paul Sparks.", "''Cambridge Studies in Performance Practice (No.", "6): Performance on Lute, Guitar, and Vihuela'' (2005) edited by Victor Anand Coelho.", "''The Guitar: From the Renaissance to the Present Day'' by Harvey Turnbull; published by Bold Strummer, 1991.", "''The Guitar''; by Sinier de Ridder; published by Edizioni Il Salabue; ''La Chitarra, Quattro secoli di Capolavori (The Guitar: Four centuries of Masterpieces)'' by Giovanni Accornero, Ivan Epicoco, Eraldo Guerci; published by Edizioni Il Salabue''Rosa sonora – Esposizione di chitarre XVII – XX secolo'' by Giovanni Accornero; published by Edizioni Il Salabue''Lyre-guitar.", "Étoile charmante, between the 18th and 19th century'' by Eleonora VulpianiSummerfield, Maurice, ''The Classical Guitar: Its Evolution, Players and Personalities since 1800 – 5th Edition'', Blaydon : Ashley Mark Publishing Company, 2002.", "Various, '' Classical Guitar Magazine'', Blaydon : Ashley Mark Publishing Company, monthly publication first published in 1982.", "Wade, Graham, ''Traditions of the Classical Guitar'', London : Calder, 1980.", "Antoni Pizà: ''Francesc Guerau i el seu temps'' (Palma de Mallorca: Govern de les Illes Balears, Conselleria d'Educació i Cultura, Direcció General de Cultura, Institut d'Estudis Baleàrics, 2000)" ], [ "See also", "Classical guitar stringsClassical guitar pedagogyEarly classical guitar recordingsInternational classical guitar competitions* Guitar Foundation of AmericaGuitarChordophonesTypaldos D. children's choir, a Greek children's choir with classical guitars===Related instruments===Brahms guitarExtended-range classical guitarHarp guitarLyre-guitarSix-string alto guitar===Lists===* Bibliography of classical guitar* List of classical guitarists* List of composers for the classical guitar* List of composers for the classical guitar (nationality)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Thematic essay: The guitar Jayson Kerr Dobney, Wendy Powers (The Metropolitan Museum of Art)* Classical & Fingerstyle Guitar* Classical Guitar Library A vibrant library of guitar sheet music, which can serve in accomplishing diverse teaching and research needs." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "C. S. Lewis" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Clive Staples Lewis''' (29 November 1898 – 22 November 1963) was a British writer, literary scholar, and Anglican lay theologian.", "He held academic positions in English literature at both Magdalen College, Oxford (1925–1954), and Magdalene College, Cambridge (1954–1963).", "He is best known as the author of ''The Chronicles of Narnia'', but he is also noted for his other works of fiction, such as ''The Screwtape Letters'' and ''The Space Trilogy'', and for his non-fiction Christian apologetics, including ''Mere Christianity'', ''Miracles'', and ''The Problem of Pain.", "''Lewis was a close friend of J. R. R. Tolkien, author of ''The Lord of the Rings''.", "Both men served on the English faculty at Oxford University and were active in the informal Oxford literary group known as the Inklings.", "According to Lewis's 1955 memoir ''Surprised by Joy'', he was baptized in the Church of Ireland but fell away from his faith during adolescence.", "Lewis returned to Anglicanism at the age of 32, owing to the influence of Tolkien and other friends, and he became an \"ordinary layman of the Church of England\".", "Lewis's faith profoundly affected his work, and his wartime radio broadcasts on the subject of Christianity brought him wide acclaim.Lewis wrote more than 30 books which have been translated into more than 30 languages and have sold millions of copies.", "The books that make up ''The Chronicles of Narnia'' have sold the most and have been popularized on stage, TV, radio, and cinema.", "His philosophical writings are widely cited by Christian scholars from many denominations.In 1956, Lewis married American writer Joy Davidman; she died of cancer four years later at the age of 45.Lewis died on 22 November 1963 from kidney failure, one week before his 65th birthday.", "In 2013, on the 50th anniversary of his death, Lewis was honoured with a memorial in Poets' Corner in Westminster Abbey." ], [ "Life", "===Childhood===Little Lea, home of the Lewis family from 1905 to 1930Clive Staples Lewis was born in Belfast in Ulster, Ireland (before partition), on 29 November 1898.His father was Albert James Lewis (1863–1929), a solicitor whose father Richard Lewis had come to Ireland from Wales during the mid-19th century.", "Lewis's mother was Florence Augusta Lewis Hamilton (1862–1908), known as Flora, the daughter of Thomas Hamilton, a Church of Ireland priest, and the great-granddaughter of both Bishop Hugh Hamilton and John Staples.", "Lewis had an elder brother, Warren Hamilton Lewis (known as \"Warnie\").", "He was baptized on 29 January 1899 by his maternal grandfather in St Mark's Church, Dundela.When his dog Jacksie was killed by a car, the four-year old Lewis adopted the name Jacksie.", "At first, he would answer to no other name, but later accepted Jack, the name by which he was known to friends and family for the rest of his life.", "When he was seven, his family moved into \"Little Lea\", the family home of his childhood, in the Strandtown area of East Belfast.As a boy, Lewis was fascinated with anthropomorphic animals; he fell in love with Beatrix Potter's stories and often wrote and illustrated his own animal tales.", "Along with his brother Warnie, he created the world of Boxen, a fantasy land inhabited and run by animals.", "Lewis loved to read from an early age.", "His father's house was filled with books; he later wrote that finding something to read was as easy as walking into a field and \"finding a new blade of grass\".Lewis was schooled by private tutors until age nine, when his mother died in 1908 from cancer.", "His father then sent him to England to live and study at Wynyard School in Watford, Hertfordshire.", "Lewis's brother had enrolled there three years previously.", "Not long after, the school was closed due to a lack of pupils.", "Lewis then attended Campbell College in the east of Belfast about a mile from his home, but left after a few months due to respiratory problems.He was then sent back to England to the health-resort town of Malvern, Worcestershire, where he attended the preparatory school Cherbourg House, which Lewis referred to as \"Chartres\" in his autobiography.", "It was during this time that he abandoned the Christianity he was taught as a child and became an atheist.", "During this time he also developed a fascination with European mythology and the occult.In September 1913, Lewis enrolled at Malvern College, where he remained until the following June.", "He found the school socially competitive.", "After leaving Malvern, he studied privately with William T. Kirkpatrick, his father's old tutor and former headmaster of Lurgan College.As a teenager, Lewis was wonderstruck by the songs and legends of what he called ''Northernness'', the ancient literature of Scandinavia preserved in the Icelandic sagas.", "These legends intensified an inner longing that he would later call \"joy\".", "He also grew to love nature; its beauty reminded him of the stories of the North, and the stories of the North reminded him of the beauties of nature.", "His teenage writings moved away from the tales of Boxen, and he began experimenting with different art forms such as epic poetry and opera to try to capture his new-found interest in Norse mythology and the natural world.Studying with Kirkpatrick (\"The Great Knock\", as Lewis afterward called him) instilled in him a love of Greek literature and mythology and sharpened his debate and reasoning skills.", "In 1916, Lewis was awarded a scholarship at University College, Oxford.===\"My Irish life\"===Plaque on a park-bench in Bangor, County DownLewis experienced a certain cultural shock on first arriving in England: \"No Englishman will be able to understand my first impressions of England,\" Lewis wrote in ''Surprised by Joy''.", "\"The strange English accents with which I was surrounded seemed like the voices of demons.", "But what was worst was the English landscape ...", "I have made up the quarrel since; but at that moment I conceived a hatred for England which took many years to heal.", "\"From boyhood, Lewis had immersed himself in Norse and Greek mythology, and later in Irish mythology and literature.", "He also expressed an interest in the Irish language, though there is not much evidence that he laboured to learn it.", "He developed a particular fondness for W. B. Yeats, in part because of Yeats's use of Ireland's Celtic heritage in poetry.", "In a letter to a friend, Lewis wrote, \"I have here discovered an author exactly after my own heart, whom I am sure you would delight in, W. B. Yeats.", "He writes plays and poems of rare spirit and beauty about our old Irish mythology.", "\"In 1921, Lewis met Yeats twice, since Yeats had moved to Oxford.", "Lewis was surprised to find his English peers indifferent to Yeats and the Celtic Revival movement, and wrote: \"I am often surprised to find how utterly ignored Yeats is among the men I have met: perhaps his appeal is purely Irish – if so, then thank the gods that I am Irish.\"", "Early in his career, Lewis considered sending his work to the major Dublin publishers, writing: \"If I do ever send my stuff to a publisher, I think I shall try Maunsel, those Dublin people, and so tack myself definitely onto the Irish school.", "\"After his conversion to Christianity, his interests gravitated towards Christian theology and away from pagan Celtic mysticism (as opposed to Celtic Christian mysticism).Lewis occasionally expressed a somewhat tongue-in-cheek chauvinism towards the English.", "Describing an encounter with a fellow Irishman, he wrote: \"Like all Irish people who meet in England, we ended by criticisms on the invincible flippancy and dullness of the Anglo-Saxon race.", "After all, there is no doubt, ''ami'', that the Irish are the only people: with all their faults, I would not gladly live or die among another folk.\"", "Throughout his life, he sought out the company of other Irish people living in England and visited Northern Ireland regularly.", "In 1958 he spent his honeymoon there at the Old Inn, Crawfordsburn, which he called \"my Irish life\".Various critics have suggested that it was Lewis's dismay over the sectarian conflict in his native Belfast which led him to eventually adopt such an ecumenical brand of Christianity.", "As one critic has said, Lewis \"repeatedly extolled the virtues of all branches of the Christian faith, emphasising a need for unity among Christians around what the Catholic writer called 'Mere Christianity', the core doctrinal beliefs that all denominations share\".", "On the other hand, Paul Stevens of the University of Toronto has written that \"Lewis' mere Christianity masked many of the political prejudices of an old-fashioned Ulster Protestant, a native of middle-class Belfast for whom British withdrawal from Northern Ireland even in the 1950s and 1960s was unthinkable.", "\"===First World War and Oxford University===The undergraduates of University College, Trinity term 1917.C.", "S. Lewis standing on the right-hand side of the back row.Lewis entered Oxford in the 1917 summer term, studying at University College, and shortly after, he joined the Officers' Training Corps at the university as his \"most promising route into the army\".", "From there, he was drafted into a Cadet Battalion for training.", "After his training, he was commissioned into the 3rd Battalion of the Somerset Light Infantry of the British Army as a Second Lieutenant, and was later transferred to the 1st Battalion of the regiment, then serving in France (he would not remain with the 3rd Battalion as it moved to Northern Ireland).", "Within months of entering Oxford, he was shipped by the British Army to France to fight in the First World War.On his 19th birthday (29 November 1917), Lewis arrived at the front line in the Somme Valley in France, where he experienced trench warfare for the first time.", "On 15 April 1918, as 1st Battalion, Somerset Light Infantry assaulted the village of Riez du Vinage in the midst of the German spring offensive, Lewis was wounded and two of his colleagues were killed by a British shell falling short of its target.", "He was depressed and homesick during his convalescence and, upon his recovery in October, he was assigned to duty in Andover, England.", "He was demobilized in December 1918 and soon restarted his studies.", "In a later letter, Lewis stated that his experience of the horrors of war, along with the loss of his mother and unhappiness in school, were the basis of his pessimism and atheism.After Lewis returned to Oxford University, he received a First in Honour Moderations (Greek and Latin literature) in 1920, a First in Greats (Philosophy and Ancient History) in 1922, and a First in English in 1923.In 1924 he became a Philosophy tutor at University College and, in 1925, was elected a Fellow and Tutor in English Literature at Magdalen College, where he served for 29 years until 1954.===Janie Moore===During his army training, Lewis shared a room with another cadet, Edward Courtnay Francis \"Paddy\" Moore (1898–1918).", "Maureen Moore, Paddy's sister, said that the two made a mutual pact that if either died during the war, the survivor would take care of both of their families.", "Paddy was killed in action in 1918 and Lewis kept his promise.", "Paddy had earlier introduced Lewis to his mother, Janie King Moore, and a friendship quickly sprang up between Lewis, who was 18 when they met, and Janie, who was 45.The friendship with Moore was particularly important to Lewis while he was recovering from his wounds in hospital, as his father did not visit him.Lewis lived with and cared for Moore until she was hospitalized in the late 1940s.", "He routinely introduced her as his mother, referred to her as such in letters, and developed a deeply affectionate friendship with her.", "Lewis's own mother had died when he was a child, while his father was distant, demanding, and eccentric.Speculation regarding their relationship resurfaced with the 1990 publication of A. N. Wilson's biography of Lewis.", "Wilson (who never met Lewis) attempted to make a case for their having been lovers for a time.", "Wilson's biography was not the first to address the question of Lewis's relationship with Moore.", "George Sayer knew Lewis for 29 years, and he had sought to shed light on the relationship during the period of 14 years before Lewis's conversion to Christianity.", "In his biography ''Jack: A Life of C. S. Lewis'', he wrote:Later Sayer changed his mind.", "In the introduction to the 1997 edition of his biography of Lewis he wrote:However, the romantic nature of the relationship is doubted by other writers; for example, Philip Zaleski and Carol Zaleski write in ''The Fellowship'' thatLewis spoke well of Mrs. Moore throughout his life, saying to his friend George Sayer, \"She was generous and taught me to be generous, too.\"", "In December 1917, Lewis wrote in a letter to his childhood friend Arthur Greeves that Janie and Greeves were \"the two people who matter most to me in the world\".In 1930, Lewis moved into The Kilns with his brother Warnie, Mrs. Moore, and her daughter Maureen.", "The Kilns was a house in the district of Headington Quarry on the outskirts of Oxford, now part of the suburb of Risinghurst.", "They all contributed financially to the purchase of the house, which eventually passed to Maureen, who by then was Dame Maureen Dunbar, when Warren died in 1973.Moore had dementia in her later years and was eventually moved into a nursing home, where she died in 1951.Lewis visited her every day in this home until her death.===Return to Christianity===Lewis was raised in a religious family that attended the Church of Ireland.", "He became an atheist at age 15, though he later described his young self as being paradoxically \"very angry with God for not existing\" and \"equally angry with him for creating a world\".", "His early separation from Christianity began when he started to view his religion as a chore and a duty; around this time, he also gained an interest in the occult, as his studies expanded to include such topics.", "Lewis quoted Lucretius (''De rerum natura'', 5.198–9) as having one of the strongest arguments for atheism:which he translated poetically as follows:Had God designed the world, it would not beA world so frail and faulty as we see.", "(This is a highly poetic, rather than a literal translation.", "A more literal translation, by William Ellery Leonard, reads: \"That in no wise the nature of all things / For us was fashioned by a power divine – / So great the faults it stands encumbered with.", "\")Lewis's interest in the works of the Scottish writer George MacDonald was part of what turned him from atheism.", "This can be seen particularly well through this passage in Lewis's ''The Great Divorce'', chapter nine, when the semi-autobiographical main character meets MacDonald in Heaven:He eventually returned to Christianity, having been influenced by arguments with his Oxford colleague and friend J. R. R. Tolkien, whom he seems to have met for the first time on 11 May 1926, as well as the book ''The Everlasting Man'' by G. K. Chesterton.", "Lewis vigorously resisted conversion, noting that he was brought into Christianity like a prodigal, \"kicking, struggling, resentful, and darting his eyes in every direction for a chance to escape\".", "He described his last struggle in ''Surprised by Joy'':After his conversion to theism in 1929, Lewis converted to Christianity in 1931, following a long discussion during a late-night walk along Addison's Walk with close friends Tolkien and Hugo Dyson.", "He records making a specific commitment to Christian belief while on his way to the zoo with his brother.", "He became a member of the Church of England – somewhat to the disappointment of Tolkien, who had hoped that he would join the Catholic Church.Lewis was a committed Anglican who upheld a largely orthodox Anglican theology, though in his apologetic writings, he made an effort to avoid espousing any one denomination.", "In his later writings, some believe that he proposed ideas such as purification of venial sins after death in purgatory (''The Great Divorce'' and ''Letters to Malcolm'') and mortal sin (''The Screwtape Letters''), which are generally considered to be Roman Catholic teachings, although they are also widely held in Anglicanism (particularly in high church Anglo-Catholic circles).", "Regardless, Lewis considered himself an entirely orthodox Anglican to the end of his life, reflecting that he had initially attended church only to receive communion and had been repelled by the hymns and the poor quality of the sermons.", "He later came to consider himself honoured by worshipping with men of faith who came in shabby clothes and work boots and who sang all the verses to all the hymns.===Second World War===After the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939, the Lewises took child evacuees from London and other cities into The Kilns.", "Lewis was only 40 when the war began, and he tried to re-enter military service, offering to instruct cadets; however, his offer was not accepted.", "He rejected the recruiting office's suggestion of writing columns for the Ministry of Information in the press, as he did not want to \"write lies\" to deceive the enemy.", "He later served in the local Home Guard in Oxford.From 1941 to 1943, Lewis spoke on religious programmes broadcast by the BBC from London while the city was under periodic air raids.", "These broadcasts were appreciated by civilians and servicemen at that stage.", "For example, Air Chief Marshal Sir Donald Hardman wrote::\"The war, the whole of life, everything tended to seem pointless.", "We needed, many of us, a key to the meaning of the universe.", "Lewis provided just that.", "\"The youthful Alistair Cooke was less impressed, and in 1944 described \"the alarming vogue of Mr. C.S.", "Lewis\" as an example of how wartime tends to \"spawn so many quack religions and Messiahs\".", "The broadcasts were anthologized in ''Mere Christianity''.", "From 1941, Lewis was occupied at his summer holiday weekends visiting R.A.F.", "stations to speak on his faith, invited by Chaplain-in-Chief Maurice Edwards.It was also during the same wartime period that Lewis was invited to become first President of the Oxford Socratic Club in January 1942, a position that he enthusiastically held until he resigned on appointment to Cambridge University in 1954.===Honour declined===Lewis was named on the last list of honours by George VI in December 1951 as a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) but declined so as to avoid association with any political issues.===Chair at Cambridge University===In 1954, Lewis accepted the newly founded chair in Mediaeval and Renaissance Literature at Magdalene College, Cambridge, where he finished his career.", "He maintained a strong attachment to the city of Oxford, keeping a home there and returning on weekends until his death in 1963.===Joy Davidman===In later life, Lewis corresponded with Joy Davidman Gresham, an American writer of Jewish background, a former Communist, and a convert from atheism to Christianity.", "She was separated from her alcoholic and abusive husband, novelist William L. Gresham, and came to England with her two sons, David and Douglas.", "Lewis at first regarded her as an agreeable intellectual companion and personal friend, and it was on this level that he agreed to enter into a civil marriage contract with her so that she could continue to live in the UK.", "They were married at the register office, 42 St Giles', Oxford, on 23 April 1956.Lewis's brother Warren wrote: \"For Jack the attraction was at first undoubtedly intellectual.", "Joy was the only woman whom he had met ... who had a brain which matched his own in suppleness, in width of interest, and in analytical grasp, and above all in humour and a sense of fun.\"", "After complaining of a painful hip, she was diagnosed with terminal bone cancer, and the relationship developed to the point that they sought a Christian marriage.", "Since she was divorced, this was not straightforward in the Church of England at the time, but a friend, the Rev.", "Peter Bide, performed the ceremony at her bed in the Churchill Hospital on 21 March 1957.Gresham's cancer soon went into remission, and the couple lived together as a family with Warren Lewis until 1960, when her cancer recurred.", "She died on 13 July 1960.Earlier that year, the couple took a brief holiday in Greece and the Aegean; Lewis was fond of walking but not of travel, and this marked his only crossing of the English Channel after 1918.Lewis's book ''A Grief Observed'' describes his experience of bereavement in such a raw and personal fashion that he originally released it under the pseudonym N. W. Clerk to keep readers from associating the book with him.", "Ironically, many friends recommended the book to Lewis as a method for dealing with his own grief.", "After Lewis's death, his authorship was made public by Faber's, with the permission of the executors.Lewis continued to raise Gresham's two sons after her death.", "Douglas Gresham is a Christian like Lewis and his mother, while David Gresham turned to his mother's ancestral faith, becoming Orthodox Jewish in his beliefs.", "His mother's writings had featured the Jews in an unsympathetic manner, particularly on \"shohet\" (ritual slaughterer).", "David informed Lewis that he was going to become a ritual slaughterer to present this type of Jewish religious functionary to the world in a more favourable light.", "In a 2005 interview, Douglas Gresham acknowledged that he and his brother were not close, although they had corresponded via email.", "David died on 25 December 2014.In 2020, Douglas revealed that his brother had died at a Swiss mental hospital, and that when David was a young man he had been diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia.===Illness and death===Lewis's grave at Holy Trinity Church, Headington QuarryIn early June 1961, Lewis began experiencing nephritis, which resulted in blood poisoning.", "His illness caused him to miss the autumn term at Cambridge, though his health gradually began improving in 1962 and he returned that April.", "His health continued to improve and, according to his friend George Sayer, Lewis was fully himself by early 1963.On 15 July that year, Lewis fell ill and was admitted to the hospital; he had a heart attack at 5:00 pm the next day and lapsed into a coma, but unexpectedly woke the following day at 2:00 pm.", "After he was discharged from the hospital, Lewis returned to the Kilns, though he was too ill to return to work.", "As a result, he resigned from his post at Cambridge in August 1963.Lewis's condition continued to decline, and he was diagnosed with end-stage kidney failure in mid-November.", "He collapsed in his bedroom at 5:30 pm on 22 November, exactly one week before his 65th birthday, and died a few minutes later.", "He is buried in the churchyard of Holy Trinity Church, Headington, Oxford.", "His brother Warren died on 9 April 1973 and was buried in the same grave.Media coverage of Lewis's death was almost completely overshadowed by news of the assassination of John F. Kennedy, which occurred on the same day (approximately 55 minutes following Lewis's collapse), as did the death of English writer Aldous Huxley, author of ''Brave New World''.", "This coincidence was the inspiration for Peter Kreeft's book ''Between Heaven and Hell: A Dialog Somewhere Beyond Death with John F. Kennedy, C. S. Lewis, & Aldous Huxley''.", "Lewis is commemorated on 22 November in the church calendar of the Episcopal Church." ], [ "Career", "===Scholar===Magdalen College, OxfordMagdalene College, CambridgeLewis began his academic career as an undergraduate student at Oxford University, where he won a triple first, the highest honours in three areas of study.", "He was then elected a Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford, where he worked for nearly thirty years, from 1925 to 1954.In 1954, he was awarded the newly founded chair of Mediaeval and Renaissance Literature at Cambridge University, and was elected a fellow of Magdalene College.", "Concerning his appointed academic field, he argued that there was no such thing as an English Renaissance.", "Much of his scholarly work concentrated on the later Middle Ages, especially its use of allegory.", "His ''The Allegory of Love'' (1936) helped reinvigorate the serious study of late medieval narratives such as the ''Roman de la Rose''.The Eagle and Child pub in Oxford where the Inklings met on Tuesday mornings in 1939Lewis was commissioned to write the volume ''English Literature in the Sixteenth Century (Excluding Drama)'' for the Oxford History of English Literature.", "His book ''A Preface to Paradise Lost'' is still cited as a criticism of that work.", "His last academic work, ''The Discarded Image: An Introduction to Medieval and Renaissance Literature'' (1964), is a summary of the medieval world view, a reference to the \"discarded image\" of the cosmos.Lewis was a prolific writer, and his circle of literary friends became an informal discussion society known as the \"Inklings\", including J. R. R. Tolkien, Nevill Coghill, Lord David Cecil, Charles Williams, Owen Barfield, and his brother Warren Lewis.", "Glyer points to December 1929 as the Inklings' beginning date.", "Lewis's friendship with Coghill and Tolkien grew during their time as members of the Kolbítar, an Old Norse reading group that Tolkien founded and which ended around the time of the inception of the Inklings.", "At Oxford, he was the tutor of poet John Betjeman, critic Kenneth Tynan, mystic Bede Griffiths, novelist Roger Lancelyn Green and Sufi scholar Martin Lings, among many other undergraduates.", "The religious and conservative Betjeman detested Lewis, whereas the anti-establishment Tynan retained a lifelong admiration for him.Of Tolkien, Lewis writes in ''Surprised by Joy'':===Novelist===In addition to his scholarly work, Lewis wrote several popular novels, including the science fiction ''Space Trilogy'' for adults and the Narnia fantasies for children.", "Most deal implicitly with Christian themes such as sin, humanity's fall from grace, and redemption.His first novel after becoming a Christian was ''The Pilgrim's Regress'' (1933), which depicted his experience with Christianity in the style of John Bunyan's ''The Pilgrim's Progress''.", "The book was poorly received by critics at the time, although David Martyn Lloyd-Jones, one of Lewis's contemporaries at Oxford, gave him much-valued encouragement.", "Asked by Lloyd-Jones when he would write another book, Lewis replied, \"When I understand the meaning of prayer.", "\"The ''Space Trilogy'' (also called the ''Cosmic Trilogy'' or ''Ransom Trilogy'') dealt with what Lewis saw as the dehumanizing trends in contemporary science fiction.", "The first book, ''Out of the Silent Planet'', was apparently written following a conversation with his friend J. R. R. Tolkien about these trends.", "Lewis agreed to write a \"space travel\" story and Tolkien a \"time travel\" one, but Tolkien never completed \"The Lost Road\", linking his Middle-earth to the modern world.", "Lewis's main character Elwin Ransom is based in part on Tolkien, a fact to which Tolkien alludes in his letters.The second novel, ''Perelandra'', depicts a new Garden of Eden on the planet Venus, a new Adam and Eve, and a new \"serpent figure\" to tempt Eve.", "The story can be seen as an account of what might have happened if the terrestrial Adam had defeated the serpent and avoided the Fall of Man, with Ransom intervening in the novel to \"ransom\" the new Adam and Eve from the deceptions of the enemy.", "The third novel, ''That Hideous Strength'', develops the theme of nihilistic science threatening traditional human values, embodied in Arthurian legend.Many ideas in the trilogy, particularly opposition to dehumanization as portrayed in the third book, are presented more formally in ''The Abolition of Man'', based on a series of lectures by Lewis at Durham University in 1943.Lewis stayed in Durham, where he says he was overwhelmed by the magnificence of the cathedral.", "''That Hideous Strength'' is in fact set in the environs of \"Edgestow\" university, a small English university like Durham, though Lewis disclaims any other resemblance between the two.Walter Hooper, Lewis's literary executor, discovered a fragment of another science-fiction novel apparently written by Lewis called ''The Dark Tower''.", "Ransom appears in the story but it is not clear whether the book was intended as part of the same series of novels.", "The manuscript was eventually published in 1977, though Lewis scholar Kathryn Lindskoog doubts its authenticity.The Mountains of Mourne inspired Lewis to write ''The Chronicles of Narnia''.", "About them, Lewis wrote \"I have seen landscapes ... which, under a particular light, make me feel that at any moment a giant might raise his head over the next ridge.", "\"''The Chronicles of Narnia'', considered a classic of children's literature, is a series of seven fantasy novels.", "Written between 1949 and 1954 and illustrated by Pauline Baynes, the series is Lewis's most popular work, having sold over 100 million copies in 41 languages .", "It has been adapted several times, complete or in part, for radio, television, stage and cinema.The books contain Christian ideas intended to be easily accessible to young readers.", "In addition to Christian themes, Lewis also borrows characters from Greek and Roman mythology, as well as traditional British and Irish fairy tales.Lewis's last novel, ''Till We Have Faces'', a retelling of the myth of Cupid and Psyche, was published in 1956.Although Lewis called it \"far and away my best book,\" it was not as well-reviewed as his previous work.====Other works====Lewis wrote several works on Heaven and Hell.", "One of these, ''The Great Divorce'', is a short novella in which a few residents of Hell take a bus ride to Heaven, where they are met by people who dwell there.", "The proposition is that they can stay if they choose, in which case they can call the place where they had come from \"Purgatory\", instead of \"Hell\", but many find it not to their taste.", "The title is a reference to William Blake's ''The Marriage of Heaven and Hell'', a concept that Lewis found a \"disastrous error\".", "This work deliberately echoes two other more famous works with a similar theme: the ''Divine Comedy'' of Dante Alighieri, and Bunyan's ''The Pilgrim's Progress''.Another short work, ''The Screwtape Letters'', which he dedicated to J. R. R. Tolkien, consists of letters of advice from senior demon Screwtape to his nephew Wormwood on the best ways to tempt a particular human and secure his damnation.", "Lewis's last novel was ''Till We Have Faces'', which he thought of as his most mature and masterly work of fiction but which was never a popular success.", "It is a retelling of the myth of Cupid and Psyche from the unusual perspective of Psyche's sister.", "It is deeply concerned with religious ideas, but the setting is entirely pagan, and the connections with specific Christian beliefs are left implicit.Before Lewis's conversion to Christianity, he published two books: ''Spirits in Bondage'', a collection of poems, and ''Dymer'', a single narrative poem.", "Both were published under the pen name Clive Hamilton.", "Other narrative poems have since been published posthumously, including ''Launcelot'', ''The Nameless Isle'', and ''The Queen of Drum''.He also wrote ''The Four Loves'', which rhetorically explains four categories of love: friendship, eros, affection, and charity.In 2009, a partial draft was discovered of ''Language and Human Nature'', which Lewis had begun co-writing with J. R. R. Tolkien, but which was never completed.===Christian apologist===Lewis is also regarded by many as one of the most influential Christian apologists of his time, in addition to his career as an English professor and an author of fiction.", "''Mere Christianity'' was voted best book of the 20th century by ''Christianity Today'' in 2000.He has been called \"The Apostle to the Skeptics\" due to his approach to religious belief as a sceptic, and his following conversion.Lewis was very interested in presenting an argument from reason against metaphysical naturalism and for the existence of God.", "''Mere Christianity'', ''The Problem of Pain'', and ''Miracles'' were all concerned, to one degree or another, with refuting popular objections to Christianity, such as the question, \"How could a good God allow pain to exist in the world?\"", "He also became a popular lecturer and broadcaster, and some of his writing originated as scripts for radio talks or lectures (including much of ''Mere Christianity'').According to George Sayer, losing a 1948 debate with Elizabeth Anscombe, also a Christian, led Lewis to re-evaluate his role as an apologist, and his future works concentrated on devotional literature and children's books.", "Anscombe had a completely different recollection of the debate's outcome and its emotional effect on Lewis.", "Victor Reppert also disputes Sayer, listing some of Lewis's post-1948 apologetic publications, including the second and revised edition of his ''Miracles'' in 1960, in which Lewis addressed Anscombe's criticism.", "Noteworthy too is Roger Teichman's suggestion in ''The Philosophy of Elizabeth Anscombe'' that the intellectual impact of Anscombe's paper on Lewis's philosophical self-confidence should not be over-rated: \"... it seems unlikely that he felt as irretrievably crushed as some of his acquaintances have made out; the episode is probably an inflated legend, in the same category as the affair of Wittgenstein's Poker.", "Certainly, Anscombe herself believed that Lewis's argument, though flawed, was getting at something very important; she thought that this came out more in the improved version of it that Lewis presented in a subsequent edition of ''Miracles'' – though that version also had 'much to criticize in it'.", "\"Lewis wrote an autobiography titled ''Surprised by Joy'', which places special emphasis on his own conversion.", "He also wrote many essays and public speeches on Christian belief, many of which were collected in ''God in the Dock'' and ''The Weight of Glory and Other Addresses''.His most famous works, the ''Chronicles of Narnia'', contain many strong Christian messages and are often considered allegory.", "Lewis, an expert on the subject of allegory, maintained that the books were not allegory, and preferred to call the Christian aspects of them \"suppositional\".", "As Lewis wrote in a letter to a Mrs. Hook in December 1958:Prior to his conversion, Lewis used the word \"Moslem\" to refer to Muslims, adherents of Islam; following his conversion, however, he started using \"Mohammedans\" and described Islam as a Christian heresy rather than an independent religion.====\"Trilemma\"====In a much-cited passage from ''Mere Christianity'', Lewis challenged the view that Jesus was a great moral teacher but not God.", "He argued that Jesus made several implicit claims to divinity, which would logically exclude that claim:Although this argument is sometimes called \"Lewis's trilemma\", Lewis did not invent it but rather developed and popularized it.", "It has also been used by Christian apologist Josh McDowell in his book ''More Than a Carpenter''.", "It has been widely repeated in Christian apologetic literature but largely ignored by professional theologians and biblical scholars.Lewis's Christian apologetics, and this argument in particular, have been criticized.", "Philosopher John Beversluis described Lewis's arguments as \"textually careless and theologically unreliable\", and this particular argument as logically unsound and an example of a false dilemma.", "The Pluralist theologian John Hick claimed that New Testament scholars do not now support the view that Jesus claimed to be God.", "The Anglican New Testament scholar N. T. Wright criticizes Lewis for failing to recognize the significance of Jesus's Jewish identity and setting – an oversight which \"at best, drastically short-circuits the argument\" and which lays Lewis open to criticism that his argument \"doesn't work as history, and it backfires dangerously when historical critics question his reading of the gospels\", although he argues that this \"doesn't undermine the eventual claim\".Lewis used a similar argument in ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'', when the old Professor advises his young guests that their sister's claims of a magical world must logically be taken as either lies, madness, or truth.====Universal morality====One of the main theses in Lewis's apologia is that there is a common morality known throughout humanity, which he calls \"natural law\".", "In the first five chapters of ''Mere Christianity'', Lewis discusses the idea that people have a standard of behaviour to which they expect people to adhere.", "Lewis claims that people all over the earth know what this law is and when they break it.", "He goes on to claim that there must be someone or something behind such a universal set of principles.Lewis also portrays Universal Morality in his works of fiction.", "In ''The Chronicles of Narnia'' he describes Universal Morality as the \"deep magic\" which everyone knew.In the second chapter of ''Mere Christianity'', Lewis recognizes that \"many people find it difficult to understand what this Law of Human Nature ...", "is.\"", "And he responds first to the idea \"that the Moral Law is simply our herd instinct\" and second to the idea \"that the Moral Law is simply a social convention\".", "In responding to the second idea Lewis notes that people often complain that one set of moral ideas is better than another, but that this actually argues for there existing some \"Real Morality\" to which they are comparing other moralities.", "Finally, he notes that sometimes differences in moral codes are exaggerated by people who confuse differences in beliefs about morality with differences in beliefs about facts:Lewis also had fairly progressive views on the topic of \"animal morality\", in particular the suffering of animals, as is evidenced by several of his essays: most notably, ''On Vivisection'' and \"On the Pains of Animals\"." ], [ "Legacy", "Ross Wilson's statue of Professor Kirke (Digory) in front of the wardrobe from ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'' in East BelfastLewis continues to attract a wide readership.", "In 2008, ''The Times'' ranked him eleventh on their list of \"the 50 greatest British writers since 1945\".", "Readers of his fiction are often unaware of what Lewis considered the Christian themes of his works.", "His Christian apologetics are read and quoted by members of many Christian denominations.", "In 2013, on the 50th anniversary of his death, Lewis joined some of Britain's greatest writers recognized at Poets' Corner, Westminster Abbey.", "The dedication service, at noon on 22 November 2013, included a reading from ''The Last Battle'' by Douglas Gresham, younger stepson of Lewis.", "Flowers were laid by Walter Hooper, trustee and literary advisor to the Lewis Estate.", "An address was delivered by former Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams.", "The floor stone inscription is a quotation from an address by Lewis:Lewis has been the subject of several biographies, a few of which were written by close friends, such as Roger Lancelyn Green and George Sayer.", "In 1985, the screenplay ''Shadowlands'' by William Nicholson dramatized Lewis's life and relationship with Joy Davidman Gresham.", "It was aired on British television starring Joss Ackland and Claire Bloom.", "This was also staged as a theatre play starring Nigel Hawthorne in 1989 and made into the 1993 feature film ''Shadowlands'' starring Anthony Hopkins and Debra Winger.A mural depicting Lewis and characters from the Narnia series, Convention Court, Ballymacarrett Road, East BelfastMany books have been inspired by Lewis, including ''A Severe Mercy'' by his correspondent and friend Sheldon Vanauken.", "''The Chronicles of Narnia'' has been particularly influential.", "Modern children's literature has been more or less influenced by Lewis's series, such as Daniel Handler's ''A Series of Unfortunate Events'', Eoin Colfer's ''Artemis Fowl'', Philip Pullman's ''His Dark Materials'', and J. K. Rowling's ''Harry Potter''.", "Pullman is an atheist and is known to be sharply critical of C. S. Lewis's work, accusing Lewis of featuring religious propaganda, misogyny, racism, and emotional sadism in his books.", "However, he has also modestly praised ''The Chronicles of Narnia'' for being a \"more serious\" work of literature in comparison with Tolkien's \"trivial\" ''The Lord of the Rings''.", "Authors of adult fantasy literature such as Tim Powers have also testified to being influenced by Lewis's work.In ''A Sword Between the Sexes?", "C. S. Lewis and the Gender Debates'', Mary Stewart Van Leeuwen finds in Lewis's work \"a hierarchical and essentialist view of class and gender\" corresponding to an upbringing during the Edwardian era.Most of Lewis's posthumous work has been edited by his literary executor Walter Hooper.", "Kathryn Lindskoog, an independent Lewis scholar, argued that Hooper's scholarship is not reliable and that he has made false statements and attributed forged works to Lewis.", "Lewis's stepson, Douglas Gresham, denies the forgery claims, saying that \"The whole controversy thing was engineered for very personal reasons ...", "Her fanciful theories have been pretty thoroughly discredited.", "\"A bronze statue of Lewis's character Digory from ''The Magician's Nephew'' stands in Belfast's Holywood Arches in front of the Holywood Road Library.Several C. S. Lewis Societies exist around the world, including one which was founded in Oxford in 1982.The C.S.", "Lewis Society at the University of Oxford meets at Pusey House during term time to discuss papers on the life and works of Lewis and the other Inklings, and generally appreciate all things Lewisian.Live-action film adaptations have been made of three of ''The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe'' (2005), ''Prince Caspian'' (2008) and ''The Voyage of the Dawn Treader'' (2010).Lewis is featured as a main character in ''The Chronicles of the Imaginarium Geographica'' series by James A. Owen.", "He is one of two characters in Mark St. Germain's 2009 play ''Freud's Last Session'', which imagines a meeting between Lewis, aged 40, and Sigmund Freud, aged 83, at Freud's house in Hampstead, London, in 1939, as the Second World War is about to break out.", "In 2023, Freud's Last Session was released as a movie starring Anthony Hopkins as Freud and Matthew Goode as Lewis.", "The movie had additional characters as well, including Anna Freud, played by Liv Lisa Fries.In 2021, ''The Most Reluctant Convert'', a biographical drama about Lewis's life and conversion, was released.The CS Lewis Nature Reserve, on ground owned by Lewis, lies behind his house, The Kilns.", "There is public access." ], [ "Bibliography" ], [ "See also", "* Marion E. Wade Center at Wheaton College, has the world's largest collection of works by and about Lewis* Courtly love* Johan Huizinga* D. W. Robertson Jr." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * .", "* reprinted as * * * * * * * * .", "* * * * * .", "* * * .", "* * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * * Beversluis, John (1985), ''C.", "S. Lewis and the Search for Rational Religion''.", "Grand Rapids: Eerdmans * Bresland, Ronald W. (1999), ''The Backward Glance: C. S. Lewis and Ireland''.", "Belfast: Institute of Irish Studies at Queen's University of Belfast.", "* Brown, Devin (2013), ''A Life Observed: A Spiritual Biography of C. S. Lewis''.", "Grand Rapids: Brazos Press * Christopher, Joe R. & Joan K. Ostling (1972), ''C.", "S. Lewis: An Annotated Checklist of Writings About Him and His Works''.", "Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, n.d. * Como, James (1998), ''Branches to Heaven: The Geniuses of C. S. Lewis''.", "Spence* Como, James (2006), ''Remembering C. S. Lewis'' (3rd edn.", "of ''C.", "S. Lewis at the Breakfast Table'').", "Ignatius Press* Connolly, Sean (2007), ''Inklings of Heaven: C. S. Lewis and Eschatology''.", "Gracewing.", "* Coren, Michael (1994), ''The Man Who Created Narnia: The Story of C. S. Lewis''.", "Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, reprint edition 1996 (First published 1994 in Canada by Lester Publishing Limited).", "* Derrick, Christopher (1981) ''C.", "S. Lewis and the Church of Rome: A Study in Proto-Ecumenism''.", "Ignatius Press.", "* * Downing, David C. (1992), ''Planets in Peril: A Critical Study of C. S. Lewis's Ransom Trilogy''.", "Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press.", "* Downing, David C. (2002), ''The Most Reluctant Convert: C. S. Lewis's Journey to Faith''.", "InterVarsity.", "* Downing, David C. (2005), ''Into the Region of Awe: Mysticism in C. S. Lewis''.", "InterVarsity.", "* Downing, David C. (2005), ''Into the Wardrobe: C. S. Lewis and the Narnia Chronicles''.", "San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.", "* * Duriez, Colin (2003), ''Tolkien and C. S. Lewis: The Gift of Friendship''.", "Paulist Press * Duriez, Colin (2015), ''Bedeviled: Lewis, Tolkien and the Shadow of Evil''.", "InterVarsity Press * Duriez, Colin & David Porter (2001), ''The Inklings Handbook: The Lives, Thought and Writings of C. S. Lewis, J. R. R. Tolkien, Charles Williams, Owen Barfield, and Their Friends''.", "London: Azure.", "* * * Edwards, Bruce L. (2005), ''Further Up and Further In: Understanding C. S. Lewis's'' The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe.", "Broadman and Holman.", "* Edwards, Bruce L. (2005), ''Not a Tame Lion: The Spiritual World of Narnia''.", "Tyndale.", "* * Fowler, Alastair, \"C. S. Lewis: Supervisor\", ''Yale Review''; Vol.", "91, No.", "4 (October 2003).", "* * Gardner, Helen (1966) \"† Clive Staples Lewis, 1898–1963\".", "Biographical memoir, in ''Proceedings of the British Academy'' 51 (1966), 417–28.", "* Gibb, Jocelyn (ed.)", "(1965), ''Light on C. S. Lewis''.", "Geoffrey Bles, 1965, & Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976.", "* Gilbert, Douglas & Clyde Kilby (1973) ''C.", "S. Lewis: Images of His World''.", "Eerdmans, 1973 & 2005.", "* * * * Gresham, Douglas (1994), ''Lenten Lands: My Childhood with Joy Davidman and C. S. Lewis''.", "HarperSanFrancisco.", "* Gresham, Douglas (2005), ''Jack's Life: A Memory of C. S. Lewis''.", "Broadman & Holman Publishers.", "* Griffin, William (2005), ''C.", "S. Lewis: The Authentic Voice'' (formerly ''C.", "S. Lewis: A Dramatic Life'').", "Lion.", "* Hart, Dabney Adams (1984), ''Through the Open Door: A New Look at C. S. Lewis''.", "University of Alabama Press.", "* Heck, Joel D. (2006), ''Irrigating Deserts: C. S. Lewis on Education''.", "Concordia Publishing House.", "* * * * * * * Keefe, Carolyn (1979), ''C.", "S. Lewis: Speaker & Teacher''.", "Zondervan.", "* Kennedy, Jon (2008), ''The Everything Guide to C. S. Lewis and Narnia''.", "Adams Media.", "* Kennedy, Jon (2012), ''C.", "S. Lewis Themes and Threads''.", "Amazon Kindle ASIN B00ATSY3AQ* Kilby, Clyde S. (1964), ''The Christian World of C. S. Lewis''.", "Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964, 1995.", "* King, Don W. (2001), ''C.", "S. Lewis, Poet: The Legacy of His Poetic Impulse''.", "Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press.", "* * * Lindskoog, Kathryn (1994), ''Light in the Shadowlands: Protecting the Real C. S. Lewis''.", "Multnomah Pub.", "* Lowenberg, Susan (1993), ''C.", "S. Lewis: A Reference Guide, 1972–1988''.", "Hall & Co. * Mardindale, Wayne & Jerry Root (1990), ''The Quotable Lewis''.", "Tyndale House Publishers.", "* Martin, Thomas L.", "(ed.)", "(2000), ''Reading the Classics with C. S. Lewis''.", "Baker Academic.", "* Miller, Laura (2008) \"The Magician's Book\", Little, Brown & Co. * Mills, David (ed) (1998) ''The Pilgrim's Guide: C. S. Lewis and the Art of Witness''.", "Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.", "* * * * Pearce, Joseph (1999), ''C.", "S. Lewis and the Catholic Church''.", "HarperCollins, 1999; then Ignatius Press, 2003.", "* Peters, Thomas C. (1998), ''Simply C. S. Lewis: A Beginner's Guide to His Life and Works''.", "Kingsway Publications.", "* Phillips, Justin (2003), ''C.", "S. Lewis at the BBC: Messages of Hope in the Darkness of War''.", "Marshall Pickering.", "* Poe, Harry Lee & Rebecca Whitten Poe (eds) (2006), ''C.", "S. Lewis Remembered: Collected Reflections of Students, Friends & Colleagues''.", "Zondervan.", "* Reppert, Victor (2003), ''C.", "S. Lewis's Dangerous Idea: In Defense of the Argument from Reason''.", "InterVarsity Press.", "* Sayer, George (1988), ''Jack: C. S. Lewis and His Times''.", "London: Macmillan.", "* Schakel, Peter J.", "(1984), '' Reason and Imagination in C. S. Lewis: A Study of \"Till We Have Faces\" ''.", "Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.", "* Schakel, Peter J.", "(2002), ''Imagination and the Arts in C. S. Lewis: Journeying to Narnia and Other Worlds''.", "University of Missouri Press.", "* Schakel, Peter J.", "(ed.)", "(1977), ''The Longing for a Form: Essays on the Fiction of C. S. Lewis''.", "Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press.", "* Schakel, Peter J.", "& Charles A. Huttar (eds.)", "(1991), ''Word and Story in C. S. Lewis''.", "University of Missouri Press.", "* Schofield, Stephen (1983), ''In Search of C. S. Lewis''.", "Bridge Logos Pub.", "* Schultz, Jeffrey D. & John G. West Jr. (eds) (1998), ''The C. S. Lewis Readers' Encyclopedia''.", "Zondervan Publishing House.", "* Schwartz, Sanford (2009), ''C.", "S. Lewis on the Final Frontier: Science and the Supernatural in the Space Trilogy''.", "Oxford University Press.", ".", "* Tennyson, G. B.", "(ed.)", "(1989), ''Owen Barfield on C. S. Lewis''.", "Wesleyan University Press * * Wagner, Richard J.", "(2005) ''C.", "S. Lewis and Narnia for Dummies''.", "For Dummies.", "* Walker, Andrew & Patrick James (eds.)", "(1998), ''Rumours of Heaven: Essays in Celebration of C. S. Lewis'', Guildford: Eagle.", "* Walsh, Chad (1949), ''C.", "S. Lewis: Apostle to the Skeptics''.", "London: Macmillan* Walsh, Chad (1979), ''The Literary Legacy of C. S. Lewis''.", "New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.", "* Ward, Michael (2008), ''Planet Narnia''.", "Oxford University Press.", "* Watson, George (ed.)", "(1992), ''Critical Essays on C. S. Lewis''.", "Menston: Scolar Press.", "* White, Michael (2005), ''C.", "S. Lewis: The Boy Who Chronicled Narnia''.", "Abacus.", "* Wielenberg, Erik J.", "(2007), ''God and the Reach of Reason''.", "Cambridge University Press.", "* " ], [ "External links", " * * * * * Journal of Inklings Studies peer-reviewed journal on Lewis and his literary circle, based at Oxford* C. S. Lewis Reading Room, with extensive links to online primary and secondary literature (Tyndale Seminary)* C. S. Lewis research collection at The Marion E. Wade Center at Wheaton College* C. S. Lewis at the ''Encyclopedia of Science Fiction''* C. S. Lewis at the ''Encyclopedia of Fantasy''* BBC Radio 4 – Great Lives – Suzannah Lipscomb on CS Lewis – 3 January 2017 Step though the wardrobe on Great Lives as CS Lewis – creator of the Narnia Chronicles – is this week's choice*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Chinese dominoes" ], [ "Introduction", "A full set of Chinese dominoes'''Chinese dominoes''' are used in several tile-based games, namely, tien gow, pai gow, tiu u and kap tai shap.", "In Cantonese they are called (), which literally means \"bone tiles\"; it is also the name of a northern Chinese game, where the rules are quite different from the southern Chinese version of tien gow." ], [ "History", "Ming author Xie Zhaozhe (1567–1624) records the legend of dominoes having been presented to Song Emperor Huizong in 1112.However the contemporary Li Qingzhao (1084 – ) made no mention of dominoes in her compendium of games.", "In China, early \"domino\" tiles were functionally identical to playing cards.", "An identifiable version of Chinese dominoes developed in the 12th or 13th century.", "The oldest confirmed written mention of dominoes in China comes from the ''Former Events in Wulin'' (i.e.", "the capital Hangzhou) written by the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) author Zhou Mi (1232–1298), who listed \"''pupai''\" (gambling plaques or dominoes) as well as dice as items sold by peddlers during the reign of Song Emperor Xiaozong ().", "Andrew Lo asserts that Zhou Mi meant dominoes when referring to ''pupai'', since the Ming author Lu Rong (1436–1494) explicitly defined ''pupai'' as dominoes (in regards to a story of a suitor who won a maiden's hand by drawing out four winning ''pupai'' from a set).", "Tiles dating from the 12th to 14th centuries have survived.", "Unlike most modern tiles they are white with black and red pips.The earliest known manual written about dominoes is the ''Manual of the Xuanhe Period'' () written by Qu You (1341–1427), but some Chinese scholars believe this manual is a forgery from a later time.", "In the ''Encyclopedia of a Myriad of Treasures'', Zhang Pu (1602–1641) described the game of laying out dominoes as ''pupai'', although the character for ''pu'' had changed, yet retained a similar pronunciation.During the Qing dynasty (1644-1912), the suits known as \"Chinese\" and \"barbarian\" were renamed to \"civil\" and \"military\" respectively to avoid offending the ruling Manchus.", "Tiles with blank ends, like those found in Western \"double-six\" dominoes, once existed during the 17th century.", "These games employed two sets of \"double-six\" tiles.", "It is possible that these were the types of dominoes that made it to Europe the following century.", "However, the 32-piece Chinese domino set, made to represent each possible face of two thrown dice and thus have no blank faces, differs from the 28-piece domino set found in the West during the mid 18th century.", "Chinese dominoes with blank faces were known during the 17th century.Each domino originally represented one of the 21 results of throwing two six-sided dice (2d6).", "One half of each domino is set with the pips from one die and the other half contains the pips from the second die.", "Chinese sets also introduce duplicates of some throws and divide the tiles into two suits: military and civil.", "Chinese dominoes are also longer than typical European ones.Traditional Chinese domino games include ''Tien Gow, Pai Gow, Che Deng'', and others." ], [ "Deck composition and ranking", "+Dice combinations and domino equivalents Civil suit (文子) Military suit (武子) Rank Roll / Domino Name Rank Roll / Domino Name 1 (high) upright=0.15upright=0.15 6-6 upright=0.1 Heaven(天) 12 upright=0.15upright=0.15 5-4 upright=0.1 Nines(九) 2 upright=0.15upright=0.15 1-1 upright=0.1 Earth(地) upright=0.15upright=0.15 6-3 upright=0.1 3 upright=0.15upright=0.15 4-4 upright=0.1 Man(人) 13 upright=0.15upright=0.15 5-3 upright=0.1 Eights(八) 4 upright=0.15upright=0.15 3-1 upright=0.1 Harmony(和) upright=0.15upright=0.15 6-2 upright=0.1 5 upright=0.15upright=0.15 5-5 upright=0.1 Plum Flower(梅花) 14 upright=0.15upright=0.15 4-3 upright=0.1 Sevens(七) 6 upright=0.15upright=0.15 3-3 upright=0.1 Long Threes(長三) upright=0.15upright=0.15 5-2 upright=0.1 7 upright=0.15upright=0.15 2-2 upright=0.1 Bench(板凳) 15 upright=0.15upright=0.15 4-2 upright=0.1 Six(六) 8 upright=0.15upright=0.15 5-6 upright=0.1 Tiger's Head(虎頭) 16 upright=0.15upright=0.15 3-2 upright=0.1 Fives(五) 9 upright=0.15upright=0.15 4-6 upright=0.1 Red Head Ten(紅頭十) upright=0.15upright=0.15 4-1 upright=0.1 10 upright=0.15upright=0.15 1-6 upright=0.1 Long Leg Seven(高腳七) 17 (low) upright=0.15upright=0.15 2-1 upright=0.1 Final Three(三) 11 upright=0.15upright=0.15 1-5 upright=0.1 Red Mallet Six(玲瓏六)Each tile pattern in the Chinese domino set is equivalent to a single outcome when two six-sided dice are thrown.", "Each combination is only used once, so there are 21 unique possible patterns.", "Eleven of these 21 unique patterns are repeated to make a total of 32 tiles in a Chinese dominoes set.", "The 32-tile set is divided into two \"suits\" or groups called \"military\" and \"civil\".", "There are no markings on the tiles to distinguish these suits; a player must simply remember which tiles belong to which group.", "There are two each of the eleven civil suit tiles (6-6, 1-1, 4-4, 1-3, 5-5, 3-3, 2-2, 5-6, 4-6, 1-6, 1-5) and one each of the ten military suit tiles (3-6, 4-5; 2-6, 3-5; 2-5, 3-4; 2-4; 1-4, 2-3; 1-2).===Civil suit===Each civil tile also has a Chinese name (and common rough translation to English):* 6-6 is ''tin'' ( heaven)* 1-1 is ''dei'' ( earth)* 4-4 is ''yan'' ( man)* 1-3 is ''ngo'' ( goose or harmony)* 5-5 is ''mui'' ( plum flower)* 3-3 is ''cheung'' ( long)* 2-2 is ''ban'' ( board)* 5-6 is ''fu'' ( hatchet)* 4-6 is ''ping'' ( partition)* 1-6 is ''tsat'' ( long leg seven)* 1-5 is ''luk'' ( big head six)The civil tiles are ranked according to the Chinese cultural significance of the tile names, and must be memorized.", "The hendiatris of () dates back for over two thousand years while the harmony () of the three have been in dice and domino games since at least the Ming dynasty.", "Remembering the suits and rankings of the tiles is easier if one understands the Chinese names of the tiles and the symbolism behind them.===Military suit===The military tiles are named and ranked according to the total pips or points on the tiles.", "For example, the \"nines\" (3-6 and 4-5) rank higher than the \"eights\" (2-6 and 3-5).", "The rankings of the individual tiles are similar in most games.", "However, the ranking of combinations of tiles is slightly different in Pai Gow and Tien Gow.Since there is only one of each military tile, these are usually grouped in four mixed \"pairs\" of equivalent total points: nines, eights, sevens, and fives; for example, the 3-6 and 4-5 tiles \"match\" because they have same total points (nine) and both are in the military suit.", "Among the military tiles, individual tiles of the same pair rank equally, such as 1-4 and 2-3, each totaling five.", "The 2-4 (six) and 1-2 (three) military tiles also are paired together in many games despite the nominal difference in total points.", "They are the only tiles in the entire set that have no corresponding tile in the military suit, considering sums.", "In Pai Gow both of these tiles may be scored as three or six, depending on which is more advantageous.", "This pair when played together is considered a suit on its own, called the ''gi jun'' ( supreme).", "It is the highest ranking pair in the game of Pai Gow, though the tiles rank low individually (in their normal order).", "When either tile of this pair is played individually in the game of Tien Gow, each takes its regular ranking according to the total points among the other military suit tiles.===Physical characteristics===Stewart Culin stated that traditional dominoes are made of Chinese ebony with measurements of long, wide, and thick.Values are marked with white and red pips.", "Using the same coloring scheme as traditional Chinese dice, every half-domino with 1 or 4 pips has those pips colored red; for example, the 4-5 domino has four red pips and five white pips.", "The only exception is the pair of 6-6 tiles.", "Half of the pips on the 6-6 domino are colored red to make them stand out as the top ranking tiles.Typically, one of the short edges is marked with a single red pip, and the backs may be marked with three pips, arrayed diagonally white-red-white.===Variants===File:挖花牌.JPG\|Half of a Digging Flowers set.", "The other half is identical.File:골패 骨牌 삼재도 三才圖.jpg\|Dominoes from KoreaThere are also sets with where the tiles have Xiangqi characters next to the pips.", "As Xiangqi also has 32 pieces, these dual use sets can be used to play Giog.Variant sets include the Digging Flowers () game, which use the same 21 patterns generated by the 2d6 combination; some tiles have flowers or frames printed on them while others have their values duplicated.", "In addition, a Digging Flowers set may include several bonus tiles from mahjong, including flower, season, and blank tiles.Dominoes from Korea also come in a set of 32 and bear markings schematically identical to Chinese dominoes, based on the throw of two dice, although the tiles are closer in size and shape to those used in mahjong, measuring , and the pip size may vary, especially for the 1- and 4-pip halves.", "The pairings for the \"military\" suit also differ: 1-2 and 4-5; 1-4 and 2-3, 2-4 and 3-4, 2-5 and 3-5, and 2-6 and 3-6.+Dice throws / tile names (Korean) Value(Qty) Image Name Value(Qty) Image Name Value(Qty) Image Name Value(Qty) Image Name 1-1(2) upright=0.15 smallest''syo-syo''(소소) 2-2(2) upright=0.15 superior two''tjoun-a''(진이) 3-3(2) upright=0.15 long three''tjyang-sam''(장삼) 4-4(2) upright=0.15 superior red''tjoun-hong''(직흥) 1-2(1) upright=0.15 rat nose''tjoui-hko''(쥐코) 2-3(1) upright=0.15 two, three''a-sam''(이삼) 3-4(1) upright=0.15 three, four''sam-sa''(삼사) 4-5(1) upright=0.15 four, five''sa-o''(사오) 1-3(2) upright=0.15 small, three''syo-sam''(소삼) 2-4(1) upright=0.15 two, four''a-sa''(이사) 3-5(1) upright=0.15 three, five''sam-o''(삼오) 4-6(2) upright=0.15 four, six''sa-ryouk''(사육) 1-4(1) upright=0.15 white, four''paik-sa''(백사) 2-5(1) upright=0.15 sovereign two''koan-i''(관이) 3-6(1) upright=0.15 three, six''sam-ryouk''(삼육) 5-5(2) upright=0.15 superior five''tjoun-o''(준오) 1-5(2) upright=0.15 white, five''paik-o''(백오) 2-6(1) upright=0.15 two, six''a-ryouk''(이육) 5-6(2) upright=0.15 five, six''o-ryouk''(오육) 1-6(2) upright=0.15 white, six''paik-ryouk''(백육) 6-6(2) upright=0.15 superior six''tjoun-ryouk''(주륙)" ], [ "Bone tiles game", "The eponymous game of Bone Tiles (''gǔpái'' in Mandarin) is played in northern and central China and as far south as Hunan.", "The name suggests that it is or became the default game played with dominoes in those regions.", "It is a trick-taking game similar to Tien Gow but has been simplified.", "In single-tile tricks, the civil and military suits have been merged into a single suit.", "In double-tile tricks, there is a new ranking order similar to Pai Gow.", "Triple-tile and quadruple-tile tricks are not allowed as in older versions of Tien Gow.", "Scoring has been simplified to number of stacks won." ], [ "References", "===Works cited===" ], [ "External links", " Domino games rules (including Chinese Dominoes)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Cenozoic" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Cenozoic''' ( ; ) is Earth's current geological era, representing the last 66million years of Earth's history.", "It is characterised by the dominance of mammals, birds, and angiosperms (flowering plants).", "It is the latest of three geological eras, preceded by the Mesozoic and Paleozoic.", "The Cenozoic started with the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, when many species, including the non-avian dinosaurs, became extinct in an event attributed by most experts to the impact of a large asteroid or other celestial body, the Chicxulub impactor.The Cenozoic is also known as the '''Age of Mammals''' because the terrestrial animals that dominated both hemispheres were mammalsthe eutherians (placentals) in the northern hemisphere and the metatherians (marsupials, now mainly restricted to Australia and to some extent South America) in the southern hemisphere.", "The extinction of many groups allowed mammals and birds to greatly diversify so that large mammals and birds dominated life on Earth.", "The continents also moved into their current positions during this era.The climate during the early Cenozoic was warmer than today, particularly during the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum.", "However, the Eocene to Oligocene transition and the Quaternary glaciation dried and cooled Earth." ], [ "Nomenclature", "''Cenozoic'' derives from the Greek words ( 'new') and ( 'life').", "The name was proposed in 1840 by the British geologist John Phillips (1800–1874), who originally spelled it ''Kainozoic''.", "The era is also known as the ''Cænozoic'', ''Caenozoic'', or ''Cainozoic'' ().In name, the Cenozoic () is comparable to the preceding Mesozoic ('middle life') and Paleozoic ('old life') Eras, as well as to the Proterozoic ('earlier life') Eon." ], [ "Divisions", "The Cenozoic is divided into three periods: the Paleogene, Neogene, and Quaternary; and seven epochs: the Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, and Holocene.", "The Quaternary Period was officially recognised by the International Commission on Stratigraphy in June 2009.In 2004, the Tertiary Period was officially replaced by the Paleogene and Neogene Periods.", "The common use of epochs during the Cenozoic helps palaeontologists better organise and group the many significant events that occurred during this comparatively short interval of time.", "Knowledge of this era is more detailed than any other era because of the relatively young, well-preserved rocks associated with it.===Paleogene===The Paleogene spans from the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs, 66 million years ago, to the dawn of the Neogene, 23.03 million years ago.", "It features three epochs: the Paleocene, Eocene and Oligocene.", "''Basilosaurus''The Paleocene Epoch lasted from 66 million to 56 million years ago.", "Modern placental mammals originated during this time.", "The devastation of the K–Pg extinction event included the extinction of large herbivores, which permitted the spread of dense but usually species-poor forests.", "The Early Paleocene saw the recovery of Earth.", "The continents began to take their modern shape, but all the continents and the subcontinent of India were separated from each other.", "Afro-Eurasia was separated by the Tethys Sea, and the Americas were separated by the strait of Panama, as the isthmus had not yet formed.", "This epoch featured a general warming trend, with jungles eventually reaching the poles.", "The oceans were dominated by sharks as the large reptiles that had once predominated were extinct.", "Archaic mammals filled the world such as creodonts (extinct carnivores, unrelated to existing Carnivora).The Eocene Epoch ranged from 56 million years to 33.9 million years ago.", "In the Early-Eocene, species living in dense forest were unable to evolve into larger forms, as in the Paleocene.", "Among them were early primates, whales and horses along with many other early forms of mammals.", "At the top of the food chains were huge birds, such as Paracrax.", "Carbon dioxide levels were approximately 1,400 ppm.", "The temperature was 30 degrees Celsius with little temperature gradient from pole to pole.", "In the Mid-Eocene, the Antarctic Circumpolar Current between Australia and Antarctica formed.", "This disrupted ocean currents worldwide and as a result caused a global cooling effect, shrinking the jungles.", "This allowed mammals to grow to mammoth proportions, such as whales which, by that time, had become almost fully aquatic.", "Mammals like ''Andrewsarchus'' were at the top of the food-chain.", "The Late Eocene saw the rebirth of seasons, which caused the expansion of savanna-like areas, along with the evolution of grasses.", "The end of the Eocene was marked by the Eocene–Oligocene extinction event, the European face of which is known as the Grande Coupure.The Oligocene Epoch spans from 33.9 million to 23.03 million years ago.", "The Oligocene featured the expansion of grasslands which had led to many new species to evolve, including the first elephants, cats, dogs, marsupials and many other species still prevalent today.", "Many other species of plants evolved in this period too.", "A cooling period featuring seasonal rains was still in effect.", "Mammals still continued to grow larger and larger.===Neogene===The Neogene spans from 23.03 million to 2.58 million years ago.", "It features 2 epochs: the Miocene, and the Pliocene.The Miocene Epoch spans from 23.03 to 5.333 million years ago and is a period in which grasses spread further, dominating a large portion of the world, at the expense of forests.", "Kelp forests evolved, encouraging the evolution of new species, such as sea otters.", "During this time, perissodactyla thrived, and evolved into many different varieties.", "Apes evolved into 30 species.", "The Tethys Sea finally closed with the creation of the Arabian Peninsula, leaving only remnants as the Black, Red, Mediterranean and Caspian Seas.", "This increased aridity.", "Many new plants evolved: 95% of modern seed plants families were present by the end of the Miocene.The Pliocene Epoch lasted from 5.333 to 2.58 million years ago.", "The Pliocene featured dramatic climatic changes, which ultimately led to modern species of flora and fauna.", "The Mediterranean Sea dried up for several million years (because the ice ages reduced sea levels, disconnecting the Atlantic from the Mediterranean, and evaporation rates exceeded inflow from rivers).", "''Australopithecus'' evolved in Africa, beginning the human branch.", "The isthmus of Panama formed, and animals migrated between North and South America during the great American interchange, wreaking havoc on local ecologies.", "Climatic changes brought: savannas that are still continuing to spread across the world; Indian monsoons; deserts in central Asia; and the beginnings of the Sahara desert.", "The world map has not changed much since, save for changes brought about by the glaciations of the Quaternary, such as the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Baltic sea.===Quaternary===The Quaternary spans from 2.58 million years ago to present day, and is the shortest geological period in the Phanerozoic Eon.", "It features modern animals, and dramatic changes in the climate.", "It is divided into two epochs: the Pleistocene and the Holocene.Megafauna of Pleistocene Europe (mammoths, cave lions, woolly rhino, reindeer, horses)The Pleistocene lasted from 2.58 million to 11,700 years ago.", "This epoch was marked by ice ages as a result of the cooling trend that started in the Mid-Eocene.", "There were at least four separate glaciation periods marked by the advance of ice caps as far south as 40° N in mountainous areas.", "Meanwhile, Africa experienced a trend of desiccation which resulted in the creation of the Sahara, Namib, and Kalahari deserts.", "Many animals evolved including mammoths, giant ground sloths, dire wolves, sabre-toothed cats, and ''Homo sapiens''.", "100,000 years ago marked the end of one of the worst droughts in Africa, and led to the expansion of primitive humans.", "As the Pleistocene drew to a close, a major extinction wiped out much of the world's megafauna, including some of the hominid species, such as Neanderthals.", "All the continents were affected, but Africa to a lesser extent.", "It still retains many large animals, such as hippos.The Holocene began 11,700 years ago and lasts to the present day.", "All recorded history and \"the Human history\" lies within the boundaries of the Holocene Epoch.", "Human activity is blamed for a mass extinction that began roughly 10,000 years ago, though the species becoming extinct have only been recorded since the Industrial Revolution.", "This is sometimes referred to as the \"Sixth Extinction\".", "It is often cited that over 322 recorded species have become extinct due to human activity since the Industrial Revolution, but the rate may be as high as 500 vertebrate species alone, the majority of which have occurred after 1900." ], [ "Tectonics", "Geologically, the Cenozoic is the era when the continents moved into their current positions.", "Australia-New Guinea, having split from Pangea during the early Cretaceous, drifted north and, eventually, collided with Southeast Asia; Antarctica moved into its current position over the South Pole; the Atlantic Ocean widened and, later in the era (2.8 million years ago), South America became attached to North America with the isthmus of Panama.India collided with Asia creating the Himalayas; Arabia collided with Eurasia, closing the Tethys Ocean and creating the Zagros Mountains, around .The break-up of Gondwana in Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic times led to a shift in the river courses of various large African rivers including the Congo, Niger, Nile, Orange, Limpopo and Zambezi." ], [ "Climate", "In the Cretaceous, the climate was hot and humid with lush forests at the poles, there was no permanent ice and sea levels were around 300 metres higher than today.", "This continued for the first 10 million years of the Paleocene, culminating in the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum about .", "Around Earth entered a period of long term cooling.", "This was mainly due to the collision of India with Eurasia, which caused the rise of the Himalayas: the upraised rocks eroded and reacted with in the air, causing a long-term reduction in the proportion of this greenhouse gas in the atmosphere.", "Around permanent ice began to build up on Antarctica.", "The cooling trend continued in the Miocene, with relatively short warmer periods.", "When South America became attached to North America creating the Isthmus of Panama around , the Arctic region cooled due to the strengthening of the Humboldt and Gulf Stream currents, eventually leading to the glaciations of the Quaternary ice age, the current interglacial of which is the Holocene Epoch.Recent analysis of the geomagnetic reversal frequency, oxygen isotope record, and tectonic plate subduction rate, which are indicators of the changes in the heat flux at the core mantle boundary, climate and plate tectonic activity, shows that all these changes indicate similar rhythms on million years' timescale in the Cenozoic Era occurring with the common fundamental periodicity of ~13 Myr during most of the time.", "The levels of carbonate ions in the ocean fell over the course of the Cenozoic." ], [ "Life", "Early in the Cenozoic, following the K-Pg event, the planet was dominated by relatively small fauna, including small mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians.", "From a geological perspective, it did not take long for mammals and birds to greatly diversify in the absence of the dinosaurs that had dominated during the Mesozoic.", "Some flightless birds grew larger than humans.", "These species are sometimes referred to as \"terror birds\", and were formidable predators.", "Mammals came to occupy almost every available niche (both marine and terrestrial), and some also grew very large, attaining sizes not seen in most of today's terrestrial mammals.", "The ranges of many Cenozoic bird clades were governed by latitude and temperature and have contracted over the course of this era as the world cooled.During the Cenozoic, mammals proliferated from a few small, simple, generalised forms into a diverse collection of terrestrial, marine, and flying animals, giving this period its other name, the Age of Mammals.", "The Cenozoic is just as much the age of savannas, the age of co-dependent flowering plants and insects, and the age of birds.", "Grasses also played a very important role in this era, shaping the evolution of the birds and mammals that fed on them.", "One group that diversified significantly in the Cenozoic as well were the snakes.", "Evolving in the Cenozoic, the variety of snakes increased tremendously, resulting in many colubrids, following the evolution of their current primary prey source, the rodents.In the earlier part of the Cenozoic, the world was dominated by the gastornithid birds, terrestrial crocodiles like ''Pristichampsus'', large sharks such as Otodus, and a handful of primitive large mammal groups like uintatheres, mesonychians, and pantodonts.", "But as the forests began to recede and the climate began to cool, other mammals took over.The Cenozoic is full of mammals both strange and familiar, including chalicotheres, creodonts, whales, primates, entelodonts, sabre-toothed cats, mastodons and mammoths, three-toed horses, giant rhinoceros like ''Paraceratherium'', the rhinoceros-like brontotheres, various bizarre groups of mammals from South America, such as the vaguely elephant-like pyrotheres and the dog-like marsupial relatives called borhyaenids and the monotremes and marsupials of Australia.", "Mammal evolution in the Cenozoic was predominantly shaped by climatic and geological processes.Cenozoic calcareous nannoplankton experienced rapid rates of speciation and reduced species longevity, while suffering prolonged declines in diversity during the Eocene and Neogene.", "Diatoms, in contrast, experienced major diversification over the Eocene, especially at high latitudes, as the world's oceans cooled." ], [ "See also", "* Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (K–T boundary)* Geologic time scale* Late Cenozoic Ice Age" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", " Western Australian Museum – The Age of the Mammals* Cenozoic (chronostratigraphy scale)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Confucianism" ], [ "Introduction", "Temple of Confucius of Jiangyin, Wuxi, Jiangsu.", "This is a ''wenmiao'' (), that is to say a temple where Confucius is worshipped as ''Wendi'', \"God of Culture\" ().Gates of the ''wenmiao'' of Datong, Shanxi'''Confucianism''', also known as '''Ruism''' or '''Ru classicism''', is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China, and is variously described as a tradition, philosophy (humanistic or rationalistic), religion, theory of government, or way of life.", "Confucianism developed from what was later called the Hundred Schools of Thought from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius (551–479 BCE).", "Confucius considered himself a transmitter of cultural values inherited from the Xia (c. 2070–1600 BCE), Shang (c. 1600–1046 BCE) and Western Zhou dynasties (c. 1046–771 BCE).", "Confucianism was suppressed during the Legalist and autocratic Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE), but survived.", "During the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE), Confucian approaches edged out the \"proto-Taoist\" Huang–Lao as the official ideology, while the emperors mixed both with the realist techniques of Legalism.Confucianism regards texts such as the Five Classics as examples that should be followed to increase the harmony of the family, social order as a whole, and the world.", "A Confucian revival began during the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE).", "In the late Tang, Confucianism developed in response to Buddhism and Taoism and was reformulated as Neo-Confucianism.", "This reinvigorated form was adopted as the basis of the imperial exams and the core philosophy of the scholar-official class in the Song dynasty (960–1297).", "The abolition of the examination system in 1905 marked the end of official Confucianism.", "The intellectuals of the New Culture Movement of the early twentieth century blamed Confucianism for China's weaknesses.", "They searched for new doctrines to replace Confucian teachings; some of these new ideologies include the \"Three Principles of the People\" with the establishment of the Republic of China, and then Maoism under the People's Republic of China.", "In the late twentieth century, the Confucian work ethic has been credited with the rise of the East Asian economy.With particular emphasis on the importance of the family and social harmony, rather than on an otherworldly source of spiritual values, the core of Confucianism is humanistic.", "According to American philosopher Herbert Fingarette's conceptualisation of Confucianism as a philosophical system which regards \"the secular as sacred\", Confucianism transcends the dichotomy between religion and humanism, considering the ordinary activities of human life—and especially human relationships—as a manifestation of the sacred, because they are the expression of humanity's moral nature (), which has a transcendent anchorage in ''tian'' ().", "While the Confucian concept of ''tian'' shares some similarities with the concept of a deity, it is primarily an impersonal absolute principle like the ''tao'' or the ''Brahman''.", "Most scholars and practitioners do not think of ''tian'' as a god, and the deities that many Confucians worship do not originate from orthodox Confucianism.", "Confucianism focuses on the practical order that is given by a this-worldly awareness of ''tian''.The worldly concern of Confucianism rests upon the belief that human beings are fundamentally good, and teachable, improvable, and perfectible through personal and communal endeavor, especially self-cultivation and self-creation.", "Confucian thought focuses on the cultivation of virtue in a morally organised world.", "Some of the basic Confucian ethical concepts and practices include ''ren'', ''yi'', ''li'', and ''zhi''.", "''Ren'' is the essence of the human being which manifests as compassion.", "It is the virtue-form of Heaven.", "''Yi'' is the upholding of righteousness and the moral disposition to do good.", "''Li'' is a system of ritual norms and propriety that determines how a person should properly act in everyday life in harmony with the law of Heaven.", "''Zhi'' () is the ability to see what is right and fair, or the converse, in the behaviors exhibited by others.", "Confucianism holds one in contempt, either passively or actively, for failure to uphold the cardinal moral values of ''ren'' and ''yi''.Traditionally, cultures and countries in the East Asian cultural sphere are strongly influenced by Confucianism, including China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, as well as various territories settled predominantly by Han Chinese people, such as Singapore and Myanmar's Kokang.", "Today, it has been credited for shaping East Asian societies and overseas Chinese communities, and to some extent, other parts of Asia.", "Most Confucianist movements have had significant differences from the original Zhou-era teachings, and are typically much more complex because of their reliance on \"elaborate doctrine\" and other factors such as traditions with long histories.", "In the past few decades, there have been talks of a \"Confucian Revival\" in the academic and the scholarly community, and there has been a grassroots proliferation of various types of Confucian churches.", "In late 2015, many Confucian personalities formally established a national Confucian Church () in China to unify the many Confucian congregations and civil society organisations." ], [ "Terminology", "Strictly speaking, there is no term in Chinese which directly corresponds to \"Confucianism\".", "The closest catch-all term for things related to Confucianism is the word ''ru'' ().", "Its literal meanings in modern Chinese include 'scholar', 'learned', or 'refined man'.", "In Old Chinese the word had a distinct set of meanings, including 'to tame', 'to mould', 'to educate', and 'to refine'.", "Several different terms, some of which with modern origin, are used in different situations to express different facets of Confucianism, including:* – \"the ''ru'' school of thought\";* – \"''ru'' religious doctrine\";* – \"''ru'' studies\";* – \"Confucius's religious doctrine\";* – \"Confucius's family's business\", a pejorative phrase used during the New Culture Movement and the Cultural Revolution.Three of them use ''ru''.", "These names do not use the name \"Confucius\" at all, but instead focus on the ideal of the Confucian man.", "The use of the term \"Confucianism\" has been avoided by some modern scholars, who favor \"Ruism\" and \"Ruists\" instead.", "Robert Eno argues that the term has been \"burdened... with the ambiguities and irrelevant traditional associations\".", "Ruism, as he states, is more faithful to the original Chinese name for the school.The term \"Traditionalist\" has been suggested by David Schaberg to emphasize the connection to the past, its standards, and inherited forms, in which Confucius himself placed so much importance.", "This translation of the word ''ru'' is followed by e.g.", "Yuri Pines.According to Zhou Youguang, ''ru'' originally referred to shamanic methods of holding rites and existed before Confucius's times, but with Confucius it came to mean devotion to propagating such teachings to bring civilisation to the people.", "Confucianism was initiated by the disciples of Confucius, developed by Mencius ( 372–289 BCE) and inherited by later generations, undergoing constant transformations and restructuring since its establishment, but preserving the principles of humaneness and righteousness at its core.In the Western world, the character for water is often used as a symbol for Confucianism, which is not the case in modern China.", "However, the ''five phases'' were used as important symbols representing leadership in Han dynasty thought, including Confucianist works.===Five Classics and the Confucian vision===Confucius in a fresco from a Western Han tomb in Dongping, ShandongTraditionally, Confucius was thought to be the author or editor of the Five Classics which were the basic texts of Confucianism, all edited into their received versions around 500 years later by Imperial Librarian Liu Xin.", "The scholar Yao Xinzhong allows that there are good reasons to believe that Confucian classics took shape in the hands of Confucius, but that \"nothing can be taken for granted in the matter of the early versions of the classics\".", "Yao suggests that most modern scholars hold the \"pragmatic\" view that Confucius and his followers did not intend to create a system of classics, but nonetheless \"contributed to their formation\".The scholar Tu Weiming explains these classics as embodying \"five visions\" which underlie the development of Confucianism:* ''I Ching'' (''Classic of Change'' or ''Book of Changes''), generally held to be the earliest of the classics, shows a metaphysical vision which combines divinatory art with numerological technique and ethical insight; philosophy of change sees cosmos as interaction between the two energies yin and yang; universe always shows organismic unity and dynamism.", "* ''Classic of Poetry'' or ''Book of Songs'' is the earliest anthology of Chinese poems and songs, with the earliest strata antedating the Zhou conquest.", "It shows the poetic vision in the belief that poetry and music convey common human feelings and mutual responsiveness.", "* ''Book of Documents'' or ''Book of History'' is a compilation of speeches of major figures and records of events in ancient times, embodying the political vision and addressing the kingly way in terms of the ethical foundation for humane government.", "The documents show the sagacity, filial piety, and work ethic of mythical sage-emperors Yao, Shun, and Yu, who established a political culture which was based on responsibility and trust.", "Their virtue formed a covenant of social harmony which did not depend on punishment or coercion.", "* ''Book of Rites'' describes the social forms, administration, and ceremonial rites of the Zhou Dynasty.", "This social vision defined society not as an adversarial system based on contractual relations but as a network of kinship groups bound by cultural identity and ritual practice, socially responsible for one another and the transmission of proper antique forms.", "The four functional occupations are cooperative (farmer, scholar, artisan, merchant).", "* ''Spring and Autumn Annals'' chronicles the period to which it gives its name, Spring and Autumn period (771–481 BCE), from the perspective of Confucius's home state of Lu.", "These events emphasise the significance of collective memory for communal self-identification, for reanimating the old is the best way to attain the new." ], [ "Doctrines", "===Theory and theology===Zhou dynasty oracular version of the grapheme for ''Tian'', representing a man with a head informed by the north celestial poleConfucianism revolves around the pursuit of the unity of the individual self and ''tian'' (\"heaven\").", "Put it another way, it focuses on the relationship between humanity and heaven.", "The principle or way of Heaven (''tian li'' or ''tian tao'') is the order of the world and the source of divine authority.", "''Tian li'' or ''tian tao'' is monistic, meaning that it is singular and indivisible.", "Individuals may realise their humanity and become one with Heaven through the contemplation of such order.", "This transformation of the self may be extended to the family and society to create a harmonious community.", "Joël Thoraval studied Confucianism as a diffused civil religion in contemporary China, finding that it expresses itself in the widespread worship of five cosmological entities: Heaven and Earth (), the sovereign or the government (), ancestors (), and masters ().According to the scholar Stephan Feuchtwang, in Chinese cosmology, which is not merely Confucian but shared by many Chinese religions, \"the universe creates itself out of a primary chaos of material energy\" (''hundun'' and ''qi''), and is organized through the polarity of yin and yang that characterises any thing and life.", "Creation is therefore a continuous ordering; it is not creation ''''ex nihilo''.''", "\"Yin and yang are the invisible and visible, the receptive and the active, the unshaped and the shaped; they characterise the yearly cycle (winter and summer), the landscape (shady and bright), the sexes (female and male), and even sociopolitical history (disorder and order).", "Confucianism is concerned with finding \"middle ways\" between yin and yang at every new configuration of the world.", "\"''''Confucianism conciliates both the inner and outer polarities of spiritual cultivation—that is to say self-cultivation and world redemption—synthesised in the ideal of \"sageliness within and kingliness without\".", "''Ren'', translated as \"humaneness\" or the essence proper of a human being, is the character of compassionate mind; it is the virtue endowed by Heaven and at the same time the means by which man may achieve oneness with Heaven comprehending his own origin in Heaven and therefore divine essence.", "In the '''', it is defined as \"to form one body with all things\" and \"when the self and others are not separated... compassion is aroused\".", "\"Lord Heaven\" and \"Jade Emperor\" were terms for a Confucianist supreme deity who was an anthropromorphized ''tian'', and some conceptions of it thought of the two names as synonymous.====''Tian'' and the gods====Like other symbols such as the ''sauwastika'', in Chinese, the Mesopotamian ''dingir'' or ''anu'' , and also the Chinese (in Shang script represented by a graph resembling the cross potent ☩), ''Tian'' refers to the northern celestial pole (), the pivot and the vault of the sky with its spinning constellations.", "Here is an approximate representation of the .", "or as the precessional north celestial pole, with α Ursae Minoris as the pole star, with the spinning Chariot constellations in the four phases of time.", "According to Reza Assasi's theories, the may not only be centred in the current precessional pole at α Ursae Minoris, but also very near to the north ecliptic pole if Draco () is conceived as one of its two beams.", "''Tian'', a key concept in Chinese thought, refers to the God of Heaven, the northern culmen of the skies and its spinning stars, earthly nature and its laws which come from Heaven, to 'Heaven and Earth' (that is, \"all things\"), and to the awe-inspiring forces beyond human control.", "There are so many uses in Chinese thought that it is impossible to give a single English translation.Confucius used the term in a mystical way.", "He wrote in the ''Analects'' (7.23) that ''tian'' gave him life, and that ''tian'' watched and judged (6.28; 9.12).", "In 9.5 Confucius says that a person may know the movements of ''tian'', and this provides with the sense of having a special place in the universe.", "In 17.19 Confucius says that ''tian'' spoke to him, though not in words.", "The scholar Ronnie Littlejohn warns that ''tian'' was not to be interpreted as a personal God comparable to that of the Abrahamic faiths, in the sense of an otherworldly or transcendent creator.", "Rather it is similar to what Taoists meant by ''Dao'': \"the way things are\" or \"the regularities of the world\", which Stephan Feuchtwang equates with the ancient Greek concept of ''physis'', \"nature\" as the generation and regenerations of things and of the moral order.", "''Tian'' may also be compared to the ''Brahman'' of Hindu and Vedic traditions.", "The scholar Promise Hsu, in the wake of Robert B. Louden, explained 17:19 (\"What does ''Tian'' ever say?", "Yet there are four seasons going round and there are the hundred things coming into being.", "What does ''Tian'' say?\")", "as implying that even though ''Tian'' is not a \"speaking person\", it constantly \"does\" through the rhythms of nature, and communicates \"how human beings ought to live and act\", at least to those who have learnt to carefully listen to it.Duanmu Ci, a disciple of Confucius, said that ''Tian'' had set the master on the path to become a wise man (9.6).", "In 7.23 Confucius says that he has no doubt left that ''Tian'' gave him life, and from it he had developed right virtue (''de'').", "In 8.19, he says that the lives of the sages are interwoven with ''Tian''.Regarding personal gods (''shen'', energies who emanate from and reproduce ''Tian'') enliving nature, in the ''Analects'' Confucius says that it is appropriate (''yi'') for people to worship () them, although only through proper rites (''li''), implying respect of positions and discretion.", "Confucius himself was a ritual and sacrificial master.Answering to a disciple who asked whether it is better to sacrifice to the god of the stove or to the god of the family (a popular saying), in 3.13 Confucius says that in order to appropriately pray gods one should first know and respect Heaven.", "In 3.12, he explains that religious rituals produce meaningful experiences, and one has to offer sacrifices in person, acting in presence, otherwise \"it is the same as not having sacrificed at all\".", "Rites and sacrifices to the gods have an ethical importance: they generate good life, because taking part in them leads to the overcoming of the self.", "Analects 10.11 tells that Confucius always took a small part of his food and placed it on the sacrificial bowls as an offering to his ancestors.Some Confucian movements worship Confucius, although not as a supreme being or anything else approaching the power of ''tian'' or the ''tao'', and/or gods from Chinese folk religion.", "These movements are not a part of mainstream Confucianism, although the boundary between Chinese folk religion and Confucianism can be blurred.Other movements, such as Mohism which was later absorbed by Taoism, developed a more theistic idea of Heaven.", "Feuchtwang explains that the difference between Confucianism and Taoism primarily lies in the fact that the former focuses on the realisation of the starry order of Heaven in human society, while the latter on the contemplation of the Dao which spontaneously arises in nature.", "However, Confucianism does venerate many aspects of nature and also respects various ''tao'', as well as what Confucius saw as the main ''tao'', the \"Way of Heaven.", "\"The Way of Heaven involves \"lifelong and sincere devotion to traditional cultural forms\" and ''wu wei'', \"a state of spontaneous harmony between individual inclinations and the sacred Way\".Kelly James Clark argued that Confucius himself saw ''Tian'' as an anthropomorphic god that Clark hypothetically refers to as \"Heavenly Supreme Emperor\", although most other scholars on Confucianism disagree with this view.===Social morality and ethics===Worship at the Great Temple of Lord Zhang Hui (), the cathedral ancestral shrine of the Zhang lineage corporation, at their ancestral home in Qinghe, HebeiAncestral temple of the Zeng lineage and Houxian village cultural centre, Cangnan, ZhejiangAs explained by Stephan Feuchtwang, the order coming from Heaven preserves the world, and has to be followed by humanity finding a \"middle way\" between yin and yang forces in each new configuration of reality.", "Social harmony or morality is identified as patriarchy, which is expressed in the worship of ancestors and deified progenitors in the male line, at ancestral shrines.Confucian ethical codes are described as humanistic.", "They may be practiced by all the members of a society.", "Confucian ethics is characterised by the promotion of virtues, encompassed by the Five Constants, elaborated by Confucian scholars out of the inherited tradition during the Han dynasty.", "The Five Constants are:* ''Ren'' (benevolence, humaneness)* ''Yi'' (righteousness, justice)* ''Li'' (propriety, rites)* ''Zhi'' (: wisdom, knowledge)* ''Xin'' (sincerity, faithfulness)These are accompanied by the classical four virtues (), one of which (''Yi'') is also included among the Five Constants:* ''Yi'' (see above)* Loyalty ()* Filial piety ()* ()There are many other traditionally Confucian values, such as , , , , a , , , , , and ).====Ren====''Ren'' is the Confucian virtue denoting the good feeling a virtuous human experiences when being altruistic.", "It is exemplified by a normal adult's protective feelings for children.", "It is considered the essence of the human being, endowed by Heaven, and at the same time the means by which someone may act according to the principle of Heaven and become one with it.Yan Hui, Confucius's most outstanding student, once asked his master to describe the rules of ''ren'' and Confucius replied, \"one should see nothing improper, hear nothing improper, say nothing improper, do nothing improper.\"", "Confucius also defined ''ren'' in the following way: \"wishing to be established himself, seeks also to establish others; wishing to be enlarged himself, he seeks also to enlarge others.", "\"Another meaning of ''ren'' is \"not to do to others as you would not wish done to yourself.\"", "Confucius also said, \"''ren'' is not far off; he who seeks it has already found it.\"", "''Ren'' is close to man and never leaves him.====Rite and centring====Dujiangyan, Chengdu, SichuanKorean Confucian rite in Jeju''Li'' () is a word which finds its most extensive use in Confucian and post-Confucian Chinese philosophy.", "''Li'' is variously translated as 'rite' or 'reason', 'ratio' in the pure sense of Vedic ('right', 'order') when referring to the cosmic law, but when referring to its realisation in the context of human social behaviour it has also been translated as 'customs', 'measures' and 'rules', among other terms.", "''Li'' also means religious rites which establish relations between humanity and the gods.According to Stephan Feuchtwang, rites are conceived as \"what makes the invisible visible\", making possible for humans to cultivate the underlying order of nature.", "Correctly performed rituals move society in alignment with earthly and heavenly (astral) forces, establishing the harmony of the three realms—Heaven, Earth and humanity.", "This practice is defined as \"centering\" ( or ).", "Among all things of creation, humans themselves are \"central\" because they have the ability to cultivate and centre natural forces.", "''Li'' embodies the entire web of interaction between humanity, human objects, and nature.", "Confucius includes in his discussions of ''li'' such diverse topics as learning, tea drinking, titles, mourning, and governance.", "Xunzi cites \"songs and laughter, weeping and lamentation... rice and millet, fish and meat... the wearing of ceremonial caps, embroidered robes, and patterned silks, or of fasting clothes and mourning clothes... spacious rooms and secluded halls, soft mats, couches and benches\" as vital parts of the fabric of ''li''.Confucius envisioned proper government being guided by the principles of ''li''.", "Some Confucians proposed that all human beings may pursue perfection by learning and practising ''li''.", "Overall, Confucians believe that governments should place more emphasis on ''li'' and rely much less on penal punishment when they govern.====Loyalty====Loyalty () is particularly relevant for the social class to which most of Confucius's students belonged, because the most important way for an ambitious young scholar to become a prominent official was to enter a ruler's civil service.Confucius himself did not propose that \"might makes right\", but rather that a superior should be obeyed because of his moral rectitude.", "In addition, loyalty does not mean subservience to authority.", "This is because reciprocity is demanded from the superior as well.", "As Confucius stated \"a prince should employ his minister according to the rules of propriety; ministers should serve their prince with faithfulness (loyalty).", "\"Similarly, Mencius also said that \"when the prince regards his ministers as his hands and feet, his ministers regard their prince as their belly and heart; when he regards them as his dogs and horses, they regard him as another man; when he regards them as the ground or as grass, they regard him as a robber and an enemy.\"", "Moreover, Mencius indicated that if the ruler is incompetent, he should be replaced.", "If the ruler is evil, then the people have the right to overthrow him.", "A good Confucian is also expected to remonstrate with his superiors when necessary.", "At the same time, a proper Confucian ruler should also accept his ministers' advice, as this will help him govern the realm better.In later ages, however, emphasis was often placed more on the obligations of the ruled to the ruler, and less on the ruler's obligations to the ruled.", "Like filial piety, loyalty was often subverted by the autocratic regimes in China.", "Nonetheless, throughout the ages, many Confucians continued to fight against unrighteous superiors and rulers.", "Many of these Confucians suffered and sometimes died because of their conviction and action.", "During the Ming-Qing era, prominent Confucians such as Wang Yangming promoted individuality and independent thinking as a counterweight to subservience to authority.", "The famous thinker Huang Zongxi also strongly criticised the autocratic nature of the imperial system and wanted to keep imperial power in check.Many Confucians also realised that loyalty and filial piety have the potential of coming into conflict with one another.", "This may be true especially in times of social chaos, such as during the period of the Ming-Qing transition.====Filial piety====Fourteenth of ''The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars''In Confucian philosophy, is a virtue of respect for one's parents and ancestors, and of the hierarchies within society: father–son, elder–junior and male–female.", "The Confucian classic ''Xiaojing'' (\"Book of Piety\"), thought to be written during the Qin or Han dynasties, has historically been the authoritative source on the Confucian tenet of ''xiao''.", "The book, a conversation between Confucius and his disciple Zeng Shen, is about how to set up a good society using the principle of ''xiao''.In more general terms, filial piety means to be good to one's parents; to take care of one's parents; to engage in good conduct not just towards parents but also outside the home so as to bring a good name to one's parents and ancestors; to perform the duties of one's job well so as to obtain the material means to support parents as well as carry out sacrifices to the ancestors; not be rebellious; show love, respect and support; the wife in filial piety must obey her husband absolutely and take care of the whole family wholeheartedly.", "display courtesy; ensure male heirs, uphold fraternity among brothers; wisely advise one's parents, including dissuading them from moral unrighteousness, for blindly following the parents' wishes is not considered to be ''xiao''; display sorrow for their sickness and death; and carry out sacrifices after their death.Filial piety is considered a key virtue in Chinese culture, and it is the main concern of a large number of stories.", "One of the most famous collections of such stories is \"The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars\".", "These stories depict how children exercised their filial piety in the past.", "While China has always had a diversity of religious beliefs, filial piety has been common to almost all of them; historian Hugh D.R.", "Baker calls respect for the family the only element common to almost all Chinese believers.===Relationships===Social harmony results in part from every individual knowing his or her place in the natural order, and playing his or her part well.", "Reciprocity or responsibility (''renqing'') extends beyond filial piety and involves the entire network of social relations, even the respect for rulers.", "This is shown in the story where Duke Jing of Qi asks Confucius about government, by which he meant proper administration so as to bring social harmony:Particular duties arise from one's particular situation in relation to others.", "The individual stands simultaneously in several different relationships with different people: as a junior in relation to parents and elders, and as a senior in relation to younger siblings, students, and others.", "While juniors are considered in Confucianism to owe their seniors reverence, seniors also have duties of benevolence and concern toward juniors.", "The same is true with the husband and wife relationship where the husband needs to show benevolence towards his wife and the wife needs to respect the husband in return.", "This theme of mutuality still exists in East Asian cultures even to this day.The Five Bonds are: ruler to ruled, father to son, husband to wife, elder brother to younger brother, friend to friend.", "Specific duties were prescribed to each of the participants in these sets of relationships.", "Such duties are also extended to the dead, where the living stand as sons to their deceased family.", "The only relationship where respect for elders is not stressed was the friend to friend relationship, where mutual equal respect is emphasised instead.", "All these duties take the practical form of prescribed rituals, for instance wedding and death rituals.===''Junzi''===The ''junzi'' ('lord's son') is a Chinese philosophical term often translated as \"gentleman\" or \"superior person\" and employed by Confucius in the ''Analects'' to describe the ideal man.In Confucianism, the sage or wise is the ideal personality; however, it is very hard to become one of them.", "Confucius created the model of ''junzi'', gentleman, which may be achieved by any individual.", "Later, Zhu Xi defined ''junzi'' as second only to the sage.", "There are many characteristics of the ''junzi'': he may live in poverty, he does more and speaks less, he is loyal, obedient and knowledgeable.", "The ''junzi'' disciplines himself.", "''Ren'' is fundamental to become a ''junzi''.As the potential leader of a nation, a son of the ruler is raised to have a superior ethical and moral position while gaining inner peace through his virtue.", "To Confucius, the ''junzi'' sustained the functions of government and social stratification through his ethical values.", "Despite its literal meaning, any righteous man willing to improve himself may become a ''junzi''.In contrast to the ''junzi'', the ''xiaoren'' (, \"small or petty person\") does not grasp the value of virtues and seeks only immediate gains.", "The petty person is egotistic and does not consider the consequences of his action in the overall scheme of things.", "Should the ruler be surrounded by ''xiaoren'' as opposed to ''junzi'', his governance and his people will suffer due to their small-mindness.", "Examples of such ''xiaoren'' individuals may range from those who continually indulge in sensual and emotional pleasures all day to the politician who is interested merely in power and fame; neither sincerely aims for the long-term benefit of others.The ''junzi'' enforces his rule over his subjects by acting virtuously himself.", "It is thought that his pure virtue would lead others to follow his example.", "The ultimate goal is that the government behaves much like a family, the ''junzi'' being a beacon of filial piety.===Rectification of names===Priest paying homage to Confucius's tablet, Confucius believed that social disorder often stemmed from failure to perceive, understand, and deal with reality.", "Fundamentally, then, social disorder may stem from the failure to call things by their proper names, and his solution to this was the .", "He gave an explanation of this concept to one of his disciples:Zi-lu said, \"The vassal of Wei has been waiting for you, in order with you to administer the government.", "What will you consider the first thing to be done?", "\"The Master replied, \"What is necessary to rectify names.\"\"So!", "indeed!\"", "said Zi-lu.", "\"You are wide off the mark!", "Why must there be such rectification?", "\"The Master said, \"How uncultivated you are, Yu!", "The superior man Junzi cannot care about the everything, just as he cannot go to check all himself!", "If names be not correct, language is not in accordance with the truth of things.", "If language be not in accordance with the truth of things, affairs cannot be carried on to success.", "When affairs cannot be carried on to success, proprieties and music do not flourish.", "When proprieties and music do not flourish, punishments will not be properly awarded.", "When punishments are not properly awarded, the people do not know how to move hand or foot.Therefore a superior man considers it necessary that the names he uses may be spoken appropriately, and also that what he speaks may be carried out appropriately.", "What the superior man requires is just that in his words there may be nothing incorrect.", "\"(''Analects'' XIII, 3, tr.", "Legge)''Xunzi'' chapter (22) \"On the Rectification of Names\" claims the ancient sage-kings chose names () that directly corresponded with actualities (), but later generations confused terminology, coined new nomenclature, and thus could no longer distinguish right from wrong.", "Since social harmony is of utmost importance, without the proper rectification of names, society would essentially crumble and \"undertakings would not be completed.\"" ], [ "History", "===Metaphysical antecedents===dragon is one of the oldest symbols of Chinese religious culture.", "It symbolises the supreme godhead, ''Di'' or ''Tian'', at the north ecliptic pole, around which it coils itself as the homonymous constellation.", "It is a symbol of the \"protean\" supreme power which has in itself both yin and yang.Birthplaces of notable Chinese philosophers of the Hundred Schools of Thought in Zhou dynasty.", "Confucians are marked by triangles in dark red.According to He Guanghu, Confucianism may be identified as a continuation of the Shang-Zhou (–256 BCE) official religion, or the Chinese aboriginal religion which has lasted uninterrupted for three thousand years.", "Both the dynasties worshipped a supreme \"godhead\", called ''Shangdi'' ('Highest Deity') or ''Di'' by the Shang and ''Tian'' ('Heaven') by the Zhou.", "''Shangdi'' was conceived as the first ancestor of the Shang royal house, an alternate name for him being the \"Supreme Progenitor\" ().", "Shang theology viewed the multiplicity of gods of nature and ancestors as parts of ''Di''.", "''Di'' manifests as the ''Wufang Shangdi'' with the winds () as its cosmic will.", "With the Zhou dynasty, which overthrew the Shang, the name for the supreme godhead became ''tian''.", "While the Shang identified ''Shangdi'' as their ancestor-god to assert their claim to power by divine right, the Zhou transformed this claim into a legitimacy based on moral power, the Mandate of Heaven.", "In Zhou theology, ''Tian'' had no singular earthly progeny, but bestowed divine favour on virtuous rulers.", "Zhou kings declared that their victory over the Shang was because they were virtuous and loved their people, while the Shang were tyrants and thus were deprived of power by ''Tian''.John C. Didier and David Pankenier relate the shapes of both the ancient Chinese characters for ''Di'' and ''Tian'' to the patterns of stars in the northern skies, either drawn, in Didier's theory by connecting the constellations bracketing the north celestial pole as a square, or in Pankenier's theory by connecting some of the stars which form the constellations of the Big Dipper and broader Ursa Major, and Ursa Minor (Little Dipper).", "Cultures in other parts of the world have also conceived these stars or constellations as symbols of the origin of things, the supreme godhead, divinity and royal power.", "The supreme godhead was also identified with the dragon, symbol of unlimited power (''qi''), of the protean primordial power which embodies both yin and yang in unity, associated to the constellation Draco which winds around the north ecliptic pole, and slithers between the Little and Big Dipper.===Zhou traditions wane===By the 6th century BCE, the power of ''Tian'' and the symbols that represented it on earth (architecture of cities, temples, altars and ritual vessels, and the Zhou system of rites) became \"diffuse\" and claimed by different potentates in the Zhou states to legitimise economic, political, and military ambitions.", "Communication with the divine no longer was an exclusive privilege of the Zhou royal house, but might be bought by anyone able to afford the elaborate ceremonies and the old and new rites required to access the authority of ''Tian''.Besides the waning Zhou ritual system, what may be defined as traditions, or traditions outside of the official system, developed as attempts to access the will of ''Tian''.", "As central political authority crumbled in the wake of the collapse of the Western Zhou, the population lost faith in the official tradition, which was no longer perceived as an effective way to communicate with Heaven.", "The traditions of the and of the ''Yijing'' flourished.", "Chinese thinkers, faced with this challenge to legitimacy, diverged in a \"Hundred Schools of Thought\", each positing its own philosophical lens for understanding the processes of the world.Confucius (551–479 BCE) appeared in this period of political reconfiguration and spiritual questioning.", "He was educated in Shang–Zhou traditions, which he contributed to transmit and reformulate giving centrality to self-cultivation and agency of humans, and the educational power of the self-established individual in assisting others to establish themselves (the ).", "As the Zhou reign collapsed, traditional values were abandoned resulting in a period of perceived moral decline.", "Confucius saw an opportunity to reinforce values of compassion and tradition into society, with the intended goal of reconstructing what he believed to be a lost perfect moral order of high antiquity.", "Disillusioned with the culture, opposing scholars, and religious authorities of the time, he began to advance an ethical interpretation of traditional Zhou religion.", "In his view, the power of ''Tian'' is pervasive, and responds positively to the sincere heart driven by humaneness and rightness, decency and altruism.", "Confucius conceived these qualities as the foundation needed to restore socio-political harmony.", "Like many contemporaries, Confucius saw ritual practices as efficacious ways to access ''Tian'', but he thought that the crucial knot was the reverent inner state that participants enter prior to engaging in the ritual acts.", "Confucius is said to have amended and recodified the classical books inherited from the Xia-Shang-Zhou dynasties, and to have composed the ''Spring and Autumn Annals''.===Confucianism rises===Philosophers in the Warring States period, both focused on state-endorsed ritual and non-aligned to state ritual built upon Confucius's legacy, compiled in the ''Analects'', and formulated the classical metaphysics that became the lash of Confucianism.", "In accordance with Confucius, they identified mental tranquility as the state of ''Tian'', or , which in each individual is the Heaven-bestowed divine power to rule one's own life and the world.", "They also extended the theory, proposing the oneness of production and reabsorption into the cosmic source, and the possibility to understand and therefore reattain it through correct state of mind.", "This line of thought would have influenced all Chinese individual and collective-political mystical theories and practices thereafter.In the Han dynasty, Confucians beginning with Dong Zhongshu synthesised Warring States Confucianism with ideas of yin and yang, and ''wuxing'', as well as folk superstition and the prior schools that led up to the School of Naturalists.In the 460s, Confucianism competed with Chinese Buddhism and \"traditional Confucianism\" was \"a broad cosmology that was as much about personal ethics as about spiritual beliefs\" and had roots that went back to Confucianist philosophers from over a thousand years before." ], [ "Organisation and liturgy", "A Temple of the God of Culture () in Liuzhou, Guangxi, where Confucius is worshiped as Temple of the Filial Blessing (), an ancestral temple of a lineage church, in Wenzhou, ZhejiangSince the 2000s, there has been a growing identification of the Chinese intellectual class with Confucianism.", "In 2003, the Confucian intellectual Kang Xiaoguang published a manifesto in which he made four suggestions: Confucian education should enter official education at any level, from elementary to high school; the state should establish Confucianism as the state religion by law; Confucian religion should enter the daily life of ordinary people through standardisation and development of doctrines, rituals, organisations, churches and activity sites; the Confucian religion should be spread through non-governmental organisations.", "Another modern proponent of the institutionalisation of Confucianism in a state church is Jiang Qing.In 2005, the Center for the Study of Confucian Religion was established, and ''guoxue'' started to be implemented in public schools on all levels.", "Being well received by the population, even Confucian preachers have appeared on television since 2006.The most enthusiastic New Confucians proclaim the uniqueness and superiority of Confucian Chinese culture, and have generated some popular sentiment against Western cultural influences in China.The idea of a \"Confucian church\" as the state religion of China has roots in the thought of Kang Youwei, an exponent of the early New Confucian search for a regeneration of the social relevance of Confucianism, at a time when it was de-institutionalised with the collapse of the Qing dynasty and the Chinese empire.", "Kang modeled his ideal \"Confucian Church\" after European national Christian churches, as a hierarchic and centralised institution, closely bound to the state, with local church branches, devoted to the worship and the spread of the teachings of Confucius.In contemporary China, the Confucian revival has developed into various interwoven directions: the proliferation of Confucian schools or academies, the resurgence of Confucian rites, and the birth of new forms of Confucian activity on the popular level, such as the Confucian communities ().", "Some scholars also consider the reconstruction of lineage churches and their ancestral temples, as well as cults and temples of natural and national gods within broader Chinese traditional religion, as part of the renewal of Confucianism.Other forms of revival are salvationist folk religious movements groups with a specifically Confucian focus, or Confucian churches, for example the of Beijing, the of Shanghai, Confucian Shenism (also known as the \"phoenix churches\"), the Confucian Fellowship () in northern Fujian which has spread rapidly over the years after its foundation, and ancestral temples of the Kong kin (the lineage of the descendants of Confucius himself) operating as Confucian-teaching churches.Also, the Hong Kong Confucian Academy, one of the direct heirs of Kang Youwei's Confucian Church, has expanded its activities to the mainland, with the construction of statues of Confucius, Confucian hospitals, restoration of temples and other activities.", "In 2009, Zhou Beichen founded another institution which inherits the idea of Kang Youwei's Confucian Church, the Holy Hall of Confucius () in Shenzhen, affiliated with the Federation of Confucian Culture of Qufu City.", "It was the first of a nationwide movement of congregations and civil organisations that was unified in 2015 in the Holy Confucian Church.", "The first spiritual leader of the church is the scholar Jiang Qing, the founder and manager of the Yangming Confucian Abode (), a Confucian academy in Guiyang, Guizhou.Chinese folk religious temples and kinship ancestral shrines may, on peculiar occasions, choose Confucian liturgy (called or led by Confucian ritual masters () to worship the gods, instead of Taoist or popular ritual.", "\"Confucian businessmen\" (, also \"refined businessman\") is a recently \"rediscovered\" concept defining people of the economic-entrepreneurial elite who recognise their social responsibility and therefore apply Confucian culture to their business.Confucianists historically tried to proselytize to others, although this is rarely done in modern times.", "Given Confucianism's place of importance in historical Chinese governments, the argument has been made that Imperial China's wars were Confucianism's wars, but the connection between Confucianism and war is not so direct or simple.", "Modern Confucianism is the descendant of movements that greatly changed how they practiced the teachings of Confucius and his disciples from previous orthodox teachings." ], [ "Governance", "Statue of Liu Bei and Zhuge Liang, considered the ideal example of the loyalty, integrity and shared governance between a lord and minister in Chinese historyYushima Seidō in Bunkyō, Tokyo, JapanA key Confucian concept is that in order to govern others one must first govern oneself according to the universal order.", "When actual, the king's personal virtue (''de'') spreads beneficent influence throughout the kingdom.", "This idea is developed further in the Great Learning and is tightly linked with the Taoist concept of ''wu wei'': the less the king does, the more gets done.", "By being the \"calm center\" around which the kingdom turns, the king allows everything to function smoothly and avoids having to tamper with the individual parts of the whole.This idea may be traced back to the ancient shamanic beliefs of the king being the axle between the sky, human beings, and the Earth.", "The emperors of China were considered agents of Heaven, endowed with the Mandate of Heaven, one of the most vital concepts in imperial-era political theory.", "Some Confucianists believed they held the power to define the hierarchy of divinities, by bestowing titles upon mountains, rivers and dead people, acknowledging them as powerful and therefore establishing their cults.Confucianism, despite supporting the importance of obeying national authority, places this obedience under absolute moral principles that curbed the willful exercise of power, rather than being unconditional.", "Submission to authority was only taken within the context of the moral obligations that rulers had toward their subjects, in particular ''ren''.", "Confucians—including the most pro-authoritarian scholars such as Xunzi—have always recognised the right of revolution against tyranny." ], [ "Meritocracy", "Although Confucius claimed that he never invented anything but was only transmitting ancient knowledge (''Analects'' 7.1), he did produce a number of new ideas.", "Many European and American admirers such as Voltaire and Herrlee G. Creel point to the revolutionary idea of replacing nobility of blood with nobility of virtue.", "''Junzi'' ('lord's son'), which originally signified the younger, non-inheriting, offspring of a noble, became, in Confucius's work, an epithet having much the same meaning and evolution as the English \"gentleman\".A virtuous commoner who cultivates his qualities may be a \"gentleman\", while a shameless son of the king is only a \"petty person\".", "That Confucius admitted students of different classes as disciples is a clear demonstration that he fought against the feudal structures that defined pre-imperial Chinese society.Another new idea, that of meritocracy, led to the introduction of the imperial examination system in China.", "This system allowed anyone who passed an examination to become a government officer, a position which would bring wealth and honour to the whole family.", "The Chinese imperial examination system started in the Sui dynasty.", "Over the following centuries the system grew until finally almost anyone who wished to become an official had to prove his worth by passing a set of written government examinations.Confucian political meritocracy is not merely a historical phenomenon.", "The practice of meritocracy still exists across China and East Asia today, and a wide range of contemporary intellectuals—from Daniel Bell to Tongdong Bai, Joseph Chan, and Jiang Qing—defend political meritocracy as a viable alternative to liberal democracy.In ''Just Hierarchy'', Daniel Bell and Wang Pei argue that hierarchies are inevitable.", "Faced with ever-increasing complexity at scale, modern societies must build hierarchies to coordinate collective action and tackle long-term problems such as climate change.", "In this context, people need not—and should not—want to flatten hierarchies as much as possible.", "They ought to ask what makes political hierarchies just and use these criteria to decide the institutions that deserve preservation, those that require reform, and those that need radical transformation.", "They call this approach \"progressive conservatism\", a term that reflects the ambiguous place of the Confucian tradition within the Left-Right dichotomy.Bell and Wang propose two justifications for political hierarchies that do not depend on a \"one person, one vote\" system.", "First is raw efficiency, which may require centralized rule in the hands of the competent few.", "Second, and most important, is serving the interests of the people (and the common good more broadly).", "In ''Against Political Equality'', Tongdong Bai complements this account by using a proto-Rawlsian \"political difference principle\".", "Just as Rawls claims that economic inequality is justified so long as it benefits those at the bottom of the socioeconomic ladder, so Bai argues that political inequality is justified so long as it benefits those materially worse off.Bell, Wang, and Bai all criticize liberal democracy to argue that government the people may not be government the people in any meaningful sense of the term.", "They argue that voters tend to act in irrational, tribal, short-termist ways; they are vulnerable to populism and struggle to account for the interests of future generations.", "In other words, at a minimum, democracy needs Confucian meritocratic checks.In ''The China Model'', Bell argues that Confucian political meritocracy provides—and has provided—a blueprint for China's development.", "For Bell, the ideal according to which China should reform itself (and has reformed itself) follows a simple structure: Aspiring rulers first pass hyper-selective examinations, then have to rule well at the local level to be promoted to positions as the provincial level, then have to excel at the provincial level to access positions at the national level, and so on.", "This system aligns with what Harvard historian James Hankins calls \"virtue politics\", or the idea that institutions should be built to select the most competent and virtuous rulers—as opposed to institutions concerned first and foremost with limiting the power of rulers.While contemporary defenders of Confucian political meritocracy all accept this broad frame, they disagree with each other on three main questions: institutional design, the means by which meritocrats are promoted, and the compatibility of Confucian political meritocracy with liberalism.===Institutional design===Bell and Wang favour a system in which officials at the local level are democratically elected and higher-level officials are promoted by peers.", "As Bell puts it, he defends \"democracy at the bottom, experimentation in the middle, and meritocracy at the top.\"", "Bell and Wang argue that this combination conserves the main advantages of democracy—involving the people in public affairs at the local level, strengthening the legitimacy of the system, forcing some degree of direct accountability, etc.—while preserving the broader meritocratic character of the regime.Jiang Qing, by contrast, imagines a tricameral government with one chamber selected by the people (the ), one chamber composed of Confucian meritocrats selected via examination and gradual promotion (the ), and one body made up of descendants of Confucius himself (the ).", "Jiang's aim is to construct a legitimacy that will go beyond what he sees as the atomistic, individualist, and utilitarian ethos of modern democracies and ground authority in something sacred and traditional.", "While Jiang's model is closer to an ideal theory than Bell's proposals, it represents a more traditionalist alternative.Tongdong Bai presents an in-between solution by proposing a two-tiered bicameral system.", "At the local level, as with Bell, Bai advocates Deweyan participatory democracy.", "At the national level, Bai proposes two chambers: one of meritocrats (selected by examination, by examination and promotion, from leaders in certain professional fields, etc.", "), and one of representatives elected by the people.", "While the lower house does not have any legislative power per se, it acts as a popular accountability mechanism by championing the people and putting pressure on the upper house.", "More generally, Bai argues that his model marries the best of meritocracy and democracy.", "Following Dewey's account of democracy as a way of life, he points to the participatory features of his local model: citizens still get to have a democratic lifestyle, participate in political affairs, and be educated as \"democratic men\".", "Similarly, the lower house allows citizens to be represented, have a voice in public affairs (albeit a weak one), and ensure accountability.", "Meanwhile, the meritocratic house preserves competence, statesmanship, and Confucian virtues.===Promotion system===Defenders of Confucian political meritocracy generally champion a system in which rulers are selected on the basis of intellect, social skills, and virtue.", "Bell proposes a model wherein aspiring meritocrats take hyper-selective exams and prove themselves at the local levels of government before reaching the higher levels of government, where they hold more centralized power.", "In his account, the exams select for intellect and other virtues—for instance, the ability to argue three different viewpoints on a contentious issue may indicate a certain degree of openness.", "Tongdong Bai's approach incorporates different ways to select members of the meritocratic house, from exams to performance in various fields—business, science, administration, and so on.", "In every case, Confucian meritocrats draw on China's extensive history of meritocratic administration to outline the pros and cons of competing methods of selection.For those who, like Bell, defend a model in which performance at the local levels of government determines future promotion, an important question is how the system judges who \"performs best\".", "In other words, while examinations may ensure that early-career officials are competent and educated, how is it thereafter ensured that ''only'' those who rule well get promoted?", "The literature opposes those who prefer evaluation by peers to evaluation by superiors, with some thinkers including quasi-democratic selection mechanisms along the way.", "Bell and Wang favour a system in which officials at the local level are democratically elected and higher-level officials are promoted by peers.", "Because they believe that promotion should depend upon peer evaluations only, Bell and Wang argue against transparency—i.e.", "the public should not know how officials are selected, since ordinary people are in no position to judge officials beyond the local level.", "Others, like Jiang Qing, defend a model in which superiors decide who gets promoted; this method is in line with more traditionalist strands of Confucian political thought, which place a greater emphasis on strict hierarchies and epistemic paternalism—that is, the idea that older and more experienced people know more.===Compatibility with liberalism and democracy, and critique of political meritocracy===Another key question is whether Confucian political thought is compatible with liberalism.", "Tongdong Bai, for instance, argues that while Confucian political thought departs from the \"one person, one vote\" model, it can conserve many of the essential characteristics of liberalism, such as freedom of speech and individual rights.", "In fact, both Daniel Bell and Tongdong Bai hold that Confucian political meritocracy can tackle challenges that liberalism wants to tackle, but cannot by itself.", "At the cultural level, for instance, Confucianism, its institutions, and its rituals offer bulwarks against atomization and individualism.", "At the political level, the non-democratic side of political meritocracy is—for Bell and Bai—more efficient at addressing long-term questions such as climate change, in part because the meritocrats do not have to worry about the whims of public opinion.Joseph Chan defends the compatibility of Confucianism with both liberalism and democracy.", "In his book ''Confucian Perfectionism'', he argues that Confucians can embrace both democracy and liberalism on instrumental grounds; that is, while liberal democracy may not be valuable for its own sake, its institutions remain valuable—particularly when combined with a broadly Confucian culture—to serve Confucian ends and inculcate Confucian virtues.Other Confucians have criticized Confucian meritocrats like Bell for their rejection of democracy.", "For them, Confucianism does not have to be premised on the assumption that meritorious, virtuous political leadership is inherently incompatible with popular sovereignty, political equality and the right to political participation.", "These thinkers accuse the meritocrats of overestimating the flaws of democracy, mistaking temporary flaws for permanent and inherent features, and underestimating the challenges that the construction of a true political meritocracy poses in practice—including those faced by contemporary China and Singapore.", "Franz Mang claims that, when decoupled from democracy, meritocracy tends to deteriorate into an oppressive regime under putatively \"meritorious\" but actually \"authoritarian\" rulers; Mang accuses Bell's China model of being self-defeating, as—Mang claims—the CCP's authoritarian modes of engagement with the dissenting voices illustrate.", "He Baogang and Mark Warren add that \"meritocracy\" should be understood as a concept describing a regime's character rather than its type, which is determined by distribution of political power—on their view, democratic institutions can be built which are meritocratic insofar as they favour competence.Roy Tseng, drawing on the New Confucians of the twentieth century, argues that Confucianism and liberal democracy can enter into a dialectical process, in which liberal rights and voting rights are rethought into resolutely modern, but nonetheless Confucian ways of life.", "This synthesis, blending Confucians rituals and institutions with a broader liberal democratic frame, is distinct from both Western-style liberalism—which, for Tseng, suffers from excessive individualism and a lack of moral vision—and from traditional Confucianism—which, for Tseng, has historically suffered from rigid hierarchies and sclerotic elites.", "Against defenders of political meritocracy, Tseng claims that the fusion of Confucian and democratic institutions can conserve the best of both worlds, producing a more communal democracy which draws on a rich ethical tradition, addresses abuses of power, and combines popular accountability with a clear attention to the cultivation of virtue in elites." ], [ "Influence", "===In 17th-century Europe===''Life and Works of Confucius'', by Prospero Intorcetta, 1687The works of Confucius were translated into European languages through the agency of Jesuit missionaries stationed in China.", "Matteo Ricci was among the very earliest to report on the thoughts of Confucius, and father Prospero Intorcetta wrote about the life and works of Confucius in Latin in 1687.Translations of Confucian texts influenced European thinkers of the period, particularly among the Deists and other philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization.Confucianism influenced the German philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who was attracted to the philosophy because of its perceived similarity to his own.", "It is postulated that certain elements of Leibniz's philosophy, such as \"simple substance\" and \"Pre-established harmony\", were borrowed from his interactions with Confucianism.", "The French philosopher Voltaire, Leibniz's intellectual rival, was also influenced by Confucius, seeing the concept of Confucian rationalism as an alternative to Christian dogma.", "He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying the sociopolitical hierarchy of China as a model for Europe:===On Islamic thought===From the late 17th century onwards a whole body of literature known as the Han Kitab developed amongst the Hui Muslims of China who infused Islamic thought with Confucianism.", "Especially the works of Liu Zhi such as ''Tianfang Dianli'' () sought to harmonise Islam with not only Confucianism but also with Taoism and is considered to be one of the crowning achievements of the Chinese Islamic culture.===In modern times===Important military and political figures in modern Chinese history continued to be influenced by Confucianism, like the Muslim warlord Ma Fuxiang.", "The New Life Movement in the early 20th century was also influenced by Confucianism.Referred to variously as the Confucian hypothesis and as a debated component of the more all-encompassing Asian Development Model, there exists among political scientists and economists a theory that Confucianism plays a large latent role in the ostensibly non-Confucian cultures of modern-day East Asia, in the form of the rigorous work ethic it endowed those cultures with.", "These scholars have held that, if not for Confucianism's influence on these cultures, many of the people of the East Asia region would not have been able to modernise and industrialise as quickly as Singapore, Malaysia, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan, South Korea and even China have done.For example, the impact of the Vietnam War on Vietnam was devastating, but over the last few decades Vietnam has been re-developing in a very fast pace.", "Most scholars attribute the origins of this idea to futurologist Herman Kahn's ''World Economic Development: 1979 and Beyond''.Other studies, for example Cristobal Kay's ''Why East Asia Overtook Latin America: Agrarian Reform, Industrialization, and Development'', have attributed the Asian growth to other factors, for example the character of agrarian reforms, \"state-craft\" (state capacity), and interaction between agriculture and industry.Historical and current Confucianists were and are often environmentalists out of their respect for ''tian'' and the other aspects of nature and the \"Principle\" that comes from their unity and, more generally, harmony as a whole, which is \"the basis for a sincere mind\".===On Chinese martial arts===After Confucianism had become the official 'state religion' in China, its influence penetrated all walks of life and all streams of thought in Chinese society for the generations to come.", "This did not exclude martial arts culture.", "Though in his own day, Confucius had rejected the practice of Martial Arts (with the exception of Archery), he did serve under rulers who used military power extensively to achieve their goals.", "In later centuries, Confucianism heavily influenced many educated martial artists of great influence, such as Sun Lutang, especially from the 19th century onwards, when bare-handed martial arts in China became more widespread and had begun to more readily absorb philosophical influences from Confucianism, Buddhism and Daoism." ], [ "Criticism", "Confucius and Confucianism were opposed or criticised from the start, including Laozi's philosophy and Mozi's critique, and Legalists such as Han Fei ridiculed the idea that virtue would lead people to be orderly.", "In modern times, waves of opposition and vilification showed that Confucianism, instead of taking credit for the glories of Chinese civilisation, now had to take blame for its failures.", "The Taiping Rebellion described Confucianism sages as well as gods in Taoism and Buddhism as devils.=== Contradiction with modernist values ===In the New Culture Movement, Lu Xun criticised Confucianism for shaping Chinese people into the condition they had reached by the late Qing dynasty: his criticisms are expressed metaphorically in the work \"Diary of a Madman\", in which traditional Chinese Confucian society is portrayed as feudalistic, hypocritical, socially cannibalistic, despotic, fostering a \"slave mentality\" favouring despotism, lack of critical thinking and blind obedience and worship of authority, fuelling a form of \"Confucian authoritarianism\" which persists into the present day.", "Leftists during the Cultural Revolution described Confucius as the representative of the slave-owning class.In South Korea, there has long been criticism.", "Some South Koreans believe Confucianism has not contributed to the modernisation of South Korea.", "For example, South Korean writer Kim Kyong-il wrote a book in 1998 entitled \"Confucius Must Die For the Nation to Live\" (, ''gongjaga jug-eoya naraga sanda'').", "Kim said that filial piety is one-sided and blind, and if it continues, social problems will continue as government keeps forcing Confucian filial obligations onto families.===Women in Confucian thought===Confucianism \"largely defined the mainstream discourse on gender in China from the Han dynasty onward.\"", "The gender roles prescribed in the Three Obediences and Four Virtues became a cornerstone of the family, and thus, societal stability.", "The Three Obediences and Four Virtues is one of the moral standards for feudal etiquette to bind women.", "Starting from the Han period, Confucians began to teach that a virtuous woman was supposed to follow the males in her family: the father before her marriage, the husband after she marries, and her sons in widowhood.", "In the later dynasties, more emphasis was placed on the virtue of chastity.", "The Song dynasty Confucian Cheng Yi stated that: \"To starve to death is a small matter, but to lose one's chastity is a great matter.\"", "It was during the Song Dynasty that the value of chastity was so severe, Confucian scholars criminalized the remarriage of widows.", "widows were revered and memorialised during the Ming and Qing periods.The principle of chaste widowhood was made an official institution during the Ming Dynasty.", "This \"cult of chastity\" accordingly condemned many widows to poverty and loneliness by placing a social stigma on remarriage.", "Though the repercussions for widows at times went beyond poverty and loneliness, as for some the preservation of chastity resulted in suicide.", "The ideal of a chaste widow became an extremely high honor and esteem, especially for a woman who chose to end her life after her husband’s death.", "Many instances of such acts were recorded in, Biographies of Virtuous Women, “a collection of stories of women who distinguished themselves by committing suicide after their husband’s deaths to guard their chastity and purity”.", "Though it can be contested whether all these instances can be deemed self-sacrificing for the virtue of chastity, as it became common practice for women to be forced to commit suicide after their husband’s death.", "This resulted from the honor which chaste widowhood garnered, lending itself to the husband's family as well as his clan or village.For years, many modern scholars have regarded Confucianism as a sexist, patriarchal ideology that was historically damaging to Chinese women.", "It has also been argued by some Chinese and Western writers that the rise of neo-Confucianism during the Song dynasty had led to a decline of status of women.", "Some critics have also accused the prominent Song neo-Confucian scholar Zhu Xi for believing in the inferiority of women and that men and women need to be kept strictly separate, while Sima Guang also believed that women should remain indoors and not deal with the matters of men in the outside world.", "Finally, scholars have discussed the attitudes toward women in Confucian texts such as Analects.", "In a much-discussed passage, women are grouped together with , meaning people of low status or low morals) and described as being difficult to cultivate or deal with.", "Many traditional commentators and modern scholars have debated over the precise meaning of the passage, and whether Confucius referred to all women or just certain groups of women.The article points out the various disputes among traditional Confucian commentators on what the passage really means.", "It also summarizes the debate in contemporary academia regarding the phrase's meaning.Further analysis suggests, however, that women's place in Confucian society may be more complex.", "During the Han dynasty period, the influential Confucian text ''Lessons for Women'' was written by Ban Zhao (45–114 CE) to instruct her daughters how to be proper Confucian wives and mothers, that is, to be silent, hard-working, and compliant.", "She stresses the complementarity and equal importance of the male and female roles according to yin-yang theory, but she clearly accepts the dominance of the male.", "However, she does present education and literary power as important for women.", "In later dynasties, a number of women took advantage of the Confucian acknowledgment of education to become independent in thought.Joseph A. Adler points out that \"Neo-Confucian writings do not necessarily reflect either the prevailing social practices or the scholars' own attitudes and practices in regard to actual women.\"", "Matthew Sommers has also indicated that the Qing dynasty government began to realise the utopian nature of enforcing the \"cult of chastity\" and began to allow practices such as widow remarrying to stand.", "Moreover, some Confucian texts like Dong Zhongshu's ''Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals'' have passages that suggest a more equal relationship between a husband and his wife.", "More recently, some scholars have also begun to discuss the viability of constructing a \"Confucian feminism\"." ], [ "Catholic controversy over Chinese rites", "Ever since Europeans first encountered Confucianism, the issue of how Confucianism should be classified has been subject to debate.", "In the 16th and the 17th centuries, the earliest European arrivals in China, the Christian Jesuits, considered Confucianism to be an ethical system, not a religion, and one that was compatible with Christianity.", "The Jesuits, including Matteo Ricci, saw Chinese rituals as \"civil rituals\" that could co-exist alongside the spiritual rituals of Catholicism.By the early 18th century, this initial portrayal was rejected by the Dominicans and Franciscans, creating a dispute among Catholics in East Asia that was known as the \"Rites Controversy\".", "The Dominicans and Franciscans argued that Chinese ancestral worship was a form of idolatry that was contradictory to the tenets of Christianity.", "This view was reinforced by Pope Benedict XIV, who ordered a ban on Chinese rituals, though this ban was re-assessed and repealed in 1939 by Pope Pius XII, provided that such traditions harmonize with the true and authentic spirit of the liturgy.Some critics view Confucianism as definitely pantheistic and nontheistic, in that it is not based on the belief in the supernatural or in a personal god existing separate from the temporal plane.", "Confucius views about ''tian'' and about the divine providence ruling the world, can be found above (in this page) and in Analects 6:26, 7:22, and 9:12, for example.", "On spirituality, Confucius said to Chi Lu, one of his students: \"You are not yet able to serve men, how can you serve spirits?\"", "Attributes such as ancestor worship, ritual, and sacrifice were advocated by Confucius as necessary for social harmony; these attributes may be traced to the traditional Chinese folk religion.Scholars recognise that classification ultimately depends on how one defines religion.", "Using stricter definitions of religion, Confucianism has been described as a moral science or philosophy.", "But using a broader definition, such as Frederick Streng's characterisation of religion as \"a means of ultimate transformation\", Confucianism could be described as a \"sociopolitical doctrine having religious qualities.\"", "With the latter definition, Confucianism is religious, even if non-theistic, in the sense that it \"performs some of the basic psycho-social functions of full-fledged religions.", "\"==See also==" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * '' Volume I: The Ancient Eurasian World and the Celestial Pivot''.", "'' Volume II: Representations and Identities of High Powers in Neolithic and Bronze China''.", "*'' Volume III: Terrestrial and Celestial Transformations in Zhou and Early-Imperial China''.", " .", "* * .", "* * * * .", "* .", "* * * * .", "* * * * * .", "* .", "* * * " ], [ "Translations of texts attributed to Confucius", "===Analects (''Lun Yu'')=== Confucian Analects (1893) Translated by James Legge.", "* ''The Analects of Confucius'' (1915; rpr.", "NY: Paragon, 1968).", "Translated by William Edward Soothill.", "* ''The Analects of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation'' (New York: Ballantine, 1998).", "Translated by Roger T. Ames, Henry Rosemont.", "* ''Confucius: The Analects (Lun yü)'' (London: Penguin, 1979; rpr.", "Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1992).", "Translated by D.C.", "Lau.", "* ''The Analects of Confucius (Lun Yu)'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997).", "Translated by Chichung Huang.", "* ''The Analects of Confucius'' (New York: W.W. Norton, 1997).", "Translated by Simon Leys.", "* ''Analects: With Selections from Traditional Commentaries'' (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2003).", "Translated by Edward Slingerland." ], [ "External links", "* * * Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Entry: Confucius* Interfaith Online: Confucianism* Confucian Documents at the Internet Sacred Texts Archive.", "* Oriental Philosophy, \"Topic:Confucianism\";Institutional* China Confucian Philosophy* China Confucian Religion* China Kongzi Network" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Chinese philosophy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Chinese philosophy''' originates in the Spring and Autumn period and Warring States period, during a period known as the \"Hundred Schools of Thought\", which was characterized by significant intellectual and cultural developments.", "Although much of Chinese philosophy begun in the Warring States period (475-221 BCE), elements of Chinese philosophy have existed for several thousand years.", "Some can be found in the ''I Ching'' (the ''Book of Changes''), an ancient compendium of divination, which dates back to at least 672 BCE.It was during the Warring States era that what Sima Tan termed the major philosophical schools of China—Confucianism, Legalism, and Taoism—arose, along with philosophies that later fell into obscurity, like Agriculturalism, Mohism, Chinese Naturalism, and the Logicians.", "Even in modern society, Confucianism is still the creed of etiquette for Chinese society." ], [ "Chinese philosophy as a philosophy", "The debate over whether the ''thought'' of ancient Chinese masters should be called philosophy has been discussed since the introduction of this academic discipline into China.", "See Legitimacy of Chinese philosophy for details." ], [ "Early beliefs", "Early Shang dynasty thought was based on cycles like the 10 stems and 12 earthly branches.", "This notion stems from what the people of the Shang dynasty could observe around them: day and night cycles, the seasons progressed again and again, and even the moon waxed and waned until it waxed again.", "Thus, this notion, which remained relevant throughout Chinese history, reflects the order of nature.", "In juxtaposition, it also marks a fundamental distinction from western philosophy, in which the dominant view of time is a linear progression.", "During the Shang, Ancestor worship was present and universally recognized.When the Shang were overthrown by the Zhou a new political, religious and philosophical concept was introduced called the Mandate of Heaven.", "This mandate was said to be taken when rulers became unworthy of their position and provided a justification for Zhou rule it is said that the Duke of Zhou made the early solar terms by measuring with a gnomon that was added to make the complete solar terms.", "He is also said to have used try squares and wrote the ''Zhoubi Suanjing'' with his astrologer.", "Several early beliefs might be found in the ''Guicang'' and perhaps the earliest Chinese book, the small calendar of the Xia in Da Dai Liji, though debated to exist the Xia dynasty is said to be its origin." ], [ "Overview", "Confucianism developed during the Spring and Autumn period from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius (551–479 BCE), who considered himself a retransmitter of Zhou values.", "His philosophy concerns the fields of ethics and politics, emphasizing personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice, traditionalism, and sincerity.", "The Analects stress the importance of ritual, but also the importance of ''ren'', which loosely translates as \"human-heartedness\", Confucianism, along with Legalism, is responsible for creating the world's first meritocracy, which holds that one's status should be determined by education and character rather than ancestry, wealth, or friendship.", "Confucianism was and continues to be a major influence in Chinese culture, the state of China and the surrounding areas of East Asia.Before the Han dynasty the largest rivals to Confucianism were Chinese Legalism, and Mohism.", "Confucianism largely became the dominant philosophical school of China during the early Han dynasty following the replacement of its contemporary, the more Taoist Huang-Lao.", "Legalism as a coherent philosophy disappeared largely due to its relationship with the unpopular authoritarian rule of Qin Shi Huang, however, many of its ideas and institutions would continue to influence Chinese philosophy throughout the Han dynasty and after.Mohism, though initially popular due to its emphasis on brotherly love versus harsh Legalism, fell out of favour during the Han dynasty due to the efforts of Confucians in establishing their views as political orthodoxy.", "The Six Dynasties era saw the rise of the Xuanxue philosophical school and the maturation of Chinese Buddhism, which had entered China from India during the Late Han dynasties.", "By the time of the Tang dynasty five-hundred years after Buddhism's arrival into China, it had transformed into a thoroughly Chinese religious philosophy dominated by the school of Zen Buddhism.", "Neo-Confucianism became highly popular during the Song dynasty and Ming dynasty due in large part to the eventual combination of Confucian and Buddhist and even Taoist Philosophy.During the 19th and 20th centuries, Chinese philosophy integrated concepts from Western philosophy.", "Anti-Qing dynasty revolutionaries, involved in the Xinhai Revolution, saw Western philosophy as an alternative to traditional philosophical schools; students in the May Fourth Movement called for completely abolishing the old imperial institutions and practices of China.", "During this era, Chinese scholars attempted to incorporate Western philosophical ideologies such as democracy, Marxism, socialism, liberalism, republicanism, anarchism and nationalism into Chinese philosophy.", "The most notable examples are Sun Yat-sen's Three Principles of the People ideology and Mao Zedong's Maoism, a variant of Marxism–Leninism.", "In the modern People's Republic of China, the official ideology is Deng Xiaoping's \"market economy socialism\".Although the People's Republic of China has been historically hostile to the philosophy of ancient China, the influences of past are still deeply ingrained in the Chinese culture.", "In the post-Chinese economic reform era, modern Chinese philosophy has reappeared in forms such as ''New Confucianism''.", "As in Japan, philosophy in China has become a melting pot of ideas.", "It accepts new concepts, while attempting also to accord old beliefs their due.", "Chinese philosophy still carries profound influence amongst the people of East Asia, and even Southeast Asia." ], [ "Ancient philosophy", "=== Spring and Autumn period ===Around 500 BCE, after the Zhou state weakened and China moved into the Spring and Autumn period, the classic period of Chinese philosophy began.", "This is known as the Hundred Schools of Thought (; ''zhūzǐ bǎijiā''; \"various scholars, hundred schools\").", "This period is considered the golden age of Chinese philosophy.", "Of the many schools founded at this time and during the subsequent Warring States period, the four most influential ones were Confucianism, Daoism (often spelled \"Taoism\"), Mohism and Legalism.==== Confucianism ====Latin: Confucius)Confucianism is a philosophical school developed from the teachings of Confucius collected and written by his disciples after his death in ''The Analects'', and in the Warring States period, Mencius in ''The Mencius'' and Xunzi in ''The Xunzi''.", "It is a system of moral, social, political, and religious thought that has had tremendous influence on Chinese history, thought, and culture down to the 20th century.", "Some Westerners have considered it to have been the \"state religion\" of imperial China because of its lasting influence on Asian culture.", "Its influence also spread to Korea, Japan, Vietnam and many other Asian countries.Confucianism reached its peak of influence during the Tang and Song dynasties under a rebranded Confucianism called Neo-Confucianism.", "Confucius expanded on the already present ideas of Chinese religion and culture to reflect the time period and environment of political chaos during the Warring States period.", "Because Confucius embedded the Chinese culture so heavily into his philosophy it was able to resonate with the people of China.", "This high approval of Confucianism can be seen through the reverence of Confucius in modern-day China.The major Confucian concepts include filial piety, loyalty (), ''li'' (ritual), ''ren'' (humanity or humaneness), the rectification of names (i.e., to ensure everything is what its name implies it should be),.", "Confucius taught both positive and negative versions of the Golden Rule.", "The concepts yin and yang represent two opposing forces that are permanently in conflict with each other, leading to perpetual contradiction and change.", "The Confucian idea of \"Rid of the two ends, take the middle\" is a Chinese equivalent of the idea of \"thesis, antithesis, and synthesis\", often attributed to Hegel, which is a way of reconciling opposites, arriving at some middle ground combining the best of both.Confucius heavily emphasized the idea of microcosms in society (subunits of family and community) success's were the foundations for a successful state or country.", "Confucius believed in the use of education to further knowledge the people in ethics, societal behavior, and reverence in other humans.", "With the combination of education, successful family, and his ethical teachings he believed he could govern a well established society in China.==== Taoism ====glazed stoneware statue of a Daoist deity, from the Ming dynasty, 16th centuryBagua: Modern ''Taijitu'' with ''I Ching'' trigramsTaoism arose as a philosophy and later also developed into a religion based on the texts the ''Tao Te Ching'' (ascribed to Laozi) and the ''Zhuangzi'' (partly ascribed to Zhuang Zhou).", "The word ''Tao'' (; also transliterated as ''Dao'') literally means 'path' or 'way'.", "However, in Taoism it refers more often to a meta-physical force that encompasses the entire universe but which cannot be described nor felt.All major Chinese philosophical schools have investigated the correct ''Way'' to go about a moral life, but in Taoism it takes on the most abstract meanings, leading this school to be named after it.", "It advocated nonaction (''wu wei''), the strength of softness, spontaneity, and relativism.", "Although it serves as a rival to Confucianism, a school of active morality, this rivalry is compromised and given perspective by the idiom \"practice Confucianism on the outside, Taoism on the inside.", "\"Most of Taoism's focus is on the notion that human attempts to make the world better actually make the world worse.", "Therefore, it is better to strive for harmony, minimising potentially harmful interference with nature or in human affairs.=== Warring States period ======= Legalism ====Philosopher Han Fei synthesized together earlier the methods of his predecessors, which famous historian Sima Tan posthumously termed Legalism.", "With an essential principle like \"when the epoch changed, the ways changed\", late pre-Han dynasty reformers emphasized rule by law.In Han Fei's philosophy, a ruler should govern his subjects by the following trinity:#''Fa'' (): law or principle.#''Shu'' (): method, tactic, art, or statecraft.#''Shi'' (): legitimacy, power, or charisma.What has been termed by some as the intrastate Realpolitik of the Warring States period was highly progressive, and extremely critical of the Confucian and Mohist schools.", "But that of the Qin dynasty would be blamed for creating a totalitarian society, thereby experiencing decline.", "Its main motto is: \"Set clear strict laws, or deliver harsh punishment\".", "In Han Fei's philosophy the ruler possessed authority regarding reward and penalty, enacted through law.", "Shang Yang and Han Fei promoted absolute adherence to the law, regardless of the circumstances or the person.", "Ministers were only to be rewarded if their words were accurate to the results of their proposals.", "Legalism, in accordance with Shang Yang's interpretation, could encourage the state to be a militaristic autarky.====Naturalists====The School of Naturalists or the School of Yin-yang () was a Warring States era philosophy that synthesized the concepts of yin-yang and the ''wuxing''; Zou Yan is considered the founder of this school.", "His theory attempted to explain the universe in terms of basic forces in nature: the complementary agents of yin (dark, cold, female, negative) and yang (light, hot, male, positive) and the Five Elements or Five Phases (water, fire, wood, metal, and earth).", "In its early days, this theory was most strongly associated with the states of Yan and Qi.", "In later periods, these epistemological theories came to hold significance in both philosophy and popular belief.", "This school was absorbed into Taoism's alchemic and magical dimensions as well as into the Chinese medical framework.", "The earliest surviving recordings of this are in the Mawangdui texts and ''Huangdi Neijing''.==== Mohism ====Mohism (Moism), founded by Mozi, promotes universal love with the aim of mutual benefit.", "Everyone must love each other equally and impartially to avoid conflict and war.", "Mozi was strongly against Confucian ritual, instead emphasizing pragmatic survival through farming, fortification, and statecraft.", "Tradition is inconsistent, and human beings need an extra-traditional guide to identify which traditions are acceptable.", "The moral guide must then promote and encourage social behaviors that maximize general benefit.", "As motivation for his theory, Mozi brought in the ''Will of Heaven'', but rather than being religious his philosophy parallels utilitarianism.==== Logicians ====The logicians (School of Names) were concerned with logic, paradoxes, names and actuality (similar to Confucian rectification of names).", "The logician Hui Shi was a friendly rival to Zhuangzi, arguing against Taoism in a light-hearted and humorous manner.", "Another logician, Gongsun Long, originated the famous When a White Horse is Not a Horse dialogue.==== Agriculturalists ====Agriculturalism was an early agrarian social and political philosophy that advocated peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism.", "The philosophy is founded on the notion that human society originates with the development of agriculture, and societies are based upon \"people's natural propensity to farm.", "\"The Agriculturalists believed that the ideal government, modeled after the semi-mythical governance of Shennong, is led by a benevolent king, one who works alongside the people in tilling the fields.", "The Agriculturalist king is not paid by the government through its treasuries; his livelihood is derived from the profits he earns working in the fields, not his leadership.", "Unlike the Confucians, the Agriculturalists did not believe in the division of labour, arguing instead that the economic policies of a country need to be based upon an egalitarian self sufficiency.", "The Agriculturalists supported the fixing of prices, in which all similar goods, regardless of differences in quality and demand, are set at exactly the same, unchanging price." ], [ "Early imperial era philosophy", "===History======= Qin and Han dynasties ====The short founder Qin dynasty, where Legalism was the official philosophy, quashed Mohist and Confucianist schools.", "Legalism remained influential during the early Han dynasty under the Taoist-Realist ideology Huang-Lao until Emperor Wu of Han adopted Confucianism as official doctrine.", "Confucianism and Taoism became the determining forces of Chinese thought until the introduction of Buddhism.Confucianism was particularly strong during the Han dynasty, whose greatest thinker was Dong Zhongshu, who integrated Confucianism with the thoughts of the Zhongshu School and the theory of the Five Elements.", "He also was a promoter of the New Text school, which considered Confucius as a divine figure and a spiritual ruler of China, who foresaw and started the evolution of the world towards the Universal Peace.In contrast, there was an Old Text school that advocated the use of Confucian works written in ancient language (from this comes the denomination ''Old Text'') that were so much more reliable.", "In particular, they refuted the assumption of Confucius as a godlike figure and considered him as the greatest sage, but simply a human and mortal==== Six Dynasties ====The 3rd and 4th centuries saw the rise of the ''Xuanxue'' (mysterious learning), also called ''Neo-Taoism''.Buddhism arrived in China around the 1st century AD, but it was not until the Northern and Southern, Sui and Tang dynasties that it gained considerable influence and acknowledgement.", "At the beginning, it was considered a sort of Taoist sect.", "Mahayana Buddhism was far more successful in China than its rival Hinayana, and both Indian schools and local Chinese sects arose from the 5th century.", "Two chiefly important monk philosophers were Sengzhao and Daosheng.", "But probably the most influential and original of these schools was the Chan sect, which had an even stronger impact in Japan as the Zen sect.In the mid-Tang Buddhism reached its peak, and reportedly there were 4,600 monasteries, 40,000 hermitages and 260,500 monks and nuns.", "The power of the Buddhist clergy was so great and the wealth of the monasteries so impressive, that it instigated criticism from Confucian scholars, who considered Buddhism as a foreign religion.", "In 845 Emperor Wuzong ordered the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution, confiscating the riches and returning monks and nuns to lay life.", "From then on, Buddhism lost much of its influence.===Schools of thought=======Xuanxue====Xuanxue was a philosophical school that combined elements of Confucianism and Taoism to reinterpret the I Ching'',''Tao Te Ching'','' and ''Zhuangzi.''", "The most important philosophers of this movement were Wang Bi, Xiang Xiu and Guo Xiang.", "The main question of this school was whether Being came before Not-Being (in Chinese, ''ming'' and ''wuming'').", "A peculiar feature of these Taoist thinkers, like the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, was the concept of ''feng liu'' (lit.", "wind and flow), a sort of romantic spirit which encouraged following the natural and instinctive impulse.==== Buddhism ====Sakyamuni Buddha'', by artist Zhang Shengwen, 1173–1176 CE, Song dynastyBuddhism is a religion, a practical philosophy, and arguably a psychology, focusing on the teachings of Gautama Buddha, who lived on the Indian subcontinent most likely from the mid-6th to the early 5th century BCE.", "When used in a generic sense, a Buddha is generally considered to be someone who discovers the true nature of reality.Buddhism until the 4th century AD had little impact on China but in the 4th century its teachings hybridized with those of Taoism.", "Buddhism brought to China the idea of many hells, where sinners went, but the deceased sinners souls could be saved by pious acts.", "Since Chinese traditional thought focused more on ethics rather than metaphysics, the merging of Buddhist and Taoist concepts developed several schools distinct from the originating Indian schools.The most prominent examples with philosophical merit are Sanlun, Tiantai, Huayan, and Chan (a.k.a.", "Zen).", "They investigate consciousness, levels of truth, whether reality is ultimately empty, and how enlightenment is to be achieved.", "Buddhism has a spiritual aspect that complements the action of Neo-Confucianism, with prominent Neo-Confucians advocating certain forms of meditation." ], [ "Mid to late imperial era philosophy", "=== History ===Neo-Confucianism was a revived version of old Confucian principles that appeared around the Song dynasty, with Buddhist, Taoist, and Legalist features.", "The first philosophers, such as Shao Yong, Zhou Dunyi and Chang Zai, were cosmologists and worked on the ''I Ching''.", "The Cheng brothers, Cheng Yi and Cheng Hao, are considered the founders of the two main schools of thought of Neo-Confucianism: the School of Principle the first, the School of Mind the latter.The School of Principle gained supremacy during the Song dynasty with the philosophical system elaborated by Zhu Xi, which became mainstream and officially adopted by the government for the imperial examinations under the Yuan dynasty.", "The School of Mind was developed by Lu Jiuyuan, Zhu Xi's main rival, but was soon forgotten.", "Only during the Ming dynasty was the School of Mind revived by Wang Shouren, whose influence is equal to that of Zhu Xi.", "This school was particularly important in Japan.During the Qing dynasty many philosophers objected against Neo-Confucianism and there was a return to the Han dynasty Confucianism, and also the reprise of the controversy between Old Text and New Text.", "In this period also started the penetration of Western culture, but most Chinese thought that the Westerners were maybe more advanced in technology and warfare, but that China had primacy in moral and intellectual fields.Chinese culture was highly influential on the traditions of other East Asian states, and its philosophy directly influenced Korean philosophy, Vietnamese philosophy and Japanese philosophy.", "During later Chinese dynasties like the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), as well as in the Korean Joseon dynasty (1392–1897), a resurgent Neo-Confucianism led by thinkers such as Wang Yangming (1472–1529) became the dominant school of thought and was promoted by the imperial state.", "In Japan, the Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1867) was also strongly influenced by Confucian philosophy.===Schools of thought======= Neo-Confucianism ====Despite Confucianism losing popularity to Taoism and Buddhism, Neo-Confucianism combined those ideas into a more metaphysical framework.", "Its concepts include ''li'' (principle, akin to Plato's forms), ''qi'' (vital or material force), ''taiji'' (the Great Ultimate), and ''xin'' (mind).", "Song dynasty philosopher Zhou Dunyi (1017–1073) is commonly seen as the first true \"pioneer\" of Neo-Confucianism, using Daoist metaphysics as a framework for his ethical philosophy.Neo-Confucianism developed both as a renaissance of traditional Confucian ideas, and as a reaction to the ideas of Buddhism and religious Daoism.", "Although the Neo-Confucianists denounced Buddhist metaphysics, Neo-Confucianism did borrow Daoist and Buddhist terminology and concepts.Neo-Confucianist philosophers like Zhu Xi and Wang Yangming are seen as the most important figures of Neo-Confucianism.File:Zhu-xi1.gif\|Zhu Xi was a leading figure in Neo-Confucianism.File:Wang-yang-ming.jpg\|Wang Yangming was an important figure in Neo-Confucianism." ], [ "Modern era", "During the Industrial and Modern Ages, Chinese philosophy had also begun to integrate concepts of Western philosophy, as steps toward modernization.", "Chinese philosophy never developed the concept of human rights, so that classical Chinese lacked words for them.", "In 1864, W.A.P.", "Martin had to invent the word ''quanli'' () to translate the Western concept of \"rights\" in the process of translating Henry Wheaton's ''Elements of International Law'' into classical Chinese.By the time of the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, there were many calls such as the May Fourth Movement to completely abolish the old imperial institutions and practices of China.", "There have been attempts to incorporate democracy, republicanism, and industrialism into Chinese philosophy, notably by Sun Yat-Sen at the beginning of the 20th century.", "Mao Zedong added Marxism, Stalinism, Chinese Marxist Philosophy and other communist thought.When the Chinese Communist Party took over the reign, previous schools of thought, excepting notably Legalism, were denounced as backward, and later even purged during the Cultural Revolution, whereas their influences on Chinese thoughts remain until today.", "The current government of the People's Republic of China is trying to encourage a form of market socialism.Since the radical movement of the Cultural Revolution, the Chinese government has become much more tolerant with the practice of traditional beliefs.", "The 1978 Constitution of the People's Republic of China guarantees \"freedom of religion\" with a number of restrictions.", "Spiritual and philosophical institutions have been allowed to be established or re-established, as long they are not perceived to be a threat to the power of the CPC.", "Moreover, those organizations are heavily monitored.", "The influences of the past are still deeply ingrained in the Chinese culture.=== New Confucianism ===New Confucianism is an intellectual movement of Confucianism that began in the early 20th century in Republican China, and revived in post-Mao era contemporary communist China.", "It is deeply influenced by, but not identical with, the Neo-Confucianism of the Song and Ming dynasties." ], [ "Philosophers", "* Confucius, seen as the Great Master but sometimes ridiculed by Taoists.", " Mencius, Confucius' follower having idealist inspiration Xun Zi, another Confucius' follower, closer to realism, teacher of Han Fei and Li Si Zhu Xi, founder of Neo-Confucianism Wang Yangming, most influential proponent of \"state of mind.\"", "('''')* Laozi, the semi-mythical founder of Taoist school.", " Zhuang Zhou, said to be the author of the ''Zhuangzi''.", " Lie Yukou, said to be the author of the ''Liezi''.", "* Yang Zhu, proposed ethical egoism and founded Yangism.", "* Mozi, the founder of Mohist school.", "* Shang Yang, Legalist founder and pivotal Qin reformer* Han Fei, one of the most notable theoreticians of Legalism* Li Si, major proponent and practitioner of Legalism" ], [ "Concepts", "Although the individual philosophical schools differ considerably, they nevertheless share a common vocabulary and set of concerns.Among the terms commonly found in Chinese philosophy are:* Dao (the Way, or one's doctrine)* De (virtue, power)* Li (principle, Law)* Qi (vital energy or material force)* The ''Tai-chi'' (''Great Heavenly Axis'') forms a unity of the two complementary polarities, ''Yin and Yang''.", "The word ''Yin'' originally referred to a hillside facing away from the sun.", "Philosophically, it stands the dark, passive, feminine principle; whereas ''Yang'' (the hillside facing the sun) stands for the bright, active, masculine principle.", "Yin and Yang are not antagonistic, they alternate in inverse proportion to one another—like the rise and fall of a wave and are known by their comparison.Among the commonalities of Chinese philosophies are:* The tendency not to view man as separate from nature.", "* Questions about the nature and existence of a monotheistic deity, which have profoundly influenced Western philosophy, have not been important in Chinese philosophies or a source of great conflict in Chinese traditional religion.", "* The belief that the purpose of philosophy is primarily to serve as an ethical and practical guide.", "* The political focus: most scholars of the Hundred Schools were trying to convince the ruler to behave in the way they defended." ], [ "See also", "* Chinese classic textsHistory of China Chinese philosophers* Confucianism* Culture of China* Eastern philosophy* Five Elements* Hun and po* List of Chinese philosophers* Taoism* Thirteen Classics" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bo Mou (Editor), ''History of Chinese Philosophy'', Routledge, 2009.", "* * Antonio S. Cua (Editor), ''Encyclopedia of Chinese Philosophy'', Routledge, 2003.", "* Feng Youlan, ''A History of Chinese Philosophy'' (Princeton Paperbacks), tr.", "Derk Bodde, 1983.", "* Herrlee Glessner Creel, ''Chinese Thought, from Confucius to Mao Zedong'', 1971.", "* A. C. Graham, ''Disputers of the Tao; Philosophical Argument in Ancient China'', 1989.", "* Christoph Harbsmeier, ''Logic and Language in Ancient China'', (Joseph Needham, ''Science and Civilisation in China'', Volume 7, Part I, Cambridge University Press, 1998.", "* Philip J. Ivanhoe and Bryan W. Van Norden (Editors), ''Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy'', 2nd edition, Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2005.", "* Karyn Lai, ''Introduction to Chinese Philosophy'', Cambridge University Press, 2008.", "* Lin Yutang, ''The Importance of Living'', William Morrow Paperbacks, 1998.", "* Jana S. Rošker, ''Searching for the Way: Theory of Knowledge in Pre-modern and Modern Chinese Philosophy'' Hong Kong Chinese University Press, 2008.", "* Roel Sterckx, ''Chinese Thought.", "From Confucius to Cook Ding.''", "London: Penguin, 2019.", "* Roel Sterckx, ''Ways of Heaven.", "An Introduction to Chinese Thought.''", "New York: Basic Books, 2019.", "* Justin Tiwald and Bryan W. Van Norden (Editors), ''Readings in Later Chinese Philosophy: Han Dynasty to the 20th Century'', Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2014.", "* Bryan W. Van Norden, ''Introduction to Classical Chinese Philosophy'', Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2011.", "* Arthur Waley, ''Three Ways of Thought in Ancient China'', 1983." ], [ "External links", "******** * Article \"The Chinese Concept of Space\"* Article \"The Chinese Concept of Time\"* The Hundred Schools of Thought* Chinese Text Project – Chinese philosophy texts in classical Chinese with English and modern Chinese translations* * Contesting Confucius Henry Zhao, New Left Review 44, March–April 2007* ''Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers'', 1751–1772, \" \"Philosophie des Chinois\" in French* Warp Weft and Way – A Group Blog of Chinese and Comparative Philosophy" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Confucius" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Confucius''' (; pinyin: ; ; ), born '''Kong Qiu''' () was a Chinese philosopher of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages.", "Confucius's teachings and philosophy underpin East Asian culture and society, and remain influential across China and East Asia to this day.", "His philosophical teachings, called Confucianism, emphasized personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice, kindness, and sincerity, as well as an emphasis on a ruler's duty to their subjects.Confucius considered himself a transmitter for the values of earlier periods which he claimed had been abandoned in his time.", "The time immediately following Confucius's life saw a rich diversity of thought, and was a formative period in China's intellectual history.", "His ideas gained in prominence during the Warring States period, but experienced setback immediately following the Qin conquest.", "Under Emperor Wu of Han, Confucius's ideas received official sanction, with affiliated works becoming mandatory readings for career paths leading to officialdom.", "During the Tang and Song dynasties, Confucianism developed into a system known in the West as Neo-Confucianism, and later as New Confucianism.", "From ancient dynasties to the modern era, Confucianism has integrated into the Chinese social fabric and way of life.Traditionally, Confucius is credited with having authored or edited many of the Chinese classic texts, including all of the Five Classics.", "However, modern scholars exercise caution in attributing specific assertions to Confucius himself, for at least some of the texts and philosophy associated with him were of a more ancient origin.", "Aphorisms concerning his teachings were compiled in the ''Analects'', but not until many years after his death.Confucius's principles share common ground with Chinese tradition and belief.", "He advocated for filial piety, endorsing strong family loyalty, ancestor veneration, the respect of elders by their children and of husbands by their wives.", "Confucius recommended a robust family unit as the cornerstone for an ideal government.", "He championed the Silver Rule, or a negative form of the Golden Rule, advising, \"Do not do unto others what you do not want done to yourself.\"" ], [ "Name", "The name \"Confucius\" is a Latinized form of the Mandarin Chinese (, \"Master Kong\"), and was coined in the late 16th century by early Jesuit missionaries to China.", "Confucius's family name was Kong () and his given name was Qiu ().", "His courtesy name, a capping (''guan'': ) given at his coming of age ceremony, and by which he would have been known to all but his older family members, was Zhongni (), the \"Zhòng\" indicating that he was the second son in his family." ], [ "Life", "===Early life===It is thought that Confucius was born on 28 September 551 BCE, in Zou (, in modern Shandong).", "The area was notionally controlled by the kings of Zhou but effectively independent under the local lords of Lu, who ruled from the nearby city of Qufu.", "His father Kong He (or Shuliang He) was an elderly commandant of the local Lu garrison.", "His ancestry traced back through the dukes of Song to the Shang dynasty which had preceded the Zhou.", "Traditional accounts of Confucius's life relate that Kong He's grandfather had migrated the family from Song to Lu.", "Not all modern scholars accept Confucius's descent from Song nobility.Kong He died when Confucius was three years old, and Confucius was raised by his mother Yan Zhengzai () in poverty.", "His mother later died at less than 40 years of age.", "At age 19, he married Lady Qiguan (), and a year later the couple had their first child, their son Kong Li ().", "Qiguan and Confucius later had two daughters together, one of whom is thought to have died as a child and one was named Kong Jiao ().Confucius was educated at schools for commoners, where he studied and learned the Six Arts.Confucius was born into the class of ''shi'' (), between the aristocracy and the common people.", "He is said to have worked in various government jobs during his early 20s, and as a bookkeeper and a caretaker of sheep and horses, using the proceeds to give his mother a proper burial.", "When his mother died, Confucius (aged 23) is said to have mourned for three years, as was the tradition.===Political career===In Confucius's time, the state of Lu was headed by a ruling ducal house.", "Under the duke were three aristocratic families, whose heads bore the title of viscount and held hereditary positions in the Lu bureaucracy.", "The Ji family held the position \"Minister over the Masses\", who was also the \"Prime Minister\"; the Meng family held the position \"Minister of Works\"; and the Shu family held the position \"Minister of War\".", "In the winter of , Yang Hu—a retainer of the Ji family—rose up in rebellion and seized power from the Ji family.", "However, by the summer of , the three hereditary families had succeeded in expelling Yang Hu from Lu.", "By then, Confucius had built up a considerable reputation through his teachings, while the families came to see the value of proper conduct and righteousness, so they could achieve loyalty to a legitimate government.", "Thus, that year (), Confucius came to be appointed to the minor position of governor of a town.", "Eventually, he rose to the position of Minister of Crime.", "It was said in ''Xunzi'' that once assuming the post, Confucius ordered the execution of Shaozheng Mao, another Lu state official and scholar whose lectures attracted the three thousand disciples several times except Yan Hui.", "Shaozheng Mao was accused of 'five crimes', each worth execution, including 'concealed evilness, stubborn abnormality, eloquent duplicity, erudition in bizarre facts and generosity to evildoers'.Confucius desired to return the authority of the state to the duke by dismantling the fortifications of the city—strongholds belonging to the three families.", "This way, he could establish a centralized government.", "However, Confucius relied solely on diplomacy as he had no military authority himself.", "In , Hou Fan—the governor of Hou—revolted against his lord of the Shu family.", "Although the Meng and Shu families unsuccessfully besieged Hou, a loyalist official rose up with the people of Hou and forced Hou Fan to flee to the Qi state.", "The situation may have been in favor for Confucius as this likely made it possible for Confucius and his disciples to convince the aristocratic families to dismantle the fortifications of their cities.", "Eventually, after a year and a half, Confucius and his disciples succeeded in convincing the Shu family to raze the walls of Hou, the Ji family in razing the walls of Bi, and the Meng family in razing the walls of Cheng.", "First, the Shu family led an army towards their city Hou and tore down its walls in .Soon thereafter, Gongshan Furao (also known as Gongshan Buniu), a retainer of the Ji family, revolted and took control of the forces at Bi.", "He immediately launched an attack and entered the capital Lu.", "Earlier, Gongshan had approached Confucius to join him, which Confucius considered as he wanted the opportunity to put his principles into practice but he gave up on the idea in the end.", "Confucius disapproved the use of a violent revolution by principle, even though the Ji family dominated the Lu state by force for generations and had exiled the previous duke.", "Creel (1949) states that, unlike the rebel Yang Hu before him, Gongshan may have sought to destroy the three hereditary families and restore the power of the duke.", "However, Dubs (1946) is of the view that Gongshan was encouraged by Viscount Ji Huan to invade the Lu capital in an attempt to avoid dismantling the Bi fortified walls.", "Whatever the situation may have been, Gongshan was considered an upright man who continued to defend the state of Lu, even after he was forced to flee.During the revolt by Gongshan, Zhong You had managed to keep the duke and the three viscounts together at the court.", "Zhong You was one of the disciples of Confucius and Confucius had arranged for him to be given the position of governor by the Ji family.", "When Confucius heard of the raid, he requested that Viscount Ji Huan allow the duke and his court to retreat to a stronghold on his palace grounds.", "Thereafter, the heads of the three families and the duke retreated to the Ji's palace complex and ascended the Wuzi Terrace.", "Confucius ordered two officers to lead an assault against the rebels.", "At least one of the two officers was a retainer of the Ji family, but they were unable to refuse the orders while in the presence of the duke, viscounts, and court.", "The rebels were pursued and defeated at Gu.", "Immediately after the revolt was defeated, the Ji family razed the Bi city walls to the ground.The attackers retreated after realizing that they would have to become rebels against the state and their lord.", "Through Confucius' actions, the Bi officials had inadvertently revolted against their own lord, thus forcing Viscount Ji Huan's hand in having to dismantle the walls of Bi (as it could have harbored such rebels) or confess to instigating the event by going against proper conduct and righteousness as an official.", "Dubs (1949) suggests that the incident brought to light Confucius' foresight, practical political ability, and insight into human character.When it was time to dismantle the city walls of the Meng family, the governor was reluctant to have his city walls torn down and convinced the head of the Meng family not to do so.", "The ''Zuozhuan'' recalls that the governor advised against razing the walls to the ground as he said that it made Cheng vulnerable to the Qi state and cause the destruction of the Meng family.", "Even though Viscount Meng Yi gave his word not to interfere with an attempt, he went back on his earlier promise to dismantle the walls.Later in , Duke Ding personally went with an army to lay siege to Cheng in an attempt to raze its walls to the ground, but he did not succeed.", "Thus, Confucius could not achieve the idealistic reforms that he wanted including restoration of the legitimate rule of the duke.", "He had made powerful enemies within the state, especially with Viscount Ji Huan, due to his successes so far.", "According to accounts in the ''Zuozhuan'' and ''Shiji'', Confucius departed his homeland in after his support for the failed attempt of dismantling the fortified city walls of the powerful Ji, Meng, and Shu families.", "He left the state of Lu without resigning, remaining in self-exile and unable to return as long as Viscount Ji Huan was alive.===Exile===Map showing the journey of Confucius to various states between 497 BCE and 484 BCEThe ''Shiji'' stated that the neighboring Qi state was worried that Lu was becoming too powerful while Confucius was involved in the government of the Lu state.", "According to this account, Qi decided to sabotage Lu's reforms by sending 100 good horses and 80 beautiful dancing girls to the duke of Lu.", "The duke indulged himself in pleasure and did not attend to official duties for three days.", "Confucius was disappointed and resolved to leave Lu and seek better opportunities, yet to leave at once would expose the misbehavior of the duke and therefore bring public humiliation to the ruler Confucius was serving.", "Confucius therefore waited for the duke to make a lesser mistake.", "Soon after, the duke neglected to send to Confucius a portion of the sacrificial meat that was his due according to custom, and Confucius seized upon this pretext to leave both his post and the Lu state.After Confucius's resignation, he travelled around the principality states of north-east and central China including Wey, Song, Zheng, Cao, Chu, Qi, Chen, and Cai (and a failed attempt to go to Jin).", "At the courts of these states, he expounded his political beliefs but did not see them implemented.===Return home===Kong Lin cemetery, Qufu, ShandongAccording to the ''Zuozhuan'', Confucius returned home to his native Lu when he was 68, after he was invited to do so by Ji Kangzi, the chief minister of Lu.", "The ''Analects'' depict him spending his last years teaching 72 or 77 disciples and transmitting the old wisdom via a set of texts called the Five Classics.During his return, Confucius sometimes acted as an advisor to several government officials in Lu, including Ji Kangzi, on matters including governance and crime.Burdened by the loss of both his son and his favorite disciples, he died at the age of 71 or 72 from natural causes.", "Confucius was buried in Kong Lin cemetery which lies in the historical part of Qufu in the Shandong Province.", "The original tomb erected there in memory of Confucius on the bank of the Sishui River had the shape of an axe.", "In addition, it has a raised brick platform at the front of the memorial for offerings such as sandalwood incense and fruit." ], [ "Philosophy", "In the ''Analects'', Confucius presents himself as a \"transmitter who invented nothing\".", "He puts the greatest emphasis on the importance of study, and it is the Chinese character for study (學) that opens the text.", "Far from trying to build a systematic or formalist theory, he wanted his disciples to master and internalize older classics, so that their deep thought and thorough study would allow them to relate the moral problems of the present to past political events (as recorded in the ''Annals'') or the past expressions of commoners' feelings and noblemen's reflections (as in the poems of the ''Book of Odes'').", "Although some Chinese people follow Confucianism in a religious manner, many argue that its values are secular and that it is less a religion than a secular morality.", "Proponents of religious Confucianism argue that despite the secular nature of Confucianism's teachings, it is based on a worldview that is religious.", "Confucianism discusses elements of the afterlife and views concerning Heaven, but it is relatively unconcerned with some spiritual matters often considered essential to religious thought, such as the nature of souls.===Ethics===The ''Analects''One of the deepest teachings of Confucius may have been the superiority of personal exemplification over explicit rules of behavior.", "His moral teachings emphasized self-cultivation, emulation of moral exemplars, and the attainment of skilled judgment rather than knowledge of rules.", "Confucian ethics may, therefore, be considered a type of virtue ethics.", "His teachings rarely rely on reasoned argument, and ethical ideals and methods are conveyed indirectly, through allusion, innuendo, and even tautology.", "His teachings require examination and context to be understood.", "A good example is found in this famous anecdote:By not asking about the horses, Confucius demonstrates that the sage values human beings over property (which animals seem to represent in this example); readers are led to reflect on whether their response would follow Confucius's and to pursue self-improvement if it would not have.", "One of his teachings was a variant of the Golden Rule, sometimes called the \"Silver Rule\" owing to its negative form:Often overlooked in Confucian ethics are the virtues to the self: sincerity and the cultivation of knowledge.", "Virtuous action towards others begins with virtuous and sincere thought, which begins with knowledge.", "A virtuous disposition without knowledge is susceptible to corruption, and virtuous action without sincerity is not true righteousness.", "Cultivating knowledge and sincerity is also important for one's own sake; the superior person loves learning for the sake of learning and righteousness for the sake of righteousness.The Confucian theory of ethics as exemplified in ''lǐ'' () is based on three important conceptual aspects of life: (a) ceremonies associated with sacrifice to ancestors and deities of various types, (b) social and political institutions, and (c) the etiquette of daily behavior.", "Some believed that ''lǐ'' originated from the heavens, but Confucius stressed the development of ''lǐ'' through the actions of sage leaders in human history.", "His discussions of ''lǐ'' seem to redefine the term to refer to all actions committed by a person to build the ideal society, rather than those conforming with canonical standards of ceremony.In the early Confucian tradition, ''lǐ'' was doing the proper thing at the proper time; balancing between maintaining existing norms to perpetuate an ethical social fabric, and violating them in order to accomplish ethical good.", "Training in the ''lǐ'' of past sages, cultivates virtues in people that include ethical judgment about when ''lǐ'' must be adapted in light of situational contexts.In Confucianism, the concept of ''li'' is closely related to ''yì'' (), which is based upon the idea of reciprocity.", "''Yì'' can be translated as righteousness, though it may mean what is ethically best to do in a certain context.", "The term contrasts with action done out of self-interest.", "While pursuing one's own self-interest is not necessarily bad, one would be a better, more righteous person if one's life was based upon following a path designed to enhance the greater good.", "Thus an outcome of ''yì'' is doing the right thing for the right reason.Just as action according to ''lǐ'' should be adapted to conform to the aspiration of adhering to ''yì'', so ''yì'' is linked to the core value of ''rén'' ().", "''Rén'' consists of five basic virtues: seriousness, generosity, sincerity, diligence, and kindness.", "''Rén'' is the virtue of perfectly fulfilling one's responsibilities toward others, most often translated as \"benevolence\", \"humaneness\", or \"empathy\"; translator Arthur Waley calls it \"Goodness\" (with a capital ''G''), and other translations that have been put forth include \"authoritativeness\" and \"selflessness\".", "Confucius's moral system was based upon empathy and understanding others, rather than divinely ordained rules.", "To develop one's spontaneous responses of ''rén'' so that these could guide action intuitively was even better than living by the rules of ''yì''.", "Confucius asserts that virtue is a mean between extremes.", "For example, the properly generous person gives the right amount – not too much and not too little.===Politics===Confucius's political thought is based upon his ethical thought.", "He argued that the best government is one that rules through \"rites\" (''lǐ'') and people's natural morality, and ''not'' by using bribery and coercion.", "He explained that this is one of the most important analects: \"If the people be led by laws, and uniformity sought to be given them by punishments, they will try to avoid the punishment, but have no sense of shame.", "If they be led by virtue, and uniformity sought to be given them by the rules of propriety, they will have the sense of the shame, and moreover will become good.\"", "(''Analects'' 2.3, tr.", "Legge).", "This \"sense of shame\" is an internalisation of duty, where the punishment precedes the evil action, instead of following it in the form of laws as in Legalism.Confucius looked nostalgically upon earlier days, and urged the Chinese, particularly those with political power, to model themselves on earlier examples.", "In times of division, chaos, and endless wars between feudal states, he wanted to restore the Mandate of Heaven () that could unify the \"world\" (, \"all under Heaven\") and bestow peace and prosperity on the people.", "Because his vision of personal and social perfections was framed as a revival of the ordered society of earlier times, Confucius is often considered a great proponent of conservatism, but a closer look at what he proposes often shows that he used (and perhaps twisted) past institutions and rites to push a new political agenda of his own: a revival of a unified royal state, whose rulers would succeed to power on the basis of their moral merits instead of lineage.", "These would be rulers devoted to their people, striving for personal and social perfection, and such a ruler would spread his own virtues to the people instead of imposing proper behavior with laws and rules.While Confucius supported the idea of government ruling by a virtuous king, his ideas contained a number of elements to limit the power of rulers.", "He argued for representing truth in language, and honesty was of paramount importance.", "Even in facial expression, truth must always be represented.", "Confucius believed that if a ruler is to lead correctly, by action, that orders would be unnecessary in that others will follow the proper actions of their ruler.", "In discussing the relationship between a king and his subject (or a father and his son), he underlined the need to give due respect to superiors.", "This demanded that the subordinates must advise their superiors if the superiors are considered to be taking a course of action that is wrong.", "Confucius believed in ruling by example, if you lead correctly, orders by force or punishment are not necessary.===Music and poetry===Shijing or Classic of PoetryConfucius heavily promoted the use of music with rituals or the rites order.", "The scholar Li Zehou argued that Confucianism is based on the idea of rites.", "Rites serve as the starting point for each individual and that these sacred social functions allow each person's human nature to be harmonious with reality.", "Given this, Confucius believed that \"music is the harmonization of heaven and earth; the rites is the order of heaven and earth\".", "Thus the application of music in rites creates the order that makes it possible for society to prosper.", "poetry,The Confucian approach to music was heavily inspired by the Shijing and the Classic of Music, which was said to be the sixth Confucian classic until it was lost during the Han dynasty.", "The Shijing serves as one of the current Confucian classics and is a book on poetry that contains a diversified variety of poems as well as folk songs.", "Confucius is traditionally ascribed with compiling these classics within his school.", "In the Analects, Confucius described the importance of the art in the development of society:" ], [ "Legacy", "Confucius together with Moses and Muhammad among the greatest legislators of the past, by Jean-Baptiste Mauzaisse (1827), Louvre PalaceConfucius's teachings were later turned into an elaborate set of rules and practices by his numerous disciples and followers, who organized his teachings into the ''Analects''.", "Confucius's disciples and his only grandson, Zisi, continued his philosophical school after his death.", "These efforts spread Confucian ideals to students who then became officials in many of the royal courts in China, thereby giving Confucianism the first wide-scale test of its dogma.Two of Confucius's most famous later followers emphasized radically different aspects of his teachings.", "In the centuries after his death, Mencius () and Xunzi () both composed important teachings elaborating in different ways on the fundamental ideas associated with Confucius.", "Mencius () articulated the innate goodness in human beings as a source of the ethical intuitions that guide people towards ''rén'', ''yì'', and ''lǐ'', while Xunzi () underscored the realistic and materialistic aspects of Confucian thought, stressing that morality was inculcated in society through tradition and in individuals through training.", "In time, their writings, together with the ''Analects'' and other core texts came to constitute the philosophical corpus of Confucianism.This realignment in Confucian thought was parallel to the development of Legalism, which saw filial piety as self-interest and not a useful tool for a ruler to create an effective state.", "A disagreement between these two political philosophies came to a head in when the Qin state conquered all of China.", "Li Si, Prime Minister of the Qin dynasty, convinced Qin Shi Huang to abandon the Confucians' recommendation of awarding fiefs akin to the Zhou dynasty before them which he saw as being against to the Legalist idea of centralizing the state around the ruler.", "When the Confucian advisers pressed their point, Li Si had many Confucian scholars killed and their books burned—considered a huge blow to the philosophy and Chinese scholarship.Under the succeeding Han and Tang dynasties, Confucian ideas gained even more widespread prominence.", "Under Wudi, the works attributed to Confucius were made the official imperial philosophy and required reading for civil service examinations in which was continued nearly unbroken until the end of the 19th century.", "As Mohism lost support by the time of the Han, the main philosophical contenders were Legalism, which Confucian thought somewhat absorbed, the teachings of Laozi, whose focus on more spiritual ideas kept it from direct conflict with Confucianism, and the new Buddhist religion, which gained acceptance during the Southern and Northern Dynasties era.", "Both Confucian ideas and Confucian-trained officials were relied upon in the Ming dynasty and even the Yuan dynasty, although Kublai Khan distrusted handing over provincial control to them.During the Song dynasty, the scholar Zhu Xi () added ideas from Daoism and Buddhism into Confucianism.", "In his life, Zhu Xi was largely ignored, but not long after his death, his ideas became the new orthodox view of what Confucian texts actually meant.", "Modern historians view Zhu Xi as having created something rather different and call his way of thinking ''Neo-Confucianism''.", "Neo-Confucianism held sway in China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam until the 19th century.Jesuit missionaries at Paris in 1687The works of Confucius were first translated into European languages by Jesuit missionaries in the 16th century during the late Ming dynasty.", "The first known effort was by Michele Ruggieri, who returned to Italy in 1588 and carried on his translations while residing in Salerno.", "Matteo Ricci started to report on the thoughts of Confucius, and a team of Jesuits—Prospero Intorcetta, Philippe Couplet, and two others—published a translation of several Confucian works and an overview of Chinese history in Paris in 1687.François Noël, after failing to persuade ClementXI that Chinese veneration of ancestors and Confucius did not constitute idolatry, completed the Confucian canon at Prague in 1711, with more scholarly treatments of the other works and the first translation of the collected works of Mencius.", "It is thought that such works had considerable importance on European thinkers of the period, particularly among the Deists and other philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization.In the modern era Confucian movements, such as New Confucianism, still exist, but during the Cultural Revolution, Confucianism was frequently attacked by leading figures in the Chinese Communist Party.", "This was partially a continuation of the condemnations of Confucianism by intellectuals and activists in the early 20th century as a cause of the ethnocentric close-mindedness and refusal of the Qing dynasty to modernize that led to the tragedies that befell China in the 19th century.Confucius's works are studied by scholars in many other Asian countries, particularly those in the Chinese cultural sphere, such as Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.", "Many of those countries still hold the traditional memorial ceremony every year.Among Tibetans, Confucius is often worshipped as a holy king and master of magic, divination and astrology.", "Tibetan Buddhists see him as learning divination from the Buddha Manjushri (and that knowledge subsequently reaching Tibet through Princess Wencheng), while Bon practitioners see him as being a reincarnation of Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche, the legendary founder of Bon.The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community believes Confucius was a Divine Prophet of God, as were Lao-Tzu and other eminent Chinese personages.According to the Siddhar tradition of Tamil Nadu, Confucius is one of the 18 esteemed Siddhars of yore, and is better known as Kalangi Nathar or Kamalamuni.", "The Thyagaraja Temple in Thiruvarur, Tamil Nadu is home to his Jeeva Samadhi.In modern times, Asteroid 7853, \"Confucius\", was named after the Chinese thinker.===Disciples===Zengzi (right) kneeling before Confucius (center), as depicted in a painting from the ''Illustrations of the Classic of Filial Piety'', Song dynastyConfucius began teaching after he turned 30, and taught more than 3,000 students in his life, about 70 of whom were considered outstanding.", "His disciples and the early Confucian community they formed became the most influential intellectual force in the Warring States period.", "The Han dynasty historian Sima Qian dedicated a chapter in his ''Records of the Grand Historian'' to the biographies of Confucius's disciples, accounting for the influence they exerted in their time and afterward.", "Sima Qian recorded the names of 77 disciples in his collective biography, while ''Kongzi Jiayu'', another early source, records 76, not completely overlapping.", "The two sources together yield the names of 96 disciples.", "Twenty-two of them are mentioned in the ''Analects'', while the ''Mencius'' records 24.Confucius did not charge any tuition, and only requested a symbolic gift of a bundle of dried meat from any prospective student.", "According to his disciple Zigong, his master treated students like doctors treated patients and did not turn anybody away.", "Most of them came from Lu, Confucius's home state, with 43 recorded, but he accepted students from all over China, with six from the state of Wey (such as Zigong), three from Qin, two each from Chen and Qi, and one each from Cai, Chu, and Song.", "Confucius considered his students' personal background irrelevant, and accepted noblemen, commoners, and even former criminals such as Yan Zhuoju and Gongye Chang.", "His disciples from richer families would pay a sum commensurate with their wealth which was considered a ritual donation.Confucius's favorite disciple was Yan Hui, most probably one of the most impoverished of them all.", "Sima Niu, in contrast to Yan Hui, was from a hereditary noble family hailing from the Song state.", "Under Confucius's teachings, the disciples became well learned in the principles and methods of government.", "He often engaged in discussion and debate with his students and gave high importance to their studies in history, poetry, and ritual.", "Confucius advocated loyalty to principle rather than to individual acumen, in which reform was to be achieved by persuasion rather than violence.", "Even though Confucius denounced them for their practices, the aristocracy was likely attracted to the idea of having trustworthy officials who were studied in morals as the circumstances of the time made it desirable.", "In fact, the disciple Zilu even died defending his ruler in Wey.Yang Hu, who was a subordinate of the Ji family, had dominated the Lu government from 505 to 502 and even attempted a coup, which narrowly failed.", "As a likely consequence, it was after this that the first disciples of Confucius were appointed to government positions.", "A few of Confucius's disciples went on to attain official positions of some importance, some of which were arranged by Confucius.", "By the time Confucius was 50 years old, the Ji family had consolidated their power in the Lu state over the ruling ducal house.", "Even though the Ji family had practices with which Confucius disagreed and disapproved, they nonetheless gave Confucius's disciples many opportunities for employment.", "Confucius continued to remind his disciples to stay true to their principles and renounced those who did not, all the while being openly critical of the Ji family.===In the West===The influence of Confucius has been observed on multiple Western thinkers, including Niels Bohr, Benjamin Franklin, Allen Ginsberg, Thomas Jefferson, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Robert Cummings Neville, Alexander Pope, Ezra Pound, François Quesnay, Friedrich Schiller, Voltaire, and Christian Wolff.===Visual portraits===Portrait by Qiu Ying (1494–1552), Ming dynasty No contemporary painting or sculpture of Confucius survives, and it was only during the Han dynasty that he was portrayed visually.", "Carvings often depict his legendary meeting with Laozi.", "Since that time there have been many portraits of Confucius as the ideal philosopher.", "An early verbal portrayal of Confucius is found in the chapter \"External Things\" () of the book ''Zhuangzi'' (), finished in about 3rd BCE, long after Confucius's death.", "The oldest known portrait of Confucius has been unearthed in the tomb of the Han dynasty ruler Marquis of Haihun (died ).", "The picture was painted on the wooden frame to a polished bronze mirror.In former times, it was customary to have a portrait in Confucius Temples; however, during the reign of Hongwu Emperor (Taizu) of the Ming dynasty, it was decided that the only proper portrait of Confucius should be in the temple in his home town, Qufu in Shandong.", "In other temples, Confucius is represented by a memorial tablet.", "In 2006, the China Confucius Foundation commissioned a standard portrait of Confucius based on the Tang dynasty portrait by Wu Daozi.The South Wall Frieze in the courtroom of the Supreme Court of the United States depicts Confucius as a teacher of harmony, learning, and virtue.===Fictional portrayals===There have been two film adaptations of Confucius' life: the 1940 film ''Confucius'' starring Tang Huaiqiu, and the 2010 film ''Confucius'' starring Chow Yun-fat.===Memorials===First entrance gate of the Temple of Confucius in ZhenhaiThe Temple of Confucius in Jiading, now a suburb of Shanghai.", "The Jiading Temple of Confucius now operates a museum devoted to the imperial exam formerly administered at the temples.Soon after Confucius's death, Qufu, his home town, became a place of devotion and remembrance.", "The Han dynasty ''Records of the Grand Historian'' records that it had already become a place of pilgrimage for ministers.", "It is still a major destination for cultural tourism, and many people visit his grave and the surrounding temples.", "In Sinic cultures, there are many temples where representations of the Buddha, Laozi, and Confucius are found together.", "There are also many temples dedicated to him, which have been used for Confucian ceremonies.Followers of Confucianism have a tradition of holding spectacular memorial ceremonies of Confucius () every year, using ceremonies that supposedly derived from Zhou Li () as recorded by Confucius, on the date of Confucius's birth.", "In the 20th century, this tradition was interrupted for several decades in mainland China, where the official stance of the Communist Party and the State was that Confucius and Confucianism represented reactionary feudalist beliefs which held that the subservience of the people to the aristocracy is a part of the natural order.", "All such ceremonies and rites were therefore banned.", "Only after the 1990s did the ceremony resume.", "As it is now considered a veneration of Chinese history and tradition, even Communist Party members may be found in attendance.In Taiwan, where the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) strongly promoted Confucian beliefs in ethics and behavior, the tradition of the memorial ceremony of Confucius () is supported by the government and has continued without interruption.", "While not a national holiday, it does appear on all printed calendars, much as Father's Day or Christmas Day do in the Western world.In South Korea, a grand-scale memorial ceremony called Seokjeon Daeje is held twice a year on Confucius's birthday and the anniversary of his death, at Confucian academies across the country and Sungkyunkwan in Seoul.===Descendants===Confucius's descendants were repeatedly identified and honored by successive imperial governments with titles of nobility and official posts.", "They were honored with the rank of a marquis 35 times since Gaozu of the Han dynasty, and they were promoted to the rank of duke 42 times from the Tang dynasty to the Qing dynasty.", "Emperor Xuanzong of Tang first bestowed the title of \"Duke Wenxuan\" on Kong Suizhi of the 35th generation.", "In 1055, Emperor Renzong of Song first bestowed the title of \"Duke Yansheng\" on Kong Zongyuan of the 46th generation.During the Southern Song dynasty, the Duke Yansheng Kong Duanyou fled south with the Song Emperor to Quzhou in Zhejiang, while the newly established Jin dynasty (1115–1234) in the north appointed Kong Duanyou's brother Kong Duancao who remained in Qufu as Duke Yansheng.", "From that time up until the Yuan dynasty, there were two Duke Yanshengs, one in the north in Qufu and the other in the south at Quzhou.", "An invitation to come back to Qufu was extended to the southern Duke Yansheng Kong Zhu by the Yuan-dynasty Emperor Kublai Khan.", "The title was taken away from the southern branch after Kong Zhu rejected the invitation, so the northern branch of the family kept the title of Duke Yansheng.", "The southern branch remained in Quzhou where they live to this day.", "Confucius's descendants in Quzhou alone number 30,000.The Hanlin Academy rank of Wujing boshi 五經博士 was awarded to the southern branch at Quzhou by a Ming Emperor while the northern branch at Qufu held the title Duke Yansheng.", "The leader of the southern branch was 孔祥楷 Kong Xiangkai.In 1351, during the reign of Emperor Toghon Temür of the Yuan dynasty, 54th-generation Kong Shao () moved from China to Korea during the Goryeo dynasty, and was received courteously by Princess Noguk (the Mongolian-born queen consort of the future king Gongmin).", "After being naturalized as a subject of Goryeo, he changed the hanja of his name from \"昭\" to \"紹\" (both pronounced ''so'' in Korean), married a Korean woman and bore a son (Gong Yeo (), 1329–1397), therefore establishing the Changwon Gong clan (), whose ancestral seat was located in Changwon, South Gyeongsang Province.", "In 1794, during the reign of King Jeongjo, the clan then changed its name to Gokbu Gong clan () in honor of Confucius's birthplace Qufu ().Famous descendants include actors such as Gong Yoo (real name Gong Ji-cheol (공지철)) and Gong Hyo-jin (공효진); and artists such as male idol group B1A4 member Gongchan (real name Gong Chan-sik (공찬식)), singer-songwriter Minzy (real name Gong Min-ji (공민지)), as well as her great aunt, traditional folk dancer (공옥진).Despite repeated dynastic change in China, the title of Duke Yansheng was bestowed upon successive generations of descendants until it was abolished by the Nationalist government in 1935.The last holder of the title, Kung Te-cheng of the 77th generation, was appointed Sacrificial Official to Confucius.", "Kung Te-cheng died in October 2008, and his son, Kung Wei-yi, the 78th lineal descendant, died in 1989.Kung Te-cheng's grandson, Kung Tsui-chang, the 79th lineal descendant, was born in 1975; his great-grandson, Kung Yu-jen, the 80th lineal descendant, was born in Taipei on 1 January 2006.Te-cheng's sister, Kong Demao, lives in mainland China and has written a book about her experiences growing up at the family estate in Qufu.", "Another sister, Kong Deqi, died as a young woman.", "Many descendants of Confucius still live in Qufu today.A descendant of Confucius, H. H. Kung, was the Premier of the Republic of China.", "One of his sons, (孔令傑), married Debra Paget who gave birth to Gregory Kung ().Confucius's family, the Kongs, have the longest recorded extant pedigree in the world today.", "The father-to-son family tree, now in its 83rd generation, has been recorded since the death of Confucius.", "According to the Confucius Genealogy Compilation Committee (CGCC), he has two million known and registered descendants, and there are an estimated three million in all.", "Of these, several tens of thousands live outside of China.", "In the 14th century, a Kong descendant went to Korea, where an estimated 34,000 descendants of Confucius live today.", "One of the main lineages fled from the Kong ancestral home in Qufu during the Chinese Civil War in the 1940s and eventually settled in Taiwan.", "There are also branches of the Kong family who have converted to Islam after marrying Muslim women, in Dachuan in Gansu province in the 1800s, and in 1715 in Xuanwei in Yunnan province.", "Many of the Muslim Confucius descendants are descended from the marriage of Ma Jiaga (), a Muslim woman, and Kong Yanrong (), 59th generation descendant of Confucius in the year 1480, and are found among the Hui and Dongxiang peoples.", "The new genealogy includes the Muslims.", "Kong Dejun () is a prominent Islamic scholar and Arabist from Qinghai province and a 77th generation descendant of Confucius.Because of the huge interest in the Confucius family tree, there was a project in China to test the DNA of known family members of the collateral branches in mainland China.", "Among other things, this would allow scientists to identify a common Y chromosome in male descendants of Confucius.", "If the descent were truly unbroken, father-to-son, since Confucius's lifetime, the males in the family would all have the same Y chromosome as their direct male ancestor, with slight mutations due to the passage of time.", "The aim of the genetic test was to help members of collateral branches in China who lost their genealogical records to prove their descent.", "However, in 2009, many of the collateral branches decided not to agree to DNA testing.", "Bryan Sykes, professor of genetics at Oxford University, understands this decision: \"The Confucius family tree has an enormous cultural significance ...", "It's not just a scientific question.\"", "The DNA testing was originally proposed to add new members, many of whose family record books were lost during 20th century upheavals, to the Confucian family tree.", "The main branch of the family which fled to Taiwan was never involved in the proposed DNA test at all.In 2013, a DNA test performed on multiple different families who claimed descent from Confucius found that they shared the same Y chromosome as reported by Fudan University.The fifth and most recent edition of the Confucius genealogy was printed by the CGCC.", "It was unveiled in a ceremony at Qufu on 24 September 2009.Women are now included for the first time." ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * .", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", "''See and for extensive bibliographies'' Clements, Jonathan (2008).", "''Confucius: A Biography''.", "Stroud, Gloucestershire, England: Sutton Publishing.", ".", "* Confucius (1997).", "''Lun yu'', (in English ''The Analects of Confucius'').", "Translation and notes by Simon Leys.", "New York: W.W. Norton.", ".", "* Confucius (2003).", "''Confucius: Analects – With Selections from Traditional Commentaries''.", "Translated by E. Slingerland.", "Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing.", "(Original work published c. ) .", "* Creel, Herrlee Glessner (1949).", "''Confucius and the Chinese Way''.", "New York: Harper.", "* * Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2005).", "\"Confucianism: An Overview\".", "In Encyclopedia'' of Religion'' (Vol.", "C, pp. 1890–1905).", "Detroit: MacMillan Reference* * * * .", "* * Sterckx, Roel.", "''Chinese Thought.", "From Confucius to Cook Ding.''", "London: Penguin, 2019.", "* Van Norden, B.W., ed.", "(2001).", "''Confucius and the Analects: New Essays''.", "New York: Oxford University Press.", "." ], [ "External links", "* * * * Multilingual web site on Confucius and the Analects* The Dao of Kongzi, introduction to the thought of Confucius.", "* * * * Confucian Analects (Project Gutenberg release of James Legge's Translation)* Core philosophical passages in the ''Analects of Confucius''." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Complex number" ], [ "Introduction", "A complex number can be visually represented as a pair of numbers forming a vector on a diagram called an Argand diagram, representing the complex plane.", "''Re'' is the real axis, ''Im'' is the imaginary axis, and is the \"imaginary unit\", that satisfies .In mathematics, a '''complex number''' is an element of a number system that extends the real numbers with a specific element denoted , called the imaginary unit and satisfying the equation ; every complex number can be expressed in the form , where and are real numbers.", "Because no real number satisfies the above equation, was called an imaginary number by René Descartes.", "For the complex number is called the '''''', and is called the ''''''.", "The set of complex numbers is denoted by either of the symbols or .", "Despite the historical nomenclature, \"imaginary\" complex numbers have a mathematical existence as firm as that of the real numbers, and they are fundamental tools in the scientific description of the natural world.Complex numbers allow solutions to all polynomial equations, even those that have no solutions in real numbers.", "More precisely, the fundamental theorem of algebra asserts that every non-constant polynomial equation with real or complex coefficients has a solution which is a complex number.", "For example, the equationhas no real solution, since the square of a real number cannot be negative, but has the two nonreal complex solutions and .Addition, subtraction and multiplication of complex numbers can be naturally defined by using the rule along with the associative, commutative, and distributive laws.", "Every nonzero complex number has a multiplicative inverse.", "This makes the complex numbers a field with the real numbers as a subfield.", "The complex numbers also form a real vector space of dimension two, with as a standard basis.", "This standard basis makes the complex numbers a Cartesian plane, called the complex plane.", "This allows a geometric interpretation of the complex numbers and their operations, and conversely some geometric objects and operations can be expressed in terms of complex numbers.", "For example, the real numbers form the real line, which is pictured as the horizontal axis of the complex plane, while real multiples of are the vertical axis.", "A complex number can also be defined by its geometric polar coordinates: the radius is called the absolute value of the complex number, while the angle from the positive real axis is called the argument of the complex number.", "The complex numbers of absolute value one form the unit circle.", "Adding a fixed complex number to all complex numbers defines a translation in the complex plane, and multiplying by a fixed complex number is a similarity centered at the origin (dilating by the absolute value, and rotating by the argument).", "The operation of complex conjugation is the reflection symmetry with respect to the real axis.", "The complex numbers form a rich structure that is simultaneously an algebraically closed field, a commutative algebra over the reals, and a Euclidean vector space of dimension two." ], [ "Definition", "An illustration of the complex number on the complex plane.", "The real part is , and its imaginary part is .A complex number is a number of the form , where and are real numbers, and is an indeterminate satisfying .", "For example, is a complex number.This way, a complex number is defined as a polynomial with real coefficients in the single indeterminate , for which the relation is imposed.", "Based on this definition, complex numbers can be added and multiplied, using the addition and multiplication for polynomials.", "The relation implies and for all integers ; hence any polynomial resulting from addition and multiplication of complex numbers may be reduced to a linear polynomial of the form with real coefficients Under this definition of multiplication, every non-zero complex number has a complex-number reciprocal, making the complex numbers a field:Formally, the complex numbers may be defined as the quotient ring of the polynomial ring in the indeterminate , by the ideal generated by the polynomial (see below)." ], [ "Notation", "For a complex number , the real number is called its ''real part'' , and the real number is its ''imaginary part'': note that the imaginary part is the real coordinate , not the complex number .", "The real part of a complex number is denoted , , or ; the imaginary part is , , or : for example,, .A real number can be regarded as a complex number , whose imaginary part is 0.A purely imaginary number is a complex number , whose real part is zero.", "As with polynomials, it is common to write and .", "Moreover, when the imaginary part is negative, , one writes instead of ; for example, .", "Since multiplication of and a real is commutative, may be written as , which is often more convenient orthographically when is an expression.The set of all complex numbers is denoted by (blackboard bold) or (upright bold).In some disciplines such as electromagnetism and electrical engineering, is used instead of , as frequently represents electric current, and complex numbers are written as or ." ], [ "Visualization", "A complex number , as a point (black) and its position vector (blue)A complex number can be identified with the ordered pair of real numbers , which may be interpreted as coordinates of a point in a Euclidean plane with standard coordinates, which is then called the ''complex plane'' or ''Argand diagram,'' named after Jean-Robert Argand.", "Another space on which the coordinates may be projected is the two-dimensional surface of a sphere, which is then called Riemann sphere.===Cartesian complex plane===The definition of the complex numbers involving two arbitrary real values immediately suggests the use of Cartesian coordinates in the complex plane.", "The horizontal (''real'') axis is generally used to display the real part, with increasing values to the right, and the imaginary part marks the vertical (''imaginary'') axis, with increasing values upwards.A charted number may be viewed either as the coordinatized point or as a position vector from the origin to this point.", "The coordinate values of a complex number can hence be expressed in its ''Cartesian'', ''rectangular'', or ''algebraic'' form.Notably, the operations of addition and multiplication take on a very natural geometric character, when complex numbers are viewed as position vectors: addition corresponds to vector addition, while multiplication (see below) corresponds to multiplying their magnitudes and adding their arguments (angles from the positive real axis).", "Viewed in this way, the multiplication of a complex number by corresponds to rotating the position vector counterclockwise about the origin by a quarter turn (90°); algebraically:===Polar complex plane === ====Modulus and argument====Argument and modulus locate a point in the complex plane.An alternative option for coordinates in the complex plane is the polar coordinate system that uses the distance of the point from the origin (), and the angle subtended between the positive real axis and the line segment in a counterclockwise sense.", "This leads to the '''polar form''' :where is the absolute value of , and is the argument of .", "This is sometimes abbreviated as .", "Using Euler's formula, this can be written asIn electronics, one represents a phasor with amplitude and phase in angle notation:The ''absolute value'' (or ''modulus'' or ''magnitude'') of a complex number isIf is a real number, then : its absolute value as a complex number and as a real number are equal.By Pythagoras' theorem, the absolute value of a complex number is the distance from the origin to the point representing the complex number in the complex plane.The ''argument'' of (sometimes called the \"phase\" ) is the angle of the radius with the positive real axis, and is written as , expressed in radians in this article.", "The argument can be found from the rectangular form as inverse tangent of the quotient of imaginary-by-real parts.", "The angle is multivalued, defined only up to adding integer multiples of , but one usually chooses its principal value within the interval .", "A negative principal value may be shifted into the positive range by adding .", "The polar angle for is indeterminate, but is sometimes arbitrarily assigned .", "A concise formula for the argument uses a half-angle identity and the standard branch of arctangent:This is also the definition of the two-variable arctangent function atan2: .===Complex graphs===A color wheel graph of the expressionWhen visualizing complex functions, both a complex input and output are needed.", "Because each complex number is represented in two dimensions, visually graphing a complex function would require the perception of a four dimensional space, which is possible only in projections.", "Because of this, other ways of visualizing complex functions have been designed.In domain coloring the output dimensions are represented by color and brightness, respectively.", "Each point in the complex plane as domain is ''ornated'', typically with ''color'' representing the argument of the complex number, and ''brightness'' representing the magnitude.", "Dark spots mark moduli near zero, brighter spots are farther away from the origin, the gradation may be discontinuous, but is assumed as monotonous.", "The colors often vary in steps of for to from red, yellow, green, cyan, blue, to magenta.", "These plots are called color wheel graphs.", "This provides a simple way to visualize the functions without losing information.", "The picture shows zeros for and poles at" ], [ "History", "The solution in radicals (without trigonometric functions) of a general cubic equation, when all three of its roots are real numbers, contains the square roots of negative numbers, a situation that cannot be rectified by factoring aided by the rational root test, if the cubic is irreducible; this is the so-called ''casus irreducibilis'' (\"irreducible case\").", "This conundrum led Italian mathematician Gerolamo Cardano to conceive of complex numbers in around 1545 in his ''Ars Magna'', though his understanding was rudimentary; moreover he later described complex numbers as \"as subtle as they are useless\".", "Cardano did use imaginary numbers, but described using them as \"mental torture.\"", "This was prior to the use of the graphical complex plane.", "Cardano and other Italian mathematicians, notably Scipione del Ferro, in the 1500s created an algorithm for solving cubic equations which generally had one real solution and two solutions containing an imaginary number.", "Since they ignored the answers with the imaginary numbers, Cardano found them useless.Work on the problem of general polynomials ultimately led to the fundamental theorem of algebra, which shows that with complex numbers, a solution exists to every polynomial equation of degree one or higher.", "Complex numbers thus form an algebraically closed field, where any polynomial equation has a root.Many mathematicians contributed to the development of complex numbers.", "The rules for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and root extraction of complex numbers were developed by the Italian mathematician Rafael Bombelli.", "A more abstract formalism for the complex numbers was further developed by the Irish mathematician William Rowan Hamilton, who extended this abstraction to the theory of quaternions.The earliest fleeting reference to square roots of negative numbers can perhaps be said to occur in the work of the Greek mathematician Hero of Alexandria in the 1st century AD, where in his ''Stereometrica'' he considered, apparently in error, the volume of an impossible frustum of a pyramid to arrive at the term in his calculations, which today would simplify to .", "Negative quantities were not conceived of in Hellenistic mathematics and Hero merely replaced it by its positive The impetus to study complex numbers as a topic in itself first arose in the 16th century when algebraic solutions for the roots of cubic and quartic polynomials were discovered by Italian mathematicians (Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia and Gerolamo Cardano).", "It was soon realized (but proved much later) that these formulas, even if one were interested only in real solutions, sometimes required the manipulation of square roots of negative numbers.", "In fact, it was proved later that the use of complex numbers is unavoidable when all three roots are real and distinct.", "However, the general formula can still be used in this case, with some care to deal with the ambiguity resulting from the existence of three cubic roots for nonzero complex numbers.", "Rafael Bombelli was the first to address explicitly these seemingly paradoxical solutions of cubic equations and developed the rules for complex arithmetic, trying to resolve these issues.The term \"imaginary\" for these quantities was coined by René Descartes in 1637, who was at pains to stress their unreal nature:A further source of confusion was that the equation seemed to be capriciously inconsistent with the algebraic identity , which is valid for non-negative real numbers and , and which was also used in complex number calculations with one of , positive and the other negative.", "The incorrect use of this identity in the case when both and are negative, and the related identity , even bedeviled Leonhard Euler.", "This difficulty eventually led to the convention of using the special symbol in place of to guard against this mistake.", "Even so, Euler considered it natural to introduce students to complex numbers much earlier than we do today.", "In his elementary algebra text book, ''Elements of Algebra'', he introduces these numbers almost at once and then uses them in a natural way throughout.In the 18th century complex numbers gained wider use, as it was noticed that formal manipulation of complex expressions could be used to simplify calculations involving trigonometric functions.", "For instance, in 1730 Abraham de Moivre noted that the identities relating trigonometric functions of an integer multiple of an angle to powers of trigonometric functions of that angle could be re-expressed by the following de Moivre's formula:In 1748, Euler went further and obtained Euler's formula of complex analysis:by formally manipulating complex power series and observed that this formula could be used to reduce any trigonometric identity to much simpler exponential identities.The idea of a complex number as a point in the complex plane (above) was first described by Danish–Norwegian mathematician Caspar Wessel in 1799, although it had been anticipated as early as 1685 in Wallis's ''A Treatise of Algebra''.Wessel's memoir appeared in the Proceedings of the Copenhagen Academy but went largely unnoticed.", "In 1806 Jean-Robert Argand independently issued a pamphlet on complex numbers and provided a rigorous proof of the fundamental theorem of algebra.", "Carl Friedrich Gauss had earlier published an essentially topological proof of the theorem in 1797 but expressed his doubts at the time about \"the true metaphysics of the square root of −1\".", "It was not until 1831 that he overcame these doubts and published his treatise on complex numbers as points in the plane, largely establishing modern notation and terminology:If one formerly contemplated this subject from a false point of view and therefore found a mysterious darkness, this is in large part attributable to clumsy terminology.", "Had one not called +1, −1, positive, negative, or imaginary (or even impossible) units, but instead, say, direct, inverse, or lateral units, then there could scarcely have been talk of such darkness.In the beginning of the 19th century, other mathematicians discovered independently the geometrical representation of the complex numbers: Buée, Mourey, Warren, Français and his brother, Bellavitis.The English mathematician G.H.", "Hardy remarked that Gauss was the first mathematician to use complex numbers in \"a really confident and scientific way\" although mathematicians such as Norwegian Niels Henrik Abel and Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi were necessarily using them routinely before Gauss published his 1831 treatise.Augustin-Louis Cauchy and Bernhard Riemann together brought the fundamental ideas of complex analysis to a high state of completion, commencing around 1825 in Cauchy's case.The common terms used in the theory are chiefly due to the founders.", "Argand called the ''direction factor'', and the ''modulus''; Cauchy (1821) called the ''reduced form'' (l'expression réduite) and apparently introduced the term ''argument''; Gauss used for , introduced the term ''complex number'' for , and called the ''norm''.", "The expression ''direction coefficient'', often used for , is due to Hankel (1867), and ''absolute value,'' for ''modulus,'' is due to Weierstrass.Later classical writers on the general theory include Richard Dedekind, Otto Hölder, Felix Klein, Henri Poincaré, Hermann Schwarz, Karl Weierstrass and many others.", "Important work (including a systematization) in complex multivariate calculus has been started at beginning of the 20th century.", "Important results have been achieved by Wilhelm Wirtinger in 1927." ], [ "Relations and operations", "===Equality===Complex numbers have a similar definition of equality to real numbers; two complex numbers and are equal if and only if both their real and imaginary parts are equal, that is, if and .", "Nonzero complex numbers written in polar form are equal if and only if they have the same magnitude and their arguments differ by an integer multiple of .===Ordering===Unlike the real numbers, there is no natural ordering of the complex numbers.", "In particular, there is no linear ordering on the complex numbers that is compatible with addition and multiplication.", "Hence, the complex numbers do not have the structure of an ordered field.", "One explanation for this is that every non-trivial sum of squares in an ordered field is nonzero, and is a non-trivial sum of squares.", "Thus, complex numbers are naturally thought of as existing on a two-dimensional plane.===Conjugate===Geometric representation of and its conjugate in the complex planeThe ''complex conjugate'' of the complex number is given by .", "It is denoted by either or .", "This unary operation on complex numbers cannot be expressed by applying only their basic operations addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.Geometrically, is the \"reflection\" of about the real axis.", "Conjugating twice gives the original complex numberwhich makes this operation an involution.", "The reflection leaves both the real part and the magnitude of unchanged, that is and The imaginary part and the argument of a complex number change their sign under conjugationFor details on argument and magnitude, see the section on Polar form.The product of a complex number and its conjugate is known as the ''absolute square''.", "It is always a non-negative real number and equals the square of the magnitude of each:This property can be used to convert a fraction with a complex denominator to an equivalent fraction with a real denominator by expanding both numerator and denominator of the fraction by the conjugate of the given denominator.", "This process is sometimes called \"rationalization\" of the denominator (although the denominator in the final expression might be an irrational real number), because it resembles the method to remove roots from simple expressions in a denominator.The real and imaginary parts of a complex number can be extracted using the conjugation:Moreover, a complex number is real if and only if it equals its own conjugate.Conjugation distributes over the basic complex arithmetic operations:Conjugation is also employed in inversive geometry, a branch of geometry studying reflections more general than ones about a line.", "In the network analysis of electrical circuits, the complex conjugate is used in finding the equivalent impedance when the maximum power transfer theorem is looked for.===Addition and subtraction===Addition of two complex numbers can be done geometrically by constructing a parallelogram.Two complex numbers and are most easily added by separately adding their real and imaginary parts.", "That is to say:Similarly, subtraction can be performed asMultiplication of a complex number and a real number can be done similarly by multiplying separately and the real and imaginary parts of :In particular, subtraction can be done by negating the subtrahend (that is multiplying it with ) and adding the result to the minuend:Using the visualization of complex numbers in the complex plane, addition has the following geometric interpretation: the sum of two complex numbers and , interpreted as points in the complex plane, is the point obtained by building a parallelogram from the three vertices , and the points of the arrows labeled and (provided that they are not on a line).", "Equivalently, calling these points , , respectively and the fourth point of the parallelogram the triangles and are congruent.===Multiplication and square===The rules of the distributive property, the commutative properties (of addition and multiplication), and the defining property apply to complex numbers.", "It follows that In particular,===Reciprocal and division===Using the conjugate, the reciprocal of a nonzero complex number can be broken into real and imaginary componentsThis can be used to express a division of an arbitrary complex number by a non-zero complex number as===Multiplication and division in polar form===Multiplication of (blue triangle) and (red triangle).", "The red triangle is rotated to match the vertex of the blue one (the adding of both angles in the terms ''φ''1+''φ''2 in the equation) and stretched by the length of the hypotenuse of the blue triangle (the multiplication of both radiuses, as per term ''r''1''r''2 in the equation).Formulas for multiplication, division and exponentiation are simpler in polar form than the corresponding formulas in Cartesian coordinates.", "Given two complex numbers and , because of the trigonometric identitieswe may deriveIn other words, the absolute values are multiplied and the arguments are added to yield the polar form of the product.", "For example, multiplying by corresponds to a quarter-turn counter-clockwise, which gives back .", "The picture at the right illustrates the multiplication ofSince the real and imaginary part of are equal, the argument of that number is 45 degrees, or (in radian).", "On the other hand, it is also the sum of the angles at the origin of the red and blue triangles are arctan(1/3) and arctan(1/2), respectively.", "Thus, the formulaholds.", "As the arctan function can be approximated highly efficiently, formulas like this – known as Machin-like formulas – are used for high-precision approximations of .Similarly, division is given by===Square root===The square roots of (with ) are , whereandwhere is the signum function.", "This can be seen by squaring to obtain .", "Here is called the modulus of , and the square root sign indicates the square root with non-negative real part, called the '''principal square root'''; also where .===Exponential function===The exponential function can be defined for every complex number by the power serieswhich has an infinite radius of convergence.The value at of the exponential function is Euler's numberIf is real, one has Analytic continuation allows extending this equality for every complex value of , and thus to define the complex exponentiation with base as====Functional equation====The exponential function satisfies the functional equation This can be proved either by comparing the power series expansion of both members or by applying analytic continuation from the restriction of the equation to real arguments.====Euler's formula====Euler's formula states that, for any real number ,The functional equation implies thus that, if and are real, one haswhich is the decomposition of the exponential function into its real and imaginary parts.===Complex logarithm===In the real case, the natural logarithm can be defined as the inverse of the exponential function.", "For extending this to the complex domain, one can start from Euler's formula.", "It implies that, if a complex number is written in polar formwith then withas complex logarithm one has a proper inverse:However, because cosine and sine are periodic functions, the addition of an integer multiple of to does not change .", "For example, , so both and are possible values for the natural logarithm of .Therefore, if the complex logarithm is not to be defined as a multivalued functionone has to use a branch cut and to restrict the codomain, resulting in the bijective functionIf is not a non-positive real number (a positive or a non-real number), the resulting principal value of the complex logarithm is obtained with .", "It is an analytic function outside the negative real numbers, but it cannot be prolongated to a function that is continuous at any negative real number , where the principal value is .===Exponentiation===If is real and complex, the exponentiation is defined as where denotes the natural logarithm.It seems natural to extend this formula to complex values of , but there are some difficulties resulting from the fact that the complex logarithm is not really a function, but a multivalued function.It follows that if is as above, and if is another complex number, then the ''exponentiation'' is the multivalued function====Integer and fractional exponents====If, in the preceding formula, is an integer, then the sine and the cosine are independent of .", "Thus, if the exponent is an integer, then is well defined, and the exponentiation formula simplifies to de Moivre's formula:The th roots of a complex number are given byfor .", "(Here is the usual (positive) th root of the positive real number .)", "Because sine and cosine are periodic, other integer values of do not give other values.While the th root of a positive real number is chosen to be the ''positive'' real number satisfying , there is no natural way of distinguishing one particular complex th root of a complex number.", "Therefore, the th root is a -valued function of .", "This implies that, contrary to the case of positive real numbers, one has since the left-hand side consists of values, and the right-hand side is a single value." ], [ "Properties", "===Field structure===The set of complex numbers is a field.", "Briefly, this means that the following facts hold: first, any two complex numbers can be added and multiplied to yield another complex number.", "Second, for any complex number , its additive inverse is also a complex number; and third, every nonzero complex number has a reciprocal complex number.", "Moreover, these operations satisfy a number of laws, for example the law of commutativity of addition and multiplication for any two complex numbers and :These two laws and the other requirements on a field can be proven by the formulas given above, using the fact that the real numbers themselves form a field.Unlike the reals, is not an ordered field, that is to say, it is not possible to define a relation that is compatible with the addition and multiplication.", "In fact, in any ordered field, the square of any element is necessarily positive, so precludes the existence of an ordering on When the underlying field for a mathematical topic or construct is the field of complex numbers, the topic's name is usually modified to reflect that fact.", "For example: complex analysis, complex matrix, complex polynomial, and complex Lie algebra.===Solutions of polynomial equations===Given any complex numbers (called coefficients) , the equationhas at least one complex solution ''z'', provided that at least one of the higher coefficients is nonzero.", "This is the statement of the fundamental theorem of algebra, of Carl Friedrich Gauss and Jean le Rond d'Alembert.", "Because of this fact, is called an algebraically closed field.", "This property does not hold for the field of rational numbers (the polynomial does not have a rational root, since is not a rational number) nor the real numbers (the polynomial does not have a real root, since the square of is positive for any real number ).There are various proofs of this theorem, by either analytic methods such as Liouville's theorem, or topological ones such as the winding number, or a proof combining Galois theory and the fact that any real polynomial of ''odd'' degree has at least one real root.Because of this fact, theorems that hold ''for any algebraically closed field'' apply to For example, any non-empty complex square matrix has at least one (complex) eigenvalue.===Algebraic characterization===The field has the following three properties:* First, it has characteristic 0.This means that for any number of summands (all of which equal one).", "* Second, its transcendence degree over , the prime field of is the cardinality of the continuum.", "* Third, it is algebraically closed (see above).It can be shown that any field having these properties is isomorphic (as a field) to For example, the algebraic closure of the field of the -adic number also satisfies these three properties, so these two fields are isomorphic (as fields, but not as topological fields).", "Also, is isomorphic to the field of complex Puiseux series.", "However, specifying an isomorphism requires the axiom of choice.", "Another consequence of this algebraic characterization is that contains many proper subfields that are isomorphic to .===Characterization as a topological field===The preceding characterization of describes only the algebraic aspects of That is to say, the properties of nearness and continuity, which matter in areas such as analysis and topology, are not dealt with.", "The following description of as a topological field (that is, a field that is equipped with a topology, which allows the notion of convergence) does take into account the topological properties.", "contains a subset (namely the set of positive real numbers) of nonzero elements satisfying the following three conditions:* is closed under addition, multiplication and taking inverses.", "* If and are distinct elements of , then either or is in .", "* If is any nonempty subset of , then for some in Moreover, has a nontrivial involutive automorphism (namely the complex conjugation), such that is in for any nonzero in Any field with these properties can be endowed with a topology by taking the sets as a base, where ranges over the field and ranges over .", "With this topology is isomorphic as a ''topological'' field to The only connected locally compact topological fields are and This gives another characterization of as a topological field, since can be distinguished from because the nonzero complex numbers are connected, while the nonzero real numbers are not." ], [ "Formal construction", "===Construction as ordered pairs===William Rowan Hamilton introduced the approach to define the set of complex numbers as the set of of real numbers, in which the following rules for addition and multiplication are imposed:It is then just a matter of notation to express as .===Construction as a quotient field===Though this low-level construction does accurately describe the structure of the complex numbers, the following equivalent definition reveals the algebraic nature of more immediately.", "This characterization relies on the notion of fields and polynomials.", "A field is a set endowed with addition, subtraction, multiplication and division operations that behave as is familiar from, say, rational numbers.", "For example, the distributive lawmust hold for any three elements , and of a field.", "The set of real numbers does form a field.", "A polynomial with real coefficients is an expression of the formwhere the are real numbers.", "The usual addition and multiplication of polynomials endows the set of all such polynomials with a ring structure.", "This ring is called the polynomial ring over the real numbers.The set of complex numbers is defined as the quotient ring This extension field contains two square roots of , namely (the cosets of) and , respectively.", "(The cosets of) and form a basis of as a real vector space, which means that each element of the extension field can be uniquely written as a linear combination in these two elements.", "Equivalently, elements of the extension field can be written as ordered pairs of real numbers.", "The quotient ring is a field, because is irreducible over so the ideal it generates is maximal.The formulas for addition and multiplication in the ring modulo the relation , correspond to the formulas for addition and multiplication of complex numbers defined as ordered pairs.", "So the two definitions of the field are isomorphic (as fields).Accepting that is algebraically closed, since it is an algebraic extension of in this approach, is therefore the algebraic closure of ===Matrix representation of complex numbers===Complex numbers can also be represented by matrices that have the formHere the entries and are real numbers.", "As the sum and product of two such matrices is again of this form, these matrices form a subring of the ring of matrices.A simple computation shows that the mapis a ring isomorphism from the field of complex numbers to the ring of these matrices, proving that these matrices form a field.", "This isomorphism associates the square of the absolute value of a complex number with the determinant of the corresponding matrix, and the conjugate of a complex number with the transpose of the matrix.The geometric description of the multiplication of complex numbers can also be expressed in terms of rotation matrices by using this correspondence between complex numbers and such matrices.", "The action of the matrix on a vector corresponds to the multiplication of by .", "In particular, if the determinant is , there is a real number such that the matrix has the form In this case, the action of the matrix on vectors and the multiplication by the complex number are both the rotation of the angle ." ], [ "Complex analysis", "Color wheel graph of .", "White parts inside refer to numbers having large absolute values.The study of functions of a complex variable is known as complex analysis and has enormous practical use in applied mathematics as well as in other branches of mathematics.", "Often, the most natural proofs for statements in real analysis or even number theory employ techniques from complex analysis (see prime number theorem for an example).", "Unlike real functions, which are commonly represented as two-dimensional graphs, complex functions have four-dimensional graphs and may usefully be illustrated by color-coding a three-dimensional graph to suggest four dimensions, or by animating the complex function's dynamic transformation of the complex plane.===Complex exponential and related functions===The notions of convergent series and continuous functions in (real) analysis have natural analogs in complex analysis.", "A sequence of complex numbers is said to converge if and only if its real and imaginary parts do.", "This is equivalent to the (ε, δ)-definition of limits, where the absolute value of real numbers is replaced by the one of complex numbers.", "From a more abstract point of view, , endowed with the metricis a complete metric space, which notably includes the triangle inequalityfor any two complex numbers and .Like in real analysis, this notion of convergence is used to construct a number of elementary functions: the ''exponential function'' , also written , is defined as the infinite seriesThe series defining the real trigonometric functions sine and cosine, as well as the hyperbolic functions sinh and cosh, also carry over to complex arguments without change.", "For the other trigonometric and hyperbolic functions, such as tangent, things are slightly more complicated, as the defining series do not converge for all complex values.", "Therefore, one must define them either in terms of sine, cosine and exponential, or, equivalently, by using the method of analytic continuation.", "''Euler's formula'' states:for any real number , in particular, which is Euler's identity.Unlike in the situation of real numbers, there is an infinitude of complex solutions of the equationfor any complex number .", "It can be shown that any such solution – called complex logarithm of – satisfieswhere arg is the argument defined above, and ln the (real) natural logarithm.", "As arg is a multivalued function, unique only up to a multiple of , log is also multivalued.", "The principal value of log is often taken by restricting the imaginary part to the interval .Complex exponentiation is defined asand is multi-valued, except when is an integer.", "For , for some natural number , this recovers the non-uniqueness of th roots mentioned above.Complex numbers, unlike real numbers, do not in general satisfy the unmodified power and logarithm identities, particularly when naïvely treated as single-valued functions; see failure of power and logarithm identities.", "For example, they do not satisfyBoth sides of the equation are multivalued by the definition of complex exponentiation given here, and the values on the left are a subset of those on the right.===Holomorphic functions===A function ''f'': → is said to be holomorphic at a point if it is complex differentiable in an open neighborhood of that point.", "A necessary (but not sufficient) condition for ''f'' to be holomorphic is that it satisfies the Cauchy–Riemann equations.", "For example, any -linear map → can be written in the formwith complex coefficients and .", "This map is holomorphic if and only if .", "The function is real-differentiable, but does not satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann equations.Complex analysis shows some features not apparent in real analysis.", "For example, any two holomorphic functions and that agree on an arbitrarily small open subset of necessarily agree everywhere.", "Meromorphic functions, functions that can locally be written as with a holomorphic function , still share some of the features of holomorphic functions.", "Other functions have essential singularities, such as at ." ], [ "Applications", "Complex numbers have applications in many scientific areas, including signal processing, control theory, electromagnetism, fluid dynamics, quantum mechanics, cartography, and vibration analysis.", "Some of these applications are described below.===Geometry=======Shapes====Three non-collinear points in the plane determine the shape of the triangle .", "Locating the points in the complex plane, this shape of a triangle may be expressed by complex arithmetic asThe shape of a triangle will remain the same, when the complex plane is transformed by translation or dilation (by an affine transformation), corresponding to the intuitive notion of shape, and describing similarity.", "Thus each triangle is in a similarity class of triangles with the same shape.====Fractal geometry====The Mandelbrot set with the real and imaginary axes labeled.The Mandelbrot set is a popular example of a fractal formed on the complex plane.", "It is defined by plotting every location where iterating the sequence does not diverge when iterated infinitely.", "Similarly, Julia sets have the same rules, except where remains constant.====Triangles====Every triangle has a unique Steiner inellipse – an ellipse inside the triangle and tangent to the midpoints of the three sides of the triangle.", "The foci of a triangle's Steiner inellipse can be found as follows, according to Marden's theorem: Denote the triangle's vertices in the complex plane as , , and .", "Write the cubic equation , take its derivative, and equate the (quadratic) derivative to zero.", "Marden's theorem says that the solutions of this equation are the complex numbers denoting the locations of the two foci of the Steiner inellipse.===Algebraic number theory===using straightedge and compass.As mentioned above, any nonconstant polynomial equation (in complex coefficients) has a solution in .", "''A fortiori'', the same is true if the equation has rational coefficients.", "The roots of such equations are called algebraic numbers – they are a principal object of study in algebraic number theory.", "Compared to , the algebraic closure of , which also contains all algebraic numbers, has the advantage of being easily understandable in geometric terms.", "In this way, algebraic methods can be used to study geometric questions and vice versa.", "With algebraic methods, more specifically applying the machinery of field theory to the number field containing roots of unity, it can be shown that it is not possible to construct a regular nonagon using only compass and straightedge – a purely geometric problem.Another example is the Gaussian integers; that is, numbers of the form , where and are integers, which can be used to classify sums of squares.===Analytic number theory===Analytic number theory studies numbers, often integers or rationals, by taking advantage of the fact that they can be regarded as complex numbers, in which analytic methods can be used.", "This is done by encoding number-theoretic information in complex-valued functions.", "For example, the Riemann zeta function is related to the distribution of prime numbers.===Improper integrals===In applied fields, complex numbers are often used to compute certain real-valued improper integrals, by means of complex-valued functions.", "Several methods exist to do this; see methods of contour integration.===Dynamic equations===In differential equations, it is common to first find all complex roots of the characteristic equation of a linear differential equation or equation system and then attempt to solve the system in terms of base functions of the form .", "Likewise, in difference equations, the complex roots of the characteristic equation of the difference equation system are used, to attempt to solve the system in terms of base functions of the form .=== Linear algebra ===Eigendecomposition is a useful tool for computing matrix powers and matrix exponentials.", "However, it often requires the use of complex numbers, even if the matrix is real (for example, a rotation matrix).Complex numbers often generalize concepts originally conceived in the real numbers.", "For example, the conjugate transpose generalizes the transpose, hermitian matrices generalize symmetric matrices, and unitary matrices generalize orthogonal matrices.===In applied mathematics=======Control theory====In control theory, systems are often transformed from the time domain to the complex frequency domain using the Laplace transform.", "The system's zeros and poles are then analyzed in the ''complex plane''.", "The root locus, Nyquist plot, and Nichols plot techniques all make use of the complex plane.In the root locus method, it is important whether zeros and poles are in the left or right half planes, that is, have real part greater than or less than zero.", "If a linear, time-invariant (LTI) system has poles that are* in the right half plane, it will be unstable,* all in the left half plane, it will be stable,* on the imaginary axis, it will have marginal stability.If a system has zeros in the right half plane, it is a nonminimum phase system.====Signal analysis====Complex numbers are used in signal analysis and other fields for a convenient description for periodically varying signals.", "For given real functions representing actual physical quantities, often in terms of sines and cosines, corresponding complex functions are considered of which the real parts are the original quantities.", "For a sine wave of a given frequency, the absolute value of the corresponding is the amplitude and the argument is the phase.If Fourier analysis is employed to write a given real-valued signal as a sum of periodic functions, these periodic functions are often written as complex-valued functions of the formandwhere ω represents the angular frequency and the complex number ''A'' encodes the phase and amplitude as explained above.This use is also extended into digital signal processing and digital image processing, which use digital versions of Fourier analysis (and wavelet analysis) to transmit, compress, restore, and otherwise process digital audio signals, still images, and video signals.Another example, relevant to the two side bands of amplitude modulation of AM radio, is:===In physics=======Electromagnetism and electrical engineering====In electrical engineering, the Fourier transform is used to analyze varying voltages and currents.", "The treatment of resistors, capacitors, and inductors can then be unified by introducing imaginary, frequency-dependent resistances for the latter two and combining all three in a single complex number called the impedance.", "This approach is called phasor calculus.In electrical engineering, the imaginary unit is denoted by , to avoid confusion with , which is generally in use to denote electric current, or, more particularly, , which is generally in use to denote instantaneous electric current.Since the voltage in an AC circuit is oscillating, it can be represented asTo obtain the measurable quantity, the real part is taken:The complex-valued signal is called the analytic representation of the real-valued, measurable signal .====Fluid dynamics====In fluid dynamics, complex functions are used to describe potential flow in two dimensions.====Quantum mechanics====The complex number field is intrinsic to the mathematical formulations of quantum mechanics, where complex Hilbert spaces provide the context for one such formulation that is convenient and perhaps most standard.", "The original foundation formulas of quantum mechanics – the Schrödinger equation and Heisenberg's matrix mechanics – make use of complex numbers.====Relativity====In special and general relativity, some formulas for the metric on spacetime become simpler if one takes the time component of the spacetime continuum to be imaginary.", "(This approach is no longer standard in classical relativity, but is used in an essential way in quantum field theory.)", "Complex numbers are essential to spinors, which are a generalization of the tensors used in relativity." ], [ "Generalizations and related notions", "Cayley Q8 quaternion graph showing cycles of multiplication by , and The process of extending the field of reals to is known as the Cayley–Dickson construction.", "It can be carried further to higher dimensions, yielding the quaternions and octonions which (as a real vector space) are of dimension 4 and 8, respectively.In this context the complex numbers have been called the '''binarions'''.Just as by applying the construction to reals the property of ordering is lost, properties familiar from real and complex numbers vanish with each extension.", "The quaternions lose commutativity, that is, for some quaternions , and the multiplication of octonions, additionally to not being commutative, fails to be associative: for some octonions .Reals, complex numbers, quaternions and octonions are all normed division algebras over .", "By Hurwitz's theorem they are the only ones; the sedenions, the next step in the Cayley–Dickson construction, fail to have this structure.The Cayley–Dickson construction is closely related to the regular representation of thought of as an -algebra (an -vector space with a multiplication), with respect to the basis .", "This means the following: the -linear mapfor some fixed complex number can be represented by a matrix (once a basis has been chosen).", "With respect to the basis , this matrix isthat is, the one mentioned in the section on matrix representation of complex numbers above.", "While this is a linear representation of in the 2 × 2 real matrices, it is not the only one.", "Any matrixhas the property that its square is the negative of the identity matrix: .", "Thenis also isomorphic to the field and gives an alternative complex structure on This is generalized by the notion of a linear complex structure.Hypercomplex numbers also generalize and For example, this notion contains the split-complex numbers, which are elements of the ring (as opposed to for complex numbers).", "In this ring, the equation has four solutions.The field is the completion of the field of rational numbers, with respect to the usual absolute value metric.", "Other choices of metrics on lead to the fields of -adic numbers (for any prime number ), which are thereby analogous to .", "There are no other nontrivial ways of completing than and by Ostrowski's theorem.", "The algebraic closures of still carry a norm, but (unlike ) are not complete with respect to it.", "The completion of turns out to be algebraically closed.", "By analogy, the field is called -adic complex numbers.The fields and their finite field extensions, including are called local fields." ], [ "See also", "* Algebraic surface* Circular motion using complex numbers* Complex-base system* Complex geometry* Dual-complex number* Eisenstein integer* Geometric algebra (which includes the complex plane as the 2-dimensional spinor subspace )* Unit complex number" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Works cited===* * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * * ===Mathematical===* * * * * * ===Historical===* * * * — A gentle introduction to the history of complex numbers and the beginnings of complex analysis.", "* — An advanced perspective on the historical development of the concept of number." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Cryptozoology" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cryptozoology''' is a pseudoscience and subculture that searches for and studies unknown, legendary, or extinct animals whose present existence is disputed or unsubstantiated, particularly those popular in folklore, such as Bigfoot, the Loch Ness Monster, Yeti, the chupacabra, the Jersey Devil, or the Mokele-mbembe.", "Cryptozoologists refer to these entities as ''cryptids'', a term coined by the subculture.", "Because it does not follow the scientific method, cryptozoology is considered a pseudoscience by mainstream science: it is neither a branch of zoology nor of folklore studies.", "It was originally founded in the 1950s by zoologists Bernard Heuvelmans and Ivan T. Sanderson.Scholars have noted that the subculture rejected mainstream approaches from an early date, and that adherents often express hostility to mainstream science.", "Scholars have studied cryptozoologists and their influence (including cryptozoology's association with Young Earth creationism), noted parallels in cryptozoology and other pseudosciences such as ghost hunting and ufology, and highlighted uncritical media propagation of cryptozoologist claims." ], [ "Terminology, history, and approach", "As a field, cryptozoology originates from the works of Bernard Heuvelmans, a Belgian zoologist, and Ivan T. Sanderson, a Scottish zoologist.", "Notably, Heuvelmans published ''On the Track of Unknown Animals'' (French ''Sur la Piste des Bêtes Ignorées'') in 1955, a landmark work among cryptozoologists that was followed by numerous other like works.", "Similarly, Sanderson published a series of books that contributed to the developing hallmarks of cryptozoology, including ''Abominable Snowmen: Legend Come to Life'' (1961).", "Heuvelmans himself traced cryptozoology to the work of Anthonie Cornelis Oudemans, who theorized that a large unidentified species of seal was responsible for sea serpent reports.", "''Cryptozoology'' is 'the study of hidden animals' (from Ancient Greek: κρυπτός, ''kryptós'' \"hidden, secret\"; Ancient Greek ζῷον, ''zōion'' \"animal\", and λόγος, ''logos'', i.e.", "\"knowledge, study\").", "The term dates from 1959 or before— Heuvelmans attributes the coinage of the term ''cryptozoology'' to Sanderson.", "Following ''cryptozoology'', the term ''cryptid'' was coined in 1983 by cryptozoologist J. E. Wall in the summer issue of the International Society of Cryptozoology newsletter.", "According to Wall \"It has been suggested that new terms be coined to replace sensational and often misleading terms like 'monster'.", "My suggestion is 'cryptid', meaning a living thing having the quality of being hidden or unknown ... describing those creatures which are (or may be) subjects of cryptozoological investigation.\"", "The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' defines the noun ''cryptid'' as \"an animal whose existence or survival to the present day is disputed or unsubstantiated; any animal of interest to a cryptozoologist\".", "While used by most cryptozoologists, the term ''cryptid'' is not used by academic zoologists.", "In a textbook aimed at undergraduates, academics Caleb W. Lack and Jacques Rousseau note that the subculture's focus on what it deems to be \"cryptids\" is a pseudoscientific extension of older belief in monsters and other similar entities from the folkloric record, yet with a \"new, more scientific-sounding name: cryptids\".While biologists regularly identify new species, cryptozoologists often focus on creatures from the folkloric record.", "Most famously, these include the Loch Ness Monster, Bigfoot, the chupacabra, as well as other \"imposing beasts that could be labeled as monsters\".", "In their search for these entities, cryptozoologists may employ devices such as motion-sensitive cameras, night-vision equipment, and audio-recording equipment.", "While there have been attempts to codify cryptozoological approaches, unlike biologists, zoologists, botanists, and other academic disciplines, however, \"there are no accepted, uniform, or successful methods for pursuing cryptids\".", "Some scholars have identified precursors to modern cryptozoology in certain medieval approaches to the folkloric record, and the psychology behind the cryptozoology approach has been the subject of academic study.Few cryptozoologists have a formal science education, and fewer still have a science background directly relevant to cryptozoology.", "Adherents often misrepresent the academic backgrounds of cryptozoologists.", "According to writer Daniel Loxton and paleontologist Donald Prothero, \"cryptozoologists have often promoted 'Professor Roy Mackal, PhD.'", "as one of their leading figures and one of the few with a legitimate doctorate in biology.", "What is rarely mentioned, however, is that he had no training that would qualify him to undertake competent research on exotic animals.", "This raises the specter of 'credential mongering', by which an individual or organization feints a person's graduate degree as proof of expertise, even though his or her training is not specifically relevant to the field under consideration.\"", "Besides Heuvelmans, Sanderson, and Mackal, other notable cryptozoologists with academic backgrounds include Grover Krantz, Karl Shuker, and Richard Greenwell.Historically, notable cryptozoologists have often identified instances featuring \"irrefutable evidence\" (such as Sanderson and Krantz), only for the evidence to be revealed as the product of a hoax.", "This may occur during a closer examination by experts or upon confession of the hoaxer.=== Expeditions ===Cryptozoologists have often led expeditions to find evidence of their claims.", "Bigfoot researcher René Dahinden led unsuccessful expedition into caves to find evidence of sasquatch, which Daniel Loxton attributes to changes in the popular perception of bigfoot.", "Lensgrave Adam Christoffer Knuth led an expedition into Lake Tele in the Congo to find the Mokele-mbembe in 2018.While they found no evidence of the creature, they did find a new species of green algae.===Young Earth creationism===A subset of cryptozoology promotes the pseudoscience of Young Earth creationism, rejecting conventional science in favor of a Biblical interpretation and promoting concepts such as \"living dinosaurs\".", "Science writer Sharon A. Hill observes that the Young Earth creationist segment of cryptozoology is \"well-funded and able to conduct expeditions with a goal of finding a living dinosaur that they think would invalidate evolution\".Anthropologist Jeb J.", "Card says that \"Creationism\|creationists have embraced cryptozoology and some cryptozoological expeditions are funded by and conducted by creationists hoping to disprove evolution.\"", "In a 2013 interview, paleontologist Donald Prothero notes an uptick in creationist cryptozoologists.", "He observes that \"people who actively search for Loch Ness monsters or Mokele Mbembe do it entirely as creationist ministers.", "They think that if they found a dinosaur in the Congo it would overturn all of evolution.", "It wouldn't.", "It would just be a late-occurring dinosaur, but that's their mistaken notion of evolution.", "\"Citing a 2013 exhibit at the Petersburg, Kentucky-based Creation Museum, which claimed that dragons were once biological creatures who walked the earth alongside humanity and is broadly dedicated to Young Earth creationism, religious studies academic Justin Mullis notes that \"cryptozoology has a long and curious history with Young Earth Creationism, with this new exhibit being just one of the most recent examples\".Academic Paul Thomas analyzes the influence and connections between cryptozoology in his 2020 study of the Creation Museum and the creationist theme park Ark Encounter.", "Thomas comments that, \"while the Creation Museum and the Ark Encounter are flirting with pseudoarchaeology, coquettishly whispering pseudoarchaeological rhetoric, they are each fully in bed with cryptozoology\" and observes that \"young-earth creationists and cryptozoologists make natural bed fellows.", "As with pseudoarchaeology, both young-earth creationists and cryptozoologists bristle at the rejection of mainstream secular science and lament a seeming conspiracy to prevent serious consideration of their claims.", "\"===Lack of critical media coverage===Media outlets have often uncritically disseminated information from cryptozoologist sources, including newspapers that repeat false claims made by cryptozoologists or television shows that feature cryptozoologists as monster hunters (such as the popular and purportedly nonfiction American television show ''MonsterQuest'', which aired from 2007 to 2010).", "Media coverage of purported \"cryptids\" often fails to provide more likely explanations, further propagating claims made by cryptozoologists." ], [ "Reception and pseudoscience", "There is a broad consensus among academics that cryptozoology is a pseudoscience.", "The subculture is regularly criticized for reliance on anecdotal information and because in the course of investigating animals that most scientists believe are unlikely to have existed, cryptozoologists do not follow the scientific method.", "No academic course of study nor university degree program grants the status of ''cryptozoologist'' and the subculture is primarily the domain of individuals without training in the natural sciences.Anthropologist Jeb J.", "Card summarizes cryptozoology in a survey of pseudoscience and pseudoarchaeology:Card notes that \"cryptozoologists often show their disdain and even hatred for professional scientists, including those who enthusiastically participated in cryptozoology\", which he traces back to Heuvelmans's early \"rage against critics of cryptozoology\".", "He finds parallels with cryptozoology and other pseudosciences, such as ghost hunting and ufology, and compares the approach of cryptozoologists to colonial big-game hunters, and to aspects of European imperialism.", "According to Card, \"most cryptids are framed as the subject of indigenous legends typically collected in the heyday of comparative folklore, though such legends may be heavily modified or worse.", "Cryptozoology's complicated mix of sympathy, interest, and appropriation of indigenous culture (or non-indigenous construction of it) is also found in New Age circles and dubious \"Indian burial grounds\" and other legends ... invoked in hauntings such as the \"Amityville\" hoax ...\".In a 2011 foreword for ''The American Biology Teacher'', then National Association of Biology Teachers president Dan Ward uses cryptozoology as an example of \"technological pseudoscience\" that may confuse students about the scientific method.", "Ward says that \"Cryptozoology ... is not valid science or even science at all.", "It is monster hunting.\"", "Historian of science Brian Regal includes an entry for cryptozoology in his ''Pseudoscience: A Critical Encyclopedia'' (2009).", "Regal says that \"as an intellectual endeavor, cryptozoology has been studied as much as cryptozoologists have sought hidden animals\".In a 1992 issue of ''Folklore'', folklorist Véronique Campion-Vincent says:Campion-Vincent says that \"four currents can be distinguished in the study of mysterious animal appearances\": \"Forteans\" (\"compilers of anomalies\" such as via publications like the ''Fortean Times''), \"occultists\" (which she describes as related to \"Forteans\"), \"folklorists\", and \"cryptozoologists\".", "Regarding cryptozoologists, Campion-Vincent says that \"this movement seems to deserve the appellation of parascience, like parapsychology: the same corpus is reviewed; many scientists participate, but for those who have an official status of university professor or researcher, the participation is a private hobby\".In her ''Encyclopedia of American Folklore'', academic Linda Watts says that \"folklore concerning unreal animals or beings, sometimes called monsters, is a popular field of inquiry\" and describes cryptozoology as an example of \"American narrative traditions\" that \"feature many monsters\".In his analysis of cryptozoology, folklorist Peter Dendle says that \"cryptozoology devotees consciously position themselves in defiance of mainstream science\" and that:In a paper published in 2013, Dendle refers to cryptozoologists as \"contemporary monster hunters\" that \"keep alive a sense of wonder in a world that has been very thoroughly charted, mapped, and tracked, and that is largely available for close scrutiny on Google Earth and satellite imaging\" and that \"on the whole the devotion of substantial resources for this pursuit betrays a lack of awareness of the basis for scholarly consensus (largely ignoring, for instance, evidence of evolutionary biology and the fossil record).", "\"According to historian Mike Dash, few scientists doubt there are thousands of unknown animals, particularly invertebrates, awaiting discovery; however, cryptozoologists are largely uninterested in researching and cataloging newly discovered species of ants or beetles, instead focusing their efforts towards \"more elusive\" creatures that have often defied decades of work aimed at confirming their existence.Paleontologist George Gaylord Simpson (1984) lists cryptozoology among examples of human gullibility, along with creationism:Paleontologist Donald Prothero (2007) cites cryptozoology as an example of pseudoscience and categorizes it, along with Holocaust denial and UFO abductions claims, as aspects of American culture that are \"clearly baloney\".In ''Scientifical Americans: The Culture of Amateur Paranormal Researchers'' (2017), Hill surveys the field and discusses aspects of the subculture, noting internal attempts at creating more scientific approaches and the involvement of Young Earth creationists and a prevalence of hoaxes.", "She concludes that many cryptozoologists are \"passionate and sincere in their belief that mystery animals exist.", "As such, they give deference to every report of a sighting, often without critical questioning.", "As with the ghost seekers, cryptozoologists are convinced that they will be the ones to solve the mystery and make history.", "With the lure of mystery and money undermining diligent and ethical research, the field of cryptozoology has serious credibility problems.\"" ], [ "Cryptobotany", "Cryptobotany is a sub-discipline of cryptozoology researching the possible existence of plant cryptids.", "According to British cryptozoologist Karl Shuker's 2003 book The Beasts That Hide From Man there are unconfirmed reports, primarily from Latin America, of still-undiscovered species of large carnivorous plants." ], [ "Organizations", "There have been several organizations, of varying types, dedicated or related to cryptozoology.", "These include:* International Fortean Organization – a network of professional Fortean researchers and writers based in the United States* International Society of Cryptozoology – an American organisation that existed from 1982 to 1998* Kosmopoisk – a Russian organisation whose interests include cryptozoology and Ufology* The Centre for Fortean Zoology- an English organization centered around hunting for unknown animals" ], [ "Museums and exhibitions", "The zoological and cryptozoological collection and archive of Bernard Heuvelmans is held at the Musée Cantonal de Zoologie in Lausanne and consists of around \"1,000 books, 25,000 files, 25,000 photographs, correspondence, and artifacts\".In 2006, the Bates College Museum of Art held the \"Cryptozoology: Out of Time Place Scale\" exhibition, which compared cryptozoological creatures with recently extinct animals like the thylacine and extant taxa like the coelacanth, once thought long extinct (living fossils).", "The following year, the American Museum of Natural History put on a mixed exhibition of imaginary and extinct animals, including the elephant bird ''Aepyornis maximus'' and the great ape ''Gigantopithecus blacki'', under the name \"Mythic Creatures: Dragons, Unicorns and Mermaids\".In 2003, cryptozoologist Loren Coleman opened the International Cryptozoology Museum in Portland, Maine.", "The museum houses more than 3000 cryptozoology related artifacts." ], [ "See also", "* Ethnozoology* Fearsome critters, fabulous beasts that were said to inhabit the timberlands of North America* Folk belief* List of cryptids, a list of cryptids notable within cryptozoology* List of cryptozoologists, a list of notable cryptozoologists* Scientific skepticism" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Bartholomew, Robert E.", "2012.", "''The Untold Story of Champ: A Social History of America's Loch Ness Monster''.", "State University of New York Press.", "* Campion-Vincent, Véronique.", "1992.", "\"Appearances of Beasts and Mystery-cats in France\".", "''Folklore'' 103.2 (1992): 160–183.", "* Card, Jeb J.", "2016.", "\"Steampunk Inquiry: A Comparative Vivisection of Discovery Pseudoscience\" in Card, Jeb J. and Anderson, David S. ''Lost City, Found Pyramid: Understanding Alternative Archaeologies and Pseudoscientific Practices'', pp.", "24–25.University of Alabama Press.", "* Church, Jill M. (2009).", "''Cryptozoology''.", "In H. James Birx.", "''Encyclopedia of Time: Science, Philosophy, Theology & Culture, Volume 1''.", "SAGE Publications.", "pp. 251–252.", "* Dash, Mike.", "2000.", "''Borderlands: The Ultimate Exploration of the Unknown''.", "Overlook Press.", "* Dendle, Peter.", "2006.", "\"Cryptozoology in the Medieval and Modern Worlds\".", "''Folklore'', Vol.", "117, No.", "2 (Aug., 2006), pp.", "190–206.Taylor & Francis.", "* Dendle, Peter.", "2013.", "\"Monsters and the Twenty-First Century\" in ''The Ashgate Research Companion to Monsters and the Monstrous''.", "Ashgate Publishing.", "* Hill, Sharon A.", "2017.", "''Scientifical Americans: The Culture of Amateur Paranormal Researchers''.", "McFarland.", "* Lack, Caleb W. and Jacques Rousseau.", "2016.", "''Critical Thinking, Science, and Pseudoscience: Why We Can't Trust Our Brains''.", "Springer.", "* Lee, Jeffrey A.", "2000.", "''The Scientific Endeavor: A Primer on Scientific Principles and Practice''.", "Benjamin Cummings.", "* Loxton, Daniel and Donald Prothero.", "2013.", "''Abominable Science: Origins of the Yeti, Nessie, and other Famous Cryptids''.", "Columbia University Press.", "* Mullis, Justin.", "2019.\"Cryptofiction!", "Science Fiction and the Rise of Cryptozoology\" in Caterine, Darryl & John W. Morehead (ed.).", "2019.", "''The Paranormal and Popular Culture: A Postmodern Religious Landscape'', pp. 240–252.Routledge.", ".", "* Mullis, Justin.", "2021.", "\"Thomas Jefferson: The First Cryptozoologist?\".", "In Joseph P. Laycock & Natasha L. Mikles (eds).", "''Religion, Culture, and the Monstrous: Of Gods and Monsters'', pp.", "185–197.Lexington Books.", "* Nagel, Brian.", "2009.", "''Pseudoscience: A Critical Encyclopedia''.", "ABC-CLIO.", "* Paxton, C.G.M.", "2011.", "\"Putting the 'ology' into cryptozoology.\"", "''Biofortean Notes''.", "Vol.", "7, pp.", "7–20, 310.", "* Prothero, Donald R.", "2007.", "''Evolution: What the Fossils Say and Why It Matters''.", "Columbia University Press.", "* Radford, Benjamin.", "2014.", "\"Bigfoot at 50: Evaluating a Half-Century of Bigfoot Evidence\" in Farha, Bryan (ed.).", "''Pseudoscience and Deception: The Smoke and Mirrors of Paranormal Claims''.", "University Press of America.", "* Regal, Brian.", "2011a.", "\"Cryptozoology\" in McCormick, Charlie T. and Kim Kennedy (ed.).", "''Folklore: An Encyclopedia of Beliefs, Customs, Tales, Music, and Art'', pp.", "326–329.2nd edition.", "ABC-CLIO.", ".", "* Regal, Brian.", "2011b.", "''Sasquatch: Crackpots, Eggheads, and Cryptozoology''.", "Springer.", ".", "* Roesch, Ben S & John L. Moore.", "(2002).", "''Cryptozoology''.", "In Michael Shermer (ed.).", "''The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience: Volume One''.", "ABC-CLIO.", "pp. 71–78.", "* Shea, Rachel Hartigan.", "2013.", "\"The Science Behind Bigfoot and Other Monsters\".", "''National Geographic'', September 9, 2013.Online.", "* Shermer, Michael.", "2003.", "\"Show Me the Body\" in ''Scientific American'', issue 288 (5), p. 27.Online.", "* Simpson, George Gaylord (1984).", "\"Mammals and Cryptozoology\".", "''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society''.", "Vol.", "128, No.", "1 (Mar.", "30, 1984), pp.", "1–19.American Philosophical Society.", "* Thomas, Paul.", "2020.", "''Storytelling the Bible at the Creation Museum, Ark Encounter, and Museum of the Bible''.", "Bloomsbury Publishing.", "* Uscinski, Joseph.", "2020.", "''Conspiracy Theories: A Primer''.", "Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.", "* Wall, J. E.", "1983.", "''The ISC Newsletter'', vol.", "2, issue 10, p. 10.International Society of Cryptozoology.", "* Ward, Daniel.", "2011.", "\"From the President\".", "''The American Biology Teacher'', 73.8 (2011): 440–440.", "* Watts, Linda S.", "2007.", "''Encyclopedia of American Folklore''.", "Facts on File." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Craig Charles" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Craig Joseph Charles''' (born 11 July 1964) is an English actor, comedian, DJ, and television and radio presenter.", "He is best known for his roles as Dave Lister in the science fiction sitcom ''Red Dwarf'' and Lloyd Mullaney in the soap opera ''Coronation Street'' (2005–2015).", "He presented the gladiator-style game show ''Robot Wars'' from 1998 to 2004, and narrated the comedy endurance show ''Takeshi's Castle''.", "As a DJ, he appears on BBC Radio 6 Music.Charles first appeared on television as a performance poet, which led to minor presenting roles.", "After finding fame in ''Red Dwarf'', he regularly featured on national television with celebrity appearances on many popular shows while he continued to host a wide variety of programmes.", "From 2017 to 2022, Charles hosted ''The Gadget Show'' for Channel 5.His acting credits include playing inmate Eugene Buffy in the ITV drama ''The Governor'', and leading roles in the British films ''Fated'' and ''Clubbing to Death''.", "Charles has hosted ''The Craig Charles Funk and Soul Show'' on BBC radio since 2002, and performs DJ sets at numerous clubs and festivals, nationally and internationally.", "In September 2015, he left ''Coronation Street'' after ten years of acting, to film new episodes of ''Red Dwarf'' and to continue his BBC Radio 6 Music and BBC Radio 2 broadcasting." ], [ "Early life", "Craig Joseph Charles was born in Liverpool on 11 July 1964, the son of a Guyanese father and Irish mother.", "He grew up on the Cantril Farm housing estate with his older brother, Dean (died 2014), and two other brothers, Jimmy and Emile.", "He attended West Derby Comprehensive School followed by Childwall Hall College of Further Education, studying A-levels in History, Government & Politics, English Literature and General Studies.", "He won a national competition run by ''The Guardian'' newspaper for a poem he wrote when he was 12 years old.", "Upon leaving school, Charles spent time working in a studio at Central Hall on Renshaw Street in Liverpool." ], [ "Early career", "Charles began his career as a contemporary and urban performance poet on the British cabaret circuit.", "His performances were considered original, with Charles described as having a natural ironic wit which appealed to talent scouts.", "In 1981, Charles climbed on stage at a Teardrop Explodes concert and recited a humorous, but derogatory, poem about the band's singer, Julian Cope.", "He was invited to open subsequent gigs for the group and went on to perform as a support act in pubs and clubs for the following three years, and at events such as the ''Larks in the Park'' music festival at Sefton Park (1982).", "He performed poetry reading poems by Vladimir Mayakovsky, W. H. Auden and E. E. Cummings, at Liverpool's Everyman Theatre (1983), with such poets as Roger McGough and Adrian Henri.Charles was involved in the Liverpool music scene, writing and singing lyrics for a number of local rock bands.", "In 1980, he played keyboards, bass and provided voice in the rock band ''Watt 4''.", "He performed his political rap lyrics as a 'Wordsmith'.", "In 1983, Charles was invited to record a session on the John Peel BBC Radio show, performing his poems backed by a band.", "This was his first professional engagement.", "He recorded a further Peel Session in 1984.Charles realised he was using poetry as a vehicle for his sense of humour and progressed into stand-up comedy.", "He was part of the ''Red Wedge'' comedy tour in 1986, which aimed to raise awareness of the social problems of the time, in support of the Labour Party.", "He also performed his first one-man show in 1986, which premiered in Edinburgh, and then toured internationally.", "Charles was a guest on programmes including Janice Long's Radio 1 show, and he was a regular panellist on Ned Sherrin's chat show ''Loose Ends'' (1987–88) on BBC Radio 4." ], [ "Television career", "=== Performance poetry ===Charles first appeared on television as the resident poet on the arts programme ''Riverside'' on BBC2 and on the day-time BBC1 chat show ''Pebble Mill at One''.", "Charles was the resident poet on the Channel 4 programme ''Black on Black'' (1985) and its entertainment-based successor ''Club Mix'' (1986), and he appeared, weekly, as a John Cooper Clarke-style 'punk poet' on the BBC2 pop music programme ''Oxford Road Show'' (ORS).", "Charles performed his political poems as stand-up comedy on the late-night show ''Saturday Live'' (1985–87) and on the prime-time BBC1 chat show ''Wogan'' (1986–87), where he performed a topical poem in a weekly feature.", "He also appeared as a guest on shows including ''Open Air'' (1988).", "Charles included significant acting in his performance style, enabling him to put the emotion across.In September 2015, Charles performed his \"epic\" poem ''Scary Fairy and the Tales of the Dark Wood'' live with the BBC Philharmonic orchestra, in a concert to be broadcast on BBC Radio 2's ''Friday Night Is Music Night'' at Halloween.=== ''Red Dwarf'' ===Craig Charles in 2009Charles' first television acting role was the Liverpudlian slob Dave Lister in science fiction comedy series ''Red Dwarf''.", "He was introduced to the show by ''Saturday Live'' and ''Red Dwarf'' producer Paul Jackson, who wanted his opinion on whether the black character Cat was a racist stereotype.", "Charles, who like all of the eventual main cast had no acting experience, was eventually offered an audition after begging Jackson.Charles has appeared in all twelve series as well as ''Red Dwarf: The Promised Land''.", "Charles' younger brother, Emile Charles, guest-starred in the third-series episode \"Timeslides\", and the songs \"Bad News\" and \"Cash\" in this episode were written by Charles and performed by his band.", "The role has involved Charles playing a variety of alternative characters, including a gangster, a cowboy and angelic and evil versions of Lister, and in him carrying out a wide range of stunts, and acting involving special effects.", "All series, except 7 and 9, were recorded in front of a studio audience.", "Along with Danny John-Jules (Cat), Charles is one of only two cast members to appear in every episode of ''Red Dwarf'' to date.Charles reads the audiobook editions of both the ''Red Dwarf'' novel ''Last Human'' and his book ''The Log: A Dwarfer's Guide to Everything'', and he regularly attends sci-fi, comedy and memorabilia conventions in connection with the ''Red Dwarf'' franchise.", "During ''Back to Earth'', Lister visits the set of ''Coronation Street'', where he meets the actor Craig Charles.=== ''Robot Wars'' ===Charles presented ''Robot Wars'' on BBC2 (1998–2003) and Channel 5 (2003–04), from series 2 until series 7, which included two ''Extreme'' series and numerous 'specials'.", "Charles was the main host and presided over the arena in which teams of amateur engineers battled their home-made radio-controlled robots against each other, and against the house robots.", "Charles introduced the show, enthusiastically announced the results of the battles and spoke to the contestants after the main events.", "He ended each episode with a short ''Robot Wars''-themed poem.", "Charles' son, Jack, appeared on the show on several occasions, and was a contestant on \"Team Nemesis\" during series 4.Charles also hosted the ''Robot Wars Live'' UK tour, in 2001 and shows performed at the Wembley Arena.", "''Robot Wars'' returned to the BBC in 2016.Charles stated his interest in hosting it again, but the job went to Dara Ó Briain and Angela Scanlon.=== ''Takeshi's Castle'' ===Charles provided the English voice-over commentary for the Challenge (2002–04) rebroadcast of the popular game show ''Takeshi's Castle'', originally by Tokyo Broadcasting System in Japan.", "In each episode, between 100 and 142 contestants attempted to pass a series of wacky and near-impossible physical challenges to reach the Show Down at the castle against Japanese actor Takeshi Kitano for a chance to win large cash prizes.", "Charles co-wrote the programme and commentated throughout all 122 episodes of the four series, and also some special and \"best of\" episodes.", "He provided comedy insights into the contestants' abilities, which were designed to appeal to adult audiences, as well as younger viewers - and also coined the term \"Keshi Heads\" to describe fans of the show.", "A 2013 reboot narrated by Dick and Dom was not as well received.=== ''Coronation Street'' ===In 2005, Charles joined the main cast of ''Coronation Street'', playing a philandering taxicab driver, Lloyd Mullaney.", "Charles introduced aspects of the character himself, making Lloyd a Northern Soul DJ and record collector, and funk music enthusiast.", "Charles has chosen funk and soul songs playing as backing tracks during scenes, and posters for ''The Craig Charles Funk & Soul Club'' and ''Red Dwarf'' have appeared in the background.Charles portrayed Lloyd as tough, but kind-hearted and romantic, and the character was popular with viewers.", "Charles added a comedy element to the role, but was also involved in traumatic and emotional scenes with intricate storylines.", "In 2010, his character was involved in the show's dramatic 50th anniversary tram crash storyline, which was broadcast live.", "Charles presented documentaries for the show, including ''50 Years of Corrie Stunts'' (2010), which is included on the ''Tram Crash'' DVD.", "In November 2011, Charles took time off from ''Coronation Street'' to film a new series of ''Red Dwarf'', returning in April 2012.In February 2014 an online mini-series, ''Steve & Lloyd's Streetcar Stories'', ran alongside the television show's storyline.In May 2015, Craig announced he would be leaving ''Coronation Street'' for ''Red Dwarf,'' BBC Radio 2 and BBC Radio 6 Music.", "Lloyd left in a red Cadillac during the live episode on 23 September, although his final pre-recorded farewell scenes with Steve were shown during the following episode.=== Other acting roles ===Charles has acted in episodes of popular dramas such as ''The Bill'' (1995), ''EastEnders'' (2002) and ''Holby City'' (2003) and in the comedy ''The 10 Percenters'' (1996).", "Charles played the emotionally disturbed and violent prisoner, Eugene Buffy, in the highly successful Lynda La Plante drama series ''The Governor'' (1996); the title role in the Channel 4 pirate sitcom ''Captain Butler'' (1997); the warden of a women's prison in the Canadian sci-fi fantasy ''Lexx'' (2001); Detective Chief Inspector Mercer in seven episodes of the BBC soap opera ''Doctors'' (2003); and soccer agent, Joel Brooks, in the Sky TV football soap ''Dream Team'' (2004).=== Other presenting roles ===Charles has presented children's television programmes, including ''What's That Noise?''", "(1989) and ''Parallel 9'' (1992) on BBC1 and ''Go Getters'' (1994) on ITV.", "He was the travelling reporter for the highly acclaimed, but controversial, BBC 'mockumentary' ''Ghostwatch'', which tricked viewers into believing it was a live investigation into ghost sightings in a suburban home on Halloween night (1992).", "Charles presented the virtual reality game show ''Cyberzone'' (1993) on BBC2; the late-night entertainment show ''Funky Bunker'' (1997) on ITV; the reality show ''Jailbreak'' (2000) on Channel 5; the discussion show ''Amazing Space: The Pub Guide to the Universe'' (2001) on National Geographic; and the late-night current affairs chat show ''Weapons of Mass Distraction'' (2004) on ITV.=== Other appearances ===Charles has appeared on celebrity editions of ''University Challenge'' (1998), ''Can't Cook, Won't Cook'' (1998), ''The Weakest Link'' (2004), ''The Chase'' (2012) and ''Pointless'' (2013), and comedy panel shows such as ''Have I Got News for You'' (1995), ''Just a Minute'' (1995) and ''They Think It's All Over'' (1996) and Keith Lemon's Through the Keyhole (2014).", "He was a team captain on the sci-fi quiz series ''Space Cadets'' (1997) on Channel 4, which guest-starred William Shatner.", "Charles has opened The National Lottery Draw (1997) and his home has featured on ''Through the Keyhole''.", "Charles was a contestant in the ''Celebrity Poker Club'' tournament (2004) on Challenge, where he reached the semi-finals, and in the Channel 4 reality game show, ''The Games'' (2005), which documented the contestants' intensive training regime and each live Olympic Games-style sporting event.From 16 November 2014, Charles took part in the fourteenth series of ''I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!''", "However, on 20 November, Charles left the series soon after learning that his brother Dean had died after suffering a heart attack." ], [ "Radio", "As well as his early appearances on shows such as Radio 4's ''Loose Ends'' (1987–88) and ''Kaleidoscope'' in the early 1990s, Charles could be heard on the London Radio Station Kiss 100 (Kiss FM) as the Breakfast show presenter.", "In 1995, Charles played the Porter in Steven Berkoff's adaptation of Shakespeare's ''Macbeth'', on Radio 4.Since 2002, Charles has been a DJ on BBC Radio 6 Music presenting ''The Craig Charles Funk and Soul Show'', on air on Saturday evenings 6 pm to 9 pm, where he plays a diverse range of funk and soul music, from classic tracks to the latest releases, and provides publicity for less familiar bands.", "Charles explains the context for the music and carries out interviews with guest musicians.", "He was with the station at its launch, and while it was being tested during the previous year, under the name Network Y. Charles has also hosted the station's ''Breakfast Show'' (2004), and sits in for other presenters including Andrew Collins, Phil Wilding, Phill Jupitus, and Radcliffe & Maconie.From January until November 2014, Charles also broadcast ''The Funk and Soul Show'' live on BBC Radio 2, immediately after his 6 Music show.", "He regularly sits in for various presenters, and has presented numerous programmes on the station, including ''The Craig Charles Soul All-Nighter'' (2011), which he hosted continuously for 12 hours, and the ''Beatleland'' (2012) documentary on The Beatles.", "Charles has also chosen music as a guest of other broadcasters such as Ken Bruce on Radio 2 and Liz Kershaw on 6 Music.", "Charles covered for Graham Norton on Radio 2's Saturday mid-morning show during Norton's 10-week 2015 summer break.", "From 16 April 2016 until 18 June 2022, Charles presented the House Party on Saturday nights on BBC Radio 2, with the show airing between 10 pm and midnight.", "For eight weeks from April–June 2020, he also presented ''Craig Charles At Teatime'' between 4 pm and 7 pm on weekdays on Radio 6 Music.", "The show was sometimes billed as ''Craig Charles Weekend Workout'' on Fridays.Since 18 October 2021, Charles has hosted the weekday afternoon show on BBC Radio 6 Music (1 pm – 4 pm).", "The shows include the \"Trunk of Punk\" and the \"Jar of Ska\".", "In 2023 the weekday show won the Gold Aria award for Best Music Entertainment Show." ], [ "Music", "Charles has been involved in the music industry through much of his career.", "His bands have included Watt 4 (1980), in which he played keyboards and sang; Craig Charles and the Beat Burglars (1989); The Sons of Gordon Gekko (1989), where he wrote lyrics and also composed tunes; and The Eye (2000–02), with whom he recorded the rock album ''Giving You the Eye, Live at the Edinburgh Festival''.", "Charles plays guitar and piano.In 1987, Charles provided the poem track used for the opening credits of the BBC series ''The Marksman'' (in which he also acted), which is included on the album \"The Marksman: Music from the BBC TV Series\".", "Charles wrote lyrics for Suzanne Rhatigan's album ''To Hell with Love'' (1992).", "In 1993, Charles was signed to the Acid Jazz record label.In 2009, Charles formed the Fantasy Funk Band from the leading British musicians in the genre, and has presented the band at festivals, including Glastonbury and the BBC's Proms in the Park.", "As a continuation of his 6 Music show, Charles regularly takes the Craig Charles Funk & Soul Club to varied venues across the UK and abroad, and to the major UK music festivals.", "He performs live DJ sets, occasionally comperes and curates events, including his own Craig Charles Fantasy Weekender, and has broadcast the radio show live from festival locations.In 2012, Charles released the compilation album ''The Craig Charles Funk & Soul Club'', on CD and as a digital download, as part of a three-album deal with Freestyle Records.", "The second volume was released in the same format in 2013, and the third in 2014.He followed these with a ''Craig Charles Funk and Soul Classics'' album of three CDs in 2015." ], [ "Stand-up comedy and theatre", "Charles returned to stand-up comedy between 1995 and 2001, regularly touring his one-man adult-rated shows nationally and releasing the videos ''Craig Charles: Live on Earth!''", "(1995), ''Live Official Bootleg'' (1996) and ''Sickbag'' (2000).", "International performances included the Great Norwegian Comedy Festival and the Melbourne International Comedy Festival.Charles appeared in the John Godber comedy play ''Teechers'', in which he swapped in and out of various roles, at the Arts Theatre, London, and at the Edinburgh Festival (1989), and he played Idle Jack in the pantomime ''Dick Whittington'', at the Hull New Theatre (1997).", "In 2000, he performed the show ''Craig Charles and His Band'' at the Edinburgh Festival.Charles has a regular slot at Butlins Minehead House Of Fun Weekend every third November for three nights, of DJing, Comedy, Twanging and singing." ], [ "Film roles", "Charles played Eddie in the 1987 political drama ''Business as Usual''.", "In 2006, Charles starred in two British feature films: the fantasy film ''Fated'' and the gangster film ''Clubbing to Death''.", "Charles voiced Zipper the Cat in the animation ''Prince Cinders'' (1993) and Asterix in ''Asterix Conquers America'' (1994).", "Roles in short films include playing Keith Dennis in the comedy ''The Colour of Funny'' (1999) and Mark in the drama ''Ten Minutes'' (2004)." ], [ "Writing", "In 1993, Charles worked with Russell Bell on the ''Craig Charles Almanac of Total Knowledge'', writing about his 'streetwise' sense of humour on a range of topics, from the world's most embarrassing stories to how to explain the mysteries of the universe.", "In 1997, Charles and Bell wrote Charles' ''Red Dwarf'' character's book ''The Log'', in which Lister decides to leave a log detailing mankind's greatest achievements.", "In 1998, Charles published ''No Other Blue'', a collection of his poetry, with illustrations by Philippa Drakeford, on diverse personal subjects including prison, his mother's final illness, love and politics at home and abroad.", "More recently he has written a series of nursery rhymes titled \"Scary Fairy and the Tales of the Dark Wood\".In 2000, Charles wrote his first autobiography about his experiences growing up in Liverpool, titled ''No Irish, No Niggers''.", "In 2007, he announced he would release his autobiography, planned for March 2008, published by Hodder Headline and titled ''On the Rocks'', which would cover the recent incidents in his life and be based on much of his journal, which Charles said he kept while in rehab.Charles has been involved in journalism and has had a column in ''Time Out'' magazine.", "In 1994, he launched a single issue of ''Comedy'' magazine with articles dedicated to the comedy circuit.", "In 2005 and 2006, Charles was a monthly columnist for the ''Liverpool Echo'' newspaper.", "His television writing credits include The Easter Stories (1994), Funky Bunker (1997) and Takeshi's Castle (2002).", "He is also involved in music journalism as he wrote liner notes for the funk and soul music producer Mr.", "Confuse for his albums ''Feel The Fire'' (2008), ''Do You Realize'' (2012) and ''Only A Man'' (2018) regarding his work as a music presenter for ''The Craig Charles Funk and Soul Show'' on BBC Radio 6 Music." ], [ "Personal life", "Charles resides in Altrincham, Greater Manchester.", "He has three children: a son named Jack from his first marriage to actress Cathy Tyson, and two daughters named Anna-Jo and Nellie from his second marriage to Jackie Fleming.In July 1994, Charles and another man were charged with rape and four counts of indecent assault, following allegations by an associate and ex-girlfriend of Charles.", "Charles was remanded in custody for three-and-a-half months before being granted bail, during which time he was assaulted by a man wielding a makeshift knife.", "In March 1995, Charles and his co-accused were acquitted of all charges at trial.", "After being acquitted, Charles spoke of the need to restore anonymity for those accused of rape.", "He stated, \"The fact that my name and address along with my picture can appear on the front of the papers before the so-called 'victim' has even signed a statement proves that anonymity for rape defendants is a must and that the law must be changed.", "\"Charles has battled drug addiction—he described himself in 2015 as \"quite an addictive person\", trying to find healthier addictions, of which work was one.", "In June 2006, newspaper allegations of crack cocaine use resulted in Charles being suspended from both ''Coronation Street'' and BBC Radio 6 Music.", "In August, Charles was arrested and released on bail pending further enquiries, and in September he accepted a caution for possession of a Class A drug.", "Charles returned to hosting his 6 Music show from November 2006 and filming ''Coronation Street'' from January 2007.In a 2015 interview, Charles spoke of his need to remain \"vigilant\" in abstaining from drugs.", "In 2020 he said that the newspaper reports were the best thing that could have happened to him, leading him to join Narcotics Anonymous and straighten out his personal life." ], [ "Credits", "===Filmography=== Year Title Role Notes(early 1980s)''Riverside''Resident poetArts review programme(early 1980s)''Pebble Mill at One''Resident poetDaily magazine show.", "Performed in front of Princess Anne1984''Lift Off''Himself—intervieweeDocumentary1985''Black on Black''Resident poetChannel 4's first multicultural programme.", "Including the poem \"Halt\"1985–1987''Saturday Live''Himself—stand upLive poetry stand-up comedy.", "Series 1: VHS (1986), DVD (2007).", "Series 2: VHS (1987), DVD (2008)1986''Club Mix''Resident poetEntertainment-based successor to Black on Black1986''Red Wedge''HimselfStand-up comedy tour1986''Edinburgh Festival Fringe''Himself—poetAugust1986–1987''Wogan''Himself—poetChat show.", "Co-hosted and performed weekly topical poem on current affairs1987''Business as Usual''EddieDrama feature film.", "VHS (1988)1987''Craig Charles''Himself—stand upPoetry at Assembly Rooms, Edinburgh Festival Fringe, 7–29 August1987''Video View''Himself—presenterTV series1987''Night Network''Himself—presenter1987''The Marksman''McFaddenTV drama miniseries, wrote opening poem and played a murderer, aired December1988''Open Air''Himself—intervieweeAired 23 February1988''Craig Goes Mad in Melbourne''Himself—hostBehind the scenes at the International Comedy Festival, 1–11 June1988''TOR!", "Total Football''Himself—presenterIntroducing highlights in official film of European Football Championships1988–1999, 2009, 2012, 2016–present ''Red Dwarf''Dave ListerAll 74 episodes1989''Daytime Live''Himself—intervieweeAired 6 January1989''Teechers''Multiple charactersJohn Godber stage play1989''Star Test: Craig Charles''Himself—intervieweeInterviewed by a computer on chat show, aired 18 April1989''Dogs of War''Voiceover3D computer video game.", "Voiced story speech and one character1989''What's That Noise?", "''Himself—hostChildren's music show1991''Comic Relief''Dave ListerShort television film1991''Them and Us''Himself—hostConsumer rights series1991''You Bet!", "''Himself—contestantCelebrity game show1992''The Last Cigarette''HimselfEncouraging giving up smoking, aired 8 March1992''Open to Question''Himself—intervieweeAudience questions from young people on topical issues, 23 March1992''Parallel 9''HimselfChildren's magazine show.", "Including episode 1.13, aired 18 July1992''Weather Watch''Himself—presenterEducational TV series investigating different aspect of the weather1992''Wogan''HimselfChat show, 23 October1992''Ghostwatch''Himself—reporterDrama, aired 31 October (Halloween).", "DVD (2002)1993''That's Showbusiness''Himself—contestantQuiz show, BBC1, aired 2 February1993''Cyberzone''Himself—hostAll 10 episodes of the world's first virtual reality game show1993''Cyberpunks and Technophobes''HimselfTV series1993''A Word in Your Ear''Himself—contestantGame show, BBC11993''Super Mario All Stars''Himself—presenterNintendo video game on VHS1993''Dinosaurs: The Myths & The Reality''Himself—narratorAnimated documentary.", "VHS (1993), DVD (2006)1993''Prince Cinders''Zipper the CatVoice of character in animated film of Babette Cole's book.", "VHS (1993), DVD (2007)1993''Telly Addicts''Himself—contestantAired 13 September and 29 December1993''Pebble Mill''Himself—intervieweePerformed song, 29 October 1993''Funny Stories''Himself—voiceAudiobook anthology of stories for children1993''The Big Breakfast''Himself—guest presenterMagazine show1994''Go Getters''Himself—hostChildren's programme1994''The Easter Stories''Judas IscariotDrama series.", "Episode: \"Judas' Tale\"1994''Asterix Conquers America''Asterix (voice)Animated feature film, English language version1994''The Word''Himself—intervieweeLate night magazine show1994''Red Dwarf: Smeg Ups''Dave ListerVideo release (archive footage)1994''Big Break in Wonderland''Himself—contestantCharity Christmas special of snooker competition, aired 27 December1995''Red Dwarf: Smeg Outs''Dave ListerVideo release (new and archive footage)1995''Breakfast with Frost''Himself—guestChat show with Sir David Frost, 5 March1995''May the 4 Be with You''Himself—presenter\"Starburst Vol.", "2\" VHS (1996)1995''Craig Charles: Live on Earth!", "''Himself—stand upVHS video release of live stand-up comedy stage show.", "Also co-producer1995''Just a Minute''Himself—contestantTV version of radio panel game, 21 July1995''Beam Me Up Scotty!", "''Himself—presenterAired 26 August1995''The Bill''Martin BaileyEpisode: \"Honey Pot\", 31 October1995''Have I Got News for You''Himself—contestantGuest panelist on satire quiz show.", "Series 10, episode 7, 8 December1996''Craig Charles Live Official Bootleg''HimselfVHS video documentary of stand-up show1996''They Think It's All Over''Himself—contestantSeries 2, episode 3, aired 26 March1996''The Governor''Eugene BuffyDrama from Lynda La Plante.", "All 6 episodes of series 2.DVD (2012)1996''Cyberspace''Himself—narratorTV series1996''The 10 Percenters''Bobby TitanEpisode: \"Revenge\" playing a rap singer1997''The Big Breakfast''Himself—guestAired 6 January1997''Night Fever''Himself—contestantPop music quiz including singing1997''Captain Butler''Captain ButlerAll 6 episodes1997''Bully: Ha Bloody Ha''Himself—intervieweeEducational show discussing celebrities' memories of school bullies, aired 28 August1997''Pulling Power''Himself—guestMotoring show, aired 24 September1997''Space Cadets''Team captainComedy sci-fi quiz, all 10 episodes1997''Funky Bunker''Himself—hostLate night chat show.", "13 episodes.", "Also co-writer1997''The National Lottery Live''Himself—presenterOpened the draw, 5 November1997''English Express Language Skills''Himself—presenterSchools education series1997–1998''Dick Whittington and His Wonderful Cat''Idle JackPantomime stage play1998''Can't Smeg, Won't Smeg''Dave Lister—contestantSpecial edition of ''Can't Cook, Won't Cook'', aired 14 February1998''Universe Challenge''Himself—contestantSpecial ''Red Dwarf'' edition of ''University Challenge'', aired 14 February1998''Children in Need''Dave Lister''Red Dwarf'' short episode1998''The Selfish Crocodile''NarratorAudiobook edition of children's book1998''Fully Booked''Himself—intervieweeMagazine show1998–2004''Robot Wars''Himself—hostSeries 2–7 (after replacing Jeremy Clarkson)1999–2000''Ripley's Believe It or Not!", "''Himself—hostUK presenter1999''The Colour of Funny''Keith DennisShort comedy film2000''Craig Charles: Sickbag''HimselfVHS video release of live stand-up comedy show2000''Craig Charles and His Band''HimselfEdinburgh Festival, August.", "Recording album ''Giving You The Eye''2000''Jailbreak''Himself—hostReality challenge show2001''Top Ten TV Sci-Fi''Himself—intervieweeDocumentary2001''Porridge Selection Box''HimselfWorldwide VHS video release.", "Introduced clips2001''Lexx''The WardenCanadian sci-fi series.", "Episode: \"P4X\" Hattie Hayridge from ''Red Dwarf'' as his wife.", "Series 4, Vol.", "1 DVD (2001)2001''Don't Walk''Narrator (voice)Short film2001''Amazing Space: The Pub Guide to the Universe''Himself—hostDiscussion series with guest experts on space related topics2002''EastEnders: Ricky and Bianca''Vince''EastEnders'' spin-off drama, aired 20 May2002''The Saturday Show''Himself—intervieweeMagazine show, 1 June2002–2004''Takeshi's Castle''Himself—commentatorUK voiceover of Japanese comedy challenge show.", "Also co-writer2003''The Sitcom Story''HimselfTV documentary2003''Sushi TV''Himself—narratorUK version of Japanese TV clip show (after replacing Julian Clary)2003''Doctors''DCI Mercer7 episodes of soap opera2003''Monstrous Bosses''Himself—presenterLinks between clips in a battle between two comedy characters, 10–11 May2003''Lovable Rogues''Himself—presenterLinks between clips, aired 3 August2003''Holby City''Adrian SummersEpisode: \"Full Circle\", aired 16 December2004''Ten Minutes''MarkShort comedy film, launched at the BAFTA and Cannes Film Festival in 2003.Film release July 20042004''Britain's Best Sitcom''HimselfTV documentary2004''Weapons of Mass Distraction''Himself—presenterSatirical comedy chat show exploring tabloid newspaper world2004''Celebrities Disfigured''Himself (disguised)Documentary exploring attitudes to disfigurement, aired 17 April2004''The Weakest Link''Himself—contestantCharity edition of quiz show.", "\"Stars of the '90s\".", "Reached 3rd place, aired 4 August2004''Comedy Connections''Himself—intervieweeDocumentary episode on Red Dwarf, aired 30 August2004''Public Opinion''Himself—intervieweePanel show, opinions on celebrities from members of the public, aired 21 September2004''Celebrity Poker Club''Himself—contestantChallenge, series 3, reached semi-finals2004''Dream Team''Joel BrooksSoccer agent in Sky TV football drama2005''Forty Years of Fuck''Himself—intervieweeBBC documentary examining swearing on TV2005''The Games''Himself—contestantReality game show for charity, based on the Olympic Games.", "Series 3.2005''Athletes in Training''Himself—contestantLive feed, following ''The Games'' contestants through their intensive training regime2005–2015''Coronation Street''Lloyd MullaneyPrincipal cast in soap opera, first appearance 20 June 20052006''Fated''PedroFeature film.", "DVD (2011)2006''Clubbing to Death''Carl BegsleyFeature film.", "Not yet released (in post production)2008–present''The Craig Charles Funk & Soul Club''Himself—DJLive DJ performances throughout the UK, and occasionally abroad2009''Carpool''Himself—intervieweeVideo-podcast interview by Robert Llewellyn of ''Red Dwarf''2010''UK Festival Awards''HimselfHosted award ceremony at The IndigO2, London, 18 November2010''Robert Llewellyn's Carpool''Himself—intervieweeChat show.", "Episode 1.5: aired 2 December2010''50 Years of Corrie Stunts''Himself—voiceoverCoronation Street documentary, aired 6 December.", "On Tram Crash DVD (2010)2011''Zombie Carnage''FrankPromotional trailer for feature film2011''Cast Mates''HimselfCoronation Street online Q&A, 31 August2011''This Morning''Himself—IntervieweeDaytime entertainment show, 6 September2012''BBC Breakfast''Himself—intervieweeNews programme, 10 March2012''Loose Women''Himself—intervieweeChat show, 15 March2012''Motorbike Diaries: Mad in the Med''Himself—narratorTravel documentary series from Danny John-Jules of ''Red Dwarf''2012''Evidently... John Cooper Clarke''Himself—intervieweeDocumentary on the poet John Cooper Clarke's life and career, aired 30 May2012''This Morning''Himself—intervieweeChat show, 6 July2012''Loose Women'' Himself—intervieweeChat show, 25 September2012''The Alan Titchmarsh Show'' Himself—intervieweeChat show, 28 September2012''We're Smegged''Himself—intervieweeDocumentary on the making of Red Dwarf X.", "On series X DVD, released 19 November2012''This Morning''Himself—intervieweeChat show, 19 November2012''The Craig Charles Funk & Soul Club''Music compilerCompilation album, released on Freestyle Records as CD and digital download, 26 November2012''The Chase''Himself—contestantCelebrity edition of quiz show for 'Text Santa' charity appeal, ITV1, 21 December2013''Glastonbury Festival''Himself—presenterIntroduced acts (also interviewed musicians and performed DJ set), BBC Four, 28–30 June2013''Proms in the Park''HimselfPresented the Fantasy Funk Band at the BBC Proms, Hyde Park, London, 7 September2013''Pointless Celebrities''Himself—contestantCharity edition of quiz show, with Danny John-Jules from Red Dwarf, BBC1, aired 17 August2013''Craig Charles Fantasy Weekender''HimselfFunk and soul music festival, Bristol, 24–26 August2013''This Morning''Himself'Take a Moment' appeal, ITV1, 25 September2013''Surprise, Surprise''HimselfWith Simon Gregson and Sue Cleaver of Coronation Street, ITV1, 27 October2013''The Craig Charles Funk & Soul Club 2''Music compilerCompilation album, Freestyle records, released 25 November2014''Steve & Lloyd's Streetcar Stories''Lloyd MullaneyCoronation Street mini-series, online, 3–12 February2014''BBC Radio 6 Music Festival''HimselfIntroduced acts, presented radio, DJ set, poetry performance at Festival Fringe, 1 March 2014''Lorraine''Himself—intervieweeChat show, ITV1, 28 April2014''I'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here''Himself—contestantGame show, withdrew on day 4 due to personal reasons 2014''Keith Lemon's Through the Keyhole''Himself—panellistITV1 game show2014''The Craig Charles Funk & Soul Club 3''Music compilerCompilation album, Freestyle records, released 24 November2015''Craig Charles Funk and Soul Club Classics''Music compilerCompilation album box set, Sony Music, released 18 September2015''Witches, Wizards and Scary Fairies''Himself—narratorLive performance of ''Scary Fairy'' poetry with the BBC Philharmonic Orchestra, 29 September2015''BBC Breakfast''Himself—intervieweeBBC One news programme, 17 September2015''The One Show''Himself—intervieweeBBC One chat show, 30 September2016''Celebrity Home Secrets''HimselfSeries 1, Episode 2, 5 September2017–2022 ''The Gadget Show'' Co-host alongside Jon Bentley, Ortis Deley and Georgie Barrat Series regular2021–2022 ''Moneybags'' Host Channel 4 quiz show2021''Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?", "Celebrity Special''Himself—contestantSeries 372022Craig Charles: UFO ConspiraciesCo-presenter; with Sarah CruddasSky History documentary series=== Radio === Year Programme Role Notes1983''John Peel Show''Himself—guestRecorded 6 poems during \"Peel Session\", aired 17 March1984''John Peel'' ShowHimself—guestRadio.", "Recorded 3 song, aired 14 February1987–1989''Loose Ends''Himself—panelistRegular guest on Ned Sherrin's chat show1989''The Steve Jones Show''Himself—interviewee16 March1992–1993''The Craig Charles Breakfast Show''Himself—hostRadio show1995''Macbeth''The PorterSteven Berkoff's Macbeth, aired 28 December2002–present''The Craig Charles Funk & Soul Show''Himself—hostFirst broadcast 15 March 20022004''Craig Charles Breakfast Show''Himself—host2005''One Nation Under a Groove''Himself—presenterRadio 2 documentary.", "The Story of George Clinton & P-Funk, aired 12 February2011''The Craig Charles Soul All-nighter''Himself—host27–28 August2012''Fantasy Funk Band at Maida Vale''Himself—presenterReview for BBC Radio 6 Music's 10th anniversary2012''Beatleland''Himself—presenterDocumentary on the Beatles in Liverpool, aired 10 October2013''Didn't It Rain: When the Blues came to Britain''Himself—narratorMusic history documentary, BBC Radio 2, aired 24 October2015''Sarah and Dan's Extra Edition''Himself—intervieweeBBC Radio 5 Live, 24 September2015''Witches, Wizards and Scary Fairies''Narrator\"Scary Fairy\" poetry performance with the BBC Philharmonic orchestra, BBC Radio 2, airs 30 October 2015" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Published===* 1993, ''Craig Charles Almanac of Total Knowledge'' (with Russell Bell), Penguin Books* 1997, ''The Log: A Dwarfer's Guide to Everything'' (with Russell Bell), Penguin Books* 1998, ''No Other Blue'' (illustrations by Philippa Drakeford), Penguin Books===Unpublished===* 2000, ''No Irish, No Niggers'', Penguin Books * 2008, ''On the Rocks'', Hodder Headline" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * ''Craig Charles'' (BBC Radio 6 Music)* ''The Craig Charles Funk and Soul Show'' (BBC Radio 6 Music)* Craig Charles BFI site* Craig Charles Online Website* Marie Birch's Unofficial Craig Charles Website" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "County Mayo" ], [ "Introduction", "'''County Mayo''' (; ) is a county in Ireland.", "In the West of Ireland, in the province of Connacht, it is named after the village of Mayo, now generally known as Mayo Abbey.", "Mayo County Council is the local authority.", "The population was 137,231 at the 2022 census.", "The boundaries of the county, which was formed in 1585, reflect the Mac William Íochtar lordship at that time." ], [ "Geography", "It is bounded on the north and west by the Atlantic Ocean; on the south by County Galway; on the east by County Roscommon; and on the northeast by County Sligo.", "Mayo is the third-largest of Ireland's 32 counties in area and 18th largest in terms of population.", "It is the second-largest of Connacht's five counties in both size and population.", "Mayo has of coastline, or approximately 21% of the total coastline of the State.", "It is one of three counties which claims to have the longest coastline in Ireland, alongside Cork and Donegal.", "There is a distinct geological difference between the west and the east of the county.", "The west consists largely of poor subsoils and is covered with large areas of extensive Atlantic blanket bog, whereas the east is largely a limestone landscape.", "Agricultural land is therefore more productive in the east than in the west.", "The highest point in Mayo (and Connacht) is Mweelrea, at The River Moy in the northeast of the county is renowned for its salmon fishingIreland's largest island, Achill Island, lies off Mayo's west coastMayo has Ireland's highest cliffs at Croaghaun, Achill Island, while the Benwee Head cliffs in Kilcommon Erris drop almost perpendicularly into the Atlantic Ocean.", "The northwest areas of County Mayo have some of the best renewable energy resources in Europe, if not the world, in terms of wind resources, ocean wave, tidal and hydroelectric resourcesThere are nine historic baronies, four in the northern area and five in the south of the county:'''North Mayo'''Erris (north-west, containing Belmullet, Gweesalia, Bangor Erris, Kilcommon, Ballycroy etc.", ")Burrishoole (west, containing Achill, Mulranny and Newport, County Mayo)Gallen (east, containing Bonniconlon, Foxford)Tyrawley (north-east, containing Ballina, Ballycastle, Killala, Moygownagh)'''South Mayo'''Clanmorris, (south-east, containing Claremorris and Balla)Costello (east-south-east, containing Kilkelly Ballyhaunis) etc.", "Murrisk (south-west, containing Westport, Louisburgh, Croagh Patrick etc.", ")Kilmaine (south, containing Ballinrobe, Cong etc.", ")Carra (south, containing Castlebar, Partry etc.", ")===Largest towns by population===According to the 2022 census:#Castlebar 13,054#Ballina 10,556#Westport 6,872#Claremorris 3,857#Ballinrobe 3,148#Ballyhaunis 2,773#Swinford 1,459#Foxford 1,452#Kiltimagh 1,232#Crossmolina 1,134===Flora and fauna===A survey of the terrestrial and freshwater algae of Clare Island was made between 1990 and 2005 and published in 2007.A record of ''Gunnera tinctoria'' is also noted.Consultants working for the Corrib gas project have carried out extensive surveys of wildlife flora and fauna in Kilcommon Parish, Erris between 2002 and 2009.This information is published in the Corrib Gas Proposal Environmental impact statements 2009 and 2010." ], [ "History", "===Prehistory===Céide FieldsThere is evidence of human occupation of what is now County Mayo going far back into prehistory.", "At Belderrig on the north Mayo coast, there is evidence for Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) communities around 4500 BC.", "while throughout the county there is a wealth of archaeological remains from the Neolithic (New Stone Age) period (ca.", "4,000 BC to 2,500 BC), particularly in terms of megalithic tombs and ritual stone circles.The first people who came to Ireland – mainly to coastal areas as the interior was heavily forested – arrived during the Middle Stone Age, as far back as eleven thousand years ago.", "Artefacts of hunter/gatherers are sometimes found in middens, rubbish pits around hearths where people would have rested and cooked over large open fires.", "Once cliffs erode, midden remains become exposed as blackened areas containing charred stones, bones, and shells.", "They are usually found a metre below the surface.", "Mesolithic people did not have major rituals associated with burial, unlike those of the Neolithic (New Stone Age) period.The Neolithic period followed the Mesolithic around 6,000 years ago.", "People began to farm the land, domesticate animals for food and milk, and settle in one place for longer periods.", "These people had skills such as making pottery, building houses from wood, weaving, and knapping (stone tool working).", "The first farmers cleared forestry to graze livestock and grow crops.", "In North Mayo, where the ground cover was fragile, thin soils washed away and blanket bog covered the land farmed by the Neolithic people.Extensive pre-bog field systems have been discovered under the blanket bog, particularly along the North Mayo coastline in Erris and north Tyrawley at sites such as the Céide Fields, centred on the northeast coast.The Neolithic people developed rituals associated with burying their dead; this is why they built huge, elaborate, galleried stone tombs for their dead leaders, known nowadays as megalithic tombs.", "There are over 160 recorded megaliths in County Mayo, such as Faulagh.Megalithic tomb at Faulagh, Erris===Megalithic tombs===There are four distinct types of Irish megalithic tombs—court tombs, portal tombs, passage tombs and wedge tombs—examples of all of which can be found in County Mayo.", "Areas particularly rich in megalithic tombs include Achill, Kilcommon, Ballyhaunis, Moygownagh, Killala and the Behy/Glenurla area around the Céide Fields.===Bronze Age (ca.", "2,500 BC to 500 BC)===Megalithic tomb building continued into the Bronze Age when metal began to be used for tools alongside the stone tools.", "The Bronze Age lasted approximately from 4,500 years ago to 2,500 years ago (2,500 BC to 500 BC).", "Archaeological remains from this period include stone alignments, stone circles and fulachta fiadh (early cooking sites).", "They continued to bury their chieftains in megalithic tombs which changed design during this period, more being of the wedge tomb type and cist burials.===Iron Age (ca.", "500 BC to AD 325)===Around 2,500 years ago the Iron Age took over from the Bronze Age as more and more metalworking took place.", "This is thought to have coincided with the arrival of Celtic speaking peoples and the introduction of the ancestor of the Irish language.", "Towards the end of this period, the Roman Empire was at its height in Britain but it is not thought that the Roman Empire extended into Ireland.", "Remains from this period, which lasted until the Early Christian period began about AD 325 (with the arrival of Saint Patrick into Ireland, as a slave) include crannógs (Lake dwellings), promontory forts, ringforts and souterrains of which there are numerous examples across the county.", "The Iron Age was a time of tribal warfare and kingships, each fighting neighbouring kings, vying for control of territories and taking slaves.", "Territories were marked by tall stone markers, Ogham stones, using the first written down words using the Ogham alphabet.", "The Iron Age is the time period in which the mythological tales of the Ulster Cycle and sagas took place, as well as that of the Táin Bó Flidhais, whose narrative is set in mainly in Erris.===Early Christian period (ca.", "AD 325 to AD 800)===Statue of St. Patrick AghagowerChristianity came to Ireland around the start of the 5th century.", "It brought many changes including the introduction of the Latin alphabet.", "The tribal 'tuatha' and new Christian religious settlements existed side by side.", "Sometimes it suited the chieftains to become part of the early Churches, other times they remained as separate entities.", "St. Patrick (4th century) may have spent time in County Mayo and it is believed that he spent forty days and forty nights on Croagh Patrick praying for the people of Ireland.", "From the middle of the 6th-century hundreds of small monastic settlements were established around the county.", "Some examples of well-known early monastic sites in Mayo include Mayo Abbey, Aughagower, Ballintubber, Errew Abbey, Cong Abbey, Killala, Turlough on the outskirts of Castlebar, and island settlements off the Mullet Peninsula like the Inishkea Islands, Inishglora and Duvillaun.In 795 the first of the Viking raids took place.", "The Vikings came from Scandinavia to raid the monasteries as they were places of wealth with precious metal working taking place in them.", "Some of the larger ecclesiastical settlements erected round towers to prevent their precious items from being plundered and also to show their status and strength against these pagan raiders from the north.", "There are round towers at Aughagower, Balla, Killala, Turlough and Meelick.", "The Vikings established settlements that later developed into towns (Dublin, Cork, Wexford, Waterford etc.)", "but none were in County Mayo.", "Between the reigns of Kings of Connacht Cathal mac Conchobar mac Taidg (973–1010) and Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair (1106–1156), various tribal territories were incorporated into the kingdom of Connacht and ruled by the Siol Muirdaig dynasty, based initially at Rathcroghan in County Roscommon, and from 1050 at Tuam.", "The families of O'Malley and O'Dowd of Mayo served as admirals of the fleet of Connacht, while families such as O'Lachtnan, Mac Fhirbhisigh, and O'Cleary were ecclesiastical and bardic clans.===Anglo-Normans (12th to 16th centuries)===In AD 1169 when one of the warring kings in the east of Ireland, Dermot MacMurrough, appealed to the King of England for help in his fight with a neighbouring king, the response resulted in the Anglo-Norman colonisation of Ireland.County Mayo came under Norman control in AD 1235.Norman control meant the eclipse of many Gaelic lords and chieftains, chiefly the O'Connors of Connacht.", "During the 1230s, the Anglo-Normans and Welsh under Richard Mór de Burgh (c. 1194 – 1242) invaded and settled in the county, introducing new families such as Burke, Gibbons, Staunton, Prendergast, Morris, Joyce, Walsh, Barrett, Lynott, Costello, Padden and Price, Norman names are still common in County Mayo.", "Following the collapse of the lordship in the 1330s, all these families became estranged from the Anglo-Irish administration based in Dublin and assimilated with the Gaelic-Irish, adopting their language, religion, dress, laws, customs and culture and marrying into Irish families.", "They became \"more Irish than the Irish themselves\".The most powerful clan to emerge during this era were the Mac William Burkes, also known as the Mac William Iochtar (see Burke Civil War 1333–1338), descended from Sir William Liath de Burgh, who defeated the Gaelic-Irish at the Second Battle of Athenry in August 1316.They were frequently at war with their cousins, Clanricarde of Galway, and in alliance with or against various factions of the O'Conor's of Siol Muiredaig and O'Kelly's of Uí Maine.", "The O'Donnell's of Tyrconnell regularly invaded in an attempt to secure their right to rule.Grace O'Malley meeting Queen Elizabeth IThe Anglo-Normans encouraged and established many religious orders from continental Europe to settle in Ireland.", "Mendicant orders—Augustinians, Carmelites, Dominicans and Franciscans began new settlements across Ireland and built large churches, many under the patronage of prominent Gaelic families.", "Some of these sites include Cong, Strade, Ballintubber, Errew Abbey, Burrishoole Abbey and Mayo Abbey.", "During the 15th and 16th centuries, despite regular conflicts between them as England chopped and changed between religious beliefs, the Irish usually regarded the King of England as their King.", "When Elizabeth I came to the throne in the mid-16th century, the English people, as was customary at that time, followed the religious practices of the reigning monarch and became Protestant.", "Many Irish people such as Grace O'Malley, the famous pirate queen, had close relationships with the English monarchy, and the English kings and queens were welcome visitors to Irish shores.", "The Irish however, generally held onto their Catholic religious practices and beliefs.", "The early plantations of settlers in Ireland began during the reign of Queen Mary in the mid-16th century and continued throughout the long reign of Queen Elizabeth I until 1603.By then the term ''County Mayo'' had come into use.", "In the summer of 1588, the galleons of the Spanish Armada were wrecked by storms along the west coast of Ireland.", "Some of the hapless Spaniards came ashore in Mayo, only to be robbed and imprisoned, and in many cases slaughtered.Almost all the religious foundations set up by the Anglo-Normans were suppressed in the wake of the Reformation in the 16th century.Protestant settlers from Scotland, England, and elsewhere in Ireland, settled in the County in the early 17th century.", "Many would be killed or forced to flee because of the 1641 Rebellion, during which a number of massacres were committed by the Catholic Gaelic Irish, most notably at Shrule in 1642.A third of the overall population was reported to have perished due to warfare, famine and plague between 1641 and 1653, with several areas remaining disturbed and frequented by Reparees into the 1670s.===17th and 18th centuries===William Brown is considered to be a founding father and national hero in Argentina thanks to his efforts during the Argentine War of Independence and subsequent wars to defend the newfound nationPirate Queen Grace O'Malley is probably the best-known person from County Mayo between the mid-16th century and the turn of the 17th century.", "In the 1640s, when Oliver Cromwell overthrew the English monarchy and set up a parliamentarian government, Ireland suffered severely.", "With a stern regime in absolute control needing to pay its armies and allies, the need to pay them with grants of land in Ireland led to the 'to hell or to Connaught' policies.", "Displaced native Irish families from other (eastern and southern mostly) parts of the country were either forced to leave the country or were awarded grants of land 'west of the Shannon' and put off their own lands in the east.", "The land in the west was divided and sub-divided between more and more people as huge estates were granted on the best land in the east to those who best pleased the English.", "Mayo does not seem to have been affected much during the Williamite War in Ireland, though many natives were outlawed and exiled.For the vast majority of people in County Mayo the 18th century was a period of unrelieved misery.", "Because of the penal laws, Catholics had no hope of social advancement while they remained in their native land.", "Some, like William Brown (1777–1857), left Foxford with his family at the age of nine and thirty years later was an admiral in the fledgeling Argentine Navy.", "Today he is a national hero in that country.The general unrest in Ireland was felt just as keenly across Mayo, and as the 19th century approached and news reached Ireland about the American War of Independence and the French Revolution, the downtrodden Irish, constantly suppressed by Government policies and decisions from Dublin and London, began to rally themselves for their own stand against British rule in their country.", "1798 saw Mayo become a central part of the United Irishmen Rebellion when General Humbert from France landed in Killala with over 1,000 soldiers playing to support the main uprising.", "They marched across the county towards the administrative centre of Castlebar, leading to the Battle of Castlebar.", "Taking the garrison by surprise Humbert's army was victorious.", "He established a ' Republic of Connacht' with John Moore of the Moore family from Moore Hall near Partry as its head.", "Humbert's army marched on towards Sligo, Leitrim and Longford where they were suddenly faced with a massive British army and were forced to surrender in less than half an hour.", "The French soldiers were treated honourably, but for the Irish the surrender meant slaughter.", "Many died on the scaffold in towns like Castlebar and Claremorris, where the high sheriff for County Mayo, the Honourable Denis Browne, M.P., brother of Lord Altamont, wreaked a terrible vengeance – thus earning for himself the nickname which has survived in folk memory to the present day, 'Donnchadh an Rópa' (Denis of the Rope).In the 18th century and early 19th century, sectarian tensions arose as evangelical Protestant missionaries sought to 'redeem the Irish poor from the errors of Popery'.", "One of the best known was the Rev.", "Edward Nangle's mission at Dugort in Achill.", "These too were the years of the campaign for Catholic Emancipation and, later, for the abolition of the tithes, which a predominately Catholic population was forced to pay for the upkeep of the clergy of the Established (Protestant) Church.===19th and 20th centuries===Michael Davitt spearheaded rural agrarian agitation as a leading figure in the Land LeagueDuring the early years of the 19th century, famine was a common occurrence, particularly where population pressure was a problem.", "The population of Ireland grew to over eight million people prior to the Irish Famine (or Great Famine) of 1845–47.The Irish people depended on the potato crop for their sustenance.", "Disaster struck in August 1845, when a killer fungus (later diagnosed as Phytophthora infestans) started to destroy the potato crop.", "When widespread famine struck, about a million people died and a further million left the country.", "People died in the fields of starvation and disease.", "The catastrophe was particularly bad in County Mayo, where nearly ninety per cent of the population depended on the potato as their staple food.", "By 1848, Mayo was a county of total misery and despair, with any attempts at alleviating measures in complete disarray.There are numerous reminders of the Great Famine to be seen on the Mayo landscape: workhouse sites, famine graves, sites of soup kitchens, deserted homes and villages and even traces of undug 'lazy-beds' in fields on the sides of hills.", "Many roads and lanes were built as famine relief measures.", "There were nine workhouses in the county: Ballina, Ballinrobe, Belmullet, Castlebar, Claremorris, Killala, Newport, Swinford and Westport.A small poverty-stricken place called Knock, County Mayo, made headlines when it was announced that an apparition of the Blessed Virgin Mary, St. Joseph and St. John had taken place there on 21 August 1879, witnessed by fifteen local people.A national movement was initiated in County Mayo during 1879 by Michael Davitt, James Daly, and others, which brought about a major social change in Ireland.", "Michael Davitt, a labourer whose family had moved to England joined forces with Charles Stewart Parnell to win back the land for the people from the landlords and stop evictions for non-payment of rents.", "The organisation became known as the Irish National Land League, and its struggle to win rights for poor farmers in Ireland was known as the Land War.It was in this era of agrarian unrest that a new verb was introduced to the English language by Mayo - \"to boycott\".", "Charles Boycott was an English landlord deeply unpopular with his tenants.", "When Charles Steward Parnell made a speech in Ennis, County Clare, urging nonviolent resistance against landlords, his tactics were enthusiastically taken in Mayo against Boycott.", "The entire Catholic community around Lough Mask in South Mayo where Boycott had his estate became a campaign of total social ostracisation against Boycott, a tactic that would one day come to bear his name.", "The campaign against Boycott became a in the British press after he wrote a letter to ''The Times''.", "The British elite rallied to his cause and Fifty Orangemen from County Cavan and County Monaghan travelled to his estate to harvest the crops, while a regiment of the 19th Royal Hussars and more than 1,000 men of the Royal Irish Constabulary were deployed to protect the harvesters.", "However, the cost of doing this was completely uneconomic: It cost the British government somewhere in the region of £10,000 to simply harvest £500 worth of crops.", "Boycott sold off the estate and the British government's resolve to try to break boycotts in this completely dissolved, resulting in victory for the tenants.The \"Land Question\" was gradually resolved by a scheme of state-aided land purchase schemes.", "The tenants became the owners of their lands under the newly set-up Land Commission.A Mayo nun, Mother Agnes Morrogh-Bernard, set up the Foxford Woollen Mill in 1892.She made Foxford synonymous throughout the world with high-quality tweeds, rugs and blankets.Mayo, as all parts of what became the Irish Free State, was affected by the events of the Irish revolutionary period, including the Irish War of Independence and the subsequent Irish Civil War.", "Major John MacBride of Westport was amongst those who took part in the 1916 Easter Rising and was subsequently executed by the British for his participation.", "His death served as a rallying call for Republicans in Mayo and led to Mayo men such as P. J. Ruttledge, Ernie O'Malley, Michael Kilroy and Thomas Derrig to rise up during the War of Independence.", "In the ensuing Civil War, many of these leading figures chose the Anti-treaty side and fought in bitter battles such as those in Ballina, which changed hands between pro and anti-treaty forces a number of times.In the aftermath of the Civil War, there was a consolidation of many of those with anti-treaty feelings into the new political party Fianna Fáil.", "PJ Ruttledge and Thomas Derrig would become founding members of the party and served in Éamon de Valera's first-ever Fianna Fáil government as ministers.", "Mayo politicians would continue to contribute to the national political scene over the decades.", "In 1990 Mary Robinson, from County Mayo, became the first-ever female President of Ireland, and is widely credited with revitalising the position with importance and focus it had never possessed before.", "During her tenure she unveiled Ireland's National Famine Memorial which is situated in the village of Murrisk, County Mayo.In 2011 Enda Kenny became the first politician from a Mayo constituency and the second Mayo native to serve as Taoiseach, the head of government of Ireland.", "Kenny went on to become the longest-serving Fine Gael Taoiseach in Irish history.===Clans and families===In the early historic period, what is now County Mayo consisted of a number of large kingdoms, minor lordships and tribes of obscure origins.", "They included:* Calraige – pre-historic tribe found in the parishes of Attymass, Kilgarvan, Crossmolina and the River Moy* Ciarraige – settlers from Munster found in south-east Mayo around Kiltimagh and west County Roscommon* Conmaicne – a people located in the barony of Kilmaine, alleged descendants of Fergus mac Róich* Fir Domnann – branch of the Laigin, originally from Britain, located in Erris* Gamanraige – pre-historic kings of Connacht, famous for battle with Medb & Ailill of Cruachan in Táin Bó Flidhais.", "Based in Erris, Carrowmore Lake, Killala Bay, Lough Conn* Gailenga – kingdom extending east from Castlebar to adjoining parts of Mayo* Uí Fiachrach Muidhe – a sept of the Connachta, based around Ballina, some of whom were kings of Connacht* Partraige – a pre-Gaelic people of Lough Mask and Lough Carra, namesakes of Partry* Umaill – kingdom surrounding Clew Bay, east towards Castlebar, its rulers adopted the surname O'Malley" ], [ "Politics", "===Local government and political subdivisions===Mayo County Council is the authority responsible for local government.", "As a county council, it is governed by the Local Government Act 2001.The county is divided into four municipal districts of Ballina, Castlebar, Claremorris and Westport–Belmullet, each with a population of roughly 32,000 to 34,000 people.", "The council is responsible for housing and community, roads and transportation, urban planning and development, amenity and culture, and environment.County Mayo is divided into six local electoral areas (LEAs).", "Councillors are elected for a five-year term.", "Local electoral area Number of councillors Castlebar 7 Ballina 6 Westport 4 Belmullet 3 Claremorris 6 Swinford 4The county town is at ''Áras an Contae'' in Castlebar, the main population centre located in the centre of the county.===National politics===Since 2016, Mayo has been represented on a national political level by four TDs who represent the constituency of Mayo in Dáil Eireann.", "Previous to 2016 the constituency had five TDs but this was reduced based on the county's current population in line with proportional representation.", "The electoral divisions of Cong, Dalgan, Houndswood, Kilmaine, Neale, Shrule, in the former Rural District of Ballinrobe, are in Galway West.====Voting patterns and political history==== Historically, Mayo has tended to vote Fianna Fáil, as Fianna Fáil managed to position themselves in the 20th century as the party best fit to represent farmers with small holdings, who were plentiful in Mayo.", "With so many of Mayo's electorate being small farmers, the county became a base for the emergence of Clann na Talmhan, an agrarian party in the 1940s and 1950s.", "Clann an Talmhan's second leader, Joseph Blowick came from South Mayo and that is where his seat was.", "The party was not able to last in the long run though as it was unable to hold together its voting bloc of both small farmers in the west of Ireland and large farmers in the east.Towards the start of the 21st century, the balance of power in Mayo began to shift towards Fine Gael, thanks in part to the emergence of Enda Kenny and Michael Ring.", "Kenny, who became Taoiseach in 2011, led Fine Gael to a historic victory in the 2011 Irish general election which included securing four out of five available seats for his party in Mayo.In 2020, Rose Conway-Walsh came within 200 votes of topping the poll and became the first Sinn Féin TD for Mayo since 1927, riding a nationwide surge for Sinn Féin that year.Despite being historically the third-largest party in Ireland, Labour has struggled to ever make inroads into Mayo.", "The party has only ever had one TD for Mayo, former party leader Thomas J. O'Connell, who represented South Mayo between 1927 and 1932.While Labour has not proven itself electorally successful in Mayo, Mayo has provided important members to the Labour Party.", "Mary Robinson from Ballina became the first-ever female President of Ireland as a Labour candidate while Pat Rabbitte, originally from Claremorris, served as leader of the Labour Party from 2002 to 2007.Serving alongside Rabbitte was Emmet Stagg, one of the longest-standing Labour TDs of the modern era, himself from Hollymount not far from Claremorris." ], [ "Demographics", "The county has experienced perhaps the highest emigration out of Ireland.", "In the 1840s–1880s, waves of emigrants left the rural townlands of the county.", "Initially triggered by the Great Famine and then in search of work in the newly industrialising United Kingdom and the United States, the population plummeted from 388,887 in 1841 to 199,166 in 1901.It reached a low of 109,525 in 1971.Emigration slowed dramatically as the Irish economy began to expand in the 1990s and early 2000s, and the population of Mayo increased from 110,713 in 1991 to 130,638 in 2011.===Religion===In the 2006 National Census, the religious demographic breakdown for County Mayo was 114,215 Roman Catholics, 2,476 Church of Ireland, 733 Muslims, 409 other Christians, 280 Presbyterians, 250 Orthodox Christians, 204 Methodists, 853 other stated religions, 3,267 no religion and 1,152 no stated religion.===Irish language===The distribution of the Irish language in 1871.Mayo's relative remoteness meant that Irish was still widely spoken decades after the Great Famine and is still spoken today in the north-west of the county9% of the population of County Mayo live in the Gaeltacht.", "The Gaeltacht Irish-speaking region in County Mayo is the third-largest in Ireland with 10,886 inhabitants.", "Tourmakeady is the largest village in this area.", "All schools in the area use Irish as the language of instruction.", "Mayo has four gaelscoileanna in its four major towns, providing primary education to students through Irish." ], [ "Transport", "280px===Rail===Westport railway station is the terminus station on the Dublin to Westport Rail service.", "Railway stations are also located at Ballyhaunis, Claremorris, Castlebar, Manulla, Ballina and Foxford.", "All railway stations are located on the same railway line, with the exception of Ballina and Foxford which requires passengers to change at Manulla Junction.", "There are currently four services each way every day on the line.There are also proposals to reopen the currently disused Western Railway Corridor connecting Limerick with Sligo.===Road===There are a number of national primary roads in the county including the N5 road connecting Westport with Dublin, the N17 road connecting the county with Galway and Sligo and the N26 road connecting Ballina with Dublin via the N5.There are a number of national secondary roads in the county also including the N58 road, N59 road, N60 road, N83 road & N84 road.", "As of 2021, a new road running from northwest of Westport to east of Castlebar is under construction.", "The road is a dual carriageway with junctions at the N59, N84 and N60 and will open in late 2022.===Air===Ireland West Airport Knock is an international airport located in the county.", "The name is derived from the nearby village of Knock.", "Recent years have seen the airport's passenger numbers grow to over 650,000 yearly with a number of UK and European destinations.", "August 2014 saw the airport have its busiest month on record with 102,774 passengers using the airport." ], [ "Places of interest", "Ballycastle* Achill Island* Ashford Castle* Ballintubber Abbey* Blacksod Lighthouse* Broadhaven Bay* Burrishoole Abbey* Céide Fields* Clare Island* Clew Bay* Cong Abbey* Croagh Patrick* Eagle Island lighthouse* Erris* Granuaile's Castle, Clare Island* Great Western Greenway* Ireland West Airport, Knock* Joyce Country* Killala Bay* Knock Shrine* List of designated Scenic Roads in County Mayo * Lough Mask* Mayo Peace Park* Moore Hall* Moygownagh* Mullet Peninsula* Murrisk Abbey* Murrisk Millennium Peace Park* National Museum of Ireland – Country Life* National Famine Memorial* Nephin* Partry Mountains* Rockfleet Castle* Sruwaddacon Bay* Tourmakeady* Uggool Beach* Westport House* Wild Nephin National Park" ], [ "Media", "250pxNewspapers in County Mayo include ''The Mayo News'', the ''Connaught Telegraph'', the ''Connacht Tribune'', ''Western People'', and ''Mayo Advertiser'', which is Mayo's only free newspaper.", "''Mayo Now'' is a monthly entertainment and culture magazine for the towns of Ballina, Foxford, Killala, Crossmolina and surrounding areas – this is out on the first Friday of each month.Mayo has its own online TV channel ''Mayo TV'' which was launched in 2011.It covers news and events from around the county and regularly broadcasts live to a worldwide audience.", "Local radio stations include Erris FM, Community Radio Castlebar, Westport Community Radio, BCR FM (Ballina Community Radio) and M.W.R.", "(Mid West Radio).The documentary ''Pipe Down'', which won best feature documentary at the 2009 Waterford Film Festival, was made in Mayo." ], [ "Energy", "'Justice' (for the Rossport Five) mowed in Ros Dumhach hay field===Energy controversy===There is local resistance to Shell's decision to process raw gas from the Corrib gas field at an onshore terminal.", "In 2005, five local men were jailed for contempt of court after refusing to follow an Irish court order.", "Subsequent protests against the project led to the Shell to Sea and related campaigns.===Energy audit===The Mayo Energy Audit 2009–2020 is an investigation into the implications of peak oil and subsequent fossil fuel depletion for a rural county in west of Ireland.", "The study draws together many different strands to examine current energy supply and demand within the area of study, and assesses these demands inthe face of the challenges posed by the declining production of fossil fuels and expected disruptions to supply chains, and by long-term economic recession." ], [ "Sport", "Croke Park kitted out in the Mayo colours for the 2004 All-Ireland Senior Football FinalThe Mayo GAA senior team last won the Sam Maguire Cup in 1951, when the team was captained by Seán Flanagan.", "The team's third title followed victories in 1936 and the previous year, 1950.Since 1951, the team have made numerous All-Ireland Final appearances (in 1989, twice in 1996, 1997, 2004, 2006, 2012, 2013, twice again in 2016 against Dublin, 2017, 2020, with their latest appearance being against Tyrone in the 2021 final), though the team have failed on all occasions to achieve victory over their opponents.The team's unofficial supporters club are Mayo Club '51, named after the last team who won the Sam Maguire.", "The county colours of Mayo GAA are traditionally green and red.The county's most popular association football teams are Westport United and Castlebar Celtic.Although Gaelic football and association football are the most popular sport in the county, other sports are popular in the county as well such as rugby, basketball, hurling, swimming, tennis, badminton, athletics, handball and racquetball." ], [ "Notable people", "Guillermo BrownEnda Kenny* Richard Bourke, 6th Earl of Mayo (1822–1872) – Viceroy of India (1869–1872)* Patrick Browne (1720–1790) – physician and botanist* Michael Davitt (1846–1906) – Irish republican, agrarian campaigner, labour leader, Home Rule politician and Member of Parliament (MP) who founded the Irish National Land League.", "* Grace O'Malley (circa 1530 – circa 1603) – Lord of the O'Malley dynasty in the 16th century* Admiral William Brown (1777–1857) – Founder of the Argentine Navy* Charles Haughey (1925–2006) – Taoiseach of Ireland (1979–1982; 1987–1992)* Enda Kenny (born 1951) – Politician, leader of Fine Gael (2002–2017), and Taoiseach of Ireland (2011–2017)* John MacBride (1868–1916) – Republican and military leader, executed by the British for his participation in the 1916 Easter Rising* William O'Dwyer (1890–1964) – 100th mayor of New York City (1946–1950)* Mary Robinson (born 1944) – First female President of Ireland (1990–1997), and United Nations High Commissioner for Human rights.", "* Millie Robinson (1924–1994) – Cyclist: first winner of women's Tour de France (1955) and holder of women's world hour record (1958)* Sally Rooney (born 1991) – Author (''Conversations with Friends'', ''Normal People''), and screenwriter* Martin Sheridan, Olympic Games gold medalist representing the United States* Louis Walsh (born 1952) – Entertainment manager and judge on ''The X Factor'' (UK), and ''Ireland's Got Talent''" ], [ "See also", "* High Sheriff of Mayo* List of abbeys and priories in the Republic of Ireland (County Mayo)* List of loughs of County Mayo* List of Mayo people* List of mountains and hills of County Mayo* List of rivers of County Mayo* List of roads of County Mayo* Lord Lieutenant of Mayo* Mayo County Council* River Robe* Táin Bó Flidhais" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Connaught Telegraph* County Mayo: An Outline History * Family History in North County Mayo* Historical Ballinrobe* Irish language in Mayo* Wild Atlantic Way Mayo Route Map and Guide* Mayo.ie* Mayo County Council's website* Mayo News* The Mayo Peace Park and Garden of Remembrance* Western People" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "County Fermanagh" ], [ "Introduction", "'''County Fermanagh''' ( ; ) is one of the thirty-two counties of Ireland, one of the nine counties of Ulster and one of six counties of Northern IrelandThe county covers an area of 1,691 km2 (653 sq mi) and had a population of 63,585 as of 2021.Enniskillen is the county town and largest in both size and population.Fermanagh is one of four counties of Northern Ireland to have a majority of its population from a Catholic background, according to the 2011 census." ], [ "Geography", "The Cuilcagh range, on the Cavan/Fermanagh border.Lower Lough ErneFermanagh spans an area of 1,851 km2 (715 sq; mi), accounting for 13.2% of the landmass of Northern Ireland.", "Nearly a third of the county is covered by lakes and waterways, including Upper and Lower Lough Erne and the River Erne.", "Forests cover 14% of the landmass (42,000 hectares).", "It is the only county in Northern Ireland that does not border Lough Neagh.The county has three prominent upland areas: * the expansive West Fermanagh Scarplands to the southwest of Lough Erne, which rise to about 350m,* the Sliabh Beagh hills, situated to the east on the Monaghan border, and * the Cuilcagh mountain range, located along Fermanagh's southern border, which contains Cuilcagh, the county's highest point, at 665m.The county borders:* County Tyrone to the north-east, * County Monaghan to the south-east, * County Cavan to the south-west, * County Leitrim to the west, and * County Donegal to the north-west.Fermanagh is by far the least populous of Northern Ireland's six counties, with just over one-third the population of Tyrone, the next least populous county.It is approximately from Belfast and from Dublin.", "The county town, Enniskillen, is the largest settlement in Fermanagh, situated in the middle of the county.The county enjoys a temperate oceanic climate (''Cfb''') with cool winters, mild humid summers, and a lack of temperature extremes, according to the Köppen climate classification.The National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty manages three sites of historic and natural beauty in the county: Crom Estate, Florence Court, and Castle Coole.===Geology===The oldest sediments in the county are found north of Lough Erne.", "These so-called red beds were formed approximately 550 million years ago.", "Extensive sandstone can be found in the eastern part of the county, laid down during the Devonian, 400 million years ago.", "Much of the rest of the county's sediments are shale and limestone dating from the Carboniferous, 354 to 298 million years ago.", "These softer sediments have produced extensive cave systems such as the Shannon Cave, the Marble Arch Caves and the Caves of the Tullybrack and Belmore hills.", "The carboniferous shale exists in several counties of northwest Ireland, an area known colloquially as the Lough Allen basin.", "The basin is estimated to contain 9.4 trillion cubic metres of natural gas, equivalent to 1.5 billion barrels of oil.The county is situated over a sequence of prominent faults, primarily the Killadeas – Seskinore Fault, the Tempo – Sixmilecross Fault, the Belcoo Fault and the Clogher Valley Fault which cross-cuts Lough Erne." ], [ "History", "The Menapii are the only known Celtic tribe specifically named on Ptolemy's 150 AD map of Ireland, where they located their first colony—Menapia—on the Leinster coast .", "They later settled around Lough Erne, becoming known as the Fir Manach, and giving their name to Fermanagh and Monaghan.", "Mongán mac Fiachnai, a 7th-century King of Ulster, is the protagonist of several legends linking him with Manannán mac Lir.", "They spread across Ireland, evolving into historic Irish (also Scottish and Manx) clans.The Annals of Ulster which cover medieval Ireland between AD 431 to AD 1540 were written at Belle Isle on Lough Erne near Lisbellaw.Fermanagh was a stronghold of the Maguire clan and Donn Carrach Maguire (died 1302) was the first of the chiefs of the Maguire dynasty.", "However, on the confiscation of lands relating to Hugh Maguire, Fermanagh was divided in a similar manner to the other five escheated counties among Scottish and English undertakers and native Irish.", "The baronies of Knockninny and Magheraboy were allotted to Scottish undertakers, those of Clankelly, Magherastephana and Lurg to English undertakers and those of Clanawley, Coole, and Tyrkennedy, to servitors and natives.", "The chief families to benefit under the new settlement were the families of Cole, Blennerhasset, Butler, Hume, and Dunbar.Fermanagh was made into a county by a statute of Elizabeth I, but it was not until the time of the Plantation of Ulster that it was finally brought under civil government.The closure of all the lines of Great Northern Railway (Ireland) within County Fermanagh in 1957 left the county as the first non-island county in the UK without a railway service." ], [ "Administration", "The county was administered by Fermanagh County Council from 1899 until the abolition of county councils in Northern Ireland in 1973.With the creation of Northern Ireland's district councils, Fermanagh District Council became the only one of the 26 that contained all of the county from which it derived its name.", "After the re-organisation of local government in 2015, Fermanagh was still the only county wholly within one council area, namely Fermanagh and Omagh District Council, albeit that it constituted only a part of that entity.For the purposes of elections to the UK Parliament, the territory of Fermanagh is part of the Fermanagh and South Tyrone Parliamentary Constituency.", "This constituency elected Provisional IRA hunger-striker Bobby Sands as a member of parliament in the April 1981 Fermanagh and South Tyrone by-election, shortly before his death." ], [ "Demographics", "=== 2011 census ===On Census Day 27 March 2011, the usually resident population of Fermanagh Local Government District, the borders of the district were very similar to those of the traditional County Fermanagh, was 61,805.Of these: 0.93% were from an ethnic minority population and the remaining 99.07% were white (including Irish Traveller)59.16% belong to or were brought up in the Catholic religion and 37.78% belong to or were brought up in a 'Protestant and Other Christian (including Christian related)' religion37.20% indicated that they had a British national identity, 36.08% had an Irish national identity and 29.53% had a Northern Irish national identity===2021 Census===On Census Day (2021), the usually resident population of Fermanagh Local Government District, the borders of the district were very similar to those of the traditional County Fermanagh, was 63,585.Of these:58.8% belong to or were brought up in the Catholic religion and 35.5% belong to or were brought up in a 'Protestant and Other Christian (including Christian related)' religion.=== Community background and religion ===+Religion or religion brought up in (2021 Census)Religion or religion brought up inNumber(%)Catholic37,39958.8Protestant and Other Christian22,55935.5None (no religion)2,9474.6Other6801.1Total63,585100.0+Religion (2021 Census)ReligionNumber(%)Christian55,89287.9Catholic35,41255.7Church of Ireland13,06520.5Methodist2,5524.0Presbyterian1,9893.1Other Christian (including Christian related)2,8744.5''Protestant and Other Christian: Total''''20,480''''32.2''Other6010.9Islam2160.3Hinduism500.08Other religions3350.5None/not stated7,09211.2No religion5,8859.3Religion not stated 1,2071.9Total 63,585100.0=== Ethnicity ===+Ethnic group (2021 Census)Ethnic groupNumber(%)White: Total62,58398.4White: British/Irish/Northern Irish/English/Scottish/Welsh (with or without non-UK or Irish national identities)60,24494.7White: Other2,1993.5White: Irish Traveller1350.2White: Roma40.006Other ethnic groups: Total1,0021.6Asian or Asian British5010.8Black or Black British1220.2Mixed3040.5Other: Any other ethnic group750.1Total63,585100.0=== Country of birth ===+Country of birth, 2021 CensusCountry of birthNumber(%)United Kingdom and Ireland60,43395.0Northern Ireland52,06381.9England3,4775.5Scotland4200.7Wales980.2Republic of Ireland4,3756.9Europe2,1393.4European Union2,0473.2Other non-EU countries920.2Rest of World1,0131.6Middle East and Asia4680.7North America, Central America and Caribbean2430.4Africa1870.3Antarctica, Oceania and Other850.1South America300.05Total63,585100.0=== Main languages ===+Main languages of all usual residents over the age of 3 (2021 Census)Main languageUsual residents aged 3+(%)English59,08196.4Polish6491.1Lithuanian3890.6Bulgarian2000.3Irish1380.2Latvian1150.2All other languages7451.2Total (usual residents aged 3+)61,316100.0=== Knowledge of Irish ===+Ability in Irish of all usual residents over the age of 3 (2021 Census)Ability in IrishNumber(%)Speaks, reads, writes and understands Irish2,7034.4Speaks and reads but does not write Irish5090.8Speaks but does not read or write Irish2,3363.8Understands but does not read, write or speak Irish3,1145.1Other combination of skills9291.5Has some knowledge of Irish: Total9,59115.6No ability in Irish51,72584.4Total (usual residents aged 3+)61,316100.0=== Knowledge of Ulster Scots ===+Ability in Ulster Scots of all usual residents over the age of 3 (2021 Census)Ability in Ulster ScotsNumber(%)Speaks, reads, writes and understands Ulster Scots4900.8Speaks and reads but does not write Ulster Scots3190.5Speaks but does not read or write Ulster Scots1,1941.9Understands but does not read, write or speak Ulster Scots2,4684.0Other combination of skills3950.6Has some knowledge of Ulster Scots: Total4,8667.9No ability in Ulster Scots56,45092.1Total (usual residents aged 3+)61,316100.0=== National identity ===+National identity (2021 Census)National identityNumber%Irish only24,34138.3%British only16,67826.2%Northern Irish only13,54321.3%British and Northern Irish only2,8634.5%Irish and Northern Irish only1,1681.8%British, Irish and Northern Irish only6020.9%British and Irish only3050.5%Other identity4,0866.4%Total63,585100.0%All Irish identities26,65341.9%All British identities20,92032.9%All Northern Irish identities18,48129.1%" ], [ "Industry and tourism", "Agriculture and tourism are two of the most important industries in Fermanagh.", "The main types of farming in the area are beef, dairy, sheep, pigs and some poultry.", "Most of the agricultural land is used as grassland for grazing and silage or hay rather than for other crops.The waterways are extensively used by cabin cruisers, other small pleasure craft and anglers.", "The main town of Fermanagh is Enniskillen (, 'Ceithleann's island').", "The island town hosts a range of attractions including the Castle Coole Estate and Enniskillen Castle, which is home to the museum of The Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers and the 5th Royal Inniskilling Dragoon Guards.", "Fermanagh is also home to The Boatyard Distillery, a distillery producing gin.Attractions outside Enniskillen include:* Belleek Pottery* Castle Archdale* Crom Estate* Cuilcagh Boardwalk Trail* Devenish Island* Florence Court* Marble Arch Caves* Tempo Manor" ], [ "Settlements", "The classification of settlements by NISRA defines six categories following the 2011 census (ignoring Belfast and Derry City which have their own separate categories), namely; Large towns, Medium towns, Small towns, Intermediate settlements, Villages and Small villages or hamlets.", "The majority of the settlements in County Fermanagh lie within the final category, five within the village category and one each in the intermediate settlements and medium towns categories.", "No settlements in the county are classified as Large towns or Small towns.=== Large towns ===(population of 18,000 or more and under 75,000 at 2011 Census)* none===Medium towns===(population of 10,000 or more and under 18,000 at 2011 Census)* Enniskillen===Small towns===(population of 5,000 or more and under 10,000 at 2011 Census)* none===Intermediate settlements===(population of 2,500 or more and under 4,500 at 2011 Census)* Lisnaskea===Villages===(population of 1,000 or more and under 2,500 at 2011 Census)* Ballinamallard* Irvinestown* Kesh* Lisbellaw* Maguiresbridge===Small villages or hamlets===(population of less than 1,000 at 2011 Census)===Population of Settlements===SettlementGaeilge2001 Population2011 Population2021 PopulationArney / Skeaan Arna / Sceach114125134BallinamallardBéal Átha na Mallacht1,3401,4321,364Ballycassidy / Laragh / TroryBaile Uí Chaiside / Lathrach / Treabhraigh315363357Belcoo / HolywellBéal Cú / Dabhach Phádraig486540439BellanaleckBealach na Leice213532714BelleekBéal Leice836904968BrookeboroughAchadh Lon517452438ClabbyClabaigh198268282DerrygonnellyDoire Ó gConaíle594678574DerrylinDoire Loinne423640656DonaghDomhnach255179164EderneyEadarnaidh554587553EnniskillenInis Ceithleann13,59913,79014,120Florencecourt / DrumlaghyMullach na Seangán / Druim Lathaighe13591102Garrisonan Garastún357351392IrvinestownNa Cairn / Baile an Irbhinigh1,8012,2642,320Keshan Cheis9721,0361,101KilladeasCill Chéile Dé906382Killesher / DerrylesterCill Laisre / Doire an LeastairN/AN/A59KinawleyCill Náile75141142Lackan Leac114111111LetterbreenLeitir BhruínN/A6851LisbellawLios Béal Átha1,0461,1021,085LisnarickLios na nDaróg219238203LisnaskeaLios na Scéithe2,7392,9603,006MagheraveelyMachaire MhílicN/A66N/AMaguiresbridgeDroichead Mhig Uidhir7741,0381,029MoneaMaigh Niadh114206248Newtownbutleran Baile Nua943987972Pettigo (Portion in Co. Fermanagh)Paiteagó816376RosleaRos Liath554528482SpringfieldAchadh an Fhuaráin697369TamlaghtTamhlacht276409341Teemorean Tigh MórN/A184161Tempoan tIompú Deiseal533489458Population statistics were not made available from the 2001, 2011 and 2021 censuses, where noted with an \"N/A\"." ], [ "Subdivisions", "'''Baronies'''Baronies of County Fermanagh within Northern Ireland with civil parish boundariesClanawleyClankellyCooleKnockninnyLurgMagheraboyMagherastephanaTirkennedy'''Parishes''''''Townlands'''" ], [ "Media", "'''Newspapers'''* ''The Fermanagh Herald''* ''The Impartial Reporter''" ], [ "Education", "There are 41 primary schools currently in operation in County Fermanagh, 10 secondary schools, one special school and one further education college.", "'''Primary Schools''''''Secondary Schools''''''Further Education College'''* ''South West College, Enniskillen Campus'''''Special School'''* ''Willowbridge Special School'''''Closed Schools''' * ''St Mary's High School, Belleek'' -Brollagh Closed 2021* ''St.", "Eugene’s College, Roslea'' - Closed 2017* ''St.", "Eugene’s Primary School, Knocks'' - Closed 2013* ''Lisnaskea High School'' - Closed 2013* ''Corranny Primary School'' - Closed 2012* ''Cornagague Primary School''- Closed 2012* ''Duke of Westminster High School, Ballinamallard'' - Closed 2004* ''Kesh Duke of Westminster'' - Closed 2004* ''Ashwoods Primary School'' - Closed 1968* ''St Mary's Primary School, Bannagh'' - Closed 1960/70s" ], [ "Sport", "Fermanagh GAA has never won a Senior Provincial or an All-Ireland title in any Gaelic games, it is only one of two counties to win neither title.", "There are 22 GAA clubs in the county, this is the second least of all 32 counties (Longford now has the least, with 21 GAA clubs).Only Ballinamallard United F.C.", "take part in the Northern Ireland football league system.", "All other Fermanagh clubs play in the Fermanagh & Western FA league systems.", "Fermanagh Mallards F.C.", "played in the Women's Premier League until 2013.Enniskillen RFC was founded in 1925 and is still going.", "There is also a rugby league team, the Fermanagh RedskinsFamous football players from Fermanagh include –* Sandy Fulton* Jim ClearyRoy Carroll Harry Chatton* Barry Owens* Kyle Lafferty" ], [ "Notable people", "Famous people born, raised in or living in Fermanagh include: * John Armstrong (1717–1795), born in Fermanagh, Major General in the Continental Army and delegate in the Continental Congress* Samuel Beckett (1906–1989), author and playwright from Foxrock in Dublin, educated at Portora Royal School* Darren Breslin, traditional musician* The 1st Viscount Brookeborough, Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, 1943–1963* Denis Parsons Burkitt (1911–1993), doctor, discoverer of Burkitt's lymphoma* Roy Carroll (born 1977), association footballer* Edward Cooney (1867–1960), evangelist and early leader of the Cooneyite and Go-Preachers* Brian D'Arcy (born 1945), C.P., Passionist priest and media personality* Brendan Dolan (born 1973), professional darts player for the PDC* Adrian Dunbar (born 1958), actor* Arlene Foster, Baroness Foster of Aghadrumsee (born 1970), politician* Neil Hannon (born 1970), musician* Robert Kerr (1882–1963), athlete and Olympic gold medalist* Kyle Lafferty (born 1987), Northern Ireland International association footballer* Charles Lawson (born 1959), actor (plays Jim McDonald in ''Coronation Street'')* Francis Little (1822–1890), born in Fermanagh, Wisconsin State Senator* Terence MacManus (c. 1823–1861), leader in Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848* Michael Magner (1840–97), recipient of the Victoria Cross* Peter McGinnity, Gaelic footballer, Fermanagh's first winner of an All-Star Award* Martin McGrath, Gaelic footballer, All-Star winner* Ciarán McMenamin (born 1975), actor* Gilla Mochua Ó Caiside (12th century), poet* Aurora Mulligan, director* Barry Owens, Gaelic footballer, two-time All-Star winner* Sean Quinn (born 1947), entrepreneur* Michael Sleavon (1826–1902), recipient of the Victoria Cross* Patrick Treacy, author and one-time physician to Michael Jackson * Joan Trimble (1915–2000), pianist and composer* Oscar Wilde (1854–1900), author and playwright, educated at Portora Royal School* Gordon Wilson (1927–1995), peace campaigner and Irish senator" ], [ "Surnames", "The most common surnames in County Fermanagh at the time of the United Kingdom Census of 1901 were:# Maguire# McManus# Johnston# Armstrong# Gallagher# Elliott# Murphy# Reilly# Cassidy# Wilson" ], [ "Railways", "The railway lines in County Fermanagh connected Enniskillen railway station with Derry from 1854, Dundalk from 1861, Bundoran from 1868 and Sligo from 1882.The railway companies that served the county, prior to the establishment by the merger of Londonderry and Enniskillen Railway, Enniskillen and Bundoran Railway the Dundalk and Enniskillen Railway which was later named the Irish North Western Railway, thus forming the Great Northern Railway (Ireland).", "By 1883 the Great Northern Railway (Ireland) absorbed all the lines except the Sligo, Leitrim and Northern Counties Railway, which remained independent throughout its existence.In October 1957 the Government of Northern Ireland closed the GNR line, which made it impossible for the SL&NCR continue and forced it also to close.The nearest railway station to Enniskillen is Sligo station which is served by trains to Dublin Connolly and is operated by Iarnród Éireann.", "The Dublin-Sligo railway line has a two-hourly service run by Iarnród Éireann.", "The connecting bus from Sligo via Manorhamilton to Enniskillen is route '''66''' operated by Bus Éireann." ], [ "See also", "* Abbeys and priories in Northern Ireland (County Fermanagh)* Castles in County Fermanagh* Extreme points of the United Kingdom* High Sheriff of Fermanagh* List of parishes of County Fermanagh* List of places in County Fermanagh* List of townlands in County Fermanagh* Lord Lieutenant of Fermanagh* People from County Fermanagh" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Clogher Record* \"Fermanagh\" A Dictionary of British Place-Names.", "A. D. Mills.", "Oxford University Press, 2003.Oxford Reference Online.", "Oxford University Press.", "Northern Ireland Public Libraries.", "25 July 2007* \"Fermanagh\" Encyclopædia Britannica.", "2007.Encyclopædia Britannica Online Library Edition.", "25 July 2007 .", "* Fermanagh: its special landscapes: a study of the Fermanagh countryside and its heritage /Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland.", "– Belfast: HMSO, 1991 * Livingstone, Peadar.", "– The Fermanagh story:a documented history of the County Fermanagh from the earliest times to the present day – Enniskillen: Cumann Seanchais Chlochair, 1969.", "* Lowe, Henry N. – County Fermanagh 100 years ago: a guide and directory 1880.– Belfast: Friar's Bush Press, 1990.", "* Parke, William K. – A Fermanagh Childhood.", "Derrygonnelly, Co Fermanagh: Friar's Bush Press, 1988.", "* Impartial Reporter* Fermanagh Herald" ], [ "External links", "** Fermanagh on the interactive map of the counties of Great Britain and Ireland – Wikishire* A folk history of Fermanagh" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Christian (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Christian''' most often refers to:* Christians, people who follow or adhere to Christianity* pertaining to Christianity* Christian (given name), including a list of people and fictional characters with the given name* Christian (surname), including a list of people with the surname'''Christian''' or '''The Christian''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "===Film===* ''Christian'' (1939 film), a Czech comedy film* ''Christian'' (1989 film), a Danish drama film* ''The Christian'' (1911 film), an Australian silent film* ''The Christian'' (1914 film), an American silent film directed by Frederick A. Thomson* ''The Christian'' (1915 film), a British silent film directed by George Loane Tucker * ''The Christian'' (1923 film), an American silent film drama directed by Maurice Tourneur===Music===* \"Christian\" (song), a 1982 song by China Crisis * ''Christian the Christian'', a 2004 album by Lackthereof* The Christians (band), a UK band from Liverpool, formed 1985* \"Christian\", a 2023 song by Zior Park===Other uses in arts and entertainment===* ''The Christian'', an 1897 novel and play by Hall Caine, adapted for Broadway* ''The Christian'' (magazine), the title of several magazines* Christian, the protagonist in John Bunyan's novel ''The Pilgrim's Progress''" ], [ "People", "* Christian of Clogher (d. 1138), saint and Irish bishop* Christian of Oliva, a 13th-century Cistercian monk* Christian (bishop of Aarhus), fl.", "c. 1060 to c. 1102* Christian (footballer, born 1995) (Christian Savio Machado)* Christian (footballer, born 2000) (Christian Roberto Alves Cardoso)* Christian (singer) (Gaetano Cristiano Rossi, born 1949)* Christian, ring name of professional wrestler Christian Cage (William Jason Reso, born November 30, 1973)* Prince Christian (disambiguation)* Christian I (disambiguation)* Christian II (disambiguation)* Christian III (disambiguation)" ], [ "Other uses", "* Christian the lion (born 1969)* Christian, West Virginia, a place in the U.S." ], [ "See also", "* The Christians (disambiguation)* Cyclone Christian, another name for the St. Jude storm of 2013* Christian Doctrine in United States federal law, arising from ''G.", "L. Christian and Associates v. United States''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Colombia" ], [ "Introduction", "The Republic of Colombia is situated largely in the north-west of South America, with some territories falling within the boundaries of Central America.", "It is bordered to the north-west by Panama; to the east by Brazil and Venezuela; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; and it shares maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, the Dominican Republic, and Haiti.Colombia has a land size of and it is the 25th largest nation in the world and the fourth-largest country in South America (after Brazil, Argentina, and Peru).", "Colombia's population is not evenly distributed, and most of the people live in the mountainous western portion of the country as well as along the northern coastline; the highest number live in or near the capital city of Bogotá.", "The southern and eastern portions of the country are sparsely inhabited, consisting of tropical rainforest, and inland tropical plains that contain large estates or large livestock farms, oil and gas production facilities, small farming communities, and indigenous tribes with their territories.", "Colombia has the 35th largest Exclusive Economic Zone of ." ], [ "Main", "Colombia usually classifies its geography into five natural regions, from the Andes mountain range, a region shared with Ecuador, Venezuela; the Pacific Ocean coastal region, shared with Panama and Ecuador; the Caribbean Sea coastal region, shared with Venezuela and Panama; the ''Llanos'' (plains), shared with Venezuela; to the Amazon Rainforest region shared with Venezuela, Brazil, Peru and Ecuador.", "Colombia is the only South American country that has coastline on both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.", "''The World Factbook'' does not differentiate between the Amazon region of Colombia (predominantly jungle) and the Orinoquia region of Colombia (predominantly plains).", "It suggests dividing the country into four geographic regions: the Andean highlands, consisting of the three Andean ranges and intervening valley lowlands; the Caribbean lowlands coastal region; the Pacific lowlands coastal region, separated from the Caribbean lowlands by swamps at the base of the Isthmus of Panama; and eastern Colombia, the great plain that lies to the east of the Andes Mountains.Nariño DepartmentThe chief western mountain range, the Cordillera Occidental, is a moderately high range with peaks reaching up to about (4,670 m).", "The Cauca River Valley, an important agricultural region with several large cities on its borders, separates the Cordillera Occidental from the massive Cordillera Central.", "Several snow-clad volcanoes in the Cordillera Central have summits that rise above .", "The valley of the slow-flowing and muddy Magdalena River, a major transportation artery, separates the Cordillera Central from the main eastern range, the Cordillera Oriental.", "The peaks of the Cordillera Oriental are moderately high.", "This range differs from Colombia's other mountain ranges in that it contains several large basins.", "In the east, the sparsely populated, flat to gently rolling eastern lowlands called ''llanos'' cover almost 60 percent of the country's total land area.This cross section of the republic does not include two of Colombia's regions: the Caribbean coastal lowlands and the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, both in the northern part of the country.", "The lowlands in the west are mostly swampy; the reed-filled marshes of the area are called ''ciénagas'' by the people of Colombia.", "The Guajira Peninsula in the east is semiarid and is occupied primarily by indigenous peoples.", "The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is a spectacular triangular snowcapped block of rock that towers over the eastern part of this lowland.", "Here can be found the highest peak of the country, named Pico Cristobal Colon (5775 m).===Andean region===Páramo of Rabanal, Boyacá.Glaciers in Colombia.Near the Ecuadorian frontier, the Andes Mountains divide into three distinct, roughly parallel chains, called cordilleras, that extend northeastward almost to the Caribbean Sea.", "Altitudes reach more than , and mountain peaks are permanently covered with snow.", "The elevated basins and plateaus of these ranges have a moderate climate that provides pleasant living conditions and in many places enables farmers to harvest twice a year.", "Torrential rivers on the slopes of the mountains produce a large hydroelectric power potential and add their volume to the navigable rivers in the valleys.", "In the late 1980s, approximately 78 percent of the country's population lived in the Andean highlands.The Cordillera Occidental in the west, the Cordillera Central in the center, and the Cordillera Oriental in the east have different characteristics.", "Geologically, the Cordillera Occidental and the Cordillera Central form the western and eastern sides of a massive crystalline arch that extends from the Caribbean lowlands to the southern border of Ecuador.", "The Cordillera Oriental, however, is composed of folded stratified rocks overlying a crystalline core.The Cordillera Occidental is relatively low and is the least populated of the three cordilleras.", "Summits are only about above sea level and do not have permanent snows.", "Few passes exist, although one that is about above sea level provides the major city of Cali with an outlet to the Pacific Ocean.", "The relatively low elevation of the cordillera permits dense vegetation, which on the western slopes is truly tropical.The Cordillera Occidental is separated from the Cordillera Central by the deep rift of the Cauca Valley.", "The Río Cauca rises within of the border with Ecuador and flows through some of the best farmland in the country.", "After the two cordilleras converge, the Cauca Valley becomes a deep gorge reaching to the Caribbean lowlands.The Cordillera Central is the loftiest of the mountain systems.", "Its crystalline rocks form a towering wall dotted with snow-covered volcanoes that is long.", "There are no plateaus in this range and no passes under .", "The highest peak in this range, the Nevado del Huila, reaches above sea level.", "The second highest peak is a volcano, Nevado del Ruiz, which erupted violently on November 13, 1985.Toward its northern end, this cordillera separates into several branches that descend toward the Caribbean coast.Between the Cordillera Central and the Cordillera Oriental flows the Magdalena River.", "This river rises near a point some north of the border with Ecuador, where the Cordillera Oriental and the Cordillera Central diverge.", "Its spacious drainage area is fed by numerous mountain torrents originating high in the snowfields.", "The Magdalena River is generally navigable from the Caribbean Sea as far as the town of Neiva, deep in the interior, but it is interrupted midway by rapids.", "The valley floor is very deep; nearly from the river's mouth the elevation is no more than about .In the Cordillera Oriental, at elevations between , three large fertile basins and a number of small ones provide suitable areas for settlement and intensive economic production.", "In the basin of Cundinamarca, where the Spanish encountered the regional Chibcha Indians, the European invaders established the town of Santa Fe de Bogotá (present-day Bogotá) at an elevation of above sea level.To the north of Bogotá, in the densely populated basins of Chiquinquirá and Boyacá, are fertile fields, rich mines, and large industrial establishments that produce much of the national wealth.", "Still farther north, where the Cordillera Oriental makes an abrupt turn to the northwest near the border with Venezuela, the Sierra Nevada de Cocuy, the highest point of this range, rises to above sea level.", "In the department of Santander, the valleys on the western slopes are more spacious, and agriculture is intensive in the area around Bucaramanga.", "The northernmost region of the range around Cúcuta is so rugged that historically it has been easier for residents here to maintain communications and transportation with Venezuela than with the adjacent parts of Colombia.The basic plantation of Colombia is grassy and is near the equator which allows many tropical-like plants.===Caribbean region===Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, the highest standing mountain by the sea.The Caribbean lowlands consist of all of Colombia north of an imaginary line extending northeastward from the Golfo de Urabá to the Venezuelan frontier at the northern extremity of the Cordillera Oriental.", "The semiarid Guajira Peninsula and Guajira–Barranquilla xeric scrub, in the extreme north, bear little resemblance to the rest of the region.", "In the southern part rises the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, an isolated mountain system with peaks reaching heights over and slopes generally too steep for cultivation.The Caribbean lowlands region is in roughly the shape of a triangle, the longest side of which is the coastline.", "Most of the country's commerce moves through the cities of Cartagena, Barranquilla, Santa Marta, and the other ports located along this important coast.", "Inland from these cities are swamps, hidden streams, and shallow lakes that support banana and cotton plantations for major commodity crops, countless small farms, and, in higher places, cattle ranches.The city of Cartagena is a petrochemical, seaport (#1 in the country), and tourist city (#1 in the country).", "Santa Marta is also a seaport and tourist city but it is smaller scale city in comparison.", "Barranquilla is located some from the Caribbean coastline but it is a more developed city, with a greater number of industries and commercial places, widely known for its skilled workers in producing all forms of metalwork and accomplishing construction.", "Its inhabitants have the highest education level of the region.", "The city is famous as the starting point and focus of the region and the country's development: it was the first city in the nation to install and use telephones, public lighting, air mail, planes, and industrial works.The Caribbean region merges next to and is connected with the Andean highlands through the two great river valleys.", "After the Andean highlands, it is the second-most important region in terms of economic activity.", "Approximately 17% of the country's population lived in this region in the late 1980s.The region also includes the peninsular archipelago of San Andres Island and the Insular Territories of Colombia, which are disputed in part by Nicaragua.", "However, the Colombian Navy protects such territories with the use of force when necessary to avoid foreign invasion.", "The islands are fortified with two important bases for defense and custom controls.", "These were formerly used for research of classified projects with civilian assistance; the local universities often conduct research in the areas of oceanography and marine biology but also in the fields of biochemistry, genetics and immunology.", "Colombia is known for its advances in medical fields in experimental surgery, breast implant development, or prosthetics, and immunology.", "These facilities serve as containment and secure experimentation labs to complement those in Barranquilla and other undisclosed locations within the coast territories.The '''Insular Region''' is considered by some as a geopolitical region of Colombia.", "It comprises the areas outside the continental territories of Colombia and includes the San Andrés y Providencia Department in the Caribbean sea and the Malpelo and Gorgona islands in the Pacific Ocean.", "Its subregions include other groups of islands:* Archipiélago de San Bernardo (in the Morrosquillo Gulf, Caribbean).", "* Islas del Rosario (Caribbean)* Isla Fuerte (Caribbean)* Isla Barú (Caribbean)* Isla Tortuguilla (Caribbean)* Isla Tierra Bomba (Caribbean)===Pacific region===The western third of the country is the most geographically complex.", "Starting at the shore of the Pacific Ocean in the west and moving eastward at a latitude of 5 degrees north, a diverse sequence of features is encountered.", "In the extreme west are the very narrow and discontinuous Pacific coastal lowlands, which are backed by the Serranía de Baudó, the lowest and narrowest of Colombia's mountain ranges.", "Next is the broad region of the Río Atrato/Río San Juan lowland.In 1855, William Kennish, an engineer and veteran of the British Royal Navy, who had immigrated to the United States and was working for a New York City firm, studied the area and proposed an inter-oceanic river aqueduct and tunnel to connect the Rio Atrato, with its mouth at the Atlantic Ocean, with tributaries and through a tunnel and aqueduct through Nerqua Pass, to flow into Bahía Humboldt at the Pacific Ocean.This was his alternative to the canal that was eventually built further west on the isthmus of what became Panama after it gained independence in the early 20th century.", "Although the US sent an expedition to explore Kennish's proposal, the concept was not developed at the time.", "Colombia refused a later US offer to build a canal.", "After independence, in 1903 Panama made a treaty with the US to support construction of the Panama Canal.", "Colombia occupies most of the Andes mountain range northern extremity, sharing a bit with Venezuela; the range splits into three branches between the Colombia-Ecuador border.In the 1980s, only three percent of all Colombians resided in the Pacific lowlands, a region of jungle and swamp with considerable but little-exploited potential in minerals and other resources.", "Later in the 20th century, it was threatened by mining-related deforestation, as gold mining proceeded by both major companies and artisan miners.", "Buenaventura is the only port of any size on the coast.", "To the east, the Pacific lowlands are bounded by the Cordillera Occidental, from which numerous streams run.", "Most of the streams flow westward to the Pacific, but the largest, the navigable Río Atrato, flows northward to the Golfo de Urabá.", "Its river settlements have access to the major Atlantic ports and consequently are commercially related primarily to the Caribbean lowlands hinterland.", "To the west of the Río Atrato rises the Serranía de Baudó, an isolated chain of low mountains that occupies a large part of the region.", "Its highest elevation is less than 1,800 meters, and its vegetation resembles that of the surrounding tropical forest.The Atrato Swamp, in Chocó Department adjoining the border with Panama, is a deep muck sixty-five kilometers in width.", "For years it has challenged engineers seeking to complete the Pan-American Highway.", "This stretch, near Turbo, where the highway is interrupted, is known as the Tapón del Chocó (Chocon Plug).A second major transportation project in Chocó Department has been proposed.", "A second inter-oceanic canal would be constructed by dredging the Río Atrato and tributary streams and digging short access canals.", "Completion of either of these projects would do much to transform this region, although it could have devastating consequences on the fragile, tropical forest environment.===Orinoquía region===The area east of the Andes includes about 699,300 square kilometers or three-fifths of the country's total area, but Colombians view it almost as an alien land.", "The entire area, known as the eastern plains, was home to only two percent of the country's population in the late 1980s.", "The Spanish term for plains (''llanos'') can be applied only to the open plains in the northern part, particularly the Piedmont areas near the Cordillera Oriental, where extensive cattle raising is practiced.The region is unbroken by highlands except in Meta Department, where the Serranía de la Macarena, an outlier of the Andes has unique vegetation and wildlife believed to be reminiscent of those that once existed throughout the Andes.===Amazon region===Many of the numerous large rivers of eastern Colombia are navigable.", "The Río Guaviare and the streams to its north flow eastward and drain into the basin of the Río Orinoco, a river that crosses into Venezuela and flows into the Atlantic Ocean.", "Those south of the Río Guaviare flows into the Amazon Basin.", "The Río Guaviare divides eastern Colombia into the llanos subregion in the north and the tropical rainforest, or selva, subregion in the south." ], [ "Climate", "Colombia map of Köppen climate classification zonesFlooding in Colombia, April 2004The striking variety in temperature and precipitation results principally from differences in elevation.", "Temperatures range from very hot at sea level to relatively cold at higher elevations but vary little with the season.", "At Bogotá, for example, the average annual temperature is , and the difference between the average of the coldest and the warmest months is less than 1 °C (1.8 °F).", "More significant, however, is the daily variation in temperature, from at night to during the day.Colombians customarily describe their country in terms of the climatic zones: the area under in elevation is called the hot zone (tierra caliente), elevations between are the temperate zone (tierra templada), and elevations from to about constitute the cold zone (tierra fría).", "The upper limit of the cold zone marks the tree line and the approximate limit of human habitation.", "The treeless regions adjacent to the cold zone and extending to approximately are high, bleak areas (usually referred to as the páramos), above which begins the area of permanent snow (nevado).About 86% of the country's total area lies in the hot zone.", "Included in the hot zone and interrupting the temperate area of the Andean highlands are the long and narrow extension of the Magdalena Valley and a small extension in the Cauca Valley.", "Temperatures, depending on elevation, vary between , and there are alternating dry and wet seasons corresponding to summer and winter, respectively.", "Breezes on the Caribbean coast, however, reduce both heat and precipitation.Rainfall in the hot zone is heaviest in the Pacific lowlands and in parts of eastern Colombia, where rain is almost a daily occurrence and rain forests predominate.", "Precipitation exceeds annually in most of the Pacific lowlands, making this one of the wettest regions in the world.", "The highest average annual precipitation in the world is estimated to be in Lloro, Colombia, with .", "In eastern Colombia, it decreases from in portions of the Andean Piedmont to eastward.", "Extensive areas of the Caribbean interior are permanently flooded, more because of poor drainage than because of the moderately heavy precipitation during the rainy season from May through October.The temperate zone covers about 8% of the country.", "This zone includes the lower slopes of the Cordillera Oriental and the Cordillera Central and most of the intermontane valleys.", "The important cities of Medellín () and Cali () are located in this zone, where rainfall is moderate and the mean annual temperature varies between , depending on the elevation.", "In the higher elevations of this zone, farmers benefit from two wet and two dry seasons each year; January through March and July through September are the dry seasons.The Atrato River.The cold or cool zone constitutes about 6% of the total area, including some of the most densely populated plateaus and terraces of the Colombian Andes; this zone supports about one fourth of the country's total population.", "The mean temperature ranges between , and the wet seasons occur in April and May and from September to December, as in the high elevations of the temperate zone.Precipitation is moderate to heavy in most parts of the country; the heavier rainfall occurs in the low-lying hot zone.", "Considerable variations occur because of local conditions that affect wind currents, however, and areas on the leeward side of the Guajira Peninsula receive generally light rainfall; the annual rainfall of recorded at the Uribia station there is the lowest in Colombia.", "Considerable year-to-year variations have been recorded, and Colombia sometimes experiences droughts.Colombia's geographic and climatic variations have combined to produce relatively well-defined \"ethnocultural\" groups among different regions of the country: the Costeño from the Caribbean coast; the Caucano in the Cauca region and the Pacific coast; the Antioqueño in Antioquia, Caldas, Risaralda, and Valle del Cauca departments; the Tolimense in Tolima and Huila departments; the Cundiboyacense in the interior departments of Cundinamarca and Boyacá in the Cordillera Oriental; the Santandereano in Norte de Santander and Santander departments; and the Llanero in the eastern plains.", "Each group has distinctive characteristics, accents, customs, social patterns, and forms of cultural adaptation to climate and topography that differentiates it from other groups.", "Even with rapid urbanization and modernization, regionalism and regional identification continued to be important reference points, although they were somewhat less prominent in the 1980s than in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.Colombia's proximity to the equator influences its climates.", "The lowland areas are continuously hot.", "Altitude affects temperature greatly.", "Temperatures decrease about for every increase in altitude above sea level.", "Rainfall varies by location in Colombia, tending to increase as one travels southward.", "This is especially true in the eastern lowlands.", "For example, rainfall in parts of the Guajira Peninsula seldom exceeds per year.", "Colombia's rainy southeast, however, is often drenched by more than of rain per year.", "Rainfall in most of the rest of the country runs between these two extremes." ], [ "Vegetation", "Amazon rainforest in ColombiaAltitude affects not only temperature, but also vegetation.", "In fact, altitude is one of the most important influences on vegetation patterns in Colombia.", "The mountainous parts of the country can be divided into several vegetation zones according to altitude, although the altitude limits of each zone may vary somewhat depending on the latitude.The \"tierra caliente\" (hot land), below , is the zone of tropical crops such as bananas.", "The tierra templada (temperate land), extending from an altitude of , is the zone of coffee and maize.", "Wheat and potatoes dominate in the \"tierra fría\" (cold land), at altitudes from .", "In the \"zona forestada\" (forested zone), which is located between , many of the trees have been cut for firewood.", "Treeless pastures dominate the páramos, or alpine grasslands, at altitudes of .", "Above , where temperatures are below freezing, is the \"tierra helada\", a zone of permanent snow and ice.Vegetation also responds to rainfall patterns.", "A scrub woodland of scattered trees and bushes dominates the semiarid northeast.", "To the south, savannah (tropical grassland) vegetation covers the Colombian portion of the llanos.", "The rainy areas in the southeast are blanketed by tropical rainforest.", "In the mountains, the spotty patterns of precipitation in alpine areas complicate vegetation patterns.", "The rainy side of a mountain may be lush and green, while the other side, in the rain shadow, may be parched." ], [ "Relief", "Relief map of ColombiaThe Andean range is located in Colombia from the southwest (Ecuador border) toward the northeast (Venezuela border) and is divided in the Colombian Massif (''Macizo Colombiano'') in three ranges (East Andes, Central Andes and West Andes) that form two long valleys, Magdalena and Cauca follow by the rivers of the same name.The eastern half of Colombia, comprising more than half its territory, is plain and composed by savanna and rainforest, crossed by rivers belonging to the Amazon and Orinoco basins.", "The northern part, called the Llanos, is a savanna region, mostly in the Orinoco basin (therefore called also Orinoquía).", "The southern part is covered by the Amazon rain forest and belongs mostly to the Amazon basin.", "It is usually called Amazonía.At the north and west of the Andes range there are some coastal plains.", "The Caribbean plains at the north and the Pacific plains at the west.A recent global remote sensing analysis suggested that there were 553km² of tidal flats in Colombia, making it the 46th ranked country in terms of tidal flat area.Colombian Pacific Plains are among the most rainy parts in the world, chiefly at the north (Chocó).The highest mountain in Colombia is not in the Andes but in the Caribbean plain: Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta with its highest points named Pico Cristobal Colon (5775 m) and Pico Simon Bolivar (same elevation).", "Other mountains in the Caribbean plain include the Montes de María and the Serranía de San Lucas.In the Pacific Plains there are other mountain formations, chiefly the Serranía del Darién and the Serranía del Baudó.In the eastern Region, there is the Serranía de la Macarena and there are formations belonging to the Guyana Shield." ], [ "Protected areas", "National natural parks of Colombia." ], [ "Natural resources", "The natural resources of Colombia are varied and extensive with most of its territory and oceans still unexplored.", "Colombia has one of the largest open pit coal mines in the world in the region of Cerrejon in the Guajira Peninsula.", "It also has oil rigs and natural gas extraction in the eastern plains.", "Colombia is the main producer of emeralds and an important participant in gold, silver, iron, salt, platinum, petroleum, nickel, copper, hydropower and uranium extraction." ], [ "Environmental issues", "Land use map of Colombia, 1970.Economic activity map of Colombia, 1970.The main environmental issues affecting Colombia are deforestation; soil and water quality damage from overuse of pesticides; air pollution, especially in Bogota, from vehicle emissions and other main cities.", "The collateral damaged produced by attacks against oil pipeline infrastructure by rebel guerrillas in the Colombian armed conflict has produced long term damage to the environment.", "The armed groups also deforest large areas to cultivate illegal crops and open unauthorized highways in protected areas." ], [ "Extreme points", ";Highest points:Snowfields and glaciers in Colombia are limited to the highest peaks and ranges in the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental and above the elevation on the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.", "The total area of snowfields and glaciers was estimated to be about 104 square kilometers in the early 1970s.Historical, geographical, and pictorial records point toward a consistent and progressive depletion of ice-and-snow masses in the Colombian Andes since the end of the \"Little Ice Age\" in the late 1800s.", "Many glaciers have disappeared during the 20th century, and others are expected to disappear in the coming decades." ], [ "Facts", "Land size: total: Land boundaries: total: 6,672 kmCoastline: 3,208 km (Caribbean Sea 1,760 km, North Pacific Ocean 1,448 km)Exclusive Economic Zone: total: Climate: tropical along coast and eastern plains; cooler in highlandsTerrain: flat coastal lowlands, central highlands, high Andes Mountains, eastern lowland plainsElevation extremes: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m highest point: Pico Cristobal Colon 5,975 m note: nearby Pico Simon Bolivar also has the same elevationNatural resources: petroleum, natural gas, coal, iron ore, nickel, gold, copper, emeralds, hydropowerLand use: arable land: 1.43% permanent crops: 1.68% other: 96.89% (2012)Irrigated land: 10,870 km2 (2011)Total renewable water resources:2,132 km3 (2011)Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):total: 12.65 km3 (55%/4%/41%)per capita: 308 m3/yr (2010)Natural hazards: highlands subject to volcanic eruptions; occasional earthquakes; periodic droughtsEnvironment - international agreements: party to: Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea" ], [ "Hydrology", "Colombia has four main drainage systems: the Pacific drain, the Caribbean drain, the Orinoco Basin and the Amazon Basin.The Orinoco and Amazon Rivers mark limits with Colombia to Venezuela and Peru respectively.Caribbean DrainPacific DrainOrinoco BasinAmazon Basin===Rivers confined to Colombia===AtratoCaucaMagdalenaNechíSinúBaudóPatíaSan JuanGuaviareIníridaMetaVichadaApaporisCaguán===Rivers originating in Colombia===CatatumboAraucaCaquetáGuainíaPutumayo RiverVaupés===Lakes===The mouth of the Magdalena River and the Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta.", "Ciénaga Grande de Santa MartaLa Cocha LagoonLake Tota" ], [ "See also", " Valleys and Plateaus of Colombia* Environmental issues in Colombia" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "External links", " Colombian Ministry of Environment * Map of the Republic of Colombia from 1891" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Colombia" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''politics of Colombia''' take place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Colombia is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system.", "Executive power is carried out by the government.", "Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of congress, the Senate and the House of Representatives of Colombia.", "The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature." ], [ "Constitutional reforms", "Colombia's present constitution, enacted on July 5, 1991, strengthened the administration of justice with the provision for introduction of an adversarial system which ultimately is to entirely replace the existing Napoleonic Code.", "Other significant reforms under the new constitution provide for civil divorce, dual nationality, the election of a vice president, and the election of departmental governors.", "The constitution expanded citizens' basic rights, including that of \"tutela,\" under which an immediate court action can be requested by individuals feeling that their constitutional rights are being violated and if there is no other legal recourse.The national government has separate executive, legislative, and judicial branches." ], [ "Executive branch", "Casa de Nariño, seat of the executive power.The president is elected for a single four-year term.", "Between 2005 and 2015, the president could be re-elected for a second term.", "The 1991 constitution reestablished the position of vice president, who is elected on the same ticket as the president.", "By law, the vice president will succeed in the event of the president's resignation, illness, or death.Since 2015, the president is barred from running for reelection, even for a nonconsecutive term." ], [ "Legislative branch", "Congress of Colombia in Bogotá.Colombia's bicameral Congress consists of a 108-member Senate of Colombia and a 172-member Chamber of Representatives of Colombia.", "Senators are elected on the basis of a nationwide ballot, while representatives are elected in multi member districts co-located within the 32 national departments.", "The country's capital is a separate capital district and elects its own representatives.", "Members may be re-elected indefinitely, and, in contrast to the previous system, there are no alternate congressmen.", "Congress meets twice a year, and the president has the power to call it into special session when needed." ], [ "Political parties and elections", "===2018 Presidential election======2018 Legislative Election=======Senate====" ], [ "Judicial branch", "Supreme Court of Justice of Colombia.The civilian judiciary is a separate and independent branch of government.", "Guidelines and the general structure for Colombia's administration of justice are set out in Law 270 of March 7, 1996.Colombia's legal system has recently begun to incorporate some elements of an oral, accusatory system.", "The judicial branch's general structure is composed of four distinct jurisdictions (ordinary, administrative, constitutional, and special).", "Colombia's highest judicial organs are the Supreme Court, the Council of State, the Constitutional Court, and the Superior Judicial Council.", "Although all the high courts technically oversee separate jurisdictions, the Constitutional Court has a broad spectrum of judicial oversight which often allows it to rule on issues overseen by different jurisdictions and even weigh in directly in the rulings of other high courts." ], [ "International organization participation", "=== Global ===United NationsWorld BankOther=== Regional ===" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* House of Representatives of Colombia* Senate of Colombia* Presidency of Colombia* Supreme Court of Justice of Colombia" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Colombia" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of Colombia''' is the fourth largest in Latin America as measured by gross domestic product and the third-largest economic power in South America.", "Colombia has experienced a historic economic boom over the last decade.", "Throughout most of the 20th century, Colombia was Latin America's 4th and 3rd largest economy when measured by nominal GDP, real GDP, GDP (PPP), and real GDP at chained PPPs.", "Between 2012 and 2014, it became the 3rd largest in Latin America by nominal GDP.", "As of 2018, the GDP (PPP) per capita has increased to over US$14,000, and real gross domestic product at chained PPPs increased from US$250 billion in 1990 to nearly US$800 billion.", "Poverty levels were as high as 65% in 1990, but decreased to under 30% by 2014, and 27% by 2018.They decreased by an average of 1.35% per year since 1990.Petroleum is Colombia's main export, representing over 45% of Colombia's exports.", "Manufacturing represents nearly 12% of Colombia's exports, and grows at a rate of over 10% a year.", "Colombia has the fastest growing information technology industry in the world, and has the longest fibre optic network in Latin America.", "Colombia also has one of the largest shipbuilding industries in the world outside Asia.Modern industries like shipbuilding, electronics, automobile, tourism, construction, and mining, grew dramatically during the 2000s and 2010s.", "However, most of Colombia's exports are still commodity-based.", "Colombia is Latin America's 2nd-largest producer of domestically made electronics and appliances, following Mexico.", "Colombia had the fastest-growing major economy in the Western world in 2014, behind only China worldwide.Since the early 2010s, the Colombian government has shown interest in exporting modern Colombian pop culture to the world (which includes video games, music, films, television shows, fashion, cosmetics, and food) as a way of diversifying the economy and entirely changing the image of Colombia.", "This has inspired a national campaign, similar to the Korean Wave.", "Colombia is only behind Mexico in cultural exports, and is already a regional leader in cosmetic and beauty exports.Wealth is poorly distributed, since with a Gini index of approximately 0.̟6, Colombia is among the most unequal societies in the world.", "For example, according to the World Bank, in 2010 the richest 20% of the population owned 60.2% of the wealth and the poorest 20% only 3%, and 15.8% of Colombians lived on less than $2 a day.", "In 2021, more than 54% of Colombian families are food insecure and more than 560,000 children under the age of five are chronically undernourished.The informal economy is estimated at 47% in 2020.There is no welfare state in Colombia, which has almost no unemployment or pension insurance system.", "As a result, only one million elderly people have pensions (and five million are without) and social assistance is very low.", "Many people in their 70s and 80s are forced to continue working or beg.", "The country is said to be the most unequal in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)." ], [ "History", "=== 16th–19th centuries ===European explorers reached what is now Colombian territory as early as 1510 in Santa María Antigua del Darién (in present-day Chocó department).", "For the next couple of decades Colombia, and South America in general, remained largely unexplored.", "From 1533 to 1600, Europeans began expeditions into the interior of current Colombia.", "The in of these expeditions was mainly to conquer new lands and exploit village resources.", "Legends of El Dorado that reached Spaniard explorers continued to fuel exploration and raiding of Indian villages.In the 17th century, Spanish conquerors explored Colombia and made the first settlements, and this was the beginning of Colombia's modern economic history.", "Major conquistadors from this period were Pedro de Heredia, Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada, Sebastián de Belalcazar, and Nikolaus Federmann.During the 16th and 17th centuries, the colonial settlements in Colombia served purposes of extraction of precious metals and other natural resources, and later slavery trade.", "This economic arrangement left the Colony with little room for building solid institutionality for economic development.", "The main non-extractive institutions emerging in this centuries were the fortified port of Cartagena and the Viceroyalty of New Granada.", "Cartagena developed military defenses mainly out of necessity from frequently having to deal with pirate attacks.", "A primitive form of colonial administration was organized in Santa fé de Bogotá with the Viceroyalty of New Granada, especially under the tenure of José Solís Folch de Cardona (1753–1761), who conducted a census and built roads, bridges and aqueducts.Following the Thousand Days' War (1899–1902), Colombia experienced a coffee boom that catapulted the country into the modern period, bringing the attendant benefits of transportation, particularly railroads, communications infrastructure, and the first major attempts at manufacturing.=== 20th century ===Colombia's consistently sound economic policies and aggressive promotion of free trade agreements in recent years have bolstered its ability to weather external shocks.", "Real GDP has grown more than 4% per year for the past three years, continuing almost a decade of strong economic performance.In 1990, the administration of President César Gaviria Trujillo (1990–94) initiated economic liberalism policies or \"apertura economica\" and this has continued since then, with tariff reductions, financial deregulation, privatization of state-owned enterprises, and adoption of a more liberal foreign exchange rate.", "Almost all sectors became open to foreign investment although agricultural products remained protected.The original idea of his then Minister of Finance, Rudolf Homes, was that the country should import agricultural products in which it was not competitive, like maize, wheat, cotton and soybeans and export the ones in which it had an advantage, like fruits and flowers.", "In ten years, the sector lost 7,000 km2 to imports, with a critical impact on employment in rural areas.", "Still, this policy makes food cheaper for the average Colombian than it would be if agricultural trade were more restricted.Until 1997, Colombia had enjoyed a fairly stable economy.", "The first five years of liberalization were characterized by high economic growth rates of between 4% and 5%.", "The Ernesto Samper administration (1994–98) emphasized social welfare policies which targeted Colombia's lower income population.", "These reforms led to higher government spending which increased the fiscal deficit and public sector debt, the financing of which required higher interest rates.", "An over-valued peso inherited from the previous administration was maintained.The economy slowed, and by 1998 GDP growth was only 0.6%.", "In 1999, the country fell into its first recession since the Great Depression.", "The economy shrank by 4.5% with unemployment at over 20%.", "While unemployment remained at 20% in 2000, GDP growth recovered to 3.1%.", "Unemployment in 2020 has improved compared to two decades ago to 12.20%.The administration of President Andrés Pastrana Arango, when it took office on 7 August 1998, faced an economy in crisis, with the difficult internal security situation and global economic turbulence additionally inhibiting confidence.", "As evidence of a serious recession became clear in 1999, the government took a number of steps.", "It engaged in a series of controlled devaluations of the peso, followed by a decision to let it float.", "Colombia also entered into an agreement with the International Monetary Fund which provided a $2.7 billion guarantee (extended funds facility), while committing the government to budget discipline and structural reforms.=== 21st century ===By early 2000 there had been the beginning of an economic recovery, with the export sector leading the way, as it enjoyed the benefit of the more competitive exchange rate, as well as strong prices for petroleum, Colombia's leading export product.", "Prices of coffee, the other principal export product, have been more variable.Economic growth reached 3.1% during 2000 and inflation 9.0%.", "Inflation by 2021 has stabilized at 3.30%.", "Colombia's international reserves remained stable at around $8.35 billion in the year 2000 growing to $58.57 billion by 2021, and Colombia has successfully remained in international capital markets.", "Colombia's total foreign debt at the end of 1999 was $34.5 billion with $14.7 billion in private sector and $19.8 billion in public sector debt.", "Major international credit rating organizations had dropped Colombian sovereign debt below investment grade, primarily as a result of large fiscal deficits, which current policies are seeking to close.", "As of 2021 Colombia has recovered its investment grade rating.Former president Álvaro Uribe (elected 7 August 2002) introduced several neoliberal economic reforms, including measures designed to reduce the public-sector deficit below 2.5% of GDP in 2004.The government's economic policy and controversial democratic security strategy have engendered a growing sense of confidence in the economy, particularly within the business sector, and GDP growth in 2003 was among the highest in Latin America, at over 4%.", "This growth rate was maintained over the next decade, averaging 4.8% from 2004 to 2014.According to figures from Dane, monetary poverty went from 37.2% in 2010 to 26.9% in 2017, which indicates a higher income for the most vulnerable households.", "During the Santos government, there was an inflationary period that was also a response to the strong external shock of the fall in oil prices.", "It was a period of contained instability, although inflation increased, no company declared bankruptcy and there was no instability in the financial system.The Santos period managed an increase in GDP of 4% in 2010, which peaked in 2011 to 6.6%.", "Thereafter it remained at 4% in 2012, 4.9% in 2013 and 4.4% in 2014.In 2011, Colombia recovered it's BBB− investment grade, which was raised in 2013 to BBB.", "As a result of sustained growth, during the eight years of the Santos government, 3.5 million jobs were created, while 5.4 million people were lifted out of poverty.The focus of Santos' second term was to reach a peace agreement with the FARC whose economic effects, according to assumptions, could imply a GDP growth of up to two additional percentage points.", "Santos' best legacy is precisely the one related to security since this will have an effect in the medium and long term in terms of investment decisions, job creation, and the beginning of a great revolution in the country's infrastructure: war prevented development in the most affected areas for centuries.Colombia's President Iván Duque withdrew a controversial tax reform bill following four weeks of huge protests across the country starting 28 April 2021.In 2021, Colombia registered an increase in Gross Domestic Product of more than 10%, as a result of a rebound effect that derived from the 6.8% collapse a year earlier, caused by the economic closures decreed to stop the coronavirus pandemic.", "The pandemic exacerbated poverty.", "In 2021, official figures showed that 39% of Colombians -out of a population of 51.6 million inhabitants- were in a condition of monetary poverty.", "Although it shows a slight improvement compared to 2020 (42.5%), it meant a setback of at least a decade.The greatest increase in the value of the debt also occurred in the Duque government, according to figures from the Bank of the Republic.", "Between 2020 and 2021 the balance increased by 17 billion dollars, and from 2019 to 2020 it increased by 16 billion.", "That figure, which corresponds to a deficit of 7.1 percent of GDP, was the debt that the Central National Government or GNC (the State without its companies or regional entities) had in 2021, according to the fiscal closing bulletin.In the Duque government, specifically between May and June 2020, 66.7 percent of the country's gold reserves were sold, which went from 710.5 to 237.4 million dollars.", "The decision was made by the Bank of the Republic.", "The sale received criticism because although it was done at a time of rising prices – after five years in which this did not happen – it was before gold reached a record price." ], [ "Overview", "The longstanding internal armed conflict in Colombia has had economic impacts.In the early 21st century, the Colombian economy grew in part because of austere government budgets, focused efforts to reduce public debt levels, an export-oriented growth strategy, an improved security situation in the country, and high commodity prices.", "Growth slowed to 1.4 percent in 2017, and then increased to 3.3 percent in 2019.President Uribe, who was in office from 2002 to 2010, examined opportunities including reforming the pension system, reducing high unemployment, achieving congressional passage of a fiscal transfers reform, and exploring for new oil or producing ethanol.", "Colombia's Gini coefficient, a measure of inequality, was one of the highest in South America.", "International and domestic financial analysts warned of the growing central government deficit, which hovered at 5% of GDP.", "Nonetheless, confidence in the economy grew.Colombia has a track record of prudent macroeconomic management.The middle class will represent 25% of the population in 2020 according to a survey by the daily newspaper ''El Tiempo''.", "Official data indicate that 42.5% of the population lives below the poverty line.", "The social elevator is one of the slowest in the world, as it takes an average of eleven generations for a family to rise out of poverty.The tax system is one of the causes of Colombia's deep social inequalities.", "The income tax (IRPP) is not very progressive (almost all taxpayers pay it at a rate of between 19% and 28%, and the rate rises only slightly thereafter) and is levied mainly on salaries, with other categories of income being largely underreported.", "Redistribution through the Colombian tax system is thus the lowest in Latin America, even though it is on average very limited.===Development of main indicators===The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2019 (with IMF staff stimtates in 2020–2025).", "Inflation below 5% is in green.", "Year GDP(in Bil.", "US$PPP) GDP per capita(in US$ PPP) GDP(in Bil.", "US$nominal) GDP per capita(in US$ nominal) GDP growth(real) Inflation rate(in Percent) Unemployment(in Percent) Government debt(in % of GDP) 1980 78.5 2,840.6 46.5 1,681.7 4.4% 25.9% 5.4% n/a 1981 87.9 3,110.9 50.6 1,792.3 2.3% 27.4% 6.6% n/a 1982 94.2 3,262.8 54.2 1,878.1 0.9% 24.9% 7.1% n/a 1983 99.4 3,371.2 53.9 1,827.2 1.6% 19.5% 8.7% n/a 1984 106.5 3,534.9 53.2 1,767.2 3.4% 16.3% 9.0% n/a 1985 113.3 3,785.6 48.6 1,623.0 3.1% 23.9% 8.7% n/a 1986 122.3 4,003.7 48.6 1,592.2 5.8% 18.8% 7.7% n/a 1987 132.0 4,234.3 50.6 1,623.4 5.4% 23.3% 7.4% n/a 1988 142.2 4,468.2 54.6 1,714.2 4.1% 28.1% 6.5% n/a 1989 152.9 4,704.3 55.0 1,693.4 3.4% 25.9% 6.8% n/a 1990 165.4 4,987.8 56.0 1,690.4 4.3% 29.1% 6.6% n/a 1991 175.0 5,171.3 57.9 1,711.7 2.4% 30.3% 6.4% n/a 1992 186.8 5,411.2 68.6 1,985.7 4.4% 27.0% 5.9% n/a 1993 202.2 5,746.1 77.7 2,208.3 5.7% 22.4% 5.0% n/a 1994 217.1 6,061.4 97.6 2,725.7 5.1% 22.9% 4.9% n/a 1995 233.2 6,401.5 110.5 3,034.1 5.2% 20.9% 5.6% n/a 1996 242.3 6,546.2 116.1 3,135.8 2.1% 20.8% 7.8% 23.3% 1997 255.0 6,798.3 127.4 3,398.0 3.4% 18.5% 7.9% 25.3% 1998 259.3 6,808.2 117.7 3,089.7 0.6% 18.7% 9.7% 27.5% 1999 251.9 6,530.5 103.1 2,672.6 -4.2% 10.9% 13.1% 34.0% 2000 265.1 6,772.2 99.2 2,534.5 2.9% 9.2% 13.3% 38.0% 2001 275.7 6,951.6 97.6 2,460.3 1.7% 8.0% 15.0% 41.1% 2002 287.0 7,146.5 97.3 2,423.4 2.5% 6.4% 15.6% 47.5% 2003 304.1 7,479.0 94.0 2,312.6 3.9% 7.1% 14.1% 45.0% 2004 328.9 7,990.2 116.3 2,826.0 5.3% 5.9% 13.7% 41.5% 2005 355.2 8,523.9 145.6 3,494.0 4.7% 5.0% 11.8% 38.5% 2006 390.8 9,266.3 161.8 3,836.7 6.7% 4.3% 12.0% 36.0% 2007 428.4 10,041.6 206.2 4,834.4 6.7% 5.5% 11.2% 32.7% 2008 450.9 10,453.7 242.5 5,622.1 3.3% 7.0% 11.3% 32.4% 2009 459.0 10,524.8 232.5 5,330.8 1.1% 4.2% 12.0% 35.4% 2010 485.4 11,009.5 286.5 6,498.6 4.5% 2.3% 11.8% 36.5% 2011 529.9 11,893.0 335.0 7,518.3 6.9% 3.4% 10.8% 35.8% 2012 553.8 12,305.5 370.7 8,237.3 3.9% 3.2% 10.4% 34.0% 2013 591.8 13,024.8 382.1 8,409.7 5.1% 2.0% 9.7% 37.6% 2014 625.0 13,627.1 381.2 8,312.1 4.5% 2.9% 9.1% 43.3% 2015 630.4 13,611.5 293.5 6,337.0 3.0% 5.0% 8.9% 50.4% 2016 672.1 14,351.7 282.7 6,037.1 2.1% 7.5% 9.2% 49.8% 2017 700.1 14,763.9 311.9 6,577.3 1.4% 4.3% 9.4% 49.4% 2018 735.2 15,234.6 334.1 6,923.6 2.6% 3.2% 9.7% 53.6% 2019 772.9 15,647.2 323.4 6,546.6 3.3% 3.5% 10.5% 52.3% 2020 729.1 14,473.4 271.6 5,390.9 -6.8% 2.5% 16.1% 65.4% 2021 812.8 15,921.8 300.8 5,892.1 7.6% 3.2% 14.5% 66.7% 2022 867.2 16,802.9 319.3 6,186.7 3.8% 3.5% 13.8% 67.6% 2023 916.7 17,576.6 336.2 6,446.9 3.3% 3.0% 13.1% 69.7% 2024 969.6 18,401.4 354.3 6,723.4 3.4% 3.0% 12.4% 68.3% 2025 1,024.8 19,257.0 373.4 7,016.1 3.4% 3.0% 11.8% 66.7% 2026 1,082.6 20,148.7 393.7 7,326.7 3.5% 3.0% 11.1% 64.7%===Graphics===Colombia – macroeconomic indicators 2002–2011" ], [ "Labor rights", "On 8 June 2020, the newly formed Employment Mission ''(Misión de Empleo)'' met for the first time to discuss labor reforms that it intended to propose to Congress.", "Some of these reforms had been desired for years, and others had come into starker view during the coronavirus pandemic.The legal working hours are 48 hours per week.", "However, the informal economy accounts for almost half of the workers, who are therefore not covered by labor laws." ], [ "Agriculture", "Palm plantation in Magdalena.", "Colombia is one of the top 5 producers of palm oil in the world.Sugar cane in Valle del Cauca.", "Colombia is one of the top 10 sugarcane producers in the world.Colombia is one of the 5 largest producers in the world of coffee, avocado and palm oil, and one of the 10 largest producers in the world of sugarcane, banana, pineapple and cocoa.Colombia produced, in 2018, 36.2 million tons of sugarcane (7th largest producer in the world), 5.8 million tons of palm oil (5th largest producer in the world), 3.7 million tons of banana (11th largest producer in the world) and 720 thousand tons of coffee (4th largest producer in the world, behind Brazil, Vietnam and Indonesia).", "Although its neighbor Brazil is the largest producer of coffee in the world (3.5 million tons produced in the same year), the advertising carried out by the country for decades suggests that Colombian coffee is of higher quality, which generates greater added value to the country's product.", "In the same year, Colombia produced 3.3 million tons of rice, 3.1 million tons of potato, 2.2 million tons of cassava, 1.3 million tons of maize, 900 thousand tons of pineapple, 670 thousand tons of onion, 527 thousand tons of tomato, 419 thousand tons of yam, 338 thousand tons of mango, 326 thousand tons of avocado, in addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products such as orange, tangerine, lemon, papaya, beans, carrot, coconut, watermelon etc.The share of agriculture in GDP has fallen consistently since 1945, as industry and services have expanded.", "However, Colombia's agricultural share of GDP decreased during the 1990s by less than in many of the world's countries at a similar level of development, even though the share of coffee in GDP diminished in a dramatic way.", "Agriculture has nevertheless remained an important source of employment, providing a fifth of Colombia's jobs in 2006.The most industrially diverse member of the five-nation Andean Community, Colombia has four major industrial centers—Bogota, Medellin, Cali, and Barranquilla, each located in a distinct geographical region.", "Colombia's industries include textiles and clothing, particularly lingerie, leather products, processed foods and beverages, paper and paper products, chemicals and petrochemicals, cement, construction, iron and steel products, and metalworking.", "Its diverse climate and topography permit the cultivation of a wide variety of crops.", "In addition, all regions yield forest products, ranging from tropical hardwoods in the hot country to pine and eucalyptus in the colder areas.Cacao beans, sugarcane, coconuts, bananas, plantains, rice, cotton, tobacco, cassava, and most of the nation's beef cattle are produced in the hot regions from sea level to 1,000 meters elevation.", "The temperate regions—between 1,000 and 2,000 meters—are better suited for coffee; cut flowers; maize and other vegetables; and fruits such as citrus, pears, pineapples, and tomatoes.", "The cooler elevations—between 2,000 and 3,000 meters—produce wheat, barley, potatoes, cold-climate vegetables, flowers, dairy cattle, and poultry." ], [ "Livestock", "Córdoba.", "Colombia is one of the 20 largest producers of beef in the worldIn the production of beef and chicken meat, Colombia is among the 20 largest producers in the world.In Colombia, the exploitation and breeding of cattle is carried out on small farms and large farms.", "Black-eared white, casanareño, coastal with horns, romosinuano, chino santandereano and hartón del Valle, are the Colombian breeds with the highest production.In 2013, livestock occupied 80% of productive land in Colombia.", "The livestock sector is one of the most outstanding in areas such as Caribbean Region, where seven departments have livestock as their primary vocation.", "Also in Antioquia, where there is the largest cattle inventory in the country, the department had that year 11% of the head of cattle in Colombia, and according to the livestock inventory, in 2012 Antioqueños counted around 2,268,000 head of cattle.Also in 2013, the bovine herd in Colombia reached 20.1 million head of cattle, of which 2.5 million (12.5%) were milking cows.", "In addition, the country's total milk production was 13.1 million liters.On the other hand, the increase in imports of pork meat, the high prices of inputs and the slowdown in the national economy, produced a crisis in the raising of pork in Colombia in 2015." ], [ "Industry", "The World Bank lists the main producing countries each year, based on the total value of production.", "According to the 2019 list, Colombia has the 46th most valuable industry in the world (US$35.4 billion), behind Mexico, Brazil, Venezuela and Argentina, but ahead of Peru and Chile.===Manufacturing=======Domestic appliances====Although Colombia has been producing domestic appliances since the 1930s, it wasn't until the late 1990s that Colombian corporations began exporting to neighboring countries.", "One of Colombia's largest producers of domestic appliances, HACEB has been producing refrigeration since 1940.Some domestic corporations include: Challenger, Kalley, HACEB, Imusa, and Landers.", "In 2011, Groupe SEB acquired Imusa as a form to expand to the Latin American market.", "Colombia also manufactures for foreign companies as well, such as Whirlpool and GE.", "LG has also been interested in building a plant in Colombia.", "Colombia is also Latin America's 3rd largest producer of appliances behind Mexico and Brazil and is growing rapidly.====Electronics====Colombia is a major producer of electronics in Latin America, and is South America's 2nd largest high-tech market.", "Colombia is also the 2nd largest producer and exporter of electronics made by domestic companies in Latin America.", "Since the early 2000s, major Colombian corporations began exporting aggressively to foreign markets.", "Some of these companies include: Challenger, PcSmart, Compumax, Colcircuirtos, and Kalley.", "Colombia is the first country in Latin America to manufacture a domestically made 4K television.", "In 2014, the Colombian Government launched a national campaign to promote IT and Electronic sectors, as well as investing in Colombia's own companies.", "Although innovation remains low on the global scale, the government sees heavy potential in the high tech industry and is investing heavily in education and innovation centers all across the nation.", "Because of this, Colombia could become a major global manufacturer of electronics and play an important role in the global high tech industry in the near future.", "In 2014, the Colombian government released another national campaign to help Colombian companies have a bigger share of the national market.====Construction====Construction recently has played a vital role in the economy, and is growing rapidly at almost 20% annually.", "As a result, Colombia is seeing a historic building boom.", "The Colombian government is investing heavily in transport infrastructure through a plan called \"Fourth Generation Network\".", "The target of the Colombian government is to build 7,000 km of roads for the 2016–2020 period and reduce travel times by 30% and transport costs by 20%.", "A toll road concession program will comprise 40 projects, and is part of a larger strategic goal to invest nearly $50bn in transport infrastructure, including: railway systems; making the Magdalena river navigable again; improving port facilities; as well as an expansion of Bogotá's airport.", "Long-term plans include building a national high-speed train network, to vastly improve competitiveness.===Utilities===" ], [ "Mining and energy", "The emeralds are one of the most valuable and exported natural products in the country.Colombia is well-endowed with minerals and energy resources.", "It has the largest coal reserves in Latin America, and is second to Brazil in hydroelectric potential.", "Estimates of petroleum reserves in 1995 were .", "It also possesses significant amounts of nickel, gold, silver, platinum, and emeralds.The country was the 12th largest producer of coal in the world in 2018.In 2019, Colombia was the 20th largest petroleum producer in the world, with 791 thousand barrels / day.", "In mining, Colombia is the world's largest producer of emerald.The discovery of of high-quality oil at the Cusiana and Cupiagua fields, about east of Bogotá, has enabled Colombia to become a net oil exporter since 1986.The Transandino pipeline transports oil from Orito in the Department of Putumayo to the Pacific port of Tumaco in the Department of Nariño.", "Total crude oil production averages ; about is exported.", "The Pastrana government has significantly liberalized its petroleum investment policies, leading to an increase in exploration activity.", "Refining capacity cannot satisfy domestic demand, so some refined products, especially gasoline, must be imported.", "Plans for the construction of a new refinery are under development.While Colombia has vast hydroelectric potential, a prolonged drought in 1992 forced severe electricity rationing throughout the country until mid-1993.The consequences of the drought on electricity-generating capacity caused the government to commission the construction or upgrading of 10 thermoelectric power plants.", "Half will be coal-fired, and half will be fired by natural gas.", "The government also has begun awarding bids for the construction of a natural gas pipeline system that will extend from the country's extensive gas fields to its major population centers.", "Plans call for this project to make natural gas available to millions of Colombian households by the middle of the next decade.As of 2004, Colombia has become a net energy exporter, exporting electricity to Ecuador and developing connections to Peru, Venezuela and Panama to export to those markets as well.", "The Trans-Caribbean pipeline connecting western Venezuela to Panama through Colombia is also under construction, thanks to cooperation between presidents Álvaro Uribe of Colombia, Martín Torrijos of Panama and Hugo Chávez of Venezuela.", "Coal is exported to Turkey.Oil and coal account for 47% of goods exports in 2021.===Human rights abuses in mining zones===The oil pipelines are a frequent target of extortion and bombing campaigns by the National Liberation Army (ELN) and, more recently, the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC).", "The bombings, which have occurred on average once every 5 days, have caused substantial environmental damage, often in fragile rainforests and jungles, as well as causing significant loss of life.", "In April 1999 in Cartagena de Indias, Clinton's Secretary of Energy Bill Richardson spoke before investors from the United States, Canada and other countries.", "He expressed his government's willingness to use military aid to support the investment that they and their allies were going to make in Colombia, especially in strategically important sectors like mining and energy.In 2001 there were 170 attacks on the Caño Limón–Coveñas pipeline.", "The pipeline was out of operation for over 200 days of that year; the government estimates that these bombings reduced Colombia's GDP by 0.5%.", "The government of the United States increased military aid, in 2003, to Colombia to assist in the effort to defend the pipeline.", "Occidental Petroleum privately contracted mercenaries who flew Skymaster planes, from AirScan International Inc., to patrol the Cano Limon-Covenas pipeline.", "Many of these operations used helicopters, equipment and weapons provided by the U.S. military and anti-narcotics aid programs.Mining and natural exploitation has had environmental consequences.", "The region of Guajira is undergoing an accelerated desertification with the disappearances of forests, land, and water sources, due to the increase in coal production.", "Social consequences or lack of development in resource rich areas is common.", "11 million Colombians survive on less than one dollar a day.", "Over 65% of these live in mining zones.", "There are 3.5 million children out of school, and the most critical situation is in the mining zone of Choco, Bolivar, and Sucre.Economic consequences of privatization and liberal institutions have meant changes in taxation to attract foreign investment.", "Colombia will lose another $800 million over the next 90 years that Glencore International operates in El Cerrejon Zona Media, if the company continues to produce coal at a rate of 5 million tons/year, because of the reduction of the royalty tax from 10 to 15% to .04%.", "If the company, as is plausible, doubles or triples its production, the losses will be proportionally greater.", "The operational losses from the three large mining projects (El Cerrejon, La Loma, operated by Drummond, and Montelíbano, which produces ferronickel) for Colombia to more than 12 billion.", "Coal production has grown rapidly, from 22.7 million tons in 1994 to 50.0 million tons in 2003.Over 90% of this amount was exported, making Colombia the world's sixth largest coal exporter, behind Australia, China, Indonesia, South Africa and Russia.", "From the mid-1980s the center of coal production was the Cerrejón mines in the Guajira department.", "However, the growth in output at La Loma in neighboring Cesar Department made this area the leader in Colombian coal production since 2004.Production in other departments, including Boyacá, Cundinamarca and Norte de Santander, forms about 13% of the total.", "The coal industry is largely controlled by international mining companies, including a consortium of BHP, Anglo American and Glencore at Cerrejón, and Conundrum Company at La Loma, which is undergoing a lawsuit in the U.S. District Court in Alabama for union assassinations and alleged paramilitary links." ], [ "Foreign investment", "Various attempts to open up the economy during the 1993-2023 period have been described by Portafolio as been \"half-hearted\".", "In 1990, to attract foreign investors and promote trade, an experiment from the International Monetary Fund known as \"La Apertura\" was adopted by the government, this policy was to modernize different sectors of the economy to increase the overall efficiency of production so as to bring down prices to internationally competitive levels.", "Although the analysis of the results are not clear, the fact is that the agricultural sector was severely impacted by this policy.In 1991 and 1992, the government passed laws to stimulate foreign investment in nearly all sectors of the economy.", "The only activities closed to foreign direct investment are defense and national security, disposal of hazardous wastes, and real estate—the last of these restrictions is intended to hinder money laundering.", "Colombia established a special entity—Converter—to assist foreigners in making investments in the country.", "Foreign investment flows for 1999 were $4.4 billion, down from $4.8 billion in 1998.Major foreign investment projects underway include the $6 billion development of the Cusiana and Cupiagua oil fields, development of coal fields in the north of the country, and the recently concluded licensing for establishment of cellular telephone service.", "The United States accounted for 26.5% of the total $19.4 billion stock of non-petroleum foreign direct investment in Colombia at the end of 1998.On 21 October 1995, under the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), President Clinton signed an Executive Order barring U.S. entities from any commercial or financial transactions with four Colombian drug kingpins and with individuals and companies associated with the traffic in narcotics, as designated by the Secretary of the Treasury in consultation with the Secretary of State and the Attorney General.", "The list of designated individuals and companies is amended periodically and is maintained by the Office of Foreign Asset Control at the Department of the Treasury, tel.", "(202) 622-0077 (ask for Document #1900).", "The document also is available at the Department of Treasury web site.Colombia is the United States' fifth-largest export market in Latin America—behind Mexico, Brazil, Venezuela, and Argentina—and the 26th-largest market for U.S. products worldwide.", "The United States is Colombia's principal trading partner, with two-way trade from November 1999 through November 2000 exceeding $9.5 billion--$3.5 billion U.S. exports and $6.0 billion U.S. imports.", "Colombia benefits from duty-free entry—for a 10-year period, through 2001—for certain of its exports to the United States under the Andean Trade Preferences Act.", "Colombia improved protection of intellectual property rights through the adoption of three Andean Pact decisions in 1993 and 1994, but the U.S. remains concerned over deficiencies in licensing, patent regulations, and copyright protection.Colombia is also the largest export partner of the Dutch constituent country of Aruba (39.4%).The petroleum and natural gas coal mining, chemical, and manufacturing industries attract the greatest U.S. investment interest.", "U.S. investment accounted for 37.8% ($4.2 billion) of the total $11.2 billion in foreign direct investment at the end of 1997, excluding petroleum and portfolio investment.", "Worker rights and benefits in the U.S.-dominated sectors are more favorable than general working conditions.", "Examples include shorter-than-average working hours, higher wages, and compliance with health and safety standards above the national average." ], [ "Tertiary industries", "The services sector dominates Colombia's GDP, contributing 58 percent of GDP in 2007, and, given worldwide trends, its dominance will probably continue.", "The sector is characterized by its heterogeneity, being the largest for employment (61 percent), in both the formal and informal sectors.===Arts and music===Since the early 2010s, the Colombian government has shown interest in exporting modern Colombian pop culture to the world (which includes video games, music, movies, TV shows, fashion, cosmetics, and food) as a way of diversifying the economy and changing the image of Colombia.", "In the Hispanic world, Colombia is only behind Mexico in cultural exports at US$750 million annually, and is already a regional leader in cosmetic and beauty exports.===Travel and tourism===Tourism in Colombia is an important sector in the country's economy.", "Colombia has major attractions as a tourist destination, such as Cartagena and its historic surroundings, which are on the UNESCO World Heritage List; the insular department of San Andrés, Providencia y Santa Catalina; Santa Marta, Cartagena and the surrounding area.", "Fairly recently, Bogotá, the nation's capital, has become Colombia's major tourist destination because of its improved museums and entertainment facilities and its major urban renovations, including the rehabilitation of public areas, the development of parks, and the creation of an extensive network of cycling routes.", "With its very rich and varied geography, which includes the Amazon and Andean regions, the llanos, the Caribbean and Pacific coasts, and the deserts of La Guajira, and its unique biodiversity, Colombia also has major potential for ecotourism.The direct contribution of Travel & Tourism to GDP in 2013 was COP11,974.3mn (1.7% of GDP).", "This is forecast to rise by 7.4% to COP12,863.4mn in 2014.This primarily reflects the economic activity generated by industries such as hotels, travel agents, airlines and other passenger transportation services (excluding commuter services).", "But it also includes, for example, the activities of the restaurant and leisure industries directly supported by tourists.", "The direct contribution of Travel & Tourism to GDP is expected to grow by 4.1% pa to COP19,208.4mn (1.8% of GDP) by 2024.The number of tourists in Colombia grows by over 12% every year.", "Colombia is projected to have over 15 million tourists by 2023.====Eco-tourism====Eco-tourism is very promising in Colombia.", "Colombia has vast coastlines, mountainous areas, and tropical jungles.", "There are volcanoes and waterfalls as well.", "This makes Colombia a biodiverse country with many attractions for foreign visitors.The Colombian coffee growing axis (Spanish: Eje Cafetero), also known as the Coffee Triangle (Spanish: Triángulo del Café), is a part of the Colombian Paisa region in the rural area of Colombia, which is famous for growing and production of a majority of Colombian coffee, considered by some as the best coffee in the world.", "There are three departments in the area: Caldas, Quindío and Risaralda.", "These departments are among the smallest departments in Colombia with a total combined area of 13873 km2 (5356 mi2), about 1.2% of the Colombian territory.", "The combined population is 2,291,195 (2005 census).===Transportation and telecommunications===Colombia's geography, with three cordilleras of the Andes running up the country from south to north, and jungle in the Amazon and Darién regions, represents a major obstacle to the development of national road networks with international connections.", "Thus, the basic nature of the country's transportation infrastructure is not surprising.", "In the spirit of the 1991 constitution, in 1993 the Ministry of PublicWorks and Transportation was reorganized and renamed the Ministry of Transportation.", "In 2000 the new ministry strengthened its role as the planner and regulator within the sector.====Air transportation====Colombia was a pioneer in promoting airlines in an effort to overcome its geographic barriers to transportation.", "The Colombian Company of Air Navigation, formed in 1919, was the second commercial airline in the world.", "It was not until the 1940s that Colombia's air transportation began growing significantly in the number of companies, passengers carried, and kilometers covered.", "In the early 2000s, an average of 72 percent of the passengers transported by air go to national destinations, while 28 percent travel internationally.", "One notable feature is that after the reforms of the beginning of the 1990s, the number of international passengers tripled by 2003.In 1993 the construction, administration, operation, and maintenance of the main airports transferred to departmental authorities and the private sector, including companies specializing in air transportation.", "Within this process, in 2006 the International Airport Operator (Opain), a Swiss-Colombian consortium, won the concession to manage and develop Bogotá's El Dorado International Airport.", "El Dorado is the largest airport in Latin America in terms of cargo traffic (33rd worldwide), with 622,145 metric tons in 2013, second in terms of traffic movements (45th worldwide) and third in terms of passengers (50th among the busiest airports in the world).", "In addition to El Dorado, Colombia's international airports are Palo Negro in Bucaramanga, Simón Bolívar in Santa Marta, Cortissoz in Barranquilla, Rafael Núñez in Cartagena, José María Córdova in Rionegro near Medellín, Alfonso Bonilla Aragón in Cali, Alfredo Vásquez Cobo in Leticia, Matecaña in Pereira, Gustavo Rojas Pinilla in San Andrés, and Camilo Daza in Cúcuta.", "In 2006 Colombia was generally reported to have a total of 984 airports, of which 103 had paved runways and 883 were unpaved.", "The Ministry of Transportation listed 581 airports in 2007, but it may have used a different methodology for counting them.====Poverty and inequality====After a large crisis in 1999, poverty in Colombia has had a decreasing trend.", "The share of Colombians below the income-based poverty line fell from 50% in 2002 to 28% in 2016.The share of Colombians below the extreme income-based poverty line fell from 18% to 9% in the same period.", "Multidimensional poverty fell from 30% to 18% between 2010 and 2016.Colombia has a Gini coefficient of 51.7.===Retail===Hypermarkets and big-box stores are losing market participation in Colombian retail." ], [ "Debt", "Between 1976 and 2006, Colombia's debt doubled every 10 years: in 1976 it was about $3.6 billion, in 1986 it was $7.2 billion, in 1996 it was over $16 billion and in 2006 it was over $36 billion.", "Since 2006, the growth of the debt has accelerated: it reached $72 billion in 2011 and reached $124 billion in 2017, which means that in less than 10 years Colombia's foreign debt has tripled.", "About a quarter of Colombia's annual budget, or $20 billion, goes to pay off the public debt." ], [ "Corruption", "Corruption in public management in Colombia is widespread and structural in nature.", "This situation generates losses for the country estimated at 15 billion dollars.", "Colombia has not escaped the scandals involving millions of dollars in bribes from the Brazilian construction company Odebrecht, as well as the Cartagena refinery, a case of embezzlement of public funds that came to light in 2016 and involved members of the governments of Álvaro Uribe (2002-2010) and Juan Manuel Santos (2010-2018)." ], [ "See also", "* Taxation in Colombia* WWB Colombia* Economic history of Colombia* List of companies of Colombia* Colombia and the World Bank* Economy of South America* List of Colombian departments by GDP* List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP growth* List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP (nominal)* List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP (PPP)* 20,000 Colombian peso note* 50,000 Colombian peso note" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Colombia Economy report – official Investment portal" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Communications in Colombia" ], [ "Introduction", "Since being liberalized in 1991, the '''Colombian telecommunications sector''' has added new services, expanded coverage, improved efficiency, and lowered costs.", "The sector has had the second largest (after energy) investment in infrastructure (54 percent) since 1997.However, the economic downturn between 1999 and 2002 adversely affected telecommunications.", "During this period, Colombia's telecommunications industry lost US$2 billion despite a profit of US$1 billion in local service.", "In June 2003, the government liquidated the state-owned and heavily indebted National Telecommunications Company (Empresa Nacional de Telecomunicaciones—Telecom) and replaced it with Colombia Telecomunicaciones (Colombia Telecom).", "The measure enabled the industry to expand rapidly, and in 2004 it constituted 2.8 percent of gross domestic product (GDP).", "Telefónica of Spain acquired 50 percent plus one share of the company in 2006.As a result of increasing competition, Colombia has a relatively modern telecommunications infrastructure that primarily serves larger towns and cities.", "Colombia's telecommunication system includes access to 8 different international Submarine cable systems, INTELSAT, 11 domestic satellite Earth stations, and a nationwide microwave radio relay system." ], [ "Telephones", "The country's teledensity (the density of telephone lines in a community) is relatively high for Latin America (17 percent in 2006).", "However, there is a steep imbalance between rural and urban areas, with some regions below 10 percent and the big cities exceeding 30 percent.", "Bogotá, Medellín, and Cali account for about 50 percent of telephone lines in use.", "By the end of 2005, the number of telephone main lines in use totaled 7,851,649.Colombia Telecom accounted for only about 31 percent of these lines; 27 other operators accounted for the rest.Colombia's mobile market is one of the fastest-growing businesses in the country.", "In 1993, the first mobile phone call was made.", "In mid-2004 mobile telephones overtook fixed lines in service for the first time.", "By 2005 Colombia had the highest mobile phone density (90 percent) in Latin America, as compared with the region's average density of 70 percent.", "The number of mobile telephone subscribers totaled an estimated 31 million in 2007, as compared to 21.8 million in 2005 and 6.8 million in 2001." ], [ "Radio and television", "In late 2004, Radio Televisión Nacional de Colombia (RTVC) replaced the liquidated Inravisión (Instituto Nacional de Radio y Televisión) as the government-run radio and television broadcasting service, which oversees three national television stations and five radio companies (which operate about a dozen principal networks).", "Colombia has about 60 television stations, including seven low-power stations.", "In 2000 the population had about 11.9 million television receivers in use.", "Of the approximately 515 radio stations, 454 are AM; 34, FM; and 27, shortwave." ], [ "Undersea Cables", "As of 2016, Colombia has access to the following international Submarine cable systems: SAC/LAN, Maya-1, AMX-1, Pan Am, SAm-1, ARCOS-1, CFX-1, and PCCS.", "These cables land at 4 locations in the Caribbean: Barranquilla, Cartagena, Riohacha, and Tolu.", "One cable lands on the Pacific Ocean coast at Buenaventura, Valle del Cauca." ], [ "Internet", "Colombia is still far behind Brazil, Mexico, and Argentina in terms of online usage.", "It had an estimated total of 900,000 Internet subscribers by the end of 2005, a figure that equated to 4,739,000 Internet users, or 11.5 percent of the 2005 population (10.9 per 100 inhabitants).", "By late 2009 39% of households had internet access Colombia had 581,877 Internet hosts in 2006.Although as many as 70 percent of Colombians accessed the Internet over their ordinary telephone lines, dial-up access is losing ground to broadband.", "In 2005 Colombia had 345,000 broadband subscriber lines, or one per 100 inhabitants.", "In 2006 the number of personal computers per 1,000 people increased to an estimated 87 per 1,000 inhabitants, a rate still below that in other large Latin American economies.", "The internet country code is .co." ], [ "References", "* Internetworldstats.com" ], [ "External links", "* Colombian Ministry of Communications* Comunicate.com.co, Coldecon, Internet Provider" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Colombia" ], [ "Introduction", "Antioquia.", "The tunnel was the longest in Latin America until the opening of La Línea in 2020.", "'''Transport in Colombia''' is regulated by the Ministry of Transport.Road travel is the main means of transport; 69 percent of cargo is transported by road, as compared with 27 percent by railroad, 3 percent by internal waterways, and 1 percent by air." ], [ "History", "===Indigenous peoples influence===Muisca culture golden raftThe indigenous peoples in Colombia used and some continue to use the waterways as the way of transportation using rafts and canoes.===Spanish influence===With the arrival of the Europeans the Spaniards brought the horses, mules and donkey (which developed into the ''Paso Fino'') used by them in ranching duties later in the Spanish colonization of the Americas.", "Horses contributed greatly to the transport of the Spanish conquerors and colonizers.", "They also introduced the wheel, and brought wooden carts and carriages to facilitate their transport.", "The Spaniards also developed the first roads, rudimentary and most of these in the Caribbean region.", "Due to the rough terrain of Colombia communications between regions was difficult and affected the effectiveness of the central government creating isolation in some regions.", "Maritime navigation developed locally after Spain lifted its restrictions on ports within the Spanish Empire inducing mercantilism.", "Spanish also transported African slaves and forcedly migrated many indigenous tribes throughout Colombia.===Post-independence===With the independence and the influences of the European Industrial Revolution the main way of transport in Colombia became the navigation mainly through the Magdalena River which connected Honda in inland Colombia, with Barranquilla by the Caribbean sea to the trade with the United States and Europe.", "This also brought a large wave of immigrants from European and Middle Eastern countries.", "The industrialization process and transportation in Colombia were affected by the internal civil wars that surged after the independence from Spain and that continued throughout the 19th and 20th centuries.===Standardization===During the late 19th century European and American companies introduced railways to carry to the ports the local production of raw materials intended for exports and also imports from Europe.", "Steam ships began carrying Colombians, immigrants and goods from Europe and the United States over the Magdalena River.The Pumarejo bridge in Barranquilla.", "The bridge serves to cross the Magdalena River between the Departments of Atlántico and Magdalena.", "It is also one of the oldest standing bridges in Colombia.The Ministry of Transport was created in 1905 during the presidency of Rafael Reyes under the name of '' Ministerio de Obras Públicas y Transporte'' or Ministry of Public Works and Transport with the main function of taking care of national assets issues, including mines, oil (fuel), patents and trade marks, railways, roads, bridges, national buildings and land without landowners.In the early 20th century roads and highways maintenance and construction regulations were established.", "Rivers were cleaned, dragged and channeled and the navigational industry was organized.", "The Public works districts were created, as well as the Ferrocarriles Nacionales de Colombia (National Railways of Colombia).", "Among other major projects developed were the aqueduct of Bogotá, La Regadera Dam and the Vitelma Water Treatment Plant.", "The Ministry also created the National Institute of Transit (from the Spanish ''Instituto Nacional de Tránsito''), (INTRA) under the Transport and tariffs Directorate and was in charge of designing the first National roads plan with the support of many foreign multinational construction companies.Aviation was born in Barranquilla with the creation of SCADTA in 1919 a joint venture between Colombians and Germans that delivered mail to the main cities of Colombia which later merged with SACO to form Avianca." ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Railways===Railroads of ColombiaColombia has of rail lines, of which are gauge and of which are gauge.", "However, only of lines are still in use.", "Rail transport in Colombia remains underdeveloped.", "The national railroad system, once the country's main mode of transport for freight, has been neglected in favor of road development and now accounts for only about a quarter of freight transport.", "Passenger-rail use was suspended in 1992 resumed at the end of the 1990s, and as of 2017 it is considered abandoned (at least for long distances).", "Fewer than 165,000 passenger journeys were made in 1999, as compared with more than 5 million in 1972, and the figure was only 160,130 in 2005.The two still-functioning passenger trains are: one between Puerto Berrío and García Cadena, and another one between Bogotá and Zipaquirá.", "Short sections of railroad, mainly the Bogotá-Atlantic rim, are used to haul goods, mostly coal, to the Caribbean and Pacific ports.", "In 2005 a total of 27.5 million metric tons of cargo were transported by rail.", "Although the nation's rail network links seven of the country's 10 major cities, very little of it has been used regularly because of security concerns, lack of maintenance, and the power of the road transport union.", "During 2004–6, approximately 2,000 kilometers of the country's rail lines underwent refurbishment.", "This upgrade involved two main projects: the 1,484-kilometer line linking Bogotá to the Caribbean Coast and the 499-kilometer Pacific coastal network that links the industrial city of Cali and the surrounding coffee-growing region to the port of Buenaventura.===Roads===Main roads in ColombiaThe three main north–south highways are the Caribbean, Eastern, and Central Trunk Highways (troncales).", "Estimates of the length of Colombia's road system in 2004 ranged from 115,000 kilometers to 145,000 kilometers, of which fewer than 15 percent were paved.", "However, according to 2005 data reported by the Colombian government, the road network totaled 163,000 kilometers, 68 percent of which were paved and in good condition.", "The increase may reflect some newly built roads.", "President Uribe has vowed to pave more than 2,500 kilometers of roads during his administration, and about 5,000 kilometers of new secondary roads were being built in the 2003–6 period.", "Despite serious terrain obstacles, almost three-quarters of all cross-border dry cargo is now transported by road, 105,251 metric tons in 2005.Highways are managed by the Colombian Ministry of Transport through the National Roads Institute.", "The security of the highways in Colombia is managed by the Highway Police unit of the Colombian National Police.", "Colombia is crossed by the Panamerican Highway.===Ports, waterways, and merchant marine===Rivers of ColombiaSeaports handle around 80 percent of international cargo.", "In 2005 a total of 105,251 metric tons of cargo were transported by water.", "Colombia's most important ocean terminals are Barranquilla, Cartagena, and Santa Marta on the Caribbean Coast and Buenaventura and Tumaco on the Pacific Coast.", "Exports mostly pass through the Caribbean ports of Cartagena and Santa Marta, while 65 percent of imports arrive at the port of Buenaventura.", "Other important ports and harbors are Bahía de Portete, Leticia, Puerto Bolívar, San Andrés, Santa Marta, and Turbo.", "Since privatization was implemented in 1993, the efficiency of port handling has increased greatly.", "Privatization, however, has had negative impacts as well.", "In Buenaventura, for example, privatization of the harbor has increased unemployment and social issues.", "There are plans to construct a deep-water port at Bahía Solano.The main inland waterways total about 18,200 kilometers, 11,000 kilometers of which are navigable by riverboats.", "A well-developed and important form of transport for both cargo and passengers, inland waterways transport approximately 3.8 million metric tons of freight and more than 5.5 million passengers annually.", "Main inland waterways are the Magdalena–Cauca River system, which is navigable for 1,500 kilometers; the Atrato, which is navigable for 687 kilometers; the Orinoco system of more than five navigable rivers, which total more than 4,000 kilometers of potential navigation (mainly through Venezuela); and the Amazonas system, which has four main rivers totaling 3,000 navigable kilometers (mainly through Brazil).", "The government is planning an ambitious program to more fully utilize the main rivers for transport.", "In addition, the navy's riverine brigade has been patrolling waterways more aggressively in order to establish safer river transport in the more remote areas in the south and east of the country.The merchant marine totals 17 ships (1,000 gross registered tons or more), including four bulk, 13 cargo, one container, one liquefied gas, and three petroleum tanker ships.", "Colombia also has seven ships registered in other countries (Antigua and Barbuda, two; Panama, five).===Civil Aviation===Vehicles on the El Dorado Airport platformOlaya Herrera Airport of MedellínThe Special Administrative Unit of Civil Aeronautics is responsible of regulating and controlling the use of air space by civil aviation.", "The customs/immigration issues are controlled by the Departamento Administrativo de Seguridad (DAS).Colombia has well-developed air routes and an estimated total of 984 airports, 100 of which have paved runways, plus two heliports.", "Of the 74 main airports, 20 can accommodate jet aircraft.", "Two airports are more than 3,047 meters in length, nine are 2,438–3,047 meters, 39 are 1,524–2,437 meters, 38 are 914–1,523 meters, 12 are shorter than 914 meters, and 880 have unpaved runways.", "The government has been selling its stake in local airports in order to allow their privatization.", "The country has 40 regional airports, and the cities of Bogotá, Medellín, Cali, Barranquilla, Bucaramanga, Cartagena, Cúcuta, Leticia, Pereira, Armenia, San Andrés, and Santa Marta have international airports.", "Bogotá's El Dorado International Airport handles 550 million metric tons of cargo and 22 million passengers a year, making it the largest airport in Latin America in terms of cargo and the third largest in passenger numbers.===Urban transport===Urban transport systems have been developed in Barranquilla, Bogotá, Cali, and Medellín.", "Traffic congestion in Bogotá had been greatly exacerbated by a lack of rail transport; however, this problem was alleviated, to a degree, by the formation of one of the world's most expansive and highest-capacity bus rapid transit (BRT) systems—known as the TransMilenio (opened 2000)—and the restriction of vehicles through a daily, rotating ban on private cars (depending on plate numbers).", "Bogotá's BRT consists of bus and minibus services managed by both private- and public-sector enterprises.Since 1995, Medellín has had a modern urban railway, the Metro de Medellín, utilizing two train lines with 27 stations.", "The Metro also connects with the cities of Itagüí, Envigado, and Bello.", "An elevated gondola-cablecar system, the ''Metrocable'', opened in 2004 to improve Metro accessibility for some of the city's more isolated, dense ''barrios''.", "The gondola design was specifically chosen due to the mountainous geography of the city, with most of the neighborhoods served being reasonably higher in elevation from the city center.", "A BRT line called Transmetro began operating in 2011, with a second line added in 2013.Other Colombian cities have also installed BRT systems, such as Cali, with a six-line system (opened 2008), Barranquilla with two lines (opened 2010), Bucaramanga with one line (opened 2010), Cartagena with one line (opened 2015) and Pereira, with three lines (opened 2006).", "A future light rail line in Barranquilla is planned.===Pipelines===Colombia has 4,350 kilometers of gas pipelines, 6,134 kilometers of oil pipelines, and 3,140 kilometers of refined-products pipelines.", "The country has five major oil pipelines, four of which connect with the Caribbean export terminal at Puerto Coveñas.", "Until at least September 2005, the United States funded efforts to help protect a major pipeline, the 769-kilometer-long Caño Limón–Puerto Coveñas pipeline, which carries about 20 percent of Colombia's oil production to Puerto Coveñas from the guerrilla-infested Arauca region in the eastern Andean foothills and Amazonian jungle.", "The number of attacks against pipelines began declining substantially in 2002.In 2004 there were only 17 attacks against the Caño Limón–Puerto Coveñas pipeline, down from 170 in 2001.However, a bombing in February 2005 shut the pipeline for several weeks, and attacks against the electrical gird system that provides energy to the Caño Limón oilfield have continued.", "New oil pipeline projects with Brazil and Venezuela are underway.", "In addition, the already strong cross-border trade links between Colombia and Venezuela were solidified in July 2004 with an agreement to build a US$320 million natural gas pipeline between the two countries, to be completed in 2008." ], [ "See also", "* Megabús* Railway stations in Colombia" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Colombian Ministry of Transport* Invias - Colombian National Institute of Highways* Colombian Maritime and Fluvial Port Authority* Colombian Civil Aerospace Authority" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Military Forces of Colombia" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Military Forces of Colombia''' () are the unified armed forces of the Republic of Colombia.", "They consist of the Colombian Army, the Colombian Navy and the Colombian Aerospace Force.", "The National Police of Colombia, although technically not part of the military, is controlled and administered by the Ministry of National Defence, and national conscription also includes service in the National Police, thus making it a ''de facto'' gendarmerie and a branch of the military.", "The President of Colombia is the military's commander in chief, and helps formulate defense policy through the Ministry of National Defence, which is in charge of day-to-day operations.The Military Forces of Colombia have their roots in the Army of the Commoners (), which was formed on 7 August 1819 – before the establishment of the present day Colombia – to meet the demands of the Revolutionary War against the Spanish Empire.", "After their triumph in the war, the Army of the Commoners disbanded, and the Congress of Angostura created the Gran Colombian Army to replace it, thus establishing the first military service branch of the country.The Colombian military was operationally involved in World War II and was the only Latin American country to send troops to the Korean War.", "Ever since the advent of the Colombian Conflict, the Colombian military has been involved in combat, pacification, counter-insurgency, and drug interdiction operations all over the country's national territory.", "Recently it has participated in counter-piracy efforts in the Horn of Africa under Operation Ocean Shield and Operation Atlanta.The military of Colombia is the third largest in the Western Hemisphere in terms of active personnel and has the fourth largest expenditure in the Americas, behind the United States Armed Forces, the Canadian Armed Forces and the Brazilian Armed Forces respectively." ], [ "Services", "The Colombian Constitution includes two overlapping definitions of what could be defined as 'armed forces' in English:* The Public Force (): Includes the Military Forces proper '''and''' the National Police (Title VII, chapter VII, Art.", "216)* The Military Forces (): Includes only the 3 major military service branches: Army, Navy and Aerospace Force (Title VII, chapter VII, Art.", "217)This is a subtle yet important distinction, both in terms of emphasizing the civil nature of the National Police, but also adapting the national police to function as a paramilitary force which can perform military duties as a result of the Colombian Conflict.", "This has led to some of the most important police units adopting military training and conducting special operations alongside the Colombian Army, Aerospace Force, and Navy.", "Therefore, the functions of the Colombian Police in practical terms are similar to those of a gendarmerie, like the Spanish Civil Guard and the Carabineros de Chile, which maintain military ranks for all police personnel." ], [ "Personnel", "The Colombian armed forces consist of: Military Forces:* Colombian Army* Colombian Navy – and attached services Marines and Colombian Coast Guard* Colombian Aerospace ForceAnd, * National Police of ColombiaPublic Force strength as of April 2014.", "'''Force''''''Service''''''Officers''''''Total'''Military Colombian Army10,094246,325Military Colombian Navy2,48133,824Military Colombian Aerospace Force2,67913,928Public Colombian National Police6,924176,557Total22,178470, 634===Dependencies===* Military Medical Corps ('') – Medical and Nurse Corps* Indumil () – Military Industry Depot* Military Sports Federation ()* Military Printing ()* Military Museum () – History of the Armed Forces of Colombia* Superior War College (Escuela Superior de Guerra (Colombia) ESDEGUE)" ], [ "Funding", "In 2000, Colombia assigned 3.9% of its GDP to defense.", "By 2008 this figure had risen to 4.8%, ranking it 14th in the world.", "The armed forces number about 250,000 uniformed personnel: 145,000 military and 105,000 police.", "These figures do not include assistance personnel such as cooks, medics, mechanics, and so on.", "This makes the Colombian military one of the largest and most well-equipped in Latin America.", "Many Colombian military personnel have received military training assistance directly in Colombia and also in the United States.", "The United States has provided equipment and financing to the Colombian military and police through the military assistance program, foreign military sales, and the international narcotics control program, all currently united under the auspices of Plan Colombia." ], [ "World factbook statistics", "Military manpower – military service age and obligation: 18 years of age for compulsory and voluntary military service; conscript service obligation – 24 months (2004)Military manpower – availability:males age 18–49: 10,212,456females age 18–49: 10,561,562 (2005 estimate)Military manpower – fit for military service:males age 18–49: 6,986,228females age 18–49: 8,794,465 (2005 estimate)Military manpower – reaching military age annually:males age 18–49: 389,735females age 18–49: 383,146 (2005 estimate)" ], [ "Rank Insignia", ":File:Colombian Air Force Sikorsky UH-60L Arpía III (S-70A-41) Ramírez-1.jpg\|Colombian Aerospace Force Sikorsky UH-60L Arpía III (S-70A-41) just after having launched several flares.File:Infantes de marina colombia.JPG\|Colombian MarinesFile:Arc fragata caldas.jpg\|Colombian Navy Frigate ARC CaldasFile:Special Forces Colombia.jpg\|Colombian Special Forces soldiersFile:ARC Almirante Padilla.jpg\|A vessel of the Colombian Navy" ], [ "See also", "* AFEUR* Colombia* Colombian Army* Colombian military decorations* Indumil* Joint Task Force OMEGA* Military ranks of the Colombian Armed Forces" ], [ "References and notes", "Includes 435 ''sub-officers'' and 3,125 ''agents'' Includes 123,125 executive personnel and 23,562 Auxiliary conscript" ], [ "External links", "* Ministerio de Defensa de Colombia – Official Ministry of Defense site * Comando General de las Fuerzas Militares – Official Armed Forces General Command * Ejército Nacional de Colombia – Official Army site * Ejército Nacional de Colombia – Official Army site * Armada Nacional de Colombia – Official Navy site ()* Fuérza Aeroespacial Colombiana – Official Aerospace Force site * Policía Nacional de Colombia – Official National Police site * UNFFMM – Unofficial site of the Colombian Military Forces===Other Links===* Colombian Military expenditure" ], [ "Bibliography", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of Colombia" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''history of Colombia''' includes the settlements and society by indigenous peoples, most notably, the Muisca Confederation, Quimbaya Civilization, and Tairona Chiefdoms; the Spanish arrived in 1492 and initiated a period of annexation and colonization, most noteworthy being Spanish conquest; ultimately creating the Viceroyalty of New Granada, with its capital at Bogotá.", "Independence from Spain was won in 1819, but by 1830 the \"Gran Colombia\" Federation was dissolved.", "What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada.", "The new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation (1858), and then the United States of Colombia (1863), before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886; as well as constant political violence in the country.", "Panama seceded in 1903.Since the 1960s, the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict, which escalated in the 1990s, but then decreased from 2005 onward.", "The legacy of Colombia's history has resulted in a rich cultural heritage; while varied geography, and the imposing landscape of the country has resulted in the development of very strong regional identities.== Pre-Colombian == Location map of the pre-Columbian cultures of ColombiaFrom approximately 12,000 years BP onwards, hunter-gatherer societies existed near present-day Bogotá (at El Abra and Tequendama), and they traded with one another and with cultures living in the Magdalena River valley.", "Due to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica and the Caribbean to the Andes and the Amazon basin.", "The oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza archaeological site and El Totumo archaeological site in the Magdalena Valley southwest of Bogotá.", "These sites date from the Paleoindian period (18,000–8000 BCE).", "At Puerto Hormiga archaeological site and other sites, traces from the Archaic period in South America (~8000–2000 BCE) have been found.", "Vestiges indicate that there was also early occupation in the regions of El Abra, Tibitó and Tequendama in Cundinamarca.", "The oldest pottery discovered in the Americas, found at San Jacinto archaeological site, dates to 5000–4000 BCE.Indigenous people inhabited the territory that is now Colombia by 10,500 BCE.", "Nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes at the El Abra and Tequendama sites near present-day Bogotá traded with one another and with other cultures from the Magdalena River Valley.Serranía La Lindosa, a mountainous region of Guaviare Department is known for an extensive prehistoric rock art site which stretches for nearly eight miles.", "The site, near to the Guayabero River was discovered in 2019, but was not revealed to the public until 2020.There are tens of thousands of paintings of animals and humans created up to 12,500 BP.", "Images of now-extinct ice age animals, such as the mastodon, helped date the site.", "Other ice-age animals depicted include the palaeolama, giant sloths and ice age horses.", "The site has gone undiscovered because of a conflict between the government and the Farc.", "The remote site is a two-hour drive from San José del Guaviare, followed by a four hour trek.", "The site was discovered by a team from National University of Colombia, University of Antioquia and the University of Exeter as part of a project funded by European Research Council as part of the Horizon 2020 Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development.", "The site is to be featured in episode 2 of the Channel 4 series, Jungle Mystery: Lost Kingdoms of the Amazon, on 12 December 2020.Between 5000 and 1000 BCE, hunter-gatherer tribes transitioned to agrarian societies; fixed settlements were established, and pottery appeared.", "Beginning in the 1st millennium BCE, groups of Amerindians including the Muisca, Quimbaya, Tairona, Calima, Zenú, Tierradentro, San Agustín, Tolima, and Urabá became skilled in farming, mining, and metalcraft; and some developed the political system of ''cacicazgos'' with a pyramidal structure of power headed by caciques.", "The Muisca inhabited mainly the area of what is now the Departments of Boyacá and Cundinamarca high plateau (''Altiplano Cundiboyacense'') where they formed the Muisca Confederation.", "The Muisca had one of the most developed political systems (Muisca Confederation) in South America, surpassed only by the Incas.", "They farmed maize, potato, quinoa and cotton, and traded gold, emeralds, blankets, ceramic handicrafts, coca and especially salt with neighboring nations.", "The Tairona inhabited northern Colombia in the isolated Andes mountain range of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.", "The Quimbaya inhabited regions of the Cauca River Valley between the Western and Central Ranges.", "The Incas expanded their empire on the southwest part of the country.Muisca raft Legend of El Dorado Offerings of gold.jpg\|The ''zipa'' used to cover his body in gold and, from his Muisca raft, he offered treasures to the ''Guatavita'' goddess in the middle of the sacred lake.", "This old Muisca tradition became the origin of the ''El Dorado'' legend.Museo del Oro Zenú Bogota mod.jpg\|A lowland Zenú cast-gold bird ornament that served as a staff head, dated 490 CE.", "This culture used alloys with a high gold content.", "The crest of the bird consists of the typical Zenú semi-filigree.", "Regular filigree is braided wire, but the Zenú cast theirs.Taironapendants metropolitan 2006.jpg\|Tairona figure pendants in gold.Cacique Quimbaya de oro (M. América, Madrid) 01.jpg\|Golden statuette of a Quimbaya ''cacique''.Parque Arqueológico de San Agustín - tomb of a deity with supporting warriors.jpg\|San Agustín Archaeological Park (UNESCO World Heritage Site), contains the largest collection of religious monuments and megalithic sculptures in Latin America and is considered the world's largest necropolis.Lost City Ruins.jpg\|Ciudad Perdida is a major settlement believed to have been founded around 800 CE.", "It consists of a series of 169 terraces carved into the mountainside, a net of tiled roads and several small circular plazas.", "The entrance can only be accessed by a climb up some 1,200 stone steps through dense jungle.Villa de Leyva el infiernito.jpg\|El Infiernito, a pre-Columbian archaeoastronomical site located on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense in the outskirts of Villa de Leyva" ], [ "Spanish annexation", "=== Pre-Columbian history ===Major areas of pre-Columbian civilization in the Americas: The main leader of the Muisca on the Bogotá savanna at the time of conquest was '''Tisquesusa'''.", "He led numerous efforts to resist Spanish invasion but was eventually killed in battle.", "His nephew, Sagipa, succeeded him and soon submitted to the conquistadors.Europeans first visited the territory that became Colombia in 1499 when the first expedition of Alonso de Ojeda arrived at the Cabo de la Vela.", "The Spanish made several attempts to settle along the north coast of today's Colombia in the early 16th century, but their first permanent settlement, at Santa Marta, dates from 1525.The Spanish commander Pedro de Heredia founded Cartagena on June 1, 1533 in the former location of the indigenous Caribbean Calamarí village.", "Cartagena grew rapidly, fueled first by the gold in the tombs of the Sinú Culture, and later by trade.", "The thirst for gold and land lured Spanish explorers to visit Chibchan-speaking areas; resulting in the Spanish conquest of the Chibchan Nations - the conquest by the Spanish monarchy of the Chibcha language-speaking nations, mainly the Muisca and Tairona who inhabited present-day Colombia, beginning the Spanish colonization of the Americas.The Spanish advance inland from the Caribbean coast began independently from three different directions, under Jimenéz de Quesáda, Sebastián de Benalcázar (known in Colombia as Belalcázar) and Nikolaus Federmann.", "Although all three were drawn by the Indian treasures, none intended to reach Muisca territory, where they finally met.In August 1538, Quesáda founded Santa Fe de Bogotá on the site of Muisca village of Bacatá.In 1549, the institution of the Spanish Royal Audiencia in Bogotá gave that city the status of capital of New Granada, which comprised in large part what is now the territory of Colombia.", "As early as the 1500s however, secret anti-Spanish discontentment was already brewing for Colombians since Spain prohibited direct trade between the Viceroyalty of Peru, which included Colombia, and the Viceroyalty of New Spain, which included the Philippines the source of Asian products like silk and porcelain which was in demand in the Americas.", "Illegal trade between Peruvians, Filipinos, and Mexicans continued in secret, as smuggled Asian goods ended up in Córdoba, Colombia, the distribution center for illegal Asian imports, due to the collusion between these peoples against the authorities in Spain.", "They settled and traded with each other while disobeying the forced Spanish monopoly in more expensive silks and porcelain made in homeland Spain.", "In 1717, the Viceroyalty of New Granada was originally created, and then it was temporarily removed, to finally be reestablished in 1739.The Viceroyalty had Santa Fé de Bogotá as its capital.", "This Viceroyalty included some other provinces of northwestern South America which had previously been under the jurisdiction of the Viceroyalties of New Spain or Peru and correspond mainly to today's Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama.", "So, Bogotá became one of the principal administrative centers of the Spanish possessions in the New World, along with Lima and Mexico City." ], [ "Gran Colombia: independence re-claimed", "Boyaca bridge crucial in the Battle of Boyacá.From then on, the long independence struggle was led mainly by Bolívar and Francisco de Paula Santander in neighboring Venezuela.", "Bolívar returned to New Granada only in 1819 after establishing himself as leader of the pro-independence forces in the Venezuelan ''llanos''.", "From there he led an army over the Andes and captured New Granada after a quick campaign that ended at the Battle of Boyacá, on August 7, 1819.", "(''For more information, see Military career of Simón Bolívar''.", ")That year, the Congress of Angostura established the Republic of Gran Colombia, which included all territories under the jurisdiction of the former Viceroyalty of New Granada.", "Bolívar was elected the first president of Gran Colombia and Santander, vice president.As the Federation of Gran Colombia was dissolved in 1830, the Department of Cundinamarca (as established in Angostura) became a new country, the Republic of New Granada." ], [ "The Republic: Liberal and Conservative conflict", "In 1863 the name of the Republic was changed officially to \"United States of Colombia\", and in 1886 the country adopted its present name: \"Republic of Colombia\".Two political parties grew out of conflicts between the followers of Bolívar and Santander and their political visions—the Conservatives and the Liberals – and have since dominated Colombian politics.", "Bolívar's supporters, who later formed the nucleus of the Conservative Party, sought strong centralized government, alliance with the Roman Catholic Church, and a limited franchise.", "Santander's followers, forerunners of the Liberals, wanted a decentralized government, state rather than church control over education and other civil matters, and a broadened suffrage.Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, each party held the presidency for roughly equal periods of time.", "Colombia maintained a tradition of civilian government and regular, free elections.", "The military has seized power three times in Colombia's history: in 1830, after the dissolution of Great Colombia; again in 1854 (by General José María Melo); and from 1953 to 1957 (under General Gustavo Rojas Pinilla).", "Civilian rule was restored within one year in the first two instances.Notwithstanding the country's commitment to democratic institutions, Colombia's history has also been characterized by widespread, violent conflict.", "Two civil wars resulted from bitter rivalry between the Conservative and Liberal parties.", "The Thousand Days' War (1899–1902) cost an estimated 100,000 lives, and up to 300,000 people died during \"La Violencia\" of the late 1940s and 1950s, a bipartisan confrontation which erupted after the assassination of Liberal popular candidate Jorge Eliécer Gaitán.", "United States activity to influence the area (especially the Panama Canal construction and control) led to a military uprising in the Isthmus Department in 1903, which resulted in the separation and independence of Panama.A military coup in 1953 toppled the right-wing government of Conservative Laureano Gómez and brought General Gustavo Rojas Pinilla to power.", "Initially, Rojas enjoyed considerable popular support, due largely to his success in reducing \"La Violencia\".", "When he did not restore democratic rule and occasionally engaged in open repression, however, he was overthrown by the military in 1957 with the backing of both political parties, and a provisional government was installed." ], [ "The National Front regime (1958–1974)", "In July 1957, former Conservative President Laureano Gómez (1950–1953) and former Liberal President Alberto Lleras (1945–1946, 1958–1962) issued the \"Declaration of Sitges,\" in which they proposed a \"National Front,\" whereby the Liberal and Conservative parties would govern jointly.", "The presidency would be determined by an alternating conservative and liberal president every 4 years for 16 years; the two parties would have parity in all other elective offices.The National Front ended \"La Violencia\", and National Front administrations attempted to institute far-reaching social and economic reforms in cooperation with the Alliance for Progress.", "In particular, the Liberal president Alberto Lleras Camargo (1958–1962) created the Colombian Institute for Agrarian Reform (INCORA), and Carlos Lleras Restrepo (1966–1970) further developed land entitlement.", "In 1968 and 1969 alone, the INCORA issued more than 60,000 land titles to farmers and workers.In the end, the contradictions between each successive Liberal and Conservative administration made the results decidedly mixed.", "Despite the progress in certain sectors, many social and political injustices continued.The National Front system itself eventually began to be seen as a form of political repression by dissidents and even many mainstream voters, and many protesters were victimized during this period.", "Especially after what was later confirmed as the fraudulent election of Conservative candidate Misael Pastrana in 1970, which resulted in the defeat of the relatively populist candidate and former president (dictator) Gustavo Rojas Pinilla.", "The M-19 guerrilla movement, \"Movimiento 19 de Abril\" (19 April Movement), would eventually be founded in part as a response to this particular event.", "The FARC was formed in 1964 by Manuel Marulanda Vélez and other Marxist–Leninist supporters, after a military attack on the community of Marquetalia.Although the system established by the Sitges agreement was phased out by 1974, the 1886 Colombian constitution — in effect until 1991—required that the losing political party be given adequate and equitable participation in the government which, according to many observers and later analysis, eventually resulted in some increase in corruption and legal relaxation.", "The current 1991 constitution does not have that requirement, but subsequent administrations have tended to include members of opposition parties." ], [ "Post-National Front", "From 1974 until 1982, different presidential administrations chose to focus on ending the persistent insurgencies that sought to undermine Colombia's traditional political system.", "Both groups claimed to represent the poor and weak against the rich and powerful classes of the country, demanding the completion of true land and political reform, from an openly Communist perspective.By 1974, another challenge to the state's authority and legitimacy had come from 19th of April Movement (M-19), a mostly urban guerrilla group founded in response to an alleged electoral fraud during the final National Front election of Misael Pastrana Borrero (1970–1974) and the defeat of former dictator Gustavo Rojas Pinilla.", "Initially, the M-19 attracted a degree of attention and sympathy from mainstream Colombians that the FARC and National Liberation Army (ELN) had found largely elusive earlier due to extravagant and daring operations, such as stealing a sword that had belonged to Colombia's Independence hero Simon Bolívar.", "At the same time, its larger profile soon made it the focus of the state's counterinsurgency efforts.The ELN guerrilla had been seriously crippled by military operations in the region of Anorí by 1974, but it managed to reconstitute itself and escape destruction, in part due to the administration of Alfonso López Michelsen (1974–1978) allowing it to escape encirclement, hoping to initiate a peace process with the group.By 1982, the perceived passivity of the FARC, together with the relative success of the government's efforts against the M-19 and ELN, enabled the administration of the Liberal Party's Julio César Turbay (1978–1982) to lift a state-of-siege decree that had been in effect, on and off, for most of the previous 30 years.", "Under the latest such decree, president Turbay had implemented security policies that, though of some military value against the M-19 in particular, were considered highly questionable both inside and outside Colombian circles due to numerous accusations of military human rights abuses against suspects and captured guerrillas.Citizen exhaustion due to the conflict's newfound intensity led to the election of president Belisario Betancur (1982–1986), a Conservative who won 47% of the popular vote, directed peace feelers at all the insurgents, and negotiated a 1984 cease-fire with the FARC and M-19 after a 1982 release of many guerrillas imprisoned during the previous effort to overpower them.", "The ELN rejected entering any negotiation and continued to recover itself through the use of extortions and threats, in particular against foreign oil companies of European and U.S. origin.As these events were developing, the growing illegal drug trade and its consequences were also increasingly becoming a matter of widespread importance to all participants in the Colombian conflict.", "Guerrillas and newly wealthy drug lords had mutually uneven relations and thus numerous incidents occurred between them.", "Eventually, the kidnapping of drug cartel family members by guerrillas led to the creation of the 1981 ''Muerte a Secuestradores'' (MAS) death squad (\"Death to Kidnappers\").", "Pressure from the U.S. government and critical sectors of Colombian society was met with further violence, as the Medellín Cartel and its hitmen, bribed or murdered numerous public officials, politicians and others who stood in its way by supporting the implementation of extradition of Colombian nationals to the U.S. Victims of cartel violence included Justice Minister Rodrigo Lara, whose assassination in 1984 made the Betancur administration begin to directly oppose the drug lords.The first negotiated cease-fire with the M-19 ended when the guerrillas resumed fighting in 1985, claiming that the cease-fire had not been fully respected by official security forces, saying that several of its members had suffered threats and assaults, and also questioning the government's real willingness to implement any accords.", "The Betancur administration, in turn, questioned the M-19's actions and its commitment to the peace process, as it continued to advance high-profile negotiations with the FARC, which led to the creation of the Patriotic Union (Colombia) (UP), a legal and non-clandestine political organization.On November 6, 1985, the M-19 stormed the Colombian Palace of Justice and held the Supreme Court magistrates hostage, intending to put president Betancur on trial.", "In the ensuing crossfire that followed the military's reaction, scores of people lost their lives, as did most of the guerrillas, including several high-ranking operatives.", "Both sides blamed each other for the outcome.Meanwhile, individual FARC members initially joined the UP leadership in representation of the guerrilla command, though most of the guerrilla's chiefs and militiamen did not demobilize nor disarm, as that was not a requirement of the process at that point in time.", "Tension soon significantly increased, as both sides began to accuse each other of not respecting the cease-fire.", "Political violence against FARC and UP members (including presidential candidate Jaime Pardo) was blamed on drug lords and also on members of the security forces (to a much lesser degree on the argued inaction of Betancur administration).", "Members of the government and security authorities increasingly accused the FARC of continuing to recruit guerrillas, as well as kidnapping, extorting and politically intimidating voters even as the UP was already participating in politics.The Virgilio Barco (1986–1990) administration, in addition to continuing to handle the difficulties of the complex negotiations with the guerrillas, also inherited a particularly chaotic confrontation against the drug lords, who were engaged in a campaign of terrorism and murder in response to government moves in favor of their extradition overseas.", "The UP also suffered an increasing number of losses during this term (including the assassination of presidential candidate Bernardo Jaramillo), which stemmed both from private proto-paramilitary organizations, increasingly powerful drug lords and a number of would-be paramilitary-sympathizers within the armed forces." ], [ "Post-1990", "Following administrations had to contend with the guerrillas, paramilitaries, narcotics traffickers and the violence and corruption that they all perpetuated, both through force and negotiation.", "Narcoterrorists assassinated three presidential candidates before César Gaviria was elected in 1990.Since the death of Medellín cartel leader Pablo Escobar in a police shootout during December 1993, indiscriminate acts of violence associated with that organization have abated as the \"cartels\" have broken up into multiple, smaller and often-competing trafficking organizations.", "Nevertheless, violence continues as these drug organizations resort to violence as part of their operations but also to protest government policies, including extradition.The M-19 and several smaller guerrilla groups were successfully incorporated into a peace process as the 1980s ended and the 1990s began, which culminated in the elections for a Constituent Assembly of Colombia that would write a new constitution, which took effect in 1991.The new Constitution, brought about a considerable number of institutional and legal reforms based on principles that the delegates considered as more modern, humanist, democratic and politically open than those in the 1886 constitution.", "Practical results were mixed and mingled emerged (such as the debate surrounding the constitutional prohibition of extradition, which later was reversed), but together with the reincorporation of some of the guerrilla groups to the legal political framework, the new Constitution inaugurated an era that was both a continuation and a gradual, but significant, departure from what had come before.Contacts with the FARC, which had irregularly continued despite the generalized de facto interruptions of the ceasefire and the official 1987 break from negotiations, were temporarily cut off in 1990 under the presidency of César Gaviria (1990–1994).", "The Colombian Army's assault on the FARC's ''Casa Verde'' sanctuary at La Uribe, Meta, followed by a FARC offensive that sought to undermine the deliberations of the Constitutional Assembly, began to highlight a significant break in the uneven negotiations carried over from the previous decade.President Ernesto Samper assumed office in August 1994.However, a political crisis relating to large-scale contributions from drug traffickers to Samper's presidential campaign diverted attention from governance programs, thus slowing, and in many cases, halting progress on the nation's domestic reform agenda.", "The military also suffered several setbacks in its fight against the guerrillas, when several of its rural bases began to be overrun and a record number of soldiers and officers were taken prisoner by the FARC (which since 1982 was attempting to implement a more \"conventional\" style of warfare, seeking to eventually defeat the military in the field).On August 7, 1998, Andrés Pastrana was sworn in as the President of Colombia.", "A member of the Conservative Party, Pastrana defeated Liberal Party candidate Horacio Serpa in a run-off election marked by high voter turnout and little political unrest.", "The new president's program was based on a commitment to bring about a peaceful resolution of Colombia's longstanding civil conflict and to cooperate fully with the United States to combat the trafficking of illegal drugs.While early initiatives in the Colombian peace process gave reason for optimism, the Pastrana administration also has had to combat high unemployment and other economic problems, such as the fiscal deficit and the impact of global financial instability on Colombia.", "During his administration, unemployment has risen to over 20%.", "Additionally, the growing severity of countrywide guerrilla attacks by the FARC and ELN, and smaller movements, as well as the growth of drug production, corruption and the spread of even more violent paramilitary groups such as the United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC) has made it difficult to solve the country's problems.Although the FARC and ELN accepted participation in the peace process, they did not make explicit commitments to end the conflict.", "The FARC suspended talks in November 2000, to protest what it called \"paramilitary terrorism\" but returned to the negotiating table in February 2001, following 2 days of meetings between President Pastrana and FARC leader Manuel Marulanda.", "The Colombian Government and ELN in early 2001 continued discussions aimed at opening a formal peace process." ], [ "From 2004 and on", "Colombia's peace protests, 2007.By 2004, the security situation of Colombia had shown some measure of an improvement, and the economy, while still fragile, had also shown some positive signs.", "On the other hand, relatively little had been accomplished in structurally solving most of the country's other grave problems, in part due to legislative and political conflicts between the administration and the Colombian Congress (including those over the controversial 2006 project to give President Álvaro Uribe the right to be re-elected), and a relative lack of freely allocated funds and credits.", "In October 2006, Uribe was re-elected by a landslide.Some critical observers consider in retrospect that Uribe's policies, while admittedly reducing crime and guerrilla activity, were too slanted in favor of a military solution to Colombia's internal war, neglecting grave social and human rights concerns to a certain extent.", "They hoped that Uribe's government would make serious efforts towards improving the human rights situation inside the country, protecting civilians and reducing any abuses committed by the armed forces.Uribe's supporters in turn believed that increased military action was a necessary prelude to any serious negotiation attempt with the guerrillas and that the increased security situation would help the government, in the long term, to focus more actively on reducing most wide-scale abuses and human rights violations on the part of both the armed groups and any rogue security forces that might have links to the paramilitaries.", "In short, these supporters maintained that the security situation needed to be stabilized in favor of the government before any other social concerns could take precedence.", "In February 2010, the constitutional court blocked President Alvaro Uribe from seeking for a new re-election.", "Uribe left the presidency in 2010.In 2010 Juan Manuel Santos was elected president; he was supported by ex-president Uribe, and, in fact, he owed his election mainly through having won over former Uribe supporters.", "But two years after winning the presidential election, Santos (to widespread surprise) began peace talks with FARC, which took place in Havana.", "Re-elected in 2014, Santos revived an important infrastructure program, which in fact had been planned during the Uribe administration.", "Focused mainly on the provision of national highways, the program was led by former vice-president Germán Vargas Lleras.In 2015, Colombia's Congress limited presidency to single term, preventing the president from seeking re-election.Talks between the government and the guerrillas resulted in the announcement of a peace agreement.", "However, a referendum to ratify the deal was unsuccessful.", "Afterward, the Colombian government and the FARC signed a revised peace deal in November 2016, which the Colombian congress approved.", "In 2016, President Santos was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.", "The Government began a process of attention and comprehensive reparation for victims of conflict.", "Colombia under President Santos showed some progress in the struggle to defend human rights, as expressed by HRW.", "A Special Jurisdiction of Peace was created to investigate, clarify, prosecute and punish serious human rights violations and grave breaches of international humanitarian law which occurred during the armed conflict and to satisfy victims' right to justice.", "During his visit to Colombia, Pope Francis paid tribute to the victims of the conflict.In May 2018, Ivan Duque, the candidate of the conservative Centro Democrático (Democratic Centre), won the presidential election.", "On 7 August 2018, he was sworn in as the new President of Colombia.Colombia's relations with Venezuela have fluctuated due to the ideological differences between both governments.", "Colombia has offered humanitarian support with food and medicines to mitigate the shortage of supplies in Venezuela.", "Colombia's Foreign Ministry said that all efforts to resolve Venezuela's crisis should be peaceful.", "Colombia proposed the idea of the Sustainable Development Goals and a final document was adopted by the United Nations.", "In February 2019, Venezuelan president Nicolás Maduro cut diplomatic relations with Colombia after Colombian President Ivan Duque helped Venezuelan opposition politicians deliver humanitarian aid to their country.", "Colombia recognized Venezuelan opposition leader Juan Guaido as the country's legitimate president.", "In January 2020, Colombia rejected Maduro's proposal that the two countries restore diplomatic relations.The 19 June 2022 election run-off vote ended in a win for former guerrilla, Gustavo Petro, taking 50.47% of the vote compared to 47.27% of right-wing Rodolfo Hernández.", "The single-term limit for the country's presidency prevented president Iván Duque from seeking re-election.", "Petro became the country’s first leftist president-elect.", "On 7 August 2022, he was sworn in." ], [ "See also", "* Colombia during World War II* Economic history of Colombia* History of the Americas* History of Latin America* History of South America* List of presidents of Colombia* Politics of Colombia* Spanish colonization of the Americas" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "" ], [ "Further reading", " Alesina, Alberto, ed.", "''Institutional reforms: The case of Colombia'' (MIT press, 2005).", "* Earle, Rebecca.", "''Spain and the Independence of Colombia, 1810–1825''.", "Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 2000.", "* Echavarría, Juan José, María Angélica Arbeláez, and Alejandro Gaviria.", "\"Recent economic history of Colombia.\"", "in ''Institutional Reforms: The Case of Colombia'' (2005): 33-72.", "* Echeverry, Juan Carlos, et al.", "\"Oil in Colombia: history, regulation and macroeconomic impact.\"", "''Documento CEDE 2008-10'' (2008).", "online* Etter, Andrés, Clive McAlpine, and Hugh Possingham.", "\"Historical patterns and drivers of landscape change in Colombia since 1500: a regionalized spatial approach.\"", "''Annals of the Association of American Geographers'' 98.1 (2008): 2-23.", "* Farnsworth-Alvear, Ann.", "''Dulcinea in the Factory: Myths, Morals, Men, and Women in Colombia's Industrial Experiment, 1905–1960''.", "Duke University Press 2000.", "* Fisher, J.R. Allan J. Kuethe, and Anthony McFarlane.", "''Reform and Insurrection in Bourbon New Granada and Peru''.", "Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press 1990.", "* Flores, Thomas Edward.", "\"Vertical inequality, land reform, and insurgency in Colombia.\"", "''Peace Economics, Peace Science and Public Policy'' 20.1 (2014): 5-31.online* Harvey, Robert.", "\"Liberators: Latin America's Struggle for Independence, 1810–1830\".", "John Murray, London (2000).", "* Kuethe, Allan J.", "''Military Reform and Society in New Granada, 1773–1808''.", "Gainesville: University of Florida Press 1978.", "* LeGrand, Catherine.", "''Frontier Expansion and Peasant Protest in Colombia, 1850–1936''.", "Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1986.", "* López-Pedreros, A. Ricardo.", "''Makers of democracy: a transnational history of the middle classes in Colombia'' (Duke University Press, 2019).", "* McFarlane, Anthony.", "''Colombia Before Independence: Economy, Society, and Politics under Bourbon Rule''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.", "* Martz, John D. ''The politics of clientelism in Colombia: Democracy and the state'' (Routledge, 2017).", "* Murillo, Mario A., and Jesus Rey Avirama.", "''Colombia and the United States: war, unrest, and destabilization'' (Seven Stories Press, 2004).", "* Phelan, John Leddy.", "''The People and the King: The Comunero Revolt in Colombia, 1781''.", "Madison: University of Wisconsin Press 1978.", "* Racine, Karen.", "\"Simón Bolívar and friends: Recent biographies of independence figures in Colombia and Venezuela\" ''History Compass'' 18#3 (Feb 2020) https://doi.org/10.1111/hic3.12608* Roldán, Mary.", "''Blood and Fire: La Violencia in Antioquia, Colombia 1946–1953''.", "Durham: Duke University Press 2002.", "* Safford, Frank.", "''Colombia: Fragmented Land, Divided Society''.", "New York: Oxford University Press 2002.", "* Sharp, William Frederick.", "''Slavery on the Spanish Frontier: The Colombia Chocó, 1680–1810''.", "Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1976.", "* Thorp, Rosemary, and Francisco Durand.", "\"8.A Historical View of Business-State Relations: Colombia, Peru, and Venezuela Compared.\"", "in ''Business and the state in developing countries.''", "(Cornell University Press, 2018) pp. 216–236.", "* Twinam, Ann.", "''Miners, Merchants, and Farmers in Colonial Colombia''.", "Austin: University of Texas Press 1983.", "* West, Robert C. ''Colonial Placer Mining in Colombia''.", "Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press 1952.===In Spanish===* Arciniegas, Germán.", "''Los comuneros''.", "Caracas: Bibliotecta Ayacucho 1992.", "* Colmenares, Germán.", "''Historia económica y social de Colombia, 1537–1719''.", "Cali 1973.", "* González, Margarita.", "''El resguardo en el Nuevo Reino de Granada''.", "3rd edition.", "Bogotá: El Ancora 1992." ], [ "External links", "* * U.S. State Department Background Note: Colombia" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Colombia" ], [ "Introduction", "Colombia seeks diplomatic and commercial relations with all countries, regardless of their ideologies or political or economic systems.", "For this reason, the Colombian economy is quite open, relying on international trade and following guidelines given by international law.Since 2008, Colombia's Ministry of Trade and Commerce has either reached or strengthened Bilateral Trade Agreements with South Korea, Japan and China building stronger commerce interchange and development in the Pacific Rim.Regional relations have also vastly improved under the Santos Administration (2010–2018).", "Issues however remain regarding spillover of the FARC leftist-terrorist group, being chased out of hiding in rural areas of Colombia and finding safe havens in non-monitored areas of bordering states.", "The FARC numbers have significantly diminished in the last decade, to an estimated 5,000–7,000.And while joint military collaboration has steadily increased with the bordering countries of Brazil, Panama, Peru, and Venezuela, there have been tensions between Colombia and Ecuador regarding the issue.", "In 2002, the Ecuadorian government closed its main border crossing with Colombia, restricting its hours of operation.", "Ecuador continues to voice its concerns over an influx of émigrés stemming from guerilla activity at its borders.", "Evidence has since emerged however, suggesting that a significant number of the FARC's foot soldiers in and around the Colombia–Ecuador border consist of Ecuadorian émigrés who joined the leftist terrorist group out of need.", "Returning Ecuadorian émigrés have faced re-entry restrictions.In 2012, relations with Nicaragua and Venezuela were tested over territorial island disputes.", "Bilateral committees are negotiating the dispute with Venezuela over waters in the Gulf of Venezuela." ], [ "Background", "In 1969, Colombia formed what is now the Andean Community along with Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, and Peru (Venezuela joined in 1973, and Chile left in 1976).In the 1980s, Colombia broadened its bilateral and multilateral relations, joining the Contadora Group, the Group of Eight (now the Rio Group), and the Non-Aligned Movement, which it chaired from 1994 until September 1998.In addition, it has signed free trade agreements with Chile, Mexico, and Venezuela.Colombia has traditionally played an active role in the United Nations and the Organization of American States and in their subsidiary agencies.", "Former President César Gaviria became Secretary General of the OAS in September 1994 and was reelected in 1999.Colombia was a participant in the December 1994 and April 1998 Summits of the Americas and followed up on initiatives developed at the summit by hosting two post-summit, ministerial-level meetings on trade and science and technology.Colombia regularly participates in international fora, including CICAD, the Organization of American States' body on money laundering, chemical controls, and drug abuse prevention.", "Although the Colombian Government ratified the 1988 UN Convention on Narcotics in 1994—the last of the Andean governments to do so—it took important reservations, notably to the anti-money-laundering measures, asset forfeiture and confiscation provisions, maritime interdiction, and extradition clauses.", "Colombia subsequently withdrew some of its reservations, most notably a reservation on extradition." ], [ "International relations", "===Disputes – international===Maritime boundary dispute with Venezuela in the Gulf of Venezuela; territorial disputes with Nicaragua over Archipelago de San Andrés y Providencia and Quita Sueño Bank.", "The United States disputes sovereignty with Colombia over the Serranilla Bank and the Bajo Nuevo Bank.", "Quita Sueño Bank is claimed by the United States to be a submerged reef, and thus does not recognize the sovereignty of any nation over the bank.===Membership of international organizations===The major organizations in which Colombia is a member include: the Agency for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean, Andean Pact, Caribbean Development Bank Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Group of 3, Group of 11, Group of 24, Group of 77, Inter-American Development Bank, International Atomic Energy Agency, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, International Chamber of Commerce, International Civil Aviation Organization, International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol), International Development Association, International Finance Corporation, International Fund for Agricultural Development, International Labour Organization, International Maritime Organization, International Maritime Satellite Organization, International Monetary Fund (IMF), International Olympic Committee, International Organization for Migration, International Organization for Standardization, International Telecommunication Union, International Telecommunications Satellite Organization, International Trade Union Confederation, Latin American Economic System, Latin American Integration Association, Non-Aligned Movement, Organization of American States (OAS), Permanent Court of Arbitration, Rio Group, United Nations (UN), UN Conference on Trade and Development, UNESCO, UN Industrial Development Organization, UN Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees, Universal Postal Union, World Confederation of Labour, World Federation of Trade Unions, World Health Organization, World Intellectual Property Organization, World Meteorological Organization, World Tourism Organization, and World Trade Organization.", "An OAS observer has monitored the government's peace process with the paramilitaries, lending the negotiations much-needed international credibility.", "The United States helps Colombia secure favorable treatment from the IMF.===Major international treaties===Regional treaties include the Andean Pact, now known as the Andean Community, which also includes Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru, the bodies and institutions making up the Andean Integration System (AIS).", "Colombia has signed free-trade agreements with Chile, Mexico, and Venezuela.Its recent trade agreements with Korea, China and Japan, have focused on economic and technical cooperation between those nations.", "Within the regional Caribbean Community and Common Market (Caricom), Colombia has also deepened economic and medical science research collaboration agreements.", "Colombia has also signed and ratified 105 international treaties or agreements relating to the protection of the environment.", "These include the Antarctic Treaty and Nuclear Test Ban Treaty and conventions on Biodiversity, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, and Wetlands.", "It has signed, but not ratified, the Antarctic-Environmental Protocol and conventions on Law of the Sea and Marine Dumping.", "Colombia also has signed the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and the Tlatelolco Treaty.", "By 1975 signatories to the 1974 Declaration of Ayacucho, of which Colombia was one, had decided on limitations to nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons.Gaining all 186 votes, Colombia served on the U.N. Security Council from 2011 to 2012 representing Latin American and the Caribbean.Colombia is also a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the United States-military (as covered under Article 98).=== Domestic politics and foreign policy ===International Relations scholars long emphasized international constraints, and particularly Colombia's relationship with the United States, as central to its foreign policy.", "In terms of foreign policy process, presidents have broad constitutional authorities, in consultation with their foreign ministers.", "However, since the 2000s, the influence of other domestic actors in Colombian foreign policy-making has increased.", "Long, Bitar, and Jiménez-Peña examine the role of the Colombian Constitutional Court, congressional politics, social movements, and electoral challengers.", "They find that Colombian institutions permit increasing challenges to presidential authority, and that in important cases Colombian presidents have been forced to drop their preferred foreign policies." ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries which Colombia maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate12345678910111213—1415161718192021222324252627282930313233343536373839404142—4344454647484950515253545556575859606162636465666768697071727374757677787980818283848586878889909192939495—96979899100101102103104105106107108109110111112113114115116117118119120121122123124125—126127128129130131132133134135136137138139140141142143144145146147148149150151152153154155156157158159160161162163164165166167168169170171172173174175176177178179180181182183—184Unknown185Unknown" ], [ "Bilateral relations", "===Americas=== Country Formal relations beganNotes8 March 1823 * Argentina has an embassy in Bogotá.", "* Colombia has an embassy in Buenos Aires.", "* Both countries are full members of the Organization of American States, Latin American Economic System, Latin American Integration Association, Rio Group and Union of South American Nations.", "* List of Treaties ruling the relations Argentina and Colombia (Argentine Foreign Ministry19 March 1912See Bolivia–Colombia relations* Bolivia has an embassy in Bogotá.", "* Colombia has an embassy in La Paz.24 April 1907See Brazil–Colombia relations* Brazil has an embassy in Bogotá and a vice-consulate in Leticia.", "* Colombia has an embassy in Brasília and consulates-general in Manaus, São Paulo and in Tabatinga.6 October 1952See Canada–Colombia relations* Canada has an embassy in Bogotá.", "* Colombia has an embassy in Ottawa and consulates-general in Calgary, Montreal, Toronto and Vancouver.21 October 1822See Chile–Colombia relationsBoth nations are members of the Pacific Alliance.", "* Chile has an embassy in Bogotá.", "* Colombia has an embassy in Santiago.10 February 1832See Colombia–Ecuador relationsPresent-day Colombia and Ecuador trace back established official diplomatic relations to December, 1831 with the signing of the Treaty of Pasto, in which both countries recognized each other as sovereign states.", "The Ecuadorean diplomatic mission in New Granada (Colombia) did not open until 1837.It wasn't until 1939 that Ecuador raised the diplomatic mission's status to an official embassy.", "Colombia did the same the following year, in 1940.", "* Colombia has an embassy in Quito.", "* Ecuador has an embassy in Bogotá.18 December 1970* Both countries have established diplomatic relations on 18 December 1970.", "* Both countries are full members of Organization of American States, Association of Caribbean States and Union of South American Nations.", "* Colombia is accredited to Guyana from its embassy in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago.", "* Guyana is accredited to Colombia from its embassy in Caracas, Venezuela.3 October 1823 See Colombia–Mexico relations* Colombia has an embassy in Mexico City and consulates in Cancún and Guadalajara.", "* Mexico has an embassy in Bogotá.", "* Both countries are full members of the Organization of American States and the Pacific Alliance.8 March 1825See Colombia–Nicaragua relationsThe relationship between the two Latin American countries has evolved amid conflicts over the San Andrés y Providencia Islands located in the Caribbean close to the Nicaraguan shoreline and the maritime boundaries covering that included the islands of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina and the banks of Roncador, Serrana, Serranilla and Quitasueño as well as the arbitrarily designed 82nd meridian west which Colombia claims as a border but which the International Court has sided with Nicaragua in disavowing.", "* Colombia has an embassy in Managua.", "* Nicaragua has an embassy in Bogotá.9 July 1924See Colombia–Panama relations* Colombia has an embassy in Panama City and consulates in Colón, Jaqué and in Puerto Obaldía.", "* Panama has an embassy in Bogotá and a consulate-general in Barranquilla.27 July 1870See Colombia–Paraguay relations* Colombia has an embassy in Asunción.", "* Paraguay has an embassy in Bogotá.", "* Both countries are full members of Union of South American Nations, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, Rio Group, Group of 77, Latin American Economic System and Latin American Integration Association.", "* Paraguayan Ministry of Foreign Relations about relations with Colombia6 July 1822See Colombia–Peru relationsBoth nations are members of the Pacific Alliance.", "* Colombia has an embassy in Lima and a consulate-general in Iquitos.", "* Peru has an embassy in Bogotá and a consulate-general in Leticia.19 June 1822 See Colombia–United States relationsThe country traditionally has had good relations with the United States.", "Relations were strained during the presidency of Ernesto Samper (1994–98) due to accusations of receiving illegal campaign funding from the Cali Cartel.", "Relations between the two countries greatly improved during the Pastrana administration (1998–2002).", "In January 2000, the Clinton administration pledged more than US$1 billion of mainly military assistance to Colombia to assist the antidrug component of President Pastrana's strategy known as Plan Colombia.Relations with the United States became a foreign policy priority for the Uribe administration, and Colombia became an important ally in the \"War on Terrorism\".", "In March 2002, in response to a request from U.S. President George W. Bush, the U.S. Congress lifted restrictions on U.S. assistance to Colombia to allow it to be used for counterinsurgency in addition to antidrug operations.", "U.S. support for Colombia's antidrug-trafficking efforts included slightly more than US$2.5 billion between 2000 and 2004, as compared with only about US$300 million in 1998.Some critics of current US policies in Colombia, such as Law Professor John Barry, claim that US influences have catalyzed internal conflicts.Colombia rejects threats and blackmail of the United States of America after the threat of Donald Trump to decertify the country as a partner in counter-narcotics efforts.Latin America rejects Trump's military threat against Venezuela.", "Brazil, Colombia and other countries in the region prefer to play a constructive role that would prevent a civil war in Venezuela.", "Colombia's Foreign Ministry said that all efforts to resolve Venezuela's crisis should be peaceful.", "Colombia proposed the idea of the Sustainable Development Goals and a final document was adopted by the United Nations.", "* Colombia has an embassy in Washington, D.C., and consulates-general in Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, Newark, New York, Orlando, San Francisco and in San Juan, Puerto Rico.", "* United States has an embassy in Bogotá.25 August 1888See Colombia–Uruguay relations* Colombia has an embassy in Montevideo.", "* Uruguay has an embassy in Bogotá.", "27 November 1831See Colombia–Venezuela relationsThe relationship has developed since the early 16th century, when Spanish empire colonizers created the Province of Santa Marta (now Colombia) and the Province of New Andalucia (now Venezuela).", "The countries share a history for achieving their independence under Simón Bolívar and becoming one nation—the Gran Colombia—which dissolved in the 19th century.", "Following then, the overall relationship between the two countries has vacillated between cooperation and bilateral struggle.In February 2019, Venezuelan president Nicolás Maduro cut diplomatic relations with Colombia after Colombian President Ivan Duque helped Venezuelan opposition politicians deliver humanitarian aid to their country.", "Colombia recognized Venezuelan opposition leader Juan Guaido as the country’s legitimate president.", "In January 2020, Colombia rejected Maduro’s proposal that the two countries restore diplomatic relations.", "Following the election of Colombian President Gustavo Petro, the two countries restored diplomatic relations in August 2022.", "* Colombia has an embassy in Caracas and maintains several consulates throughout the country.", "* Venezuela has an embassy in Bogotá and maintains several consulates throughout the country.===Asia=== Country Formal Relations BeganNotes22 December 1994Both countries established diplomatic relations on December 22, 1994.", "* Armenia is accredited to Colombia from its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.", "* Colombia is accredited to Armenia from its embassy in Moscow, Russia.13 December 1994See Azerbaijan–Colombia relations* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Bogotá.", "* Colombia has an embassy in Baku.7 February 1980See China–Colombia relations* China has an embassy in Bogotá.", "* Colombia has an embassy in Beijing and consulates-general in Guangzhou, Hong Kong and Shanghai.19 January 1959The relationship between the two countries has been gradually increasing with more frequent diplomatic visits to promote political, commercial cultural and academic exchanges.", "Colombia is currently the commercial point of entry into Latin America for Indian companies.", "* India has an embassy in Bogotá.", "* Colombia has an embassy in New Delhi.15 September 1980Both countries are members of the Non-Aligned Movement, the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council, the Cairns Group, and the CIVETS block.", "* Colombia has an embassy in Jakarta.", "* Indonesia has an embassy in Bogotá.1 July 1957In an article in the Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs, Marcos Peckel, a Colombian scholar noted that Colombian-Israeli relations can be looked through the lenses of military cooperation, trade links, education and culture, and recognition of Palestine.", "Militarily, Colombia was one of the first countries to give Israel weapons and engage in arms deals, which has since been an ongoing bilateral agreement.", "Since, Israel and Colombia have shared intelligence, and as Peckel explains, several pieces of Israeli technology.", "Trade-wise, too, both countries have a strong relationship.", "The Free Trade Agreement, a pending agreement between Colombia and Israel, has the potential to further strengthen these relationships by boosting Colombian imports in Israel and increasing the presence of Israeli technology in Colombia.", "The spheres of education and culture between Colombia and Israel are deeply interwoven through Israeli scholarships to Colombians and a presence of media in each country.", "\"Colombia supports the establishment of an independent Palestinian state alongside Israel within mutually agreed-upon borders.", "It considers Israeli settlements in the West Bank illegal but strongly condemns Palestinian terrorism, and it advocates for a lasting peace based on the two-state solution\".", "On resolutions in the UN General Assembly that compared Zionism to racism and wanted to establish a \"right to return\" for Palestinians, Colombia abstained.", "In 2018, Colombia officially recognized the State of Palestine.", "Despite creating a bump in the relations between the countries, the two have re-established strong relations.", "* Colombia has an embassy in Tel Aviv.", "* Israel has an embassy in Bogotá.25 May 1908The relationship was officially established in 1908, only interrupted between 1942 and 1954 with the surge of World War II.", "Relations are mostly based on commercial trade that has favored Japan interests, cultural exchanges and technological and philanthropic aid to Colombia.", "* Colombia has an embassy in Tokyo.", "* Japan has an embassy in Bogotá.19 August 1987Ambassador of Colombia in Malaysia also accredited to Vietnam, while Malaysian Embassy in Lima, Peru, accredited to Colombia.", "Both are members of United Nations, Movement of Non-Aligned Cooperation Forum Asia-Latin America (FEALAC) and Pacific Economic Cooperation Council (PECC).", "* Colombia has an embassy in Kuala Lumpur.", "* Malaysia is accredited to Colombia from its embassy in Lima, Peru.19 June 1970Both Pakistan and Colombia do not enjoy cordial dealings with some of their neighbours.", "Another common aspect that makes the task of both Colombian and Pakistan Armed forces even tougher is the difficult terrain they have been encountering.", "Poverty, income inequality, destruction and degradation of other vital organs of the state have consequently been the natural by-products of insubordination and rebellions in both Colombia and Pakistan.", "Both the countries have similar Gross Domestic Products (GDPs) too.", "While the Colombian Purchasing Power Parity GDP stands at $460.406 billion, Pakistan s GDP stands at $464.897 billion (latest IMF statistics).", "Like Colombia, Pakistan too also witnesses a large presence of the US military personnel and civilian contractors on its territory.", "Colombia established diplomatic relations with Pakistan in 1980, but bilateral trade between the two countries was negligible which needed to be improved for the benefit of both nations.", "* Colombia is accredited to Pakistan from its embassy in Ankara, Turkey.", "* Pakistan is accredited to Colombia from its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.1 January 1946See Colombia-Philippines relations* Colombia has an embassy in Manila.", "* Philippines is accredited to Colombia from its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.10 March 1962See Colombia–South Korea relations* Formal diplomatic relations between South Korea and Colombia started on 10 March 1962.", "* Colombia sent about 1,000 men to Korea to assist South Korea during the Korean War.", "* Colombia has an embassy in Seoul.", "* South Korea has an embassy in Bogotá.10 April 1959See Colombia–Turkey relations* Colombia has an embassy in Ankara.", "* Turkey has an embassy in Bogotá.", "* Both countries are members of OECD and WTO.", "* Direct flights from Istanbul to Bogotá commenced in May 2016.", "* Trade volume between the two countries was US$1.7 billion USD in 2019 (Colombian exports/imports: 1.46/0.25 billion USD.===Europe===Under the Uribe administration, Colombia's relations with the European Union (EU) have been cordial.", "Representatives of the EU have been critical of Colombia's antiguerrilla and antidrug strategies in several respects.", "The EU is particularly concerned about the potential for increased human rights abuses within Colombia at the hands of both government forces and illegal armed groups, and it has continued to distance itself from Plan Colombia.", "The EU is in favor of a negotiated solution to the nation's internal conflict.", "EU aid to Colombia has mainly consisted of social, economic and development investments.In 2004, the EU as an entity did not offer unrestricted support for the Uribe government's peace initiative with paramilitaries, citing concerns over the possible lack of a credible and comprehensive peace strategy and its application, but it did approve US$2 million in aid for the process.", "Individual EU members such Sweden, Italy, Germany and the Netherlands also provided limited support on their own.", "Country Formal relations beganNotes27 November 1995* Andorra does not have an accreditation to Colombia.", "* Colombia's embassy in Madrid, Spain is accredited to the Principality of Andorra.In February 2013, Colombia's Foreign Minister at the time made an official visit to Andorra in order to strengthen relations between the two countries.10 January 1920 See Austria–Colombia relations* Austria has an embassy in Bogotá.", "* Colombia has an embassy in Vienna.9 December 1992On May 19, 1998, Colombia and Belarus signed a collaboration agreement between both countries.", "* Belarus is accredited to Colombia from its embassy in Quito, Ecuador.", "* Colombia is accredited to Belarus from its embassy in Moscow, Russia.1873* Belgium has an embassy in Bogotá.", "* Colombia has an embassy in BrusselsJanuary 1993* Colombia is accredited to the Czech Republic from its embassy in Vienna, Austria.", "( Austria).", "* Czech Republic has an embassy in Bogotá.", "* The first connections between Czechia and Colombia occurred in the times of colonial era, during missionary activities of Jesuits in that area.", "In 1860/1870s the Czech botanist Benedikt Roezl discovered the cycad plant Zamia roezlii on the Pacific coast in Colombia.", "The plant is named after him.", "In 1922 began the consulary activities between Czechoslovakia and Colombia.", "Since 1926 the Colombian consul had his seat in Prague.", "In 1935 both countries agreed to interchange the ambassadors.", "* In 2008, during his visit in Colombia, the Czech Prime Minister Mirek Topolánek negotiated a possible sale of Aero L-159 Alca combat aircraft with Colombian President Álvaro Uribe.", "30 May 1892See Colombia–France relationsOfficially the relations between Colombian and France began on May 30, 1892 with the signature of an agreement intended to establish French nationals in Colombia, increase commerce and navigation between the two nations.", "* Colombia has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Bogotá.1 June 1872See Colombia–Germany relations* Colombia has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.", "* Germany has an embassy in Bogotá.28 March 1973See Colombia–Hungary relations* Colombia has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Bogotá.11 September 1981* Colombia is accredited to Iceland from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "* Iceland is accredited to Colombia from its embassy in Ottawa, Canada.", "* Iceland and Colombia have a Free Trade Agreement through the EFTA10 November 1999See Colombia–Ireland relations* Colombia has an embassy in Dublin.", "* Ireland has an embassy in Bogotá.13 March 1864* Colombia has an embassy in Rome and a consulate-general in Milan.", "* Italy has an embassy in Bogotá.3 March 2019* Colombia recognized Kosovo on August 6, 2008.", "* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 March 2019.", "* Kosovo will open an embassy in Bogotá.24 October 2001* Colombia is accredited to Liechtenstein from its embassy in Bern, Switzerland.", "* Liechtenstein and Colombia have a Free Trade Agreement through the EFTA.15 December 2000* Colombia is accredited to Monaco from its embassy in Paris, France.", "* Monaco has an honorary consulate in Bogotá.Colombia and Monaco first stablished diplomatic relations in December 2000.In 2012, Colombia's ambassador to France at the time, presented to Monaco its credentials becoming the first non-resident ambassador to the country.1 May 1829On 16 and 17 February 2022 president Iván Duque visited the Netherlands.", "There were talks about trade and judicial cooperation.", "Also a bilateral treaty for the elimination of double taxation with respect to taxes on income and the prevention of tax evasion and avoidance was signed by Dutch PM Mark Rutte and president Duque.", "* Colombia has an embassy in The Hague, a consulate-general in Amsterdam, and consulates in Willemstad (Curaçao) and in Oranjestad (Aruba).", "* Netherlands has an embassy in Bogotá.18 November 1933See Colombia–Poland relations* Colombia has an embassy in Warsaw.", "* Poland has an embassy in Bogotá.25 June 1935See Colombia–Russia relations* Colombia has an embassy in Moscow.", "* Russia has an embassy in Bogotá.December 1966* Both countries established diplomatic relations in December 1966.", "* A number of bilateral agreements in various fields have been concluded and are in force between both countries.", "* Colombia is accredited to Serbia from its embassy in Vienna, Austria.", "* Serbia is accredited to Colombia from its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.30 January 1881See Colombia–Spain relations* Colombia has an embassy in Madrid; consulates-general in Barcelona and Seville and consulates in Bilbao, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Palma de Mallorca and Valencia.", "* Spain has an embassy in Bogotá.11 December 1874* Colombia has an embassy in Stockholm.", "* Sweden has an embassy in Bogotá.18 April 1825* Colombia has an embassy in London.", "* United Kingdom has an embassy in Bogotá.", "* Colombia, as well as the United States and Chile, declared Argentina to be the aggressors of the Falklands War* See also Colombians in the United Kingdom===Oceania=== Country Formal relations beganNotes9 January 1975* Australia has an embassy in Bogotá.", "* Colombia has an embassy in Canberra and a consulate-general in Sydney.1 May 1978See Colombia–New Zealand relations* Colombia is accredited to New Zealand from its embassy in Canberra, Australia and maintains a consulate-general in Auckland.", "* New Zealand has an embassy in Bogotá." ], [ "Transnational issues", "=== Narcotics and terrorism ===By the 1990s, Colombia had become the world's leading supplier of refined cocaine and a growing source for heroin.", "More than 90% of the cocaine that entered in the 1990s the United States was produced, processed, or transshipped in Colombia.", "The cultivation of coca dropped between 1995 and 1999 from 3,020 to , primarily in areas where government control was more active.Despite the death of Medellín cartel drug kingpin Pablo Escobar in 1993 and the arrests of major Cali cartel leaders in 1995 and 1996, Colombian drug cartels remain among the most sophisticated criminal organizations in the world, controlling cocaine processing, international wholesale distribution chains, and markets.", "In 1999 Colombian police arrested over 30 narcotraffickers, most of them extraditable, in \"Operation Millennium\" involving extensive international cooperation.", "More arrests were made in a following \"Operation Millennium II.", "\"Colombia is engaged in a broad range of narcotics control activities.", "Through aerial spraying of herbicide and manual eradication, Colombia has attempted to keep coca, opium poppy, and cannabis cultivation from expanding.", "The government has committed itself to the eradication of all illicit crops, interdiction of drug shipments, and financial controls to prevent money laundering.", "Alternative development programs were introduced in 1999.Corruption and intimidation by traffickers complicate the drug-control efforts of the institutions of government.", "Colombia passed revised criminal procedures code in 1993 that permits traffickers to surrender and negotiate lenient sentences in return for cooperating with prosecutors.", "In December 1996 and February 1997, however, the Colombian Congress passed legislation to toughen sentencing, asset forfeiture, and money-laundering penalties.In November 1997, the Colombian Congress amended the constitution to permit the extradition of Colombian nationals, albeit not retroactively.", "In late 1999, President Pastrana authorized the first extradition in almost 10 years of a Colombian trafficker to stand trial for U.S. crimes.", "Three such extraditions to the United States have taken place, the most recent in August 2000, with cases against others pending in Colombian courts.", "Under the Pastrana administration, Plan Colombia was developed and implemented with U.S. backing.During the presidency of Álvaro Uribe, the government applied more military pressure on the FARC and other outlawed groups.", "After the offensive, many security indicators improved.", "Colombia achieved a great decrease in cocaine production, leading White House drug czar R. Gil Kerlikowske to announce that Colombia is no longer the world's biggest producer of cocaine.In addition to the challenge posed to the United States by Colombian drug trafficking, illegal Colombian immigrants in the United States are an issue in Colombia-U.S. relations.", "According to figures from the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Colombia is the fourth-leading source country of illegal immigration to the United States.", "According to its estimates, the number of illegal Colombian residents in the United States almost tripled from 51,000 in 1990 to 141,000 in 2000.According to the US Census Bureau, the number of authorized Colombian immigrants in the United States in 2006 was 801,363.Colombia rejected threats and blackmail of the United States of America after the threat of Donald Trump to decertify the country as a partner in counter-narcotics efforts." ], [ "See also", "* List of diplomatic missions in Colombia* List of diplomatic missions of Colombia* Security issues in Colombia" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of the Czech Republic" ], [ "Introduction", "The Czech Republic is a landlocked country in Central Europe.", "It is bordered by Germany to the west, Austria to the south, Slovakia to the east and Poland to the north.", "It consists mostly of low hills and plateaus surrounded along the borders by low mountains.", "Two areas of lowlands follow the Elbe river and the Morava river.", "About a third of the area of the Czech Republic is covered by forests.The Czech Republic also possesses Moldauhafen, a 30,000 m2 enclave in the middle of Hamburg docks in Germany, which was awarded to Czechoslovakia by Article 363 of the Treaty of Versailles to allow the landlocked country a place where goods transported down river could be transferred to seagoing ships.", "This territory reverts to Germany in 2028." ], [ "Physical geography", "===Climate===Köppen climate classification of the Czech RepublicThe Czech Republic's climate is temperate, transitional between an oceanic climate and a continental climate.", "The summers are rather cool and dry, with average temperatures in most areas around 20 °C, the winters are fairly mild and wet with temperatures averaging around 0 °C in most areas.", "The relative humidity varies between 60% and 80%.==== Examples =======Geology===Most of the area of the Czech Republic belongs to the geographically stable Bohemian Massif.", "Only an area of the Western Carpathians in the east of the country is younger, lifted during the Tertiary.", "Igneous rocks make up the base of the Bohemian Massif.", "Sedimentary rocks are mostly found in the north-eastern part of Bohemia with significant areas of sandstone.", "Among the metamorphic rocks, the most commonly found is Gneiss.===Mountains===The most notable mountain ranges in the Czech Republic are all found along the borders of the country.", "In Bohemia it is the Bohemian Forest and Ore Mountains, both bordering Germany.", "Then the long region of Sudetes with several mountains ranges, including Giant Mountains with Sněžka – the highest peak of the Czech Republic.", "The last major mountain range is the Moravian-Silesian Beskids in the east.===Rivers===Drainage areas of the Elbe and the Morava riversThere are four major rivers in the Czech Republic.", "The Elbe (locally \"Labe\") flows from the Giant Mountains in the north east of Bohemia to the west and then through northern Germany all the way to the North Sea.", "The Morava River drains most of Moravia and flows to the south into the Danube and ultimately to the Black Sea.", "The Oder starts in the Moravian Silesia and flows north through Poland into the Baltic Sea.", "The fourth major river is the Vltava, which is the longest river of the Czech Republic and drains the southern part of Bohemia before flowing into the Elbe at Mělník.===Bodies of water===Natural occurring bodies of water are rather scarce; most of the significant bodies of water are man-made ponds and reservoirs.", "The largest pond is the Rožmberk Pond, which is one of the system of fish ponds built in the 16th century around Třeboň.", "The largest reservoir by area covered is the Lipno Reservoir (4,870 ha), built in the 1950s and the largest reservoir by volume is Orlík Reservoir (716 million m3), built around the same time.", "The largest and deepest natural lake is Černé jezero (18.4 ha)." ], [ "Human geography", "===Population geography===Population density in the Czech RepublicNatural resources: Metals are in blue: Fe — iron ore, PY — pyrite, PM – polymetal ores (Cu, Zn, Pb, etc.", "), U — uranium.", "Fossil fuels are in red: C — coal, L — lignite, O – oil.", "Non-metallic minerals are in green: G — graphite, KA — kaolinite.", "The population of the Czech Republic is estimated to be around 10.6 million.", "The highest population density is in the larger metropolitan area of Ostrava and of course in the area around the capital of Prague.", "The lowest population density is in the Czech-German and Czech-Austrian borderlands, mostly as a lasting result of the expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia after the World War II.===Political geography===The Czech Republic is divided into thirteen regions and one capital city with regional status.", "The older administrative units of seventy-six districts are still recognized and remain the seats of various branches of state administration.", "Historically, the Czech Republic can be split into three regions: Bohemia in the west, Moravia in the east and Czech Silesia in the north east.===Industry and agriculture===Areas affected the most by heavy industry are the Sokolov Basin and the Most Basin in the north-west of the Czech Republic.", "The extensive deposits of brown coal in those areas are mostly used for electricity production.", "It is estimated, that almost 40% of all electric power produced in the Czech Republic comes from burning brown coal mined in these areas.", "Plant agriculture is focused around the lowlands surrounding the Elbe and the Morava.", "Around 34% of the country is covered by forests and approximately 37% of land is arable.", "The estimated area of irrigated land is 385 km2, and freshwater withdrawal per capita is around 164 m3 every year." ], [ "See also", "* Protected areas of the Czech Republic* Rivers of the Czech Republic* List of highest mountains of the Czech Republic" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of the Czech Republic" ], [ "Introduction", "The Czech Republic is a unitary parliamentary republic, in which the president is the head of state and the prime minister is the head of government.", "Executive power is exercised by the Government of the Czech Republic, which reports to the Chamber of Deputies.", "The legislature is exercised by the Parliament.", "The Czech Parliament is bicameral: the upper house of the Parliament is the Senate, and the lower house is the Chamber of Deputies.", "The Senate consists of 81 members who are elected for six years.", "The Chamber of Deputies consists of 200 members who are elected for four years.", "The judiciary system is topped by the trio of the Constitutional Court, Supreme Court and Supreme Administrative Court.The highest legal document is the Constitution of the Czech Republic, complemented by constitutional laws and the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms.", "The current constitution went in effect on 1 January 1993, after the dissolution of Czechoslovakia.The Czech Republic has a multi-party system.", "Between 1993 and 2013, the two largest political parties were the centre-left Czech Social Democratic Party (ČSSD) and centre-right Civic Democratic Party (ODS).", "This changed in early 2014, with the rise of a new major political party ANO 2011, which has since led two cabinets.", "According to the V-Dem Democracy indices the Czech Republic was 2023 the 16th most electoral democratic country in the world." ], [ "Executive branch", "The president is the head of state, and the prime minister is the head of government.", "The majority of executive power is given to the Cabinet, which consists of the prime minister, deputy prime ministers and ministers (usually heads of the ministries).PresidentPetr PavelIndependent9 March 2023Prime MinisterPetr FialaCivic Democratic Party28 November 2021=== President ===The president of the Czech Republic is elected by a direct vote for five years.", "They can only serve for two terms.", "The president is a formal head of state with limited executive powers specified in the articles 54 to 66 of the Constitution:* to appoint or dismiss the prime minister and other members of the Cabinet* to appoint or dismiss the entire Cabinet* to confirm or decline a resignation of the prime minister and other members of the Cabinet* to summon a session of the Chamber of Deputies* to dissolve the Chamber of Deputies when specific conditions described in the Constitution are met* to pardon and mitigate penalties imposed by the court, order not to initiate criminal proceedings, suspend them if they are already initiated and to wipe previous criminal records* to declare the date of elections to the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate* to bestow state honors* to appoint and promote generals* to appoint judges * to appoint the president and vice-president of the Supreme Audit Office* to appoint members of the Board of the Czech National Bank* to appoint or dismiss heads of diplomatic missionsThe president is also the commander in chief of the Armed Forces and ratifies all domestic laws and international agreements.=== Cabinet ===Prague Castle, the seat of the president of the Czech RepublicStraka Academy, the seat of the Cabinet, PragueWallenstein Palace, the seat of the Senate, PragueThe Cabinet is the supreme executive body in the Czech Republic.", "It makes its decisions as a body.", "It is held responsible by the Chamber of Deputies.", "The president appoints every new prime minister, who then chooses the ministers.", "All ministers of the Cabinet need to be approved by the president and within thirty days after the presidential approval they must ask the Chamber of Deputies for a vote of confidence.==== Prime Minister ====The prime minister is the head of government.", "The prime minister organizes the work of the Cabinet, presides over it and acts in its name.", "The prime minister sets the agenda for most foreign and domestic policies but has to obtain the president's approval to hire or dismiss any other member of the Cabinet.==== Ministers ====Ministers are any member of the Cabinet who are not the prime minister.", "They are usually the head of a ministry, but this is not required.", "A ministry – sometimes called government department – is a governmental organisation that manages a specific sector of public administration.", "The number of ministries varies depending on the particular Cabinet and is managed by the Competence Law.", "As of 2021, the Czech Republic had 13 ministers and 14 ministries." ], [ "Legislative branch", "Thun Palace, the seat of the Chamber of Deputies, PragueThe Parliament (''Parlament'' in Czech) consists of two houses.", "The lower house is the Chamber of Deputies, and the upper house is the Senate.President of the Chamber of DeputiesMarkéta Pekarová AdamováTOP 0910 November 2021President of the SenateMiloš VystrčilCivic Democratic Party19 February 2020===Chamber of Deputies===The Chamber of Deputies ( in Czech) has 200 members, elected for four-year terms by proportional representation with a 5% election threshold.", "The Chamber of Deputies elections happen every four years, unless the reigning Cabinet prematurely loses the Chamber of Deputies' support.", "Candidates for every political party participating in the elections are split among 14 electoral districts, which are identical to the country's administrative regions.", "A citizen must be at least 21 years old to be eligible for candidacy.The Chamber of Deputies was formerly known as the Czech National Council.", "It has the same powers and responsibilities as the now-defunct Federal Assembly of the Czechoslovakia.===Senate===The Senate (''Senát'' in Czech) has 81 members, each elected for a six-year term.", "Senate elections happen every two years and only a third of the seats is contested each time.", "All of the 81 Senate electoral districts are designed to contain roughly the same number of voters.", "The Senate elections use a two-round system, when the two most successful candidates from the first round face each other again in the second round usually a week later.", "Only citizens who have reached the age of 40 are eligible for candidacy.", "The senate's function is to be a stabilizing force and its influence is significantly lower than that of the Chamber of Deputies." ], [ "Judicial branch", "The Czech court system recognizes four categories of courts and the Constitutional Court, which stands outside of the court system.===Constitutional Court===The Constitutional Court's main purpose is to protect people's constitutional rights and freedoms.", "The decisions of the court are final, cannot be overturned and are considered a source of law.", "The court is composed of 15 justices who are named for a renewable period of 10 years by the president and approved by the Senate.", "Its functionality is similar to that of the Supreme Court of the United States.===Supreme courts===There are two supreme courts in the court system of the Czech Republic – the Supreme Court and the Supreme Administrative Court.", "Both reside in Brno.Simplified chart of the Czech political system====Supreme Court====The Supreme Court of the Czech Republic is the court of highest appeal for almost all legal cases heard in the Czech Republic.", "The justices of the Supreme Court analyze and evaluate legally effective decisions of lower courts.", "They unify the Czech judicature.====Supreme Administrative Court====The Supreme Administrative Court of the Czech Republic protects people from unlawful decisions and procedures of the state authorities.", "It examines objections to elections and has the authority to ban or suspend the activity of political parties.", "It resolves competence disputes between governmental organizations and also serves as disciplinary court for other members of the judiciary.===High courts===There are two high courts in the Czech Republic – one in Prague and one in Olomouc .", "They serve as courts of appeal to Regional Courts in cases, where the Regional Court acted as a court of first instance.", "Presidents of the high courts are appointed by the president for seven years.", "The vice-presidents are appointed by the minister of justice and also serve a seven-year term.", "A justice is required by the law to have at least eight years of experience before becoming a member of a High Court.===Regional courts===Regional courts serve mainly as the courts of appeal to district courts.", "However, they can also act as courts of first instance in cases of more severe criminal charges, disputes between corporations or disputes over intellectual property.", "There are eight regional courts in the Czech Republic: in Brno, Ostrava, Hradec Králové, Ústí nad Labem, Plzeň, České Budějovice and two in Prague.===District courts===Seat of the Constitutional Court, BrnoDistrict courts serve as the courts of first instance in almost all civil or criminal proceedings.", "There is a total of 86 district courts in the Czech Republic.", "Notaries and executors are appointed by the minister of justice to their jurisdictions." ], [ "Regional government", "Regions of the Czech Republic with their coats of armsThe Czech Republic is divided in 14 administrative regions, including one for the capital of Prague.", "The older system of 73 administrative districts (''okresy'' in Czech) and 4 municipalities was abandoned in 1999 in an administrative reform.", "Each of the regions has a regional council with a varied number of regional councilors and a president of the regional cabinet (''hejtman'' in Czech) as its formal head.", "The capital of Prague is the only exception to this, as the City Council acts both as regional and municipal governing body and is led by a mayor.", "Regional councilors are elected for four-year terms similarly to deputies in the Chamber of Deputies.", "All adults eligible to vote are also eligible to be a candidate to a regional council." ], [ "Composition of the Senate", "For the current composition of the Chamber of Deputies of the Czech Republic, see List of MPs elected in the 2017 Czech legislative election." ], [ "Recent political developments", "From 1991, the Czech Republic, originally as part of Czechoslovakia and since 1993 in its own right, has been a member of the Visegrád Group and from 1995, the OECD.", "The Czech Republic joined NATO on 12 March 1999 and the European Union on 1 May 2004.On 21 December 2007 the Czech Republic joined the Schengen Area.Until 2017, either the Czech Social Democratic Party or the Civic Democratic Party led the governments of the Czech Republic.", "In October 2017, populist movement ANO 2011, led by the country's second-richest man, Andrej Babiš, won the elections with three times more votes than its closest rival, the centre-right Civic Democrats.", "In December 2017, Czech President Miloš Zeman appointed Andrej Babiš as the new prime minister.On 28 November 2021, Czech President Miloš Zeman appointed opposition leader Petr Fiala as the country's new prime minister.", "The centre-right coalition Spolu (meaning Together) won tightly contested legislative elections in October 2021 against Prime Minister Andrej Babiš and his populist ANO party.", "Babiš had sought re-election after four years in power.", "In January 2023, Former NATO general Petr Pavel won the election runoff over Andrej Babis to succeed Miloš Zeman as the fourth president of the Czech Republic." ], [ "See also", "Government of the Czech RepublicMinistry of Finance (Czech Republic)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Constitution of the Czech Republic* Website with results of all elections in Czech and English* RZB Group: Czech Republic – Election 2006 Special* Czech 2006 Election blog by the Prague Daily Monitor* Erik Herron's Guide to Politics of East Central Europe and EurasiaGovernment* Official governmental website English* Official presidential website English* Official Senate website English* Portal of the Public Administration Czech* Chief of State and Cabinet Members CIA library on World leaders" ] ]	wikipedia

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