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Which employer did Enrique Alfaro Ramírez work for in 01/06/2022? | June 01, 2022 | {
"text": [
"Governor of Jalisco"
]
} | L2_Q24565115_P108_3 | Enrique Alfaro Ramírez works for Congress of Jalisco from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2009.
Enrique Alfaro Ramírez works for Governor of Jalisco from Jan, 2018 to Dec, 2022.
Enrique Alfaro Ramírez works for Municipal President of Guadalajara from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2017.
Enrique Alfaro Ramírez works for Tlajomulco de Zúñiga Municipality from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011. | Enrique Alfaro RamírezEnrique Alfaro Ramírez (born June 20, 1973) is a Mexican politician and the Governor of Jalisco. In 2009, he served as mayor of Tlajomulco de Zúñiga. He mounted his gubernatorial campaign in 2012 under the Movimiento Ciudadano (MC) party, but lost to the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). Alfaro Ramírez decided to run for mayor of Guadalajara that year and won the elections. After serving for three years, he ran for governor again under the MC and was victorious. This victory marked the MC's first gubernatorial win in its history. Within a week of the election results, however, he resigned from the MC and decided to be an independent governor, claiming he was never an active member of the MC.Alfaro Ramírez was born in Guadalajara, Jalisco, on June 20, 1973. He obtained a bachelor's degree in civil engineering from the Western Institute of Technology and Higher Education (ITESO) in 1995 and a master's degree in urban studies from El Colegio de México in 1999. He worked in various capacities in the federal government, focusing on urban development, between 1996 and 2003, and from 2003 to 2006, he was a town councilor in Tlajomulco de Zúñiga.In 2007, Alfaro Ramírez won his first election, serving as a state legislator in Jalisco. Among the highlights of his tenure in the state congress were the creation of Jalisco's Metropolitan Matters Commission (Spanish: "Comisión de Asuntos Metropolitanos") as well as laws reducing public funding for political parties and allowing for the removal of the governor. He was elected mayor of Tlajomulco de Zúñiga in 2009 and served in that capacity for three years.Alfaro Ramírez mounted his first gubernatorial campaign in 2012 as the Movimiento Ciudadano (MC) candidate. He finished in a close second place, four percentage points behind Aristóteles Sandoval of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). After losing the governor's race, Alfaro Ramírez ran for mayor of Guadalajara, again with MC, in 2015. His victory marked the first time that neither the National Action Party (PAN) or PRI had won the mayorship of Guadalajara. He served as mayor from October 1, 2015, to December 17, 2017. During his mayoral term in Guadalajara, he was questioned over a public art project and a pair of land sales. Alfaro Ramírez defended his administration by saying that his actions would lead to improvements in urbanization.In 2018, Alfaro Ramírez ran as the MC gubernatorial candidate for Governor of Jalisco. While MC was in national coalition with the PAN and Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD), it ran alone in state races. He won the election with 37.7 percent of the vote on election night, giving MC its first ever outright gubernatorial win. Within a week of the election, he announced he was severing all ties with MC, a party of which he claims to never have been an active member, and that he would serve as an independent governor. He also declared that 2018 was his last election.Jalisco reported about 25% of the Dengue fever cases in the country in 2019 (11,727 cases and 49 deaths) and 2020 (5,362 cases and 20 deaths).Between March 2020 and December 19, 2020, Jalisco reported 130,192 cases of infection and 5,402 deaths related to the COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico.Alfaro Ramírez reported a reduction of 18% in crime between January 2018 and January 2019 and a 22% decrease by January 2020. However, murders increased in 2019 to 2,672, eleventh highest in the country, with 34 homicides for 100,000 people. As of August, there were 1,528 murderers in 2020, an average of 7.9 per day. Two hundred sixty-six women were murdered in 2020; 54 cases were classified as femicides.Five police officers from Casimiro Castillo were arrested for the murder of a young man on August 26, 2020. This was after four police in Ixtlahuacán de los Membrillos arrested, tortured, and killed Giovanni López, 30, for not wearing a face mask on May 4 during the pandemic. The release of a video of López′s arrest set off violent protests in Guadalajara.The Jalisco New Generation Cartel (CJNG), one of the most dangerous drug cartels in Mexico, allegedly threatened the life of Governor Enrique Alfaro Ramírez in August and September 2020. CJNG is said to accuse the governor of breaking an agreement he had with them to control drug trafficking in the state, instead turning it over to the Sinaloa Cartel. CJNG is believed to be behind the assassination attempt of Secretary of Public Security, Omar García Harfuch in June 2020.Alfaro Ramírez was married to Lorena Martínez. When he was mayor of Guadalajara, Martínez was president of the National System for Integral Family Development (DIF). She has expressed interest in running for mayor as well. Alfaro Ramírez and Martínez are separated. | [
"Municipal President of Guadalajara",
"Congress of Jalisco",
"Tlajomulco de Zúñiga Municipality"
] |
|
Which employer did Enrique Alfaro Ramírez work for in Jun 01, 2022? | June 01, 2022 | {
"text": [
"Governor of Jalisco"
]
} | L2_Q24565115_P108_3 | Enrique Alfaro Ramírez works for Congress of Jalisco from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2009.
Enrique Alfaro Ramírez works for Governor of Jalisco from Jan, 2018 to Dec, 2022.
Enrique Alfaro Ramírez works for Municipal President of Guadalajara from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2017.
Enrique Alfaro Ramírez works for Tlajomulco de Zúñiga Municipality from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011. | Enrique Alfaro RamírezEnrique Alfaro Ramírez (born June 20, 1973) is a Mexican politician and the Governor of Jalisco. In 2009, he served as mayor of Tlajomulco de Zúñiga. He mounted his gubernatorial campaign in 2012 under the Movimiento Ciudadano (MC) party, but lost to the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). Alfaro Ramírez decided to run for mayor of Guadalajara that year and won the elections. After serving for three years, he ran for governor again under the MC and was victorious. This victory marked the MC's first gubernatorial win in its history. Within a week of the election results, however, he resigned from the MC and decided to be an independent governor, claiming he was never an active member of the MC.Alfaro Ramírez was born in Guadalajara, Jalisco, on June 20, 1973. He obtained a bachelor's degree in civil engineering from the Western Institute of Technology and Higher Education (ITESO) in 1995 and a master's degree in urban studies from El Colegio de México in 1999. He worked in various capacities in the federal government, focusing on urban development, between 1996 and 2003, and from 2003 to 2006, he was a town councilor in Tlajomulco de Zúñiga.In 2007, Alfaro Ramírez won his first election, serving as a state legislator in Jalisco. Among the highlights of his tenure in the state congress were the creation of Jalisco's Metropolitan Matters Commission (Spanish: "Comisión de Asuntos Metropolitanos") as well as laws reducing public funding for political parties and allowing for the removal of the governor. He was elected mayor of Tlajomulco de Zúñiga in 2009 and served in that capacity for three years.Alfaro Ramírez mounted his first gubernatorial campaign in 2012 as the Movimiento Ciudadano (MC) candidate. He finished in a close second place, four percentage points behind Aristóteles Sandoval of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). After losing the governor's race, Alfaro Ramírez ran for mayor of Guadalajara, again with MC, in 2015. His victory marked the first time that neither the National Action Party (PAN) or PRI had won the mayorship of Guadalajara. He served as mayor from October 1, 2015, to December 17, 2017. During his mayoral term in Guadalajara, he was questioned over a public art project and a pair of land sales. Alfaro Ramírez defended his administration by saying that his actions would lead to improvements in urbanization.In 2018, Alfaro Ramírez ran as the MC gubernatorial candidate for Governor of Jalisco. While MC was in national coalition with the PAN and Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD), it ran alone in state races. He won the election with 37.7 percent of the vote on election night, giving MC its first ever outright gubernatorial win. Within a week of the election, he announced he was severing all ties with MC, a party of which he claims to never have been an active member, and that he would serve as an independent governor. He also declared that 2018 was his last election.Jalisco reported about 25% of the Dengue fever cases in the country in 2019 (11,727 cases and 49 deaths) and 2020 (5,362 cases and 20 deaths).Between March 2020 and December 19, 2020, Jalisco reported 130,192 cases of infection and 5,402 deaths related to the COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico.Alfaro Ramírez reported a reduction of 18% in crime between January 2018 and January 2019 and a 22% decrease by January 2020. However, murders increased in 2019 to 2,672, eleventh highest in the country, with 34 homicides for 100,000 people. As of August, there were 1,528 murderers in 2020, an average of 7.9 per day. Two hundred sixty-six women were murdered in 2020; 54 cases were classified as femicides.Five police officers from Casimiro Castillo were arrested for the murder of a young man on August 26, 2020. This was after four police in Ixtlahuacán de los Membrillos arrested, tortured, and killed Giovanni López, 30, for not wearing a face mask on May 4 during the pandemic. The release of a video of López′s arrest set off violent protests in Guadalajara.The Jalisco New Generation Cartel (CJNG), one of the most dangerous drug cartels in Mexico, allegedly threatened the life of Governor Enrique Alfaro Ramírez in August and September 2020. CJNG is said to accuse the governor of breaking an agreement he had with them to control drug trafficking in the state, instead turning it over to the Sinaloa Cartel. CJNG is believed to be behind the assassination attempt of Secretary of Public Security, Omar García Harfuch in June 2020.Alfaro Ramírez was married to Lorena Martínez. When he was mayor of Guadalajara, Martínez was president of the National System for Integral Family Development (DIF). She has expressed interest in running for mayor as well. Alfaro Ramírez and Martínez are separated. | [
"Municipal President of Guadalajara",
"Congress of Jalisco",
"Tlajomulco de Zúñiga Municipality"
] |
|
Which employer did Enrique Alfaro Ramírez work for in 06/01/2022? | June 01, 2022 | {
"text": [
"Governor of Jalisco"
]
} | L2_Q24565115_P108_3 | Enrique Alfaro Ramírez works for Congress of Jalisco from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2009.
Enrique Alfaro Ramírez works for Governor of Jalisco from Jan, 2018 to Dec, 2022.
Enrique Alfaro Ramírez works for Municipal President of Guadalajara from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2017.
Enrique Alfaro Ramírez works for Tlajomulco de Zúñiga Municipality from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011. | Enrique Alfaro RamírezEnrique Alfaro Ramírez (born June 20, 1973) is a Mexican politician and the Governor of Jalisco. In 2009, he served as mayor of Tlajomulco de Zúñiga. He mounted his gubernatorial campaign in 2012 under the Movimiento Ciudadano (MC) party, but lost to the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). Alfaro Ramírez decided to run for mayor of Guadalajara that year and won the elections. After serving for three years, he ran for governor again under the MC and was victorious. This victory marked the MC's first gubernatorial win in its history. Within a week of the election results, however, he resigned from the MC and decided to be an independent governor, claiming he was never an active member of the MC.Alfaro Ramírez was born in Guadalajara, Jalisco, on June 20, 1973. He obtained a bachelor's degree in civil engineering from the Western Institute of Technology and Higher Education (ITESO) in 1995 and a master's degree in urban studies from El Colegio de México in 1999. He worked in various capacities in the federal government, focusing on urban development, between 1996 and 2003, and from 2003 to 2006, he was a town councilor in Tlajomulco de Zúñiga.In 2007, Alfaro Ramírez won his first election, serving as a state legislator in Jalisco. Among the highlights of his tenure in the state congress were the creation of Jalisco's Metropolitan Matters Commission (Spanish: "Comisión de Asuntos Metropolitanos") as well as laws reducing public funding for political parties and allowing for the removal of the governor. He was elected mayor of Tlajomulco de Zúñiga in 2009 and served in that capacity for three years.Alfaro Ramírez mounted his first gubernatorial campaign in 2012 as the Movimiento Ciudadano (MC) candidate. He finished in a close second place, four percentage points behind Aristóteles Sandoval of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). After losing the governor's race, Alfaro Ramírez ran for mayor of Guadalajara, again with MC, in 2015. His victory marked the first time that neither the National Action Party (PAN) or PRI had won the mayorship of Guadalajara. He served as mayor from October 1, 2015, to December 17, 2017. During his mayoral term in Guadalajara, he was questioned over a public art project and a pair of land sales. Alfaro Ramírez defended his administration by saying that his actions would lead to improvements in urbanization.In 2018, Alfaro Ramírez ran as the MC gubernatorial candidate for Governor of Jalisco. While MC was in national coalition with the PAN and Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD), it ran alone in state races. He won the election with 37.7 percent of the vote on election night, giving MC its first ever outright gubernatorial win. Within a week of the election, he announced he was severing all ties with MC, a party of which he claims to never have been an active member, and that he would serve as an independent governor. He also declared that 2018 was his last election.Jalisco reported about 25% of the Dengue fever cases in the country in 2019 (11,727 cases and 49 deaths) and 2020 (5,362 cases and 20 deaths).Between March 2020 and December 19, 2020, Jalisco reported 130,192 cases of infection and 5,402 deaths related to the COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico.Alfaro Ramírez reported a reduction of 18% in crime between January 2018 and January 2019 and a 22% decrease by January 2020. However, murders increased in 2019 to 2,672, eleventh highest in the country, with 34 homicides for 100,000 people. As of August, there were 1,528 murderers in 2020, an average of 7.9 per day. Two hundred sixty-six women were murdered in 2020; 54 cases were classified as femicides.Five police officers from Casimiro Castillo were arrested for the murder of a young man on August 26, 2020. This was after four police in Ixtlahuacán de los Membrillos arrested, tortured, and killed Giovanni López, 30, for not wearing a face mask on May 4 during the pandemic. The release of a video of López′s arrest set off violent protests in Guadalajara.The Jalisco New Generation Cartel (CJNG), one of the most dangerous drug cartels in Mexico, allegedly threatened the life of Governor Enrique Alfaro Ramírez in August and September 2020. CJNG is said to accuse the governor of breaking an agreement he had with them to control drug trafficking in the state, instead turning it over to the Sinaloa Cartel. CJNG is believed to be behind the assassination attempt of Secretary of Public Security, Omar García Harfuch in June 2020.Alfaro Ramírez was married to Lorena Martínez. When he was mayor of Guadalajara, Martínez was president of the National System for Integral Family Development (DIF). She has expressed interest in running for mayor as well. Alfaro Ramírez and Martínez are separated. | [
"Municipal President of Guadalajara",
"Congress of Jalisco",
"Tlajomulco de Zúñiga Municipality"
] |
|
Which employer did Enrique Alfaro Ramírez work for in 01-Jun-202201-June-2022? | June 01, 2022 | {
"text": [
"Governor of Jalisco"
]
} | L2_Q24565115_P108_3 | Enrique Alfaro Ramírez works for Congress of Jalisco from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2009.
Enrique Alfaro Ramírez works for Governor of Jalisco from Jan, 2018 to Dec, 2022.
Enrique Alfaro Ramírez works for Municipal President of Guadalajara from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2017.
Enrique Alfaro Ramírez works for Tlajomulco de Zúñiga Municipality from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011. | Enrique Alfaro RamírezEnrique Alfaro Ramírez (born June 20, 1973) is a Mexican politician and the Governor of Jalisco. In 2009, he served as mayor of Tlajomulco de Zúñiga. He mounted his gubernatorial campaign in 2012 under the Movimiento Ciudadano (MC) party, but lost to the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). Alfaro Ramírez decided to run for mayor of Guadalajara that year and won the elections. After serving for three years, he ran for governor again under the MC and was victorious. This victory marked the MC's first gubernatorial win in its history. Within a week of the election results, however, he resigned from the MC and decided to be an independent governor, claiming he was never an active member of the MC.Alfaro Ramírez was born in Guadalajara, Jalisco, on June 20, 1973. He obtained a bachelor's degree in civil engineering from the Western Institute of Technology and Higher Education (ITESO) in 1995 and a master's degree in urban studies from El Colegio de México in 1999. He worked in various capacities in the federal government, focusing on urban development, between 1996 and 2003, and from 2003 to 2006, he was a town councilor in Tlajomulco de Zúñiga.In 2007, Alfaro Ramírez won his first election, serving as a state legislator in Jalisco. Among the highlights of his tenure in the state congress were the creation of Jalisco's Metropolitan Matters Commission (Spanish: "Comisión de Asuntos Metropolitanos") as well as laws reducing public funding for political parties and allowing for the removal of the governor. He was elected mayor of Tlajomulco de Zúñiga in 2009 and served in that capacity for three years.Alfaro Ramírez mounted his first gubernatorial campaign in 2012 as the Movimiento Ciudadano (MC) candidate. He finished in a close second place, four percentage points behind Aristóteles Sandoval of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). After losing the governor's race, Alfaro Ramírez ran for mayor of Guadalajara, again with MC, in 2015. His victory marked the first time that neither the National Action Party (PAN) or PRI had won the mayorship of Guadalajara. He served as mayor from October 1, 2015, to December 17, 2017. During his mayoral term in Guadalajara, he was questioned over a public art project and a pair of land sales. Alfaro Ramírez defended his administration by saying that his actions would lead to improvements in urbanization.In 2018, Alfaro Ramírez ran as the MC gubernatorial candidate for Governor of Jalisco. While MC was in national coalition with the PAN and Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD), it ran alone in state races. He won the election with 37.7 percent of the vote on election night, giving MC its first ever outright gubernatorial win. Within a week of the election, he announced he was severing all ties with MC, a party of which he claims to never have been an active member, and that he would serve as an independent governor. He also declared that 2018 was his last election.Jalisco reported about 25% of the Dengue fever cases in the country in 2019 (11,727 cases and 49 deaths) and 2020 (5,362 cases and 20 deaths).Between March 2020 and December 19, 2020, Jalisco reported 130,192 cases of infection and 5,402 deaths related to the COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico.Alfaro Ramírez reported a reduction of 18% in crime between January 2018 and January 2019 and a 22% decrease by January 2020. However, murders increased in 2019 to 2,672, eleventh highest in the country, with 34 homicides for 100,000 people. As of August, there were 1,528 murderers in 2020, an average of 7.9 per day. Two hundred sixty-six women were murdered in 2020; 54 cases were classified as femicides.Five police officers from Casimiro Castillo were arrested for the murder of a young man on August 26, 2020. This was after four police in Ixtlahuacán de los Membrillos arrested, tortured, and killed Giovanni López, 30, for not wearing a face mask on May 4 during the pandemic. The release of a video of López′s arrest set off violent protests in Guadalajara.The Jalisco New Generation Cartel (CJNG), one of the most dangerous drug cartels in Mexico, allegedly threatened the life of Governor Enrique Alfaro Ramírez in August and September 2020. CJNG is said to accuse the governor of breaking an agreement he had with them to control drug trafficking in the state, instead turning it over to the Sinaloa Cartel. CJNG is believed to be behind the assassination attempt of Secretary of Public Security, Omar García Harfuch in June 2020.Alfaro Ramírez was married to Lorena Martínez. When he was mayor of Guadalajara, Martínez was president of the National System for Integral Family Development (DIF). She has expressed interest in running for mayor as well. Alfaro Ramírez and Martínez are separated. | [
"Municipal President of Guadalajara",
"Congress of Jalisco",
"Tlajomulco de Zúñiga Municipality"
] |
|
Which team did Stephen Gleeson play for in Nov, 2018? | November 26, 2018 | {
"text": [
"Birmingham City F.C."
]
} | L2_Q946334_P54_8 | Stephen Gleeson plays for Republic of Ireland national under-20 football team from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2007.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2009.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Milton Keynes Dons F.C. from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2014.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Stockport County F.C. from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Republic of Ireland national association football team from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2007.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Republic of Ireland national under-19 football team from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2007.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Republic of Ireland national under-21 football team from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2010.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Hereford United F.C. from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2008.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Birmingham City F.C. from Jan, 2014 to Dec, 2022. | Stephen GleesonStephen Michael Gleeson (born 3 August 1988) is an Irish professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for club Solihull Moors.Gleeson played youth football in his native Dublin before coming to England at the age of 15 to join Wolverhampton Wanderers. He rarely played first-team football for them, but spent time on loan to lower-league clubs Stockport County (three separate spells), Hereford United and Milton Keynes Dons, before signing a three-year contract with the latter club in 2009. After five years, during which time he made more than 200 appearances in all competitions, Gleeson moved on to Birmingham City. He spent three-and-a-half seasons at Birmingham, making more than 100 appearances in the Championship. He has since played for Ipswich Town and Aberdeen.At international level, Gleeson was capped twice for the Republic of Ireland in 2007, and was not capped again for nearly ten years. He also represented his country at under-age levels, and made 16 appearances for the under-21 team.Gleeson was born in Dublin, an only child, and raised in Crumlin, in the south of the city. As a youngster he admired Roy Keane, and tried to model his game on that of Steven Gerrard. He played for nearby Lourdes Celtic before moving on to Cherry Orchard. In the 2002–03 season, he scored a winning goal against a title rival to win the 14 Premier League, and scored with an "excellent volley" as Cherry Orchard won the SFAI under-15 Evans Cup the following year. Recommended to Wolverhampton Wanderers by their Irish scout, Willie Byrne, Gleeson came to England as a 15-year-old for a trial, and joined their academy.He made his reserve-team debut on 24 August 2004 as a late substitute in their first home fixture of the season – three weeks after his 16th birthday – and by October 2004, he was starting. He helped Wolves' youth team reach the semifinal of that season's FA Youth Cup, but was sent off in extra time in the second leg, and Wolves lost on penalties to Southampton. He continued to appear regularly for the reserves. In 2005–06, he scored 4 goals from 16 reserve-team appearances, and at the beginning of May 2006, he signed his first professional contract, of three years. Describing him as a playmaker with "good pace [who] gets forward, with an eye for goal", academy manager Chris Evans said that Gleeson had trained with the first team "from time to time" and had impressed manager Glenn Hoddle.Gleeson was given a first-team squad number for 2006–07, through by the time the season began, Hoddle had resigned and been replaced by Mick McCarthy. Gleeson joined League Two club Stockport County on a month's loan in November, with the aim of gaining experience and returning to Wolves to fight for a first-team place. An unused substitute in County's next match, Gleeson made his senior debut on 11 November in a 2–1 victory at Exeter City in the FA Cup, and his first appearance in the Football League came the following weekend in the starting eleven for a 1–1 draw away to Chester City. The loan was extended for a second month, and on 9 December, he scored his first senior goal, a header from Adam Proudlock's cross to complete a 5–2 win against Darlington. He said afterwards that he "just closed [his] eyes and hoped for the best". He thought his second goal had come a few days later, when his last-minute shot off the crossbar appeared to cross the line before bouncing out for Liam Dickinson to seal a 2–0 win against Notts County.His loan was again extended, and by the time it expired he had made 17 appearances, scored again, with a tap-in as Stockport beat Wycombe Wanderers 2–0, and his manager was "sad to see him go, [but] also excited for him because he is going to have a great future in the game. He leaves as a better player with more self-confidence and one who deserves to play at a higher level." The supporters designated his final appearance, against Hereford United, "Stephen Gleeson Day".McCarthy recalled Gleeson to Wolves to be part of the first-team squad, and he returned "bursting with confidence and desperate for a first team chance", only to find a winning team and strong competition for a place in midfield. He made the first-team bench for the first time on 3 March, and made his Wolves debut on 9 April, as a late substitute in a 3–1 defeat of Hull City. He made two more brief league appearances, and played for half an hour in the second leg of the play-off semi-final, which Wolves lost 4–2 on aggregate. He came close to creating a goal for his side when his long ball forward was deflected past Albion's goalkeeper by a defender, who managed to recover in time to clear it off the line.After Gleeson's pre-season was disrupted by injury, he damaged a hip in the League Cup in late August, and a month later, he was allowed home leave to recover from concussion and a loss of feeling in the leg sustained in collision with the opposing goalkeeper in a reserve match. He captained the reserves, but made no more appearances for the first team before joining League Two club Hereford United on 21 February 2008 on a month's loan. Starting in central midfield against local rivals Shrewsbury Town, the "Hereford Times" reported that he "struggled to come to terms with the pace of the game during the first half but showed his quality in the second period", a performance that earned him a place in the League Two Team of the Week. In his second match, he should have done better with a shooting chance, and after the third, a defeat to promotion rivals Stockport, manager Graham Turner made several changes; Gleeson lost his place to first-team regular Toumani Diagouraga who returned after injury. Because Hereford had more loanees than the five permitted in the matchday squad, Gleeson was not always involved, but he did come back into the side as a second-half substitute on 22 March. Although Turner wanted to retain his services, he returned to Wolves and promptly rejoined Stockport until the end of the season, subject to a 24-hour recall clause.Gleeson played in six of Stockport's remaining seven regular-season league matches as they finished fourth, and faced Wycombe Wanderers in the play-off semi-final. In the first leg, at Wycombe's Adams Park ground, Stockport were a goal behind when half-time substitute Gleeson "sent an effort from 25 yards out spiralling past goalkeeper Frank Fielding with eight minutes remaining"; the "Daily Telegraph" reporter termed it a "blistering" volley and a "piledriver". The goal was later voted Stockport's Goal of 2008 by fans. Early in the second leg, the danger from his "ridiculous" headed back-pass was only averted by his goalkeeper's agility, as Stockport went on to win the match 1–0. He started in the final, in which Stockport beat Rochdale 3–2 to win promotion to League One.His association with Stockport continued the following season as he spent the first half of the campaign on loan with the club. Gleeson accused Wolves of "a bit of a bullying tactic" in trying to make him sign a contract extension before allowing him to move he resisted, saying there was no hurry, and he would not sign unless the terms were acceptable and was fined two weeks' wages for criticising the club. Stockport manager Gannon claimed the player had been so upset by the matter that he had considered giving up the game. He missed only four of Stockport's thirty matches during the loan spell: one while on international duty with the Ireland under-21 team and three while suspended after being sent off for an off-the-ball incident. He scored three goalseach time with a powerful shot from at least and when his loan spell ended, the team were fifth in the division.Gleeson returned to his parent club, where he still hoped for a long-term future despite referring to himself as "the forgotten man". He signed a one-year extension to his contract. Injuries and suspensions among the Wolves players prevented his going out on loan until late March, when he joined League One club Milton Keynes Dons for the remainder of the season. He provided two assists for Mark Wright as MK Dons won 2–0 at Southend United, and generally impressed "with his all-action performances and slick passing" in four consecutive wins, but on his fifth appearance, suffered ankle ligament damage that kept him out of their ultimately unsuccessful play-off campaign.Following Wolves' promotion to the Premier League, Gleeson was made available for transfer. He had played under Roberto di Matteo's management while on loan at MK Dons, and despite Di Matteo's departure for West Bromwich Albion and replacement by Paul Ince, he signed a three-year contract with the club on 1 July 2009. the fee, officially undisclosed, was described as nominal. He was used in various midfield positions, including wide on the right, which was not to his taste, and at the base of a diamond, and was encouraged to break up play as well as perform his more accustomed creative role. After a 1–0 win against Wycombe Wanderers in September, Ince said that Gleeson "set the tempo for the game in the first minute with a great tackle and we just pushed on from there." MK Dons had begun the season as possible promotion contenders, but a strong start gave way to a slide into midtable, in which indiscipline was a factor. By mid-February, the team had received 100 yellow cards, far more than any other; Gleeson was a major contributor with 10, which earned him a two-match suspension. He was booked twice more before his season ended early when he damaged medial knee ligaments.Gleeson's knee recovered in time for pre-season training, and he began the 2010–11 season in the unaccustomed position of right back, to which new manager Karl Robinson thought him well suited. He injured his back in his second appearance and was out of action for three months. When he did return, in his more usual position of central midfield, he "[showed] all his customary composure and quality in possession" in a friendly match, and went on to play in every competitive fixture until the final one of the regular season, for which, with a play-off place secure, Robinson selected a young team. He scored twice, the first a "wonder goal" from against Leyton Orient in January 2011 that won the club's Goal of the Season award. In the first leg of the play-off semi-final, MK Dons took a 3–1 lead, but with ten minutes left, Gleeson was sent off for bringing down Mark Little and a penalty was awarded and converted. The sending-off was rescinded on appeal, but Peterborough United won the second leg 2–0, qualifying for the final 4–3 on aggregate, and Gleeson and teammate Keanu Marsh-Brown came to blows in frustration. In June, Peterborough's reported £600,000 offer for Gleeson was rejected.Gleeson was appointed vice-captain in July 2011. Both player and manager hoped the responsibility might curb his hot-headedness and help him mature. Early in the new season, he confirmed that he wanted to play at Championship level, so was not going to sign a new contract until he knew whether MK Dons were to be promoted or not. The club's website highlighted his central midfield partnership with Darren Potter, a new signing with whom Gleeson had played for Wolves' reserves and in international football, as integral to the team's good start to the season, and the pair helped MK Dons come close to eliminating Premier League Queens Park Rangers in the third round of the FA Cup. He played in 39 of the 46 League One matches and scored 5 league goals as the team were rarely out of the play-off positions, but indiscipline remained an issue. On 6 March, he returned from suspension for his tenth yellow card, only to be sent off for kicking an opponent late in the home defeat to Yeovil Town. After a lengthy talk with the player, manager Robinson stated publicly that if Gleeson did not learn from his mistakes, he would not be offered another contract. He and Potter were both named in the Professional Footballers' Association's League One Team of the Year, and together with winger Luke Chadwick were among the top ten players as chosen by the League One managers.MK Dons narrowly failed to overcome a 2–0 deficit to Huddersfield Town in the second leg of the play-off semi-final. Gleeson was in tears afterwards, and Robinson said that the criticism he had received during the season for an apparent attitude problem was misplaced. According to the manager, his "[looking] like he's moody, doesn't care and only does it for himself" is a misperception; "he gets wrapped up the fact that he cares so much – sometimes he shows it in the wrong way." Despite interest from numerous Championship clubs, Gleeson signed a new two-year contract, saying that he wanted to play at that level with MK Dons and with Robinson.Robinson's team, built round Gleeson, Potter and Chadwick, were second in the table by the end of November. On 2 December 2012, Gleeson produced another goal from distance to open the scoring in MK Dons' first meeting with AFC Wimbledon. MK Dons won 2–1 to progress to the third round of that season's FA Cup, and the goal was voted the club's goal of the season. A couple of weeks later, he suffered a break in his left foot during training, which coincided with Chadwick damaging knee ligaments. During their absence, MK Dons dropped down the league. Gleeson returned in a match against Doncaster Rovers on 5 March 2013, which he celebrated with a goal to seal a 3–0 victory. Captaining the side in Dean Lewington's absence through injury in April, Gleeson scored a late winner against Brentford to lead the team to a second consecutive victory as they went on to finish four points outside the play-off places. Robinson speculated whether the disruption to the team caused by Gleeson's and Chadwick's injuries might have cost them promotion.Early in the new season, Gleeson played an influential part in MK Dons twice coming from a goal behind to draw with Bristol City, "barking out orders and putting in the miles as he tracked box-to-box, popping up all over the pitch with vital tackles and hold-up play." In December, while still returning to form and fitness, he produced another "wonder goal" against Port Vale, and followed it up in the next week match a similar effort to open the scoring as MK Dons won 2–0 at Crawley Town. His performances and those of the team their only defeat came in a match for which Gleeson was suspended, after a fifth yellow card received for unnecessary involvement in someone else's dispute in the Crawley match earned him a nomination for League One Player of the Month. By the end of the season, Robinson suggested that the team had reached "a stage when some of the players have run their race here". Although he was "desperate" for Gleeson to stay, he was not prepared to be kept waiting for a decision.On 9 June, Gleeson signed a two-year contract with Championship club Birmingham City, to begin when his MK Dons contract expired at the end of the 2013–14 season. The "Irish Independent" Daniel McDonnell suggested he was one of several Irish players who needed to prove themselves in the coming season. He made his debut in the starting eleven for the opening-day defeat at Middlesbrough, but failed to establish himself in the team: of the twelve league matches under Lee Clark's management, he started five and came on as a substitute in five as Birmingham dropped towards the relegation places. Clark's successor, Gary Rowett, included Gleeson in his first starting eleven, playing in front of the defensive line in a goalless draw at Wolverhampton Wanderers. This time, Gleeson did keep his place, tasked with "launching the counter-attacks" from Rowett's preferred 4–2–3–1 formation as his "effective midfield partnership" with David Davis started 18 consecutive league matches. Gleeson was sent off for retaliation in February 2016 as Birmingham beat Brentford, and new loan signing Robert Tesche of Nottingham Forest took his place alongside Davis. He returned to the side after his suspension as part of a three-man midfield, but when Rowett reverted to 4–2–3–1, it was Gleeson's passing that earned him selection ahead of Davis as Tesche's partner.Ahead of the 2015–16 season, Gleeson signed a two-year extension to his contract that took its expiry date to 2018. Having gone through 2014–15 without scoring, he produced two goals in nine days in August 2015, contributing to his nomination for the Championship Player of the Month. The first came just before half-time at home to Derby County when his shot was deflected past the goalkeeper by a defender. For the second, away to his former club MK Dons, he curled Clayton Donaldson's cutback over the goalkeeper into the corner of the net; later in the match, he was stretchered off with an ankle injury that proved less serious than initially feared. He continued as first choice in a two-man midfield, generally partnering new signing Maikel Kieftenbeld, and according to the "Birmingham Mail", was "arguably Blues' most important player, knitting together defence and attack and adding goals to his game". After an influential performance and a goal in a 5–2 win away to Fulham in November, Rowett sais he "[didn't] think there [was] a better passing defensive midfielder in the division." His celebration of a fortuitous goal in a 3–0 win at Derby earned him a booking for inciting the home supporters, and he apologised to the stewards after the match. Both his and the team's performances dipped towards the end of the season, which he finished with five goals from 46 appearances in all competitions.Gleeson was linked with moves to other Championship clubs, including Leeds United, Reading and Sheffield Wednesday, during the close season, and his pre-season was disrupted by an infected toe, but he still began the new campaign in the starting eleven. His selection as a starter was intermittent, dependent on injurieshis own or others'as well as on the sheer number of central midfielders available, especially after the creative Reece Brown returned to consideration. Playing a more advanced role in a 4–4–2 formation, Gleeson scored a winning goal against Blackburn Rovers in October, which preceded a run in the starting eleven, under both Rowett and his successor, Gianfranco Zola. As poor results continued, Zola introduced Tesche, whom he perceived as more capable defensively, and Gleeson started only one match in the last two months of the campaign.Gleeson left Birmingham on a free transfer on 19 January 2018, and signed until the end of the season for another Championship club, Ipswich Town, under the management of Mick McCarthy who had given him his debut at Wolverhampton Wanderers. He made his first appearance the following day, as a half-time substitute in a 1–1 draw away to Bolton Wanderers, and according to McCarthyperhaps in response to fans reportedly "underwhelmed" by the arrival of a fringe player from a struggling sidewas "a mile above anyone else in terms of getting it and passing it." Facing strong competition for places in central midfield, his first-team appearances became infrequentfive starts and five as substituteand he was not offered a new deal.Gleeson signed a two-year contract with Scottish Premiership club Aberdeen in June 2018. His contract was cancelled in January 2020.Having played no competitive football since 2019, Gleeson signed a one-year contract with National League club Solihull Moors in August 2020.Gleeson was capped at under-15 and under-16 level, before making his debut for the Republic of Ireland under-17 team in 2004. His Football Association of Ireland (FAI) profile described his performance in the first qualifying round of the 2005 UEFA European Under-17 Championship as outstanding. Ireland finished second in their group, so progressed to the elite round. Gleeson scored as his team beat Northern Ireland 2–1, but defeats to Serbia and Montenegro and England meant they failed to reach the tournament proper.He first appeared for the under-19s at the age of 17 years 6 monthsa year younger than most of his teammatesagainst Scotland in a friendly tournament at La Manga in February 2006. After a couple of appearances at under-18 level, Gleeson was included in the squad for that year's European Under-19 Championship elite qualification round. He started one match and played as a substitute in the other two; Ireland lost all three. He was vice-captain of the under-19 team as they reached the same stage of the 2007 competition, but withdrew from the qualifiers because of club commitments with Wolves in the Championship play-offs.Gleeson was the youngest of eleven uncapped players included by Steve Staunton in the Ireland squad for a two-match visit to the United States in May 2007. He made his senior international debut as a 79th-minute substitute in a 1–1 draw with Ecuador at Giants Stadium on 23 May, and also played in the second match, a 1–1 draw with Bolivia, again as a substitute. Years later he admitted that "I don't think I did my best out there. I was a bit overawed: the senior team, 18 years of age, with all these names around me."Three months later, Gleeson marked his under-21 debut with both goals in a 2–2 friendly draw with Germany. He went on to make 16 appearances at under-21 level, and captained the team in November 2009 in a 4–1 defeat against Armenia in a European Championship qualifier.Despite his early introduction to the senior team, Gleeson was not called up again for nine years. He had previously expressed disappointment at his omission even when 40-man squads were named for Ireland matches, but in March 2016 manager Martin O'Neill selected him in the squad for friendlies against Switzerland and Slovakia. He was an unused substitute in both matches. Gleeson received a late call-up to the senior squad for a friendly at home to Iceland in March 2017, and this time did take the field, as a second-half substitute, winning his third cap nearly ten years after his second; Ireland lost 1–0. He was included in a weakened squad for two internationals in the United States in June, and on 1 June, he scored his first goal for Ireland, three minutes after coming on as a substitute in a 3–1 defeat to Mexico at the MetLife Stadium.Stockport CountyIndividual | [
"Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.",
"Stockport County F.C.",
"Milton Keynes Dons F.C.",
"Republic of Ireland national under-19 football team",
"Republic of Ireland national under-20 football team",
"Hereford United F.C.",
"Republic of Ireland national under-21 football team",
"Republic of Ireland national association football team"
] |
|
Which team did Stephen Gleeson play for in 2018-11-26? | November 26, 2018 | {
"text": [
"Birmingham City F.C."
]
} | L2_Q946334_P54_8 | Stephen Gleeson plays for Republic of Ireland national under-20 football team from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2007.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2009.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Milton Keynes Dons F.C. from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2014.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Stockport County F.C. from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Republic of Ireland national association football team from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2007.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Republic of Ireland national under-19 football team from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2007.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Republic of Ireland national under-21 football team from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2010.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Hereford United F.C. from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2008.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Birmingham City F.C. from Jan, 2014 to Dec, 2022. | Stephen GleesonStephen Michael Gleeson (born 3 August 1988) is an Irish professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for club Solihull Moors.Gleeson played youth football in his native Dublin before coming to England at the age of 15 to join Wolverhampton Wanderers. He rarely played first-team football for them, but spent time on loan to lower-league clubs Stockport County (three separate spells), Hereford United and Milton Keynes Dons, before signing a three-year contract with the latter club in 2009. After five years, during which time he made more than 200 appearances in all competitions, Gleeson moved on to Birmingham City. He spent three-and-a-half seasons at Birmingham, making more than 100 appearances in the Championship. He has since played for Ipswich Town and Aberdeen.At international level, Gleeson was capped twice for the Republic of Ireland in 2007, and was not capped again for nearly ten years. He also represented his country at under-age levels, and made 16 appearances for the under-21 team.Gleeson was born in Dublin, an only child, and raised in Crumlin, in the south of the city. As a youngster he admired Roy Keane, and tried to model his game on that of Steven Gerrard. He played for nearby Lourdes Celtic before moving on to Cherry Orchard. In the 2002–03 season, he scored a winning goal against a title rival to win the 14 Premier League, and scored with an "excellent volley" as Cherry Orchard won the SFAI under-15 Evans Cup the following year. Recommended to Wolverhampton Wanderers by their Irish scout, Willie Byrne, Gleeson came to England as a 15-year-old for a trial, and joined their academy.He made his reserve-team debut on 24 August 2004 as a late substitute in their first home fixture of the season – three weeks after his 16th birthday – and by October 2004, he was starting. He helped Wolves' youth team reach the semifinal of that season's FA Youth Cup, but was sent off in extra time in the second leg, and Wolves lost on penalties to Southampton. He continued to appear regularly for the reserves. In 2005–06, he scored 4 goals from 16 reserve-team appearances, and at the beginning of May 2006, he signed his first professional contract, of three years. Describing him as a playmaker with "good pace [who] gets forward, with an eye for goal", academy manager Chris Evans said that Gleeson had trained with the first team "from time to time" and had impressed manager Glenn Hoddle.Gleeson was given a first-team squad number for 2006–07, through by the time the season began, Hoddle had resigned and been replaced by Mick McCarthy. Gleeson joined League Two club Stockport County on a month's loan in November, with the aim of gaining experience and returning to Wolves to fight for a first-team place. An unused substitute in County's next match, Gleeson made his senior debut on 11 November in a 2–1 victory at Exeter City in the FA Cup, and his first appearance in the Football League came the following weekend in the starting eleven for a 1–1 draw away to Chester City. The loan was extended for a second month, and on 9 December, he scored his first senior goal, a header from Adam Proudlock's cross to complete a 5–2 win against Darlington. He said afterwards that he "just closed [his] eyes and hoped for the best". He thought his second goal had come a few days later, when his last-minute shot off the crossbar appeared to cross the line before bouncing out for Liam Dickinson to seal a 2–0 win against Notts County.His loan was again extended, and by the time it expired he had made 17 appearances, scored again, with a tap-in as Stockport beat Wycombe Wanderers 2–0, and his manager was "sad to see him go, [but] also excited for him because he is going to have a great future in the game. He leaves as a better player with more self-confidence and one who deserves to play at a higher level." The supporters designated his final appearance, against Hereford United, "Stephen Gleeson Day".McCarthy recalled Gleeson to Wolves to be part of the first-team squad, and he returned "bursting with confidence and desperate for a first team chance", only to find a winning team and strong competition for a place in midfield. He made the first-team bench for the first time on 3 March, and made his Wolves debut on 9 April, as a late substitute in a 3–1 defeat of Hull City. He made two more brief league appearances, and played for half an hour in the second leg of the play-off semi-final, which Wolves lost 4–2 on aggregate. He came close to creating a goal for his side when his long ball forward was deflected past Albion's goalkeeper by a defender, who managed to recover in time to clear it off the line.After Gleeson's pre-season was disrupted by injury, he damaged a hip in the League Cup in late August, and a month later, he was allowed home leave to recover from concussion and a loss of feeling in the leg sustained in collision with the opposing goalkeeper in a reserve match. He captained the reserves, but made no more appearances for the first team before joining League Two club Hereford United on 21 February 2008 on a month's loan. Starting in central midfield against local rivals Shrewsbury Town, the "Hereford Times" reported that he "struggled to come to terms with the pace of the game during the first half but showed his quality in the second period", a performance that earned him a place in the League Two Team of the Week. In his second match, he should have done better with a shooting chance, and after the third, a defeat to promotion rivals Stockport, manager Graham Turner made several changes; Gleeson lost his place to first-team regular Toumani Diagouraga who returned after injury. Because Hereford had more loanees than the five permitted in the matchday squad, Gleeson was not always involved, but he did come back into the side as a second-half substitute on 22 March. Although Turner wanted to retain his services, he returned to Wolves and promptly rejoined Stockport until the end of the season, subject to a 24-hour recall clause.Gleeson played in six of Stockport's remaining seven regular-season league matches as they finished fourth, and faced Wycombe Wanderers in the play-off semi-final. In the first leg, at Wycombe's Adams Park ground, Stockport were a goal behind when half-time substitute Gleeson "sent an effort from 25 yards out spiralling past goalkeeper Frank Fielding with eight minutes remaining"; the "Daily Telegraph" reporter termed it a "blistering" volley and a "piledriver". The goal was later voted Stockport's Goal of 2008 by fans. Early in the second leg, the danger from his "ridiculous" headed back-pass was only averted by his goalkeeper's agility, as Stockport went on to win the match 1–0. He started in the final, in which Stockport beat Rochdale 3–2 to win promotion to League One.His association with Stockport continued the following season as he spent the first half of the campaign on loan with the club. Gleeson accused Wolves of "a bit of a bullying tactic" in trying to make him sign a contract extension before allowing him to move he resisted, saying there was no hurry, and he would not sign unless the terms were acceptable and was fined two weeks' wages for criticising the club. Stockport manager Gannon claimed the player had been so upset by the matter that he had considered giving up the game. He missed only four of Stockport's thirty matches during the loan spell: one while on international duty with the Ireland under-21 team and three while suspended after being sent off for an off-the-ball incident. He scored three goalseach time with a powerful shot from at least and when his loan spell ended, the team were fifth in the division.Gleeson returned to his parent club, where he still hoped for a long-term future despite referring to himself as "the forgotten man". He signed a one-year extension to his contract. Injuries and suspensions among the Wolves players prevented his going out on loan until late March, when he joined League One club Milton Keynes Dons for the remainder of the season. He provided two assists for Mark Wright as MK Dons won 2–0 at Southend United, and generally impressed "with his all-action performances and slick passing" in four consecutive wins, but on his fifth appearance, suffered ankle ligament damage that kept him out of their ultimately unsuccessful play-off campaign.Following Wolves' promotion to the Premier League, Gleeson was made available for transfer. He had played under Roberto di Matteo's management while on loan at MK Dons, and despite Di Matteo's departure for West Bromwich Albion and replacement by Paul Ince, he signed a three-year contract with the club on 1 July 2009. the fee, officially undisclosed, was described as nominal. He was used in various midfield positions, including wide on the right, which was not to his taste, and at the base of a diamond, and was encouraged to break up play as well as perform his more accustomed creative role. After a 1–0 win against Wycombe Wanderers in September, Ince said that Gleeson "set the tempo for the game in the first minute with a great tackle and we just pushed on from there." MK Dons had begun the season as possible promotion contenders, but a strong start gave way to a slide into midtable, in which indiscipline was a factor. By mid-February, the team had received 100 yellow cards, far more than any other; Gleeson was a major contributor with 10, which earned him a two-match suspension. He was booked twice more before his season ended early when he damaged medial knee ligaments.Gleeson's knee recovered in time for pre-season training, and he began the 2010–11 season in the unaccustomed position of right back, to which new manager Karl Robinson thought him well suited. He injured his back in his second appearance and was out of action for three months. When he did return, in his more usual position of central midfield, he "[showed] all his customary composure and quality in possession" in a friendly match, and went on to play in every competitive fixture until the final one of the regular season, for which, with a play-off place secure, Robinson selected a young team. He scored twice, the first a "wonder goal" from against Leyton Orient in January 2011 that won the club's Goal of the Season award. In the first leg of the play-off semi-final, MK Dons took a 3–1 lead, but with ten minutes left, Gleeson was sent off for bringing down Mark Little and a penalty was awarded and converted. The sending-off was rescinded on appeal, but Peterborough United won the second leg 2–0, qualifying for the final 4–3 on aggregate, and Gleeson and teammate Keanu Marsh-Brown came to blows in frustration. In June, Peterborough's reported £600,000 offer for Gleeson was rejected.Gleeson was appointed vice-captain in July 2011. Both player and manager hoped the responsibility might curb his hot-headedness and help him mature. Early in the new season, he confirmed that he wanted to play at Championship level, so was not going to sign a new contract until he knew whether MK Dons were to be promoted or not. The club's website highlighted his central midfield partnership with Darren Potter, a new signing with whom Gleeson had played for Wolves' reserves and in international football, as integral to the team's good start to the season, and the pair helped MK Dons come close to eliminating Premier League Queens Park Rangers in the third round of the FA Cup. He played in 39 of the 46 League One matches and scored 5 league goals as the team were rarely out of the play-off positions, but indiscipline remained an issue. On 6 March, he returned from suspension for his tenth yellow card, only to be sent off for kicking an opponent late in the home defeat to Yeovil Town. After a lengthy talk with the player, manager Robinson stated publicly that if Gleeson did not learn from his mistakes, he would not be offered another contract. He and Potter were both named in the Professional Footballers' Association's League One Team of the Year, and together with winger Luke Chadwick were among the top ten players as chosen by the League One managers.MK Dons narrowly failed to overcome a 2–0 deficit to Huddersfield Town in the second leg of the play-off semi-final. Gleeson was in tears afterwards, and Robinson said that the criticism he had received during the season for an apparent attitude problem was misplaced. According to the manager, his "[looking] like he's moody, doesn't care and only does it for himself" is a misperception; "he gets wrapped up the fact that he cares so much – sometimes he shows it in the wrong way." Despite interest from numerous Championship clubs, Gleeson signed a new two-year contract, saying that he wanted to play at that level with MK Dons and with Robinson.Robinson's team, built round Gleeson, Potter and Chadwick, were second in the table by the end of November. On 2 December 2012, Gleeson produced another goal from distance to open the scoring in MK Dons' first meeting with AFC Wimbledon. MK Dons won 2–1 to progress to the third round of that season's FA Cup, and the goal was voted the club's goal of the season. A couple of weeks later, he suffered a break in his left foot during training, which coincided with Chadwick damaging knee ligaments. During their absence, MK Dons dropped down the league. Gleeson returned in a match against Doncaster Rovers on 5 March 2013, which he celebrated with a goal to seal a 3–0 victory. Captaining the side in Dean Lewington's absence through injury in April, Gleeson scored a late winner against Brentford to lead the team to a second consecutive victory as they went on to finish four points outside the play-off places. Robinson speculated whether the disruption to the team caused by Gleeson's and Chadwick's injuries might have cost them promotion.Early in the new season, Gleeson played an influential part in MK Dons twice coming from a goal behind to draw with Bristol City, "barking out orders and putting in the miles as he tracked box-to-box, popping up all over the pitch with vital tackles and hold-up play." In December, while still returning to form and fitness, he produced another "wonder goal" against Port Vale, and followed it up in the next week match a similar effort to open the scoring as MK Dons won 2–0 at Crawley Town. His performances and those of the team their only defeat came in a match for which Gleeson was suspended, after a fifth yellow card received for unnecessary involvement in someone else's dispute in the Crawley match earned him a nomination for League One Player of the Month. By the end of the season, Robinson suggested that the team had reached "a stage when some of the players have run their race here". Although he was "desperate" for Gleeson to stay, he was not prepared to be kept waiting for a decision.On 9 June, Gleeson signed a two-year contract with Championship club Birmingham City, to begin when his MK Dons contract expired at the end of the 2013–14 season. The "Irish Independent" Daniel McDonnell suggested he was one of several Irish players who needed to prove themselves in the coming season. He made his debut in the starting eleven for the opening-day defeat at Middlesbrough, but failed to establish himself in the team: of the twelve league matches under Lee Clark's management, he started five and came on as a substitute in five as Birmingham dropped towards the relegation places. Clark's successor, Gary Rowett, included Gleeson in his first starting eleven, playing in front of the defensive line in a goalless draw at Wolverhampton Wanderers. This time, Gleeson did keep his place, tasked with "launching the counter-attacks" from Rowett's preferred 4–2–3–1 formation as his "effective midfield partnership" with David Davis started 18 consecutive league matches. Gleeson was sent off for retaliation in February 2016 as Birmingham beat Brentford, and new loan signing Robert Tesche of Nottingham Forest took his place alongside Davis. He returned to the side after his suspension as part of a three-man midfield, but when Rowett reverted to 4–2–3–1, it was Gleeson's passing that earned him selection ahead of Davis as Tesche's partner.Ahead of the 2015–16 season, Gleeson signed a two-year extension to his contract that took its expiry date to 2018. Having gone through 2014–15 without scoring, he produced two goals in nine days in August 2015, contributing to his nomination for the Championship Player of the Month. The first came just before half-time at home to Derby County when his shot was deflected past the goalkeeper by a defender. For the second, away to his former club MK Dons, he curled Clayton Donaldson's cutback over the goalkeeper into the corner of the net; later in the match, he was stretchered off with an ankle injury that proved less serious than initially feared. He continued as first choice in a two-man midfield, generally partnering new signing Maikel Kieftenbeld, and according to the "Birmingham Mail", was "arguably Blues' most important player, knitting together defence and attack and adding goals to his game". After an influential performance and a goal in a 5–2 win away to Fulham in November, Rowett sais he "[didn't] think there [was] a better passing defensive midfielder in the division." His celebration of a fortuitous goal in a 3–0 win at Derby earned him a booking for inciting the home supporters, and he apologised to the stewards after the match. Both his and the team's performances dipped towards the end of the season, which he finished with five goals from 46 appearances in all competitions.Gleeson was linked with moves to other Championship clubs, including Leeds United, Reading and Sheffield Wednesday, during the close season, and his pre-season was disrupted by an infected toe, but he still began the new campaign in the starting eleven. His selection as a starter was intermittent, dependent on injurieshis own or others'as well as on the sheer number of central midfielders available, especially after the creative Reece Brown returned to consideration. Playing a more advanced role in a 4–4–2 formation, Gleeson scored a winning goal against Blackburn Rovers in October, which preceded a run in the starting eleven, under both Rowett and his successor, Gianfranco Zola. As poor results continued, Zola introduced Tesche, whom he perceived as more capable defensively, and Gleeson started only one match in the last two months of the campaign.Gleeson left Birmingham on a free transfer on 19 January 2018, and signed until the end of the season for another Championship club, Ipswich Town, under the management of Mick McCarthy who had given him his debut at Wolverhampton Wanderers. He made his first appearance the following day, as a half-time substitute in a 1–1 draw away to Bolton Wanderers, and according to McCarthyperhaps in response to fans reportedly "underwhelmed" by the arrival of a fringe player from a struggling sidewas "a mile above anyone else in terms of getting it and passing it." Facing strong competition for places in central midfield, his first-team appearances became infrequentfive starts and five as substituteand he was not offered a new deal.Gleeson signed a two-year contract with Scottish Premiership club Aberdeen in June 2018. His contract was cancelled in January 2020.Having played no competitive football since 2019, Gleeson signed a one-year contract with National League club Solihull Moors in August 2020.Gleeson was capped at under-15 and under-16 level, before making his debut for the Republic of Ireland under-17 team in 2004. His Football Association of Ireland (FAI) profile described his performance in the first qualifying round of the 2005 UEFA European Under-17 Championship as outstanding. Ireland finished second in their group, so progressed to the elite round. Gleeson scored as his team beat Northern Ireland 2–1, but defeats to Serbia and Montenegro and England meant they failed to reach the tournament proper.He first appeared for the under-19s at the age of 17 years 6 monthsa year younger than most of his teammatesagainst Scotland in a friendly tournament at La Manga in February 2006. After a couple of appearances at under-18 level, Gleeson was included in the squad for that year's European Under-19 Championship elite qualification round. He started one match and played as a substitute in the other two; Ireland lost all three. He was vice-captain of the under-19 team as they reached the same stage of the 2007 competition, but withdrew from the qualifiers because of club commitments with Wolves in the Championship play-offs.Gleeson was the youngest of eleven uncapped players included by Steve Staunton in the Ireland squad for a two-match visit to the United States in May 2007. He made his senior international debut as a 79th-minute substitute in a 1–1 draw with Ecuador at Giants Stadium on 23 May, and also played in the second match, a 1–1 draw with Bolivia, again as a substitute. Years later he admitted that "I don't think I did my best out there. I was a bit overawed: the senior team, 18 years of age, with all these names around me."Three months later, Gleeson marked his under-21 debut with both goals in a 2–2 friendly draw with Germany. He went on to make 16 appearances at under-21 level, and captained the team in November 2009 in a 4–1 defeat against Armenia in a European Championship qualifier.Despite his early introduction to the senior team, Gleeson was not called up again for nine years. He had previously expressed disappointment at his omission even when 40-man squads were named for Ireland matches, but in March 2016 manager Martin O'Neill selected him in the squad for friendlies against Switzerland and Slovakia. He was an unused substitute in both matches. Gleeson received a late call-up to the senior squad for a friendly at home to Iceland in March 2017, and this time did take the field, as a second-half substitute, winning his third cap nearly ten years after his second; Ireland lost 1–0. He was included in a weakened squad for two internationals in the United States in June, and on 1 June, he scored his first goal for Ireland, three minutes after coming on as a substitute in a 3–1 defeat to Mexico at the MetLife Stadium.Stockport CountyIndividual | [
"Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.",
"Stockport County F.C.",
"Milton Keynes Dons F.C.",
"Republic of Ireland national under-19 football team",
"Republic of Ireland national under-20 football team",
"Hereford United F.C.",
"Republic of Ireland national under-21 football team",
"Republic of Ireland national association football team"
] |
|
Which team did Stephen Gleeson play for in 26/11/2018? | November 26, 2018 | {
"text": [
"Birmingham City F.C."
]
} | L2_Q946334_P54_8 | Stephen Gleeson plays for Republic of Ireland national under-20 football team from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2007.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2009.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Milton Keynes Dons F.C. from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2014.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Stockport County F.C. from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Republic of Ireland national association football team from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2007.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Republic of Ireland national under-19 football team from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2007.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Republic of Ireland national under-21 football team from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2010.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Hereford United F.C. from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2008.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Birmingham City F.C. from Jan, 2014 to Dec, 2022. | Stephen GleesonStephen Michael Gleeson (born 3 August 1988) is an Irish professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for club Solihull Moors.Gleeson played youth football in his native Dublin before coming to England at the age of 15 to join Wolverhampton Wanderers. He rarely played first-team football for them, but spent time on loan to lower-league clubs Stockport County (three separate spells), Hereford United and Milton Keynes Dons, before signing a three-year contract with the latter club in 2009. After five years, during which time he made more than 200 appearances in all competitions, Gleeson moved on to Birmingham City. He spent three-and-a-half seasons at Birmingham, making more than 100 appearances in the Championship. He has since played for Ipswich Town and Aberdeen.At international level, Gleeson was capped twice for the Republic of Ireland in 2007, and was not capped again for nearly ten years. He also represented his country at under-age levels, and made 16 appearances for the under-21 team.Gleeson was born in Dublin, an only child, and raised in Crumlin, in the south of the city. As a youngster he admired Roy Keane, and tried to model his game on that of Steven Gerrard. He played for nearby Lourdes Celtic before moving on to Cherry Orchard. In the 2002–03 season, he scored a winning goal against a title rival to win the 14 Premier League, and scored with an "excellent volley" as Cherry Orchard won the SFAI under-15 Evans Cup the following year. Recommended to Wolverhampton Wanderers by their Irish scout, Willie Byrne, Gleeson came to England as a 15-year-old for a trial, and joined their academy.He made his reserve-team debut on 24 August 2004 as a late substitute in their first home fixture of the season – three weeks after his 16th birthday – and by October 2004, he was starting. He helped Wolves' youth team reach the semifinal of that season's FA Youth Cup, but was sent off in extra time in the second leg, and Wolves lost on penalties to Southampton. He continued to appear regularly for the reserves. In 2005–06, he scored 4 goals from 16 reserve-team appearances, and at the beginning of May 2006, he signed his first professional contract, of three years. Describing him as a playmaker with "good pace [who] gets forward, with an eye for goal", academy manager Chris Evans said that Gleeson had trained with the first team "from time to time" and had impressed manager Glenn Hoddle.Gleeson was given a first-team squad number for 2006–07, through by the time the season began, Hoddle had resigned and been replaced by Mick McCarthy. Gleeson joined League Two club Stockport County on a month's loan in November, with the aim of gaining experience and returning to Wolves to fight for a first-team place. An unused substitute in County's next match, Gleeson made his senior debut on 11 November in a 2–1 victory at Exeter City in the FA Cup, and his first appearance in the Football League came the following weekend in the starting eleven for a 1–1 draw away to Chester City. The loan was extended for a second month, and on 9 December, he scored his first senior goal, a header from Adam Proudlock's cross to complete a 5–2 win against Darlington. He said afterwards that he "just closed [his] eyes and hoped for the best". He thought his second goal had come a few days later, when his last-minute shot off the crossbar appeared to cross the line before bouncing out for Liam Dickinson to seal a 2–0 win against Notts County.His loan was again extended, and by the time it expired he had made 17 appearances, scored again, with a tap-in as Stockport beat Wycombe Wanderers 2–0, and his manager was "sad to see him go, [but] also excited for him because he is going to have a great future in the game. He leaves as a better player with more self-confidence and one who deserves to play at a higher level." The supporters designated his final appearance, against Hereford United, "Stephen Gleeson Day".McCarthy recalled Gleeson to Wolves to be part of the first-team squad, and he returned "bursting with confidence and desperate for a first team chance", only to find a winning team and strong competition for a place in midfield. He made the first-team bench for the first time on 3 March, and made his Wolves debut on 9 April, as a late substitute in a 3–1 defeat of Hull City. He made two more brief league appearances, and played for half an hour in the second leg of the play-off semi-final, which Wolves lost 4–2 on aggregate. He came close to creating a goal for his side when his long ball forward was deflected past Albion's goalkeeper by a defender, who managed to recover in time to clear it off the line.After Gleeson's pre-season was disrupted by injury, he damaged a hip in the League Cup in late August, and a month later, he was allowed home leave to recover from concussion and a loss of feeling in the leg sustained in collision with the opposing goalkeeper in a reserve match. He captained the reserves, but made no more appearances for the first team before joining League Two club Hereford United on 21 February 2008 on a month's loan. Starting in central midfield against local rivals Shrewsbury Town, the "Hereford Times" reported that he "struggled to come to terms with the pace of the game during the first half but showed his quality in the second period", a performance that earned him a place in the League Two Team of the Week. In his second match, he should have done better with a shooting chance, and after the third, a defeat to promotion rivals Stockport, manager Graham Turner made several changes; Gleeson lost his place to first-team regular Toumani Diagouraga who returned after injury. Because Hereford had more loanees than the five permitted in the matchday squad, Gleeson was not always involved, but he did come back into the side as a second-half substitute on 22 March. Although Turner wanted to retain his services, he returned to Wolves and promptly rejoined Stockport until the end of the season, subject to a 24-hour recall clause.Gleeson played in six of Stockport's remaining seven regular-season league matches as they finished fourth, and faced Wycombe Wanderers in the play-off semi-final. In the first leg, at Wycombe's Adams Park ground, Stockport were a goal behind when half-time substitute Gleeson "sent an effort from 25 yards out spiralling past goalkeeper Frank Fielding with eight minutes remaining"; the "Daily Telegraph" reporter termed it a "blistering" volley and a "piledriver". The goal was later voted Stockport's Goal of 2008 by fans. Early in the second leg, the danger from his "ridiculous" headed back-pass was only averted by his goalkeeper's agility, as Stockport went on to win the match 1–0. He started in the final, in which Stockport beat Rochdale 3–2 to win promotion to League One.His association with Stockport continued the following season as he spent the first half of the campaign on loan with the club. Gleeson accused Wolves of "a bit of a bullying tactic" in trying to make him sign a contract extension before allowing him to move he resisted, saying there was no hurry, and he would not sign unless the terms were acceptable and was fined two weeks' wages for criticising the club. Stockport manager Gannon claimed the player had been so upset by the matter that he had considered giving up the game. He missed only four of Stockport's thirty matches during the loan spell: one while on international duty with the Ireland under-21 team and three while suspended after being sent off for an off-the-ball incident. He scored three goalseach time with a powerful shot from at least and when his loan spell ended, the team were fifth in the division.Gleeson returned to his parent club, where he still hoped for a long-term future despite referring to himself as "the forgotten man". He signed a one-year extension to his contract. Injuries and suspensions among the Wolves players prevented his going out on loan until late March, when he joined League One club Milton Keynes Dons for the remainder of the season. He provided two assists for Mark Wright as MK Dons won 2–0 at Southend United, and generally impressed "with his all-action performances and slick passing" in four consecutive wins, but on his fifth appearance, suffered ankle ligament damage that kept him out of their ultimately unsuccessful play-off campaign.Following Wolves' promotion to the Premier League, Gleeson was made available for transfer. He had played under Roberto di Matteo's management while on loan at MK Dons, and despite Di Matteo's departure for West Bromwich Albion and replacement by Paul Ince, he signed a three-year contract with the club on 1 July 2009. the fee, officially undisclosed, was described as nominal. He was used in various midfield positions, including wide on the right, which was not to his taste, and at the base of a diamond, and was encouraged to break up play as well as perform his more accustomed creative role. After a 1–0 win against Wycombe Wanderers in September, Ince said that Gleeson "set the tempo for the game in the first minute with a great tackle and we just pushed on from there." MK Dons had begun the season as possible promotion contenders, but a strong start gave way to a slide into midtable, in which indiscipline was a factor. By mid-February, the team had received 100 yellow cards, far more than any other; Gleeson was a major contributor with 10, which earned him a two-match suspension. He was booked twice more before his season ended early when he damaged medial knee ligaments.Gleeson's knee recovered in time for pre-season training, and he began the 2010–11 season in the unaccustomed position of right back, to which new manager Karl Robinson thought him well suited. He injured his back in his second appearance and was out of action for three months. When he did return, in his more usual position of central midfield, he "[showed] all his customary composure and quality in possession" in a friendly match, and went on to play in every competitive fixture until the final one of the regular season, for which, with a play-off place secure, Robinson selected a young team. He scored twice, the first a "wonder goal" from against Leyton Orient in January 2011 that won the club's Goal of the Season award. In the first leg of the play-off semi-final, MK Dons took a 3–1 lead, but with ten minutes left, Gleeson was sent off for bringing down Mark Little and a penalty was awarded and converted. The sending-off was rescinded on appeal, but Peterborough United won the second leg 2–0, qualifying for the final 4–3 on aggregate, and Gleeson and teammate Keanu Marsh-Brown came to blows in frustration. In June, Peterborough's reported £600,000 offer for Gleeson was rejected.Gleeson was appointed vice-captain in July 2011. Both player and manager hoped the responsibility might curb his hot-headedness and help him mature. Early in the new season, he confirmed that he wanted to play at Championship level, so was not going to sign a new contract until he knew whether MK Dons were to be promoted or not. The club's website highlighted his central midfield partnership with Darren Potter, a new signing with whom Gleeson had played for Wolves' reserves and in international football, as integral to the team's good start to the season, and the pair helped MK Dons come close to eliminating Premier League Queens Park Rangers in the third round of the FA Cup. He played in 39 of the 46 League One matches and scored 5 league goals as the team were rarely out of the play-off positions, but indiscipline remained an issue. On 6 March, he returned from suspension for his tenth yellow card, only to be sent off for kicking an opponent late in the home defeat to Yeovil Town. After a lengthy talk with the player, manager Robinson stated publicly that if Gleeson did not learn from his mistakes, he would not be offered another contract. He and Potter were both named in the Professional Footballers' Association's League One Team of the Year, and together with winger Luke Chadwick were among the top ten players as chosen by the League One managers.MK Dons narrowly failed to overcome a 2–0 deficit to Huddersfield Town in the second leg of the play-off semi-final. Gleeson was in tears afterwards, and Robinson said that the criticism he had received during the season for an apparent attitude problem was misplaced. According to the manager, his "[looking] like he's moody, doesn't care and only does it for himself" is a misperception; "he gets wrapped up the fact that he cares so much – sometimes he shows it in the wrong way." Despite interest from numerous Championship clubs, Gleeson signed a new two-year contract, saying that he wanted to play at that level with MK Dons and with Robinson.Robinson's team, built round Gleeson, Potter and Chadwick, were second in the table by the end of November. On 2 December 2012, Gleeson produced another goal from distance to open the scoring in MK Dons' first meeting with AFC Wimbledon. MK Dons won 2–1 to progress to the third round of that season's FA Cup, and the goal was voted the club's goal of the season. A couple of weeks later, he suffered a break in his left foot during training, which coincided with Chadwick damaging knee ligaments. During their absence, MK Dons dropped down the league. Gleeson returned in a match against Doncaster Rovers on 5 March 2013, which he celebrated with a goal to seal a 3–0 victory. Captaining the side in Dean Lewington's absence through injury in April, Gleeson scored a late winner against Brentford to lead the team to a second consecutive victory as they went on to finish four points outside the play-off places. Robinson speculated whether the disruption to the team caused by Gleeson's and Chadwick's injuries might have cost them promotion.Early in the new season, Gleeson played an influential part in MK Dons twice coming from a goal behind to draw with Bristol City, "barking out orders and putting in the miles as he tracked box-to-box, popping up all over the pitch with vital tackles and hold-up play." In December, while still returning to form and fitness, he produced another "wonder goal" against Port Vale, and followed it up in the next week match a similar effort to open the scoring as MK Dons won 2–0 at Crawley Town. His performances and those of the team their only defeat came in a match for which Gleeson was suspended, after a fifth yellow card received for unnecessary involvement in someone else's dispute in the Crawley match earned him a nomination for League One Player of the Month. By the end of the season, Robinson suggested that the team had reached "a stage when some of the players have run their race here". Although he was "desperate" for Gleeson to stay, he was not prepared to be kept waiting for a decision.On 9 June, Gleeson signed a two-year contract with Championship club Birmingham City, to begin when his MK Dons contract expired at the end of the 2013–14 season. The "Irish Independent" Daniel McDonnell suggested he was one of several Irish players who needed to prove themselves in the coming season. He made his debut in the starting eleven for the opening-day defeat at Middlesbrough, but failed to establish himself in the team: of the twelve league matches under Lee Clark's management, he started five and came on as a substitute in five as Birmingham dropped towards the relegation places. Clark's successor, Gary Rowett, included Gleeson in his first starting eleven, playing in front of the defensive line in a goalless draw at Wolverhampton Wanderers. This time, Gleeson did keep his place, tasked with "launching the counter-attacks" from Rowett's preferred 4–2–3–1 formation as his "effective midfield partnership" with David Davis started 18 consecutive league matches. Gleeson was sent off for retaliation in February 2016 as Birmingham beat Brentford, and new loan signing Robert Tesche of Nottingham Forest took his place alongside Davis. He returned to the side after his suspension as part of a three-man midfield, but when Rowett reverted to 4–2–3–1, it was Gleeson's passing that earned him selection ahead of Davis as Tesche's partner.Ahead of the 2015–16 season, Gleeson signed a two-year extension to his contract that took its expiry date to 2018. Having gone through 2014–15 without scoring, he produced two goals in nine days in August 2015, contributing to his nomination for the Championship Player of the Month. The first came just before half-time at home to Derby County when his shot was deflected past the goalkeeper by a defender. For the second, away to his former club MK Dons, he curled Clayton Donaldson's cutback over the goalkeeper into the corner of the net; later in the match, he was stretchered off with an ankle injury that proved less serious than initially feared. He continued as first choice in a two-man midfield, generally partnering new signing Maikel Kieftenbeld, and according to the "Birmingham Mail", was "arguably Blues' most important player, knitting together defence and attack and adding goals to his game". After an influential performance and a goal in a 5–2 win away to Fulham in November, Rowett sais he "[didn't] think there [was] a better passing defensive midfielder in the division." His celebration of a fortuitous goal in a 3–0 win at Derby earned him a booking for inciting the home supporters, and he apologised to the stewards after the match. Both his and the team's performances dipped towards the end of the season, which he finished with five goals from 46 appearances in all competitions.Gleeson was linked with moves to other Championship clubs, including Leeds United, Reading and Sheffield Wednesday, during the close season, and his pre-season was disrupted by an infected toe, but he still began the new campaign in the starting eleven. His selection as a starter was intermittent, dependent on injurieshis own or others'as well as on the sheer number of central midfielders available, especially after the creative Reece Brown returned to consideration. Playing a more advanced role in a 4–4–2 formation, Gleeson scored a winning goal against Blackburn Rovers in October, which preceded a run in the starting eleven, under both Rowett and his successor, Gianfranco Zola. As poor results continued, Zola introduced Tesche, whom he perceived as more capable defensively, and Gleeson started only one match in the last two months of the campaign.Gleeson left Birmingham on a free transfer on 19 January 2018, and signed until the end of the season for another Championship club, Ipswich Town, under the management of Mick McCarthy who had given him his debut at Wolverhampton Wanderers. He made his first appearance the following day, as a half-time substitute in a 1–1 draw away to Bolton Wanderers, and according to McCarthyperhaps in response to fans reportedly "underwhelmed" by the arrival of a fringe player from a struggling sidewas "a mile above anyone else in terms of getting it and passing it." Facing strong competition for places in central midfield, his first-team appearances became infrequentfive starts and five as substituteand he was not offered a new deal.Gleeson signed a two-year contract with Scottish Premiership club Aberdeen in June 2018. His contract was cancelled in January 2020.Having played no competitive football since 2019, Gleeson signed a one-year contract with National League club Solihull Moors in August 2020.Gleeson was capped at under-15 and under-16 level, before making his debut for the Republic of Ireland under-17 team in 2004. His Football Association of Ireland (FAI) profile described his performance in the first qualifying round of the 2005 UEFA European Under-17 Championship as outstanding. Ireland finished second in their group, so progressed to the elite round. Gleeson scored as his team beat Northern Ireland 2–1, but defeats to Serbia and Montenegro and England meant they failed to reach the tournament proper.He first appeared for the under-19s at the age of 17 years 6 monthsa year younger than most of his teammatesagainst Scotland in a friendly tournament at La Manga in February 2006. After a couple of appearances at under-18 level, Gleeson was included in the squad for that year's European Under-19 Championship elite qualification round. He started one match and played as a substitute in the other two; Ireland lost all three. He was vice-captain of the under-19 team as they reached the same stage of the 2007 competition, but withdrew from the qualifiers because of club commitments with Wolves in the Championship play-offs.Gleeson was the youngest of eleven uncapped players included by Steve Staunton in the Ireland squad for a two-match visit to the United States in May 2007. He made his senior international debut as a 79th-minute substitute in a 1–1 draw with Ecuador at Giants Stadium on 23 May, and also played in the second match, a 1–1 draw with Bolivia, again as a substitute. Years later he admitted that "I don't think I did my best out there. I was a bit overawed: the senior team, 18 years of age, with all these names around me."Three months later, Gleeson marked his under-21 debut with both goals in a 2–2 friendly draw with Germany. He went on to make 16 appearances at under-21 level, and captained the team in November 2009 in a 4–1 defeat against Armenia in a European Championship qualifier.Despite his early introduction to the senior team, Gleeson was not called up again for nine years. He had previously expressed disappointment at his omission even when 40-man squads were named for Ireland matches, but in March 2016 manager Martin O'Neill selected him in the squad for friendlies against Switzerland and Slovakia. He was an unused substitute in both matches. Gleeson received a late call-up to the senior squad for a friendly at home to Iceland in March 2017, and this time did take the field, as a second-half substitute, winning his third cap nearly ten years after his second; Ireland lost 1–0. He was included in a weakened squad for two internationals in the United States in June, and on 1 June, he scored his first goal for Ireland, three minutes after coming on as a substitute in a 3–1 defeat to Mexico at the MetLife Stadium.Stockport CountyIndividual | [
"Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.",
"Stockport County F.C.",
"Milton Keynes Dons F.C.",
"Republic of Ireland national under-19 football team",
"Republic of Ireland national under-20 football team",
"Hereford United F.C.",
"Republic of Ireland national under-21 football team",
"Republic of Ireland national association football team"
] |
|
Which team did Stephen Gleeson play for in Nov 26, 2018? | November 26, 2018 | {
"text": [
"Birmingham City F.C."
]
} | L2_Q946334_P54_8 | Stephen Gleeson plays for Republic of Ireland national under-20 football team from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2007.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2009.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Milton Keynes Dons F.C. from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2014.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Stockport County F.C. from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Republic of Ireland national association football team from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2007.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Republic of Ireland national under-19 football team from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2007.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Republic of Ireland national under-21 football team from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2010.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Hereford United F.C. from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2008.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Birmingham City F.C. from Jan, 2014 to Dec, 2022. | Stephen GleesonStephen Michael Gleeson (born 3 August 1988) is an Irish professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for club Solihull Moors.Gleeson played youth football in his native Dublin before coming to England at the age of 15 to join Wolverhampton Wanderers. He rarely played first-team football for them, but spent time on loan to lower-league clubs Stockport County (three separate spells), Hereford United and Milton Keynes Dons, before signing a three-year contract with the latter club in 2009. After five years, during which time he made more than 200 appearances in all competitions, Gleeson moved on to Birmingham City. He spent three-and-a-half seasons at Birmingham, making more than 100 appearances in the Championship. He has since played for Ipswich Town and Aberdeen.At international level, Gleeson was capped twice for the Republic of Ireland in 2007, and was not capped again for nearly ten years. He also represented his country at under-age levels, and made 16 appearances for the under-21 team.Gleeson was born in Dublin, an only child, and raised in Crumlin, in the south of the city. As a youngster he admired Roy Keane, and tried to model his game on that of Steven Gerrard. He played for nearby Lourdes Celtic before moving on to Cherry Orchard. In the 2002–03 season, he scored a winning goal against a title rival to win the 14 Premier League, and scored with an "excellent volley" as Cherry Orchard won the SFAI under-15 Evans Cup the following year. Recommended to Wolverhampton Wanderers by their Irish scout, Willie Byrne, Gleeson came to England as a 15-year-old for a trial, and joined their academy.He made his reserve-team debut on 24 August 2004 as a late substitute in their first home fixture of the season – three weeks after his 16th birthday – and by October 2004, he was starting. He helped Wolves' youth team reach the semifinal of that season's FA Youth Cup, but was sent off in extra time in the second leg, and Wolves lost on penalties to Southampton. He continued to appear regularly for the reserves. In 2005–06, he scored 4 goals from 16 reserve-team appearances, and at the beginning of May 2006, he signed his first professional contract, of three years. Describing him as a playmaker with "good pace [who] gets forward, with an eye for goal", academy manager Chris Evans said that Gleeson had trained with the first team "from time to time" and had impressed manager Glenn Hoddle.Gleeson was given a first-team squad number for 2006–07, through by the time the season began, Hoddle had resigned and been replaced by Mick McCarthy. Gleeson joined League Two club Stockport County on a month's loan in November, with the aim of gaining experience and returning to Wolves to fight for a first-team place. An unused substitute in County's next match, Gleeson made his senior debut on 11 November in a 2–1 victory at Exeter City in the FA Cup, and his first appearance in the Football League came the following weekend in the starting eleven for a 1–1 draw away to Chester City. The loan was extended for a second month, and on 9 December, he scored his first senior goal, a header from Adam Proudlock's cross to complete a 5–2 win against Darlington. He said afterwards that he "just closed [his] eyes and hoped for the best". He thought his second goal had come a few days later, when his last-minute shot off the crossbar appeared to cross the line before bouncing out for Liam Dickinson to seal a 2–0 win against Notts County.His loan was again extended, and by the time it expired he had made 17 appearances, scored again, with a tap-in as Stockport beat Wycombe Wanderers 2–0, and his manager was "sad to see him go, [but] also excited for him because he is going to have a great future in the game. He leaves as a better player with more self-confidence and one who deserves to play at a higher level." The supporters designated his final appearance, against Hereford United, "Stephen Gleeson Day".McCarthy recalled Gleeson to Wolves to be part of the first-team squad, and he returned "bursting with confidence and desperate for a first team chance", only to find a winning team and strong competition for a place in midfield. He made the first-team bench for the first time on 3 March, and made his Wolves debut on 9 April, as a late substitute in a 3–1 defeat of Hull City. He made two more brief league appearances, and played for half an hour in the second leg of the play-off semi-final, which Wolves lost 4–2 on aggregate. He came close to creating a goal for his side when his long ball forward was deflected past Albion's goalkeeper by a defender, who managed to recover in time to clear it off the line.After Gleeson's pre-season was disrupted by injury, he damaged a hip in the League Cup in late August, and a month later, he was allowed home leave to recover from concussion and a loss of feeling in the leg sustained in collision with the opposing goalkeeper in a reserve match. He captained the reserves, but made no more appearances for the first team before joining League Two club Hereford United on 21 February 2008 on a month's loan. Starting in central midfield against local rivals Shrewsbury Town, the "Hereford Times" reported that he "struggled to come to terms with the pace of the game during the first half but showed his quality in the second period", a performance that earned him a place in the League Two Team of the Week. In his second match, he should have done better with a shooting chance, and after the third, a defeat to promotion rivals Stockport, manager Graham Turner made several changes; Gleeson lost his place to first-team regular Toumani Diagouraga who returned after injury. Because Hereford had more loanees than the five permitted in the matchday squad, Gleeson was not always involved, but he did come back into the side as a second-half substitute on 22 March. Although Turner wanted to retain his services, he returned to Wolves and promptly rejoined Stockport until the end of the season, subject to a 24-hour recall clause.Gleeson played in six of Stockport's remaining seven regular-season league matches as they finished fourth, and faced Wycombe Wanderers in the play-off semi-final. In the first leg, at Wycombe's Adams Park ground, Stockport were a goal behind when half-time substitute Gleeson "sent an effort from 25 yards out spiralling past goalkeeper Frank Fielding with eight minutes remaining"; the "Daily Telegraph" reporter termed it a "blistering" volley and a "piledriver". The goal was later voted Stockport's Goal of 2008 by fans. Early in the second leg, the danger from his "ridiculous" headed back-pass was only averted by his goalkeeper's agility, as Stockport went on to win the match 1–0. He started in the final, in which Stockport beat Rochdale 3–2 to win promotion to League One.His association with Stockport continued the following season as he spent the first half of the campaign on loan with the club. Gleeson accused Wolves of "a bit of a bullying tactic" in trying to make him sign a contract extension before allowing him to move he resisted, saying there was no hurry, and he would not sign unless the terms were acceptable and was fined two weeks' wages for criticising the club. Stockport manager Gannon claimed the player had been so upset by the matter that he had considered giving up the game. He missed only four of Stockport's thirty matches during the loan spell: one while on international duty with the Ireland under-21 team and three while suspended after being sent off for an off-the-ball incident. He scored three goalseach time with a powerful shot from at least and when his loan spell ended, the team were fifth in the division.Gleeson returned to his parent club, where he still hoped for a long-term future despite referring to himself as "the forgotten man". He signed a one-year extension to his contract. Injuries and suspensions among the Wolves players prevented his going out on loan until late March, when he joined League One club Milton Keynes Dons for the remainder of the season. He provided two assists for Mark Wright as MK Dons won 2–0 at Southend United, and generally impressed "with his all-action performances and slick passing" in four consecutive wins, but on his fifth appearance, suffered ankle ligament damage that kept him out of their ultimately unsuccessful play-off campaign.Following Wolves' promotion to the Premier League, Gleeson was made available for transfer. He had played under Roberto di Matteo's management while on loan at MK Dons, and despite Di Matteo's departure for West Bromwich Albion and replacement by Paul Ince, he signed a three-year contract with the club on 1 July 2009. the fee, officially undisclosed, was described as nominal. He was used in various midfield positions, including wide on the right, which was not to his taste, and at the base of a diamond, and was encouraged to break up play as well as perform his more accustomed creative role. After a 1–0 win against Wycombe Wanderers in September, Ince said that Gleeson "set the tempo for the game in the first minute with a great tackle and we just pushed on from there." MK Dons had begun the season as possible promotion contenders, but a strong start gave way to a slide into midtable, in which indiscipline was a factor. By mid-February, the team had received 100 yellow cards, far more than any other; Gleeson was a major contributor with 10, which earned him a two-match suspension. He was booked twice more before his season ended early when he damaged medial knee ligaments.Gleeson's knee recovered in time for pre-season training, and he began the 2010–11 season in the unaccustomed position of right back, to which new manager Karl Robinson thought him well suited. He injured his back in his second appearance and was out of action for three months. When he did return, in his more usual position of central midfield, he "[showed] all his customary composure and quality in possession" in a friendly match, and went on to play in every competitive fixture until the final one of the regular season, for which, with a play-off place secure, Robinson selected a young team. He scored twice, the first a "wonder goal" from against Leyton Orient in January 2011 that won the club's Goal of the Season award. In the first leg of the play-off semi-final, MK Dons took a 3–1 lead, but with ten minutes left, Gleeson was sent off for bringing down Mark Little and a penalty was awarded and converted. The sending-off was rescinded on appeal, but Peterborough United won the second leg 2–0, qualifying for the final 4–3 on aggregate, and Gleeson and teammate Keanu Marsh-Brown came to blows in frustration. In June, Peterborough's reported £600,000 offer for Gleeson was rejected.Gleeson was appointed vice-captain in July 2011. Both player and manager hoped the responsibility might curb his hot-headedness and help him mature. Early in the new season, he confirmed that he wanted to play at Championship level, so was not going to sign a new contract until he knew whether MK Dons were to be promoted or not. The club's website highlighted his central midfield partnership with Darren Potter, a new signing with whom Gleeson had played for Wolves' reserves and in international football, as integral to the team's good start to the season, and the pair helped MK Dons come close to eliminating Premier League Queens Park Rangers in the third round of the FA Cup. He played in 39 of the 46 League One matches and scored 5 league goals as the team were rarely out of the play-off positions, but indiscipline remained an issue. On 6 March, he returned from suspension for his tenth yellow card, only to be sent off for kicking an opponent late in the home defeat to Yeovil Town. After a lengthy talk with the player, manager Robinson stated publicly that if Gleeson did not learn from his mistakes, he would not be offered another contract. He and Potter were both named in the Professional Footballers' Association's League One Team of the Year, and together with winger Luke Chadwick were among the top ten players as chosen by the League One managers.MK Dons narrowly failed to overcome a 2–0 deficit to Huddersfield Town in the second leg of the play-off semi-final. Gleeson was in tears afterwards, and Robinson said that the criticism he had received during the season for an apparent attitude problem was misplaced. According to the manager, his "[looking] like he's moody, doesn't care and only does it for himself" is a misperception; "he gets wrapped up the fact that he cares so much – sometimes he shows it in the wrong way." Despite interest from numerous Championship clubs, Gleeson signed a new two-year contract, saying that he wanted to play at that level with MK Dons and with Robinson.Robinson's team, built round Gleeson, Potter and Chadwick, were second in the table by the end of November. On 2 December 2012, Gleeson produced another goal from distance to open the scoring in MK Dons' first meeting with AFC Wimbledon. MK Dons won 2–1 to progress to the third round of that season's FA Cup, and the goal was voted the club's goal of the season. A couple of weeks later, he suffered a break in his left foot during training, which coincided with Chadwick damaging knee ligaments. During their absence, MK Dons dropped down the league. Gleeson returned in a match against Doncaster Rovers on 5 March 2013, which he celebrated with a goal to seal a 3–0 victory. Captaining the side in Dean Lewington's absence through injury in April, Gleeson scored a late winner against Brentford to lead the team to a second consecutive victory as they went on to finish four points outside the play-off places. Robinson speculated whether the disruption to the team caused by Gleeson's and Chadwick's injuries might have cost them promotion.Early in the new season, Gleeson played an influential part in MK Dons twice coming from a goal behind to draw with Bristol City, "barking out orders and putting in the miles as he tracked box-to-box, popping up all over the pitch with vital tackles and hold-up play." In December, while still returning to form and fitness, he produced another "wonder goal" against Port Vale, and followed it up in the next week match a similar effort to open the scoring as MK Dons won 2–0 at Crawley Town. His performances and those of the team their only defeat came in a match for which Gleeson was suspended, after a fifth yellow card received for unnecessary involvement in someone else's dispute in the Crawley match earned him a nomination for League One Player of the Month. By the end of the season, Robinson suggested that the team had reached "a stage when some of the players have run their race here". Although he was "desperate" for Gleeson to stay, he was not prepared to be kept waiting for a decision.On 9 June, Gleeson signed a two-year contract with Championship club Birmingham City, to begin when his MK Dons contract expired at the end of the 2013–14 season. The "Irish Independent" Daniel McDonnell suggested he was one of several Irish players who needed to prove themselves in the coming season. He made his debut in the starting eleven for the opening-day defeat at Middlesbrough, but failed to establish himself in the team: of the twelve league matches under Lee Clark's management, he started five and came on as a substitute in five as Birmingham dropped towards the relegation places. Clark's successor, Gary Rowett, included Gleeson in his first starting eleven, playing in front of the defensive line in a goalless draw at Wolverhampton Wanderers. This time, Gleeson did keep his place, tasked with "launching the counter-attacks" from Rowett's preferred 4–2–3–1 formation as his "effective midfield partnership" with David Davis started 18 consecutive league matches. Gleeson was sent off for retaliation in February 2016 as Birmingham beat Brentford, and new loan signing Robert Tesche of Nottingham Forest took his place alongside Davis. He returned to the side after his suspension as part of a three-man midfield, but when Rowett reverted to 4–2–3–1, it was Gleeson's passing that earned him selection ahead of Davis as Tesche's partner.Ahead of the 2015–16 season, Gleeson signed a two-year extension to his contract that took its expiry date to 2018. Having gone through 2014–15 without scoring, he produced two goals in nine days in August 2015, contributing to his nomination for the Championship Player of the Month. The first came just before half-time at home to Derby County when his shot was deflected past the goalkeeper by a defender. For the second, away to his former club MK Dons, he curled Clayton Donaldson's cutback over the goalkeeper into the corner of the net; later in the match, he was stretchered off with an ankle injury that proved less serious than initially feared. He continued as first choice in a two-man midfield, generally partnering new signing Maikel Kieftenbeld, and according to the "Birmingham Mail", was "arguably Blues' most important player, knitting together defence and attack and adding goals to his game". After an influential performance and a goal in a 5–2 win away to Fulham in November, Rowett sais he "[didn't] think there [was] a better passing defensive midfielder in the division." His celebration of a fortuitous goal in a 3–0 win at Derby earned him a booking for inciting the home supporters, and he apologised to the stewards after the match. Both his and the team's performances dipped towards the end of the season, which he finished with five goals from 46 appearances in all competitions.Gleeson was linked with moves to other Championship clubs, including Leeds United, Reading and Sheffield Wednesday, during the close season, and his pre-season was disrupted by an infected toe, but he still began the new campaign in the starting eleven. His selection as a starter was intermittent, dependent on injurieshis own or others'as well as on the sheer number of central midfielders available, especially after the creative Reece Brown returned to consideration. Playing a more advanced role in a 4–4–2 formation, Gleeson scored a winning goal against Blackburn Rovers in October, which preceded a run in the starting eleven, under both Rowett and his successor, Gianfranco Zola. As poor results continued, Zola introduced Tesche, whom he perceived as more capable defensively, and Gleeson started only one match in the last two months of the campaign.Gleeson left Birmingham on a free transfer on 19 January 2018, and signed until the end of the season for another Championship club, Ipswich Town, under the management of Mick McCarthy who had given him his debut at Wolverhampton Wanderers. He made his first appearance the following day, as a half-time substitute in a 1–1 draw away to Bolton Wanderers, and according to McCarthyperhaps in response to fans reportedly "underwhelmed" by the arrival of a fringe player from a struggling sidewas "a mile above anyone else in terms of getting it and passing it." Facing strong competition for places in central midfield, his first-team appearances became infrequentfive starts and five as substituteand he was not offered a new deal.Gleeson signed a two-year contract with Scottish Premiership club Aberdeen in June 2018. His contract was cancelled in January 2020.Having played no competitive football since 2019, Gleeson signed a one-year contract with National League club Solihull Moors in August 2020.Gleeson was capped at under-15 and under-16 level, before making his debut for the Republic of Ireland under-17 team in 2004. His Football Association of Ireland (FAI) profile described his performance in the first qualifying round of the 2005 UEFA European Under-17 Championship as outstanding. Ireland finished second in their group, so progressed to the elite round. Gleeson scored as his team beat Northern Ireland 2–1, but defeats to Serbia and Montenegro and England meant they failed to reach the tournament proper.He first appeared for the under-19s at the age of 17 years 6 monthsa year younger than most of his teammatesagainst Scotland in a friendly tournament at La Manga in February 2006. After a couple of appearances at under-18 level, Gleeson was included in the squad for that year's European Under-19 Championship elite qualification round. He started one match and played as a substitute in the other two; Ireland lost all three. He was vice-captain of the under-19 team as they reached the same stage of the 2007 competition, but withdrew from the qualifiers because of club commitments with Wolves in the Championship play-offs.Gleeson was the youngest of eleven uncapped players included by Steve Staunton in the Ireland squad for a two-match visit to the United States in May 2007. He made his senior international debut as a 79th-minute substitute in a 1–1 draw with Ecuador at Giants Stadium on 23 May, and also played in the second match, a 1–1 draw with Bolivia, again as a substitute. Years later he admitted that "I don't think I did my best out there. I was a bit overawed: the senior team, 18 years of age, with all these names around me."Three months later, Gleeson marked his under-21 debut with both goals in a 2–2 friendly draw with Germany. He went on to make 16 appearances at under-21 level, and captained the team in November 2009 in a 4–1 defeat against Armenia in a European Championship qualifier.Despite his early introduction to the senior team, Gleeson was not called up again for nine years. He had previously expressed disappointment at his omission even when 40-man squads were named for Ireland matches, but in March 2016 manager Martin O'Neill selected him in the squad for friendlies against Switzerland and Slovakia. He was an unused substitute in both matches. Gleeson received a late call-up to the senior squad for a friendly at home to Iceland in March 2017, and this time did take the field, as a second-half substitute, winning his third cap nearly ten years after his second; Ireland lost 1–0. He was included in a weakened squad for two internationals in the United States in June, and on 1 June, he scored his first goal for Ireland, three minutes after coming on as a substitute in a 3–1 defeat to Mexico at the MetLife Stadium.Stockport CountyIndividual | [
"Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.",
"Stockport County F.C.",
"Milton Keynes Dons F.C.",
"Republic of Ireland national under-19 football team",
"Republic of Ireland national under-20 football team",
"Hereford United F.C.",
"Republic of Ireland national under-21 football team",
"Republic of Ireland national association football team"
] |
|
Which team did Stephen Gleeson play for in 11/26/2018? | November 26, 2018 | {
"text": [
"Birmingham City F.C."
]
} | L2_Q946334_P54_8 | Stephen Gleeson plays for Republic of Ireland national under-20 football team from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2007.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2009.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Milton Keynes Dons F.C. from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2014.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Stockport County F.C. from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Republic of Ireland national association football team from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2007.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Republic of Ireland national under-19 football team from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2007.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Republic of Ireland national under-21 football team from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2010.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Hereford United F.C. from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2008.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Birmingham City F.C. from Jan, 2014 to Dec, 2022. | Stephen GleesonStephen Michael Gleeson (born 3 August 1988) is an Irish professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for club Solihull Moors.Gleeson played youth football in his native Dublin before coming to England at the age of 15 to join Wolverhampton Wanderers. He rarely played first-team football for them, but spent time on loan to lower-league clubs Stockport County (three separate spells), Hereford United and Milton Keynes Dons, before signing a three-year contract with the latter club in 2009. After five years, during which time he made more than 200 appearances in all competitions, Gleeson moved on to Birmingham City. He spent three-and-a-half seasons at Birmingham, making more than 100 appearances in the Championship. He has since played for Ipswich Town and Aberdeen.At international level, Gleeson was capped twice for the Republic of Ireland in 2007, and was not capped again for nearly ten years. He also represented his country at under-age levels, and made 16 appearances for the under-21 team.Gleeson was born in Dublin, an only child, and raised in Crumlin, in the south of the city. As a youngster he admired Roy Keane, and tried to model his game on that of Steven Gerrard. He played for nearby Lourdes Celtic before moving on to Cherry Orchard. In the 2002–03 season, he scored a winning goal against a title rival to win the 14 Premier League, and scored with an "excellent volley" as Cherry Orchard won the SFAI under-15 Evans Cup the following year. Recommended to Wolverhampton Wanderers by their Irish scout, Willie Byrne, Gleeson came to England as a 15-year-old for a trial, and joined their academy.He made his reserve-team debut on 24 August 2004 as a late substitute in their first home fixture of the season – three weeks after his 16th birthday – and by October 2004, he was starting. He helped Wolves' youth team reach the semifinal of that season's FA Youth Cup, but was sent off in extra time in the second leg, and Wolves lost on penalties to Southampton. He continued to appear regularly for the reserves. In 2005–06, he scored 4 goals from 16 reserve-team appearances, and at the beginning of May 2006, he signed his first professional contract, of three years. Describing him as a playmaker with "good pace [who] gets forward, with an eye for goal", academy manager Chris Evans said that Gleeson had trained with the first team "from time to time" and had impressed manager Glenn Hoddle.Gleeson was given a first-team squad number for 2006–07, through by the time the season began, Hoddle had resigned and been replaced by Mick McCarthy. Gleeson joined League Two club Stockport County on a month's loan in November, with the aim of gaining experience and returning to Wolves to fight for a first-team place. An unused substitute in County's next match, Gleeson made his senior debut on 11 November in a 2–1 victory at Exeter City in the FA Cup, and his first appearance in the Football League came the following weekend in the starting eleven for a 1–1 draw away to Chester City. The loan was extended for a second month, and on 9 December, he scored his first senior goal, a header from Adam Proudlock's cross to complete a 5–2 win against Darlington. He said afterwards that he "just closed [his] eyes and hoped for the best". He thought his second goal had come a few days later, when his last-minute shot off the crossbar appeared to cross the line before bouncing out for Liam Dickinson to seal a 2–0 win against Notts County.His loan was again extended, and by the time it expired he had made 17 appearances, scored again, with a tap-in as Stockport beat Wycombe Wanderers 2–0, and his manager was "sad to see him go, [but] also excited for him because he is going to have a great future in the game. He leaves as a better player with more self-confidence and one who deserves to play at a higher level." The supporters designated his final appearance, against Hereford United, "Stephen Gleeson Day".McCarthy recalled Gleeson to Wolves to be part of the first-team squad, and he returned "bursting with confidence and desperate for a first team chance", only to find a winning team and strong competition for a place in midfield. He made the first-team bench for the first time on 3 March, and made his Wolves debut on 9 April, as a late substitute in a 3–1 defeat of Hull City. He made two more brief league appearances, and played for half an hour in the second leg of the play-off semi-final, which Wolves lost 4–2 on aggregate. He came close to creating a goal for his side when his long ball forward was deflected past Albion's goalkeeper by a defender, who managed to recover in time to clear it off the line.After Gleeson's pre-season was disrupted by injury, he damaged a hip in the League Cup in late August, and a month later, he was allowed home leave to recover from concussion and a loss of feeling in the leg sustained in collision with the opposing goalkeeper in a reserve match. He captained the reserves, but made no more appearances for the first team before joining League Two club Hereford United on 21 February 2008 on a month's loan. Starting in central midfield against local rivals Shrewsbury Town, the "Hereford Times" reported that he "struggled to come to terms with the pace of the game during the first half but showed his quality in the second period", a performance that earned him a place in the League Two Team of the Week. In his second match, he should have done better with a shooting chance, and after the third, a defeat to promotion rivals Stockport, manager Graham Turner made several changes; Gleeson lost his place to first-team regular Toumani Diagouraga who returned after injury. Because Hereford had more loanees than the five permitted in the matchday squad, Gleeson was not always involved, but he did come back into the side as a second-half substitute on 22 March. Although Turner wanted to retain his services, he returned to Wolves and promptly rejoined Stockport until the end of the season, subject to a 24-hour recall clause.Gleeson played in six of Stockport's remaining seven regular-season league matches as they finished fourth, and faced Wycombe Wanderers in the play-off semi-final. In the first leg, at Wycombe's Adams Park ground, Stockport were a goal behind when half-time substitute Gleeson "sent an effort from 25 yards out spiralling past goalkeeper Frank Fielding with eight minutes remaining"; the "Daily Telegraph" reporter termed it a "blistering" volley and a "piledriver". The goal was later voted Stockport's Goal of 2008 by fans. Early in the second leg, the danger from his "ridiculous" headed back-pass was only averted by his goalkeeper's agility, as Stockport went on to win the match 1–0. He started in the final, in which Stockport beat Rochdale 3–2 to win promotion to League One.His association with Stockport continued the following season as he spent the first half of the campaign on loan with the club. Gleeson accused Wolves of "a bit of a bullying tactic" in trying to make him sign a contract extension before allowing him to move he resisted, saying there was no hurry, and he would not sign unless the terms were acceptable and was fined two weeks' wages for criticising the club. Stockport manager Gannon claimed the player had been so upset by the matter that he had considered giving up the game. He missed only four of Stockport's thirty matches during the loan spell: one while on international duty with the Ireland under-21 team and three while suspended after being sent off for an off-the-ball incident. He scored three goalseach time with a powerful shot from at least and when his loan spell ended, the team were fifth in the division.Gleeson returned to his parent club, where he still hoped for a long-term future despite referring to himself as "the forgotten man". He signed a one-year extension to his contract. Injuries and suspensions among the Wolves players prevented his going out on loan until late March, when he joined League One club Milton Keynes Dons for the remainder of the season. He provided two assists for Mark Wright as MK Dons won 2–0 at Southend United, and generally impressed "with his all-action performances and slick passing" in four consecutive wins, but on his fifth appearance, suffered ankle ligament damage that kept him out of their ultimately unsuccessful play-off campaign.Following Wolves' promotion to the Premier League, Gleeson was made available for transfer. He had played under Roberto di Matteo's management while on loan at MK Dons, and despite Di Matteo's departure for West Bromwich Albion and replacement by Paul Ince, he signed a three-year contract with the club on 1 July 2009. the fee, officially undisclosed, was described as nominal. He was used in various midfield positions, including wide on the right, which was not to his taste, and at the base of a diamond, and was encouraged to break up play as well as perform his more accustomed creative role. After a 1–0 win against Wycombe Wanderers in September, Ince said that Gleeson "set the tempo for the game in the first minute with a great tackle and we just pushed on from there." MK Dons had begun the season as possible promotion contenders, but a strong start gave way to a slide into midtable, in which indiscipline was a factor. By mid-February, the team had received 100 yellow cards, far more than any other; Gleeson was a major contributor with 10, which earned him a two-match suspension. He was booked twice more before his season ended early when he damaged medial knee ligaments.Gleeson's knee recovered in time for pre-season training, and he began the 2010–11 season in the unaccustomed position of right back, to which new manager Karl Robinson thought him well suited. He injured his back in his second appearance and was out of action for three months. When he did return, in his more usual position of central midfield, he "[showed] all his customary composure and quality in possession" in a friendly match, and went on to play in every competitive fixture until the final one of the regular season, for which, with a play-off place secure, Robinson selected a young team. He scored twice, the first a "wonder goal" from against Leyton Orient in January 2011 that won the club's Goal of the Season award. In the first leg of the play-off semi-final, MK Dons took a 3–1 lead, but with ten minutes left, Gleeson was sent off for bringing down Mark Little and a penalty was awarded and converted. The sending-off was rescinded on appeal, but Peterborough United won the second leg 2–0, qualifying for the final 4–3 on aggregate, and Gleeson and teammate Keanu Marsh-Brown came to blows in frustration. In June, Peterborough's reported £600,000 offer for Gleeson was rejected.Gleeson was appointed vice-captain in July 2011. Both player and manager hoped the responsibility might curb his hot-headedness and help him mature. Early in the new season, he confirmed that he wanted to play at Championship level, so was not going to sign a new contract until he knew whether MK Dons were to be promoted or not. The club's website highlighted his central midfield partnership with Darren Potter, a new signing with whom Gleeson had played for Wolves' reserves and in international football, as integral to the team's good start to the season, and the pair helped MK Dons come close to eliminating Premier League Queens Park Rangers in the third round of the FA Cup. He played in 39 of the 46 League One matches and scored 5 league goals as the team were rarely out of the play-off positions, but indiscipline remained an issue. On 6 March, he returned from suspension for his tenth yellow card, only to be sent off for kicking an opponent late in the home defeat to Yeovil Town. After a lengthy talk with the player, manager Robinson stated publicly that if Gleeson did not learn from his mistakes, he would not be offered another contract. He and Potter were both named in the Professional Footballers' Association's League One Team of the Year, and together with winger Luke Chadwick were among the top ten players as chosen by the League One managers.MK Dons narrowly failed to overcome a 2–0 deficit to Huddersfield Town in the second leg of the play-off semi-final. Gleeson was in tears afterwards, and Robinson said that the criticism he had received during the season for an apparent attitude problem was misplaced. According to the manager, his "[looking] like he's moody, doesn't care and only does it for himself" is a misperception; "he gets wrapped up the fact that he cares so much – sometimes he shows it in the wrong way." Despite interest from numerous Championship clubs, Gleeson signed a new two-year contract, saying that he wanted to play at that level with MK Dons and with Robinson.Robinson's team, built round Gleeson, Potter and Chadwick, were second in the table by the end of November. On 2 December 2012, Gleeson produced another goal from distance to open the scoring in MK Dons' first meeting with AFC Wimbledon. MK Dons won 2–1 to progress to the third round of that season's FA Cup, and the goal was voted the club's goal of the season. A couple of weeks later, he suffered a break in his left foot during training, which coincided with Chadwick damaging knee ligaments. During their absence, MK Dons dropped down the league. Gleeson returned in a match against Doncaster Rovers on 5 March 2013, which he celebrated with a goal to seal a 3–0 victory. Captaining the side in Dean Lewington's absence through injury in April, Gleeson scored a late winner against Brentford to lead the team to a second consecutive victory as they went on to finish four points outside the play-off places. Robinson speculated whether the disruption to the team caused by Gleeson's and Chadwick's injuries might have cost them promotion.Early in the new season, Gleeson played an influential part in MK Dons twice coming from a goal behind to draw with Bristol City, "barking out orders and putting in the miles as he tracked box-to-box, popping up all over the pitch with vital tackles and hold-up play." In December, while still returning to form and fitness, he produced another "wonder goal" against Port Vale, and followed it up in the next week match a similar effort to open the scoring as MK Dons won 2–0 at Crawley Town. His performances and those of the team their only defeat came in a match for which Gleeson was suspended, after a fifth yellow card received for unnecessary involvement in someone else's dispute in the Crawley match earned him a nomination for League One Player of the Month. By the end of the season, Robinson suggested that the team had reached "a stage when some of the players have run their race here". Although he was "desperate" for Gleeson to stay, he was not prepared to be kept waiting for a decision.On 9 June, Gleeson signed a two-year contract with Championship club Birmingham City, to begin when his MK Dons contract expired at the end of the 2013–14 season. The "Irish Independent" Daniel McDonnell suggested he was one of several Irish players who needed to prove themselves in the coming season. He made his debut in the starting eleven for the opening-day defeat at Middlesbrough, but failed to establish himself in the team: of the twelve league matches under Lee Clark's management, he started five and came on as a substitute in five as Birmingham dropped towards the relegation places. Clark's successor, Gary Rowett, included Gleeson in his first starting eleven, playing in front of the defensive line in a goalless draw at Wolverhampton Wanderers. This time, Gleeson did keep his place, tasked with "launching the counter-attacks" from Rowett's preferred 4–2–3–1 formation as his "effective midfield partnership" with David Davis started 18 consecutive league matches. Gleeson was sent off for retaliation in February 2016 as Birmingham beat Brentford, and new loan signing Robert Tesche of Nottingham Forest took his place alongside Davis. He returned to the side after his suspension as part of a three-man midfield, but when Rowett reverted to 4–2–3–1, it was Gleeson's passing that earned him selection ahead of Davis as Tesche's partner.Ahead of the 2015–16 season, Gleeson signed a two-year extension to his contract that took its expiry date to 2018. Having gone through 2014–15 without scoring, he produced two goals in nine days in August 2015, contributing to his nomination for the Championship Player of the Month. The first came just before half-time at home to Derby County when his shot was deflected past the goalkeeper by a defender. For the second, away to his former club MK Dons, he curled Clayton Donaldson's cutback over the goalkeeper into the corner of the net; later in the match, he was stretchered off with an ankle injury that proved less serious than initially feared. He continued as first choice in a two-man midfield, generally partnering new signing Maikel Kieftenbeld, and according to the "Birmingham Mail", was "arguably Blues' most important player, knitting together defence and attack and adding goals to his game". After an influential performance and a goal in a 5–2 win away to Fulham in November, Rowett sais he "[didn't] think there [was] a better passing defensive midfielder in the division." His celebration of a fortuitous goal in a 3–0 win at Derby earned him a booking for inciting the home supporters, and he apologised to the stewards after the match. Both his and the team's performances dipped towards the end of the season, which he finished with five goals from 46 appearances in all competitions.Gleeson was linked with moves to other Championship clubs, including Leeds United, Reading and Sheffield Wednesday, during the close season, and his pre-season was disrupted by an infected toe, but he still began the new campaign in the starting eleven. His selection as a starter was intermittent, dependent on injurieshis own or others'as well as on the sheer number of central midfielders available, especially after the creative Reece Brown returned to consideration. Playing a more advanced role in a 4–4–2 formation, Gleeson scored a winning goal against Blackburn Rovers in October, which preceded a run in the starting eleven, under both Rowett and his successor, Gianfranco Zola. As poor results continued, Zola introduced Tesche, whom he perceived as more capable defensively, and Gleeson started only one match in the last two months of the campaign.Gleeson left Birmingham on a free transfer on 19 January 2018, and signed until the end of the season for another Championship club, Ipswich Town, under the management of Mick McCarthy who had given him his debut at Wolverhampton Wanderers. He made his first appearance the following day, as a half-time substitute in a 1–1 draw away to Bolton Wanderers, and according to McCarthyperhaps in response to fans reportedly "underwhelmed" by the arrival of a fringe player from a struggling sidewas "a mile above anyone else in terms of getting it and passing it." Facing strong competition for places in central midfield, his first-team appearances became infrequentfive starts and five as substituteand he was not offered a new deal.Gleeson signed a two-year contract with Scottish Premiership club Aberdeen in June 2018. His contract was cancelled in January 2020.Having played no competitive football since 2019, Gleeson signed a one-year contract with National League club Solihull Moors in August 2020.Gleeson was capped at under-15 and under-16 level, before making his debut for the Republic of Ireland under-17 team in 2004. His Football Association of Ireland (FAI) profile described his performance in the first qualifying round of the 2005 UEFA European Under-17 Championship as outstanding. Ireland finished second in their group, so progressed to the elite round. Gleeson scored as his team beat Northern Ireland 2–1, but defeats to Serbia and Montenegro and England meant they failed to reach the tournament proper.He first appeared for the under-19s at the age of 17 years 6 monthsa year younger than most of his teammatesagainst Scotland in a friendly tournament at La Manga in February 2006. After a couple of appearances at under-18 level, Gleeson was included in the squad for that year's European Under-19 Championship elite qualification round. He started one match and played as a substitute in the other two; Ireland lost all three. He was vice-captain of the under-19 team as they reached the same stage of the 2007 competition, but withdrew from the qualifiers because of club commitments with Wolves in the Championship play-offs.Gleeson was the youngest of eleven uncapped players included by Steve Staunton in the Ireland squad for a two-match visit to the United States in May 2007. He made his senior international debut as a 79th-minute substitute in a 1–1 draw with Ecuador at Giants Stadium on 23 May, and also played in the second match, a 1–1 draw with Bolivia, again as a substitute. Years later he admitted that "I don't think I did my best out there. I was a bit overawed: the senior team, 18 years of age, with all these names around me."Three months later, Gleeson marked his under-21 debut with both goals in a 2–2 friendly draw with Germany. He went on to make 16 appearances at under-21 level, and captained the team in November 2009 in a 4–1 defeat against Armenia in a European Championship qualifier.Despite his early introduction to the senior team, Gleeson was not called up again for nine years. He had previously expressed disappointment at his omission even when 40-man squads were named for Ireland matches, but in March 2016 manager Martin O'Neill selected him in the squad for friendlies against Switzerland and Slovakia. He was an unused substitute in both matches. Gleeson received a late call-up to the senior squad for a friendly at home to Iceland in March 2017, and this time did take the field, as a second-half substitute, winning his third cap nearly ten years after his second; Ireland lost 1–0. He was included in a weakened squad for two internationals in the United States in June, and on 1 June, he scored his first goal for Ireland, three minutes after coming on as a substitute in a 3–1 defeat to Mexico at the MetLife Stadium.Stockport CountyIndividual | [
"Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.",
"Stockport County F.C.",
"Milton Keynes Dons F.C.",
"Republic of Ireland national under-19 football team",
"Republic of Ireland national under-20 football team",
"Hereford United F.C.",
"Republic of Ireland national under-21 football team",
"Republic of Ireland national association football team"
] |
|
Which team did Stephen Gleeson play for in 26-Nov-201826-November-2018? | November 26, 2018 | {
"text": [
"Birmingham City F.C."
]
} | L2_Q946334_P54_8 | Stephen Gleeson plays for Republic of Ireland national under-20 football team from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2007.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2009.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Milton Keynes Dons F.C. from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2014.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Stockport County F.C. from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Republic of Ireland national association football team from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2007.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Republic of Ireland national under-19 football team from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2007.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Republic of Ireland national under-21 football team from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2010.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Hereford United F.C. from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2008.
Stephen Gleeson plays for Birmingham City F.C. from Jan, 2014 to Dec, 2022. | Stephen GleesonStephen Michael Gleeson (born 3 August 1988) is an Irish professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for club Solihull Moors.Gleeson played youth football in his native Dublin before coming to England at the age of 15 to join Wolverhampton Wanderers. He rarely played first-team football for them, but spent time on loan to lower-league clubs Stockport County (three separate spells), Hereford United and Milton Keynes Dons, before signing a three-year contract with the latter club in 2009. After five years, during which time he made more than 200 appearances in all competitions, Gleeson moved on to Birmingham City. He spent three-and-a-half seasons at Birmingham, making more than 100 appearances in the Championship. He has since played for Ipswich Town and Aberdeen.At international level, Gleeson was capped twice for the Republic of Ireland in 2007, and was not capped again for nearly ten years. He also represented his country at under-age levels, and made 16 appearances for the under-21 team.Gleeson was born in Dublin, an only child, and raised in Crumlin, in the south of the city. As a youngster he admired Roy Keane, and tried to model his game on that of Steven Gerrard. He played for nearby Lourdes Celtic before moving on to Cherry Orchard. In the 2002–03 season, he scored a winning goal against a title rival to win the 14 Premier League, and scored with an "excellent volley" as Cherry Orchard won the SFAI under-15 Evans Cup the following year. Recommended to Wolverhampton Wanderers by their Irish scout, Willie Byrne, Gleeson came to England as a 15-year-old for a trial, and joined their academy.He made his reserve-team debut on 24 August 2004 as a late substitute in their first home fixture of the season – three weeks after his 16th birthday – and by October 2004, he was starting. He helped Wolves' youth team reach the semifinal of that season's FA Youth Cup, but was sent off in extra time in the second leg, and Wolves lost on penalties to Southampton. He continued to appear regularly for the reserves. In 2005–06, he scored 4 goals from 16 reserve-team appearances, and at the beginning of May 2006, he signed his first professional contract, of three years. Describing him as a playmaker with "good pace [who] gets forward, with an eye for goal", academy manager Chris Evans said that Gleeson had trained with the first team "from time to time" and had impressed manager Glenn Hoddle.Gleeson was given a first-team squad number for 2006–07, through by the time the season began, Hoddle had resigned and been replaced by Mick McCarthy. Gleeson joined League Two club Stockport County on a month's loan in November, with the aim of gaining experience and returning to Wolves to fight for a first-team place. An unused substitute in County's next match, Gleeson made his senior debut on 11 November in a 2–1 victory at Exeter City in the FA Cup, and his first appearance in the Football League came the following weekend in the starting eleven for a 1–1 draw away to Chester City. The loan was extended for a second month, and on 9 December, he scored his first senior goal, a header from Adam Proudlock's cross to complete a 5–2 win against Darlington. He said afterwards that he "just closed [his] eyes and hoped for the best". He thought his second goal had come a few days later, when his last-minute shot off the crossbar appeared to cross the line before bouncing out for Liam Dickinson to seal a 2–0 win against Notts County.His loan was again extended, and by the time it expired he had made 17 appearances, scored again, with a tap-in as Stockport beat Wycombe Wanderers 2–0, and his manager was "sad to see him go, [but] also excited for him because he is going to have a great future in the game. He leaves as a better player with more self-confidence and one who deserves to play at a higher level." The supporters designated his final appearance, against Hereford United, "Stephen Gleeson Day".McCarthy recalled Gleeson to Wolves to be part of the first-team squad, and he returned "bursting with confidence and desperate for a first team chance", only to find a winning team and strong competition for a place in midfield. He made the first-team bench for the first time on 3 March, and made his Wolves debut on 9 April, as a late substitute in a 3–1 defeat of Hull City. He made two more brief league appearances, and played for half an hour in the second leg of the play-off semi-final, which Wolves lost 4–2 on aggregate. He came close to creating a goal for his side when his long ball forward was deflected past Albion's goalkeeper by a defender, who managed to recover in time to clear it off the line.After Gleeson's pre-season was disrupted by injury, he damaged a hip in the League Cup in late August, and a month later, he was allowed home leave to recover from concussion and a loss of feeling in the leg sustained in collision with the opposing goalkeeper in a reserve match. He captained the reserves, but made no more appearances for the first team before joining League Two club Hereford United on 21 February 2008 on a month's loan. Starting in central midfield against local rivals Shrewsbury Town, the "Hereford Times" reported that he "struggled to come to terms with the pace of the game during the first half but showed his quality in the second period", a performance that earned him a place in the League Two Team of the Week. In his second match, he should have done better with a shooting chance, and after the third, a defeat to promotion rivals Stockport, manager Graham Turner made several changes; Gleeson lost his place to first-team regular Toumani Diagouraga who returned after injury. Because Hereford had more loanees than the five permitted in the matchday squad, Gleeson was not always involved, but he did come back into the side as a second-half substitute on 22 March. Although Turner wanted to retain his services, he returned to Wolves and promptly rejoined Stockport until the end of the season, subject to a 24-hour recall clause.Gleeson played in six of Stockport's remaining seven regular-season league matches as they finished fourth, and faced Wycombe Wanderers in the play-off semi-final. In the first leg, at Wycombe's Adams Park ground, Stockport were a goal behind when half-time substitute Gleeson "sent an effort from 25 yards out spiralling past goalkeeper Frank Fielding with eight minutes remaining"; the "Daily Telegraph" reporter termed it a "blistering" volley and a "piledriver". The goal was later voted Stockport's Goal of 2008 by fans. Early in the second leg, the danger from his "ridiculous" headed back-pass was only averted by his goalkeeper's agility, as Stockport went on to win the match 1–0. He started in the final, in which Stockport beat Rochdale 3–2 to win promotion to League One.His association with Stockport continued the following season as he spent the first half of the campaign on loan with the club. Gleeson accused Wolves of "a bit of a bullying tactic" in trying to make him sign a contract extension before allowing him to move he resisted, saying there was no hurry, and he would not sign unless the terms were acceptable and was fined two weeks' wages for criticising the club. Stockport manager Gannon claimed the player had been so upset by the matter that he had considered giving up the game. He missed only four of Stockport's thirty matches during the loan spell: one while on international duty with the Ireland under-21 team and three while suspended after being sent off for an off-the-ball incident. He scored three goalseach time with a powerful shot from at least and when his loan spell ended, the team were fifth in the division.Gleeson returned to his parent club, where he still hoped for a long-term future despite referring to himself as "the forgotten man". He signed a one-year extension to his contract. Injuries and suspensions among the Wolves players prevented his going out on loan until late March, when he joined League One club Milton Keynes Dons for the remainder of the season. He provided two assists for Mark Wright as MK Dons won 2–0 at Southend United, and generally impressed "with his all-action performances and slick passing" in four consecutive wins, but on his fifth appearance, suffered ankle ligament damage that kept him out of their ultimately unsuccessful play-off campaign.Following Wolves' promotion to the Premier League, Gleeson was made available for transfer. He had played under Roberto di Matteo's management while on loan at MK Dons, and despite Di Matteo's departure for West Bromwich Albion and replacement by Paul Ince, he signed a three-year contract with the club on 1 July 2009. the fee, officially undisclosed, was described as nominal. He was used in various midfield positions, including wide on the right, which was not to his taste, and at the base of a diamond, and was encouraged to break up play as well as perform his more accustomed creative role. After a 1–0 win against Wycombe Wanderers in September, Ince said that Gleeson "set the tempo for the game in the first minute with a great tackle and we just pushed on from there." MK Dons had begun the season as possible promotion contenders, but a strong start gave way to a slide into midtable, in which indiscipline was a factor. By mid-February, the team had received 100 yellow cards, far more than any other; Gleeson was a major contributor with 10, which earned him a two-match suspension. He was booked twice more before his season ended early when he damaged medial knee ligaments.Gleeson's knee recovered in time for pre-season training, and he began the 2010–11 season in the unaccustomed position of right back, to which new manager Karl Robinson thought him well suited. He injured his back in his second appearance and was out of action for three months. When he did return, in his more usual position of central midfield, he "[showed] all his customary composure and quality in possession" in a friendly match, and went on to play in every competitive fixture until the final one of the regular season, for which, with a play-off place secure, Robinson selected a young team. He scored twice, the first a "wonder goal" from against Leyton Orient in January 2011 that won the club's Goal of the Season award. In the first leg of the play-off semi-final, MK Dons took a 3–1 lead, but with ten minutes left, Gleeson was sent off for bringing down Mark Little and a penalty was awarded and converted. The sending-off was rescinded on appeal, but Peterborough United won the second leg 2–0, qualifying for the final 4–3 on aggregate, and Gleeson and teammate Keanu Marsh-Brown came to blows in frustration. In June, Peterborough's reported £600,000 offer for Gleeson was rejected.Gleeson was appointed vice-captain in July 2011. Both player and manager hoped the responsibility might curb his hot-headedness and help him mature. Early in the new season, he confirmed that he wanted to play at Championship level, so was not going to sign a new contract until he knew whether MK Dons were to be promoted or not. The club's website highlighted his central midfield partnership with Darren Potter, a new signing with whom Gleeson had played for Wolves' reserves and in international football, as integral to the team's good start to the season, and the pair helped MK Dons come close to eliminating Premier League Queens Park Rangers in the third round of the FA Cup. He played in 39 of the 46 League One matches and scored 5 league goals as the team were rarely out of the play-off positions, but indiscipline remained an issue. On 6 March, he returned from suspension for his tenth yellow card, only to be sent off for kicking an opponent late in the home defeat to Yeovil Town. After a lengthy talk with the player, manager Robinson stated publicly that if Gleeson did not learn from his mistakes, he would not be offered another contract. He and Potter were both named in the Professional Footballers' Association's League One Team of the Year, and together with winger Luke Chadwick were among the top ten players as chosen by the League One managers.MK Dons narrowly failed to overcome a 2–0 deficit to Huddersfield Town in the second leg of the play-off semi-final. Gleeson was in tears afterwards, and Robinson said that the criticism he had received during the season for an apparent attitude problem was misplaced. According to the manager, his "[looking] like he's moody, doesn't care and only does it for himself" is a misperception; "he gets wrapped up the fact that he cares so much – sometimes he shows it in the wrong way." Despite interest from numerous Championship clubs, Gleeson signed a new two-year contract, saying that he wanted to play at that level with MK Dons and with Robinson.Robinson's team, built round Gleeson, Potter and Chadwick, were second in the table by the end of November. On 2 December 2012, Gleeson produced another goal from distance to open the scoring in MK Dons' first meeting with AFC Wimbledon. MK Dons won 2–1 to progress to the third round of that season's FA Cup, and the goal was voted the club's goal of the season. A couple of weeks later, he suffered a break in his left foot during training, which coincided with Chadwick damaging knee ligaments. During their absence, MK Dons dropped down the league. Gleeson returned in a match against Doncaster Rovers on 5 March 2013, which he celebrated with a goal to seal a 3–0 victory. Captaining the side in Dean Lewington's absence through injury in April, Gleeson scored a late winner against Brentford to lead the team to a second consecutive victory as they went on to finish four points outside the play-off places. Robinson speculated whether the disruption to the team caused by Gleeson's and Chadwick's injuries might have cost them promotion.Early in the new season, Gleeson played an influential part in MK Dons twice coming from a goal behind to draw with Bristol City, "barking out orders and putting in the miles as he tracked box-to-box, popping up all over the pitch with vital tackles and hold-up play." In December, while still returning to form and fitness, he produced another "wonder goal" against Port Vale, and followed it up in the next week match a similar effort to open the scoring as MK Dons won 2–0 at Crawley Town. His performances and those of the team their only defeat came in a match for which Gleeson was suspended, after a fifth yellow card received for unnecessary involvement in someone else's dispute in the Crawley match earned him a nomination for League One Player of the Month. By the end of the season, Robinson suggested that the team had reached "a stage when some of the players have run their race here". Although he was "desperate" for Gleeson to stay, he was not prepared to be kept waiting for a decision.On 9 June, Gleeson signed a two-year contract with Championship club Birmingham City, to begin when his MK Dons contract expired at the end of the 2013–14 season. The "Irish Independent" Daniel McDonnell suggested he was one of several Irish players who needed to prove themselves in the coming season. He made his debut in the starting eleven for the opening-day defeat at Middlesbrough, but failed to establish himself in the team: of the twelve league matches under Lee Clark's management, he started five and came on as a substitute in five as Birmingham dropped towards the relegation places. Clark's successor, Gary Rowett, included Gleeson in his first starting eleven, playing in front of the defensive line in a goalless draw at Wolverhampton Wanderers. This time, Gleeson did keep his place, tasked with "launching the counter-attacks" from Rowett's preferred 4–2–3–1 formation as his "effective midfield partnership" with David Davis started 18 consecutive league matches. Gleeson was sent off for retaliation in February 2016 as Birmingham beat Brentford, and new loan signing Robert Tesche of Nottingham Forest took his place alongside Davis. He returned to the side after his suspension as part of a three-man midfield, but when Rowett reverted to 4–2–3–1, it was Gleeson's passing that earned him selection ahead of Davis as Tesche's partner.Ahead of the 2015–16 season, Gleeson signed a two-year extension to his contract that took its expiry date to 2018. Having gone through 2014–15 without scoring, he produced two goals in nine days in August 2015, contributing to his nomination for the Championship Player of the Month. The first came just before half-time at home to Derby County when his shot was deflected past the goalkeeper by a defender. For the second, away to his former club MK Dons, he curled Clayton Donaldson's cutback over the goalkeeper into the corner of the net; later in the match, he was stretchered off with an ankle injury that proved less serious than initially feared. He continued as first choice in a two-man midfield, generally partnering new signing Maikel Kieftenbeld, and according to the "Birmingham Mail", was "arguably Blues' most important player, knitting together defence and attack and adding goals to his game". After an influential performance and a goal in a 5–2 win away to Fulham in November, Rowett sais he "[didn't] think there [was] a better passing defensive midfielder in the division." His celebration of a fortuitous goal in a 3–0 win at Derby earned him a booking for inciting the home supporters, and he apologised to the stewards after the match. Both his and the team's performances dipped towards the end of the season, which he finished with five goals from 46 appearances in all competitions.Gleeson was linked with moves to other Championship clubs, including Leeds United, Reading and Sheffield Wednesday, during the close season, and his pre-season was disrupted by an infected toe, but he still began the new campaign in the starting eleven. His selection as a starter was intermittent, dependent on injurieshis own or others'as well as on the sheer number of central midfielders available, especially after the creative Reece Brown returned to consideration. Playing a more advanced role in a 4–4–2 formation, Gleeson scored a winning goal against Blackburn Rovers in October, which preceded a run in the starting eleven, under both Rowett and his successor, Gianfranco Zola. As poor results continued, Zola introduced Tesche, whom he perceived as more capable defensively, and Gleeson started only one match in the last two months of the campaign.Gleeson left Birmingham on a free transfer on 19 January 2018, and signed until the end of the season for another Championship club, Ipswich Town, under the management of Mick McCarthy who had given him his debut at Wolverhampton Wanderers. He made his first appearance the following day, as a half-time substitute in a 1–1 draw away to Bolton Wanderers, and according to McCarthyperhaps in response to fans reportedly "underwhelmed" by the arrival of a fringe player from a struggling sidewas "a mile above anyone else in terms of getting it and passing it." Facing strong competition for places in central midfield, his first-team appearances became infrequentfive starts and five as substituteand he was not offered a new deal.Gleeson signed a two-year contract with Scottish Premiership club Aberdeen in June 2018. His contract was cancelled in January 2020.Having played no competitive football since 2019, Gleeson signed a one-year contract with National League club Solihull Moors in August 2020.Gleeson was capped at under-15 and under-16 level, before making his debut for the Republic of Ireland under-17 team in 2004. His Football Association of Ireland (FAI) profile described his performance in the first qualifying round of the 2005 UEFA European Under-17 Championship as outstanding. Ireland finished second in their group, so progressed to the elite round. Gleeson scored as his team beat Northern Ireland 2–1, but defeats to Serbia and Montenegro and England meant they failed to reach the tournament proper.He first appeared for the under-19s at the age of 17 years 6 monthsa year younger than most of his teammatesagainst Scotland in a friendly tournament at La Manga in February 2006. After a couple of appearances at under-18 level, Gleeson was included in the squad for that year's European Under-19 Championship elite qualification round. He started one match and played as a substitute in the other two; Ireland lost all three. He was vice-captain of the under-19 team as they reached the same stage of the 2007 competition, but withdrew from the qualifiers because of club commitments with Wolves in the Championship play-offs.Gleeson was the youngest of eleven uncapped players included by Steve Staunton in the Ireland squad for a two-match visit to the United States in May 2007. He made his senior international debut as a 79th-minute substitute in a 1–1 draw with Ecuador at Giants Stadium on 23 May, and also played in the second match, a 1–1 draw with Bolivia, again as a substitute. Years later he admitted that "I don't think I did my best out there. I was a bit overawed: the senior team, 18 years of age, with all these names around me."Three months later, Gleeson marked his under-21 debut with both goals in a 2–2 friendly draw with Germany. He went on to make 16 appearances at under-21 level, and captained the team in November 2009 in a 4–1 defeat against Armenia in a European Championship qualifier.Despite his early introduction to the senior team, Gleeson was not called up again for nine years. He had previously expressed disappointment at his omission even when 40-man squads were named for Ireland matches, but in March 2016 manager Martin O'Neill selected him in the squad for friendlies against Switzerland and Slovakia. He was an unused substitute in both matches. Gleeson received a late call-up to the senior squad for a friendly at home to Iceland in March 2017, and this time did take the field, as a second-half substitute, winning his third cap nearly ten years after his second; Ireland lost 1–0. He was included in a weakened squad for two internationals in the United States in June, and on 1 June, he scored his first goal for Ireland, three minutes after coming on as a substitute in a 3–1 defeat to Mexico at the MetLife Stadium.Stockport CountyIndividual | [
"Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.",
"Stockport County F.C.",
"Milton Keynes Dons F.C.",
"Republic of Ireland national under-19 football team",
"Republic of Ireland national under-20 football team",
"Hereford United F.C.",
"Republic of Ireland national under-21 football team",
"Republic of Ireland national association football team"
] |
|
Who was the head of Arnhem in Oct, 1971? | October 20, 1971 | {
"text": [
"Hans Roelen"
]
} | L2_Q1310_P6_1 | Boele Staal is the head of the government of Arnhem from Oct, 2016 to Aug, 2017.
Hans Roelen is the head of the government of Arnhem from Jul, 1969 to Feb, 1980.
Job Drijber is the head of the government of Arnhem from May, 1980 to Jan, 1989.
Pauline Krikke is the head of the government of Arnhem from Sep, 2001 to Jul, 2003.
Herman Kaiser is the head of the government of Arnhem from Aug, 2013 to Feb, 2017.
Chris Matser is the head of the government of Arnhem from May, 1945 to Jun, 1946.
Ahmed Marcouch is the head of the government of Arnhem from Sep, 2017 to Dec, 2022. | ArnhemArnhem ( ; ; South Guelderish: "Èrnem") is a city and municipality situated in the eastern part of the Netherlands. It is the capital of the province of Gelderland and located on both banks of the rivers Nederrijn and Sint-Jansbeek, which was the source of the city's development. Arnhem had a population of in and is one of the larger cities of the Netherlands. The municipality is part of the Arnhem–Nijmegen metropolitan area which has a combined 736,500 inhabitants.Arnhem is home to the Hogeschool van Arnhem en Nijmegen, ArtEZ Institute of the Arts, Netherlands Open Air Museum, Airborne Museum 'Hartenstein', Royal Burgers' Zoo, NOC*NSF and National Sports Centre Papendal. The north corner of the municipality is part of the Hoge Veluwe National Park. It is approximately 55 square kilometers in area, consisting of heathlands, sand dunes, and woodlands.The oldest archeological findings of human activity around Arnhem are two firestones of about 70,000 years ago. These come from the Stone Age, when the Neanderthals lived in this part of Europe. In Schuytgraaf, remnants of a hunters camp from around 5000 BC have been discovered. In Schaarsbergen, twelve grave mounds were found from 2400 BC, which brought the so-called Neolithic Revolution to the area of Arnhem, which meant the rise of the farmers.The earliest settlement in Arnhem dates from 1500 BC, of which traces have been found on the Hoogkamp, where the Van Goyenstraat is currently located. In the inner city, around the Sint-Jansbeek, traces of settlement have been found from around 700 BC, while the first traces south of the Rhine have been found dating to around 500 BC, in the "Schuytgraaf".Though the early tracks of settlements did show that the early residents of Arnhem descended from the forests on the hills, Arnhem was not built on the banks of the river Rhine, but a little higher along the Sint-Jansbeek. Arnhem arose on the location where the road between Nijmegen and Utrecht and Zutphen split. Seven streams provided the city with water, and only when the flow of the Rhine was changed in 1530, was the city located on the river.Arnhem was first mentioned as such in 893 as "Arneym" or "Arentheym". In 1233, Count Otto II of Guelders from Zutphen, conferred city rights on the town, which had belonged to the abbey of Prüm, settled in, and fortified it. Arnhem entered the Hanseatic League in 1443. In 1473, it was captured by Charles the Bold of Burgundy.In 1514, Charles of Egmond, duke of Guelders, took it from the dukes of Burgundy; in 1543, it fell to the emperor Charles V. As capital of the so-called "Kwartier van Veluwe" it joined the Union of Utrecht during the Eighty Years' War in 1579. After its capture from the Spanish forces by Dutch and English troops in 1585 the city became part of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces of the Netherlands. The French occupied the town from 1672 to 1674.From 1795 to 1813, it was reoccupied by the French, by both revolutionary and imperial forces.In the early 19th century, the former fortifications were almost completely dismantled, to give space for town expansion. The "Sabelspoort" (Sabresgate) is the only remaining part of the medieval walls.In the 19th century, Arnhem was a genteel resort town famous for its picturesque beauty. It was known as "het Haagje van het oosten" (The Little Hague of the East), mainly because a number of rich former sugar barons or planters from the Indies settled there, as they did in The Hague. Even now the city is famous for its parks and greenery. The urbanization in the north on hilly terrain is also quite unusual for the Netherlands.In the Second World War (1939–1945), during Operation Market Garden (September 1944), the British 1st Airborne Division, under the command of Major-General Roy Urquhart, and the Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade were given the task of securing the bridge at Arnhem.Glider infantry and paratrooper units were landed into the area on 17 September and later. The bulk of the force was dropped rather far from the bridge and never met their objective. A small element of the British 1st Airborne, the 2nd Parachute Battalion under Lieutenant Colonel John D. Frost, managed to make its way as far as the bridge but was unable to secure both sides. The British troops encountered stiff resistance from the German 9th and 10th SS Panzer Divisions, which had been stationed in and around the city.The British force at the bridge eventually ran out of ammunition and was captured on 21 September, and a full withdrawal of the remaining forces was made on 26 September. These events were dramatized in the 1977 movie "A Bridge Too Far". (The bridge scenes in the movie were shot in Deventer, where a similar bridge over the IJssel was available, as the area around Arnhem bridge had changed too much to represent WWII-era Arnhem). As a tribute, the rebuilt bridge was renamed 'John Frost Bridge' after the commander of the paratroopers. The official commemoration is 17 September.The current bridge is the third almost-identical bridge built at the same spot. The Dutch Army destroyed the first bridge when the German Army invaded the Netherlands in 1940. The second bridge was destroyed by the United States Army Air Forces shortly after the 1944 battle.A second battle of Arnhem took place in April 1945 when the city was liberated by the British 49th (West Riding) Infantry Division fighting as part of the First Canadian Army. The inhabitants of the city, who had been forcibly evacuated by the Germans during and after the battle, returned in the summer of 1945. The reconstruction of Arnhem took until 1969 to finally be completed.Just outside Arnhem, in the town of Oosterbeek the Commonwealth War Graves Commission built the Arnhem Oosterbeek War Cemetery which contains the graves of most of those killed during the September landings, and many of those killed in later fighting in the area.The city also hosted the 1980 Summer Paralympics.The municipality of Arnhem consists of the city of Arnhem and the following surrounding suburbs and former villages:Arnhem consists of three districts ("stadsdelen") and 24 neighbourhoods ("wijken"). Each neighbourhood has a number which corresponds to its postal code.The outlying areas of the following villages are bordering the municipality of Arnhem directly, which means among others that in many a case a considerable number of their inhabitants originate from Arnhem.The city lies a few kilometers from the border with Germany, and to some extent the westernmost villages in the municipality of Elten, Germany, function as dormitories for people who work in the Dutch city of Arnhem in part due to the immigration of Dutch people from the region that were attracted by the lower house pricing just across the border.Arnhem features the same climate (Cfb, oceanic climate) as all of the Netherlands, however, its location on the foothills of the Veluwe, the largest forest in the Netherlands, contributes to some higher precipitation values.The "Grote Kerk" (St. Eusebius' Church), built 1452–1560, lost most of its tower during World War II, of which a part has been reconstructed to a modern design and opened in 1964. Officially the tower is not part of the church and is owned by the municipality.The house of Maarten van Rossum, a general serving Duke Charles van Gelre, has been the town hall since 1830: The satyrs in its Renaissance ornamentation earned it the name "Duivelshuis" (devil's house). The Netherlands Open Air Museum is located outside the city. It includes antique houses, farms, factories, and windmills from different parts of the Netherlands. Two other windmills stand in Arnhem itself, De Hoop and De Kroon.The Royal Burgers' Zoo in Arnhem is one of the biggest and most-visited zoos in the Netherlands, featuring an underwater walkthrough, desert, mangrove, and rainforest. The GelreDome, the home of Vitesse Arnhem, the city's Eredivisie team in football, is a unique facility that features a retractable roof and a slide-out grass pitch. The concept has been fully duplicated since then by the Veltins-Arena in Gelsenkirchen, Germany, and State Farm Stadium in Glendale, Arizona, U.S., and partially by the Sapporo Dome in Japan (which has a sliding pitch but a fixed roof).The KEMA Toren (formerly known as "SEP Control Tower") is the highest structure of the town. It is a 140-m-high TV tower.The National Sports Centre Papendal is the national sports development centre of the Netherlands, located in Arnhem. The first event held at Papendal was the 1980 Summer Paralympics, from 21 June to 5 July. However the site was formally adopted and developed from 1993, after the merger of the Dutch National Olympic Committee (NOC) and the Nederlandse Sport Federatie (NSF).NOC*NSF have 90 affiliated national sports organizations, representing about 2700 individual sports clubs. Papendal is also the training location of football club Vitesse Arnhem, and the club's youth development system. Supporting facilities include a conference centre and hotel.In preparation for the 2012 Summer Olympics, in 2011 the facility built a replica of the proposed BMX racing track at the London Velopark venue. The track will host the second event on the 2011 UCI BMX World Championships, on 27 and 28 May 2011.Since January 2013 Sports Centre Papendal officially split from NOC * NSF and thus as organization demerges. This split offers Sports Centre Papendal many commercial benefits. There are facilities for various sports, including athletics, cycling and more.Sport in the city is principally focussed on its association football club Vitesse Arnhem and its stadium the GelreDome built for the UEFA Euro 2000. The club has enjoyed some success in the Eredivisie and has featured in the UEFA Cup competition. Their best result in the Eredivisie was third place in 1997–98. The club won the KNVB Cup in 2016–17.Introdans is a dance company based in the city of Arnhem. In 2009 the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science designated Introdans part of the basic national infrastructure. In 2016 was the Giro d'Italia in Arnhem.Arnhem has had a main central railway station since 1845 – Arnhem Centraal railway station, which is serviced by several intercity lines and the Intercity-Express to Düsseldorf and further on to Frankfurt.Until 2016, there were also NS International trains to other destinations abroad, with some coaches going as far as Moscow.The intercity lines provide direct connections to Utrecht, Nijmegen and Zutphen. It is also the terminus for several local railway services. Arnhem has three other stations, namely Arnhem Velperpoort (since 1953), Arnhem Presikhaaf (since 1969) and Arnhem Zuid (since 2005).KLM Royal Dutch Airlines operates a bus from the train station to Schiphol Airport for KLM customers. Arnhem is unique in the Netherlands with its trolleybus system.Notable people born in Arnhem include:Arnhem is twinned with: | [
"Herman Kaiser",
"Ahmed Marcouch",
"Pauline Krikke",
"Chris Matser",
"Job Drijber",
"Boele Staal"
] |
|
Who was the head of Arnhem in 1971-10-20? | October 20, 1971 | {
"text": [
"Hans Roelen"
]
} | L2_Q1310_P6_1 | Boele Staal is the head of the government of Arnhem from Oct, 2016 to Aug, 2017.
Hans Roelen is the head of the government of Arnhem from Jul, 1969 to Feb, 1980.
Job Drijber is the head of the government of Arnhem from May, 1980 to Jan, 1989.
Pauline Krikke is the head of the government of Arnhem from Sep, 2001 to Jul, 2003.
Herman Kaiser is the head of the government of Arnhem from Aug, 2013 to Feb, 2017.
Chris Matser is the head of the government of Arnhem from May, 1945 to Jun, 1946.
Ahmed Marcouch is the head of the government of Arnhem from Sep, 2017 to Dec, 2022. | ArnhemArnhem ( ; ; South Guelderish: "Èrnem") is a city and municipality situated in the eastern part of the Netherlands. It is the capital of the province of Gelderland and located on both banks of the rivers Nederrijn and Sint-Jansbeek, which was the source of the city's development. Arnhem had a population of in and is one of the larger cities of the Netherlands. The municipality is part of the Arnhem–Nijmegen metropolitan area which has a combined 736,500 inhabitants.Arnhem is home to the Hogeschool van Arnhem en Nijmegen, ArtEZ Institute of the Arts, Netherlands Open Air Museum, Airborne Museum 'Hartenstein', Royal Burgers' Zoo, NOC*NSF and National Sports Centre Papendal. The north corner of the municipality is part of the Hoge Veluwe National Park. It is approximately 55 square kilometers in area, consisting of heathlands, sand dunes, and woodlands.The oldest archeological findings of human activity around Arnhem are two firestones of about 70,000 years ago. These come from the Stone Age, when the Neanderthals lived in this part of Europe. In Schuytgraaf, remnants of a hunters camp from around 5000 BC have been discovered. In Schaarsbergen, twelve grave mounds were found from 2400 BC, which brought the so-called Neolithic Revolution to the area of Arnhem, which meant the rise of the farmers.The earliest settlement in Arnhem dates from 1500 BC, of which traces have been found on the Hoogkamp, where the Van Goyenstraat is currently located. In the inner city, around the Sint-Jansbeek, traces of settlement have been found from around 700 BC, while the first traces south of the Rhine have been found dating to around 500 BC, in the "Schuytgraaf".Though the early tracks of settlements did show that the early residents of Arnhem descended from the forests on the hills, Arnhem was not built on the banks of the river Rhine, but a little higher along the Sint-Jansbeek. Arnhem arose on the location where the road between Nijmegen and Utrecht and Zutphen split. Seven streams provided the city with water, and only when the flow of the Rhine was changed in 1530, was the city located on the river.Arnhem was first mentioned as such in 893 as "Arneym" or "Arentheym". In 1233, Count Otto II of Guelders from Zutphen, conferred city rights on the town, which had belonged to the abbey of Prüm, settled in, and fortified it. Arnhem entered the Hanseatic League in 1443. In 1473, it was captured by Charles the Bold of Burgundy.In 1514, Charles of Egmond, duke of Guelders, took it from the dukes of Burgundy; in 1543, it fell to the emperor Charles V. As capital of the so-called "Kwartier van Veluwe" it joined the Union of Utrecht during the Eighty Years' War in 1579. After its capture from the Spanish forces by Dutch and English troops in 1585 the city became part of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces of the Netherlands. The French occupied the town from 1672 to 1674.From 1795 to 1813, it was reoccupied by the French, by both revolutionary and imperial forces.In the early 19th century, the former fortifications were almost completely dismantled, to give space for town expansion. The "Sabelspoort" (Sabresgate) is the only remaining part of the medieval walls.In the 19th century, Arnhem was a genteel resort town famous for its picturesque beauty. It was known as "het Haagje van het oosten" (The Little Hague of the East), mainly because a number of rich former sugar barons or planters from the Indies settled there, as they did in The Hague. Even now the city is famous for its parks and greenery. The urbanization in the north on hilly terrain is also quite unusual for the Netherlands.In the Second World War (1939–1945), during Operation Market Garden (September 1944), the British 1st Airborne Division, under the command of Major-General Roy Urquhart, and the Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade were given the task of securing the bridge at Arnhem.Glider infantry and paratrooper units were landed into the area on 17 September and later. The bulk of the force was dropped rather far from the bridge and never met their objective. A small element of the British 1st Airborne, the 2nd Parachute Battalion under Lieutenant Colonel John D. Frost, managed to make its way as far as the bridge but was unable to secure both sides. The British troops encountered stiff resistance from the German 9th and 10th SS Panzer Divisions, which had been stationed in and around the city.The British force at the bridge eventually ran out of ammunition and was captured on 21 September, and a full withdrawal of the remaining forces was made on 26 September. These events were dramatized in the 1977 movie "A Bridge Too Far". (The bridge scenes in the movie were shot in Deventer, where a similar bridge over the IJssel was available, as the area around Arnhem bridge had changed too much to represent WWII-era Arnhem). As a tribute, the rebuilt bridge was renamed 'John Frost Bridge' after the commander of the paratroopers. The official commemoration is 17 September.The current bridge is the third almost-identical bridge built at the same spot. The Dutch Army destroyed the first bridge when the German Army invaded the Netherlands in 1940. The second bridge was destroyed by the United States Army Air Forces shortly after the 1944 battle.A second battle of Arnhem took place in April 1945 when the city was liberated by the British 49th (West Riding) Infantry Division fighting as part of the First Canadian Army. The inhabitants of the city, who had been forcibly evacuated by the Germans during and after the battle, returned in the summer of 1945. The reconstruction of Arnhem took until 1969 to finally be completed.Just outside Arnhem, in the town of Oosterbeek the Commonwealth War Graves Commission built the Arnhem Oosterbeek War Cemetery which contains the graves of most of those killed during the September landings, and many of those killed in later fighting in the area.The city also hosted the 1980 Summer Paralympics.The municipality of Arnhem consists of the city of Arnhem and the following surrounding suburbs and former villages:Arnhem consists of three districts ("stadsdelen") and 24 neighbourhoods ("wijken"). Each neighbourhood has a number which corresponds to its postal code.The outlying areas of the following villages are bordering the municipality of Arnhem directly, which means among others that in many a case a considerable number of their inhabitants originate from Arnhem.The city lies a few kilometers from the border with Germany, and to some extent the westernmost villages in the municipality of Elten, Germany, function as dormitories for people who work in the Dutch city of Arnhem in part due to the immigration of Dutch people from the region that were attracted by the lower house pricing just across the border.Arnhem features the same climate (Cfb, oceanic climate) as all of the Netherlands, however, its location on the foothills of the Veluwe, the largest forest in the Netherlands, contributes to some higher precipitation values.The "Grote Kerk" (St. Eusebius' Church), built 1452–1560, lost most of its tower during World War II, of which a part has been reconstructed to a modern design and opened in 1964. Officially the tower is not part of the church and is owned by the municipality.The house of Maarten van Rossum, a general serving Duke Charles van Gelre, has been the town hall since 1830: The satyrs in its Renaissance ornamentation earned it the name "Duivelshuis" (devil's house). The Netherlands Open Air Museum is located outside the city. It includes antique houses, farms, factories, and windmills from different parts of the Netherlands. Two other windmills stand in Arnhem itself, De Hoop and De Kroon.The Royal Burgers' Zoo in Arnhem is one of the biggest and most-visited zoos in the Netherlands, featuring an underwater walkthrough, desert, mangrove, and rainforest. The GelreDome, the home of Vitesse Arnhem, the city's Eredivisie team in football, is a unique facility that features a retractable roof and a slide-out grass pitch. The concept has been fully duplicated since then by the Veltins-Arena in Gelsenkirchen, Germany, and State Farm Stadium in Glendale, Arizona, U.S., and partially by the Sapporo Dome in Japan (which has a sliding pitch but a fixed roof).The KEMA Toren (formerly known as "SEP Control Tower") is the highest structure of the town. It is a 140-m-high TV tower.The National Sports Centre Papendal is the national sports development centre of the Netherlands, located in Arnhem. The first event held at Papendal was the 1980 Summer Paralympics, from 21 June to 5 July. However the site was formally adopted and developed from 1993, after the merger of the Dutch National Olympic Committee (NOC) and the Nederlandse Sport Federatie (NSF).NOC*NSF have 90 affiliated national sports organizations, representing about 2700 individual sports clubs. Papendal is also the training location of football club Vitesse Arnhem, and the club's youth development system. Supporting facilities include a conference centre and hotel.In preparation for the 2012 Summer Olympics, in 2011 the facility built a replica of the proposed BMX racing track at the London Velopark venue. The track will host the second event on the 2011 UCI BMX World Championships, on 27 and 28 May 2011.Since January 2013 Sports Centre Papendal officially split from NOC * NSF and thus as organization demerges. This split offers Sports Centre Papendal many commercial benefits. There are facilities for various sports, including athletics, cycling and more.Sport in the city is principally focussed on its association football club Vitesse Arnhem and its stadium the GelreDome built for the UEFA Euro 2000. The club has enjoyed some success in the Eredivisie and has featured in the UEFA Cup competition. Their best result in the Eredivisie was third place in 1997–98. The club won the KNVB Cup in 2016–17.Introdans is a dance company based in the city of Arnhem. In 2009 the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science designated Introdans part of the basic national infrastructure. In 2016 was the Giro d'Italia in Arnhem.Arnhem has had a main central railway station since 1845 – Arnhem Centraal railway station, which is serviced by several intercity lines and the Intercity-Express to Düsseldorf and further on to Frankfurt.Until 2016, there were also NS International trains to other destinations abroad, with some coaches going as far as Moscow.The intercity lines provide direct connections to Utrecht, Nijmegen and Zutphen. It is also the terminus for several local railway services. Arnhem has three other stations, namely Arnhem Velperpoort (since 1953), Arnhem Presikhaaf (since 1969) and Arnhem Zuid (since 2005).KLM Royal Dutch Airlines operates a bus from the train station to Schiphol Airport for KLM customers. Arnhem is unique in the Netherlands with its trolleybus system.Notable people born in Arnhem include:Arnhem is twinned with: | [
"Herman Kaiser",
"Ahmed Marcouch",
"Pauline Krikke",
"Chris Matser",
"Job Drijber",
"Boele Staal"
] |
|
Who was the head of Arnhem in 20/10/1971? | October 20, 1971 | {
"text": [
"Hans Roelen"
]
} | L2_Q1310_P6_1 | Boele Staal is the head of the government of Arnhem from Oct, 2016 to Aug, 2017.
Hans Roelen is the head of the government of Arnhem from Jul, 1969 to Feb, 1980.
Job Drijber is the head of the government of Arnhem from May, 1980 to Jan, 1989.
Pauline Krikke is the head of the government of Arnhem from Sep, 2001 to Jul, 2003.
Herman Kaiser is the head of the government of Arnhem from Aug, 2013 to Feb, 2017.
Chris Matser is the head of the government of Arnhem from May, 1945 to Jun, 1946.
Ahmed Marcouch is the head of the government of Arnhem from Sep, 2017 to Dec, 2022. | ArnhemArnhem ( ; ; South Guelderish: "Èrnem") is a city and municipality situated in the eastern part of the Netherlands. It is the capital of the province of Gelderland and located on both banks of the rivers Nederrijn and Sint-Jansbeek, which was the source of the city's development. Arnhem had a population of in and is one of the larger cities of the Netherlands. The municipality is part of the Arnhem–Nijmegen metropolitan area which has a combined 736,500 inhabitants.Arnhem is home to the Hogeschool van Arnhem en Nijmegen, ArtEZ Institute of the Arts, Netherlands Open Air Museum, Airborne Museum 'Hartenstein', Royal Burgers' Zoo, NOC*NSF and National Sports Centre Papendal. The north corner of the municipality is part of the Hoge Veluwe National Park. It is approximately 55 square kilometers in area, consisting of heathlands, sand dunes, and woodlands.The oldest archeological findings of human activity around Arnhem are two firestones of about 70,000 years ago. These come from the Stone Age, when the Neanderthals lived in this part of Europe. In Schuytgraaf, remnants of a hunters camp from around 5000 BC have been discovered. In Schaarsbergen, twelve grave mounds were found from 2400 BC, which brought the so-called Neolithic Revolution to the area of Arnhem, which meant the rise of the farmers.The earliest settlement in Arnhem dates from 1500 BC, of which traces have been found on the Hoogkamp, where the Van Goyenstraat is currently located. In the inner city, around the Sint-Jansbeek, traces of settlement have been found from around 700 BC, while the first traces south of the Rhine have been found dating to around 500 BC, in the "Schuytgraaf".Though the early tracks of settlements did show that the early residents of Arnhem descended from the forests on the hills, Arnhem was not built on the banks of the river Rhine, but a little higher along the Sint-Jansbeek. Arnhem arose on the location where the road between Nijmegen and Utrecht and Zutphen split. Seven streams provided the city with water, and only when the flow of the Rhine was changed in 1530, was the city located on the river.Arnhem was first mentioned as such in 893 as "Arneym" or "Arentheym". In 1233, Count Otto II of Guelders from Zutphen, conferred city rights on the town, which had belonged to the abbey of Prüm, settled in, and fortified it. Arnhem entered the Hanseatic League in 1443. In 1473, it was captured by Charles the Bold of Burgundy.In 1514, Charles of Egmond, duke of Guelders, took it from the dukes of Burgundy; in 1543, it fell to the emperor Charles V. As capital of the so-called "Kwartier van Veluwe" it joined the Union of Utrecht during the Eighty Years' War in 1579. After its capture from the Spanish forces by Dutch and English troops in 1585 the city became part of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces of the Netherlands. The French occupied the town from 1672 to 1674.From 1795 to 1813, it was reoccupied by the French, by both revolutionary and imperial forces.In the early 19th century, the former fortifications were almost completely dismantled, to give space for town expansion. The "Sabelspoort" (Sabresgate) is the only remaining part of the medieval walls.In the 19th century, Arnhem was a genteel resort town famous for its picturesque beauty. It was known as "het Haagje van het oosten" (The Little Hague of the East), mainly because a number of rich former sugar barons or planters from the Indies settled there, as they did in The Hague. Even now the city is famous for its parks and greenery. The urbanization in the north on hilly terrain is also quite unusual for the Netherlands.In the Second World War (1939–1945), during Operation Market Garden (September 1944), the British 1st Airborne Division, under the command of Major-General Roy Urquhart, and the Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade were given the task of securing the bridge at Arnhem.Glider infantry and paratrooper units were landed into the area on 17 September and later. The bulk of the force was dropped rather far from the bridge and never met their objective. A small element of the British 1st Airborne, the 2nd Parachute Battalion under Lieutenant Colonel John D. Frost, managed to make its way as far as the bridge but was unable to secure both sides. The British troops encountered stiff resistance from the German 9th and 10th SS Panzer Divisions, which had been stationed in and around the city.The British force at the bridge eventually ran out of ammunition and was captured on 21 September, and a full withdrawal of the remaining forces was made on 26 September. These events were dramatized in the 1977 movie "A Bridge Too Far". (The bridge scenes in the movie were shot in Deventer, where a similar bridge over the IJssel was available, as the area around Arnhem bridge had changed too much to represent WWII-era Arnhem). As a tribute, the rebuilt bridge was renamed 'John Frost Bridge' after the commander of the paratroopers. The official commemoration is 17 September.The current bridge is the third almost-identical bridge built at the same spot. The Dutch Army destroyed the first bridge when the German Army invaded the Netherlands in 1940. The second bridge was destroyed by the United States Army Air Forces shortly after the 1944 battle.A second battle of Arnhem took place in April 1945 when the city was liberated by the British 49th (West Riding) Infantry Division fighting as part of the First Canadian Army. The inhabitants of the city, who had been forcibly evacuated by the Germans during and after the battle, returned in the summer of 1945. The reconstruction of Arnhem took until 1969 to finally be completed.Just outside Arnhem, in the town of Oosterbeek the Commonwealth War Graves Commission built the Arnhem Oosterbeek War Cemetery which contains the graves of most of those killed during the September landings, and many of those killed in later fighting in the area.The city also hosted the 1980 Summer Paralympics.The municipality of Arnhem consists of the city of Arnhem and the following surrounding suburbs and former villages:Arnhem consists of three districts ("stadsdelen") and 24 neighbourhoods ("wijken"). Each neighbourhood has a number which corresponds to its postal code.The outlying areas of the following villages are bordering the municipality of Arnhem directly, which means among others that in many a case a considerable number of their inhabitants originate from Arnhem.The city lies a few kilometers from the border with Germany, and to some extent the westernmost villages in the municipality of Elten, Germany, function as dormitories for people who work in the Dutch city of Arnhem in part due to the immigration of Dutch people from the region that were attracted by the lower house pricing just across the border.Arnhem features the same climate (Cfb, oceanic climate) as all of the Netherlands, however, its location on the foothills of the Veluwe, the largest forest in the Netherlands, contributes to some higher precipitation values.The "Grote Kerk" (St. Eusebius' Church), built 1452–1560, lost most of its tower during World War II, of which a part has been reconstructed to a modern design and opened in 1964. Officially the tower is not part of the church and is owned by the municipality.The house of Maarten van Rossum, a general serving Duke Charles van Gelre, has been the town hall since 1830: The satyrs in its Renaissance ornamentation earned it the name "Duivelshuis" (devil's house). The Netherlands Open Air Museum is located outside the city. It includes antique houses, farms, factories, and windmills from different parts of the Netherlands. Two other windmills stand in Arnhem itself, De Hoop and De Kroon.The Royal Burgers' Zoo in Arnhem is one of the biggest and most-visited zoos in the Netherlands, featuring an underwater walkthrough, desert, mangrove, and rainforest. The GelreDome, the home of Vitesse Arnhem, the city's Eredivisie team in football, is a unique facility that features a retractable roof and a slide-out grass pitch. The concept has been fully duplicated since then by the Veltins-Arena in Gelsenkirchen, Germany, and State Farm Stadium in Glendale, Arizona, U.S., and partially by the Sapporo Dome in Japan (which has a sliding pitch but a fixed roof).The KEMA Toren (formerly known as "SEP Control Tower") is the highest structure of the town. It is a 140-m-high TV tower.The National Sports Centre Papendal is the national sports development centre of the Netherlands, located in Arnhem. The first event held at Papendal was the 1980 Summer Paralympics, from 21 June to 5 July. However the site was formally adopted and developed from 1993, after the merger of the Dutch National Olympic Committee (NOC) and the Nederlandse Sport Federatie (NSF).NOC*NSF have 90 affiliated national sports organizations, representing about 2700 individual sports clubs. Papendal is also the training location of football club Vitesse Arnhem, and the club's youth development system. Supporting facilities include a conference centre and hotel.In preparation for the 2012 Summer Olympics, in 2011 the facility built a replica of the proposed BMX racing track at the London Velopark venue. The track will host the second event on the 2011 UCI BMX World Championships, on 27 and 28 May 2011.Since January 2013 Sports Centre Papendal officially split from NOC * NSF and thus as organization demerges. This split offers Sports Centre Papendal many commercial benefits. There are facilities for various sports, including athletics, cycling and more.Sport in the city is principally focussed on its association football club Vitesse Arnhem and its stadium the GelreDome built for the UEFA Euro 2000. The club has enjoyed some success in the Eredivisie and has featured in the UEFA Cup competition. Their best result in the Eredivisie was third place in 1997–98. The club won the KNVB Cup in 2016–17.Introdans is a dance company based in the city of Arnhem. In 2009 the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science designated Introdans part of the basic national infrastructure. In 2016 was the Giro d'Italia in Arnhem.Arnhem has had a main central railway station since 1845 – Arnhem Centraal railway station, which is serviced by several intercity lines and the Intercity-Express to Düsseldorf and further on to Frankfurt.Until 2016, there were also NS International trains to other destinations abroad, with some coaches going as far as Moscow.The intercity lines provide direct connections to Utrecht, Nijmegen and Zutphen. It is also the terminus for several local railway services. Arnhem has three other stations, namely Arnhem Velperpoort (since 1953), Arnhem Presikhaaf (since 1969) and Arnhem Zuid (since 2005).KLM Royal Dutch Airlines operates a bus from the train station to Schiphol Airport for KLM customers. Arnhem is unique in the Netherlands with its trolleybus system.Notable people born in Arnhem include:Arnhem is twinned with: | [
"Herman Kaiser",
"Ahmed Marcouch",
"Pauline Krikke",
"Chris Matser",
"Job Drijber",
"Boele Staal"
] |
|
Who was the head of Arnhem in Oct 20, 1971? | October 20, 1971 | {
"text": [
"Hans Roelen"
]
} | L2_Q1310_P6_1 | Boele Staal is the head of the government of Arnhem from Oct, 2016 to Aug, 2017.
Hans Roelen is the head of the government of Arnhem from Jul, 1969 to Feb, 1980.
Job Drijber is the head of the government of Arnhem from May, 1980 to Jan, 1989.
Pauline Krikke is the head of the government of Arnhem from Sep, 2001 to Jul, 2003.
Herman Kaiser is the head of the government of Arnhem from Aug, 2013 to Feb, 2017.
Chris Matser is the head of the government of Arnhem from May, 1945 to Jun, 1946.
Ahmed Marcouch is the head of the government of Arnhem from Sep, 2017 to Dec, 2022. | ArnhemArnhem ( ; ; South Guelderish: "Èrnem") is a city and municipality situated in the eastern part of the Netherlands. It is the capital of the province of Gelderland and located on both banks of the rivers Nederrijn and Sint-Jansbeek, which was the source of the city's development. Arnhem had a population of in and is one of the larger cities of the Netherlands. The municipality is part of the Arnhem–Nijmegen metropolitan area which has a combined 736,500 inhabitants.Arnhem is home to the Hogeschool van Arnhem en Nijmegen, ArtEZ Institute of the Arts, Netherlands Open Air Museum, Airborne Museum 'Hartenstein', Royal Burgers' Zoo, NOC*NSF and National Sports Centre Papendal. The north corner of the municipality is part of the Hoge Veluwe National Park. It is approximately 55 square kilometers in area, consisting of heathlands, sand dunes, and woodlands.The oldest archeological findings of human activity around Arnhem are two firestones of about 70,000 years ago. These come from the Stone Age, when the Neanderthals lived in this part of Europe. In Schuytgraaf, remnants of a hunters camp from around 5000 BC have been discovered. In Schaarsbergen, twelve grave mounds were found from 2400 BC, which brought the so-called Neolithic Revolution to the area of Arnhem, which meant the rise of the farmers.The earliest settlement in Arnhem dates from 1500 BC, of which traces have been found on the Hoogkamp, where the Van Goyenstraat is currently located. In the inner city, around the Sint-Jansbeek, traces of settlement have been found from around 700 BC, while the first traces south of the Rhine have been found dating to around 500 BC, in the "Schuytgraaf".Though the early tracks of settlements did show that the early residents of Arnhem descended from the forests on the hills, Arnhem was not built on the banks of the river Rhine, but a little higher along the Sint-Jansbeek. Arnhem arose on the location where the road between Nijmegen and Utrecht and Zutphen split. Seven streams provided the city with water, and only when the flow of the Rhine was changed in 1530, was the city located on the river.Arnhem was first mentioned as such in 893 as "Arneym" or "Arentheym". In 1233, Count Otto II of Guelders from Zutphen, conferred city rights on the town, which had belonged to the abbey of Prüm, settled in, and fortified it. Arnhem entered the Hanseatic League in 1443. In 1473, it was captured by Charles the Bold of Burgundy.In 1514, Charles of Egmond, duke of Guelders, took it from the dukes of Burgundy; in 1543, it fell to the emperor Charles V. As capital of the so-called "Kwartier van Veluwe" it joined the Union of Utrecht during the Eighty Years' War in 1579. After its capture from the Spanish forces by Dutch and English troops in 1585 the city became part of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces of the Netherlands. The French occupied the town from 1672 to 1674.From 1795 to 1813, it was reoccupied by the French, by both revolutionary and imperial forces.In the early 19th century, the former fortifications were almost completely dismantled, to give space for town expansion. The "Sabelspoort" (Sabresgate) is the only remaining part of the medieval walls.In the 19th century, Arnhem was a genteel resort town famous for its picturesque beauty. It was known as "het Haagje van het oosten" (The Little Hague of the East), mainly because a number of rich former sugar barons or planters from the Indies settled there, as they did in The Hague. Even now the city is famous for its parks and greenery. The urbanization in the north on hilly terrain is also quite unusual for the Netherlands.In the Second World War (1939–1945), during Operation Market Garden (September 1944), the British 1st Airborne Division, under the command of Major-General Roy Urquhart, and the Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade were given the task of securing the bridge at Arnhem.Glider infantry and paratrooper units were landed into the area on 17 September and later. The bulk of the force was dropped rather far from the bridge and never met their objective. A small element of the British 1st Airborne, the 2nd Parachute Battalion under Lieutenant Colonel John D. Frost, managed to make its way as far as the bridge but was unable to secure both sides. The British troops encountered stiff resistance from the German 9th and 10th SS Panzer Divisions, which had been stationed in and around the city.The British force at the bridge eventually ran out of ammunition and was captured on 21 September, and a full withdrawal of the remaining forces was made on 26 September. These events were dramatized in the 1977 movie "A Bridge Too Far". (The bridge scenes in the movie were shot in Deventer, where a similar bridge over the IJssel was available, as the area around Arnhem bridge had changed too much to represent WWII-era Arnhem). As a tribute, the rebuilt bridge was renamed 'John Frost Bridge' after the commander of the paratroopers. The official commemoration is 17 September.The current bridge is the third almost-identical bridge built at the same spot. The Dutch Army destroyed the first bridge when the German Army invaded the Netherlands in 1940. The second bridge was destroyed by the United States Army Air Forces shortly after the 1944 battle.A second battle of Arnhem took place in April 1945 when the city was liberated by the British 49th (West Riding) Infantry Division fighting as part of the First Canadian Army. The inhabitants of the city, who had been forcibly evacuated by the Germans during and after the battle, returned in the summer of 1945. The reconstruction of Arnhem took until 1969 to finally be completed.Just outside Arnhem, in the town of Oosterbeek the Commonwealth War Graves Commission built the Arnhem Oosterbeek War Cemetery which contains the graves of most of those killed during the September landings, and many of those killed in later fighting in the area.The city also hosted the 1980 Summer Paralympics.The municipality of Arnhem consists of the city of Arnhem and the following surrounding suburbs and former villages:Arnhem consists of three districts ("stadsdelen") and 24 neighbourhoods ("wijken"). Each neighbourhood has a number which corresponds to its postal code.The outlying areas of the following villages are bordering the municipality of Arnhem directly, which means among others that in many a case a considerable number of their inhabitants originate from Arnhem.The city lies a few kilometers from the border with Germany, and to some extent the westernmost villages in the municipality of Elten, Germany, function as dormitories for people who work in the Dutch city of Arnhem in part due to the immigration of Dutch people from the region that were attracted by the lower house pricing just across the border.Arnhem features the same climate (Cfb, oceanic climate) as all of the Netherlands, however, its location on the foothills of the Veluwe, the largest forest in the Netherlands, contributes to some higher precipitation values.The "Grote Kerk" (St. Eusebius' Church), built 1452–1560, lost most of its tower during World War II, of which a part has been reconstructed to a modern design and opened in 1964. Officially the tower is not part of the church and is owned by the municipality.The house of Maarten van Rossum, a general serving Duke Charles van Gelre, has been the town hall since 1830: The satyrs in its Renaissance ornamentation earned it the name "Duivelshuis" (devil's house). The Netherlands Open Air Museum is located outside the city. It includes antique houses, farms, factories, and windmills from different parts of the Netherlands. Two other windmills stand in Arnhem itself, De Hoop and De Kroon.The Royal Burgers' Zoo in Arnhem is one of the biggest and most-visited zoos in the Netherlands, featuring an underwater walkthrough, desert, mangrove, and rainforest. The GelreDome, the home of Vitesse Arnhem, the city's Eredivisie team in football, is a unique facility that features a retractable roof and a slide-out grass pitch. The concept has been fully duplicated since then by the Veltins-Arena in Gelsenkirchen, Germany, and State Farm Stadium in Glendale, Arizona, U.S., and partially by the Sapporo Dome in Japan (which has a sliding pitch but a fixed roof).The KEMA Toren (formerly known as "SEP Control Tower") is the highest structure of the town. It is a 140-m-high TV tower.The National Sports Centre Papendal is the national sports development centre of the Netherlands, located in Arnhem. The first event held at Papendal was the 1980 Summer Paralympics, from 21 June to 5 July. However the site was formally adopted and developed from 1993, after the merger of the Dutch National Olympic Committee (NOC) and the Nederlandse Sport Federatie (NSF).NOC*NSF have 90 affiliated national sports organizations, representing about 2700 individual sports clubs. Papendal is also the training location of football club Vitesse Arnhem, and the club's youth development system. Supporting facilities include a conference centre and hotel.In preparation for the 2012 Summer Olympics, in 2011 the facility built a replica of the proposed BMX racing track at the London Velopark venue. The track will host the second event on the 2011 UCI BMX World Championships, on 27 and 28 May 2011.Since January 2013 Sports Centre Papendal officially split from NOC * NSF and thus as organization demerges. This split offers Sports Centre Papendal many commercial benefits. There are facilities for various sports, including athletics, cycling and more.Sport in the city is principally focussed on its association football club Vitesse Arnhem and its stadium the GelreDome built for the UEFA Euro 2000. The club has enjoyed some success in the Eredivisie and has featured in the UEFA Cup competition. Their best result in the Eredivisie was third place in 1997–98. The club won the KNVB Cup in 2016–17.Introdans is a dance company based in the city of Arnhem. In 2009 the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science designated Introdans part of the basic national infrastructure. In 2016 was the Giro d'Italia in Arnhem.Arnhem has had a main central railway station since 1845 – Arnhem Centraal railway station, which is serviced by several intercity lines and the Intercity-Express to Düsseldorf and further on to Frankfurt.Until 2016, there were also NS International trains to other destinations abroad, with some coaches going as far as Moscow.The intercity lines provide direct connections to Utrecht, Nijmegen and Zutphen. It is also the terminus for several local railway services. Arnhem has three other stations, namely Arnhem Velperpoort (since 1953), Arnhem Presikhaaf (since 1969) and Arnhem Zuid (since 2005).KLM Royal Dutch Airlines operates a bus from the train station to Schiphol Airport for KLM customers. Arnhem is unique in the Netherlands with its trolleybus system.Notable people born in Arnhem include:Arnhem is twinned with: | [
"Herman Kaiser",
"Ahmed Marcouch",
"Pauline Krikke",
"Chris Matser",
"Job Drijber",
"Boele Staal"
] |
|
Who was the head of Arnhem in 10/20/1971? | October 20, 1971 | {
"text": [
"Hans Roelen"
]
} | L2_Q1310_P6_1 | Boele Staal is the head of the government of Arnhem from Oct, 2016 to Aug, 2017.
Hans Roelen is the head of the government of Arnhem from Jul, 1969 to Feb, 1980.
Job Drijber is the head of the government of Arnhem from May, 1980 to Jan, 1989.
Pauline Krikke is the head of the government of Arnhem from Sep, 2001 to Jul, 2003.
Herman Kaiser is the head of the government of Arnhem from Aug, 2013 to Feb, 2017.
Chris Matser is the head of the government of Arnhem from May, 1945 to Jun, 1946.
Ahmed Marcouch is the head of the government of Arnhem from Sep, 2017 to Dec, 2022. | ArnhemArnhem ( ; ; South Guelderish: "Èrnem") is a city and municipality situated in the eastern part of the Netherlands. It is the capital of the province of Gelderland and located on both banks of the rivers Nederrijn and Sint-Jansbeek, which was the source of the city's development. Arnhem had a population of in and is one of the larger cities of the Netherlands. The municipality is part of the Arnhem–Nijmegen metropolitan area which has a combined 736,500 inhabitants.Arnhem is home to the Hogeschool van Arnhem en Nijmegen, ArtEZ Institute of the Arts, Netherlands Open Air Museum, Airborne Museum 'Hartenstein', Royal Burgers' Zoo, NOC*NSF and National Sports Centre Papendal. The north corner of the municipality is part of the Hoge Veluwe National Park. It is approximately 55 square kilometers in area, consisting of heathlands, sand dunes, and woodlands.The oldest archeological findings of human activity around Arnhem are two firestones of about 70,000 years ago. These come from the Stone Age, when the Neanderthals lived in this part of Europe. In Schuytgraaf, remnants of a hunters camp from around 5000 BC have been discovered. In Schaarsbergen, twelve grave mounds were found from 2400 BC, which brought the so-called Neolithic Revolution to the area of Arnhem, which meant the rise of the farmers.The earliest settlement in Arnhem dates from 1500 BC, of which traces have been found on the Hoogkamp, where the Van Goyenstraat is currently located. In the inner city, around the Sint-Jansbeek, traces of settlement have been found from around 700 BC, while the first traces south of the Rhine have been found dating to around 500 BC, in the "Schuytgraaf".Though the early tracks of settlements did show that the early residents of Arnhem descended from the forests on the hills, Arnhem was not built on the banks of the river Rhine, but a little higher along the Sint-Jansbeek. Arnhem arose on the location where the road between Nijmegen and Utrecht and Zutphen split. Seven streams provided the city with water, and only when the flow of the Rhine was changed in 1530, was the city located on the river.Arnhem was first mentioned as such in 893 as "Arneym" or "Arentheym". In 1233, Count Otto II of Guelders from Zutphen, conferred city rights on the town, which had belonged to the abbey of Prüm, settled in, and fortified it. Arnhem entered the Hanseatic League in 1443. In 1473, it was captured by Charles the Bold of Burgundy.In 1514, Charles of Egmond, duke of Guelders, took it from the dukes of Burgundy; in 1543, it fell to the emperor Charles V. As capital of the so-called "Kwartier van Veluwe" it joined the Union of Utrecht during the Eighty Years' War in 1579. After its capture from the Spanish forces by Dutch and English troops in 1585 the city became part of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces of the Netherlands. The French occupied the town from 1672 to 1674.From 1795 to 1813, it was reoccupied by the French, by both revolutionary and imperial forces.In the early 19th century, the former fortifications were almost completely dismantled, to give space for town expansion. The "Sabelspoort" (Sabresgate) is the only remaining part of the medieval walls.In the 19th century, Arnhem was a genteel resort town famous for its picturesque beauty. It was known as "het Haagje van het oosten" (The Little Hague of the East), mainly because a number of rich former sugar barons or planters from the Indies settled there, as they did in The Hague. Even now the city is famous for its parks and greenery. The urbanization in the north on hilly terrain is also quite unusual for the Netherlands.In the Second World War (1939–1945), during Operation Market Garden (September 1944), the British 1st Airborne Division, under the command of Major-General Roy Urquhart, and the Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade were given the task of securing the bridge at Arnhem.Glider infantry and paratrooper units were landed into the area on 17 September and later. The bulk of the force was dropped rather far from the bridge and never met their objective. A small element of the British 1st Airborne, the 2nd Parachute Battalion under Lieutenant Colonel John D. Frost, managed to make its way as far as the bridge but was unable to secure both sides. The British troops encountered stiff resistance from the German 9th and 10th SS Panzer Divisions, which had been stationed in and around the city.The British force at the bridge eventually ran out of ammunition and was captured on 21 September, and a full withdrawal of the remaining forces was made on 26 September. These events were dramatized in the 1977 movie "A Bridge Too Far". (The bridge scenes in the movie were shot in Deventer, where a similar bridge over the IJssel was available, as the area around Arnhem bridge had changed too much to represent WWII-era Arnhem). As a tribute, the rebuilt bridge was renamed 'John Frost Bridge' after the commander of the paratroopers. The official commemoration is 17 September.The current bridge is the third almost-identical bridge built at the same spot. The Dutch Army destroyed the first bridge when the German Army invaded the Netherlands in 1940. The second bridge was destroyed by the United States Army Air Forces shortly after the 1944 battle.A second battle of Arnhem took place in April 1945 when the city was liberated by the British 49th (West Riding) Infantry Division fighting as part of the First Canadian Army. The inhabitants of the city, who had been forcibly evacuated by the Germans during and after the battle, returned in the summer of 1945. The reconstruction of Arnhem took until 1969 to finally be completed.Just outside Arnhem, in the town of Oosterbeek the Commonwealth War Graves Commission built the Arnhem Oosterbeek War Cemetery which contains the graves of most of those killed during the September landings, and many of those killed in later fighting in the area.The city also hosted the 1980 Summer Paralympics.The municipality of Arnhem consists of the city of Arnhem and the following surrounding suburbs and former villages:Arnhem consists of three districts ("stadsdelen") and 24 neighbourhoods ("wijken"). Each neighbourhood has a number which corresponds to its postal code.The outlying areas of the following villages are bordering the municipality of Arnhem directly, which means among others that in many a case a considerable number of their inhabitants originate from Arnhem.The city lies a few kilometers from the border with Germany, and to some extent the westernmost villages in the municipality of Elten, Germany, function as dormitories for people who work in the Dutch city of Arnhem in part due to the immigration of Dutch people from the region that were attracted by the lower house pricing just across the border.Arnhem features the same climate (Cfb, oceanic climate) as all of the Netherlands, however, its location on the foothills of the Veluwe, the largest forest in the Netherlands, contributes to some higher precipitation values.The "Grote Kerk" (St. Eusebius' Church), built 1452–1560, lost most of its tower during World War II, of which a part has been reconstructed to a modern design and opened in 1964. Officially the tower is not part of the church and is owned by the municipality.The house of Maarten van Rossum, a general serving Duke Charles van Gelre, has been the town hall since 1830: The satyrs in its Renaissance ornamentation earned it the name "Duivelshuis" (devil's house). The Netherlands Open Air Museum is located outside the city. It includes antique houses, farms, factories, and windmills from different parts of the Netherlands. Two other windmills stand in Arnhem itself, De Hoop and De Kroon.The Royal Burgers' Zoo in Arnhem is one of the biggest and most-visited zoos in the Netherlands, featuring an underwater walkthrough, desert, mangrove, and rainforest. The GelreDome, the home of Vitesse Arnhem, the city's Eredivisie team in football, is a unique facility that features a retractable roof and a slide-out grass pitch. The concept has been fully duplicated since then by the Veltins-Arena in Gelsenkirchen, Germany, and State Farm Stadium in Glendale, Arizona, U.S., and partially by the Sapporo Dome in Japan (which has a sliding pitch but a fixed roof).The KEMA Toren (formerly known as "SEP Control Tower") is the highest structure of the town. It is a 140-m-high TV tower.The National Sports Centre Papendal is the national sports development centre of the Netherlands, located in Arnhem. The first event held at Papendal was the 1980 Summer Paralympics, from 21 June to 5 July. However the site was formally adopted and developed from 1993, after the merger of the Dutch National Olympic Committee (NOC) and the Nederlandse Sport Federatie (NSF).NOC*NSF have 90 affiliated national sports organizations, representing about 2700 individual sports clubs. Papendal is also the training location of football club Vitesse Arnhem, and the club's youth development system. Supporting facilities include a conference centre and hotel.In preparation for the 2012 Summer Olympics, in 2011 the facility built a replica of the proposed BMX racing track at the London Velopark venue. The track will host the second event on the 2011 UCI BMX World Championships, on 27 and 28 May 2011.Since January 2013 Sports Centre Papendal officially split from NOC * NSF and thus as organization demerges. This split offers Sports Centre Papendal many commercial benefits. There are facilities for various sports, including athletics, cycling and more.Sport in the city is principally focussed on its association football club Vitesse Arnhem and its stadium the GelreDome built for the UEFA Euro 2000. The club has enjoyed some success in the Eredivisie and has featured in the UEFA Cup competition. Their best result in the Eredivisie was third place in 1997–98. The club won the KNVB Cup in 2016–17.Introdans is a dance company based in the city of Arnhem. In 2009 the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science designated Introdans part of the basic national infrastructure. In 2016 was the Giro d'Italia in Arnhem.Arnhem has had a main central railway station since 1845 – Arnhem Centraal railway station, which is serviced by several intercity lines and the Intercity-Express to Düsseldorf and further on to Frankfurt.Until 2016, there were also NS International trains to other destinations abroad, with some coaches going as far as Moscow.The intercity lines provide direct connections to Utrecht, Nijmegen and Zutphen. It is also the terminus for several local railway services. Arnhem has three other stations, namely Arnhem Velperpoort (since 1953), Arnhem Presikhaaf (since 1969) and Arnhem Zuid (since 2005).KLM Royal Dutch Airlines operates a bus from the train station to Schiphol Airport for KLM customers. Arnhem is unique in the Netherlands with its trolleybus system.Notable people born in Arnhem include:Arnhem is twinned with: | [
"Herman Kaiser",
"Ahmed Marcouch",
"Pauline Krikke",
"Chris Matser",
"Job Drijber",
"Boele Staal"
] |
|
Who was the head of Arnhem in 20-Oct-197120-October-1971? | October 20, 1971 | {
"text": [
"Hans Roelen"
]
} | L2_Q1310_P6_1 | Boele Staal is the head of the government of Arnhem from Oct, 2016 to Aug, 2017.
Hans Roelen is the head of the government of Arnhem from Jul, 1969 to Feb, 1980.
Job Drijber is the head of the government of Arnhem from May, 1980 to Jan, 1989.
Pauline Krikke is the head of the government of Arnhem from Sep, 2001 to Jul, 2003.
Herman Kaiser is the head of the government of Arnhem from Aug, 2013 to Feb, 2017.
Chris Matser is the head of the government of Arnhem from May, 1945 to Jun, 1946.
Ahmed Marcouch is the head of the government of Arnhem from Sep, 2017 to Dec, 2022. | ArnhemArnhem ( ; ; South Guelderish: "Èrnem") is a city and municipality situated in the eastern part of the Netherlands. It is the capital of the province of Gelderland and located on both banks of the rivers Nederrijn and Sint-Jansbeek, which was the source of the city's development. Arnhem had a population of in and is one of the larger cities of the Netherlands. The municipality is part of the Arnhem–Nijmegen metropolitan area which has a combined 736,500 inhabitants.Arnhem is home to the Hogeschool van Arnhem en Nijmegen, ArtEZ Institute of the Arts, Netherlands Open Air Museum, Airborne Museum 'Hartenstein', Royal Burgers' Zoo, NOC*NSF and National Sports Centre Papendal. The north corner of the municipality is part of the Hoge Veluwe National Park. It is approximately 55 square kilometers in area, consisting of heathlands, sand dunes, and woodlands.The oldest archeological findings of human activity around Arnhem are two firestones of about 70,000 years ago. These come from the Stone Age, when the Neanderthals lived in this part of Europe. In Schuytgraaf, remnants of a hunters camp from around 5000 BC have been discovered. In Schaarsbergen, twelve grave mounds were found from 2400 BC, which brought the so-called Neolithic Revolution to the area of Arnhem, which meant the rise of the farmers.The earliest settlement in Arnhem dates from 1500 BC, of which traces have been found on the Hoogkamp, where the Van Goyenstraat is currently located. In the inner city, around the Sint-Jansbeek, traces of settlement have been found from around 700 BC, while the first traces south of the Rhine have been found dating to around 500 BC, in the "Schuytgraaf".Though the early tracks of settlements did show that the early residents of Arnhem descended from the forests on the hills, Arnhem was not built on the banks of the river Rhine, but a little higher along the Sint-Jansbeek. Arnhem arose on the location where the road between Nijmegen and Utrecht and Zutphen split. Seven streams provided the city with water, and only when the flow of the Rhine was changed in 1530, was the city located on the river.Arnhem was first mentioned as such in 893 as "Arneym" or "Arentheym". In 1233, Count Otto II of Guelders from Zutphen, conferred city rights on the town, which had belonged to the abbey of Prüm, settled in, and fortified it. Arnhem entered the Hanseatic League in 1443. In 1473, it was captured by Charles the Bold of Burgundy.In 1514, Charles of Egmond, duke of Guelders, took it from the dukes of Burgundy; in 1543, it fell to the emperor Charles V. As capital of the so-called "Kwartier van Veluwe" it joined the Union of Utrecht during the Eighty Years' War in 1579. After its capture from the Spanish forces by Dutch and English troops in 1585 the city became part of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces of the Netherlands. The French occupied the town from 1672 to 1674.From 1795 to 1813, it was reoccupied by the French, by both revolutionary and imperial forces.In the early 19th century, the former fortifications were almost completely dismantled, to give space for town expansion. The "Sabelspoort" (Sabresgate) is the only remaining part of the medieval walls.In the 19th century, Arnhem was a genteel resort town famous for its picturesque beauty. It was known as "het Haagje van het oosten" (The Little Hague of the East), mainly because a number of rich former sugar barons or planters from the Indies settled there, as they did in The Hague. Even now the city is famous for its parks and greenery. The urbanization in the north on hilly terrain is also quite unusual for the Netherlands.In the Second World War (1939–1945), during Operation Market Garden (September 1944), the British 1st Airborne Division, under the command of Major-General Roy Urquhart, and the Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade were given the task of securing the bridge at Arnhem.Glider infantry and paratrooper units were landed into the area on 17 September and later. The bulk of the force was dropped rather far from the bridge and never met their objective. A small element of the British 1st Airborne, the 2nd Parachute Battalion under Lieutenant Colonel John D. Frost, managed to make its way as far as the bridge but was unable to secure both sides. The British troops encountered stiff resistance from the German 9th and 10th SS Panzer Divisions, which had been stationed in and around the city.The British force at the bridge eventually ran out of ammunition and was captured on 21 September, and a full withdrawal of the remaining forces was made on 26 September. These events were dramatized in the 1977 movie "A Bridge Too Far". (The bridge scenes in the movie were shot in Deventer, where a similar bridge over the IJssel was available, as the area around Arnhem bridge had changed too much to represent WWII-era Arnhem). As a tribute, the rebuilt bridge was renamed 'John Frost Bridge' after the commander of the paratroopers. The official commemoration is 17 September.The current bridge is the third almost-identical bridge built at the same spot. The Dutch Army destroyed the first bridge when the German Army invaded the Netherlands in 1940. The second bridge was destroyed by the United States Army Air Forces shortly after the 1944 battle.A second battle of Arnhem took place in April 1945 when the city was liberated by the British 49th (West Riding) Infantry Division fighting as part of the First Canadian Army. The inhabitants of the city, who had been forcibly evacuated by the Germans during and after the battle, returned in the summer of 1945. The reconstruction of Arnhem took until 1969 to finally be completed.Just outside Arnhem, in the town of Oosterbeek the Commonwealth War Graves Commission built the Arnhem Oosterbeek War Cemetery which contains the graves of most of those killed during the September landings, and many of those killed in later fighting in the area.The city also hosted the 1980 Summer Paralympics.The municipality of Arnhem consists of the city of Arnhem and the following surrounding suburbs and former villages:Arnhem consists of three districts ("stadsdelen") and 24 neighbourhoods ("wijken"). Each neighbourhood has a number which corresponds to its postal code.The outlying areas of the following villages are bordering the municipality of Arnhem directly, which means among others that in many a case a considerable number of their inhabitants originate from Arnhem.The city lies a few kilometers from the border with Germany, and to some extent the westernmost villages in the municipality of Elten, Germany, function as dormitories for people who work in the Dutch city of Arnhem in part due to the immigration of Dutch people from the region that were attracted by the lower house pricing just across the border.Arnhem features the same climate (Cfb, oceanic climate) as all of the Netherlands, however, its location on the foothills of the Veluwe, the largest forest in the Netherlands, contributes to some higher precipitation values.The "Grote Kerk" (St. Eusebius' Church), built 1452–1560, lost most of its tower during World War II, of which a part has been reconstructed to a modern design and opened in 1964. Officially the tower is not part of the church and is owned by the municipality.The house of Maarten van Rossum, a general serving Duke Charles van Gelre, has been the town hall since 1830: The satyrs in its Renaissance ornamentation earned it the name "Duivelshuis" (devil's house). The Netherlands Open Air Museum is located outside the city. It includes antique houses, farms, factories, and windmills from different parts of the Netherlands. Two other windmills stand in Arnhem itself, De Hoop and De Kroon.The Royal Burgers' Zoo in Arnhem is one of the biggest and most-visited zoos in the Netherlands, featuring an underwater walkthrough, desert, mangrove, and rainforest. The GelreDome, the home of Vitesse Arnhem, the city's Eredivisie team in football, is a unique facility that features a retractable roof and a slide-out grass pitch. The concept has been fully duplicated since then by the Veltins-Arena in Gelsenkirchen, Germany, and State Farm Stadium in Glendale, Arizona, U.S., and partially by the Sapporo Dome in Japan (which has a sliding pitch but a fixed roof).The KEMA Toren (formerly known as "SEP Control Tower") is the highest structure of the town. It is a 140-m-high TV tower.The National Sports Centre Papendal is the national sports development centre of the Netherlands, located in Arnhem. The first event held at Papendal was the 1980 Summer Paralympics, from 21 June to 5 July. However the site was formally adopted and developed from 1993, after the merger of the Dutch National Olympic Committee (NOC) and the Nederlandse Sport Federatie (NSF).NOC*NSF have 90 affiliated national sports organizations, representing about 2700 individual sports clubs. Papendal is also the training location of football club Vitesse Arnhem, and the club's youth development system. Supporting facilities include a conference centre and hotel.In preparation for the 2012 Summer Olympics, in 2011 the facility built a replica of the proposed BMX racing track at the London Velopark venue. The track will host the second event on the 2011 UCI BMX World Championships, on 27 and 28 May 2011.Since January 2013 Sports Centre Papendal officially split from NOC * NSF and thus as organization demerges. This split offers Sports Centre Papendal many commercial benefits. There are facilities for various sports, including athletics, cycling and more.Sport in the city is principally focussed on its association football club Vitesse Arnhem and its stadium the GelreDome built for the UEFA Euro 2000. The club has enjoyed some success in the Eredivisie and has featured in the UEFA Cup competition. Their best result in the Eredivisie was third place in 1997–98. The club won the KNVB Cup in 2016–17.Introdans is a dance company based in the city of Arnhem. In 2009 the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science designated Introdans part of the basic national infrastructure. In 2016 was the Giro d'Italia in Arnhem.Arnhem has had a main central railway station since 1845 – Arnhem Centraal railway station, which is serviced by several intercity lines and the Intercity-Express to Düsseldorf and further on to Frankfurt.Until 2016, there were also NS International trains to other destinations abroad, with some coaches going as far as Moscow.The intercity lines provide direct connections to Utrecht, Nijmegen and Zutphen. It is also the terminus for several local railway services. Arnhem has three other stations, namely Arnhem Velperpoort (since 1953), Arnhem Presikhaaf (since 1969) and Arnhem Zuid (since 2005).KLM Royal Dutch Airlines operates a bus from the train station to Schiphol Airport for KLM customers. Arnhem is unique in the Netherlands with its trolleybus system.Notable people born in Arnhem include:Arnhem is twinned with: | [
"Herman Kaiser",
"Ahmed Marcouch",
"Pauline Krikke",
"Chris Matser",
"Job Drijber",
"Boele Staal"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Croatian National Bank in Jun, 2005? | June 03, 2005 | {
"text": [
"Željko Rohatinski"
]
} | L2_Q1143457_P488_3 | Željko Rohatinski is the chair of Croatian National Bank from Jul, 2000 to Jul, 2012.
Marko Škreb is the chair of Croatian National Bank from Jan, 1996 to Jan, 2000.
Pero Jurković is the chair of Croatian National Bank from Jan, 1992 to Jan, 1996.
A. Čičin-Šain is the chair of Croatian National Bank from Aug, 1990 to Jan, 1992.
Boris Vujčić is the chair of Croatian National Bank from Jul, 2012 to Dec, 2022. | Croatian National BankThe Croatian National Bank ( or HNB; ) is the central bank of the Republic of Croatia.HNB was established by the Constitution of Croatia which was passed by the Croatian Parliament on 21 December 1990. Its main responsibilities are maintaining the stability of the national currency, the kuna, and ensuring general financial liquidity within the country. HNB also issues banknotes and holds the national monetary reserves. In performing its duties HNB acts as an independent institution responsible to the Parliament. The bank has a share capital of 2,500,000,000 Croatian kunas (c. US$ 450 million). HNB acts in accordance with "Law on Croatian National Bank".On 21 December 1990 the Constitution of Croatia, determined in article 53, named the Croatian National Bank as Croatia's central bank, and declared its responsibilities: "Croatian National Bank is central bank of Republic of Croatia. Croatian National Bank is responsible, within its rights and duties, for stability of the currency and for liquidity of payments in state and abroad. Croatian National Bank is independent in its activity and responsible to Croatian "Sabor". Profits made by Croatian National Bank belong to Croatian state budget. Position of Croatian National Bank is made by law." By amendments of Constitution of Croatia in 1997, Bank's earlier name "National Bank of Croatia" () was changed to "Croatian National Bank" ().The Croatian National Bank is the central bank of the Republic of Croatia and part of the European System of Central Banks. The primary objective of the CNB is maintaining price stability and the stability of the financial system as a whole. The Croatian National Bank executes monetary policy, manages international reserves of the Republic of Croatia, issues the Croatian currency - the kuna, issues authorisations of credit institutions, credit unions, payment institutions and electronic money institutions and supervises their operation. The CNB also issues authorisations of authorised exchange offices.The Croatian National Bank is autonomous and independent in achieving its objective and carrying out its tasks. The CNB reports on its work to the Croatian Parliament.Independence of the CNBThe independence of the central bank is a key precondition for a successful and credible implementation of monetary policy and for the achievement of the main objective of the central bank - maintenance of price stability.The independence of the Croatian National Bank is in accordance with Article 130 of the Treaty on European Union, which guarantees the independence of national central banks of the European Union. There are several aspects of central bank independence: functional, institutional, personal and financial. Functional independence implies a clearly defined objective and autonomy in the choice of measures and instruments for its realisation. Institutional independence means that central bank decisions are independent from the influence of other institutions. Personal independence guarantees the protection of CNB officials from external pressures, excludes conflicts of interest and precisely defines the conditions for the appointment and removal from office of the Governor and other members of the CNB Council. Financial independence implies the possibility for the CNB to autonomously obtain funds for the purpose of executing its mandate, with the income and expense determined by the monetary policy stance.Stable prices is the main criteria for monetary stability. Stable prices are maintained by making sure price increases meet the Government's inflation target.hnb.hr/o-hnb Maintaining financial stability involves protecting against threats to the whole financial system. Threats are detected by the Bank's surveillance and market intelligence functions. The threats are then dealt with through financial and other operations. The Bank works together with other institutions to secure both monetary and financial stability. | [
"Pero Jurković",
"Marko Škreb",
"A. Čičin-Šain",
"Boris Vujčić"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Croatian National Bank in 2005-06-03? | June 03, 2005 | {
"text": [
"Željko Rohatinski"
]
} | L2_Q1143457_P488_3 | Željko Rohatinski is the chair of Croatian National Bank from Jul, 2000 to Jul, 2012.
Marko Škreb is the chair of Croatian National Bank from Jan, 1996 to Jan, 2000.
Pero Jurković is the chair of Croatian National Bank from Jan, 1992 to Jan, 1996.
A. Čičin-Šain is the chair of Croatian National Bank from Aug, 1990 to Jan, 1992.
Boris Vujčić is the chair of Croatian National Bank from Jul, 2012 to Dec, 2022. | Croatian National BankThe Croatian National Bank ( or HNB; ) is the central bank of the Republic of Croatia.HNB was established by the Constitution of Croatia which was passed by the Croatian Parliament on 21 December 1990. Its main responsibilities are maintaining the stability of the national currency, the kuna, and ensuring general financial liquidity within the country. HNB also issues banknotes and holds the national monetary reserves. In performing its duties HNB acts as an independent institution responsible to the Parliament. The bank has a share capital of 2,500,000,000 Croatian kunas (c. US$ 450 million). HNB acts in accordance with "Law on Croatian National Bank".On 21 December 1990 the Constitution of Croatia, determined in article 53, named the Croatian National Bank as Croatia's central bank, and declared its responsibilities: "Croatian National Bank is central bank of Republic of Croatia. Croatian National Bank is responsible, within its rights and duties, for stability of the currency and for liquidity of payments in state and abroad. Croatian National Bank is independent in its activity and responsible to Croatian "Sabor". Profits made by Croatian National Bank belong to Croatian state budget. Position of Croatian National Bank is made by law." By amendments of Constitution of Croatia in 1997, Bank's earlier name "National Bank of Croatia" () was changed to "Croatian National Bank" ().The Croatian National Bank is the central bank of the Republic of Croatia and part of the European System of Central Banks. The primary objective of the CNB is maintaining price stability and the stability of the financial system as a whole. The Croatian National Bank executes monetary policy, manages international reserves of the Republic of Croatia, issues the Croatian currency - the kuna, issues authorisations of credit institutions, credit unions, payment institutions and electronic money institutions and supervises their operation. The CNB also issues authorisations of authorised exchange offices.The Croatian National Bank is autonomous and independent in achieving its objective and carrying out its tasks. The CNB reports on its work to the Croatian Parliament.Independence of the CNBThe independence of the central bank is a key precondition for a successful and credible implementation of monetary policy and for the achievement of the main objective of the central bank - maintenance of price stability.The independence of the Croatian National Bank is in accordance with Article 130 of the Treaty on European Union, which guarantees the independence of national central banks of the European Union. There are several aspects of central bank independence: functional, institutional, personal and financial. Functional independence implies a clearly defined objective and autonomy in the choice of measures and instruments for its realisation. Institutional independence means that central bank decisions are independent from the influence of other institutions. Personal independence guarantees the protection of CNB officials from external pressures, excludes conflicts of interest and precisely defines the conditions for the appointment and removal from office of the Governor and other members of the CNB Council. Financial independence implies the possibility for the CNB to autonomously obtain funds for the purpose of executing its mandate, with the income and expense determined by the monetary policy stance.Stable prices is the main criteria for monetary stability. Stable prices are maintained by making sure price increases meet the Government's inflation target.hnb.hr/o-hnb Maintaining financial stability involves protecting against threats to the whole financial system. Threats are detected by the Bank's surveillance and market intelligence functions. The threats are then dealt with through financial and other operations. The Bank works together with other institutions to secure both monetary and financial stability. | [
"Pero Jurković",
"Marko Škreb",
"A. Čičin-Šain",
"Boris Vujčić"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Croatian National Bank in 03/06/2005? | June 03, 2005 | {
"text": [
"Željko Rohatinski"
]
} | L2_Q1143457_P488_3 | Željko Rohatinski is the chair of Croatian National Bank from Jul, 2000 to Jul, 2012.
Marko Škreb is the chair of Croatian National Bank from Jan, 1996 to Jan, 2000.
Pero Jurković is the chair of Croatian National Bank from Jan, 1992 to Jan, 1996.
A. Čičin-Šain is the chair of Croatian National Bank from Aug, 1990 to Jan, 1992.
Boris Vujčić is the chair of Croatian National Bank from Jul, 2012 to Dec, 2022. | Croatian National BankThe Croatian National Bank ( or HNB; ) is the central bank of the Republic of Croatia.HNB was established by the Constitution of Croatia which was passed by the Croatian Parliament on 21 December 1990. Its main responsibilities are maintaining the stability of the national currency, the kuna, and ensuring general financial liquidity within the country. HNB also issues banknotes and holds the national monetary reserves. In performing its duties HNB acts as an independent institution responsible to the Parliament. The bank has a share capital of 2,500,000,000 Croatian kunas (c. US$ 450 million). HNB acts in accordance with "Law on Croatian National Bank".On 21 December 1990 the Constitution of Croatia, determined in article 53, named the Croatian National Bank as Croatia's central bank, and declared its responsibilities: "Croatian National Bank is central bank of Republic of Croatia. Croatian National Bank is responsible, within its rights and duties, for stability of the currency and for liquidity of payments in state and abroad. Croatian National Bank is independent in its activity and responsible to Croatian "Sabor". Profits made by Croatian National Bank belong to Croatian state budget. Position of Croatian National Bank is made by law." By amendments of Constitution of Croatia in 1997, Bank's earlier name "National Bank of Croatia" () was changed to "Croatian National Bank" ().The Croatian National Bank is the central bank of the Republic of Croatia and part of the European System of Central Banks. The primary objective of the CNB is maintaining price stability and the stability of the financial system as a whole. The Croatian National Bank executes monetary policy, manages international reserves of the Republic of Croatia, issues the Croatian currency - the kuna, issues authorisations of credit institutions, credit unions, payment institutions and electronic money institutions and supervises their operation. The CNB also issues authorisations of authorised exchange offices.The Croatian National Bank is autonomous and independent in achieving its objective and carrying out its tasks. The CNB reports on its work to the Croatian Parliament.Independence of the CNBThe independence of the central bank is a key precondition for a successful and credible implementation of monetary policy and for the achievement of the main objective of the central bank - maintenance of price stability.The independence of the Croatian National Bank is in accordance with Article 130 of the Treaty on European Union, which guarantees the independence of national central banks of the European Union. There are several aspects of central bank independence: functional, institutional, personal and financial. Functional independence implies a clearly defined objective and autonomy in the choice of measures and instruments for its realisation. Institutional independence means that central bank decisions are independent from the influence of other institutions. Personal independence guarantees the protection of CNB officials from external pressures, excludes conflicts of interest and precisely defines the conditions for the appointment and removal from office of the Governor and other members of the CNB Council. Financial independence implies the possibility for the CNB to autonomously obtain funds for the purpose of executing its mandate, with the income and expense determined by the monetary policy stance.Stable prices is the main criteria for monetary stability. Stable prices are maintained by making sure price increases meet the Government's inflation target.hnb.hr/o-hnb Maintaining financial stability involves protecting against threats to the whole financial system. Threats are detected by the Bank's surveillance and market intelligence functions. The threats are then dealt with through financial and other operations. The Bank works together with other institutions to secure both monetary and financial stability. | [
"Pero Jurković",
"Marko Škreb",
"A. Čičin-Šain",
"Boris Vujčić"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Croatian National Bank in Jun 03, 2005? | June 03, 2005 | {
"text": [
"Željko Rohatinski"
]
} | L2_Q1143457_P488_3 | Željko Rohatinski is the chair of Croatian National Bank from Jul, 2000 to Jul, 2012.
Marko Škreb is the chair of Croatian National Bank from Jan, 1996 to Jan, 2000.
Pero Jurković is the chair of Croatian National Bank from Jan, 1992 to Jan, 1996.
A. Čičin-Šain is the chair of Croatian National Bank from Aug, 1990 to Jan, 1992.
Boris Vujčić is the chair of Croatian National Bank from Jul, 2012 to Dec, 2022. | Croatian National BankThe Croatian National Bank ( or HNB; ) is the central bank of the Republic of Croatia.HNB was established by the Constitution of Croatia which was passed by the Croatian Parliament on 21 December 1990. Its main responsibilities are maintaining the stability of the national currency, the kuna, and ensuring general financial liquidity within the country. HNB also issues banknotes and holds the national monetary reserves. In performing its duties HNB acts as an independent institution responsible to the Parliament. The bank has a share capital of 2,500,000,000 Croatian kunas (c. US$ 450 million). HNB acts in accordance with "Law on Croatian National Bank".On 21 December 1990 the Constitution of Croatia, determined in article 53, named the Croatian National Bank as Croatia's central bank, and declared its responsibilities: "Croatian National Bank is central bank of Republic of Croatia. Croatian National Bank is responsible, within its rights and duties, for stability of the currency and for liquidity of payments in state and abroad. Croatian National Bank is independent in its activity and responsible to Croatian "Sabor". Profits made by Croatian National Bank belong to Croatian state budget. Position of Croatian National Bank is made by law." By amendments of Constitution of Croatia in 1997, Bank's earlier name "National Bank of Croatia" () was changed to "Croatian National Bank" ().The Croatian National Bank is the central bank of the Republic of Croatia and part of the European System of Central Banks. The primary objective of the CNB is maintaining price stability and the stability of the financial system as a whole. The Croatian National Bank executes monetary policy, manages international reserves of the Republic of Croatia, issues the Croatian currency - the kuna, issues authorisations of credit institutions, credit unions, payment institutions and electronic money institutions and supervises their operation. The CNB also issues authorisations of authorised exchange offices.The Croatian National Bank is autonomous and independent in achieving its objective and carrying out its tasks. The CNB reports on its work to the Croatian Parliament.Independence of the CNBThe independence of the central bank is a key precondition for a successful and credible implementation of monetary policy and for the achievement of the main objective of the central bank - maintenance of price stability.The independence of the Croatian National Bank is in accordance with Article 130 of the Treaty on European Union, which guarantees the independence of national central banks of the European Union. There are several aspects of central bank independence: functional, institutional, personal and financial. Functional independence implies a clearly defined objective and autonomy in the choice of measures and instruments for its realisation. Institutional independence means that central bank decisions are independent from the influence of other institutions. Personal independence guarantees the protection of CNB officials from external pressures, excludes conflicts of interest and precisely defines the conditions for the appointment and removal from office of the Governor and other members of the CNB Council. Financial independence implies the possibility for the CNB to autonomously obtain funds for the purpose of executing its mandate, with the income and expense determined by the monetary policy stance.Stable prices is the main criteria for monetary stability. Stable prices are maintained by making sure price increases meet the Government's inflation target.hnb.hr/o-hnb Maintaining financial stability involves protecting against threats to the whole financial system. Threats are detected by the Bank's surveillance and market intelligence functions. The threats are then dealt with through financial and other operations. The Bank works together with other institutions to secure both monetary and financial stability. | [
"Pero Jurković",
"Marko Škreb",
"A. Čičin-Šain",
"Boris Vujčić"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Croatian National Bank in 06/03/2005? | June 03, 2005 | {
"text": [
"Željko Rohatinski"
]
} | L2_Q1143457_P488_3 | Željko Rohatinski is the chair of Croatian National Bank from Jul, 2000 to Jul, 2012.
Marko Škreb is the chair of Croatian National Bank from Jan, 1996 to Jan, 2000.
Pero Jurković is the chair of Croatian National Bank from Jan, 1992 to Jan, 1996.
A. Čičin-Šain is the chair of Croatian National Bank from Aug, 1990 to Jan, 1992.
Boris Vujčić is the chair of Croatian National Bank from Jul, 2012 to Dec, 2022. | Croatian National BankThe Croatian National Bank ( or HNB; ) is the central bank of the Republic of Croatia.HNB was established by the Constitution of Croatia which was passed by the Croatian Parliament on 21 December 1990. Its main responsibilities are maintaining the stability of the national currency, the kuna, and ensuring general financial liquidity within the country. HNB also issues banknotes and holds the national monetary reserves. In performing its duties HNB acts as an independent institution responsible to the Parliament. The bank has a share capital of 2,500,000,000 Croatian kunas (c. US$ 450 million). HNB acts in accordance with "Law on Croatian National Bank".On 21 December 1990 the Constitution of Croatia, determined in article 53, named the Croatian National Bank as Croatia's central bank, and declared its responsibilities: "Croatian National Bank is central bank of Republic of Croatia. Croatian National Bank is responsible, within its rights and duties, for stability of the currency and for liquidity of payments in state and abroad. Croatian National Bank is independent in its activity and responsible to Croatian "Sabor". Profits made by Croatian National Bank belong to Croatian state budget. Position of Croatian National Bank is made by law." By amendments of Constitution of Croatia in 1997, Bank's earlier name "National Bank of Croatia" () was changed to "Croatian National Bank" ().The Croatian National Bank is the central bank of the Republic of Croatia and part of the European System of Central Banks. The primary objective of the CNB is maintaining price stability and the stability of the financial system as a whole. The Croatian National Bank executes monetary policy, manages international reserves of the Republic of Croatia, issues the Croatian currency - the kuna, issues authorisations of credit institutions, credit unions, payment institutions and electronic money institutions and supervises their operation. The CNB also issues authorisations of authorised exchange offices.The Croatian National Bank is autonomous and independent in achieving its objective and carrying out its tasks. The CNB reports on its work to the Croatian Parliament.Independence of the CNBThe independence of the central bank is a key precondition for a successful and credible implementation of monetary policy and for the achievement of the main objective of the central bank - maintenance of price stability.The independence of the Croatian National Bank is in accordance with Article 130 of the Treaty on European Union, which guarantees the independence of national central banks of the European Union. There are several aspects of central bank independence: functional, institutional, personal and financial. Functional independence implies a clearly defined objective and autonomy in the choice of measures and instruments for its realisation. Institutional independence means that central bank decisions are independent from the influence of other institutions. Personal independence guarantees the protection of CNB officials from external pressures, excludes conflicts of interest and precisely defines the conditions for the appointment and removal from office of the Governor and other members of the CNB Council. Financial independence implies the possibility for the CNB to autonomously obtain funds for the purpose of executing its mandate, with the income and expense determined by the monetary policy stance.Stable prices is the main criteria for monetary stability. Stable prices are maintained by making sure price increases meet the Government's inflation target.hnb.hr/o-hnb Maintaining financial stability involves protecting against threats to the whole financial system. Threats are detected by the Bank's surveillance and market intelligence functions. The threats are then dealt with through financial and other operations. The Bank works together with other institutions to secure both monetary and financial stability. | [
"Pero Jurković",
"Marko Škreb",
"A. Čičin-Šain",
"Boris Vujčić"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Croatian National Bank in 03-Jun-200503-June-2005? | June 03, 2005 | {
"text": [
"Željko Rohatinski"
]
} | L2_Q1143457_P488_3 | Željko Rohatinski is the chair of Croatian National Bank from Jul, 2000 to Jul, 2012.
Marko Škreb is the chair of Croatian National Bank from Jan, 1996 to Jan, 2000.
Pero Jurković is the chair of Croatian National Bank from Jan, 1992 to Jan, 1996.
A. Čičin-Šain is the chair of Croatian National Bank from Aug, 1990 to Jan, 1992.
Boris Vujčić is the chair of Croatian National Bank from Jul, 2012 to Dec, 2022. | Croatian National BankThe Croatian National Bank ( or HNB; ) is the central bank of the Republic of Croatia.HNB was established by the Constitution of Croatia which was passed by the Croatian Parliament on 21 December 1990. Its main responsibilities are maintaining the stability of the national currency, the kuna, and ensuring general financial liquidity within the country. HNB also issues banknotes and holds the national monetary reserves. In performing its duties HNB acts as an independent institution responsible to the Parliament. The bank has a share capital of 2,500,000,000 Croatian kunas (c. US$ 450 million). HNB acts in accordance with "Law on Croatian National Bank".On 21 December 1990 the Constitution of Croatia, determined in article 53, named the Croatian National Bank as Croatia's central bank, and declared its responsibilities: "Croatian National Bank is central bank of Republic of Croatia. Croatian National Bank is responsible, within its rights and duties, for stability of the currency and for liquidity of payments in state and abroad. Croatian National Bank is independent in its activity and responsible to Croatian "Sabor". Profits made by Croatian National Bank belong to Croatian state budget. Position of Croatian National Bank is made by law." By amendments of Constitution of Croatia in 1997, Bank's earlier name "National Bank of Croatia" () was changed to "Croatian National Bank" ().The Croatian National Bank is the central bank of the Republic of Croatia and part of the European System of Central Banks. The primary objective of the CNB is maintaining price stability and the stability of the financial system as a whole. The Croatian National Bank executes monetary policy, manages international reserves of the Republic of Croatia, issues the Croatian currency - the kuna, issues authorisations of credit institutions, credit unions, payment institutions and electronic money institutions and supervises their operation. The CNB also issues authorisations of authorised exchange offices.The Croatian National Bank is autonomous and independent in achieving its objective and carrying out its tasks. The CNB reports on its work to the Croatian Parliament.Independence of the CNBThe independence of the central bank is a key precondition for a successful and credible implementation of monetary policy and for the achievement of the main objective of the central bank - maintenance of price stability.The independence of the Croatian National Bank is in accordance with Article 130 of the Treaty on European Union, which guarantees the independence of national central banks of the European Union. There are several aspects of central bank independence: functional, institutional, personal and financial. Functional independence implies a clearly defined objective and autonomy in the choice of measures and instruments for its realisation. Institutional independence means that central bank decisions are independent from the influence of other institutions. Personal independence guarantees the protection of CNB officials from external pressures, excludes conflicts of interest and precisely defines the conditions for the appointment and removal from office of the Governor and other members of the CNB Council. Financial independence implies the possibility for the CNB to autonomously obtain funds for the purpose of executing its mandate, with the income and expense determined by the monetary policy stance.Stable prices is the main criteria for monetary stability. Stable prices are maintained by making sure price increases meet the Government's inflation target.hnb.hr/o-hnb Maintaining financial stability involves protecting against threats to the whole financial system. Threats are detected by the Bank's surveillance and market intelligence functions. The threats are then dealt with through financial and other operations. The Bank works together with other institutions to secure both monetary and financial stability. | [
"Pero Jurković",
"Marko Škreb",
"A. Čičin-Šain",
"Boris Vujčić"
] |
|
Which position did Panagiotis Kanellopoulos hold in Jan, 1954? | January 26, 1954 | {
"text": [
"Minister for National Defence of Greece"
]
} | L2_Q708364_P39_7 | Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Member of the Athens Academy from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1959.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Aviation of Greece from Feb, 1947 to Aug, 1947.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Economy of Greece from Dec, 1944 to Jan, 1945.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Naval Affairs of Greece from Jan, 1947 to Feb, 1947.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Commercial Marine of Greece from Jul, 1944 to Oct, 1944.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Prime Minister of Greece from Apr, 1967 to Apr, 1967.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister for National Defence of Greece from Dec, 1952 to Jun, 1955.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister without portfolio of Greece from Apr, 1946 to Apr, 1946.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Public Order from Jan, 1947 to Feb, 1947.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Member of the Hellenic Parliament from Jan, 1974 to Jan, 1985.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Deputy Prime Minister of Greece from Nov, 1961 to Jun, 1963.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Military Affairs of Greece from Mar, 1950 to Apr, 1950. | Panagiotis KanellopoulosPanagiotis Kanellopoulos or Panayotis Kanellopoulos (; Patras, Achaea, 13 December 1902Athens, 11 September 1986) was a Greek author, politician and Prime Minister of Greece. He was the Prime Minister of Greece deposed by the Greek military junta of 1967–1974.Kanellopoulos studied law in Athens, Heidelberg and Munich. Kanellopoulos was an intellectual and author of books about politics, law, sociology, philosophy, and history. His book "I was born in 1402" received a literary award from the Academy of Athens. He married Theano Poulikakos (Θεανώ Πουλικάκου).After the start of the Axis occupation of Greece in 1941 he founded the "Omiros" resistance group, and in 1942 he fled to the Middle East, where he served as Minister of Defence under the Tsouderos government in exile during World War II. In November 1945, he served as Prime Minister for a short period of time. After the war he became Minister for Reconstruction under Georgios Papandreou in a national unity government. He also served in other ministerial posts under Alexandros Diomidis, Constantine Karamanlis and others till 1967 when he became Prime Minister.On 9 July 1961 Panagiotis Kanellopoulos as Deputy Prime Minister in Konstantinos Karamanlis' government and German Vice-Chancellor Ludwig Erhard signed the protocols of Greece's Treaty of Association with the European Economic Community (EEC). The signing ceremony in Athens was attended by top government officials from the six-member group consisting of Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, Luxemburg and the Netherlands. The six member group was the early precursor of today's 25 member European Union. Economy Minister Aristidis Protopapadakis and Foreign Minister Evangelos Averoff were also present at the ceremony as well as Prime Minister Konstantinos Karamanlis.His niece, Amalia married Karamanlis. In 1963 he succeeded Karamanlis as leader of the National Radical Union party (ERE).He was the last Prime Minister (acting as a caretaker for the scheduled for 28 May) prior to the coup d'état of 21 April 1967. He was placed under house arrest for the next seven years. During the events leading to the "metapolitefsi" (the period of political transition following the fall of the military junta), Phaedon Gizikis actively considered giving Kanellopoulos the mandate to form a transitional government. After the "metapolitefsi" Kanellopoulos resumed his parliamentary career as a member of the New Democracy party. He declined offers to become President of Greece when the post was offered to him during the "metapolitefsi".Kanellopoulos was the nephew of Dimitrios Gounaris. | [
"Member of the Hellenic Parliament",
"Deputy Prime Minister of Greece",
"Minister of Naval Affairs of Greece",
"Minister without portfolio of Greece",
"Minister of Commercial Marine of Greece",
"Minister of Public Order",
"Prime Minister of Greece",
"Minister of Economy of Greece",
"Minister of Aviation of Greece",
"Minister of Military Affairs of Greece",
"Member of the Athens Academy"
] |
|
Which position did Panagiotis Kanellopoulos hold in 1954-01-26? | January 26, 1954 | {
"text": [
"Minister for National Defence of Greece"
]
} | L2_Q708364_P39_7 | Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Member of the Athens Academy from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1959.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Aviation of Greece from Feb, 1947 to Aug, 1947.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Economy of Greece from Dec, 1944 to Jan, 1945.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Naval Affairs of Greece from Jan, 1947 to Feb, 1947.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Commercial Marine of Greece from Jul, 1944 to Oct, 1944.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Prime Minister of Greece from Apr, 1967 to Apr, 1967.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister for National Defence of Greece from Dec, 1952 to Jun, 1955.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister without portfolio of Greece from Apr, 1946 to Apr, 1946.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Public Order from Jan, 1947 to Feb, 1947.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Member of the Hellenic Parliament from Jan, 1974 to Jan, 1985.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Deputy Prime Minister of Greece from Nov, 1961 to Jun, 1963.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Military Affairs of Greece from Mar, 1950 to Apr, 1950. | Panagiotis KanellopoulosPanagiotis Kanellopoulos or Panayotis Kanellopoulos (; Patras, Achaea, 13 December 1902Athens, 11 September 1986) was a Greek author, politician and Prime Minister of Greece. He was the Prime Minister of Greece deposed by the Greek military junta of 1967–1974.Kanellopoulos studied law in Athens, Heidelberg and Munich. Kanellopoulos was an intellectual and author of books about politics, law, sociology, philosophy, and history. His book "I was born in 1402" received a literary award from the Academy of Athens. He married Theano Poulikakos (Θεανώ Πουλικάκου).After the start of the Axis occupation of Greece in 1941 he founded the "Omiros" resistance group, and in 1942 he fled to the Middle East, where he served as Minister of Defence under the Tsouderos government in exile during World War II. In November 1945, he served as Prime Minister for a short period of time. After the war he became Minister for Reconstruction under Georgios Papandreou in a national unity government. He also served in other ministerial posts under Alexandros Diomidis, Constantine Karamanlis and others till 1967 when he became Prime Minister.On 9 July 1961 Panagiotis Kanellopoulos as Deputy Prime Minister in Konstantinos Karamanlis' government and German Vice-Chancellor Ludwig Erhard signed the protocols of Greece's Treaty of Association with the European Economic Community (EEC). The signing ceremony in Athens was attended by top government officials from the six-member group consisting of Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, Luxemburg and the Netherlands. The six member group was the early precursor of today's 25 member European Union. Economy Minister Aristidis Protopapadakis and Foreign Minister Evangelos Averoff were also present at the ceremony as well as Prime Minister Konstantinos Karamanlis.His niece, Amalia married Karamanlis. In 1963 he succeeded Karamanlis as leader of the National Radical Union party (ERE).He was the last Prime Minister (acting as a caretaker for the scheduled for 28 May) prior to the coup d'état of 21 April 1967. He was placed under house arrest for the next seven years. During the events leading to the "metapolitefsi" (the period of political transition following the fall of the military junta), Phaedon Gizikis actively considered giving Kanellopoulos the mandate to form a transitional government. After the "metapolitefsi" Kanellopoulos resumed his parliamentary career as a member of the New Democracy party. He declined offers to become President of Greece when the post was offered to him during the "metapolitefsi".Kanellopoulos was the nephew of Dimitrios Gounaris. | [
"Member of the Hellenic Parliament",
"Deputy Prime Minister of Greece",
"Minister of Naval Affairs of Greece",
"Minister without portfolio of Greece",
"Minister of Commercial Marine of Greece",
"Minister of Public Order",
"Prime Minister of Greece",
"Minister of Economy of Greece",
"Minister of Aviation of Greece",
"Minister of Military Affairs of Greece",
"Member of the Athens Academy"
] |
|
Which position did Panagiotis Kanellopoulos hold in 26/01/1954? | January 26, 1954 | {
"text": [
"Minister for National Defence of Greece"
]
} | L2_Q708364_P39_7 | Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Member of the Athens Academy from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1959.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Aviation of Greece from Feb, 1947 to Aug, 1947.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Economy of Greece from Dec, 1944 to Jan, 1945.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Naval Affairs of Greece from Jan, 1947 to Feb, 1947.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Commercial Marine of Greece from Jul, 1944 to Oct, 1944.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Prime Minister of Greece from Apr, 1967 to Apr, 1967.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister for National Defence of Greece from Dec, 1952 to Jun, 1955.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister without portfolio of Greece from Apr, 1946 to Apr, 1946.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Public Order from Jan, 1947 to Feb, 1947.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Member of the Hellenic Parliament from Jan, 1974 to Jan, 1985.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Deputy Prime Minister of Greece from Nov, 1961 to Jun, 1963.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Military Affairs of Greece from Mar, 1950 to Apr, 1950. | Panagiotis KanellopoulosPanagiotis Kanellopoulos or Panayotis Kanellopoulos (; Patras, Achaea, 13 December 1902Athens, 11 September 1986) was a Greek author, politician and Prime Minister of Greece. He was the Prime Minister of Greece deposed by the Greek military junta of 1967–1974.Kanellopoulos studied law in Athens, Heidelberg and Munich. Kanellopoulos was an intellectual and author of books about politics, law, sociology, philosophy, and history. His book "I was born in 1402" received a literary award from the Academy of Athens. He married Theano Poulikakos (Θεανώ Πουλικάκου).After the start of the Axis occupation of Greece in 1941 he founded the "Omiros" resistance group, and in 1942 he fled to the Middle East, where he served as Minister of Defence under the Tsouderos government in exile during World War II. In November 1945, he served as Prime Minister for a short period of time. After the war he became Minister for Reconstruction under Georgios Papandreou in a national unity government. He also served in other ministerial posts under Alexandros Diomidis, Constantine Karamanlis and others till 1967 when he became Prime Minister.On 9 July 1961 Panagiotis Kanellopoulos as Deputy Prime Minister in Konstantinos Karamanlis' government and German Vice-Chancellor Ludwig Erhard signed the protocols of Greece's Treaty of Association with the European Economic Community (EEC). The signing ceremony in Athens was attended by top government officials from the six-member group consisting of Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, Luxemburg and the Netherlands. The six member group was the early precursor of today's 25 member European Union. Economy Minister Aristidis Protopapadakis and Foreign Minister Evangelos Averoff were also present at the ceremony as well as Prime Minister Konstantinos Karamanlis.His niece, Amalia married Karamanlis. In 1963 he succeeded Karamanlis as leader of the National Radical Union party (ERE).He was the last Prime Minister (acting as a caretaker for the scheduled for 28 May) prior to the coup d'état of 21 April 1967. He was placed under house arrest for the next seven years. During the events leading to the "metapolitefsi" (the period of political transition following the fall of the military junta), Phaedon Gizikis actively considered giving Kanellopoulos the mandate to form a transitional government. After the "metapolitefsi" Kanellopoulos resumed his parliamentary career as a member of the New Democracy party. He declined offers to become President of Greece when the post was offered to him during the "metapolitefsi".Kanellopoulos was the nephew of Dimitrios Gounaris. | [
"Member of the Hellenic Parliament",
"Deputy Prime Minister of Greece",
"Minister of Naval Affairs of Greece",
"Minister without portfolio of Greece",
"Minister of Commercial Marine of Greece",
"Minister of Public Order",
"Prime Minister of Greece",
"Minister of Economy of Greece",
"Minister of Aviation of Greece",
"Minister of Military Affairs of Greece",
"Member of the Athens Academy"
] |
|
Which position did Panagiotis Kanellopoulos hold in Jan 26, 1954? | January 26, 1954 | {
"text": [
"Minister for National Defence of Greece"
]
} | L2_Q708364_P39_7 | Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Member of the Athens Academy from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1959.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Aviation of Greece from Feb, 1947 to Aug, 1947.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Economy of Greece from Dec, 1944 to Jan, 1945.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Naval Affairs of Greece from Jan, 1947 to Feb, 1947.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Commercial Marine of Greece from Jul, 1944 to Oct, 1944.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Prime Minister of Greece from Apr, 1967 to Apr, 1967.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister for National Defence of Greece from Dec, 1952 to Jun, 1955.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister without portfolio of Greece from Apr, 1946 to Apr, 1946.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Public Order from Jan, 1947 to Feb, 1947.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Member of the Hellenic Parliament from Jan, 1974 to Jan, 1985.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Deputy Prime Minister of Greece from Nov, 1961 to Jun, 1963.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Military Affairs of Greece from Mar, 1950 to Apr, 1950. | Panagiotis KanellopoulosPanagiotis Kanellopoulos or Panayotis Kanellopoulos (; Patras, Achaea, 13 December 1902Athens, 11 September 1986) was a Greek author, politician and Prime Minister of Greece. He was the Prime Minister of Greece deposed by the Greek military junta of 1967–1974.Kanellopoulos studied law in Athens, Heidelberg and Munich. Kanellopoulos was an intellectual and author of books about politics, law, sociology, philosophy, and history. His book "I was born in 1402" received a literary award from the Academy of Athens. He married Theano Poulikakos (Θεανώ Πουλικάκου).After the start of the Axis occupation of Greece in 1941 he founded the "Omiros" resistance group, and in 1942 he fled to the Middle East, where he served as Minister of Defence under the Tsouderos government in exile during World War II. In November 1945, he served as Prime Minister for a short period of time. After the war he became Minister for Reconstruction under Georgios Papandreou in a national unity government. He also served in other ministerial posts under Alexandros Diomidis, Constantine Karamanlis and others till 1967 when he became Prime Minister.On 9 July 1961 Panagiotis Kanellopoulos as Deputy Prime Minister in Konstantinos Karamanlis' government and German Vice-Chancellor Ludwig Erhard signed the protocols of Greece's Treaty of Association with the European Economic Community (EEC). The signing ceremony in Athens was attended by top government officials from the six-member group consisting of Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, Luxemburg and the Netherlands. The six member group was the early precursor of today's 25 member European Union. Economy Minister Aristidis Protopapadakis and Foreign Minister Evangelos Averoff were also present at the ceremony as well as Prime Minister Konstantinos Karamanlis.His niece, Amalia married Karamanlis. In 1963 he succeeded Karamanlis as leader of the National Radical Union party (ERE).He was the last Prime Minister (acting as a caretaker for the scheduled for 28 May) prior to the coup d'état of 21 April 1967. He was placed under house arrest for the next seven years. During the events leading to the "metapolitefsi" (the period of political transition following the fall of the military junta), Phaedon Gizikis actively considered giving Kanellopoulos the mandate to form a transitional government. After the "metapolitefsi" Kanellopoulos resumed his parliamentary career as a member of the New Democracy party. He declined offers to become President of Greece when the post was offered to him during the "metapolitefsi".Kanellopoulos was the nephew of Dimitrios Gounaris. | [
"Member of the Hellenic Parliament",
"Deputy Prime Minister of Greece",
"Minister of Naval Affairs of Greece",
"Minister without portfolio of Greece",
"Minister of Commercial Marine of Greece",
"Minister of Public Order",
"Prime Minister of Greece",
"Minister of Economy of Greece",
"Minister of Aviation of Greece",
"Minister of Military Affairs of Greece",
"Member of the Athens Academy"
] |
|
Which position did Panagiotis Kanellopoulos hold in 01/26/1954? | January 26, 1954 | {
"text": [
"Minister for National Defence of Greece"
]
} | L2_Q708364_P39_7 | Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Member of the Athens Academy from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1959.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Aviation of Greece from Feb, 1947 to Aug, 1947.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Economy of Greece from Dec, 1944 to Jan, 1945.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Naval Affairs of Greece from Jan, 1947 to Feb, 1947.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Commercial Marine of Greece from Jul, 1944 to Oct, 1944.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Prime Minister of Greece from Apr, 1967 to Apr, 1967.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister for National Defence of Greece from Dec, 1952 to Jun, 1955.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister without portfolio of Greece from Apr, 1946 to Apr, 1946.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Public Order from Jan, 1947 to Feb, 1947.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Member of the Hellenic Parliament from Jan, 1974 to Jan, 1985.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Deputy Prime Minister of Greece from Nov, 1961 to Jun, 1963.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Military Affairs of Greece from Mar, 1950 to Apr, 1950. | Panagiotis KanellopoulosPanagiotis Kanellopoulos or Panayotis Kanellopoulos (; Patras, Achaea, 13 December 1902Athens, 11 September 1986) was a Greek author, politician and Prime Minister of Greece. He was the Prime Minister of Greece deposed by the Greek military junta of 1967–1974.Kanellopoulos studied law in Athens, Heidelberg and Munich. Kanellopoulos was an intellectual and author of books about politics, law, sociology, philosophy, and history. His book "I was born in 1402" received a literary award from the Academy of Athens. He married Theano Poulikakos (Θεανώ Πουλικάκου).After the start of the Axis occupation of Greece in 1941 he founded the "Omiros" resistance group, and in 1942 he fled to the Middle East, where he served as Minister of Defence under the Tsouderos government in exile during World War II. In November 1945, he served as Prime Minister for a short period of time. After the war he became Minister for Reconstruction under Georgios Papandreou in a national unity government. He also served in other ministerial posts under Alexandros Diomidis, Constantine Karamanlis and others till 1967 when he became Prime Minister.On 9 July 1961 Panagiotis Kanellopoulos as Deputy Prime Minister in Konstantinos Karamanlis' government and German Vice-Chancellor Ludwig Erhard signed the protocols of Greece's Treaty of Association with the European Economic Community (EEC). The signing ceremony in Athens was attended by top government officials from the six-member group consisting of Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, Luxemburg and the Netherlands. The six member group was the early precursor of today's 25 member European Union. Economy Minister Aristidis Protopapadakis and Foreign Minister Evangelos Averoff were also present at the ceremony as well as Prime Minister Konstantinos Karamanlis.His niece, Amalia married Karamanlis. In 1963 he succeeded Karamanlis as leader of the National Radical Union party (ERE).He was the last Prime Minister (acting as a caretaker for the scheduled for 28 May) prior to the coup d'état of 21 April 1967. He was placed under house arrest for the next seven years. During the events leading to the "metapolitefsi" (the period of political transition following the fall of the military junta), Phaedon Gizikis actively considered giving Kanellopoulos the mandate to form a transitional government. After the "metapolitefsi" Kanellopoulos resumed his parliamentary career as a member of the New Democracy party. He declined offers to become President of Greece when the post was offered to him during the "metapolitefsi".Kanellopoulos was the nephew of Dimitrios Gounaris. | [
"Member of the Hellenic Parliament",
"Deputy Prime Minister of Greece",
"Minister of Naval Affairs of Greece",
"Minister without portfolio of Greece",
"Minister of Commercial Marine of Greece",
"Minister of Public Order",
"Prime Minister of Greece",
"Minister of Economy of Greece",
"Minister of Aviation of Greece",
"Minister of Military Affairs of Greece",
"Member of the Athens Academy"
] |
|
Which position did Panagiotis Kanellopoulos hold in 26-Jan-195426-January-1954? | January 26, 1954 | {
"text": [
"Minister for National Defence of Greece"
]
} | L2_Q708364_P39_7 | Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Member of the Athens Academy from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1959.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Aviation of Greece from Feb, 1947 to Aug, 1947.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Economy of Greece from Dec, 1944 to Jan, 1945.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Naval Affairs of Greece from Jan, 1947 to Feb, 1947.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Commercial Marine of Greece from Jul, 1944 to Oct, 1944.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Prime Minister of Greece from Apr, 1967 to Apr, 1967.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister for National Defence of Greece from Dec, 1952 to Jun, 1955.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister without portfolio of Greece from Apr, 1946 to Apr, 1946.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Public Order from Jan, 1947 to Feb, 1947.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Member of the Hellenic Parliament from Jan, 1974 to Jan, 1985.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Deputy Prime Minister of Greece from Nov, 1961 to Jun, 1963.
Panagiotis Kanellopoulos holds the position of Minister of Military Affairs of Greece from Mar, 1950 to Apr, 1950. | Panagiotis KanellopoulosPanagiotis Kanellopoulos or Panayotis Kanellopoulos (; Patras, Achaea, 13 December 1902Athens, 11 September 1986) was a Greek author, politician and Prime Minister of Greece. He was the Prime Minister of Greece deposed by the Greek military junta of 1967–1974.Kanellopoulos studied law in Athens, Heidelberg and Munich. Kanellopoulos was an intellectual and author of books about politics, law, sociology, philosophy, and history. His book "I was born in 1402" received a literary award from the Academy of Athens. He married Theano Poulikakos (Θεανώ Πουλικάκου).After the start of the Axis occupation of Greece in 1941 he founded the "Omiros" resistance group, and in 1942 he fled to the Middle East, where he served as Minister of Defence under the Tsouderos government in exile during World War II. In November 1945, he served as Prime Minister for a short period of time. After the war he became Minister for Reconstruction under Georgios Papandreou in a national unity government. He also served in other ministerial posts under Alexandros Diomidis, Constantine Karamanlis and others till 1967 when he became Prime Minister.On 9 July 1961 Panagiotis Kanellopoulos as Deputy Prime Minister in Konstantinos Karamanlis' government and German Vice-Chancellor Ludwig Erhard signed the protocols of Greece's Treaty of Association with the European Economic Community (EEC). The signing ceremony in Athens was attended by top government officials from the six-member group consisting of Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, Luxemburg and the Netherlands. The six member group was the early precursor of today's 25 member European Union. Economy Minister Aristidis Protopapadakis and Foreign Minister Evangelos Averoff were also present at the ceremony as well as Prime Minister Konstantinos Karamanlis.His niece, Amalia married Karamanlis. In 1963 he succeeded Karamanlis as leader of the National Radical Union party (ERE).He was the last Prime Minister (acting as a caretaker for the scheduled for 28 May) prior to the coup d'état of 21 April 1967. He was placed under house arrest for the next seven years. During the events leading to the "metapolitefsi" (the period of political transition following the fall of the military junta), Phaedon Gizikis actively considered giving Kanellopoulos the mandate to form a transitional government. After the "metapolitefsi" Kanellopoulos resumed his parliamentary career as a member of the New Democracy party. He declined offers to become President of Greece when the post was offered to him during the "metapolitefsi".Kanellopoulos was the nephew of Dimitrios Gounaris. | [
"Member of the Hellenic Parliament",
"Deputy Prime Minister of Greece",
"Minister of Naval Affairs of Greece",
"Minister without portfolio of Greece",
"Minister of Commercial Marine of Greece",
"Minister of Public Order",
"Prime Minister of Greece",
"Minister of Economy of Greece",
"Minister of Aviation of Greece",
"Minister of Military Affairs of Greece",
"Member of the Athens Academy"
] |
|
Which employer did I. J. Good work for in Jan, 1947? | January 27, 1947 | {
"text": [
"University of Manchester"
]
} | L2_Q224372_P108_0 | I. J. Good works for Admiralty Research Laboratory from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1962.
I. J. Good works for University of Manchester from Jan, 1945 to Jan, 1948.
I. J. Good works for Government Communications Headquarters from Jan, 1948 to Jan, 1959.
I. J. Good works for Virginia Tech from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1994.
I. J. Good works for Institute for Defense Analyses from Jan, 1962 to Jan, 1964.
I. J. Good works for Trinity College from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. | I. J. GoodIrving John ("I. J."; "Jack") Good (9 December 1916 – 5 April 2009)was a British mathematician who worked as a cryptologist at Bletchley Park with Alan Turing. After the Second World War, Good continued to work with Turing on the design of computers and Bayesian statistics at the University of Manchester. Good moved to the United States where he was professor at Virginia Tech.He was born Isadore Jacob Gudak to a Polish Jewish family in London. He later anglicised his name to Irving John Good and signed his publications "I. J. Good."An originator of the concept now known as "intelligence explosion," Good served as consultant on supercomputers to Stanley Kubrick, director of the 1968 film "".Good was born Isadore Jacob Gudak to Polish Jewish parents in London. His father was a watchmaker, who later managed and owned a successful fashionable jewellery shop, and was also a notable Yiddish writer writing under the pen name of Moshe Oved. Good was educated at the Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School, at the time in Hampstead in northwest London, where, according to Dan van der Vat, Good effortlessly outpaced the mathematics curriculum.Good studied mathematics at Jesus College, Cambridge, graduating in 1938 and winning the Smith's Prize in 1940. He did research under G.H. Hardy and Besicovitch before moving to Bletchley Park in 1941 on completing his doctorate.On 27 May 1941, having just obtained his doctorate at Cambridge, Good walked into Hut 8, Bletchley's facility for breaking German naval ciphers, for his first shift. This was the day that Britain's Royal Navy destroyed the after it had sunk the Royal Navy's . Bletchley had contributed to "Bismarck"s destruction by discovering, through wireless-traffic analysis, that the German flagship was sailing for Brest, France, rather than Wilhelmshaven, from which she had set out.Hut 8 had not, however, been able to decrypt on a current basis the 22 German Naval Enigma messages that had been sent to "Bismarck". The German Navy's Enigma cyphers were considerably more secure than those of the German Army or Air Force, which had been well penetrated by 1940. Naval messages were taking three to seven days to decrypt, which usually made them operationally useless for the British. This was about to change, however, with Good's help.Good served with Turing for nearly two years.Subsequently, he worked with Donald Michie in Max Newman's group on the Fish ciphers, leading to the development of the Colossus computer.Good was a member of the Bletchley Chess Club which defeated the Oxford University Chess Club 8–4 in a twelve-board team match held on 2 December 1944. Good played fourth board for Bletchley Park, with C.H.O'D. Alexander, Harry Golombek and James Macrae Aitken in the top three spots. He won his game against Sir Robert Robinson.In 1947 Newman invited Good to join him and Turing at Manchester University. There for three years Good lectured in mathematics and researched computers, including the Manchester Mark 1.In 1948 Good was recruited by the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), successor to Bletchley Park. He remained there until 1959, while also taking up a brief associate professorship at Princeton University and a short consultancy with IBM.From 1959 until he moved to the US in 1967, Good held government-funded positions and from 1964 a senior research fellowship at Trinity College, Oxford, and the Atlas Computer Laboratory, where he continued his interests in computing, statistics and chess. He later left Oxford, declaring it "a little stiff".In 1967 Good moved to the United States, where he was appointed a research professor of statistics at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. In 1969 he was appointed a University Distinguished Professor at Virginia Tech, and in 1994 Emeritus University Distinguished Professor.In 1973 he was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association.He later said about his arrival in Virginia (from Britain) in 1967 to start teaching at VPI, where he taught from 1967 to 1994:Good's published work ran to over three million words.He was known for his work on Bayesian statistics. Kass and Raftery credit Good (and in turn Turing) with coining the term "Bayes factor". Good published a number of books on probability theory. In 1958 he published an early version of what later became known as the fast Fourier transform but it did not become widely known. He played chess to county standard and helped popularise Go, an Asian boardgame, through a 1965 article in "New Scientist" (he had learned the rules from Alan Turing). In 1965 he originated the concept now known as "intelligence explosion" or the "technological singularity, which anticipates the eventual advent of superhuman intelligence:Good's authorship of treatises such as "Speculations Concerning the First Ultraintelligent Machine" and "Logic of Man and Machine" (both 1965) made him the obvious person for Stanley Kubrick to consult when filming "" (1968), one of whose principal characters was the paranoid HAL 9000 supercomputer. In 1995 Good was elected a member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.According to his assistant, Leslie Pendleton, in 1998 Good wrote in an unpublished autobiographical statement that he suspected an ultraintelligent machine would lead to the extinction of man.The slender, bushy-moustached Good was blessed with a sense of humour. He published a paper under the names IJ Good and "K Caj Doog"—the latter, his own nickname spelled backwards. In a 1988 paper, he introduced its subject by saying, "Many people have contributed to this topic but I shall mainly review the writings of I. J. Good because I have read them all carefully." In Virginia he chose, as his vanity licence plate, "007IJG," in subtle reference to his Second World War intelligence work.Good never married. After going through ten assistants in his first thirteen years at Virginia, he hired Leslie Pendleton, who proved up to the task of managing his quirks. He wanted to marry her, but she refused. Although there was speculation, they were never more than friends, but she was his assistant, companion, and friend for the rest of his life.Good died on 5 April 2009 of natural causes in Radford, Virginia, aged 92. | [
"Trinity College",
"Virginia Tech",
"Government Communications Headquarters",
"Institute for Defense Analyses",
"Admiralty Research Laboratory"
] |
|
Which employer did I. J. Good work for in 1947-01-27? | January 27, 1947 | {
"text": [
"University of Manchester"
]
} | L2_Q224372_P108_0 | I. J. Good works for Admiralty Research Laboratory from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1962.
I. J. Good works for University of Manchester from Jan, 1945 to Jan, 1948.
I. J. Good works for Government Communications Headquarters from Jan, 1948 to Jan, 1959.
I. J. Good works for Virginia Tech from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1994.
I. J. Good works for Institute for Defense Analyses from Jan, 1962 to Jan, 1964.
I. J. Good works for Trinity College from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. | I. J. GoodIrving John ("I. J."; "Jack") Good (9 December 1916 – 5 April 2009)was a British mathematician who worked as a cryptologist at Bletchley Park with Alan Turing. After the Second World War, Good continued to work with Turing on the design of computers and Bayesian statistics at the University of Manchester. Good moved to the United States where he was professor at Virginia Tech.He was born Isadore Jacob Gudak to a Polish Jewish family in London. He later anglicised his name to Irving John Good and signed his publications "I. J. Good."An originator of the concept now known as "intelligence explosion," Good served as consultant on supercomputers to Stanley Kubrick, director of the 1968 film "".Good was born Isadore Jacob Gudak to Polish Jewish parents in London. His father was a watchmaker, who later managed and owned a successful fashionable jewellery shop, and was also a notable Yiddish writer writing under the pen name of Moshe Oved. Good was educated at the Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School, at the time in Hampstead in northwest London, where, according to Dan van der Vat, Good effortlessly outpaced the mathematics curriculum.Good studied mathematics at Jesus College, Cambridge, graduating in 1938 and winning the Smith's Prize in 1940. He did research under G.H. Hardy and Besicovitch before moving to Bletchley Park in 1941 on completing his doctorate.On 27 May 1941, having just obtained his doctorate at Cambridge, Good walked into Hut 8, Bletchley's facility for breaking German naval ciphers, for his first shift. This was the day that Britain's Royal Navy destroyed the after it had sunk the Royal Navy's . Bletchley had contributed to "Bismarck"s destruction by discovering, through wireless-traffic analysis, that the German flagship was sailing for Brest, France, rather than Wilhelmshaven, from which she had set out.Hut 8 had not, however, been able to decrypt on a current basis the 22 German Naval Enigma messages that had been sent to "Bismarck". The German Navy's Enigma cyphers were considerably more secure than those of the German Army or Air Force, which had been well penetrated by 1940. Naval messages were taking three to seven days to decrypt, which usually made them operationally useless for the British. This was about to change, however, with Good's help.Good served with Turing for nearly two years.Subsequently, he worked with Donald Michie in Max Newman's group on the Fish ciphers, leading to the development of the Colossus computer.Good was a member of the Bletchley Chess Club which defeated the Oxford University Chess Club 8–4 in a twelve-board team match held on 2 December 1944. Good played fourth board for Bletchley Park, with C.H.O'D. Alexander, Harry Golombek and James Macrae Aitken in the top three spots. He won his game against Sir Robert Robinson.In 1947 Newman invited Good to join him and Turing at Manchester University. There for three years Good lectured in mathematics and researched computers, including the Manchester Mark 1.In 1948 Good was recruited by the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), successor to Bletchley Park. He remained there until 1959, while also taking up a brief associate professorship at Princeton University and a short consultancy with IBM.From 1959 until he moved to the US in 1967, Good held government-funded positions and from 1964 a senior research fellowship at Trinity College, Oxford, and the Atlas Computer Laboratory, where he continued his interests in computing, statistics and chess. He later left Oxford, declaring it "a little stiff".In 1967 Good moved to the United States, where he was appointed a research professor of statistics at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. In 1969 he was appointed a University Distinguished Professor at Virginia Tech, and in 1994 Emeritus University Distinguished Professor.In 1973 he was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association.He later said about his arrival in Virginia (from Britain) in 1967 to start teaching at VPI, where he taught from 1967 to 1994:Good's published work ran to over three million words.He was known for his work on Bayesian statistics. Kass and Raftery credit Good (and in turn Turing) with coining the term "Bayes factor". Good published a number of books on probability theory. In 1958 he published an early version of what later became known as the fast Fourier transform but it did not become widely known. He played chess to county standard and helped popularise Go, an Asian boardgame, through a 1965 article in "New Scientist" (he had learned the rules from Alan Turing). In 1965 he originated the concept now known as "intelligence explosion" or the "technological singularity, which anticipates the eventual advent of superhuman intelligence:Good's authorship of treatises such as "Speculations Concerning the First Ultraintelligent Machine" and "Logic of Man and Machine" (both 1965) made him the obvious person for Stanley Kubrick to consult when filming "" (1968), one of whose principal characters was the paranoid HAL 9000 supercomputer. In 1995 Good was elected a member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.According to his assistant, Leslie Pendleton, in 1998 Good wrote in an unpublished autobiographical statement that he suspected an ultraintelligent machine would lead to the extinction of man.The slender, bushy-moustached Good was blessed with a sense of humour. He published a paper under the names IJ Good and "K Caj Doog"—the latter, his own nickname spelled backwards. In a 1988 paper, he introduced its subject by saying, "Many people have contributed to this topic but I shall mainly review the writings of I. J. Good because I have read them all carefully." In Virginia he chose, as his vanity licence plate, "007IJG," in subtle reference to his Second World War intelligence work.Good never married. After going through ten assistants in his first thirteen years at Virginia, he hired Leslie Pendleton, who proved up to the task of managing his quirks. He wanted to marry her, but she refused. Although there was speculation, they were never more than friends, but she was his assistant, companion, and friend for the rest of his life.Good died on 5 April 2009 of natural causes in Radford, Virginia, aged 92. | [
"Trinity College",
"Virginia Tech",
"Government Communications Headquarters",
"Institute for Defense Analyses",
"Admiralty Research Laboratory"
] |
|
Which employer did I. J. Good work for in 27/01/1947? | January 27, 1947 | {
"text": [
"University of Manchester"
]
} | L2_Q224372_P108_0 | I. J. Good works for Admiralty Research Laboratory from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1962.
I. J. Good works for University of Manchester from Jan, 1945 to Jan, 1948.
I. J. Good works for Government Communications Headquarters from Jan, 1948 to Jan, 1959.
I. J. Good works for Virginia Tech from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1994.
I. J. Good works for Institute for Defense Analyses from Jan, 1962 to Jan, 1964.
I. J. Good works for Trinity College from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. | I. J. GoodIrving John ("I. J."; "Jack") Good (9 December 1916 – 5 April 2009)was a British mathematician who worked as a cryptologist at Bletchley Park with Alan Turing. After the Second World War, Good continued to work with Turing on the design of computers and Bayesian statistics at the University of Manchester. Good moved to the United States where he was professor at Virginia Tech.He was born Isadore Jacob Gudak to a Polish Jewish family in London. He later anglicised his name to Irving John Good and signed his publications "I. J. Good."An originator of the concept now known as "intelligence explosion," Good served as consultant on supercomputers to Stanley Kubrick, director of the 1968 film "".Good was born Isadore Jacob Gudak to Polish Jewish parents in London. His father was a watchmaker, who later managed and owned a successful fashionable jewellery shop, and was also a notable Yiddish writer writing under the pen name of Moshe Oved. Good was educated at the Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School, at the time in Hampstead in northwest London, where, according to Dan van der Vat, Good effortlessly outpaced the mathematics curriculum.Good studied mathematics at Jesus College, Cambridge, graduating in 1938 and winning the Smith's Prize in 1940. He did research under G.H. Hardy and Besicovitch before moving to Bletchley Park in 1941 on completing his doctorate.On 27 May 1941, having just obtained his doctorate at Cambridge, Good walked into Hut 8, Bletchley's facility for breaking German naval ciphers, for his first shift. This was the day that Britain's Royal Navy destroyed the after it had sunk the Royal Navy's . Bletchley had contributed to "Bismarck"s destruction by discovering, through wireless-traffic analysis, that the German flagship was sailing for Brest, France, rather than Wilhelmshaven, from which she had set out.Hut 8 had not, however, been able to decrypt on a current basis the 22 German Naval Enigma messages that had been sent to "Bismarck". The German Navy's Enigma cyphers were considerably more secure than those of the German Army or Air Force, which had been well penetrated by 1940. Naval messages were taking three to seven days to decrypt, which usually made them operationally useless for the British. This was about to change, however, with Good's help.Good served with Turing for nearly two years.Subsequently, he worked with Donald Michie in Max Newman's group on the Fish ciphers, leading to the development of the Colossus computer.Good was a member of the Bletchley Chess Club which defeated the Oxford University Chess Club 8–4 in a twelve-board team match held on 2 December 1944. Good played fourth board for Bletchley Park, with C.H.O'D. Alexander, Harry Golombek and James Macrae Aitken in the top three spots. He won his game against Sir Robert Robinson.In 1947 Newman invited Good to join him and Turing at Manchester University. There for three years Good lectured in mathematics and researched computers, including the Manchester Mark 1.In 1948 Good was recruited by the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), successor to Bletchley Park. He remained there until 1959, while also taking up a brief associate professorship at Princeton University and a short consultancy with IBM.From 1959 until he moved to the US in 1967, Good held government-funded positions and from 1964 a senior research fellowship at Trinity College, Oxford, and the Atlas Computer Laboratory, where he continued his interests in computing, statistics and chess. He later left Oxford, declaring it "a little stiff".In 1967 Good moved to the United States, where he was appointed a research professor of statistics at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. In 1969 he was appointed a University Distinguished Professor at Virginia Tech, and in 1994 Emeritus University Distinguished Professor.In 1973 he was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association.He later said about his arrival in Virginia (from Britain) in 1967 to start teaching at VPI, where he taught from 1967 to 1994:Good's published work ran to over three million words.He was known for his work on Bayesian statistics. Kass and Raftery credit Good (and in turn Turing) with coining the term "Bayes factor". Good published a number of books on probability theory. In 1958 he published an early version of what later became known as the fast Fourier transform but it did not become widely known. He played chess to county standard and helped popularise Go, an Asian boardgame, through a 1965 article in "New Scientist" (he had learned the rules from Alan Turing). In 1965 he originated the concept now known as "intelligence explosion" or the "technological singularity, which anticipates the eventual advent of superhuman intelligence:Good's authorship of treatises such as "Speculations Concerning the First Ultraintelligent Machine" and "Logic of Man and Machine" (both 1965) made him the obvious person for Stanley Kubrick to consult when filming "" (1968), one of whose principal characters was the paranoid HAL 9000 supercomputer. In 1995 Good was elected a member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.According to his assistant, Leslie Pendleton, in 1998 Good wrote in an unpublished autobiographical statement that he suspected an ultraintelligent machine would lead to the extinction of man.The slender, bushy-moustached Good was blessed with a sense of humour. He published a paper under the names IJ Good and "K Caj Doog"—the latter, his own nickname spelled backwards. In a 1988 paper, he introduced its subject by saying, "Many people have contributed to this topic but I shall mainly review the writings of I. J. Good because I have read them all carefully." In Virginia he chose, as his vanity licence plate, "007IJG," in subtle reference to his Second World War intelligence work.Good never married. After going through ten assistants in his first thirteen years at Virginia, he hired Leslie Pendleton, who proved up to the task of managing his quirks. He wanted to marry her, but she refused. Although there was speculation, they were never more than friends, but she was his assistant, companion, and friend for the rest of his life.Good died on 5 April 2009 of natural causes in Radford, Virginia, aged 92. | [
"Trinity College",
"Virginia Tech",
"Government Communications Headquarters",
"Institute for Defense Analyses",
"Admiralty Research Laboratory"
] |
|
Which employer did I. J. Good work for in Jan 27, 1947? | January 27, 1947 | {
"text": [
"University of Manchester"
]
} | L2_Q224372_P108_0 | I. J. Good works for Admiralty Research Laboratory from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1962.
I. J. Good works for University of Manchester from Jan, 1945 to Jan, 1948.
I. J. Good works for Government Communications Headquarters from Jan, 1948 to Jan, 1959.
I. J. Good works for Virginia Tech from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1994.
I. J. Good works for Institute for Defense Analyses from Jan, 1962 to Jan, 1964.
I. J. Good works for Trinity College from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. | I. J. GoodIrving John ("I. J."; "Jack") Good (9 December 1916 – 5 April 2009)was a British mathematician who worked as a cryptologist at Bletchley Park with Alan Turing. After the Second World War, Good continued to work with Turing on the design of computers and Bayesian statistics at the University of Manchester. Good moved to the United States where he was professor at Virginia Tech.He was born Isadore Jacob Gudak to a Polish Jewish family in London. He later anglicised his name to Irving John Good and signed his publications "I. J. Good."An originator of the concept now known as "intelligence explosion," Good served as consultant on supercomputers to Stanley Kubrick, director of the 1968 film "".Good was born Isadore Jacob Gudak to Polish Jewish parents in London. His father was a watchmaker, who later managed and owned a successful fashionable jewellery shop, and was also a notable Yiddish writer writing under the pen name of Moshe Oved. Good was educated at the Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School, at the time in Hampstead in northwest London, where, according to Dan van der Vat, Good effortlessly outpaced the mathematics curriculum.Good studied mathematics at Jesus College, Cambridge, graduating in 1938 and winning the Smith's Prize in 1940. He did research under G.H. Hardy and Besicovitch before moving to Bletchley Park in 1941 on completing his doctorate.On 27 May 1941, having just obtained his doctorate at Cambridge, Good walked into Hut 8, Bletchley's facility for breaking German naval ciphers, for his first shift. This was the day that Britain's Royal Navy destroyed the after it had sunk the Royal Navy's . Bletchley had contributed to "Bismarck"s destruction by discovering, through wireless-traffic analysis, that the German flagship was sailing for Brest, France, rather than Wilhelmshaven, from which she had set out.Hut 8 had not, however, been able to decrypt on a current basis the 22 German Naval Enigma messages that had been sent to "Bismarck". The German Navy's Enigma cyphers were considerably more secure than those of the German Army or Air Force, which had been well penetrated by 1940. Naval messages were taking three to seven days to decrypt, which usually made them operationally useless for the British. This was about to change, however, with Good's help.Good served with Turing for nearly two years.Subsequently, he worked with Donald Michie in Max Newman's group on the Fish ciphers, leading to the development of the Colossus computer.Good was a member of the Bletchley Chess Club which defeated the Oxford University Chess Club 8–4 in a twelve-board team match held on 2 December 1944. Good played fourth board for Bletchley Park, with C.H.O'D. Alexander, Harry Golombek and James Macrae Aitken in the top three spots. He won his game against Sir Robert Robinson.In 1947 Newman invited Good to join him and Turing at Manchester University. There for three years Good lectured in mathematics and researched computers, including the Manchester Mark 1.In 1948 Good was recruited by the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), successor to Bletchley Park. He remained there until 1959, while also taking up a brief associate professorship at Princeton University and a short consultancy with IBM.From 1959 until he moved to the US in 1967, Good held government-funded positions and from 1964 a senior research fellowship at Trinity College, Oxford, and the Atlas Computer Laboratory, where he continued his interests in computing, statistics and chess. He later left Oxford, declaring it "a little stiff".In 1967 Good moved to the United States, where he was appointed a research professor of statistics at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. In 1969 he was appointed a University Distinguished Professor at Virginia Tech, and in 1994 Emeritus University Distinguished Professor.In 1973 he was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association.He later said about his arrival in Virginia (from Britain) in 1967 to start teaching at VPI, where he taught from 1967 to 1994:Good's published work ran to over three million words.He was known for his work on Bayesian statistics. Kass and Raftery credit Good (and in turn Turing) with coining the term "Bayes factor". Good published a number of books on probability theory. In 1958 he published an early version of what later became known as the fast Fourier transform but it did not become widely known. He played chess to county standard and helped popularise Go, an Asian boardgame, through a 1965 article in "New Scientist" (he had learned the rules from Alan Turing). In 1965 he originated the concept now known as "intelligence explosion" or the "technological singularity, which anticipates the eventual advent of superhuman intelligence:Good's authorship of treatises such as "Speculations Concerning the First Ultraintelligent Machine" and "Logic of Man and Machine" (both 1965) made him the obvious person for Stanley Kubrick to consult when filming "" (1968), one of whose principal characters was the paranoid HAL 9000 supercomputer. In 1995 Good was elected a member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.According to his assistant, Leslie Pendleton, in 1998 Good wrote in an unpublished autobiographical statement that he suspected an ultraintelligent machine would lead to the extinction of man.The slender, bushy-moustached Good was blessed with a sense of humour. He published a paper under the names IJ Good and "K Caj Doog"—the latter, his own nickname spelled backwards. In a 1988 paper, he introduced its subject by saying, "Many people have contributed to this topic but I shall mainly review the writings of I. J. Good because I have read them all carefully." In Virginia he chose, as his vanity licence plate, "007IJG," in subtle reference to his Second World War intelligence work.Good never married. After going through ten assistants in his first thirteen years at Virginia, he hired Leslie Pendleton, who proved up to the task of managing his quirks. He wanted to marry her, but she refused. Although there was speculation, they were never more than friends, but she was his assistant, companion, and friend for the rest of his life.Good died on 5 April 2009 of natural causes in Radford, Virginia, aged 92. | [
"Trinity College",
"Virginia Tech",
"Government Communications Headquarters",
"Institute for Defense Analyses",
"Admiralty Research Laboratory"
] |
|
Which employer did I. J. Good work for in 01/27/1947? | January 27, 1947 | {
"text": [
"University of Manchester"
]
} | L2_Q224372_P108_0 | I. J. Good works for Admiralty Research Laboratory from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1962.
I. J. Good works for University of Manchester from Jan, 1945 to Jan, 1948.
I. J. Good works for Government Communications Headquarters from Jan, 1948 to Jan, 1959.
I. J. Good works for Virginia Tech from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1994.
I. J. Good works for Institute for Defense Analyses from Jan, 1962 to Jan, 1964.
I. J. Good works for Trinity College from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. | I. J. GoodIrving John ("I. J."; "Jack") Good (9 December 1916 – 5 April 2009)was a British mathematician who worked as a cryptologist at Bletchley Park with Alan Turing. After the Second World War, Good continued to work with Turing on the design of computers and Bayesian statistics at the University of Manchester. Good moved to the United States where he was professor at Virginia Tech.He was born Isadore Jacob Gudak to a Polish Jewish family in London. He later anglicised his name to Irving John Good and signed his publications "I. J. Good."An originator of the concept now known as "intelligence explosion," Good served as consultant on supercomputers to Stanley Kubrick, director of the 1968 film "".Good was born Isadore Jacob Gudak to Polish Jewish parents in London. His father was a watchmaker, who later managed and owned a successful fashionable jewellery shop, and was also a notable Yiddish writer writing under the pen name of Moshe Oved. Good was educated at the Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School, at the time in Hampstead in northwest London, where, according to Dan van der Vat, Good effortlessly outpaced the mathematics curriculum.Good studied mathematics at Jesus College, Cambridge, graduating in 1938 and winning the Smith's Prize in 1940. He did research under G.H. Hardy and Besicovitch before moving to Bletchley Park in 1941 on completing his doctorate.On 27 May 1941, having just obtained his doctorate at Cambridge, Good walked into Hut 8, Bletchley's facility for breaking German naval ciphers, for his first shift. This was the day that Britain's Royal Navy destroyed the after it had sunk the Royal Navy's . Bletchley had contributed to "Bismarck"s destruction by discovering, through wireless-traffic analysis, that the German flagship was sailing for Brest, France, rather than Wilhelmshaven, from which she had set out.Hut 8 had not, however, been able to decrypt on a current basis the 22 German Naval Enigma messages that had been sent to "Bismarck". The German Navy's Enigma cyphers were considerably more secure than those of the German Army or Air Force, which had been well penetrated by 1940. Naval messages were taking three to seven days to decrypt, which usually made them operationally useless for the British. This was about to change, however, with Good's help.Good served with Turing for nearly two years.Subsequently, he worked with Donald Michie in Max Newman's group on the Fish ciphers, leading to the development of the Colossus computer.Good was a member of the Bletchley Chess Club which defeated the Oxford University Chess Club 8–4 in a twelve-board team match held on 2 December 1944. Good played fourth board for Bletchley Park, with C.H.O'D. Alexander, Harry Golombek and James Macrae Aitken in the top three spots. He won his game against Sir Robert Robinson.In 1947 Newman invited Good to join him and Turing at Manchester University. There for three years Good lectured in mathematics and researched computers, including the Manchester Mark 1.In 1948 Good was recruited by the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), successor to Bletchley Park. He remained there until 1959, while also taking up a brief associate professorship at Princeton University and a short consultancy with IBM.From 1959 until he moved to the US in 1967, Good held government-funded positions and from 1964 a senior research fellowship at Trinity College, Oxford, and the Atlas Computer Laboratory, where he continued his interests in computing, statistics and chess. He later left Oxford, declaring it "a little stiff".In 1967 Good moved to the United States, where he was appointed a research professor of statistics at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. In 1969 he was appointed a University Distinguished Professor at Virginia Tech, and in 1994 Emeritus University Distinguished Professor.In 1973 he was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association.He later said about his arrival in Virginia (from Britain) in 1967 to start teaching at VPI, where he taught from 1967 to 1994:Good's published work ran to over three million words.He was known for his work on Bayesian statistics. Kass and Raftery credit Good (and in turn Turing) with coining the term "Bayes factor". Good published a number of books on probability theory. In 1958 he published an early version of what later became known as the fast Fourier transform but it did not become widely known. He played chess to county standard and helped popularise Go, an Asian boardgame, through a 1965 article in "New Scientist" (he had learned the rules from Alan Turing). In 1965 he originated the concept now known as "intelligence explosion" or the "technological singularity, which anticipates the eventual advent of superhuman intelligence:Good's authorship of treatises such as "Speculations Concerning the First Ultraintelligent Machine" and "Logic of Man and Machine" (both 1965) made him the obvious person for Stanley Kubrick to consult when filming "" (1968), one of whose principal characters was the paranoid HAL 9000 supercomputer. In 1995 Good was elected a member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.According to his assistant, Leslie Pendleton, in 1998 Good wrote in an unpublished autobiographical statement that he suspected an ultraintelligent machine would lead to the extinction of man.The slender, bushy-moustached Good was blessed with a sense of humour. He published a paper under the names IJ Good and "K Caj Doog"—the latter, his own nickname spelled backwards. In a 1988 paper, he introduced its subject by saying, "Many people have contributed to this topic but I shall mainly review the writings of I. J. Good because I have read them all carefully." In Virginia he chose, as his vanity licence plate, "007IJG," in subtle reference to his Second World War intelligence work.Good never married. After going through ten assistants in his first thirteen years at Virginia, he hired Leslie Pendleton, who proved up to the task of managing his quirks. He wanted to marry her, but she refused. Although there was speculation, they were never more than friends, but she was his assistant, companion, and friend for the rest of his life.Good died on 5 April 2009 of natural causes in Radford, Virginia, aged 92. | [
"Trinity College",
"Virginia Tech",
"Government Communications Headquarters",
"Institute for Defense Analyses",
"Admiralty Research Laboratory"
] |
|
Which employer did I. J. Good work for in 27-Jan-194727-January-1947? | January 27, 1947 | {
"text": [
"University of Manchester"
]
} | L2_Q224372_P108_0 | I. J. Good works for Admiralty Research Laboratory from Jan, 1959 to Jan, 1962.
I. J. Good works for University of Manchester from Jan, 1945 to Jan, 1948.
I. J. Good works for Government Communications Headquarters from Jan, 1948 to Jan, 1959.
I. J. Good works for Virginia Tech from Jan, 1967 to Jan, 1994.
I. J. Good works for Institute for Defense Analyses from Jan, 1962 to Jan, 1964.
I. J. Good works for Trinity College from Jan, 1964 to Jan, 1967. | I. J. GoodIrving John ("I. J."; "Jack") Good (9 December 1916 – 5 April 2009)was a British mathematician who worked as a cryptologist at Bletchley Park with Alan Turing. After the Second World War, Good continued to work with Turing on the design of computers and Bayesian statistics at the University of Manchester. Good moved to the United States where he was professor at Virginia Tech.He was born Isadore Jacob Gudak to a Polish Jewish family in London. He later anglicised his name to Irving John Good and signed his publications "I. J. Good."An originator of the concept now known as "intelligence explosion," Good served as consultant on supercomputers to Stanley Kubrick, director of the 1968 film "".Good was born Isadore Jacob Gudak to Polish Jewish parents in London. His father was a watchmaker, who later managed and owned a successful fashionable jewellery shop, and was also a notable Yiddish writer writing under the pen name of Moshe Oved. Good was educated at the Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School, at the time in Hampstead in northwest London, where, according to Dan van der Vat, Good effortlessly outpaced the mathematics curriculum.Good studied mathematics at Jesus College, Cambridge, graduating in 1938 and winning the Smith's Prize in 1940. He did research under G.H. Hardy and Besicovitch before moving to Bletchley Park in 1941 on completing his doctorate.On 27 May 1941, having just obtained his doctorate at Cambridge, Good walked into Hut 8, Bletchley's facility for breaking German naval ciphers, for his first shift. This was the day that Britain's Royal Navy destroyed the after it had sunk the Royal Navy's . Bletchley had contributed to "Bismarck"s destruction by discovering, through wireless-traffic analysis, that the German flagship was sailing for Brest, France, rather than Wilhelmshaven, from which she had set out.Hut 8 had not, however, been able to decrypt on a current basis the 22 German Naval Enigma messages that had been sent to "Bismarck". The German Navy's Enigma cyphers were considerably more secure than those of the German Army or Air Force, which had been well penetrated by 1940. Naval messages were taking three to seven days to decrypt, which usually made them operationally useless for the British. This was about to change, however, with Good's help.Good served with Turing for nearly two years.Subsequently, he worked with Donald Michie in Max Newman's group on the Fish ciphers, leading to the development of the Colossus computer.Good was a member of the Bletchley Chess Club which defeated the Oxford University Chess Club 8–4 in a twelve-board team match held on 2 December 1944. Good played fourth board for Bletchley Park, with C.H.O'D. Alexander, Harry Golombek and James Macrae Aitken in the top three spots. He won his game against Sir Robert Robinson.In 1947 Newman invited Good to join him and Turing at Manchester University. There for three years Good lectured in mathematics and researched computers, including the Manchester Mark 1.In 1948 Good was recruited by the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), successor to Bletchley Park. He remained there until 1959, while also taking up a brief associate professorship at Princeton University and a short consultancy with IBM.From 1959 until he moved to the US in 1967, Good held government-funded positions and from 1964 a senior research fellowship at Trinity College, Oxford, and the Atlas Computer Laboratory, where he continued his interests in computing, statistics and chess. He later left Oxford, declaring it "a little stiff".In 1967 Good moved to the United States, where he was appointed a research professor of statistics at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. In 1969 he was appointed a University Distinguished Professor at Virginia Tech, and in 1994 Emeritus University Distinguished Professor.In 1973 he was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association.He later said about his arrival in Virginia (from Britain) in 1967 to start teaching at VPI, where he taught from 1967 to 1994:Good's published work ran to over three million words.He was known for his work on Bayesian statistics. Kass and Raftery credit Good (and in turn Turing) with coining the term "Bayes factor". Good published a number of books on probability theory. In 1958 he published an early version of what later became known as the fast Fourier transform but it did not become widely known. He played chess to county standard and helped popularise Go, an Asian boardgame, through a 1965 article in "New Scientist" (he had learned the rules from Alan Turing). In 1965 he originated the concept now known as "intelligence explosion" or the "technological singularity, which anticipates the eventual advent of superhuman intelligence:Good's authorship of treatises such as "Speculations Concerning the First Ultraintelligent Machine" and "Logic of Man and Machine" (both 1965) made him the obvious person for Stanley Kubrick to consult when filming "" (1968), one of whose principal characters was the paranoid HAL 9000 supercomputer. In 1995 Good was elected a member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.According to his assistant, Leslie Pendleton, in 1998 Good wrote in an unpublished autobiographical statement that he suspected an ultraintelligent machine would lead to the extinction of man.The slender, bushy-moustached Good was blessed with a sense of humour. He published a paper under the names IJ Good and "K Caj Doog"—the latter, his own nickname spelled backwards. In a 1988 paper, he introduced its subject by saying, "Many people have contributed to this topic but I shall mainly review the writings of I. J. Good because I have read them all carefully." In Virginia he chose, as his vanity licence plate, "007IJG," in subtle reference to his Second World War intelligence work.Good never married. After going through ten assistants in his first thirteen years at Virginia, he hired Leslie Pendleton, who proved up to the task of managing his quirks. He wanted to marry her, but she refused. Although there was speculation, they were never more than friends, but she was his assistant, companion, and friend for the rest of his life.Good died on 5 April 2009 of natural causes in Radford, Virginia, aged 92. | [
"Trinity College",
"Virginia Tech",
"Government Communications Headquarters",
"Institute for Defense Analyses",
"Admiralty Research Laboratory"
] |
|
Which employer did John W. Oswald work for in Apr, 1957? | April 13, 1957 | {
"text": [
"University of California, Davis"
]
} | L2_Q15460084_P108_0 | John W. Oswald works for University of Kentucky from Jan, 1963 to Jan, 1970.
John W. Oswald works for Pennsylvania State University from Jan, 1970 to Jan, 1983.
John W. Oswald works for University of California, Davis from Jan, 1946 to Jan, 1962. | John W. OswaldJohn Wieland Oswald (October 11, 1917 – February 1, 1995) was president of the University of Kentucky, executive vice president of the University of California, and President of the Pennsylvania State University.Born in Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1917, Oswald did his undergraduate work in botany at DePauw University, Greencastle, Indiana and received his Ph.D. from the University of California in 1942. During World War II, Oswald served as a PT boat captain in the Mediterranean.In 1946, Oswald taught plant pathology as an assistant professor at the Davis Campus of the University of California. He was chairman plant pathology department at the Berkeley Campus in 1954. In 1962 he became vice president for administration in the statewide system for the University of California.Oswald was president of the University of Kentucky from 1963 to 1968. He was executive vice president of the University of California from 1968 to 1970. In 1970, he became president of Pennsylvania State University until he retired in 1983. He died in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1995. | [
"Pennsylvania State University",
"University of Kentucky"
] |
|
Which employer did John W. Oswald work for in 1957-04-13? | April 13, 1957 | {
"text": [
"University of California, Davis"
]
} | L2_Q15460084_P108_0 | John W. Oswald works for University of Kentucky from Jan, 1963 to Jan, 1970.
John W. Oswald works for Pennsylvania State University from Jan, 1970 to Jan, 1983.
John W. Oswald works for University of California, Davis from Jan, 1946 to Jan, 1962. | John W. OswaldJohn Wieland Oswald (October 11, 1917 – February 1, 1995) was president of the University of Kentucky, executive vice president of the University of California, and President of the Pennsylvania State University.Born in Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1917, Oswald did his undergraduate work in botany at DePauw University, Greencastle, Indiana and received his Ph.D. from the University of California in 1942. During World War II, Oswald served as a PT boat captain in the Mediterranean.In 1946, Oswald taught plant pathology as an assistant professor at the Davis Campus of the University of California. He was chairman plant pathology department at the Berkeley Campus in 1954. In 1962 he became vice president for administration in the statewide system for the University of California.Oswald was president of the University of Kentucky from 1963 to 1968. He was executive vice president of the University of California from 1968 to 1970. In 1970, he became president of Pennsylvania State University until he retired in 1983. He died in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1995. | [
"Pennsylvania State University",
"University of Kentucky"
] |
|
Which employer did John W. Oswald work for in 13/04/1957? | April 13, 1957 | {
"text": [
"University of California, Davis"
]
} | L2_Q15460084_P108_0 | John W. Oswald works for University of Kentucky from Jan, 1963 to Jan, 1970.
John W. Oswald works for Pennsylvania State University from Jan, 1970 to Jan, 1983.
John W. Oswald works for University of California, Davis from Jan, 1946 to Jan, 1962. | John W. OswaldJohn Wieland Oswald (October 11, 1917 – February 1, 1995) was president of the University of Kentucky, executive vice president of the University of California, and President of the Pennsylvania State University.Born in Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1917, Oswald did his undergraduate work in botany at DePauw University, Greencastle, Indiana and received his Ph.D. from the University of California in 1942. During World War II, Oswald served as a PT boat captain in the Mediterranean.In 1946, Oswald taught plant pathology as an assistant professor at the Davis Campus of the University of California. He was chairman plant pathology department at the Berkeley Campus in 1954. In 1962 he became vice president for administration in the statewide system for the University of California.Oswald was president of the University of Kentucky from 1963 to 1968. He was executive vice president of the University of California from 1968 to 1970. In 1970, he became president of Pennsylvania State University until he retired in 1983. He died in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1995. | [
"Pennsylvania State University",
"University of Kentucky"
] |
|
Which employer did John W. Oswald work for in Apr 13, 1957? | April 13, 1957 | {
"text": [
"University of California, Davis"
]
} | L2_Q15460084_P108_0 | John W. Oswald works for University of Kentucky from Jan, 1963 to Jan, 1970.
John W. Oswald works for Pennsylvania State University from Jan, 1970 to Jan, 1983.
John W. Oswald works for University of California, Davis from Jan, 1946 to Jan, 1962. | John W. OswaldJohn Wieland Oswald (October 11, 1917 – February 1, 1995) was president of the University of Kentucky, executive vice president of the University of California, and President of the Pennsylvania State University.Born in Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1917, Oswald did his undergraduate work in botany at DePauw University, Greencastle, Indiana and received his Ph.D. from the University of California in 1942. During World War II, Oswald served as a PT boat captain in the Mediterranean.In 1946, Oswald taught plant pathology as an assistant professor at the Davis Campus of the University of California. He was chairman plant pathology department at the Berkeley Campus in 1954. In 1962 he became vice president for administration in the statewide system for the University of California.Oswald was president of the University of Kentucky from 1963 to 1968. He was executive vice president of the University of California from 1968 to 1970. In 1970, he became president of Pennsylvania State University until he retired in 1983. He died in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1995. | [
"Pennsylvania State University",
"University of Kentucky"
] |
|
Which employer did John W. Oswald work for in 04/13/1957? | April 13, 1957 | {
"text": [
"University of California, Davis"
]
} | L2_Q15460084_P108_0 | John W. Oswald works for University of Kentucky from Jan, 1963 to Jan, 1970.
John W. Oswald works for Pennsylvania State University from Jan, 1970 to Jan, 1983.
John W. Oswald works for University of California, Davis from Jan, 1946 to Jan, 1962. | John W. OswaldJohn Wieland Oswald (October 11, 1917 – February 1, 1995) was president of the University of Kentucky, executive vice president of the University of California, and President of the Pennsylvania State University.Born in Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1917, Oswald did his undergraduate work in botany at DePauw University, Greencastle, Indiana and received his Ph.D. from the University of California in 1942. During World War II, Oswald served as a PT boat captain in the Mediterranean.In 1946, Oswald taught plant pathology as an assistant professor at the Davis Campus of the University of California. He was chairman plant pathology department at the Berkeley Campus in 1954. In 1962 he became vice president for administration in the statewide system for the University of California.Oswald was president of the University of Kentucky from 1963 to 1968. He was executive vice president of the University of California from 1968 to 1970. In 1970, he became president of Pennsylvania State University until he retired in 1983. He died in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1995. | [
"Pennsylvania State University",
"University of Kentucky"
] |
|
Which employer did John W. Oswald work for in 13-Apr-195713-April-1957? | April 13, 1957 | {
"text": [
"University of California, Davis"
]
} | L2_Q15460084_P108_0 | John W. Oswald works for University of Kentucky from Jan, 1963 to Jan, 1970.
John W. Oswald works for Pennsylvania State University from Jan, 1970 to Jan, 1983.
John W. Oswald works for University of California, Davis from Jan, 1946 to Jan, 1962. | John W. OswaldJohn Wieland Oswald (October 11, 1917 – February 1, 1995) was president of the University of Kentucky, executive vice president of the University of California, and President of the Pennsylvania State University.Born in Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1917, Oswald did his undergraduate work in botany at DePauw University, Greencastle, Indiana and received his Ph.D. from the University of California in 1942. During World War II, Oswald served as a PT boat captain in the Mediterranean.In 1946, Oswald taught plant pathology as an assistant professor at the Davis Campus of the University of California. He was chairman plant pathology department at the Berkeley Campus in 1954. In 1962 he became vice president for administration in the statewide system for the University of California.Oswald was president of the University of Kentucky from 1963 to 1968. He was executive vice president of the University of California from 1968 to 1970. In 1970, he became president of Pennsylvania State University until he retired in 1983. He died in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1995. | [
"Pennsylvania State University",
"University of Kentucky"
] |
|
Which position did Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper hold in Dec, 1843? | December 08, 1843 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q16066161_P39_4 | Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1831 to Dec, 1832.
Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Dec, 1834.
Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1835 to Jul, 1837.
Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1841 to Jul, 1847.
Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1837 to Jun, 1841. | Henry Ashley (Dorchester MP)Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper (5 May 1807 – 2 December 1858) was an English politician and cricketer with amateur status. Ashley was born at Wimborne St Giles in Dorset in 1807, a son of Cropley Ashley-Cooper, 6th Earl of Shaftesbury, and younger brother of Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury, and of Anthony William Ashley. He was a member of parliament for Dorchester from 1831 to 1847.As a cricketer, he was associated with Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) and made his first-class cricket debut in 1830. He died in 1858 at Clewer in Berkshire. | [
"Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper hold in 1843-12-08? | December 08, 1843 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q16066161_P39_4 | Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1831 to Dec, 1832.
Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Dec, 1834.
Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1835 to Jul, 1837.
Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1841 to Jul, 1847.
Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1837 to Jun, 1841. | Henry Ashley (Dorchester MP)Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper (5 May 1807 – 2 December 1858) was an English politician and cricketer with amateur status. Ashley was born at Wimborne St Giles in Dorset in 1807, a son of Cropley Ashley-Cooper, 6th Earl of Shaftesbury, and younger brother of Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury, and of Anthony William Ashley. He was a member of parliament for Dorchester from 1831 to 1847.As a cricketer, he was associated with Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) and made his first-class cricket debut in 1830. He died in 1858 at Clewer in Berkshire. | [
"Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper hold in 08/12/1843? | December 08, 1843 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q16066161_P39_4 | Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1831 to Dec, 1832.
Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Dec, 1834.
Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1835 to Jul, 1837.
Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1841 to Jul, 1847.
Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1837 to Jun, 1841. | Henry Ashley (Dorchester MP)Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper (5 May 1807 – 2 December 1858) was an English politician and cricketer with amateur status. Ashley was born at Wimborne St Giles in Dorset in 1807, a son of Cropley Ashley-Cooper, 6th Earl of Shaftesbury, and younger brother of Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury, and of Anthony William Ashley. He was a member of parliament for Dorchester from 1831 to 1847.As a cricketer, he was associated with Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) and made his first-class cricket debut in 1830. He died in 1858 at Clewer in Berkshire. | [
"Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper hold in Dec 08, 1843? | December 08, 1843 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q16066161_P39_4 | Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1831 to Dec, 1832.
Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Dec, 1834.
Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1835 to Jul, 1837.
Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1841 to Jul, 1847.
Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1837 to Jun, 1841. | Henry Ashley (Dorchester MP)Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper (5 May 1807 – 2 December 1858) was an English politician and cricketer with amateur status. Ashley was born at Wimborne St Giles in Dorset in 1807, a son of Cropley Ashley-Cooper, 6th Earl of Shaftesbury, and younger brother of Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury, and of Anthony William Ashley. He was a member of parliament for Dorchester from 1831 to 1847.As a cricketer, he was associated with Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) and made his first-class cricket debut in 1830. He died in 1858 at Clewer in Berkshire. | [
"Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper hold in 12/08/1843? | December 08, 1843 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q16066161_P39_4 | Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1831 to Dec, 1832.
Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Dec, 1834.
Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1835 to Jul, 1837.
Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1841 to Jul, 1847.
Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1837 to Jun, 1841. | Henry Ashley (Dorchester MP)Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper (5 May 1807 – 2 December 1858) was an English politician and cricketer with amateur status. Ashley was born at Wimborne St Giles in Dorset in 1807, a son of Cropley Ashley-Cooper, 6th Earl of Shaftesbury, and younger brother of Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury, and of Anthony William Ashley. He was a member of parliament for Dorchester from 1831 to 1847.As a cricketer, he was associated with Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) and made his first-class cricket debut in 1830. He died in 1858 at Clewer in Berkshire. | [
"Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper hold in 08-Dec-184308-December-1843? | December 08, 1843 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q16066161_P39_4 | Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1831 to Dec, 1832.
Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Dec, 1834.
Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1835 to Jul, 1837.
Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1841 to Jul, 1847.
Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1837 to Jun, 1841. | Henry Ashley (Dorchester MP)Anthony Henry Ashley-Cooper (5 May 1807 – 2 December 1858) was an English politician and cricketer with amateur status. Ashley was born at Wimborne St Giles in Dorset in 1807, a son of Cropley Ashley-Cooper, 6th Earl of Shaftesbury, and younger brother of Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury, and of Anthony William Ashley. He was a member of parliament for Dorchester from 1831 to 1847.As a cricketer, he was associated with Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) and made his first-class cricket debut in 1830. He died in 1858 at Clewer in Berkshire. | [
"Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which team did József Dzurják play for in Jan, 1990? | January 01, 1990 | {
"text": [
"Chemnitzer FC"
]
} | L2_Q664405_P54_1 | József Dzurják plays for Ferencvárosi TC from Jan, 1991 to Jan, 1991.
József Dzurják plays for Chemnitzer FC from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 1990.
József Dzurják plays for FK Spartak Zlatibor Voda from Jan, 1991 to Jan, 1991.
József Dzurják plays for Békéscsaba 1912 Előre SE from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1983.
József Dzurják plays for III. Kerületi TUE from Jan, 1993 to Jan, 1994.
József Dzurják plays for Dunakanyar-Vác FC from Jan, 1994 to Jan, 1995.
József Dzurják plays for AC Omonia from Jan, 1991 to Jan, 1993.
József Dzurják plays for Diósgyőri VTK from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 1996. | József DzurjákJózsef Dzurják (born 2 March 1962) is a Hungarian football manager and former player.His youth career was at Ikladi Vasas, Jászberényi Lehel, Jászárokszállási Vasas, Békéscsaba and L. Szabó Hónved SE.He made his debut in the Nemzeti Bajnokság I in the season 1983–84 playing with Diósgyőri VTK. That season his team ended up relegated and played in Nemzeti Bajnokság II with Dzurják being the league top-scorer two seasons in a raw. In 1986, he moved to Hungarian giants Ferencváros where he played till 1990. He finished his last season with "Fradi" as league top scorer. This meant that for Dzurják was time to move abroad, signing with the East German 1990 vice-champions Chemnitzer FC, being one of the few foreigners to play in the last season of the DDR-Oberliga. After six months during the winter break, he moved to FK Spartak Subotica where he spend the rest of the season playing in the Yugoslav First League. After this, he returned and played half season with Ferencvaros, before moving again, this time to Cyprus, to play with AC Omonia one and a half seasons. He will return to Hungary and play with III. Kerületi TUE, Vác FC and Diósgyőri VTK before moving to the Maldives in 1996 where he ended his career. He played as a striker.On 13 May 1987, Dzurják received a call on behalf of coach József Verebes to be part of the Hungary Olympic team and played in a game against Spain scoring a goal in the game. He then also played against Sweden on 9 September, same year.After retiring, he initially became a sports journalist at Nemzeti Sportnál. Then he started his coaching career, first coaching the youth teams of Dunakeszi, BVSC, REAC and the U-17 and U-19 teams of Ferencvaros. Then he worked as assistant manager, initially in Hungary at Diósgyőri VTK, Videoton and Zalaegerzeg, and then abroad in Albania, Malaysia and the Maldives, where he won the championship.In March 208 he was appointed the main coach of Club Valencia competing in the Dhivehi League, the top league in the Maldives. Since 2012 he has been assistant manager at Diósgyőri VTK. | [
"Diósgyőri VTK",
"Békéscsaba 1912 Előre SE",
"Dunakanyar-Vác FC",
"Ferencvárosi TC",
"AC Omonia",
"FK Spartak Zlatibor Voda",
"III. Kerületi TUE"
] |
|
Which team did József Dzurják play for in 1990-01-01? | January 01, 1990 | {
"text": [
"Chemnitzer FC"
]
} | L2_Q664405_P54_1 | József Dzurják plays for Ferencvárosi TC from Jan, 1991 to Jan, 1991.
József Dzurják plays for Chemnitzer FC from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 1990.
József Dzurják plays for FK Spartak Zlatibor Voda from Jan, 1991 to Jan, 1991.
József Dzurják plays for Békéscsaba 1912 Előre SE from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1983.
József Dzurják plays for III. Kerületi TUE from Jan, 1993 to Jan, 1994.
József Dzurják plays for Dunakanyar-Vác FC from Jan, 1994 to Jan, 1995.
József Dzurják plays for AC Omonia from Jan, 1991 to Jan, 1993.
József Dzurják plays for Diósgyőri VTK from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 1996. | József DzurjákJózsef Dzurják (born 2 March 1962) is a Hungarian football manager and former player.His youth career was at Ikladi Vasas, Jászberényi Lehel, Jászárokszállási Vasas, Békéscsaba and L. Szabó Hónved SE.He made his debut in the Nemzeti Bajnokság I in the season 1983–84 playing with Diósgyőri VTK. That season his team ended up relegated and played in Nemzeti Bajnokság II with Dzurják being the league top-scorer two seasons in a raw. In 1986, he moved to Hungarian giants Ferencváros where he played till 1990. He finished his last season with "Fradi" as league top scorer. This meant that for Dzurják was time to move abroad, signing with the East German 1990 vice-champions Chemnitzer FC, being one of the few foreigners to play in the last season of the DDR-Oberliga. After six months during the winter break, he moved to FK Spartak Subotica where he spend the rest of the season playing in the Yugoslav First League. After this, he returned and played half season with Ferencvaros, before moving again, this time to Cyprus, to play with AC Omonia one and a half seasons. He will return to Hungary and play with III. Kerületi TUE, Vác FC and Diósgyőri VTK before moving to the Maldives in 1996 where he ended his career. He played as a striker.On 13 May 1987, Dzurják received a call on behalf of coach József Verebes to be part of the Hungary Olympic team and played in a game against Spain scoring a goal in the game. He then also played against Sweden on 9 September, same year.After retiring, he initially became a sports journalist at Nemzeti Sportnál. Then he started his coaching career, first coaching the youth teams of Dunakeszi, BVSC, REAC and the U-17 and U-19 teams of Ferencvaros. Then he worked as assistant manager, initially in Hungary at Diósgyőri VTK, Videoton and Zalaegerzeg, and then abroad in Albania, Malaysia and the Maldives, where he won the championship.In March 208 he was appointed the main coach of Club Valencia competing in the Dhivehi League, the top league in the Maldives. Since 2012 he has been assistant manager at Diósgyőri VTK. | [
"Diósgyőri VTK",
"Békéscsaba 1912 Előre SE",
"Dunakanyar-Vác FC",
"Ferencvárosi TC",
"AC Omonia",
"FK Spartak Zlatibor Voda",
"III. Kerületi TUE"
] |
|
Which team did József Dzurják play for in 01/01/1990? | January 01, 1990 | {
"text": [
"Chemnitzer FC"
]
} | L2_Q664405_P54_1 | József Dzurják plays for Ferencvárosi TC from Jan, 1991 to Jan, 1991.
József Dzurják plays for Chemnitzer FC from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 1990.
József Dzurják plays for FK Spartak Zlatibor Voda from Jan, 1991 to Jan, 1991.
József Dzurják plays for Békéscsaba 1912 Előre SE from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1983.
József Dzurják plays for III. Kerületi TUE from Jan, 1993 to Jan, 1994.
József Dzurják plays for Dunakanyar-Vác FC from Jan, 1994 to Jan, 1995.
József Dzurják plays for AC Omonia from Jan, 1991 to Jan, 1993.
József Dzurják plays for Diósgyőri VTK from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 1996. | József DzurjákJózsef Dzurják (born 2 March 1962) is a Hungarian football manager and former player.His youth career was at Ikladi Vasas, Jászberényi Lehel, Jászárokszállási Vasas, Békéscsaba and L. Szabó Hónved SE.He made his debut in the Nemzeti Bajnokság I in the season 1983–84 playing with Diósgyőri VTK. That season his team ended up relegated and played in Nemzeti Bajnokság II with Dzurják being the league top-scorer two seasons in a raw. In 1986, he moved to Hungarian giants Ferencváros where he played till 1990. He finished his last season with "Fradi" as league top scorer. This meant that for Dzurják was time to move abroad, signing with the East German 1990 vice-champions Chemnitzer FC, being one of the few foreigners to play in the last season of the DDR-Oberliga. After six months during the winter break, he moved to FK Spartak Subotica where he spend the rest of the season playing in the Yugoslav First League. After this, he returned and played half season with Ferencvaros, before moving again, this time to Cyprus, to play with AC Omonia one and a half seasons. He will return to Hungary and play with III. Kerületi TUE, Vác FC and Diósgyőri VTK before moving to the Maldives in 1996 where he ended his career. He played as a striker.On 13 May 1987, Dzurják received a call on behalf of coach József Verebes to be part of the Hungary Olympic team and played in a game against Spain scoring a goal in the game. He then also played against Sweden on 9 September, same year.After retiring, he initially became a sports journalist at Nemzeti Sportnál. Then he started his coaching career, first coaching the youth teams of Dunakeszi, BVSC, REAC and the U-17 and U-19 teams of Ferencvaros. Then he worked as assistant manager, initially in Hungary at Diósgyőri VTK, Videoton and Zalaegerzeg, and then abroad in Albania, Malaysia and the Maldives, where he won the championship.In March 208 he was appointed the main coach of Club Valencia competing in the Dhivehi League, the top league in the Maldives. Since 2012 he has been assistant manager at Diósgyőri VTK. | [
"Diósgyőri VTK",
"Békéscsaba 1912 Előre SE",
"Dunakanyar-Vác FC",
"Ferencvárosi TC",
"AC Omonia",
"FK Spartak Zlatibor Voda",
"III. Kerületi TUE"
] |
|
Which team did József Dzurják play for in Jan 01, 1990? | January 01, 1990 | {
"text": [
"Chemnitzer FC"
]
} | L2_Q664405_P54_1 | József Dzurják plays for Ferencvárosi TC from Jan, 1991 to Jan, 1991.
József Dzurják plays for Chemnitzer FC from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 1990.
József Dzurják plays for FK Spartak Zlatibor Voda from Jan, 1991 to Jan, 1991.
József Dzurják plays for Békéscsaba 1912 Előre SE from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1983.
József Dzurják plays for III. Kerületi TUE from Jan, 1993 to Jan, 1994.
József Dzurják plays for Dunakanyar-Vác FC from Jan, 1994 to Jan, 1995.
József Dzurják plays for AC Omonia from Jan, 1991 to Jan, 1993.
József Dzurják plays for Diósgyőri VTK from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 1996. | József DzurjákJózsef Dzurják (born 2 March 1962) is a Hungarian football manager and former player.His youth career was at Ikladi Vasas, Jászberényi Lehel, Jászárokszállási Vasas, Békéscsaba and L. Szabó Hónved SE.He made his debut in the Nemzeti Bajnokság I in the season 1983–84 playing with Diósgyőri VTK. That season his team ended up relegated and played in Nemzeti Bajnokság II with Dzurják being the league top-scorer two seasons in a raw. In 1986, he moved to Hungarian giants Ferencváros where he played till 1990. He finished his last season with "Fradi" as league top scorer. This meant that for Dzurják was time to move abroad, signing with the East German 1990 vice-champions Chemnitzer FC, being one of the few foreigners to play in the last season of the DDR-Oberliga. After six months during the winter break, he moved to FK Spartak Subotica where he spend the rest of the season playing in the Yugoslav First League. After this, he returned and played half season with Ferencvaros, before moving again, this time to Cyprus, to play with AC Omonia one and a half seasons. He will return to Hungary and play with III. Kerületi TUE, Vác FC and Diósgyőri VTK before moving to the Maldives in 1996 where he ended his career. He played as a striker.On 13 May 1987, Dzurják received a call on behalf of coach József Verebes to be part of the Hungary Olympic team and played in a game against Spain scoring a goal in the game. He then also played against Sweden on 9 September, same year.After retiring, he initially became a sports journalist at Nemzeti Sportnál. Then he started his coaching career, first coaching the youth teams of Dunakeszi, BVSC, REAC and the U-17 and U-19 teams of Ferencvaros. Then he worked as assistant manager, initially in Hungary at Diósgyőri VTK, Videoton and Zalaegerzeg, and then abroad in Albania, Malaysia and the Maldives, where he won the championship.In March 208 he was appointed the main coach of Club Valencia competing in the Dhivehi League, the top league in the Maldives. Since 2012 he has been assistant manager at Diósgyőri VTK. | [
"Diósgyőri VTK",
"Békéscsaba 1912 Előre SE",
"Dunakanyar-Vác FC",
"Ferencvárosi TC",
"AC Omonia",
"FK Spartak Zlatibor Voda",
"III. Kerületi TUE"
] |
|
Which team did József Dzurják play for in 01/01/1990? | January 01, 1990 | {
"text": [
"Chemnitzer FC"
]
} | L2_Q664405_P54_1 | József Dzurják plays for Ferencvárosi TC from Jan, 1991 to Jan, 1991.
József Dzurják plays for Chemnitzer FC from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 1990.
József Dzurják plays for FK Spartak Zlatibor Voda from Jan, 1991 to Jan, 1991.
József Dzurják plays for Békéscsaba 1912 Előre SE from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1983.
József Dzurják plays for III. Kerületi TUE from Jan, 1993 to Jan, 1994.
József Dzurják plays for Dunakanyar-Vác FC from Jan, 1994 to Jan, 1995.
József Dzurják plays for AC Omonia from Jan, 1991 to Jan, 1993.
József Dzurják plays for Diósgyőri VTK from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 1996. | József DzurjákJózsef Dzurják (born 2 March 1962) is a Hungarian football manager and former player.His youth career was at Ikladi Vasas, Jászberényi Lehel, Jászárokszállási Vasas, Békéscsaba and L. Szabó Hónved SE.He made his debut in the Nemzeti Bajnokság I in the season 1983–84 playing with Diósgyőri VTK. That season his team ended up relegated and played in Nemzeti Bajnokság II with Dzurják being the league top-scorer two seasons in a raw. In 1986, he moved to Hungarian giants Ferencváros where he played till 1990. He finished his last season with "Fradi" as league top scorer. This meant that for Dzurják was time to move abroad, signing with the East German 1990 vice-champions Chemnitzer FC, being one of the few foreigners to play in the last season of the DDR-Oberliga. After six months during the winter break, he moved to FK Spartak Subotica where he spend the rest of the season playing in the Yugoslav First League. After this, he returned and played half season with Ferencvaros, before moving again, this time to Cyprus, to play with AC Omonia one and a half seasons. He will return to Hungary and play with III. Kerületi TUE, Vác FC and Diósgyőri VTK before moving to the Maldives in 1996 where he ended his career. He played as a striker.On 13 May 1987, Dzurják received a call on behalf of coach József Verebes to be part of the Hungary Olympic team and played in a game against Spain scoring a goal in the game. He then also played against Sweden on 9 September, same year.After retiring, he initially became a sports journalist at Nemzeti Sportnál. Then he started his coaching career, first coaching the youth teams of Dunakeszi, BVSC, REAC and the U-17 and U-19 teams of Ferencvaros. Then he worked as assistant manager, initially in Hungary at Diósgyőri VTK, Videoton and Zalaegerzeg, and then abroad in Albania, Malaysia and the Maldives, where he won the championship.In March 208 he was appointed the main coach of Club Valencia competing in the Dhivehi League, the top league in the Maldives. Since 2012 he has been assistant manager at Diósgyőri VTK. | [
"Diósgyőri VTK",
"Békéscsaba 1912 Előre SE",
"Dunakanyar-Vác FC",
"Ferencvárosi TC",
"AC Omonia",
"FK Spartak Zlatibor Voda",
"III. Kerületi TUE"
] |
|
Which team did József Dzurják play for in 01-Jan-199001-January-1990? | January 01, 1990 | {
"text": [
"Chemnitzer FC"
]
} | L2_Q664405_P54_1 | József Dzurják plays for Ferencvárosi TC from Jan, 1991 to Jan, 1991.
József Dzurják plays for Chemnitzer FC from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 1990.
József Dzurják plays for FK Spartak Zlatibor Voda from Jan, 1991 to Jan, 1991.
József Dzurják plays for Békéscsaba 1912 Előre SE from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1983.
József Dzurják plays for III. Kerületi TUE from Jan, 1993 to Jan, 1994.
József Dzurják plays for Dunakanyar-Vác FC from Jan, 1994 to Jan, 1995.
József Dzurják plays for AC Omonia from Jan, 1991 to Jan, 1993.
József Dzurják plays for Diósgyőri VTK from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 1996. | József DzurjákJózsef Dzurják (born 2 March 1962) is a Hungarian football manager and former player.His youth career was at Ikladi Vasas, Jászberényi Lehel, Jászárokszállási Vasas, Békéscsaba and L. Szabó Hónved SE.He made his debut in the Nemzeti Bajnokság I in the season 1983–84 playing with Diósgyőri VTK. That season his team ended up relegated and played in Nemzeti Bajnokság II with Dzurják being the league top-scorer two seasons in a raw. In 1986, he moved to Hungarian giants Ferencváros where he played till 1990. He finished his last season with "Fradi" as league top scorer. This meant that for Dzurják was time to move abroad, signing with the East German 1990 vice-champions Chemnitzer FC, being one of the few foreigners to play in the last season of the DDR-Oberliga. After six months during the winter break, he moved to FK Spartak Subotica where he spend the rest of the season playing in the Yugoslav First League. After this, he returned and played half season with Ferencvaros, before moving again, this time to Cyprus, to play with AC Omonia one and a half seasons. He will return to Hungary and play with III. Kerületi TUE, Vác FC and Diósgyőri VTK before moving to the Maldives in 1996 where he ended his career. He played as a striker.On 13 May 1987, Dzurják received a call on behalf of coach József Verebes to be part of the Hungary Olympic team and played in a game against Spain scoring a goal in the game. He then also played against Sweden on 9 September, same year.After retiring, he initially became a sports journalist at Nemzeti Sportnál. Then he started his coaching career, first coaching the youth teams of Dunakeszi, BVSC, REAC and the U-17 and U-19 teams of Ferencvaros. Then he worked as assistant manager, initially in Hungary at Diósgyőri VTK, Videoton and Zalaegerzeg, and then abroad in Albania, Malaysia and the Maldives, where he won the championship.In March 208 he was appointed the main coach of Club Valencia competing in the Dhivehi League, the top league in the Maldives. Since 2012 he has been assistant manager at Diósgyőri VTK. | [
"Diósgyőri VTK",
"Békéscsaba 1912 Előre SE",
"Dunakanyar-Vác FC",
"Ferencvárosi TC",
"AC Omonia",
"FK Spartak Zlatibor Voda",
"III. Kerületi TUE"
] |
|
Which position did Cecil L'Estrange Malone hold in Aug, 1931? | August 28, 1931 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 35th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q5056185_P39_2 | Cecil L'Estrange Malone holds the position of Member of the 35th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1929 to Oct, 1931.
Cecil L'Estrange Malone holds the position of Member of the 34th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1928 to May, 1929.
Cecil L'Estrange Malone holds the position of Member of the 31st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Aug, 1920 to Oct, 1922. | Cecil MaloneCecil John L'Estrange Malone (7 September 1890 – 25 February 1965) was a British politician and pioneer naval aviator who served as the United Kingdom's first Communist member of parliament.Malone was born in Dalton Holme, a parish in the East Riding of Yorkshire, on 7 September 1890. He was the son of the Reverend Savile L'Estrange Malone and Frances Mary Faljomb. He was related to the sisters Constance Markievicz and Eva Gore-Booth.Malone was educated at Cordwalles School in Maidenhead before joining the Royal Navy in 1905 and went through officer training at Royal Naval College, Dartmouth. On 15 March 1910, he was confirmed as a sub-lieutenant having previously been acting in that rank. In 1911, he was part of the second course approved by the Admiralty to attend Naval Flying School, Eastchurch. He was promoted to lieutenant from sub-lieutenant on 15 December 1911.Malone earned his Royal Aero Club certificate (No. 195) on 12 March 1912. In the Army Manoeuvres of 1912, Malone flew a twin-engined triple-screwed Short biplane. He is also noted for flying off the forecastle of steaming .During World War I, Malone commanded Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) planes in the Cuxhaven Raid on 25 December 1914. From August 1914 to March 1915, he captained , a cross-channel steamer converted to a seaplane carrier. From March 1915 to April 1916, he captained , another steamer converted to a seaplane carrier. Under Malone's command, seaplanes from "Ben-my-Chree" were the first on record to carry torpedoes and they torpedoed three enemy vessels in 1916. Malone then took over command of the East Indies and Egypt Seaplane Squadron, for which he was awarded the Fourth Class of the Order of the Nile.Malone was appointed to the Plans Division of the Admiralty in 1918 before becoming the First British Air Attache at the Embassy of the United Kingdom, Paris. In this capacity, he was the Air Representative of the Supreme War Council in Versailles in 1918. He was awarded Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) for his war efforts.Malone was elected as the Coalition Liberal Member of Parliament (MP) for East Leyton at the 1918 general election. He was a member of the anti-communist Reconstruction Society and wrote a number of articles strongly criticising left-wing activists. As Adams and Wilson wrote, "his early career contained no hint of his subsequent espousal of the communist cause."On 13 September 1919, with a passport endorsed by the British Foreign Office in hand, Cecil Malone embarked on the "S.S. Arcturus" for Helsinki. There Malone, who intended to visit Soviet Russia despite the blockade of the country, unexpectedly met up with another individual planning on crossing over to Petrograd. After travelling by sea and land to the border, the pair managed to cross the frontier through deserted forests and marshland by foot, arriving at the Soviet border on Sunday, 28 September. The two arrived in Petrograd by train at 6 pm the following day. Malone met and spoke with key leaders of the trade union movement in Petrograd before proceeding by train to Moscow.In Moscow, Malone met with Maxim Litvinov, then a top official in the People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs, with whom he had a long discussion. He later met for an hour with foreign minister Georgii Chicherin. Malone's new friends arranged for him to accompany Red Army leader Leon Trotsky on an inspection of troops at Tula aboard Trotsky's special train. Accompanying Malone on the trip were the head of the Supreme Council of National Economy (VSNKh), Alexei Rykov; chief of food supply for the Russian Republic, Alexander Tsiurupa; and People's Commissar of Education Anatoly Lunacharsky.During his visit, detailed in his memoir, Malone toured factories and theatres, power stations and government offices. He found the mission of the Bolshevik government in attempting economic reconstruction to be compelling and emerged from his trip a committed communist. "The history of Allied negotiations and transactions with Russia appears to have been a chain of catastrophes and mistakes" he wrote:"...[I]t seems there was a culpable lack of foresight in visualizing the forces behind the Revolution. Every effort was made by Lenin and Trotsky to bring about peace with the Allies. They were prepared to refuse to sign the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany, and instead to continue the fight on the side of the Allies, but the Allies refused to recognize them ... Various interventional operations, mostly carried out on the plea of protecting Russia against the invasion from Germany, were inaugurated, but really, as we now see, they were carried out in the interests of the capitalist class in Russia. It seems incredible that such slender excuses for intervention should have been allowed to hold good for so long... [N]ow we find ourselves supporting partisan leaders in Russia by the supply of arms and munitions at the expense of the British taxpayer, and in addition we find our Government carrying on an inhuman and illegal blockade against the Russian people, the result of which during the coming winter months will indeed be terrible."Upon his return to England, Malone became active in the "Hands Off Russia" campaign, and in November 1919 he officially joined the proto-Communist British Socialist Party (BSP). Malone was soon being elected to the party's leadership through the patronage of Theodore Rothstein. In the summer of 1920, the BSP became the main constituent of the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB), and as a result, Malone became the first CPGB MP. He attended the London Communist Unity Convention held 31 July and 1 August 1921, at which he was elected to the new party's governing Central Committee. Malone's sudden conversion to revolutionary politics brought more questions than answers, and its genuineness was questioned. John Maclean claimed that Malone was a counter-revolutionary sent to disrupt the workers' movement, and he refused to speak alongside Malone.Official CPGB historian James Klugmann saw Malone as a leading figure in the party's first year of existence: "In the first months of the Party's existence Col. Malone was very active not only in Parliament, but addressing mass meetings and rallies all over the country. Whatever his theoretical weaknesses, he was a man of passion, moved by the revolutionary tremors that were shaking the world, full of wrath and indignation against the powers that be, and after a fiery speech in the Albert Hall on November 7, 1920, he was charged with sedition under Regulation 42 of the Defense of the Realm Act ... [h]e was sentenced to six months in the Second Division."The line which landed Malone in jail related to his argument that during a revolutionary crisis, excesses might occur resulting in the killing of some prominent members of the bourgeoisie. "What are a few Churchills or a few Curzons on lampposts compared to the massacre of thousands of human beings?", Malone asked his audience. Despite Malone's prosecution, the Communist Party did not disavow Malone's rhetorical flourish, going so far as to publish an official party pamphlet, entitled "What are a Few Churchills?" in January 1921. He was stripped of his OBE on 24 June 1921.Malone came to the attention of Special Branch, whose role it was to combat "Bolshevik subversion". He was frequently mentioned in reports to the cabinet on "Revolutionary Organisations in the United Kingdom". Malone worked to promote the affiliation of the CPGB to the Labour Party, which was under consideration as a tactical matter, urged by Lenin. Malone was particularly keen and stated "There are still a few differences between the Communist Party and the Labour Party. I am glad to realise, however, that this will soon be settled by affiliation".Malone dissociated himself from the Communist Party of Great Britain and joined the Independent Labour Party, which was affiliated to the Labour Party, in 1922. He was the Labour candidate for Ashton-under-Lyne in the 1924 general election, but was unsuccessful. However, following the death of Arthur Holland in 1927, Malone was elected as MP for Northampton in the ensuing 1928 by-election. He was re-elected at the 1929 general election, and served in Ramsay MacDonald's government as the Parliamentary Private Secretary to the Minister of Pensions, Frederick Roberts, in 1931. He was not re-elected in the 1931 general election.Malone returned to military service in the Second World War. In 1942 he was the staff officer to the chief warden of the City of Westminster Civil Defence. From 1943 to 1945 he served in the Admiralty Small Vessels Pool. Following the end of the war in 1945, he became the Vice President of the Royal Television Society, the founder and chairman of the Radio Association, and a fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society. By the time of his death his publications included "The Russian Republic", "New China", and "Manchukuo: Jewel of Asia".Malone married Leah Kay in 1921. After her death, he remarried in 1956. He died on 25 February 1965, aged 74. | [
"Member of the 31st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 34th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Cecil L'Estrange Malone hold in 1931-08-28? | August 28, 1931 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 35th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q5056185_P39_2 | Cecil L'Estrange Malone holds the position of Member of the 35th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1929 to Oct, 1931.
Cecil L'Estrange Malone holds the position of Member of the 34th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1928 to May, 1929.
Cecil L'Estrange Malone holds the position of Member of the 31st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Aug, 1920 to Oct, 1922. | Cecil MaloneCecil John L'Estrange Malone (7 September 1890 – 25 February 1965) was a British politician and pioneer naval aviator who served as the United Kingdom's first Communist member of parliament.Malone was born in Dalton Holme, a parish in the East Riding of Yorkshire, on 7 September 1890. He was the son of the Reverend Savile L'Estrange Malone and Frances Mary Faljomb. He was related to the sisters Constance Markievicz and Eva Gore-Booth.Malone was educated at Cordwalles School in Maidenhead before joining the Royal Navy in 1905 and went through officer training at Royal Naval College, Dartmouth. On 15 March 1910, he was confirmed as a sub-lieutenant having previously been acting in that rank. In 1911, he was part of the second course approved by the Admiralty to attend Naval Flying School, Eastchurch. He was promoted to lieutenant from sub-lieutenant on 15 December 1911.Malone earned his Royal Aero Club certificate (No. 195) on 12 March 1912. In the Army Manoeuvres of 1912, Malone flew a twin-engined triple-screwed Short biplane. He is also noted for flying off the forecastle of steaming .During World War I, Malone commanded Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) planes in the Cuxhaven Raid on 25 December 1914. From August 1914 to March 1915, he captained , a cross-channel steamer converted to a seaplane carrier. From March 1915 to April 1916, he captained , another steamer converted to a seaplane carrier. Under Malone's command, seaplanes from "Ben-my-Chree" were the first on record to carry torpedoes and they torpedoed three enemy vessels in 1916. Malone then took over command of the East Indies and Egypt Seaplane Squadron, for which he was awarded the Fourth Class of the Order of the Nile.Malone was appointed to the Plans Division of the Admiralty in 1918 before becoming the First British Air Attache at the Embassy of the United Kingdom, Paris. In this capacity, he was the Air Representative of the Supreme War Council in Versailles in 1918. He was awarded Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) for his war efforts.Malone was elected as the Coalition Liberal Member of Parliament (MP) for East Leyton at the 1918 general election. He was a member of the anti-communist Reconstruction Society and wrote a number of articles strongly criticising left-wing activists. As Adams and Wilson wrote, "his early career contained no hint of his subsequent espousal of the communist cause."On 13 September 1919, with a passport endorsed by the British Foreign Office in hand, Cecil Malone embarked on the "S.S. Arcturus" for Helsinki. There Malone, who intended to visit Soviet Russia despite the blockade of the country, unexpectedly met up with another individual planning on crossing over to Petrograd. After travelling by sea and land to the border, the pair managed to cross the frontier through deserted forests and marshland by foot, arriving at the Soviet border on Sunday, 28 September. The two arrived in Petrograd by train at 6 pm the following day. Malone met and spoke with key leaders of the trade union movement in Petrograd before proceeding by train to Moscow.In Moscow, Malone met with Maxim Litvinov, then a top official in the People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs, with whom he had a long discussion. He later met for an hour with foreign minister Georgii Chicherin. Malone's new friends arranged for him to accompany Red Army leader Leon Trotsky on an inspection of troops at Tula aboard Trotsky's special train. Accompanying Malone on the trip were the head of the Supreme Council of National Economy (VSNKh), Alexei Rykov; chief of food supply for the Russian Republic, Alexander Tsiurupa; and People's Commissar of Education Anatoly Lunacharsky.During his visit, detailed in his memoir, Malone toured factories and theatres, power stations and government offices. He found the mission of the Bolshevik government in attempting economic reconstruction to be compelling and emerged from his trip a committed communist. "The history of Allied negotiations and transactions with Russia appears to have been a chain of catastrophes and mistakes" he wrote:"...[I]t seems there was a culpable lack of foresight in visualizing the forces behind the Revolution. Every effort was made by Lenin and Trotsky to bring about peace with the Allies. They were prepared to refuse to sign the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany, and instead to continue the fight on the side of the Allies, but the Allies refused to recognize them ... Various interventional operations, mostly carried out on the plea of protecting Russia against the invasion from Germany, were inaugurated, but really, as we now see, they were carried out in the interests of the capitalist class in Russia. It seems incredible that such slender excuses for intervention should have been allowed to hold good for so long... [N]ow we find ourselves supporting partisan leaders in Russia by the supply of arms and munitions at the expense of the British taxpayer, and in addition we find our Government carrying on an inhuman and illegal blockade against the Russian people, the result of which during the coming winter months will indeed be terrible."Upon his return to England, Malone became active in the "Hands Off Russia" campaign, and in November 1919 he officially joined the proto-Communist British Socialist Party (BSP). Malone was soon being elected to the party's leadership through the patronage of Theodore Rothstein. In the summer of 1920, the BSP became the main constituent of the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB), and as a result, Malone became the first CPGB MP. He attended the London Communist Unity Convention held 31 July and 1 August 1921, at which he was elected to the new party's governing Central Committee. Malone's sudden conversion to revolutionary politics brought more questions than answers, and its genuineness was questioned. John Maclean claimed that Malone was a counter-revolutionary sent to disrupt the workers' movement, and he refused to speak alongside Malone.Official CPGB historian James Klugmann saw Malone as a leading figure in the party's first year of existence: "In the first months of the Party's existence Col. Malone was very active not only in Parliament, but addressing mass meetings and rallies all over the country. Whatever his theoretical weaknesses, he was a man of passion, moved by the revolutionary tremors that were shaking the world, full of wrath and indignation against the powers that be, and after a fiery speech in the Albert Hall on November 7, 1920, he was charged with sedition under Regulation 42 of the Defense of the Realm Act ... [h]e was sentenced to six months in the Second Division."The line which landed Malone in jail related to his argument that during a revolutionary crisis, excesses might occur resulting in the killing of some prominent members of the bourgeoisie. "What are a few Churchills or a few Curzons on lampposts compared to the massacre of thousands of human beings?", Malone asked his audience. Despite Malone's prosecution, the Communist Party did not disavow Malone's rhetorical flourish, going so far as to publish an official party pamphlet, entitled "What are a Few Churchills?" in January 1921. He was stripped of his OBE on 24 June 1921.Malone came to the attention of Special Branch, whose role it was to combat "Bolshevik subversion". He was frequently mentioned in reports to the cabinet on "Revolutionary Organisations in the United Kingdom". Malone worked to promote the affiliation of the CPGB to the Labour Party, which was under consideration as a tactical matter, urged by Lenin. Malone was particularly keen and stated "There are still a few differences between the Communist Party and the Labour Party. I am glad to realise, however, that this will soon be settled by affiliation".Malone dissociated himself from the Communist Party of Great Britain and joined the Independent Labour Party, which was affiliated to the Labour Party, in 1922. He was the Labour candidate for Ashton-under-Lyne in the 1924 general election, but was unsuccessful. However, following the death of Arthur Holland in 1927, Malone was elected as MP for Northampton in the ensuing 1928 by-election. He was re-elected at the 1929 general election, and served in Ramsay MacDonald's government as the Parliamentary Private Secretary to the Minister of Pensions, Frederick Roberts, in 1931. He was not re-elected in the 1931 general election.Malone returned to military service in the Second World War. In 1942 he was the staff officer to the chief warden of the City of Westminster Civil Defence. From 1943 to 1945 he served in the Admiralty Small Vessels Pool. Following the end of the war in 1945, he became the Vice President of the Royal Television Society, the founder and chairman of the Radio Association, and a fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society. By the time of his death his publications included "The Russian Republic", "New China", and "Manchukuo: Jewel of Asia".Malone married Leah Kay in 1921. After her death, he remarried in 1956. He died on 25 February 1965, aged 74. | [
"Member of the 31st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 34th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Cecil L'Estrange Malone hold in 28/08/1931? | August 28, 1931 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 35th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q5056185_P39_2 | Cecil L'Estrange Malone holds the position of Member of the 35th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1929 to Oct, 1931.
Cecil L'Estrange Malone holds the position of Member of the 34th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1928 to May, 1929.
Cecil L'Estrange Malone holds the position of Member of the 31st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Aug, 1920 to Oct, 1922. | Cecil MaloneCecil John L'Estrange Malone (7 September 1890 – 25 February 1965) was a British politician and pioneer naval aviator who served as the United Kingdom's first Communist member of parliament.Malone was born in Dalton Holme, a parish in the East Riding of Yorkshire, on 7 September 1890. He was the son of the Reverend Savile L'Estrange Malone and Frances Mary Faljomb. He was related to the sisters Constance Markievicz and Eva Gore-Booth.Malone was educated at Cordwalles School in Maidenhead before joining the Royal Navy in 1905 and went through officer training at Royal Naval College, Dartmouth. On 15 March 1910, he was confirmed as a sub-lieutenant having previously been acting in that rank. In 1911, he was part of the second course approved by the Admiralty to attend Naval Flying School, Eastchurch. He was promoted to lieutenant from sub-lieutenant on 15 December 1911.Malone earned his Royal Aero Club certificate (No. 195) on 12 March 1912. In the Army Manoeuvres of 1912, Malone flew a twin-engined triple-screwed Short biplane. He is also noted for flying off the forecastle of steaming .During World War I, Malone commanded Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) planes in the Cuxhaven Raid on 25 December 1914. From August 1914 to March 1915, he captained , a cross-channel steamer converted to a seaplane carrier. From March 1915 to April 1916, he captained , another steamer converted to a seaplane carrier. Under Malone's command, seaplanes from "Ben-my-Chree" were the first on record to carry torpedoes and they torpedoed three enemy vessels in 1916. Malone then took over command of the East Indies and Egypt Seaplane Squadron, for which he was awarded the Fourth Class of the Order of the Nile.Malone was appointed to the Plans Division of the Admiralty in 1918 before becoming the First British Air Attache at the Embassy of the United Kingdom, Paris. In this capacity, he was the Air Representative of the Supreme War Council in Versailles in 1918. He was awarded Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) for his war efforts.Malone was elected as the Coalition Liberal Member of Parliament (MP) for East Leyton at the 1918 general election. He was a member of the anti-communist Reconstruction Society and wrote a number of articles strongly criticising left-wing activists. As Adams and Wilson wrote, "his early career contained no hint of his subsequent espousal of the communist cause."On 13 September 1919, with a passport endorsed by the British Foreign Office in hand, Cecil Malone embarked on the "S.S. Arcturus" for Helsinki. There Malone, who intended to visit Soviet Russia despite the blockade of the country, unexpectedly met up with another individual planning on crossing over to Petrograd. After travelling by sea and land to the border, the pair managed to cross the frontier through deserted forests and marshland by foot, arriving at the Soviet border on Sunday, 28 September. The two arrived in Petrograd by train at 6 pm the following day. Malone met and spoke with key leaders of the trade union movement in Petrograd before proceeding by train to Moscow.In Moscow, Malone met with Maxim Litvinov, then a top official in the People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs, with whom he had a long discussion. He later met for an hour with foreign minister Georgii Chicherin. Malone's new friends arranged for him to accompany Red Army leader Leon Trotsky on an inspection of troops at Tula aboard Trotsky's special train. Accompanying Malone on the trip were the head of the Supreme Council of National Economy (VSNKh), Alexei Rykov; chief of food supply for the Russian Republic, Alexander Tsiurupa; and People's Commissar of Education Anatoly Lunacharsky.During his visit, detailed in his memoir, Malone toured factories and theatres, power stations and government offices. He found the mission of the Bolshevik government in attempting economic reconstruction to be compelling and emerged from his trip a committed communist. "The history of Allied negotiations and transactions with Russia appears to have been a chain of catastrophes and mistakes" he wrote:"...[I]t seems there was a culpable lack of foresight in visualizing the forces behind the Revolution. Every effort was made by Lenin and Trotsky to bring about peace with the Allies. They were prepared to refuse to sign the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany, and instead to continue the fight on the side of the Allies, but the Allies refused to recognize them ... Various interventional operations, mostly carried out on the plea of protecting Russia against the invasion from Germany, were inaugurated, but really, as we now see, they were carried out in the interests of the capitalist class in Russia. It seems incredible that such slender excuses for intervention should have been allowed to hold good for so long... [N]ow we find ourselves supporting partisan leaders in Russia by the supply of arms and munitions at the expense of the British taxpayer, and in addition we find our Government carrying on an inhuman and illegal blockade against the Russian people, the result of which during the coming winter months will indeed be terrible."Upon his return to England, Malone became active in the "Hands Off Russia" campaign, and in November 1919 he officially joined the proto-Communist British Socialist Party (BSP). Malone was soon being elected to the party's leadership through the patronage of Theodore Rothstein. In the summer of 1920, the BSP became the main constituent of the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB), and as a result, Malone became the first CPGB MP. He attended the London Communist Unity Convention held 31 July and 1 August 1921, at which he was elected to the new party's governing Central Committee. Malone's sudden conversion to revolutionary politics brought more questions than answers, and its genuineness was questioned. John Maclean claimed that Malone was a counter-revolutionary sent to disrupt the workers' movement, and he refused to speak alongside Malone.Official CPGB historian James Klugmann saw Malone as a leading figure in the party's first year of existence: "In the first months of the Party's existence Col. Malone was very active not only in Parliament, but addressing mass meetings and rallies all over the country. Whatever his theoretical weaknesses, he was a man of passion, moved by the revolutionary tremors that were shaking the world, full of wrath and indignation against the powers that be, and after a fiery speech in the Albert Hall on November 7, 1920, he was charged with sedition under Regulation 42 of the Defense of the Realm Act ... [h]e was sentenced to six months in the Second Division."The line which landed Malone in jail related to his argument that during a revolutionary crisis, excesses might occur resulting in the killing of some prominent members of the bourgeoisie. "What are a few Churchills or a few Curzons on lampposts compared to the massacre of thousands of human beings?", Malone asked his audience. Despite Malone's prosecution, the Communist Party did not disavow Malone's rhetorical flourish, going so far as to publish an official party pamphlet, entitled "What are a Few Churchills?" in January 1921. He was stripped of his OBE on 24 June 1921.Malone came to the attention of Special Branch, whose role it was to combat "Bolshevik subversion". He was frequently mentioned in reports to the cabinet on "Revolutionary Organisations in the United Kingdom". Malone worked to promote the affiliation of the CPGB to the Labour Party, which was under consideration as a tactical matter, urged by Lenin. Malone was particularly keen and stated "There are still a few differences between the Communist Party and the Labour Party. I am glad to realise, however, that this will soon be settled by affiliation".Malone dissociated himself from the Communist Party of Great Britain and joined the Independent Labour Party, which was affiliated to the Labour Party, in 1922. He was the Labour candidate for Ashton-under-Lyne in the 1924 general election, but was unsuccessful. However, following the death of Arthur Holland in 1927, Malone was elected as MP for Northampton in the ensuing 1928 by-election. He was re-elected at the 1929 general election, and served in Ramsay MacDonald's government as the Parliamentary Private Secretary to the Minister of Pensions, Frederick Roberts, in 1931. He was not re-elected in the 1931 general election.Malone returned to military service in the Second World War. In 1942 he was the staff officer to the chief warden of the City of Westminster Civil Defence. From 1943 to 1945 he served in the Admiralty Small Vessels Pool. Following the end of the war in 1945, he became the Vice President of the Royal Television Society, the founder and chairman of the Radio Association, and a fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society. By the time of his death his publications included "The Russian Republic", "New China", and "Manchukuo: Jewel of Asia".Malone married Leah Kay in 1921. After her death, he remarried in 1956. He died on 25 February 1965, aged 74. | [
"Member of the 31st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 34th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Cecil L'Estrange Malone hold in Aug 28, 1931? | August 28, 1931 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 35th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q5056185_P39_2 | Cecil L'Estrange Malone holds the position of Member of the 35th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1929 to Oct, 1931.
Cecil L'Estrange Malone holds the position of Member of the 34th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1928 to May, 1929.
Cecil L'Estrange Malone holds the position of Member of the 31st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Aug, 1920 to Oct, 1922. | Cecil MaloneCecil John L'Estrange Malone (7 September 1890 – 25 February 1965) was a British politician and pioneer naval aviator who served as the United Kingdom's first Communist member of parliament.Malone was born in Dalton Holme, a parish in the East Riding of Yorkshire, on 7 September 1890. He was the son of the Reverend Savile L'Estrange Malone and Frances Mary Faljomb. He was related to the sisters Constance Markievicz and Eva Gore-Booth.Malone was educated at Cordwalles School in Maidenhead before joining the Royal Navy in 1905 and went through officer training at Royal Naval College, Dartmouth. On 15 March 1910, he was confirmed as a sub-lieutenant having previously been acting in that rank. In 1911, he was part of the second course approved by the Admiralty to attend Naval Flying School, Eastchurch. He was promoted to lieutenant from sub-lieutenant on 15 December 1911.Malone earned his Royal Aero Club certificate (No. 195) on 12 March 1912. In the Army Manoeuvres of 1912, Malone flew a twin-engined triple-screwed Short biplane. He is also noted for flying off the forecastle of steaming .During World War I, Malone commanded Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) planes in the Cuxhaven Raid on 25 December 1914. From August 1914 to March 1915, he captained , a cross-channel steamer converted to a seaplane carrier. From March 1915 to April 1916, he captained , another steamer converted to a seaplane carrier. Under Malone's command, seaplanes from "Ben-my-Chree" were the first on record to carry torpedoes and they torpedoed three enemy vessels in 1916. Malone then took over command of the East Indies and Egypt Seaplane Squadron, for which he was awarded the Fourth Class of the Order of the Nile.Malone was appointed to the Plans Division of the Admiralty in 1918 before becoming the First British Air Attache at the Embassy of the United Kingdom, Paris. In this capacity, he was the Air Representative of the Supreme War Council in Versailles in 1918. He was awarded Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) for his war efforts.Malone was elected as the Coalition Liberal Member of Parliament (MP) for East Leyton at the 1918 general election. He was a member of the anti-communist Reconstruction Society and wrote a number of articles strongly criticising left-wing activists. As Adams and Wilson wrote, "his early career contained no hint of his subsequent espousal of the communist cause."On 13 September 1919, with a passport endorsed by the British Foreign Office in hand, Cecil Malone embarked on the "S.S. Arcturus" for Helsinki. There Malone, who intended to visit Soviet Russia despite the blockade of the country, unexpectedly met up with another individual planning on crossing over to Petrograd. After travelling by sea and land to the border, the pair managed to cross the frontier through deserted forests and marshland by foot, arriving at the Soviet border on Sunday, 28 September. The two arrived in Petrograd by train at 6 pm the following day. Malone met and spoke with key leaders of the trade union movement in Petrograd before proceeding by train to Moscow.In Moscow, Malone met with Maxim Litvinov, then a top official in the People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs, with whom he had a long discussion. He later met for an hour with foreign minister Georgii Chicherin. Malone's new friends arranged for him to accompany Red Army leader Leon Trotsky on an inspection of troops at Tula aboard Trotsky's special train. Accompanying Malone on the trip were the head of the Supreme Council of National Economy (VSNKh), Alexei Rykov; chief of food supply for the Russian Republic, Alexander Tsiurupa; and People's Commissar of Education Anatoly Lunacharsky.During his visit, detailed in his memoir, Malone toured factories and theatres, power stations and government offices. He found the mission of the Bolshevik government in attempting economic reconstruction to be compelling and emerged from his trip a committed communist. "The history of Allied negotiations and transactions with Russia appears to have been a chain of catastrophes and mistakes" he wrote:"...[I]t seems there was a culpable lack of foresight in visualizing the forces behind the Revolution. Every effort was made by Lenin and Trotsky to bring about peace with the Allies. They were prepared to refuse to sign the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany, and instead to continue the fight on the side of the Allies, but the Allies refused to recognize them ... Various interventional operations, mostly carried out on the plea of protecting Russia against the invasion from Germany, were inaugurated, but really, as we now see, they were carried out in the interests of the capitalist class in Russia. It seems incredible that such slender excuses for intervention should have been allowed to hold good for so long... [N]ow we find ourselves supporting partisan leaders in Russia by the supply of arms and munitions at the expense of the British taxpayer, and in addition we find our Government carrying on an inhuman and illegal blockade against the Russian people, the result of which during the coming winter months will indeed be terrible."Upon his return to England, Malone became active in the "Hands Off Russia" campaign, and in November 1919 he officially joined the proto-Communist British Socialist Party (BSP). Malone was soon being elected to the party's leadership through the patronage of Theodore Rothstein. In the summer of 1920, the BSP became the main constituent of the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB), and as a result, Malone became the first CPGB MP. He attended the London Communist Unity Convention held 31 July and 1 August 1921, at which he was elected to the new party's governing Central Committee. Malone's sudden conversion to revolutionary politics brought more questions than answers, and its genuineness was questioned. John Maclean claimed that Malone was a counter-revolutionary sent to disrupt the workers' movement, and he refused to speak alongside Malone.Official CPGB historian James Klugmann saw Malone as a leading figure in the party's first year of existence: "In the first months of the Party's existence Col. Malone was very active not only in Parliament, but addressing mass meetings and rallies all over the country. Whatever his theoretical weaknesses, he was a man of passion, moved by the revolutionary tremors that were shaking the world, full of wrath and indignation against the powers that be, and after a fiery speech in the Albert Hall on November 7, 1920, he was charged with sedition under Regulation 42 of the Defense of the Realm Act ... [h]e was sentenced to six months in the Second Division."The line which landed Malone in jail related to his argument that during a revolutionary crisis, excesses might occur resulting in the killing of some prominent members of the bourgeoisie. "What are a few Churchills or a few Curzons on lampposts compared to the massacre of thousands of human beings?", Malone asked his audience. Despite Malone's prosecution, the Communist Party did not disavow Malone's rhetorical flourish, going so far as to publish an official party pamphlet, entitled "What are a Few Churchills?" in January 1921. He was stripped of his OBE on 24 June 1921.Malone came to the attention of Special Branch, whose role it was to combat "Bolshevik subversion". He was frequently mentioned in reports to the cabinet on "Revolutionary Organisations in the United Kingdom". Malone worked to promote the affiliation of the CPGB to the Labour Party, which was under consideration as a tactical matter, urged by Lenin. Malone was particularly keen and stated "There are still a few differences between the Communist Party and the Labour Party. I am glad to realise, however, that this will soon be settled by affiliation".Malone dissociated himself from the Communist Party of Great Britain and joined the Independent Labour Party, which was affiliated to the Labour Party, in 1922. He was the Labour candidate for Ashton-under-Lyne in the 1924 general election, but was unsuccessful. However, following the death of Arthur Holland in 1927, Malone was elected as MP for Northampton in the ensuing 1928 by-election. He was re-elected at the 1929 general election, and served in Ramsay MacDonald's government as the Parliamentary Private Secretary to the Minister of Pensions, Frederick Roberts, in 1931. He was not re-elected in the 1931 general election.Malone returned to military service in the Second World War. In 1942 he was the staff officer to the chief warden of the City of Westminster Civil Defence. From 1943 to 1945 he served in the Admiralty Small Vessels Pool. Following the end of the war in 1945, he became the Vice President of the Royal Television Society, the founder and chairman of the Radio Association, and a fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society. By the time of his death his publications included "The Russian Republic", "New China", and "Manchukuo: Jewel of Asia".Malone married Leah Kay in 1921. After her death, he remarried in 1956. He died on 25 February 1965, aged 74. | [
"Member of the 31st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 34th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Cecil L'Estrange Malone hold in 08/28/1931? | August 28, 1931 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 35th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q5056185_P39_2 | Cecil L'Estrange Malone holds the position of Member of the 35th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1929 to Oct, 1931.
Cecil L'Estrange Malone holds the position of Member of the 34th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1928 to May, 1929.
Cecil L'Estrange Malone holds the position of Member of the 31st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Aug, 1920 to Oct, 1922. | Cecil MaloneCecil John L'Estrange Malone (7 September 1890 – 25 February 1965) was a British politician and pioneer naval aviator who served as the United Kingdom's first Communist member of parliament.Malone was born in Dalton Holme, a parish in the East Riding of Yorkshire, on 7 September 1890. He was the son of the Reverend Savile L'Estrange Malone and Frances Mary Faljomb. He was related to the sisters Constance Markievicz and Eva Gore-Booth.Malone was educated at Cordwalles School in Maidenhead before joining the Royal Navy in 1905 and went through officer training at Royal Naval College, Dartmouth. On 15 March 1910, he was confirmed as a sub-lieutenant having previously been acting in that rank. In 1911, he was part of the second course approved by the Admiralty to attend Naval Flying School, Eastchurch. He was promoted to lieutenant from sub-lieutenant on 15 December 1911.Malone earned his Royal Aero Club certificate (No. 195) on 12 March 1912. In the Army Manoeuvres of 1912, Malone flew a twin-engined triple-screwed Short biplane. He is also noted for flying off the forecastle of steaming .During World War I, Malone commanded Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) planes in the Cuxhaven Raid on 25 December 1914. From August 1914 to March 1915, he captained , a cross-channel steamer converted to a seaplane carrier. From March 1915 to April 1916, he captained , another steamer converted to a seaplane carrier. Under Malone's command, seaplanes from "Ben-my-Chree" were the first on record to carry torpedoes and they torpedoed three enemy vessels in 1916. Malone then took over command of the East Indies and Egypt Seaplane Squadron, for which he was awarded the Fourth Class of the Order of the Nile.Malone was appointed to the Plans Division of the Admiralty in 1918 before becoming the First British Air Attache at the Embassy of the United Kingdom, Paris. In this capacity, he was the Air Representative of the Supreme War Council in Versailles in 1918. He was awarded Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) for his war efforts.Malone was elected as the Coalition Liberal Member of Parliament (MP) for East Leyton at the 1918 general election. He was a member of the anti-communist Reconstruction Society and wrote a number of articles strongly criticising left-wing activists. As Adams and Wilson wrote, "his early career contained no hint of his subsequent espousal of the communist cause."On 13 September 1919, with a passport endorsed by the British Foreign Office in hand, Cecil Malone embarked on the "S.S. Arcturus" for Helsinki. There Malone, who intended to visit Soviet Russia despite the blockade of the country, unexpectedly met up with another individual planning on crossing over to Petrograd. After travelling by sea and land to the border, the pair managed to cross the frontier through deserted forests and marshland by foot, arriving at the Soviet border on Sunday, 28 September. The two arrived in Petrograd by train at 6 pm the following day. Malone met and spoke with key leaders of the trade union movement in Petrograd before proceeding by train to Moscow.In Moscow, Malone met with Maxim Litvinov, then a top official in the People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs, with whom he had a long discussion. He later met for an hour with foreign minister Georgii Chicherin. Malone's new friends arranged for him to accompany Red Army leader Leon Trotsky on an inspection of troops at Tula aboard Trotsky's special train. Accompanying Malone on the trip were the head of the Supreme Council of National Economy (VSNKh), Alexei Rykov; chief of food supply for the Russian Republic, Alexander Tsiurupa; and People's Commissar of Education Anatoly Lunacharsky.During his visit, detailed in his memoir, Malone toured factories and theatres, power stations and government offices. He found the mission of the Bolshevik government in attempting economic reconstruction to be compelling and emerged from his trip a committed communist. "The history of Allied negotiations and transactions with Russia appears to have been a chain of catastrophes and mistakes" he wrote:"...[I]t seems there was a culpable lack of foresight in visualizing the forces behind the Revolution. Every effort was made by Lenin and Trotsky to bring about peace with the Allies. They were prepared to refuse to sign the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany, and instead to continue the fight on the side of the Allies, but the Allies refused to recognize them ... Various interventional operations, mostly carried out on the plea of protecting Russia against the invasion from Germany, were inaugurated, but really, as we now see, they were carried out in the interests of the capitalist class in Russia. It seems incredible that such slender excuses for intervention should have been allowed to hold good for so long... [N]ow we find ourselves supporting partisan leaders in Russia by the supply of arms and munitions at the expense of the British taxpayer, and in addition we find our Government carrying on an inhuman and illegal blockade against the Russian people, the result of which during the coming winter months will indeed be terrible."Upon his return to England, Malone became active in the "Hands Off Russia" campaign, and in November 1919 he officially joined the proto-Communist British Socialist Party (BSP). Malone was soon being elected to the party's leadership through the patronage of Theodore Rothstein. In the summer of 1920, the BSP became the main constituent of the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB), and as a result, Malone became the first CPGB MP. He attended the London Communist Unity Convention held 31 July and 1 August 1921, at which he was elected to the new party's governing Central Committee. Malone's sudden conversion to revolutionary politics brought more questions than answers, and its genuineness was questioned. John Maclean claimed that Malone was a counter-revolutionary sent to disrupt the workers' movement, and he refused to speak alongside Malone.Official CPGB historian James Klugmann saw Malone as a leading figure in the party's first year of existence: "In the first months of the Party's existence Col. Malone was very active not only in Parliament, but addressing mass meetings and rallies all over the country. Whatever his theoretical weaknesses, he was a man of passion, moved by the revolutionary tremors that were shaking the world, full of wrath and indignation against the powers that be, and after a fiery speech in the Albert Hall on November 7, 1920, he was charged with sedition under Regulation 42 of the Defense of the Realm Act ... [h]e was sentenced to six months in the Second Division."The line which landed Malone in jail related to his argument that during a revolutionary crisis, excesses might occur resulting in the killing of some prominent members of the bourgeoisie. "What are a few Churchills or a few Curzons on lampposts compared to the massacre of thousands of human beings?", Malone asked his audience. Despite Malone's prosecution, the Communist Party did not disavow Malone's rhetorical flourish, going so far as to publish an official party pamphlet, entitled "What are a Few Churchills?" in January 1921. He was stripped of his OBE on 24 June 1921.Malone came to the attention of Special Branch, whose role it was to combat "Bolshevik subversion". He was frequently mentioned in reports to the cabinet on "Revolutionary Organisations in the United Kingdom". Malone worked to promote the affiliation of the CPGB to the Labour Party, which was under consideration as a tactical matter, urged by Lenin. Malone was particularly keen and stated "There are still a few differences between the Communist Party and the Labour Party. I am glad to realise, however, that this will soon be settled by affiliation".Malone dissociated himself from the Communist Party of Great Britain and joined the Independent Labour Party, which was affiliated to the Labour Party, in 1922. He was the Labour candidate for Ashton-under-Lyne in the 1924 general election, but was unsuccessful. However, following the death of Arthur Holland in 1927, Malone was elected as MP for Northampton in the ensuing 1928 by-election. He was re-elected at the 1929 general election, and served in Ramsay MacDonald's government as the Parliamentary Private Secretary to the Minister of Pensions, Frederick Roberts, in 1931. He was not re-elected in the 1931 general election.Malone returned to military service in the Second World War. In 1942 he was the staff officer to the chief warden of the City of Westminster Civil Defence. From 1943 to 1945 he served in the Admiralty Small Vessels Pool. Following the end of the war in 1945, he became the Vice President of the Royal Television Society, the founder and chairman of the Radio Association, and a fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society. By the time of his death his publications included "The Russian Republic", "New China", and "Manchukuo: Jewel of Asia".Malone married Leah Kay in 1921. After her death, he remarried in 1956. He died on 25 February 1965, aged 74. | [
"Member of the 31st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 34th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Cecil L'Estrange Malone hold in 28-Aug-193128-August-1931? | August 28, 1931 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 35th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q5056185_P39_2 | Cecil L'Estrange Malone holds the position of Member of the 35th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1929 to Oct, 1931.
Cecil L'Estrange Malone holds the position of Member of the 34th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1928 to May, 1929.
Cecil L'Estrange Malone holds the position of Member of the 31st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Aug, 1920 to Oct, 1922. | Cecil MaloneCecil John L'Estrange Malone (7 September 1890 – 25 February 1965) was a British politician and pioneer naval aviator who served as the United Kingdom's first Communist member of parliament.Malone was born in Dalton Holme, a parish in the East Riding of Yorkshire, on 7 September 1890. He was the son of the Reverend Savile L'Estrange Malone and Frances Mary Faljomb. He was related to the sisters Constance Markievicz and Eva Gore-Booth.Malone was educated at Cordwalles School in Maidenhead before joining the Royal Navy in 1905 and went through officer training at Royal Naval College, Dartmouth. On 15 March 1910, he was confirmed as a sub-lieutenant having previously been acting in that rank. In 1911, he was part of the second course approved by the Admiralty to attend Naval Flying School, Eastchurch. He was promoted to lieutenant from sub-lieutenant on 15 December 1911.Malone earned his Royal Aero Club certificate (No. 195) on 12 March 1912. In the Army Manoeuvres of 1912, Malone flew a twin-engined triple-screwed Short biplane. He is also noted for flying off the forecastle of steaming .During World War I, Malone commanded Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) planes in the Cuxhaven Raid on 25 December 1914. From August 1914 to March 1915, he captained , a cross-channel steamer converted to a seaplane carrier. From March 1915 to April 1916, he captained , another steamer converted to a seaplane carrier. Under Malone's command, seaplanes from "Ben-my-Chree" were the first on record to carry torpedoes and they torpedoed three enemy vessels in 1916. Malone then took over command of the East Indies and Egypt Seaplane Squadron, for which he was awarded the Fourth Class of the Order of the Nile.Malone was appointed to the Plans Division of the Admiralty in 1918 before becoming the First British Air Attache at the Embassy of the United Kingdom, Paris. In this capacity, he was the Air Representative of the Supreme War Council in Versailles in 1918. He was awarded Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) for his war efforts.Malone was elected as the Coalition Liberal Member of Parliament (MP) for East Leyton at the 1918 general election. He was a member of the anti-communist Reconstruction Society and wrote a number of articles strongly criticising left-wing activists. As Adams and Wilson wrote, "his early career contained no hint of his subsequent espousal of the communist cause."On 13 September 1919, with a passport endorsed by the British Foreign Office in hand, Cecil Malone embarked on the "S.S. Arcturus" for Helsinki. There Malone, who intended to visit Soviet Russia despite the blockade of the country, unexpectedly met up with another individual planning on crossing over to Petrograd. After travelling by sea and land to the border, the pair managed to cross the frontier through deserted forests and marshland by foot, arriving at the Soviet border on Sunday, 28 September. The two arrived in Petrograd by train at 6 pm the following day. Malone met and spoke with key leaders of the trade union movement in Petrograd before proceeding by train to Moscow.In Moscow, Malone met with Maxim Litvinov, then a top official in the People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs, with whom he had a long discussion. He later met for an hour with foreign minister Georgii Chicherin. Malone's new friends arranged for him to accompany Red Army leader Leon Trotsky on an inspection of troops at Tula aboard Trotsky's special train. Accompanying Malone on the trip were the head of the Supreme Council of National Economy (VSNKh), Alexei Rykov; chief of food supply for the Russian Republic, Alexander Tsiurupa; and People's Commissar of Education Anatoly Lunacharsky.During his visit, detailed in his memoir, Malone toured factories and theatres, power stations and government offices. He found the mission of the Bolshevik government in attempting economic reconstruction to be compelling and emerged from his trip a committed communist. "The history of Allied negotiations and transactions with Russia appears to have been a chain of catastrophes and mistakes" he wrote:"...[I]t seems there was a culpable lack of foresight in visualizing the forces behind the Revolution. Every effort was made by Lenin and Trotsky to bring about peace with the Allies. They were prepared to refuse to sign the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany, and instead to continue the fight on the side of the Allies, but the Allies refused to recognize them ... Various interventional operations, mostly carried out on the plea of protecting Russia against the invasion from Germany, were inaugurated, but really, as we now see, they were carried out in the interests of the capitalist class in Russia. It seems incredible that such slender excuses for intervention should have been allowed to hold good for so long... [N]ow we find ourselves supporting partisan leaders in Russia by the supply of arms and munitions at the expense of the British taxpayer, and in addition we find our Government carrying on an inhuman and illegal blockade against the Russian people, the result of which during the coming winter months will indeed be terrible."Upon his return to England, Malone became active in the "Hands Off Russia" campaign, and in November 1919 he officially joined the proto-Communist British Socialist Party (BSP). Malone was soon being elected to the party's leadership through the patronage of Theodore Rothstein. In the summer of 1920, the BSP became the main constituent of the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB), and as a result, Malone became the first CPGB MP. He attended the London Communist Unity Convention held 31 July and 1 August 1921, at which he was elected to the new party's governing Central Committee. Malone's sudden conversion to revolutionary politics brought more questions than answers, and its genuineness was questioned. John Maclean claimed that Malone was a counter-revolutionary sent to disrupt the workers' movement, and he refused to speak alongside Malone.Official CPGB historian James Klugmann saw Malone as a leading figure in the party's first year of existence: "In the first months of the Party's existence Col. Malone was very active not only in Parliament, but addressing mass meetings and rallies all over the country. Whatever his theoretical weaknesses, he was a man of passion, moved by the revolutionary tremors that were shaking the world, full of wrath and indignation against the powers that be, and after a fiery speech in the Albert Hall on November 7, 1920, he was charged with sedition under Regulation 42 of the Defense of the Realm Act ... [h]e was sentenced to six months in the Second Division."The line which landed Malone in jail related to his argument that during a revolutionary crisis, excesses might occur resulting in the killing of some prominent members of the bourgeoisie. "What are a few Churchills or a few Curzons on lampposts compared to the massacre of thousands of human beings?", Malone asked his audience. Despite Malone's prosecution, the Communist Party did not disavow Malone's rhetorical flourish, going so far as to publish an official party pamphlet, entitled "What are a Few Churchills?" in January 1921. He was stripped of his OBE on 24 June 1921.Malone came to the attention of Special Branch, whose role it was to combat "Bolshevik subversion". He was frequently mentioned in reports to the cabinet on "Revolutionary Organisations in the United Kingdom". Malone worked to promote the affiliation of the CPGB to the Labour Party, which was under consideration as a tactical matter, urged by Lenin. Malone was particularly keen and stated "There are still a few differences between the Communist Party and the Labour Party. I am glad to realise, however, that this will soon be settled by affiliation".Malone dissociated himself from the Communist Party of Great Britain and joined the Independent Labour Party, which was affiliated to the Labour Party, in 1922. He was the Labour candidate for Ashton-under-Lyne in the 1924 general election, but was unsuccessful. However, following the death of Arthur Holland in 1927, Malone was elected as MP for Northampton in the ensuing 1928 by-election. He was re-elected at the 1929 general election, and served in Ramsay MacDonald's government as the Parliamentary Private Secretary to the Minister of Pensions, Frederick Roberts, in 1931. He was not re-elected in the 1931 general election.Malone returned to military service in the Second World War. In 1942 he was the staff officer to the chief warden of the City of Westminster Civil Defence. From 1943 to 1945 he served in the Admiralty Small Vessels Pool. Following the end of the war in 1945, he became the Vice President of the Royal Television Society, the founder and chairman of the Radio Association, and a fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society. By the time of his death his publications included "The Russian Republic", "New China", and "Manchukuo: Jewel of Asia".Malone married Leah Kay in 1921. After her death, he remarried in 1956. He died on 25 February 1965, aged 74. | [
"Member of the 31st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 34th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Who was the head of Soviet Union in Jun, 1928? | June 06, 1928 | {
"text": [
"Alexei Rykov"
]
} | L2_Q15180_P6_1 | Vladimir Lenin is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Jul, 1923 to Jan, 1924.
Vyacheslav Molotov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Dec, 1930 to May, 1941.
Alexei Kosygin is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Oct, 1964 to Oct, 1980.
Alexei Rykov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Feb, 1924 to Dec, 1930.
Nikolai Ryzhkov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Sep, 1985 to Jan, 1991.
Nikolai Tikhonov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Oct, 1980 to Sep, 1985.
Nikita Khrushchev is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Mar, 1958 to Oct, 1964.
Nikolai Bulganin is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Feb, 1955 to Mar, 1958.
Georgy Malenkov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Mar, 1953 to Feb, 1955.
Valentin Pavlov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Jan, 1991 to Aug, 1991.
Joseph Stalin is the head of the government of Soviet Union from May, 1941 to Mar, 1953.
Ivan Silayev is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Sep, 1991 to Dec, 1991. | Soviet UnionThe Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), was a socialist state that spanned most of Europe and Asia during its existence from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a federal union of multiple national republics; in practice its government and economy were highly centralized until its final years. The country was a one-party state prior to 1990 governed by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, with Moscow as its capital within its largest and most populous republic, the Russian SFSR. Other major urban centers were Leningrad (Russian SFSR), Kiev (Ukrainian SSR), Minsk (Byelorussian SSR), Tashkent (Uzbek SSR), Alma-Ata (Kazakh SSR) and Novosibirsk (Russian SFSR). It was the largest country in the world, covering over , and spanning eleven time zones. The Soviet Union's five biomes were tundra, taiga, steppes, desert, and mountains. Its diverse population was officially known as the Soviet people.The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 when the Bolsheviks, headed by Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Provisional Government that had earlier replaced the monarchy of the Russian Empire. They established the Russian Soviet Republic, beginning a civil war between the Bolshevik Red Army and many anti-Bolshevik forces across the former Empire, among whom the largest faction was the White Guard, which engaged in violent anti-communist repression against the Bolsheviks and their worker and peasant supporters known as the White Terror. The Red Army expanded and helped local Bolsheviks take power, establishing soviets, repressing their political opponents and rebellious peasants through Red Terror. By 1922, the Bolsheviks had emerged victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian and Byelorussian republics. The New Economic Policy (NEP), which was introduced by Lenin, led to a partial return of a free market and private property; this resulted in a period of economic recovery.Following Lenin's death in 1924, Joseph Stalin came to power. Stalin suppressed all political opposition to his rule inside the Communist Party and inaugurated a command economy. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and forced collectivization, which led to significant economic growth, but also led to a man-made famine in 1932–1933 and expanded the Gulag labour camp system originally established in 1918. Stalin also fomented political paranoia and conducted the Great Purge to remove his actual and perceived opponents from the Party through mass arrests of military leaders, Communist Party members, and ordinary citizens alike, who were then sent to correctional labor camps or sentenced to death.On 23 August 1939, after unsuccessful efforts to form an anti-fascist alliance with Western powers, the Soviets signed the non-aggression agreement with Nazi Germany. After the start of World War II, the formally neutral Soviets invaded and annexed territories of several Eastern European states, including eastern Poland and the Baltic states. In June 1941 the Germans invaded, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the cost of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at intense battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin and won World War II in Europe on 9 May 1945. The territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged in 1947 as a result of a post-war Soviet dominance in Eastern Europe, where the Eastern Bloc confronted the Western Bloc that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949.Following Stalin's death in 1953, a period known as de-Stalinization and the Khrushchev Thaw occurred under the leadership of Nikita Khrushchev. The country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took an early lead in the Space Race with the first ever satellite and the first human spaceflight and the first probe to land on another planet, Venus. In the 1970s, there was a brief "détente" of relations with the United States, but tensions resumed when the Soviet Union deployed troops in Afghanistan in 1979. The war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters.In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to further reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of "glasnost" and "perestroika". The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing economic stagnation. The Cold War ended during his tenure and in 1989, Warsaw Pact countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective Marxist-Leninist regimes. Strong nationalist and separatist movements broke out across the USSR. Gorbachev initiated a referendum—boycotted by the Baltic republics, Armenia, Georgia, and Moldova—which resulted in the majority of participating citizens voting in favor of preserving the Union as a renewed federation. In August 1991, a coup d'état was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a high-profile role in facing down the coup. The main result was the banning of the Communist Party. The republics led by Russia and Ukraine declared independence. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned. All the republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states. The Russian Federation (formerly the Russian SFSR) assumed the Soviet Union's rights and obligations and is recognized as its continued legal personality in world affairs.The USSR produced many significant social and technological achievements and innovations regarding military power. It boasted the world's second-largest economy and the largest standing military in the world. The USSR was recognized as one of the five nuclear weapons states. It was a founding permanent member of the United Nations Security Council as well as a member of the OSCE, the WFTU and the leading member of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and the Warsaw Pact.Before its dissolution, the USSR had maintained its status as one of the world's two superpowers for four decades after World War II. Sometimes also called "Soviet Empire", it exercised its hegemony in Eastern Europe and worldwide with military and economic strength, proxy conflicts and influence in developing countries and funding of scientific research, especially in space technology and weaponry.The word "soviet" is derived from the Russian word "sovet" (), meaning "council", "assembly", "advice", ultimately deriving from the proto-Slavic verbal stem of "vět-iti" ("to inform"), related to Slavic "věst" ("news"), English "wise", the root in "ad-vis-or" (which came to English through French), or the Dutch "weten" ("to know"; cf. "wetenschap" meaning "science"). The word "sovietnik" means "councillor".Some organizations in Russian history were called "council" (). In the Russian Empire, the State Council which functioned from 1810 to 1917 was referred to as a Council of Ministers after the revolt of 1905.During the Georgian Affair, Vladimir Lenin envisioned an expression of Great Russian ethnic chauvinism by Joseph Stalin and his supporters, calling for these nation-states to join Russia as semi-independent parts of a greater union which he initially named as the Union of Soviet Republics of Europe and Asia (). Stalin initially resisted the proposal but ultimately accepted it, although with Lenin's agreement changed the name to the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), albeit all the republics began as "socialist soviet" and did not change to the other order until 1936. In addition, in the national languages of several republics, the word "council" or "conciliar" in the respective language was only quite late changed to an adaptation of the Russian "soviet" and never in others, e.g. Ukraine."СССР" (in Latin alphabet: "SSSR") is the abbreviation of USSR in Russian. It is written in Cyrillic letters. The Soviets used the Cyrillic abbreviation so frequently that audiences worldwide became familiar with its meaning. Notably, both Cyrillic letters used have homoglyphic (but transliterally distinct) letters in Latin alphabets. Because of widespread familiarity with the Cyrillic abbreviation, Latin alphabet users in particular almost always use the Latin homoglyphs "C" and "P" (as opposed to the transliteral Latin letters "S" and "R") when rendering the USSR's native abbreviation.After "СССР", the most common short form names for the Soviet state in Russian were "Советский Союз" (transliteration: "Sovetskiy Soyuz") which literally means "Soviet Union", and also "Союз ССР" (transliteration: "Soyuz SSR") which, after compensating for grammatical differences, essentially translates to "Union of SSR's" in English.In the English language media, the state was referred to as the Soviet Union or the USSR. In other European languages, the locally translated short forms and abbreviations are usually used such as "Union soviétique" and "URSS" in French, or "Sowjetunion" and "UdSSR" in German. In the English-speaking world, the Soviet Union was also informally called Russia and its citizens Russians, although that was technically incorrect since Russia was only one of the republics. Such misapplications of the linguistic equivalents to the term "Russia" and its derivatives were frequent in other languages as well.The Soviet Union covered an area of over , and was the world's largest country, a status that is retained by its successor state, Russia. It covered a sixth of Earth's land surface, and its size was comparable to the continent of North America. Its western part in Europe accounted for a quarter of the country's area and was the cultural and economic center. The eastern part in Asia extended to the Pacific Ocean to the east and Afghanistan to the south, and, except some areas in Central Asia, was much less populous. It spanned over east to west across eleven time zones, and over north to south. It had five climate zones: tundra, taiga, steppes, desert and mountains.The Soviet Union, similarly to Russia, had the world's longest border, measuring over , or circumferences of Earth. Two-thirds of it was a coastline. The country bordered Afghanistan, China, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Hungary, Iran, Mongolia, North Korea, Norway, Poland, Romania, and Turkey from 1945 to 1991. The Bering Strait separated the country from the United States, while the La Pérouse Strait separated it from Japan.The Soviet Union's highest mountain was Communism Peak (now Ismoil Somoni Peak) in Tajik SSR, at . It also included most of the world's largest lakes; the Caspian Sea (shared with Iran), and Lake Baikal in Russia, the world's largest and deepest freshwater lake.Modern revolutionary activity in the Russian Empire began with the 1825 Decembrist revolt. Although serfdom was abolished in 1861, it was done on terms unfavorable to the peasants and served to encourage revolutionaries. A parliament—the State Duma—was established in 1906 after the Russian Revolution of 1905, but Tsar Nicholas II resisted attempts to move from absolute to a constitutional monarchy. Social unrest continued and was aggravated during World War I by military defeat and food shortages in major cities.A spontaneous popular uprising in Petrograd, in response to the wartime decay of Russia's economy and morale, culminated in the February Revolution and the toppling of Nicholas II and the imperial government in March 1917. The tsarist autocracy was replaced by the Russian Provisional Government, which intended to conduct elections to the Russian Constituent Assembly and to continue fighting on the side of the Entente in World War I.At the same time, workers' councils, known in Russian as "Soviets", sprang up across the country. The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, pushed for socialist revolution in the Soviets and on the streets. On 7 November 1917, the Red Guards stormed the Winter Palace in Petrograd, ending the rule of the Provisional Government and leaving all political power to the Soviets. This event would later be officially known in Soviet bibliographies as the Great October Socialist Revolution. In December, the Bolsheviks signed an armistice with the Central Powers, though by February 1918, fighting had resumed. In March, the Soviets ended involvement in the war and signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.A long and bloody Civil War ensued between the Reds and the Whites, starting in 1917 and ending in 1923 with the Reds' victory. It included foreign intervention, the execution of the former tsar and his family, and the famine of 1921, which killed about five million people. In March 1921, during a related conflict with Poland, the Peace of Riga was signed, splitting disputed territories in Belarus and Ukraine between the Republic of Poland and Soviet Russia. Soviet Russia had to resolve similar conflicts with the newly established republics of Estonia, Finland, Latvia, and Lithuania.On 28 December 1922, a conference of plenipotentiary delegations from the Russian SFSR, the Transcaucasian SFSR, the Ukrainian SSR and the Byelorussian SSR approved the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR and the Declaration of the Creation of the USSR, forming the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. These two documents were confirmed by the first Congress of Soviets of the USSR and signed by the heads of the delegations, Mikhail Kalinin, Mikhail Tskhakaya, Mikhail Frunze, Grigory Petrovsky, and Alexander Chervyakov, on 30 December 1922. The formal proclamation was made from the stage of the Bolshoi Theatre.An intensive restructuring of the economy, industry and politics of the country began in the early days of Soviet power in 1917. A large part of this was done according to the Bolshevik Initial Decrees, government documents signed by Vladimir Lenin. One of the most prominent breakthroughs was the GOELRO plan, which envisioned a major restructuring of the Soviet economy based on total electrification of the country. The plan became the prototype for subsequent Five-Year Plans and was fulfilled by 1931. After the economic policy of "War communism" during the Russian Civil War, as a prelude to fully developing socialism in the country, the Soviet government permitted some private enterprise to coexist alongside nationalized industry in the 1920s, and total food requisition in the countryside was replaced by a food tax.From its creation, the government in the Soviet Union was based on the one-party rule of the Communist Party (Bolsheviks). The stated purpose was to prevent the return of capitalist exploitation, and that the principles of democratic centralism would be the most effective in representing the people's will in a practical manner. The debate over the future of the economy provided the background for a power struggle in the years after Lenin's death in 1924. Initially, Lenin was to be replaced by a "troika" consisting of Grigory Zinoviev of the Ukrainian SSR, Lev Kamenev of the Russian SFSR, and Joseph Stalin of the Transcaucasian SFSR.On 1 February 1924, the USSR was recognized by the United Kingdom. The same year, a Soviet Constitution was approved, legitimizing the December 1922 union. According to Archie Brown the constitution was never an accurate guide to political reality in the USSR. For example the fact that the Party played the leading role in making and enforcing policy was not mentioned in it until 1977. The USSR was a federative entity of many constituent republics, each with its own political and administrative entities. However, the term "Soviet Russia"strictly applicable only to the Russian Federative Socialist Republicwas often applied to the entire country by non-Soviet writers.On 3 April 1922, Stalin was named the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Lenin had appointed Stalin the head of the Workers' and Peasants' Inspectorate, which gave Stalin considerable power. By gradually consolidating his influence and isolating and outmanoeuvring his rivals within the party, Stalin became the undisputed leader of the country and, by the end of the 1920s, established a totalitarian rule. In October 1927, Zinoviev and Leon Trotsky were expelled from the Central Committee and forced into exile.In 1928, Stalin introduced the first five-year plan for building a socialist economy. In place of the internationalism expressed by Lenin throughout the Revolution, it aimed to build Socialism in One Country. In industry, the state assumed control over all existing enterprises and undertook an intensive program of industrialization. In agriculture, rather than adhering to the "lead by example" policy advocated by Lenin, forced collectivization of farms was implemented all over the country.Famines ensued as a result, causing deaths estimated at three to seven million; surviving kulaks were persecuted, and many were sent to Gulags to do forced labor. Social upheaval continued in the mid-1930s. Despite the turmoil of the mid-to-late 1930s, the country developed a robust industrial economy in the years preceding World War II.Closer cooperation between the USSR and the West developed in the early 1930s. From 1932 to 1934, the country participated in the World Disarmament Conference. In 1933, diplomatic relations between the United States and the USSR were established when in November, the newly elected President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt, chose to recognize Stalin's Communist government formally and negotiated a new trade agreement between the two countries. In September 1934, the country joined the League of Nations. After the Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936, the USSR actively supported the Republican forces against the Nationalists, who were supported by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany.In December 1936, Stalin unveiled a new constitution that was praised by supporters around the world as the most democratic constitution imaginable, though there was some skepticism. Stalin's Great Purge resulted in the detainment or execution of many "Old Bolsheviks" who had participated in the October Revolution with Lenin. According to declassified Soviet archives, the NKVD arrested more than one and a half million people in 1937 and 1938, of whom 681,692 were shot. Over those two years, there were an average of over one thousand executions a day.In 1939, after attempts to form a military alliance with Britain and France against Germany failed, the Soviet Union made a dramatic shift towards Nazi Germany. Almost a year after Britain and France had concluded the Munich Agreement with Germany, the Soviet Union made agreements with Germany as well, both militarily and economically during extensive talks. The two countries concluded the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and the German–Soviet Commercial Agreement in August 1939. The former made possible the Soviet occupation of Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Bessarabia, northern Bukovina, and eastern Poland, while the Soviets remained formally neutral. In late November, unable to coerce the Republic of Finland by diplomatic means into moving its border back from Leningrad, Stalin ordered the invasion of Finland. In the east, the Soviet military won several decisive victories during border clashes with the Empire of Japan in 1938 and 1939. However, in April 1941, the USSR signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact with Japan, recognizing the territorial integrity of Manchukuo, a Japanese puppet state.Germany broke the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 starting what was known in the USSR as the Great Patriotic War. The Red Army stopped the seemingly invincible German Army at the Battle of Moscow. The Battle of Stalingrad, which lasted from late 1942 to early 1943, dealt a severe blow to Germany from which they never fully recovered and became a turning point in the war. After Stalingrad, Soviet forces drove through Eastern Europe to Berlin before Germany surrendered in 1945. The German Army suffered 80% of its military deaths in the Eastern Front. Harry Hopkins, a close foreign policy advisor to Franklin D. Roosevelt, spoke on 10 August 1943 of the USSR's decisive role in the war.In the same year, the USSR, in fulfilment of its agreement with the Allies at the Yalta Conference, denounced the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1945 and invaded Manchukuo and other Japan-controlled territories on 9 August 1945. This conflict ended with a decisive Soviet victory, contributing to the unconditional surrender of Japan and the end of World War II.The USSR suffered greatly in the war, losing around 27 million people. Approximately 2.8 million Soviet POWs died of starvation, mistreatment, or executions in just eight months of 1941–42. During the war, the country together with the United States, the United Kingdom and China were considered the Big Four Allied powers, and later became the Four Policemen that formed the basis of the United Nations Security Council. It emerged as a superpower in the post-war period. Once denied diplomatic recognition by the Western world, the USSR had official relations with practically every country by the late 1940s. A member of the United Nations at its foundation in 1945, the country became one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, which gave it the right to veto any of its resolutions.During the immediate post-war period, the Soviet Union rebuilt and expanded its economy, while maintaining its strictly centralized control. It took effective control over most of the countries of Eastern Europe (except Yugoslavia and later Albania), turning them into satellite states. The USSR bound its satellite states in a military alliance, the Warsaw Pact, in 1955, and an economic organization, Council for Mutual Economic Assistance or Comecon, a counterpart to the European Economic Community (EEC), from 1949 to 1991. The USSR concentrated on its own recovery, seizing and transferring most of Germany's industrial plants, and it exacted war reparations from East Germany, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. It also instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favor the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Later, the Comecon supplied aid to the eventually victorious Communist Party of China, and its influence grew elsewhere in the world. Fearing its ambitions, the Soviet Union's wartime allies, the United Kingdom and the United States, became its enemies. In the ensuing Cold War, the two sides clashed indirectly in proxy wars.Stalin died on 5 March 1953. Without a mutually agreeable successor, the highest Communist Party officials initially opted to rule the Soviet Union jointly through a troika headed by Georgy Malenkov. This did not last, however, and Nikita Khrushchev eventually won the ensuing power struggle by the mid-1950s. In 1956, he denounced Joseph Stalin and proceeded to ease controls over the party and society. This was known as de-Stalinization.Moscow considered Eastern Europe to be a critically vital buffer zone for the forward defence of its western borders, in case of another major invasion such as the German invasion of 1941. For this reason, the USSR sought to cement its control of the region by transforming the Eastern European countries into satellite states, dependent upon and subservient to its leadership. As a result, Soviet military forces were used to suppress an anti-communist uprising in Hungary in 1956.In the late 1950s, a confrontation with China regarding the Soviet rapprochement with the West, and what Mao Zedong perceived as Khrushchev's revisionism, led to the Sino–Soviet split. This resulted in a break throughout the global Marxist–Leninist movement, with the governments in Albania, Cambodia and Somalia choosing to ally with China.During this period of the late 1950s and early 1960s, the USSR continued to realize scientific and technological exploits in the Space Race, rivaling the United States: launching the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1 in 1957; a living dog named Laika in 1957; the first human being, Yuri Gagarin in 1961; the first woman in space, Valentina Tereshkova in 1963; Alexei Leonov, the first person to walk in space in 1965; the first soft landing on the Moon by spacecraft Luna 9 in 1966; and the first Moon rovers, Lunokhod 1 and Lunokhod 2.Khrushchev initiated "The Thaw", a complex shift in political, cultural and economic life in the country. This included some openness and contact with other nations and new social and economic policies with more emphasis on commodity goods, allowing a dramatic rise in living standards while maintaining high levels of economic growth. Censorship was relaxed as well. Khrushchev's reforms in agriculture and administration, however, were generally unproductive. In 1962, he precipitated a crisis with the United States over the Soviet deployment of nuclear missiles in Cuba. An agreement was made with the United States to remove nuclear missiles from both Cuba and Turkey, concluding the crisis. This event caused Khrushchev much embarrassment and loss of prestige, resulting in his removal from power in 1964.Following the ousting of Khrushchev, another period of collective leadership ensued, consisting of Leonid Brezhnev as General Secretary, Alexei Kosygin as Premier and Nikolai Podgorny as Chairman of the Presidium, lasting until Brezhnev established himself in the early 1970s as the preeminent Soviet leader.In 1968, the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact allies invaded Czechoslovakia to halt the Prague Spring reforms. In the aftermath, Brezhnev justified the invasion and previous military interventions as well as any potential military interventions in the future by introducing the Brezhnev Doctrine, which proclaimed any threat to socialist rule in a Warsaw Pact state as a threat to all Warsaw Pact states, therefore justifying military intervention.Brezhnev presided throughout "détente" with the West that resulted in treaties on armament control (SALT I, SALT II, Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty) while at the same time building up Soviet military might.In October 1977, the third Soviet Constitution was unanimously adopted. The prevailing mood of the Soviet leadership at the time of Brezhnev's death in 1982 was one of aversion to change. The long period of Brezhnev's rule had come to be dubbed one of "standstill", with an ageing and ossified top political leadership. This period is also known as the Era of Stagnation, a period of adverse economic, political, and social effects in the country, which began during the rule of Brezhnev and continued under his successors Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko.In late 1979, the Soviet Union's military intervened in the ongoing civil war in neighboring Afghanistan, effectively ending a détente with the West.Two developments dominated the decade that followed: the increasingly apparent crumbling of the Soviet Union's economic and political structures, and the patchwork attempts at reforms to reverse that process. Kenneth S. Deffeyes argued in "Beyond Oil" that the Reagan administration encouraged Saudi Arabia to lower the price of oil to the point where the Soviets could not make a profit selling their oil, and resulted in the depletion of the country's hard currency reserves.Brezhnev's next two successors, transitional figures with deep roots in his tradition, did not last long. Yuri Andropov was 68 years old and Konstantin Chernenko 72 when they assumed power; both died in less than two years. In an attempt to avoid a third short-lived leader, in 1985, the Soviets turned to the next generation and selected Mikhail Gorbachev. He made significant changes in the economy and party leadership, called "perestroika". His policy of "glasnost" freed public access to information after decades of heavy government censorship. Gorbachev also moved to end the Cold War. In 1988, the USSR abandoned its war in Afghanistan and began to withdraw its forces. In the following year, Gorbachev refused to interfere in the internal affairs of the Soviet satellite states, which paved the way for the Revolutions of 1989. In particular, the standstill of the Soviet Union at the Pan-European Picnic in August 1989 then set a peaceful chain reaction in motion at the end of which the Eastern Bloc collapsed. With the tearing down of the Berlin Wall and with East and West Germany pursuing unification, the Iron Curtain between the West and Soviet-controlled regions came down.At the same time, the Soviet republics started legal moves towards potentially declaring sovereignty over their territories, citing the freedom to secede in Article 72 of the USSR constitution. On 7 April 1990, a law was passed allowing a republic to secede if more than two-thirds of its residents voted for it in a referendum. Many held their first free elections in the Soviet era for their own national legislatures in 1990. Many of these legislatures proceeded to produce legislation contradicting the Union laws in what was known as the "War of Laws". In 1989, the Russian SFSR convened a newly elected Congress of People's Deputies. Boris Yeltsin was elected its chairman. On 12 June 1990, the Congress declared Russia's sovereignty over its territory and proceeded to pass laws that attempted to supersede some of the Soviet laws. After a landslide victory of Sąjūdis in Lithuania, that country declared its independence restored on 11 March 1990.A referendum for the preservation of the USSR was held on 17 March 1991 in nine republics (the remainder having boycotted the vote), with the majority of the population in those republics voting for preservation of the Union. The referendum gave Gorbachev a minor boost. In the summer of 1991, the New Union Treaty, which would have turned the country into a much looser Union, was agreed upon by eight republics. The signing of the treaty, however, was interrupted by the August Coup—an attempted coup d'état by hardline members of the government and the KGB who sought to reverse Gorbachev's reforms and reassert the central government's control over the republics. After the coup collapsed, Yeltsin was seen as a hero for his decisive actions, while Gorbachev's power was effectively ended. The balance of power tipped significantly towards the republics. In August 1991, Latvia and Estonia immediately declared the restoration of their full independence (following Lithuania's 1990 example). Gorbachev resigned as general secretary in late August, and soon afterwards, the party's activities were indefinitely suspended—effectively ending its rule. By the fall, Gorbachev could no longer influence events outside Moscow, and he was being challenged even there by Yeltsin, who had been elected President of Russia in July 1991.The remaining 12 republics continued discussing new, increasingly looser, models of the Union. However, by December all except Russia and Kazakhstan had formally declared independence. During this time, Yeltsin took over what remained of the Soviet government, including the Moscow Kremlin. The final blow was struck on 1 December when Ukraine, the second-most powerful republic, voted overwhelmingly for independence. Ukraine's secession ended any realistic chance of the country staying together even on a limited scale.On 8 December 1991, the presidents of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus (formerly Byelorussia), signed the Belavezha Accords, which declared the Soviet Union dissolved and established the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in its place. While doubts remained over the authority of the accords to do this, on 21 December 1991, the representatives of all Soviet republics except Georgia signed the Alma-Ata Protocol, which confirmed the accords. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned as the President of the USSR, declaring the office extinct. He turned the powers that had been vested in the presidency over to Yeltsin. That night, the Soviet flag was lowered for the last time, and the Russian tricolor was raised in its place.The following day, the Supreme Soviet, the highest governmental body, voted both itself and the country out of existence. This is generally recognized as marking the official, final dissolution of the Soviet Union as a functioning state, and the end of the Cold War. The Soviet Army initially remained under overall CIS command but was soon absorbed into the different military forces of the newly independent states. The few remaining Soviet institutions that had not been taken over by Russia ceased to function by the end of 1991.Following the dissolution, Russia was internationally recognized as its legal successor on the international stage. To that end, Russia voluntarily accepted all Soviet foreign debt and claimed Soviet overseas properties as its own. Under the 1992 Lisbon Protocol, Russia also agreed to receive all nuclear weapons remaining in the territory of other former Soviet republics. Since then, the Russian Federation has assumed the Soviet Union's rights and obligations. Ukraine has refused to recognize exclusive Russian claims to succession of the USSR and claimed such status for Ukraine as well, which was codified in Articles 7 and 8 of its 1991 law On Legal Succession of Ukraine. Since its independence in 1991, Ukraine has continued to pursue claims against Russia in foreign courts, seeking to recover its share of the foreign property that was owned by the USSR.The dissolution was followed by a severe drop in economic and social conditions in post-Soviet states, including a rapid increase in poverty, crime, corruption, unemployment, homelessness, rates of disease, infant mortality and domestic violence, as well as demographic losses and income inequality and the rise of an oligarchical class, along with decreases in calorie intake, life expectancy, adult literacy, and income. Between 1988–1989 and 1993–1995, the Gini ratio increased by an average of 9 points for all former socialist countries. The economic shocks that accompanied wholesale privatization were associated with sharp increases in mortality. Data shows Russia, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia saw a tripling of unemployment and a 42% increase in male death rates between 1991 and 1994. In the following decades, only five or six of the post-communist states are on a path to joining the wealthy capitalist West while most are falling behind, some to such an extent that it will take over fifty years to catch up to where they were before the fall of the Soviet Bloc.In summing up the international ramifications of these events, Vladislav Zubok stated: "The collapse of the Soviet empire was an event of epochal geopolitical, military, ideological, and economic significance." Before the dissolution, the country had maintained its status as one of the world's two superpowers for four decades after World War II through its hegemony in Eastern Europe, military strength, economic strength, aid to developing countries, and scientific research, especially in space technology and weaponry.The analysis of the succession of states for the 15 post-Soviet states is complex. The Russian Federation is seen as the legal "continuator" state and is for most purposes the heir to the Soviet Union. It retained ownership of all former Soviet embassy properties, as well as the old Soviet UN membership and permanent membership on the Security Council.Of the two other co-founding states of the USSR at the time of the dissolution, Ukraine was the only one that had passed laws, similar to Russia, that it is a state-successor of both the Ukrainian SSR and the USSR. Soviet treaties laid groundwork for Ukraine's future foreign agreements as well as they led to Ukraine agreeing to undertake 16.37% of debts of the Soviet Union for which it was going to receive its share of USSR's foreign property. Although it had a tough position at the time, due to Russia's position as a "single continuation of the USSR" that became widely accepted in the West as well as a constant pressure from the Western countries, allowed Russia to dispose state property of USSR abroad and conceal information about it. Due to that Ukraine never ratified "zero option" agreement that Russian Federation had signed with other former Soviet republics, as it denied disclosing of information about Soviet Gold Reserves and its Diamond Fund. The dispute over former Soviet property and assets between the two former republics is still ongoing:Similar situation occurred with restitution of cultural property. Although on 14 February 1992 Russia and other former Soviet republics signed agreement "On the return of cultural and historic property to the origin states" in Minsk, it was halted by Russian State Duma that had eventually passed "Federal Law on Cultural Valuables Displaced to the USSR as a Result of the Second World War and Located on the Territory of the Russian Federation" which made restitution currently impossible.There are additionally four states that claim independence from the other internationally recognised post-Soviet states but possess limited international recognition: Abkhazia, Nagorno-Karabakh, South Ossetia and Transnistria. The Chechen separatist movement of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria lacks any international recognition.During his rule, Stalin always made the final policy decisions. Otherwise, Soviet foreign policy was set by the commission on the Foreign Policy of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, or by the party's highest body the Politburo. Operations were handled by the separate Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It was known as the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs (or Narkomindel), until 1946. The most influential spokesmen were Georgy Chicherin (1872–1936), Maxim Litvinov (1876–1951), Vyacheslav Molotov (1890–1986), Andrey Vyshinsky (1883–1954) and Andrei Gromyko (1909–1989). Intellectuals were based in the Moscow State Institute of International Relations.The Marxist-Leninist leadership of the Soviet Union intensely debated foreign policy issues and change directions several times. Even after Stalin assumed dictatorial control in the late 1920s, there were debates, and he frequently changed positions.During the country's early period, it was assumed that Communist revolutions would break out soon in every major industrial country, and it was the Soviet responsibility to assist them. The Comintern was the weapon of choice. A few revolutions did break out, but they were quickly suppressed (the longest lasting one was in Hungary)—the Hungarian Soviet Republic—lasted only from 21 March 1919 to 1 August 1919. The Russian Bolsheviks were in no position to give any help.By 1921, Lenin, Trotsky, and Stalin realized that capitalism had stabilized itself in Europe and there would not be any widespread revolutions anytime soon. It became the duty of the Russian Bolsheviks to protect what they had in Russia, and avoid military confrontations that might destroy their bridgehead. Russia was now a pariah state, along with Germany. The two came to terms in 1922 with the Treaty of Rapallo that settled long-standing grievances. At the same time, the two countries secretly set up training programs for the illegal German army and air force operations at hidden camps in the USSR.Moscow eventually stopped threatening other states, and instead worked to open peaceful relationships in terms of trade, and diplomatic recognition. The United Kingdom dismissed the warnings of Winston Churchill and a few others about a continuing Marxist-Leninist threat, and opened trade relations and "de facto" diplomatic recognition in 1922. There was hope for a settlement of the pre-war Tsarist debts, but it was repeatedly postponed. Formal recognition came when the new Labour Party came to power in 1924. All the other countries followed suit in opening trade relations. Henry Ford opened large-scale business relations with the Soviets in the late 1920s, hoping that it would lead to long-term peace. Finally, in 1933, the United States officially recognized the USSR, a decision backed by the public opinion and especially by US business interests that expected an opening of a new profitable market.In the late 1920s and early 1930s, Stalin ordered Marxist-Leninist parties across the world to strongly oppose non-Marxist political parties, labor unions or other organizations on the left. Stalin reversed himself in 1934 with the Popular Front program that called on all Marxist parties to join together with all anti-Fascist political, labor, and organizational forces that were opposed to fascism, especially of the Nazi variety.In 1939, half a year after the Munich Agreement, the USSR attempted to form an anti-Nazi alliance with France and Britain. Adolf Hitler proposed a better deal, which would give the USSR control over much of Eastern Europe through the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. In September, Germany invaded Poland, and the USSR also invaded later that month, resulting in the partition of Poland. In response, Britain and France declared war on Germany, marking the beginning of World War II.There were three power hierarchies in the Soviet Union: the legislature represented by the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, the government represented by the Council of Ministers, and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), the only legal party and the final policymaker in the country.At the top of the Communist Party was the Central Committee, elected at Party Congresses and Conferences. In turn, the Central Committee voted for a Politburo (called the Presidium between 1952 and 1966), Secretariat and the General Secretary (First Secretary from 1953 to 1966), the "de facto" highest office in the Soviet Union. Depending on the degree of power consolidation, it was either the Politburo as a collective body or the General Secretary, who always was one of the Politburo members, that effectively led the party and the country (except for the period of the highly personalized authority of Stalin, exercised directly through his position in the Council of Ministers rather than the Politburo after 1941). They were not controlled by the general party membership, as the key principle of the party organization was democratic centralism, demanding strict subordination to higher bodies, and elections went uncontested, endorsing the candidates proposed from above.The Communist Party maintained its dominance over the state mainly through its control over the system of appointments. All senior government officials and most deputies of the Supreme Soviet were members of the CPSU. Of the party heads themselves, Stalin (1941–1953) and Khrushchev (1958–1964) were Premiers. Upon the forced retirement of Khrushchev, the party leader was prohibited from this kind of double membership, but the later General Secretaries for at least some part of their tenure occupied the mostly ceremonial position of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the nominal head of state. The institutions at lower levels were overseen and at times supplanted by primary party organizations.However, in practice the degree of control the party was able to exercise over the state bureaucracy, particularly after the death of Stalin, was far from total, with the bureaucracy pursuing different interests that were at times in conflict with the party. Nor was the party itself monolithic from top to bottom, although factions were officially banned.The Supreme Soviet (successor of the Congress of Soviets) was nominally the highest state body for most of the Soviet history, at first acting as a rubber stamp institution, approving and implementing all decisions made by the party. However, its powers and functions were extended in the late 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, including the creation of new state commissions and committees. It gained additional powers relating to the approval of the Five-Year Plans and the government budget. The Supreme Soviet elected a Presidium (successor of the Central Executive Committee) to wield its power between plenary sessions, ordinarily held twice a year, and appointed the Supreme Court, the Procurator General and the Council of Ministers (known before 1946 as the Council of People's Commissars), headed by the Chairman (Premier) and managing an enormous bureaucracy responsible for the administration of the economy and society. State and party structures of the constituent republics largely emulated the structure of the central institutions, although the Russian SFSR, unlike the other constituent republics, for most of its history had no republican branch of the CPSU, being ruled directly by the union-wide party until 1990. Local authorities were organized likewise into party committees, local Soviets and executive committees. While the state system was nominally federal, the party was unitary.The state security police (the KGB and ) played an important role in Soviet politics. It was instrumental in the Great Purge, but was brought under strict party control after Stalin's death. Under Yuri Andropov, the KGB engaged in the suppression of political dissent and maintained an extensive network of informers, reasserting itself as a political actor to some extent independent of the party-state structure, culminating in the anti-corruption campaign targeting high-ranking party officials in the late 1970s and early 1980s.The constitution, which was promulgated in 1924, 1936 and 1977, did not limit state power. No formal separation of powers existed between the Party, Supreme Soviet and Council of Ministers that represented executive and legislative branches of the government. The system was governed less by statute than by informal conventions, and no settled mechanism of leadership succession existed. Bitter and at times deadly power struggles took place in the Politburo after the deaths of Lenin and Stalin, as well as after Khrushchev's dismissal, itself due to a decision by both the Politburo and the Central Committee. All leaders of the Communist Party before Gorbachev died in office, except Georgy Malenkov and Khrushchev, both dismissed from the party leadership amid internal struggle within the party.Between 1988 and 1990, facing considerable opposition, Mikhail Gorbachev enacted reforms shifting power away from the highest bodies of the party and making the Supreme Soviet less dependent on them. The Congress of People's Deputies was established, the majority of whose members were directly elected in competitive elections held in March 1989. The Congress now elected the Supreme Soviet, which became a full-time parliament, and much stronger than before. For the first time since the 1920s, it refused to rubber stamp proposals from the party and Council of Ministers. In 1990, Gorbachev introduced and assumed the position of the President of the Soviet Union, concentrated power in his executive office, independent of the party, and subordinated the government, now renamed the Cabinet of Ministers of the USSR, to himself.Tensions grew between the Union-wide authorities under Gorbachev, reformists led in Russia by Boris Yeltsin and controlling the newly elected Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR, and communist hardliners. On 19–21 August 1991, a group of hardliners staged a coup attempt. The coup failed, and the State Council of the Soviet Union became the highest organ of state power "in the period of transition". Gorbachev resigned as General Secretary, only remaining President for the final months of the existence of the USSR.The judiciary was not independent of the other branches of government. The Supreme Court supervised the lower courts (People's Court) and applied the law as established by the constitution or as interpreted by the Supreme Soviet. The Constitutional Oversight Committee reviewed the constitutionality of laws and acts. The Soviet Union used the inquisitorial system of Roman law, where the judge, procurator, and defence attorney collaborate to establish the truth.Constitutionally, the USSR was a federation of constituent Union Republics, which were either unitary states, such as Ukraine or Byelorussia (SSRs), or federations, such as Russia or Transcaucasia (SFSRs), all four being the founding republics who signed the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR in December 1922. In 1924, during the national delimitation in Central Asia, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan were formed from parts of Russia's Turkestan ASSR and two Soviet dependencies, the Khorezm and Bukharan SSRs. In 1929, Tajikistan was split off from the Uzbekistan SSR. With the constitution of 1936, the Transcaucasian SFSR was dissolved, resulting in its constituent republics of Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan being elevated to Union Republics, while Kazakhstan and Kirghizia were split off from Russian SFSR, resulting in the same status. In August 1940, Moldavia was formed from parts of Ukraine and Bessarabia and northern Bukovina. Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania (SSRs) were also admitted into the union which was not recognized by most of the international community and was considered an illegal occupation. Karelia was split off from Russia as a Union Republic in March 1940 and was reabsorbed in 1956. Between July 1956 and September 1991, there were 15 union republics (see map below).While nominally a union of equals, in practice the Soviet Union was dominated by Russians. The domination was so absolute that for most of its existence, the country was commonly (but incorrectly) referred to as "Russia". While the RSFSR was technically only one republic within the larger union, it was by far the largest (both in terms of population and area), most powerful, most developed, and the industrial center of the Soviet Union. Historian Matthew White wrote that it was an open secret that the country's federal structure was "window dressing" for Russian dominance. For that reason, the people of the USSR were usually called "Russians", not "Soviets", since "everyone knew who really ran the show".Under the Military Law of September 1925, the Soviet Armed Forces consisted of the Land Forces, the Air Force, the Navy, Joint State Political Directorate (OGPU), and the Internal Troops. The OGPU later became independent and in 1934 joined the NKVD, and so its internal troops were under the joint leadership of the defense and internal commissariats. After World War II, Strategic Missile Forces (1959), Air Defense Forces (1948) and National Civil Defense Forces (1970) were formed, which ranked first, third, and sixth in the official Soviet system of importance (ground forces were second, Air Force Fourth, and Navy Fifth).The army had the greatest political influence. In 1989, there served two million soldiers divided between 150 motorized and 52 armored divisions. Until the early 1960s, the Soviet navy was a rather small military branch, but after the Caribbean crisis, under the leadership of Sergei Gorshkov, it expanded significantly. It became known for battlecruisers and submarines. In 1989 there served 500 000 men. The Soviet Air Force focused on a fleet of strategic bombers and during war situation was to eradicate enemy infrastructure and nuclear capacity. The air force also had a number of fighters and tactical bombers to support the army in the war. Strategic missile forces had more than 1,400 intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), deployed between 28 bases and 300 command centers.In the post-war period, the Soviet Army was directly involved in several military operations abroad. These included the suppression of the uprising in East Germany (1953), Hungarian revolution (1956) and the invasion of Czechoslovakia (1968). The Soviet Union also participated in the war in Afghanistan between 1979 and 1989.In the Soviet Union, general conscription applied.At the end of the 1950s, with the help of engineers and technologies captured and imported from defeated Nazi Germany, the Soviets constructed the first satellite – Sputnik 1 and thus overtook the United States in terms of utilizing space. This was followed by other successful satellites, where test dogs flight was sent. On April 12, 1961, the first cosmonaut, Yuri Gagarin, was sent to the space. He once flew around the Earth and successfully landed in the Kazakh steppe. At that time, the first plans for space shuttles and orbital stations were drawn up in Soviet design offices, but in the end personal disputes between designers and management prevented this.As for Lunar space program; USSR only had a program on automated spacecraft launches; with no manned spacecraft used; passing on the "Moon Race" part of Space Race.In the 1970s, specific proposals for the design of the space shuttle began to emerge, but shortcomings, especially in the electronics industry (rapid overheating of electronics), postponed the program until the end of the 1980s. The first shuttle, the Buran, flew in 1988, but without a human crew. Another shuttle, "Ptichka", eventually ended up under construction, as the shuttle project was canceled in 1991. For their launch into space, there is today an unused superpower rocket, Energia, which is the most powerful in the world.In the late 1980s, the Soviet Union managed to build the "Mir" orbital station. It was built on the construction of "Salyut" stations and its only role was civilian-grade research tasks. The Soviet Union adopted a command economy, whereby production and distribution of goods were centralized and directed by the government. The first Bolshevik experience with a command economy was the policy of War communism, which involved the nationalization of industry, centralized distribution of output, coercive requisition of agricultural production, and attempts to eliminate money circulation, private enterprises and free trade. After the severe economic collapse, Lenin replaced war communism by the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921, legalizing free trade and private ownership of small businesses. The economy quickly recovered as a result.After a long debate among the members of the Politburo about the course of economic development, by 1928–1929, upon gaining control of the country, Stalin abandoned the NEP and pushed for full central planning, starting forced collectivization of agriculture and enacting draconian labor legislation. Resources were mobilized for rapid industrialization, which significantly expanded Soviet capacity in heavy industry and capital goods during the 1930s. The primary motivation for industrialization was preparation for war, mostly due to distrust of the outside capitalist world. As a result, the USSR was transformed from a largely agrarian economy into a great industrial power, leading the way for its emergence as a superpower after World War II. The war caused extensive devastation of the Soviet economy and infrastructure, which required massive reconstruction.By the early 1940s, the Soviet economy had become relatively self-sufficient; for most of the period until the creation of Comecon, only a tiny share of domestic products was traded internationally. After the creation of the Eastern Bloc, external trade rose rapidly. However, the influence of the world economy on the USSR was limited by fixed domestic prices and a state monopoly on foreign trade. Grain and sophisticated consumer manufactures became major import articles from around the 1960s. During the arms race of the Cold War, the Soviet economy was burdened by military expenditures, heavily lobbied for by a powerful bureaucracy dependent on the arms industry. At the same time, the USSR became the largest arms exporter to the Third World. Significant amounts of Soviet resources during the Cold War were allocated in aid to the other socialist states.From the 1930s until its dissolution in late 1991, the way the Soviet economy operated remained essentially unchanged. The economy was formally directed by central planning, carried out by Gosplan and organized in five-year plans. However, in practice, the plans were highly aggregated and provisional, subject to "ad hoc" intervention by superiors. All critical economic decisions were taken by the political leadership. Allocated resources and plan targets were usually denominated in rubles rather than in physical goods. Credit was discouraged, but widespread. The final allocation of output was achieved through relatively decentralized, unplanned contracting. Although in theory prices were legally set from above, in practice they were often negotiated, and informal horizontal links (e.g. between producer factories) were widespread.A number of basic services were state-funded, such as education and health care. In the manufacturing sector, heavy industry and defence were prioritized over consumer goods. Consumer goods, particularly outside large cities, were often scarce, of poor quality and limited variety. Under the command economy, consumers had almost no influence on production, and the changing demands of a population with growing incomes could not be satisfied by supplies at rigidly fixed prices. A massive unplanned second economy grew up at low levels alongside the planned one, providing some of the goods and services that the planners could not. The legalization of some elements of the decentralized economy was attempted with the reform of 1965.Although statistics of the Soviet economy are notoriously unreliable and its economic growth difficult to estimate precisely, by most accounts, the economy continued to expand until the mid-1980s. During the 1950s and 1960s, it had comparatively high growth and was catching up to the West. However, after 1970, the growth, while still positive, steadily declined much more quickly and consistently than in other countries, despite a rapid increase in the capital stock (the rate of capital increase was only surpassed by Japan).Overall, the growth rate of per capita income in the Soviet Union between 1960 and 1989 was slightly above the world average (based on 102 countries). According to Stanley Fischer and William Easterly, growth could have been faster. By their calculation, per capita income in 1989 should have been twice higher than it was, considering the amount of investment, education and population. The authors attribute this poor performance to the low productivity of capital. Steven Rosenfielde states that the standard of living declined due to Stalin's despotism. While there was a brief improvement after his death, it lapsed into stagnation.In 1987, Mikhail Gorbachev attempted to reform and revitalize the economy with his program of "perestroika". His policies relaxed state control over enterprises but did not replace it by market incentives, resulting in a sharp decline in output. The economy, already suffering from reduced petroleum export revenues, started to collapse. Prices were still fixed, and the property was still largely state-owned until after the country's dissolution. For most of the period after World War II until its collapse, Soviet GDP (PPP) was the second-largest in the world, and third during the second half of the 1980s, although on a per-capita basis, it was behind that of First World countries. Compared to countries with similar per-capita GDP in 1928, the Soviet Union experienced significant growth.In 1990, the country had a Human Development Index of 0.920, placing it in the "high" category of human development. It was the third-highest in the Eastern Bloc, behind Czechoslovakia and East Germany, and the 25th in the world of 130 countries.The need for fuel declined in the Soviet Union from the 1970s to the 1980s, both per ruble of gross social product and per ruble of industrial product. At the start, this decline grew very rapidly but gradually slowed down between 1970 and 1975. From 1975 and 1980, it grew even slower, only 2.6%. David Wilson, a historian, believed that the gas industry would account for 40% of Soviet fuel production by the end of the century. His theory did not come to fruition because of the USSR's collapse. The USSR, in theory, would have continued to have an economic growth rate of 2–2.5% during the 1990s because of Soviet energy fields. However, the energy sector faced many difficulties, among them the country's high military expenditure and hostile relations with the First World.In 1991, the Soviet Union had a pipeline network of for crude oil and another for natural gas. Petroleum and petroleum-based products, natural gas, metals, wood, agricultural products, and a variety of manufactured goods, primarily machinery, arms and military equipment, were exported. In the 1970s and 1980s, the USSR heavily relied on fossil fuel exports to earn hard currency. At its peak in 1988, it was the largest producer and second-largest exporter of crude oil, surpassed only by Saudi Arabia.The Soviet Union placed great emphasis on science and technology within its economy, however, the most remarkable Soviet successes in technology, such as producing the world's first space satellite, typically were the responsibility of the military. Lenin believed that the USSR would never overtake the developed world if it remained as technologically backward as it was upon its founding. Soviet authorities proved their commitment to Lenin's belief by developing massive networks, research and development organizations. In the early 1960s, the Soviets awarded 40% of chemistry PhDs to women, compared to only 5% in the United States. By 1989, Soviet scientists were among the world's best-trained specialists in several areas, such as energy physics, selected areas of medicine, mathematics, welding and military technologies. Due to rigid state planning and bureaucracy, the Soviets remained far behind technologically in chemistry, biology, and computers when compared to the First World.Under the Reagan administration, Project Socrates determined that the Soviet Union addressed the acquisition of science and technology in a manner that was radically different from what the US was using. In the case of the US, economic prioritization was being used for indigenous research and development as the means to acquire science and technology in both the private and public sectors. In contrast, the USSR was offensively and defensively maneuvering in the acquisition and utilization of the worldwide technology, to increase the competitive advantage that they acquired from the technology while preventing the US from acquiring a competitive advantage. However, technology-based planning was executed in a centralized, government-centric manner that greatly hindered its flexibility. This was exploited by the US to undermine the strength of the Soviet Union and thus foster its reform.Transport was a vital component of the country's economy. The economic centralization of the late 1920s and 1930s led to the development of infrastructure on a massive scale, most notably the establishment of Aeroflot, an aviation enterprise. The country had a wide variety of modes of transport by land, water and air. However, due to inadequate maintenance, much of the road, water and Soviet civil aviation transport were outdated and technologically backward compared to the First World.Soviet rail transport was the largest and most intensively used in the world; it was also better developed than most of its Western counterparts. By the late 1970s and early 1980s, Soviet economists were calling for the construction of more roads to alleviate some of the burdens from the railways and to improve the Soviet government budget. The street network and automotive industry remained underdeveloped, and dirt roads were common outside major cities. Soviet maintenance projects proved unable to take care of even the few roads the country had. By the early-to-mid-1980s, the Soviet authorities tried to solve the road problem by ordering the construction of new ones. Meanwhile, the automobile industry was growing at a faster rate than road construction. The underdeveloped road network led to a growing demand for public transport.Despite improvements, several aspects of the transport sector were still riddled with problems due to outdated infrastructure, lack of investment, corruption and bad decision-making. Soviet authorities were unable to meet the growing demand for transport infrastructure and services.The Soviet merchant navy was one of the largest in the world.Excess deaths throughout World War I and the Russian Civil War (including the postwar famine) amounted to a combined total of 18 million, some 10 million in the 1930s, and more than 26 million in 1941–5. The postwar Soviet population was 45 to 50 million smaller than it would have been if pre-war demographic growth had continued. According to Catherine Merridale, "... reasonable estimate would place the total number of excess deaths for the whole period somewhere around 60 million."The birth rate of the USSR decreased from 44.0 per thousand in 1926 to 18.0 in 1974, mainly due to increasing urbanization and the rising average age of marriages. The mortality rate demonstrated a gradual decrease as well – from 23.7 per thousand in 1926 to 8.7 in 1974. In general, the birth rates of the southern republics in Transcaucasia and Central Asia were considerably higher than those in the northern parts of the Soviet Union, and in some cases even increased in the post–World War II period, a phenomenon partly attributed to slower rates of urbanistion and traditionally earlier marriages in the southern republics. Soviet Europe moved towards sub-replacement fertility, while Soviet Central Asia continued to exhibit population growth well above replacement-level fertility.The late 1960s and the 1970s witnessed a reversal of the declining trajectory of the rate of mortality in the USSR, and was especially notable among men of working age, but was also prevalent in Russia and other predominantly Slavic areas of the country. An analysis of the official data from the late 1980s showed that after worsening in the late-1970s and the early 1980s, adult mortality began to improve again. The infant mortality rate increased from 24.7 in 1970 to 27.9 in 1974. Some researchers regarded the rise as mostly real, a consequence of worsening health conditions and services. The rises in both adult and infant mortality were not explained or defended by Soviet officials, and the Soviet government stopped publishing all mortality statistics for ten years. Soviet demographers and health specialists remained silent about the mortality increases until the late-1980s, when the publication of mortality data resumed, and researchers could delve into the real causes.Under Lenin, the state made explicit commitments to promote the equality of men and women. Many early Russian feminists and ordinary Russian working women actively participated in the Revolution, and many more were affected by the events of that period and the new policies. Beginning in October 1918, Lenin's government liberalized divorce and abortion laws, decriminalized homosexuality (re-criminalized in the 1930s), permitted cohabitation, and ushered in a host of reforms. However, without birth control, the new system produced many broken marriages, as well as countless out-of-wedlock children. The epidemic of divorces and extramarital affairs created social hardships when Soviet leaders wanted people to concentrate their efforts on growing the economy. Giving women control over their fertility also led to a precipitous decline in the birth rate, perceived as a threat to their country's military power. By 1936, Stalin reversed most of the liberal laws, ushering in a pronatalist era that lasted for decades.By 1917, Russia became the first great power to grant women the right to vote. After heavy casualties in World War I and II, women outnumbered men in Russia by a 4:3 ratio. This contributed to the larger role women played in Russian society compared to other great powers at the time.Anatoly Lunacharsky became the first People's Commissar for Education of Soviet Russia. In the beginning, the Soviet authorities placed great emphasis on the elimination of illiteracy. All left-handed children were forced to write with their right hand in the Soviet school system. Literate people were automatically hired as teachers. For a short period, quality was sacrificed for quantity. By 1940, Stalin could announce that illiteracy had been eliminated. Throughout the 1930s, social mobility rose sharply, which has been attributed to reforms in education. In the aftermath of World War II, the country's educational system expanded dramatically, which had a tremendous effect. In the 1960s, nearly all children had access to education, the only exception being those living in remote areas. Nikita Khrushchev tried to make education more accessible, making it clear to children that education was closely linked to the needs of society. Education also became important in giving rise to the New Man. Citizens directly entering the workforce had the constitutional right to a job and to free vocational training.The education system was highly centralized and universally accessible to all citizens, with affirmative action for applicants from nations associated with cultural backwardness. However, as part of the general antisemitic policy, an unofficial Jewish quota was applied in the leading institutions of higher education by subjecting Jewish applicants to harsher entrance examinations. The Brezhnev era also introduced a rule that required all university applicants to present a reference from the local Komsomol party secretary. According to statistics from 1986, the number of higher education students per the population of 10,000 was 181 for the USSR, compared to 517 for the US.The Soviet Union was an ethnically diverse country, with more than 100 distinct ethnic groups. The total population of the country was estimated at 293 million in 1991. According to a 1990 estimate, the majority of the population were Russians (50.78%), followed by Ukrainians (15.45%) and Uzbeks (5.84%).All citizens of the USSR had their own ethnic affiliation. The ethnicity of a person was chosen at the age of sixteen by the child's parents. If the parents did not agree, the child was automatically assigned the ethnicity of the father. Partly due to Soviet policies, some of the smaller minority ethnic groups were considered part of larger ones, such as the Mingrelians of Georgia, who were classified with the linguistically related Georgians. Some ethnic groups voluntarily assimilated, while others were brought in by force. Russians, Belarusians, and Ukrainians, who were all East Slavic and Orthodox, shared close cultural, ethnic, and religious ties, while other groups did not. With multiple nationalities living in the same territory, ethnic antagonisms developed over the years.Members of various ethnicities participated in legislative bodies. Organs of power like the Politburo, the Secretariat of the Central Committee etc., were formally ethnically neutral, but in reality, ethnic Russians were overrepresented, although there were also non-Russian leaders in the Soviet leadership, such as Joseph Stalin, Grigory Zinoviev, Nikolai Podgorny or Andrei Gromyko. During the Soviet era, a significant number of ethnic Russians and Ukrainians migrated to other Soviet republics, and many of them settled there. According to the last census in 1989, the Russian "diaspora" in the Soviet republics had reached 25 million.In 1917, before the revolution, health conditions were significantly behind those of developed countries. As Lenin later noted, "Either the lice will defeat socialism, or socialism will defeat the lice". The Soviet principle of health care was conceived by the People's Commissariat for Health in 1918. Health care was to be controlled by the state and would be provided to its citizens free of charge, a revolutionary concept at the time. Article 42 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution gave all citizens the right to health protection and free access to any health institutions in the USSR. Before Leonid Brezhnev became General Secretary, the Soviet healthcare system was held in high esteem by many foreign specialists. This changed, however, from Brezhnev's accession and Mikhail Gorbachev's tenure as leader, during which the health care system was heavily criticized for many basic faults, such as the quality of service and the unevenness in its provision. Minister of Health Yevgeniy Chazov, during the 19th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, while highlighting such successes as having the most doctors and hospitals in the world, recognized the system's areas for improvement and felt that billions of Soviet rubles were squandered. After the revolution, life expectancy for all age groups went up. This statistic in itself was seen by some that the socialist system was superior to the capitalist system. These improvements continued into the 1960s when statistics indicated that the life expectancy briefly surpassed that of the United States. Life expectancy started to decline in the 1970s, possibly because of alcohol abuse. At the same time, infant mortality began to rise. After 1974, the government stopped publishing statistics on the matter. This trend can be partly explained by the number of pregnancies rising drastically in the Asian part of the country where infant mortality was the highest while declining markedly in the more developed European part of the Soviet Union.Soviet dental technology and dental health were considered notoriously bad. In 1991, the average 35-year-old had 12 to 14 cavities, fillings or missing teeth. Toothpaste was often not available, and toothbrushes did not conform to standards of modern dentistry.Under Lenin, the government gave small language groups their own writing systems. The development of these writing systems was highly successful, even though some flaws were detected. During the later days of the USSR, countries with the same multilingual situation implemented similar policies. A serious problem when creating these writing systems was that the languages differed dialectally greatly from each other. When a language had been given a writing system and appeared in a notable publication, it would attain "official language" status. There were many minority languages which never received their own writing system; therefore, their speakers were forced to have a second language. There are examples where the government retreated from this policy, most notably under Stalin where education was discontinued in languages that were not widespread. These languages were then assimilated into another language, mostly Russian. During World War II, some minority languages were banned, and their speakers accused of collaborating with the enemy.As the most widely spoken of the Soviet Union's many languages, Russian "de facto" functioned as an official language, as the "language of interethnic communication" (), but only assumed the "de jure" status as the official national language in 1990.Christianity and Islam had the highest number of adherents among the religious citizens. Eastern Christianity predominated among Christians, with Russia's traditional Russian Orthodox Church being the largest Christian denomination. About 90% of the Soviet Union's Muslims were Sunnis, with Shias being concentrated in the Azerbaijan SSR. Smaller groups included Roman Catholics, Jews, Buddhists, and a variety of Protestant denominations (especially Baptists and Lutherans).Religious influence had been strong in the Russian Empire. The Russian Orthodox Church enjoyed a privileged status as the church of the monarchy and took part in carrying out official state functions. The immediate period following the establishment of the Soviet state included a struggle against the Orthodox Church, which the revolutionaries considered an ally of the former ruling classes.In Soviet law, the "freedom to hold religious services" was constitutionally guaranteed, although the ruling Communist Party regarded religion as incompatible with the Marxist spirit of scientific materialism. In practice, the Soviet system subscribed to a narrow interpretation of this right, and in fact utilized a range of official measures to discourage religion and curb the activities of religious groups.The 1918 Council of People's Commissars decree establishing the Russian SFSR as a secular state also decreed that "the teaching of religion in all [places] where subjects of general instruction are taught, is forbidden. Citizens may teach and may be taught religion privately." Among further restrictions, those adopted in 1929 included express prohibitions on a range of church activities, including meetings for organized Bible study. Both Christian and non-Christian establishments were shut down by the thousands in the 1920s and 1930s. By 1940, as many as 90% of the churches, synagogues, and mosques that had been operating in 1917 were closed.Under the doctrine of state atheism, a "government-sponsored program of forced conversion to atheism" was conducted. The government targeted religions based on state interests, and while most organized religions were never outlawed, religious property was confiscated, believers were harassed, and religion was ridiculed while atheism was propagated in schools. In 1925, the government founded the League of Militant Atheists to intensify the propaganda campaign. Accordingly, although personal expressions of religious faith were not explicitly banned, a strong sense of social stigma was imposed on them by the formal structures and mass media, and it was generally considered unacceptable for members of certain professions (teachers, state bureaucrats, soldiers) to be openly religious. While persecution accelerated following Stalin's rise to power, a revival of Orthodoxy was fostered by the government during World War II and the Soviet authorities sought to control the Russian Orthodox Church rather than liquidate it. During the first five years of Soviet power, the Bolsheviks executed 28 Russian Orthodox bishops and over 1,200 Russian Orthodox priests. Many others were imprisoned or exiled. Believers were harassed and persecuted. Most seminaries were closed, and the publication of most religious material was prohibited. By 1941, only 500 churches remained open out of about 54,000 in existence before World War I.Convinced that religious anti-Sovietism had become a thing of the past, and with the looming threat of war, the Stalin regime began shifting to a more moderate religion policy in the late 1930s. Soviet religious establishments overwhelmingly rallied to support the war effort during World War II. Amid other accommodations to religious faith after the German invasion, churches were reopened. Radio Moscow began broadcasting a religious hour, and a historic meeting between Stalin and Orthodox Church leader Patriarch Sergius of Moscow was held in 1943. Stalin had the support of the majority of the religious people in the USSR even through the late 1980s. The general tendency of this period was an increase in religious activity among believers of all faiths.Under Nikita Khrushchev, the state leadership clashed with the churches in 1958–1964, a period when atheism was emphasized in the educational curriculum, and numerous state publications promoted atheistic views. During this period, the number of churches fell from 20,000 to 10,000 from 1959 to 1965, and the number of synagogues dropped from 500 to 97. The number of working mosques also declined, falling from 1,500 to 500 within a decade.Religious institutions remained monitored by the Soviet government, but churches, synagogues, temples, and mosques were all given more leeway in the Brezhnev era. Official relations between the Orthodox Church and the government again warmed to the point that the Brezhnev government twice honored Orthodox Patriarch Alexy I with the Order of the Red Banner of Labour. A poll conducted by Soviet authorities in 1982 recorded 20% of the Soviet population as "active religious believers."The legacy of the USSR remains a controversial topic. The socio-economic nature of communist states such as the USSR, especially under Stalin, has also been much debated, varyingly being labelled a form of bureaucratic collectivism, state capitalism, state socialism, or a totally unique mode of production.The USSR implemented a broad range of policies over a long period of time, with a large amount of conflicting policies being implemented by different leaders. Some have a positive view of it whilst others are critical towards the country, calling it a repressive oligarchy. The opinions on the USSR are complex and have changed over time, with different generations having different views on the matter as well as on Soviet policies corresponding to separate time periods during its history. Leftists have largely varying views on the USSR. Whilst some leftists such as anarchists and other libertarian socialists, agree it did not give the workers control over the means of production and was a centralized oligarchy, others have more positive opinions as to the Bolshevik policies and Vladimir Lenin. Many anti-Stalinist leftists such as anarchists are extremely critical of Soviet authoritarianism and repression. Much of the criticism it receives is centered around massacres in the Soviet Union, the centralized hierarchy present in the USSR and mass political repression as well as violence towards government critics and political dissidents such as other leftists. Critics also point towards its failure to implement any substantial worker cooperatives or implementing worker liberation as well as corruption and the Soviet authoritarian nature.Many Russians and other former Soviet citizens have nostalgia for the USSR, pointing towards most infrastructure being built during Soviet times, increased job security, increased literacy rate, increased caloric intake and supposed ethnic pluralism enacted in the Soviet Union as well as political stability. The Russian Revolution is also seen in a positive light as well as the leadership of Lenin, Nikita Khrushchev and the later USSR, although many view Joseph Stalin's rule as positive for the country. In Armenia, 12% of respondents said the USSR collapse did good, while 66% said it did harm. In Kyrgyzstan, 16% of respondents said the collapse of the USSR did good, while 61% said it did harm. In a 2018 Rating Sociological Group poll, 47% of Ukrainian respondents had a positive opinion of Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, who ruled the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982. Much of the admiration of the USSR comes from the failings of the modern post-Soviet governments such as the control by oligarchs, corruption and outdated Soviet-era infrastructure as well as the rise and dominance of organised crime after the collapse of the USSR all directly leading into nostalgia for it.The 1941–45 period of World War II is still known in Russia as the "Great Patriotic War". The war became a topic of great importance in cinema, literature, history lessons at school, the mass media, and the arts. As a result of the massive losses suffered by the military and civilians during the conflict, Victory Day celebrated on 9 May is still one of the most important and emotional dates in Russia.In some post Soviet republics, there is a more negative view of the USSR, although there is no unanimity on the matter. In large part due to the Holodomor, ethnic Ukrainians have a negative view of it. Russian-speaking Ukrainians of Ukraine's southern and eastern regions have a more positive view of the USSR. In some countries with internal conflict, there is also nostalgia for the USSR, especially for refugees of the post-Soviet conflicts who have been forced to flee their homes and have been displaced. This nostalgia is less an admiration for the country or its policies than it is a longing to return to their homes and not to live in poverty. The many Russian enclaves in the former USSR republics such as Transnistria have in a general a positive remembrance of it.The left's view of the USSR is complex. While some leftists regard the USSR as an example of state capitalism or that it was an oligarchical state, other leftists admire Vladimir Lenin and the Russian Revolution.Council communists generally view the USSR as failing to create class consciousness, turning into a corrupt state in which the elite controlled society. Anarchists are critical of the country, labeling the Soviet system as "red fascism". Soviets actively destroyed anarchist organizations and anarchist communities, labeling anarchists as "enemies of the people". Factors contributing to the animosity towards the USSR included: the Soviet invasion of the anarchist Free Territory, the suppression of the anarchist Kronstadt rebellion and the response to the Norilsk uprising, in which prisoners created a radical system of government based on cooperatives and direct democracy in the Gulag. Anarchist organizations and unions were also banned during the Spanish Civil War under the Republican government by orders from the Soviet government. Due to this, anarchists generally hold a large animosity towards the USSR.The culture of the Soviet Union passed through several stages during the USSR's existence. During the first decade following the revolution, there was relative freedom and artists experimented with several different styles to find a distinctive Soviet style of art. Lenin wanted art to be accessible to the Russian people. On the other hand, hundreds of intellectuals, writers, and artists were exiled or executed, and their work banned, such as Nikolay Gumilyov who was shot for alleged conspiring against the Bolshevik regime, and Yevgeny Zamyatin.The government encouraged a variety of trends. In art and literature, numerous schools, some traditional and others radically experimental, proliferated. Communist writers Maxim Gorky and Vladimir Mayakovsky were active during this time. As a means of influencing a largely illiterate society, films received encouragement from the state, and much of director Sergei Eisenstein's best work dates from this period.During Stalin's rule, the Soviet culture was characterized by the rise and domination of the government-imposed style of socialist realism, with all other trends being severely repressed, with rare exceptions, such as Mikhail Bulgakov's works. Many writers were imprisoned and killed.Following the Khrushchev Thaw, censorship was diminished. During this time, a distinctive period of Soviet culture developed, characterized by conformist public life and an intense focus on personal life. Greater experimentation in art forms was again permissible, resulting in the production of more sophisticated and subtly critical work. The regime loosened its emphasis on socialist realism; thus, for instance, many protagonists of the novels of author Yury Trifonov concerned themselves with problems of daily life rather than with building socialism. Underground dissident literature, known as "samizdat", developed during this late period. In architecture, the Khrushchev era mostly focused on functional design as opposed to the highly decorated style of Stalin's epoch. In music, in response to the increasing popularity of forms of popular music like jazz in the West, many jazz orchestras were permitted throughout the USSR, notably the Melodiya Ensemble, named after the principle record label in the USSR.In the second half of the 1980s, Gorbachev's policies of "perestroika" and "glasnost" significantly expanded freedom of expression throughout the country in the media and the press.Founded on 20 July 1924 in Moscow, "Sovetsky Sport" was the first sports newspaper of the Soviet Union.The Soviet Olympic Committee formed on 21 April 1951, and the IOC recognized the new body in its 45th session. In the same year, when the Soviet representative Konstantin Andrianov became an IOC member, the USSR officially joined the Olympic Movement. The 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki thus became first Olympic Games for Soviet athletes. The Soviet Union was the biggest rival to the United States at the Summer Olympics, winning six of its nine appearances at the games and also topping the medal tally at the Winter Olympics six times. The Soviet Union's Olympics success has been attributed to its large investment in sports to demonstrate its superpower image and political influence on a global stage.The Soviet Union national ice hockey team won nearly every world championship and Olympic tournament between 1954 and 1991 and never failed to medal in any International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) tournament in which they competed.The advent of the state-sponsored "full-time amateur athlete" of the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self-financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. The Soviet Union entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession – in reality, the state paid many of these competitors to train on a full-time basis. Nevertheless, the IOC held to the traditional rules regarding amateurism.A 1989 report by a committee of the Australian Senate claimed that "there is hardly a medal winner at the Moscow Games, certainly not a gold medal winner...who is not on one sort of drug or another: usually several kinds. The Moscow Games might well have been called the Chemists' Games".A member of the IOC Medical Commission, Manfred Donike, privately ran additional tests with a new technique for identifying abnormal levels of testosterone by measuring its ratio to epitestosterone in urine. Twenty percent of the specimens he tested, including those from sixteen gold medalists, would have resulted in disciplinary proceedings had the tests been official. The results of Donike's unofficial tests later convinced the IOC to add his new technique to their testing protocols. The first documented case of "blood doping" occurred at the 1980 Summer Olympics when a runner was transfused with two pints of blood before winning medals in the 5000 m and 10,000 m.Documentation obtained in 2016 revealed the Soviet Union's plans for a statewide doping system in track and field in preparation for the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. Dated before the decision to boycott the 1984 Games, the document detailed the existing steroids operations of the program, along with suggestions for further enhancements. Dr. Sergei Portugalov of the Institute for Physical Culture prepared the communication, directed to the Soviet Union's head of track and field. Portugalov later became one of the leading figures involved in the implementation of Russian doping before the 2016 Summer Olympics.Official Soviet environmental policy has always attached great importance to actions in which human beings actively improve nature. Lenin's quote "Communism is Soviet power and electrification of the country!" in many respects summarizes the focus on modernization and industrial development. During the first five-year plan in 1928, Stalin proceeded to industrialize the country at all costs. Values such as environmental and nature protection have been completely ignored in the struggle to create a modern industrial society. After Stalin's death, they focused more on environmental issues, but the basic perception of the value of environmental protection remained the same.The Soviet media has always focused on the vast expanse of land and the virtually indestructible natural resources. This made it feel that contamination and uncontrolled exploitation of nature were not a problem. The Soviet state also firmly believed that scientific and technological progress would solve all the problems. Official ideology said that under socialism environmental problems could easily be overcome, unlike capitalist countries, where they seemingly could not be solved. The Soviet authorities had an almost unwavering belief that man could transcend nature. However, when the authorities had to admit that there were environmental problems in the USSR in the 1980s, they explained the problems in such a way that socialism had not yet been fully developed; pollution in a socialist society was only a temporary anomaly that would have been resolved if socialism had developed.The Chernobyl disaster in 1986 was the first major accident at a civilian nuclear power plant. Unparalleled in the world, it resulted in a large number of radioactive isotopes being released into the atmosphere. Radioactive doses have scattered relatively far. 4,000 new cases of thyroid cancer were reported after the incident, but this led to a relatively low number of deaths (WHO data, 2005). However, the long-term effects of the accident are unknown. Another major accident is the Kyshtym disaster.After the fall of the USSR, it was discovered that the environmental problems were greater than what the Soviet authorities admitted. The Kola Peninsula was one of the places with clear problems. Around the industrial cities of Monchegorsk and Norilsk, where nickel, for example, is mined, all forests have been destroyed by contamination, while the northern and other parts of Russia have been affected by emissions. During the 1990s, people in the West were also interested in the radioactive hazards of nuclear facilities, decommissioned nuclear submarines, and the processing of nuclear waste or spent nuclear fuel. It was also known in the early 1990s that the USSR had transported radioactive material to the Barents Sea and Kara Sea, which was later confirmed by the Russian parliament. The crash of the K-141 Kursk submarine in 2000 in the west further raised concerns. In the past, there were accidents involving submarines K-19, K-8, and K-129. | [
"Georgy Malenkov",
"Alexei Kosygin",
"Nikolai Ryzhkov",
"Nikita Khrushchev",
"Joseph Stalin",
"Ivan Silayev",
"Vladimir Lenin",
"Nikolai Bulganin",
"Nikolai Tikhonov",
"Vyacheslav Molotov",
"Valentin Pavlov"
] |
|
Who was the head of Soviet Union in 1928-06-06? | June 06, 1928 | {
"text": [
"Alexei Rykov"
]
} | L2_Q15180_P6_1 | Vladimir Lenin is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Jul, 1923 to Jan, 1924.
Vyacheslav Molotov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Dec, 1930 to May, 1941.
Alexei Kosygin is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Oct, 1964 to Oct, 1980.
Alexei Rykov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Feb, 1924 to Dec, 1930.
Nikolai Ryzhkov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Sep, 1985 to Jan, 1991.
Nikolai Tikhonov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Oct, 1980 to Sep, 1985.
Nikita Khrushchev is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Mar, 1958 to Oct, 1964.
Nikolai Bulganin is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Feb, 1955 to Mar, 1958.
Georgy Malenkov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Mar, 1953 to Feb, 1955.
Valentin Pavlov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Jan, 1991 to Aug, 1991.
Joseph Stalin is the head of the government of Soviet Union from May, 1941 to Mar, 1953.
Ivan Silayev is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Sep, 1991 to Dec, 1991. | Soviet UnionThe Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), was a socialist state that spanned most of Europe and Asia during its existence from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a federal union of multiple national republics; in practice its government and economy were highly centralized until its final years. The country was a one-party state prior to 1990 governed by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, with Moscow as its capital within its largest and most populous republic, the Russian SFSR. Other major urban centers were Leningrad (Russian SFSR), Kiev (Ukrainian SSR), Minsk (Byelorussian SSR), Tashkent (Uzbek SSR), Alma-Ata (Kazakh SSR) and Novosibirsk (Russian SFSR). It was the largest country in the world, covering over , and spanning eleven time zones. The Soviet Union's five biomes were tundra, taiga, steppes, desert, and mountains. Its diverse population was officially known as the Soviet people.The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 when the Bolsheviks, headed by Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Provisional Government that had earlier replaced the monarchy of the Russian Empire. They established the Russian Soviet Republic, beginning a civil war between the Bolshevik Red Army and many anti-Bolshevik forces across the former Empire, among whom the largest faction was the White Guard, which engaged in violent anti-communist repression against the Bolsheviks and their worker and peasant supporters known as the White Terror. The Red Army expanded and helped local Bolsheviks take power, establishing soviets, repressing their political opponents and rebellious peasants through Red Terror. By 1922, the Bolsheviks had emerged victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian and Byelorussian republics. The New Economic Policy (NEP), which was introduced by Lenin, led to a partial return of a free market and private property; this resulted in a period of economic recovery.Following Lenin's death in 1924, Joseph Stalin came to power. Stalin suppressed all political opposition to his rule inside the Communist Party and inaugurated a command economy. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and forced collectivization, which led to significant economic growth, but also led to a man-made famine in 1932–1933 and expanded the Gulag labour camp system originally established in 1918. Stalin also fomented political paranoia and conducted the Great Purge to remove his actual and perceived opponents from the Party through mass arrests of military leaders, Communist Party members, and ordinary citizens alike, who were then sent to correctional labor camps or sentenced to death.On 23 August 1939, after unsuccessful efforts to form an anti-fascist alliance with Western powers, the Soviets signed the non-aggression agreement with Nazi Germany. After the start of World War II, the formally neutral Soviets invaded and annexed territories of several Eastern European states, including eastern Poland and the Baltic states. In June 1941 the Germans invaded, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the cost of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at intense battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin and won World War II in Europe on 9 May 1945. The territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged in 1947 as a result of a post-war Soviet dominance in Eastern Europe, where the Eastern Bloc confronted the Western Bloc that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949.Following Stalin's death in 1953, a period known as de-Stalinization and the Khrushchev Thaw occurred under the leadership of Nikita Khrushchev. The country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took an early lead in the Space Race with the first ever satellite and the first human spaceflight and the first probe to land on another planet, Venus. In the 1970s, there was a brief "détente" of relations with the United States, but tensions resumed when the Soviet Union deployed troops in Afghanistan in 1979. The war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters.In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to further reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of "glasnost" and "perestroika". The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing economic stagnation. The Cold War ended during his tenure and in 1989, Warsaw Pact countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective Marxist-Leninist regimes. Strong nationalist and separatist movements broke out across the USSR. Gorbachev initiated a referendum—boycotted by the Baltic republics, Armenia, Georgia, and Moldova—which resulted in the majority of participating citizens voting in favor of preserving the Union as a renewed federation. In August 1991, a coup d'état was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a high-profile role in facing down the coup. The main result was the banning of the Communist Party. The republics led by Russia and Ukraine declared independence. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned. All the republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states. The Russian Federation (formerly the Russian SFSR) assumed the Soviet Union's rights and obligations and is recognized as its continued legal personality in world affairs.The USSR produced many significant social and technological achievements and innovations regarding military power. It boasted the world's second-largest economy and the largest standing military in the world. The USSR was recognized as one of the five nuclear weapons states. It was a founding permanent member of the United Nations Security Council as well as a member of the OSCE, the WFTU and the leading member of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and the Warsaw Pact.Before its dissolution, the USSR had maintained its status as one of the world's two superpowers for four decades after World War II. Sometimes also called "Soviet Empire", it exercised its hegemony in Eastern Europe and worldwide with military and economic strength, proxy conflicts and influence in developing countries and funding of scientific research, especially in space technology and weaponry.The word "soviet" is derived from the Russian word "sovet" (), meaning "council", "assembly", "advice", ultimately deriving from the proto-Slavic verbal stem of "vět-iti" ("to inform"), related to Slavic "věst" ("news"), English "wise", the root in "ad-vis-or" (which came to English through French), or the Dutch "weten" ("to know"; cf. "wetenschap" meaning "science"). The word "sovietnik" means "councillor".Some organizations in Russian history were called "council" (). In the Russian Empire, the State Council which functioned from 1810 to 1917 was referred to as a Council of Ministers after the revolt of 1905.During the Georgian Affair, Vladimir Lenin envisioned an expression of Great Russian ethnic chauvinism by Joseph Stalin and his supporters, calling for these nation-states to join Russia as semi-independent parts of a greater union which he initially named as the Union of Soviet Republics of Europe and Asia (). Stalin initially resisted the proposal but ultimately accepted it, although with Lenin's agreement changed the name to the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), albeit all the republics began as "socialist soviet" and did not change to the other order until 1936. In addition, in the national languages of several republics, the word "council" or "conciliar" in the respective language was only quite late changed to an adaptation of the Russian "soviet" and never in others, e.g. Ukraine."СССР" (in Latin alphabet: "SSSR") is the abbreviation of USSR in Russian. It is written in Cyrillic letters. The Soviets used the Cyrillic abbreviation so frequently that audiences worldwide became familiar with its meaning. Notably, both Cyrillic letters used have homoglyphic (but transliterally distinct) letters in Latin alphabets. Because of widespread familiarity with the Cyrillic abbreviation, Latin alphabet users in particular almost always use the Latin homoglyphs "C" and "P" (as opposed to the transliteral Latin letters "S" and "R") when rendering the USSR's native abbreviation.After "СССР", the most common short form names for the Soviet state in Russian were "Советский Союз" (transliteration: "Sovetskiy Soyuz") which literally means "Soviet Union", and also "Союз ССР" (transliteration: "Soyuz SSR") which, after compensating for grammatical differences, essentially translates to "Union of SSR's" in English.In the English language media, the state was referred to as the Soviet Union or the USSR. In other European languages, the locally translated short forms and abbreviations are usually used such as "Union soviétique" and "URSS" in French, or "Sowjetunion" and "UdSSR" in German. In the English-speaking world, the Soviet Union was also informally called Russia and its citizens Russians, although that was technically incorrect since Russia was only one of the republics. Such misapplications of the linguistic equivalents to the term "Russia" and its derivatives were frequent in other languages as well.The Soviet Union covered an area of over , and was the world's largest country, a status that is retained by its successor state, Russia. It covered a sixth of Earth's land surface, and its size was comparable to the continent of North America. Its western part in Europe accounted for a quarter of the country's area and was the cultural and economic center. The eastern part in Asia extended to the Pacific Ocean to the east and Afghanistan to the south, and, except some areas in Central Asia, was much less populous. It spanned over east to west across eleven time zones, and over north to south. It had five climate zones: tundra, taiga, steppes, desert and mountains.The Soviet Union, similarly to Russia, had the world's longest border, measuring over , or circumferences of Earth. Two-thirds of it was a coastline. The country bordered Afghanistan, China, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Hungary, Iran, Mongolia, North Korea, Norway, Poland, Romania, and Turkey from 1945 to 1991. The Bering Strait separated the country from the United States, while the La Pérouse Strait separated it from Japan.The Soviet Union's highest mountain was Communism Peak (now Ismoil Somoni Peak) in Tajik SSR, at . It also included most of the world's largest lakes; the Caspian Sea (shared with Iran), and Lake Baikal in Russia, the world's largest and deepest freshwater lake.Modern revolutionary activity in the Russian Empire began with the 1825 Decembrist revolt. Although serfdom was abolished in 1861, it was done on terms unfavorable to the peasants and served to encourage revolutionaries. A parliament—the State Duma—was established in 1906 after the Russian Revolution of 1905, but Tsar Nicholas II resisted attempts to move from absolute to a constitutional monarchy. Social unrest continued and was aggravated during World War I by military defeat and food shortages in major cities.A spontaneous popular uprising in Petrograd, in response to the wartime decay of Russia's economy and morale, culminated in the February Revolution and the toppling of Nicholas II and the imperial government in March 1917. The tsarist autocracy was replaced by the Russian Provisional Government, which intended to conduct elections to the Russian Constituent Assembly and to continue fighting on the side of the Entente in World War I.At the same time, workers' councils, known in Russian as "Soviets", sprang up across the country. The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, pushed for socialist revolution in the Soviets and on the streets. On 7 November 1917, the Red Guards stormed the Winter Palace in Petrograd, ending the rule of the Provisional Government and leaving all political power to the Soviets. This event would later be officially known in Soviet bibliographies as the Great October Socialist Revolution. In December, the Bolsheviks signed an armistice with the Central Powers, though by February 1918, fighting had resumed. In March, the Soviets ended involvement in the war and signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.A long and bloody Civil War ensued between the Reds and the Whites, starting in 1917 and ending in 1923 with the Reds' victory. It included foreign intervention, the execution of the former tsar and his family, and the famine of 1921, which killed about five million people. In March 1921, during a related conflict with Poland, the Peace of Riga was signed, splitting disputed territories in Belarus and Ukraine between the Republic of Poland and Soviet Russia. Soviet Russia had to resolve similar conflicts with the newly established republics of Estonia, Finland, Latvia, and Lithuania.On 28 December 1922, a conference of plenipotentiary delegations from the Russian SFSR, the Transcaucasian SFSR, the Ukrainian SSR and the Byelorussian SSR approved the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR and the Declaration of the Creation of the USSR, forming the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. These two documents were confirmed by the first Congress of Soviets of the USSR and signed by the heads of the delegations, Mikhail Kalinin, Mikhail Tskhakaya, Mikhail Frunze, Grigory Petrovsky, and Alexander Chervyakov, on 30 December 1922. The formal proclamation was made from the stage of the Bolshoi Theatre.An intensive restructuring of the economy, industry and politics of the country began in the early days of Soviet power in 1917. A large part of this was done according to the Bolshevik Initial Decrees, government documents signed by Vladimir Lenin. One of the most prominent breakthroughs was the GOELRO plan, which envisioned a major restructuring of the Soviet economy based on total electrification of the country. The plan became the prototype for subsequent Five-Year Plans and was fulfilled by 1931. After the economic policy of "War communism" during the Russian Civil War, as a prelude to fully developing socialism in the country, the Soviet government permitted some private enterprise to coexist alongside nationalized industry in the 1920s, and total food requisition in the countryside was replaced by a food tax.From its creation, the government in the Soviet Union was based on the one-party rule of the Communist Party (Bolsheviks). The stated purpose was to prevent the return of capitalist exploitation, and that the principles of democratic centralism would be the most effective in representing the people's will in a practical manner. The debate over the future of the economy provided the background for a power struggle in the years after Lenin's death in 1924. Initially, Lenin was to be replaced by a "troika" consisting of Grigory Zinoviev of the Ukrainian SSR, Lev Kamenev of the Russian SFSR, and Joseph Stalin of the Transcaucasian SFSR.On 1 February 1924, the USSR was recognized by the United Kingdom. The same year, a Soviet Constitution was approved, legitimizing the December 1922 union. According to Archie Brown the constitution was never an accurate guide to political reality in the USSR. For example the fact that the Party played the leading role in making and enforcing policy was not mentioned in it until 1977. The USSR was a federative entity of many constituent republics, each with its own political and administrative entities. However, the term "Soviet Russia"strictly applicable only to the Russian Federative Socialist Republicwas often applied to the entire country by non-Soviet writers.On 3 April 1922, Stalin was named the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Lenin had appointed Stalin the head of the Workers' and Peasants' Inspectorate, which gave Stalin considerable power. By gradually consolidating his influence and isolating and outmanoeuvring his rivals within the party, Stalin became the undisputed leader of the country and, by the end of the 1920s, established a totalitarian rule. In October 1927, Zinoviev and Leon Trotsky were expelled from the Central Committee and forced into exile.In 1928, Stalin introduced the first five-year plan for building a socialist economy. In place of the internationalism expressed by Lenin throughout the Revolution, it aimed to build Socialism in One Country. In industry, the state assumed control over all existing enterprises and undertook an intensive program of industrialization. In agriculture, rather than adhering to the "lead by example" policy advocated by Lenin, forced collectivization of farms was implemented all over the country.Famines ensued as a result, causing deaths estimated at three to seven million; surviving kulaks were persecuted, and many were sent to Gulags to do forced labor. Social upheaval continued in the mid-1930s. Despite the turmoil of the mid-to-late 1930s, the country developed a robust industrial economy in the years preceding World War II.Closer cooperation between the USSR and the West developed in the early 1930s. From 1932 to 1934, the country participated in the World Disarmament Conference. In 1933, diplomatic relations between the United States and the USSR were established when in November, the newly elected President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt, chose to recognize Stalin's Communist government formally and negotiated a new trade agreement between the two countries. In September 1934, the country joined the League of Nations. After the Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936, the USSR actively supported the Republican forces against the Nationalists, who were supported by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany.In December 1936, Stalin unveiled a new constitution that was praised by supporters around the world as the most democratic constitution imaginable, though there was some skepticism. Stalin's Great Purge resulted in the detainment or execution of many "Old Bolsheviks" who had participated in the October Revolution with Lenin. According to declassified Soviet archives, the NKVD arrested more than one and a half million people in 1937 and 1938, of whom 681,692 were shot. Over those two years, there were an average of over one thousand executions a day.In 1939, after attempts to form a military alliance with Britain and France against Germany failed, the Soviet Union made a dramatic shift towards Nazi Germany. Almost a year after Britain and France had concluded the Munich Agreement with Germany, the Soviet Union made agreements with Germany as well, both militarily and economically during extensive talks. The two countries concluded the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and the German–Soviet Commercial Agreement in August 1939. The former made possible the Soviet occupation of Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Bessarabia, northern Bukovina, and eastern Poland, while the Soviets remained formally neutral. In late November, unable to coerce the Republic of Finland by diplomatic means into moving its border back from Leningrad, Stalin ordered the invasion of Finland. In the east, the Soviet military won several decisive victories during border clashes with the Empire of Japan in 1938 and 1939. However, in April 1941, the USSR signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact with Japan, recognizing the territorial integrity of Manchukuo, a Japanese puppet state.Germany broke the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 starting what was known in the USSR as the Great Patriotic War. The Red Army stopped the seemingly invincible German Army at the Battle of Moscow. The Battle of Stalingrad, which lasted from late 1942 to early 1943, dealt a severe blow to Germany from which they never fully recovered and became a turning point in the war. After Stalingrad, Soviet forces drove through Eastern Europe to Berlin before Germany surrendered in 1945. The German Army suffered 80% of its military deaths in the Eastern Front. Harry Hopkins, a close foreign policy advisor to Franklin D. Roosevelt, spoke on 10 August 1943 of the USSR's decisive role in the war.In the same year, the USSR, in fulfilment of its agreement with the Allies at the Yalta Conference, denounced the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1945 and invaded Manchukuo and other Japan-controlled territories on 9 August 1945. This conflict ended with a decisive Soviet victory, contributing to the unconditional surrender of Japan and the end of World War II.The USSR suffered greatly in the war, losing around 27 million people. Approximately 2.8 million Soviet POWs died of starvation, mistreatment, or executions in just eight months of 1941–42. During the war, the country together with the United States, the United Kingdom and China were considered the Big Four Allied powers, and later became the Four Policemen that formed the basis of the United Nations Security Council. It emerged as a superpower in the post-war period. Once denied diplomatic recognition by the Western world, the USSR had official relations with practically every country by the late 1940s. A member of the United Nations at its foundation in 1945, the country became one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, which gave it the right to veto any of its resolutions.During the immediate post-war period, the Soviet Union rebuilt and expanded its economy, while maintaining its strictly centralized control. It took effective control over most of the countries of Eastern Europe (except Yugoslavia and later Albania), turning them into satellite states. The USSR bound its satellite states in a military alliance, the Warsaw Pact, in 1955, and an economic organization, Council for Mutual Economic Assistance or Comecon, a counterpart to the European Economic Community (EEC), from 1949 to 1991. The USSR concentrated on its own recovery, seizing and transferring most of Germany's industrial plants, and it exacted war reparations from East Germany, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. It also instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favor the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Later, the Comecon supplied aid to the eventually victorious Communist Party of China, and its influence grew elsewhere in the world. Fearing its ambitions, the Soviet Union's wartime allies, the United Kingdom and the United States, became its enemies. In the ensuing Cold War, the two sides clashed indirectly in proxy wars.Stalin died on 5 March 1953. Without a mutually agreeable successor, the highest Communist Party officials initially opted to rule the Soviet Union jointly through a troika headed by Georgy Malenkov. This did not last, however, and Nikita Khrushchev eventually won the ensuing power struggle by the mid-1950s. In 1956, he denounced Joseph Stalin and proceeded to ease controls over the party and society. This was known as de-Stalinization.Moscow considered Eastern Europe to be a critically vital buffer zone for the forward defence of its western borders, in case of another major invasion such as the German invasion of 1941. For this reason, the USSR sought to cement its control of the region by transforming the Eastern European countries into satellite states, dependent upon and subservient to its leadership. As a result, Soviet military forces were used to suppress an anti-communist uprising in Hungary in 1956.In the late 1950s, a confrontation with China regarding the Soviet rapprochement with the West, and what Mao Zedong perceived as Khrushchev's revisionism, led to the Sino–Soviet split. This resulted in a break throughout the global Marxist–Leninist movement, with the governments in Albania, Cambodia and Somalia choosing to ally with China.During this period of the late 1950s and early 1960s, the USSR continued to realize scientific and technological exploits in the Space Race, rivaling the United States: launching the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1 in 1957; a living dog named Laika in 1957; the first human being, Yuri Gagarin in 1961; the first woman in space, Valentina Tereshkova in 1963; Alexei Leonov, the first person to walk in space in 1965; the first soft landing on the Moon by spacecraft Luna 9 in 1966; and the first Moon rovers, Lunokhod 1 and Lunokhod 2.Khrushchev initiated "The Thaw", a complex shift in political, cultural and economic life in the country. This included some openness and contact with other nations and new social and economic policies with more emphasis on commodity goods, allowing a dramatic rise in living standards while maintaining high levels of economic growth. Censorship was relaxed as well. Khrushchev's reforms in agriculture and administration, however, were generally unproductive. In 1962, he precipitated a crisis with the United States over the Soviet deployment of nuclear missiles in Cuba. An agreement was made with the United States to remove nuclear missiles from both Cuba and Turkey, concluding the crisis. This event caused Khrushchev much embarrassment and loss of prestige, resulting in his removal from power in 1964.Following the ousting of Khrushchev, another period of collective leadership ensued, consisting of Leonid Brezhnev as General Secretary, Alexei Kosygin as Premier and Nikolai Podgorny as Chairman of the Presidium, lasting until Brezhnev established himself in the early 1970s as the preeminent Soviet leader.In 1968, the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact allies invaded Czechoslovakia to halt the Prague Spring reforms. In the aftermath, Brezhnev justified the invasion and previous military interventions as well as any potential military interventions in the future by introducing the Brezhnev Doctrine, which proclaimed any threat to socialist rule in a Warsaw Pact state as a threat to all Warsaw Pact states, therefore justifying military intervention.Brezhnev presided throughout "détente" with the West that resulted in treaties on armament control (SALT I, SALT II, Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty) while at the same time building up Soviet military might.In October 1977, the third Soviet Constitution was unanimously adopted. The prevailing mood of the Soviet leadership at the time of Brezhnev's death in 1982 was one of aversion to change. The long period of Brezhnev's rule had come to be dubbed one of "standstill", with an ageing and ossified top political leadership. This period is also known as the Era of Stagnation, a period of adverse economic, political, and social effects in the country, which began during the rule of Brezhnev and continued under his successors Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko.In late 1979, the Soviet Union's military intervened in the ongoing civil war in neighboring Afghanistan, effectively ending a détente with the West.Two developments dominated the decade that followed: the increasingly apparent crumbling of the Soviet Union's economic and political structures, and the patchwork attempts at reforms to reverse that process. Kenneth S. Deffeyes argued in "Beyond Oil" that the Reagan administration encouraged Saudi Arabia to lower the price of oil to the point where the Soviets could not make a profit selling their oil, and resulted in the depletion of the country's hard currency reserves.Brezhnev's next two successors, transitional figures with deep roots in his tradition, did not last long. Yuri Andropov was 68 years old and Konstantin Chernenko 72 when they assumed power; both died in less than two years. In an attempt to avoid a third short-lived leader, in 1985, the Soviets turned to the next generation and selected Mikhail Gorbachev. He made significant changes in the economy and party leadership, called "perestroika". His policy of "glasnost" freed public access to information after decades of heavy government censorship. Gorbachev also moved to end the Cold War. In 1988, the USSR abandoned its war in Afghanistan and began to withdraw its forces. In the following year, Gorbachev refused to interfere in the internal affairs of the Soviet satellite states, which paved the way for the Revolutions of 1989. In particular, the standstill of the Soviet Union at the Pan-European Picnic in August 1989 then set a peaceful chain reaction in motion at the end of which the Eastern Bloc collapsed. With the tearing down of the Berlin Wall and with East and West Germany pursuing unification, the Iron Curtain between the West and Soviet-controlled regions came down.At the same time, the Soviet republics started legal moves towards potentially declaring sovereignty over their territories, citing the freedom to secede in Article 72 of the USSR constitution. On 7 April 1990, a law was passed allowing a republic to secede if more than two-thirds of its residents voted for it in a referendum. Many held their first free elections in the Soviet era for their own national legislatures in 1990. Many of these legislatures proceeded to produce legislation contradicting the Union laws in what was known as the "War of Laws". In 1989, the Russian SFSR convened a newly elected Congress of People's Deputies. Boris Yeltsin was elected its chairman. On 12 June 1990, the Congress declared Russia's sovereignty over its territory and proceeded to pass laws that attempted to supersede some of the Soviet laws. After a landslide victory of Sąjūdis in Lithuania, that country declared its independence restored on 11 March 1990.A referendum for the preservation of the USSR was held on 17 March 1991 in nine republics (the remainder having boycotted the vote), with the majority of the population in those republics voting for preservation of the Union. The referendum gave Gorbachev a minor boost. In the summer of 1991, the New Union Treaty, which would have turned the country into a much looser Union, was agreed upon by eight republics. The signing of the treaty, however, was interrupted by the August Coup—an attempted coup d'état by hardline members of the government and the KGB who sought to reverse Gorbachev's reforms and reassert the central government's control over the republics. After the coup collapsed, Yeltsin was seen as a hero for his decisive actions, while Gorbachev's power was effectively ended. The balance of power tipped significantly towards the republics. In August 1991, Latvia and Estonia immediately declared the restoration of their full independence (following Lithuania's 1990 example). Gorbachev resigned as general secretary in late August, and soon afterwards, the party's activities were indefinitely suspended—effectively ending its rule. By the fall, Gorbachev could no longer influence events outside Moscow, and he was being challenged even there by Yeltsin, who had been elected President of Russia in July 1991.The remaining 12 republics continued discussing new, increasingly looser, models of the Union. However, by December all except Russia and Kazakhstan had formally declared independence. During this time, Yeltsin took over what remained of the Soviet government, including the Moscow Kremlin. The final blow was struck on 1 December when Ukraine, the second-most powerful republic, voted overwhelmingly for independence. Ukraine's secession ended any realistic chance of the country staying together even on a limited scale.On 8 December 1991, the presidents of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus (formerly Byelorussia), signed the Belavezha Accords, which declared the Soviet Union dissolved and established the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in its place. While doubts remained over the authority of the accords to do this, on 21 December 1991, the representatives of all Soviet republics except Georgia signed the Alma-Ata Protocol, which confirmed the accords. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned as the President of the USSR, declaring the office extinct. He turned the powers that had been vested in the presidency over to Yeltsin. That night, the Soviet flag was lowered for the last time, and the Russian tricolor was raised in its place.The following day, the Supreme Soviet, the highest governmental body, voted both itself and the country out of existence. This is generally recognized as marking the official, final dissolution of the Soviet Union as a functioning state, and the end of the Cold War. The Soviet Army initially remained under overall CIS command but was soon absorbed into the different military forces of the newly independent states. The few remaining Soviet institutions that had not been taken over by Russia ceased to function by the end of 1991.Following the dissolution, Russia was internationally recognized as its legal successor on the international stage. To that end, Russia voluntarily accepted all Soviet foreign debt and claimed Soviet overseas properties as its own. Under the 1992 Lisbon Protocol, Russia also agreed to receive all nuclear weapons remaining in the territory of other former Soviet republics. Since then, the Russian Federation has assumed the Soviet Union's rights and obligations. Ukraine has refused to recognize exclusive Russian claims to succession of the USSR and claimed such status for Ukraine as well, which was codified in Articles 7 and 8 of its 1991 law On Legal Succession of Ukraine. Since its independence in 1991, Ukraine has continued to pursue claims against Russia in foreign courts, seeking to recover its share of the foreign property that was owned by the USSR.The dissolution was followed by a severe drop in economic and social conditions in post-Soviet states, including a rapid increase in poverty, crime, corruption, unemployment, homelessness, rates of disease, infant mortality and domestic violence, as well as demographic losses and income inequality and the rise of an oligarchical class, along with decreases in calorie intake, life expectancy, adult literacy, and income. Between 1988–1989 and 1993–1995, the Gini ratio increased by an average of 9 points for all former socialist countries. The economic shocks that accompanied wholesale privatization were associated with sharp increases in mortality. Data shows Russia, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia saw a tripling of unemployment and a 42% increase in male death rates between 1991 and 1994. In the following decades, only five or six of the post-communist states are on a path to joining the wealthy capitalist West while most are falling behind, some to such an extent that it will take over fifty years to catch up to where they were before the fall of the Soviet Bloc.In summing up the international ramifications of these events, Vladislav Zubok stated: "The collapse of the Soviet empire was an event of epochal geopolitical, military, ideological, and economic significance." Before the dissolution, the country had maintained its status as one of the world's two superpowers for four decades after World War II through its hegemony in Eastern Europe, military strength, economic strength, aid to developing countries, and scientific research, especially in space technology and weaponry.The analysis of the succession of states for the 15 post-Soviet states is complex. The Russian Federation is seen as the legal "continuator" state and is for most purposes the heir to the Soviet Union. It retained ownership of all former Soviet embassy properties, as well as the old Soviet UN membership and permanent membership on the Security Council.Of the two other co-founding states of the USSR at the time of the dissolution, Ukraine was the only one that had passed laws, similar to Russia, that it is a state-successor of both the Ukrainian SSR and the USSR. Soviet treaties laid groundwork for Ukraine's future foreign agreements as well as they led to Ukraine agreeing to undertake 16.37% of debts of the Soviet Union for which it was going to receive its share of USSR's foreign property. Although it had a tough position at the time, due to Russia's position as a "single continuation of the USSR" that became widely accepted in the West as well as a constant pressure from the Western countries, allowed Russia to dispose state property of USSR abroad and conceal information about it. Due to that Ukraine never ratified "zero option" agreement that Russian Federation had signed with other former Soviet republics, as it denied disclosing of information about Soviet Gold Reserves and its Diamond Fund. The dispute over former Soviet property and assets between the two former republics is still ongoing:Similar situation occurred with restitution of cultural property. Although on 14 February 1992 Russia and other former Soviet republics signed agreement "On the return of cultural and historic property to the origin states" in Minsk, it was halted by Russian State Duma that had eventually passed "Federal Law on Cultural Valuables Displaced to the USSR as a Result of the Second World War and Located on the Territory of the Russian Federation" which made restitution currently impossible.There are additionally four states that claim independence from the other internationally recognised post-Soviet states but possess limited international recognition: Abkhazia, Nagorno-Karabakh, South Ossetia and Transnistria. The Chechen separatist movement of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria lacks any international recognition.During his rule, Stalin always made the final policy decisions. Otherwise, Soviet foreign policy was set by the commission on the Foreign Policy of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, or by the party's highest body the Politburo. Operations were handled by the separate Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It was known as the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs (or Narkomindel), until 1946. The most influential spokesmen were Georgy Chicherin (1872–1936), Maxim Litvinov (1876–1951), Vyacheslav Molotov (1890–1986), Andrey Vyshinsky (1883–1954) and Andrei Gromyko (1909–1989). Intellectuals were based in the Moscow State Institute of International Relations.The Marxist-Leninist leadership of the Soviet Union intensely debated foreign policy issues and change directions several times. Even after Stalin assumed dictatorial control in the late 1920s, there were debates, and he frequently changed positions.During the country's early period, it was assumed that Communist revolutions would break out soon in every major industrial country, and it was the Soviet responsibility to assist them. The Comintern was the weapon of choice. A few revolutions did break out, but they were quickly suppressed (the longest lasting one was in Hungary)—the Hungarian Soviet Republic—lasted only from 21 March 1919 to 1 August 1919. The Russian Bolsheviks were in no position to give any help.By 1921, Lenin, Trotsky, and Stalin realized that capitalism had stabilized itself in Europe and there would not be any widespread revolutions anytime soon. It became the duty of the Russian Bolsheviks to protect what they had in Russia, and avoid military confrontations that might destroy their bridgehead. Russia was now a pariah state, along with Germany. The two came to terms in 1922 with the Treaty of Rapallo that settled long-standing grievances. At the same time, the two countries secretly set up training programs for the illegal German army and air force operations at hidden camps in the USSR.Moscow eventually stopped threatening other states, and instead worked to open peaceful relationships in terms of trade, and diplomatic recognition. The United Kingdom dismissed the warnings of Winston Churchill and a few others about a continuing Marxist-Leninist threat, and opened trade relations and "de facto" diplomatic recognition in 1922. There was hope for a settlement of the pre-war Tsarist debts, but it was repeatedly postponed. Formal recognition came when the new Labour Party came to power in 1924. All the other countries followed suit in opening trade relations. Henry Ford opened large-scale business relations with the Soviets in the late 1920s, hoping that it would lead to long-term peace. Finally, in 1933, the United States officially recognized the USSR, a decision backed by the public opinion and especially by US business interests that expected an opening of a new profitable market.In the late 1920s and early 1930s, Stalin ordered Marxist-Leninist parties across the world to strongly oppose non-Marxist political parties, labor unions or other organizations on the left. Stalin reversed himself in 1934 with the Popular Front program that called on all Marxist parties to join together with all anti-Fascist political, labor, and organizational forces that were opposed to fascism, especially of the Nazi variety.In 1939, half a year after the Munich Agreement, the USSR attempted to form an anti-Nazi alliance with France and Britain. Adolf Hitler proposed a better deal, which would give the USSR control over much of Eastern Europe through the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. In September, Germany invaded Poland, and the USSR also invaded later that month, resulting in the partition of Poland. In response, Britain and France declared war on Germany, marking the beginning of World War II.There were three power hierarchies in the Soviet Union: the legislature represented by the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, the government represented by the Council of Ministers, and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), the only legal party and the final policymaker in the country.At the top of the Communist Party was the Central Committee, elected at Party Congresses and Conferences. In turn, the Central Committee voted for a Politburo (called the Presidium between 1952 and 1966), Secretariat and the General Secretary (First Secretary from 1953 to 1966), the "de facto" highest office in the Soviet Union. Depending on the degree of power consolidation, it was either the Politburo as a collective body or the General Secretary, who always was one of the Politburo members, that effectively led the party and the country (except for the period of the highly personalized authority of Stalin, exercised directly through his position in the Council of Ministers rather than the Politburo after 1941). They were not controlled by the general party membership, as the key principle of the party organization was democratic centralism, demanding strict subordination to higher bodies, and elections went uncontested, endorsing the candidates proposed from above.The Communist Party maintained its dominance over the state mainly through its control over the system of appointments. All senior government officials and most deputies of the Supreme Soviet were members of the CPSU. Of the party heads themselves, Stalin (1941–1953) and Khrushchev (1958–1964) were Premiers. Upon the forced retirement of Khrushchev, the party leader was prohibited from this kind of double membership, but the later General Secretaries for at least some part of their tenure occupied the mostly ceremonial position of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the nominal head of state. The institutions at lower levels were overseen and at times supplanted by primary party organizations.However, in practice the degree of control the party was able to exercise over the state bureaucracy, particularly after the death of Stalin, was far from total, with the bureaucracy pursuing different interests that were at times in conflict with the party. Nor was the party itself monolithic from top to bottom, although factions were officially banned.The Supreme Soviet (successor of the Congress of Soviets) was nominally the highest state body for most of the Soviet history, at first acting as a rubber stamp institution, approving and implementing all decisions made by the party. However, its powers and functions were extended in the late 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, including the creation of new state commissions and committees. It gained additional powers relating to the approval of the Five-Year Plans and the government budget. The Supreme Soviet elected a Presidium (successor of the Central Executive Committee) to wield its power between plenary sessions, ordinarily held twice a year, and appointed the Supreme Court, the Procurator General and the Council of Ministers (known before 1946 as the Council of People's Commissars), headed by the Chairman (Premier) and managing an enormous bureaucracy responsible for the administration of the economy and society. State and party structures of the constituent republics largely emulated the structure of the central institutions, although the Russian SFSR, unlike the other constituent republics, for most of its history had no republican branch of the CPSU, being ruled directly by the union-wide party until 1990. Local authorities were organized likewise into party committees, local Soviets and executive committees. While the state system was nominally federal, the party was unitary.The state security police (the KGB and ) played an important role in Soviet politics. It was instrumental in the Great Purge, but was brought under strict party control after Stalin's death. Under Yuri Andropov, the KGB engaged in the suppression of political dissent and maintained an extensive network of informers, reasserting itself as a political actor to some extent independent of the party-state structure, culminating in the anti-corruption campaign targeting high-ranking party officials in the late 1970s and early 1980s.The constitution, which was promulgated in 1924, 1936 and 1977, did not limit state power. No formal separation of powers existed between the Party, Supreme Soviet and Council of Ministers that represented executive and legislative branches of the government. The system was governed less by statute than by informal conventions, and no settled mechanism of leadership succession existed. Bitter and at times deadly power struggles took place in the Politburo after the deaths of Lenin and Stalin, as well as after Khrushchev's dismissal, itself due to a decision by both the Politburo and the Central Committee. All leaders of the Communist Party before Gorbachev died in office, except Georgy Malenkov and Khrushchev, both dismissed from the party leadership amid internal struggle within the party.Between 1988 and 1990, facing considerable opposition, Mikhail Gorbachev enacted reforms shifting power away from the highest bodies of the party and making the Supreme Soviet less dependent on them. The Congress of People's Deputies was established, the majority of whose members were directly elected in competitive elections held in March 1989. The Congress now elected the Supreme Soviet, which became a full-time parliament, and much stronger than before. For the first time since the 1920s, it refused to rubber stamp proposals from the party and Council of Ministers. In 1990, Gorbachev introduced and assumed the position of the President of the Soviet Union, concentrated power in his executive office, independent of the party, and subordinated the government, now renamed the Cabinet of Ministers of the USSR, to himself.Tensions grew between the Union-wide authorities under Gorbachev, reformists led in Russia by Boris Yeltsin and controlling the newly elected Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR, and communist hardliners. On 19–21 August 1991, a group of hardliners staged a coup attempt. The coup failed, and the State Council of the Soviet Union became the highest organ of state power "in the period of transition". Gorbachev resigned as General Secretary, only remaining President for the final months of the existence of the USSR.The judiciary was not independent of the other branches of government. The Supreme Court supervised the lower courts (People's Court) and applied the law as established by the constitution or as interpreted by the Supreme Soviet. The Constitutional Oversight Committee reviewed the constitutionality of laws and acts. The Soviet Union used the inquisitorial system of Roman law, where the judge, procurator, and defence attorney collaborate to establish the truth.Constitutionally, the USSR was a federation of constituent Union Republics, which were either unitary states, such as Ukraine or Byelorussia (SSRs), or federations, such as Russia or Transcaucasia (SFSRs), all four being the founding republics who signed the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR in December 1922. In 1924, during the national delimitation in Central Asia, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan were formed from parts of Russia's Turkestan ASSR and two Soviet dependencies, the Khorezm and Bukharan SSRs. In 1929, Tajikistan was split off from the Uzbekistan SSR. With the constitution of 1936, the Transcaucasian SFSR was dissolved, resulting in its constituent republics of Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan being elevated to Union Republics, while Kazakhstan and Kirghizia were split off from Russian SFSR, resulting in the same status. In August 1940, Moldavia was formed from parts of Ukraine and Bessarabia and northern Bukovina. Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania (SSRs) were also admitted into the union which was not recognized by most of the international community and was considered an illegal occupation. Karelia was split off from Russia as a Union Republic in March 1940 and was reabsorbed in 1956. Between July 1956 and September 1991, there were 15 union republics (see map below).While nominally a union of equals, in practice the Soviet Union was dominated by Russians. The domination was so absolute that for most of its existence, the country was commonly (but incorrectly) referred to as "Russia". While the RSFSR was technically only one republic within the larger union, it was by far the largest (both in terms of population and area), most powerful, most developed, and the industrial center of the Soviet Union. Historian Matthew White wrote that it was an open secret that the country's federal structure was "window dressing" for Russian dominance. For that reason, the people of the USSR were usually called "Russians", not "Soviets", since "everyone knew who really ran the show".Under the Military Law of September 1925, the Soviet Armed Forces consisted of the Land Forces, the Air Force, the Navy, Joint State Political Directorate (OGPU), and the Internal Troops. The OGPU later became independent and in 1934 joined the NKVD, and so its internal troops were under the joint leadership of the defense and internal commissariats. After World War II, Strategic Missile Forces (1959), Air Defense Forces (1948) and National Civil Defense Forces (1970) were formed, which ranked first, third, and sixth in the official Soviet system of importance (ground forces were second, Air Force Fourth, and Navy Fifth).The army had the greatest political influence. In 1989, there served two million soldiers divided between 150 motorized and 52 armored divisions. Until the early 1960s, the Soviet navy was a rather small military branch, but after the Caribbean crisis, under the leadership of Sergei Gorshkov, it expanded significantly. It became known for battlecruisers and submarines. In 1989 there served 500 000 men. The Soviet Air Force focused on a fleet of strategic bombers and during war situation was to eradicate enemy infrastructure and nuclear capacity. The air force also had a number of fighters and tactical bombers to support the army in the war. Strategic missile forces had more than 1,400 intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), deployed between 28 bases and 300 command centers.In the post-war period, the Soviet Army was directly involved in several military operations abroad. These included the suppression of the uprising in East Germany (1953), Hungarian revolution (1956) and the invasion of Czechoslovakia (1968). The Soviet Union also participated in the war in Afghanistan between 1979 and 1989.In the Soviet Union, general conscription applied.At the end of the 1950s, with the help of engineers and technologies captured and imported from defeated Nazi Germany, the Soviets constructed the first satellite – Sputnik 1 and thus overtook the United States in terms of utilizing space. This was followed by other successful satellites, where test dogs flight was sent. On April 12, 1961, the first cosmonaut, Yuri Gagarin, was sent to the space. He once flew around the Earth and successfully landed in the Kazakh steppe. At that time, the first plans for space shuttles and orbital stations were drawn up in Soviet design offices, but in the end personal disputes between designers and management prevented this.As for Lunar space program; USSR only had a program on automated spacecraft launches; with no manned spacecraft used; passing on the "Moon Race" part of Space Race.In the 1970s, specific proposals for the design of the space shuttle began to emerge, but shortcomings, especially in the electronics industry (rapid overheating of electronics), postponed the program until the end of the 1980s. The first shuttle, the Buran, flew in 1988, but without a human crew. Another shuttle, "Ptichka", eventually ended up under construction, as the shuttle project was canceled in 1991. For their launch into space, there is today an unused superpower rocket, Energia, which is the most powerful in the world.In the late 1980s, the Soviet Union managed to build the "Mir" orbital station. It was built on the construction of "Salyut" stations and its only role was civilian-grade research tasks. The Soviet Union adopted a command economy, whereby production and distribution of goods were centralized and directed by the government. The first Bolshevik experience with a command economy was the policy of War communism, which involved the nationalization of industry, centralized distribution of output, coercive requisition of agricultural production, and attempts to eliminate money circulation, private enterprises and free trade. After the severe economic collapse, Lenin replaced war communism by the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921, legalizing free trade and private ownership of small businesses. The economy quickly recovered as a result.After a long debate among the members of the Politburo about the course of economic development, by 1928–1929, upon gaining control of the country, Stalin abandoned the NEP and pushed for full central planning, starting forced collectivization of agriculture and enacting draconian labor legislation. Resources were mobilized for rapid industrialization, which significantly expanded Soviet capacity in heavy industry and capital goods during the 1930s. The primary motivation for industrialization was preparation for war, mostly due to distrust of the outside capitalist world. As a result, the USSR was transformed from a largely agrarian economy into a great industrial power, leading the way for its emergence as a superpower after World War II. The war caused extensive devastation of the Soviet economy and infrastructure, which required massive reconstruction.By the early 1940s, the Soviet economy had become relatively self-sufficient; for most of the period until the creation of Comecon, only a tiny share of domestic products was traded internationally. After the creation of the Eastern Bloc, external trade rose rapidly. However, the influence of the world economy on the USSR was limited by fixed domestic prices and a state monopoly on foreign trade. Grain and sophisticated consumer manufactures became major import articles from around the 1960s. During the arms race of the Cold War, the Soviet economy was burdened by military expenditures, heavily lobbied for by a powerful bureaucracy dependent on the arms industry. At the same time, the USSR became the largest arms exporter to the Third World. Significant amounts of Soviet resources during the Cold War were allocated in aid to the other socialist states.From the 1930s until its dissolution in late 1991, the way the Soviet economy operated remained essentially unchanged. The economy was formally directed by central planning, carried out by Gosplan and organized in five-year plans. However, in practice, the plans were highly aggregated and provisional, subject to "ad hoc" intervention by superiors. All critical economic decisions were taken by the political leadership. Allocated resources and plan targets were usually denominated in rubles rather than in physical goods. Credit was discouraged, but widespread. The final allocation of output was achieved through relatively decentralized, unplanned contracting. Although in theory prices were legally set from above, in practice they were often negotiated, and informal horizontal links (e.g. between producer factories) were widespread.A number of basic services were state-funded, such as education and health care. In the manufacturing sector, heavy industry and defence were prioritized over consumer goods. Consumer goods, particularly outside large cities, were often scarce, of poor quality and limited variety. Under the command economy, consumers had almost no influence on production, and the changing demands of a population with growing incomes could not be satisfied by supplies at rigidly fixed prices. A massive unplanned second economy grew up at low levels alongside the planned one, providing some of the goods and services that the planners could not. The legalization of some elements of the decentralized economy was attempted with the reform of 1965.Although statistics of the Soviet economy are notoriously unreliable and its economic growth difficult to estimate precisely, by most accounts, the economy continued to expand until the mid-1980s. During the 1950s and 1960s, it had comparatively high growth and was catching up to the West. However, after 1970, the growth, while still positive, steadily declined much more quickly and consistently than in other countries, despite a rapid increase in the capital stock (the rate of capital increase was only surpassed by Japan).Overall, the growth rate of per capita income in the Soviet Union between 1960 and 1989 was slightly above the world average (based on 102 countries). According to Stanley Fischer and William Easterly, growth could have been faster. By their calculation, per capita income in 1989 should have been twice higher than it was, considering the amount of investment, education and population. The authors attribute this poor performance to the low productivity of capital. Steven Rosenfielde states that the standard of living declined due to Stalin's despotism. While there was a brief improvement after his death, it lapsed into stagnation.In 1987, Mikhail Gorbachev attempted to reform and revitalize the economy with his program of "perestroika". His policies relaxed state control over enterprises but did not replace it by market incentives, resulting in a sharp decline in output. The economy, already suffering from reduced petroleum export revenues, started to collapse. Prices were still fixed, and the property was still largely state-owned until after the country's dissolution. For most of the period after World War II until its collapse, Soviet GDP (PPP) was the second-largest in the world, and third during the second half of the 1980s, although on a per-capita basis, it was behind that of First World countries. Compared to countries with similar per-capita GDP in 1928, the Soviet Union experienced significant growth.In 1990, the country had a Human Development Index of 0.920, placing it in the "high" category of human development. It was the third-highest in the Eastern Bloc, behind Czechoslovakia and East Germany, and the 25th in the world of 130 countries.The need for fuel declined in the Soviet Union from the 1970s to the 1980s, both per ruble of gross social product and per ruble of industrial product. At the start, this decline grew very rapidly but gradually slowed down between 1970 and 1975. From 1975 and 1980, it grew even slower, only 2.6%. David Wilson, a historian, believed that the gas industry would account for 40% of Soviet fuel production by the end of the century. His theory did not come to fruition because of the USSR's collapse. The USSR, in theory, would have continued to have an economic growth rate of 2–2.5% during the 1990s because of Soviet energy fields. However, the energy sector faced many difficulties, among them the country's high military expenditure and hostile relations with the First World.In 1991, the Soviet Union had a pipeline network of for crude oil and another for natural gas. Petroleum and petroleum-based products, natural gas, metals, wood, agricultural products, and a variety of manufactured goods, primarily machinery, arms and military equipment, were exported. In the 1970s and 1980s, the USSR heavily relied on fossil fuel exports to earn hard currency. At its peak in 1988, it was the largest producer and second-largest exporter of crude oil, surpassed only by Saudi Arabia.The Soviet Union placed great emphasis on science and technology within its economy, however, the most remarkable Soviet successes in technology, such as producing the world's first space satellite, typically were the responsibility of the military. Lenin believed that the USSR would never overtake the developed world if it remained as technologically backward as it was upon its founding. Soviet authorities proved their commitment to Lenin's belief by developing massive networks, research and development organizations. In the early 1960s, the Soviets awarded 40% of chemistry PhDs to women, compared to only 5% in the United States. By 1989, Soviet scientists were among the world's best-trained specialists in several areas, such as energy physics, selected areas of medicine, mathematics, welding and military technologies. Due to rigid state planning and bureaucracy, the Soviets remained far behind technologically in chemistry, biology, and computers when compared to the First World.Under the Reagan administration, Project Socrates determined that the Soviet Union addressed the acquisition of science and technology in a manner that was radically different from what the US was using. In the case of the US, economic prioritization was being used for indigenous research and development as the means to acquire science and technology in both the private and public sectors. In contrast, the USSR was offensively and defensively maneuvering in the acquisition and utilization of the worldwide technology, to increase the competitive advantage that they acquired from the technology while preventing the US from acquiring a competitive advantage. However, technology-based planning was executed in a centralized, government-centric manner that greatly hindered its flexibility. This was exploited by the US to undermine the strength of the Soviet Union and thus foster its reform.Transport was a vital component of the country's economy. The economic centralization of the late 1920s and 1930s led to the development of infrastructure on a massive scale, most notably the establishment of Aeroflot, an aviation enterprise. The country had a wide variety of modes of transport by land, water and air. However, due to inadequate maintenance, much of the road, water and Soviet civil aviation transport were outdated and technologically backward compared to the First World.Soviet rail transport was the largest and most intensively used in the world; it was also better developed than most of its Western counterparts. By the late 1970s and early 1980s, Soviet economists were calling for the construction of more roads to alleviate some of the burdens from the railways and to improve the Soviet government budget. The street network and automotive industry remained underdeveloped, and dirt roads were common outside major cities. Soviet maintenance projects proved unable to take care of even the few roads the country had. By the early-to-mid-1980s, the Soviet authorities tried to solve the road problem by ordering the construction of new ones. Meanwhile, the automobile industry was growing at a faster rate than road construction. The underdeveloped road network led to a growing demand for public transport.Despite improvements, several aspects of the transport sector were still riddled with problems due to outdated infrastructure, lack of investment, corruption and bad decision-making. Soviet authorities were unable to meet the growing demand for transport infrastructure and services.The Soviet merchant navy was one of the largest in the world.Excess deaths throughout World War I and the Russian Civil War (including the postwar famine) amounted to a combined total of 18 million, some 10 million in the 1930s, and more than 26 million in 1941–5. The postwar Soviet population was 45 to 50 million smaller than it would have been if pre-war demographic growth had continued. According to Catherine Merridale, "... reasonable estimate would place the total number of excess deaths for the whole period somewhere around 60 million."The birth rate of the USSR decreased from 44.0 per thousand in 1926 to 18.0 in 1974, mainly due to increasing urbanization and the rising average age of marriages. The mortality rate demonstrated a gradual decrease as well – from 23.7 per thousand in 1926 to 8.7 in 1974. In general, the birth rates of the southern republics in Transcaucasia and Central Asia were considerably higher than those in the northern parts of the Soviet Union, and in some cases even increased in the post–World War II period, a phenomenon partly attributed to slower rates of urbanistion and traditionally earlier marriages in the southern republics. Soviet Europe moved towards sub-replacement fertility, while Soviet Central Asia continued to exhibit population growth well above replacement-level fertility.The late 1960s and the 1970s witnessed a reversal of the declining trajectory of the rate of mortality in the USSR, and was especially notable among men of working age, but was also prevalent in Russia and other predominantly Slavic areas of the country. An analysis of the official data from the late 1980s showed that after worsening in the late-1970s and the early 1980s, adult mortality began to improve again. The infant mortality rate increased from 24.7 in 1970 to 27.9 in 1974. Some researchers regarded the rise as mostly real, a consequence of worsening health conditions and services. The rises in both adult and infant mortality were not explained or defended by Soviet officials, and the Soviet government stopped publishing all mortality statistics for ten years. Soviet demographers and health specialists remained silent about the mortality increases until the late-1980s, when the publication of mortality data resumed, and researchers could delve into the real causes.Under Lenin, the state made explicit commitments to promote the equality of men and women. Many early Russian feminists and ordinary Russian working women actively participated in the Revolution, and many more were affected by the events of that period and the new policies. Beginning in October 1918, Lenin's government liberalized divorce and abortion laws, decriminalized homosexuality (re-criminalized in the 1930s), permitted cohabitation, and ushered in a host of reforms. However, without birth control, the new system produced many broken marriages, as well as countless out-of-wedlock children. The epidemic of divorces and extramarital affairs created social hardships when Soviet leaders wanted people to concentrate their efforts on growing the economy. Giving women control over their fertility also led to a precipitous decline in the birth rate, perceived as a threat to their country's military power. By 1936, Stalin reversed most of the liberal laws, ushering in a pronatalist era that lasted for decades.By 1917, Russia became the first great power to grant women the right to vote. After heavy casualties in World War I and II, women outnumbered men in Russia by a 4:3 ratio. This contributed to the larger role women played in Russian society compared to other great powers at the time.Anatoly Lunacharsky became the first People's Commissar for Education of Soviet Russia. In the beginning, the Soviet authorities placed great emphasis on the elimination of illiteracy. All left-handed children were forced to write with their right hand in the Soviet school system. Literate people were automatically hired as teachers. For a short period, quality was sacrificed for quantity. By 1940, Stalin could announce that illiteracy had been eliminated. Throughout the 1930s, social mobility rose sharply, which has been attributed to reforms in education. In the aftermath of World War II, the country's educational system expanded dramatically, which had a tremendous effect. In the 1960s, nearly all children had access to education, the only exception being those living in remote areas. Nikita Khrushchev tried to make education more accessible, making it clear to children that education was closely linked to the needs of society. Education also became important in giving rise to the New Man. Citizens directly entering the workforce had the constitutional right to a job and to free vocational training.The education system was highly centralized and universally accessible to all citizens, with affirmative action for applicants from nations associated with cultural backwardness. However, as part of the general antisemitic policy, an unofficial Jewish quota was applied in the leading institutions of higher education by subjecting Jewish applicants to harsher entrance examinations. The Brezhnev era also introduced a rule that required all university applicants to present a reference from the local Komsomol party secretary. According to statistics from 1986, the number of higher education students per the population of 10,000 was 181 for the USSR, compared to 517 for the US.The Soviet Union was an ethnically diverse country, with more than 100 distinct ethnic groups. The total population of the country was estimated at 293 million in 1991. According to a 1990 estimate, the majority of the population were Russians (50.78%), followed by Ukrainians (15.45%) and Uzbeks (5.84%).All citizens of the USSR had their own ethnic affiliation. The ethnicity of a person was chosen at the age of sixteen by the child's parents. If the parents did not agree, the child was automatically assigned the ethnicity of the father. Partly due to Soviet policies, some of the smaller minority ethnic groups were considered part of larger ones, such as the Mingrelians of Georgia, who were classified with the linguistically related Georgians. Some ethnic groups voluntarily assimilated, while others were brought in by force. Russians, Belarusians, and Ukrainians, who were all East Slavic and Orthodox, shared close cultural, ethnic, and religious ties, while other groups did not. With multiple nationalities living in the same territory, ethnic antagonisms developed over the years.Members of various ethnicities participated in legislative bodies. Organs of power like the Politburo, the Secretariat of the Central Committee etc., were formally ethnically neutral, but in reality, ethnic Russians were overrepresented, although there were also non-Russian leaders in the Soviet leadership, such as Joseph Stalin, Grigory Zinoviev, Nikolai Podgorny or Andrei Gromyko. During the Soviet era, a significant number of ethnic Russians and Ukrainians migrated to other Soviet republics, and many of them settled there. According to the last census in 1989, the Russian "diaspora" in the Soviet republics had reached 25 million.In 1917, before the revolution, health conditions were significantly behind those of developed countries. As Lenin later noted, "Either the lice will defeat socialism, or socialism will defeat the lice". The Soviet principle of health care was conceived by the People's Commissariat for Health in 1918. Health care was to be controlled by the state and would be provided to its citizens free of charge, a revolutionary concept at the time. Article 42 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution gave all citizens the right to health protection and free access to any health institutions in the USSR. Before Leonid Brezhnev became General Secretary, the Soviet healthcare system was held in high esteem by many foreign specialists. This changed, however, from Brezhnev's accession and Mikhail Gorbachev's tenure as leader, during which the health care system was heavily criticized for many basic faults, such as the quality of service and the unevenness in its provision. Minister of Health Yevgeniy Chazov, during the 19th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, while highlighting such successes as having the most doctors and hospitals in the world, recognized the system's areas for improvement and felt that billions of Soviet rubles were squandered. After the revolution, life expectancy for all age groups went up. This statistic in itself was seen by some that the socialist system was superior to the capitalist system. These improvements continued into the 1960s when statistics indicated that the life expectancy briefly surpassed that of the United States. Life expectancy started to decline in the 1970s, possibly because of alcohol abuse. At the same time, infant mortality began to rise. After 1974, the government stopped publishing statistics on the matter. This trend can be partly explained by the number of pregnancies rising drastically in the Asian part of the country where infant mortality was the highest while declining markedly in the more developed European part of the Soviet Union.Soviet dental technology and dental health were considered notoriously bad. In 1991, the average 35-year-old had 12 to 14 cavities, fillings or missing teeth. Toothpaste was often not available, and toothbrushes did not conform to standards of modern dentistry.Under Lenin, the government gave small language groups their own writing systems. The development of these writing systems was highly successful, even though some flaws were detected. During the later days of the USSR, countries with the same multilingual situation implemented similar policies. A serious problem when creating these writing systems was that the languages differed dialectally greatly from each other. When a language had been given a writing system and appeared in a notable publication, it would attain "official language" status. There were many minority languages which never received their own writing system; therefore, their speakers were forced to have a second language. There are examples where the government retreated from this policy, most notably under Stalin where education was discontinued in languages that were not widespread. These languages were then assimilated into another language, mostly Russian. During World War II, some minority languages were banned, and their speakers accused of collaborating with the enemy.As the most widely spoken of the Soviet Union's many languages, Russian "de facto" functioned as an official language, as the "language of interethnic communication" (), but only assumed the "de jure" status as the official national language in 1990.Christianity and Islam had the highest number of adherents among the religious citizens. Eastern Christianity predominated among Christians, with Russia's traditional Russian Orthodox Church being the largest Christian denomination. About 90% of the Soviet Union's Muslims were Sunnis, with Shias being concentrated in the Azerbaijan SSR. Smaller groups included Roman Catholics, Jews, Buddhists, and a variety of Protestant denominations (especially Baptists and Lutherans).Religious influence had been strong in the Russian Empire. The Russian Orthodox Church enjoyed a privileged status as the church of the monarchy and took part in carrying out official state functions. The immediate period following the establishment of the Soviet state included a struggle against the Orthodox Church, which the revolutionaries considered an ally of the former ruling classes.In Soviet law, the "freedom to hold religious services" was constitutionally guaranteed, although the ruling Communist Party regarded religion as incompatible with the Marxist spirit of scientific materialism. In practice, the Soviet system subscribed to a narrow interpretation of this right, and in fact utilized a range of official measures to discourage religion and curb the activities of religious groups.The 1918 Council of People's Commissars decree establishing the Russian SFSR as a secular state also decreed that "the teaching of religion in all [places] where subjects of general instruction are taught, is forbidden. Citizens may teach and may be taught religion privately." Among further restrictions, those adopted in 1929 included express prohibitions on a range of church activities, including meetings for organized Bible study. Both Christian and non-Christian establishments were shut down by the thousands in the 1920s and 1930s. By 1940, as many as 90% of the churches, synagogues, and mosques that had been operating in 1917 were closed.Under the doctrine of state atheism, a "government-sponsored program of forced conversion to atheism" was conducted. The government targeted religions based on state interests, and while most organized religions were never outlawed, religious property was confiscated, believers were harassed, and religion was ridiculed while atheism was propagated in schools. In 1925, the government founded the League of Militant Atheists to intensify the propaganda campaign. Accordingly, although personal expressions of religious faith were not explicitly banned, a strong sense of social stigma was imposed on them by the formal structures and mass media, and it was generally considered unacceptable for members of certain professions (teachers, state bureaucrats, soldiers) to be openly religious. While persecution accelerated following Stalin's rise to power, a revival of Orthodoxy was fostered by the government during World War II and the Soviet authorities sought to control the Russian Orthodox Church rather than liquidate it. During the first five years of Soviet power, the Bolsheviks executed 28 Russian Orthodox bishops and over 1,200 Russian Orthodox priests. Many others were imprisoned or exiled. Believers were harassed and persecuted. Most seminaries were closed, and the publication of most religious material was prohibited. By 1941, only 500 churches remained open out of about 54,000 in existence before World War I.Convinced that religious anti-Sovietism had become a thing of the past, and with the looming threat of war, the Stalin regime began shifting to a more moderate religion policy in the late 1930s. Soviet religious establishments overwhelmingly rallied to support the war effort during World War II. Amid other accommodations to religious faith after the German invasion, churches were reopened. Radio Moscow began broadcasting a religious hour, and a historic meeting between Stalin and Orthodox Church leader Patriarch Sergius of Moscow was held in 1943. Stalin had the support of the majority of the religious people in the USSR even through the late 1980s. The general tendency of this period was an increase in religious activity among believers of all faiths.Under Nikita Khrushchev, the state leadership clashed with the churches in 1958–1964, a period when atheism was emphasized in the educational curriculum, and numerous state publications promoted atheistic views. During this period, the number of churches fell from 20,000 to 10,000 from 1959 to 1965, and the number of synagogues dropped from 500 to 97. The number of working mosques also declined, falling from 1,500 to 500 within a decade.Religious institutions remained monitored by the Soviet government, but churches, synagogues, temples, and mosques were all given more leeway in the Brezhnev era. Official relations between the Orthodox Church and the government again warmed to the point that the Brezhnev government twice honored Orthodox Patriarch Alexy I with the Order of the Red Banner of Labour. A poll conducted by Soviet authorities in 1982 recorded 20% of the Soviet population as "active religious believers."The legacy of the USSR remains a controversial topic. The socio-economic nature of communist states such as the USSR, especially under Stalin, has also been much debated, varyingly being labelled a form of bureaucratic collectivism, state capitalism, state socialism, or a totally unique mode of production.The USSR implemented a broad range of policies over a long period of time, with a large amount of conflicting policies being implemented by different leaders. Some have a positive view of it whilst others are critical towards the country, calling it a repressive oligarchy. The opinions on the USSR are complex and have changed over time, with different generations having different views on the matter as well as on Soviet policies corresponding to separate time periods during its history. Leftists have largely varying views on the USSR. Whilst some leftists such as anarchists and other libertarian socialists, agree it did not give the workers control over the means of production and was a centralized oligarchy, others have more positive opinions as to the Bolshevik policies and Vladimir Lenin. Many anti-Stalinist leftists such as anarchists are extremely critical of Soviet authoritarianism and repression. Much of the criticism it receives is centered around massacres in the Soviet Union, the centralized hierarchy present in the USSR and mass political repression as well as violence towards government critics and political dissidents such as other leftists. Critics also point towards its failure to implement any substantial worker cooperatives or implementing worker liberation as well as corruption and the Soviet authoritarian nature.Many Russians and other former Soviet citizens have nostalgia for the USSR, pointing towards most infrastructure being built during Soviet times, increased job security, increased literacy rate, increased caloric intake and supposed ethnic pluralism enacted in the Soviet Union as well as political stability. The Russian Revolution is also seen in a positive light as well as the leadership of Lenin, Nikita Khrushchev and the later USSR, although many view Joseph Stalin's rule as positive for the country. In Armenia, 12% of respondents said the USSR collapse did good, while 66% said it did harm. In Kyrgyzstan, 16% of respondents said the collapse of the USSR did good, while 61% said it did harm. In a 2018 Rating Sociological Group poll, 47% of Ukrainian respondents had a positive opinion of Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, who ruled the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982. Much of the admiration of the USSR comes from the failings of the modern post-Soviet governments such as the control by oligarchs, corruption and outdated Soviet-era infrastructure as well as the rise and dominance of organised crime after the collapse of the USSR all directly leading into nostalgia for it.The 1941–45 period of World War II is still known in Russia as the "Great Patriotic War". The war became a topic of great importance in cinema, literature, history lessons at school, the mass media, and the arts. As a result of the massive losses suffered by the military and civilians during the conflict, Victory Day celebrated on 9 May is still one of the most important and emotional dates in Russia.In some post Soviet republics, there is a more negative view of the USSR, although there is no unanimity on the matter. In large part due to the Holodomor, ethnic Ukrainians have a negative view of it. Russian-speaking Ukrainians of Ukraine's southern and eastern regions have a more positive view of the USSR. In some countries with internal conflict, there is also nostalgia for the USSR, especially for refugees of the post-Soviet conflicts who have been forced to flee their homes and have been displaced. This nostalgia is less an admiration for the country or its policies than it is a longing to return to their homes and not to live in poverty. The many Russian enclaves in the former USSR republics such as Transnistria have in a general a positive remembrance of it.The left's view of the USSR is complex. While some leftists regard the USSR as an example of state capitalism or that it was an oligarchical state, other leftists admire Vladimir Lenin and the Russian Revolution.Council communists generally view the USSR as failing to create class consciousness, turning into a corrupt state in which the elite controlled society. Anarchists are critical of the country, labeling the Soviet system as "red fascism". Soviets actively destroyed anarchist organizations and anarchist communities, labeling anarchists as "enemies of the people". Factors contributing to the animosity towards the USSR included: the Soviet invasion of the anarchist Free Territory, the suppression of the anarchist Kronstadt rebellion and the response to the Norilsk uprising, in which prisoners created a radical system of government based on cooperatives and direct democracy in the Gulag. Anarchist organizations and unions were also banned during the Spanish Civil War under the Republican government by orders from the Soviet government. Due to this, anarchists generally hold a large animosity towards the USSR.The culture of the Soviet Union passed through several stages during the USSR's existence. During the first decade following the revolution, there was relative freedom and artists experimented with several different styles to find a distinctive Soviet style of art. Lenin wanted art to be accessible to the Russian people. On the other hand, hundreds of intellectuals, writers, and artists were exiled or executed, and their work banned, such as Nikolay Gumilyov who was shot for alleged conspiring against the Bolshevik regime, and Yevgeny Zamyatin.The government encouraged a variety of trends. In art and literature, numerous schools, some traditional and others radically experimental, proliferated. Communist writers Maxim Gorky and Vladimir Mayakovsky were active during this time. As a means of influencing a largely illiterate society, films received encouragement from the state, and much of director Sergei Eisenstein's best work dates from this period.During Stalin's rule, the Soviet culture was characterized by the rise and domination of the government-imposed style of socialist realism, with all other trends being severely repressed, with rare exceptions, such as Mikhail Bulgakov's works. Many writers were imprisoned and killed.Following the Khrushchev Thaw, censorship was diminished. During this time, a distinctive period of Soviet culture developed, characterized by conformist public life and an intense focus on personal life. Greater experimentation in art forms was again permissible, resulting in the production of more sophisticated and subtly critical work. The regime loosened its emphasis on socialist realism; thus, for instance, many protagonists of the novels of author Yury Trifonov concerned themselves with problems of daily life rather than with building socialism. Underground dissident literature, known as "samizdat", developed during this late period. In architecture, the Khrushchev era mostly focused on functional design as opposed to the highly decorated style of Stalin's epoch. In music, in response to the increasing popularity of forms of popular music like jazz in the West, many jazz orchestras were permitted throughout the USSR, notably the Melodiya Ensemble, named after the principle record label in the USSR.In the second half of the 1980s, Gorbachev's policies of "perestroika" and "glasnost" significantly expanded freedom of expression throughout the country in the media and the press.Founded on 20 July 1924 in Moscow, "Sovetsky Sport" was the first sports newspaper of the Soviet Union.The Soviet Olympic Committee formed on 21 April 1951, and the IOC recognized the new body in its 45th session. In the same year, when the Soviet representative Konstantin Andrianov became an IOC member, the USSR officially joined the Olympic Movement. The 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki thus became first Olympic Games for Soviet athletes. The Soviet Union was the biggest rival to the United States at the Summer Olympics, winning six of its nine appearances at the games and also topping the medal tally at the Winter Olympics six times. The Soviet Union's Olympics success has been attributed to its large investment in sports to demonstrate its superpower image and political influence on a global stage.The Soviet Union national ice hockey team won nearly every world championship and Olympic tournament between 1954 and 1991 and never failed to medal in any International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) tournament in which they competed.The advent of the state-sponsored "full-time amateur athlete" of the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self-financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. The Soviet Union entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession – in reality, the state paid many of these competitors to train on a full-time basis. Nevertheless, the IOC held to the traditional rules regarding amateurism.A 1989 report by a committee of the Australian Senate claimed that "there is hardly a medal winner at the Moscow Games, certainly not a gold medal winner...who is not on one sort of drug or another: usually several kinds. The Moscow Games might well have been called the Chemists' Games".A member of the IOC Medical Commission, Manfred Donike, privately ran additional tests with a new technique for identifying abnormal levels of testosterone by measuring its ratio to epitestosterone in urine. Twenty percent of the specimens he tested, including those from sixteen gold medalists, would have resulted in disciplinary proceedings had the tests been official. The results of Donike's unofficial tests later convinced the IOC to add his new technique to their testing protocols. The first documented case of "blood doping" occurred at the 1980 Summer Olympics when a runner was transfused with two pints of blood before winning medals in the 5000 m and 10,000 m.Documentation obtained in 2016 revealed the Soviet Union's plans for a statewide doping system in track and field in preparation for the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. Dated before the decision to boycott the 1984 Games, the document detailed the existing steroids operations of the program, along with suggestions for further enhancements. Dr. Sergei Portugalov of the Institute for Physical Culture prepared the communication, directed to the Soviet Union's head of track and field. Portugalov later became one of the leading figures involved in the implementation of Russian doping before the 2016 Summer Olympics.Official Soviet environmental policy has always attached great importance to actions in which human beings actively improve nature. Lenin's quote "Communism is Soviet power and electrification of the country!" in many respects summarizes the focus on modernization and industrial development. During the first five-year plan in 1928, Stalin proceeded to industrialize the country at all costs. Values such as environmental and nature protection have been completely ignored in the struggle to create a modern industrial society. After Stalin's death, they focused more on environmental issues, but the basic perception of the value of environmental protection remained the same.The Soviet media has always focused on the vast expanse of land and the virtually indestructible natural resources. This made it feel that contamination and uncontrolled exploitation of nature were not a problem. The Soviet state also firmly believed that scientific and technological progress would solve all the problems. Official ideology said that under socialism environmental problems could easily be overcome, unlike capitalist countries, where they seemingly could not be solved. The Soviet authorities had an almost unwavering belief that man could transcend nature. However, when the authorities had to admit that there were environmental problems in the USSR in the 1980s, they explained the problems in such a way that socialism had not yet been fully developed; pollution in a socialist society was only a temporary anomaly that would have been resolved if socialism had developed.The Chernobyl disaster in 1986 was the first major accident at a civilian nuclear power plant. Unparalleled in the world, it resulted in a large number of radioactive isotopes being released into the atmosphere. Radioactive doses have scattered relatively far. 4,000 new cases of thyroid cancer were reported after the incident, but this led to a relatively low number of deaths (WHO data, 2005). However, the long-term effects of the accident are unknown. Another major accident is the Kyshtym disaster.After the fall of the USSR, it was discovered that the environmental problems were greater than what the Soviet authorities admitted. The Kola Peninsula was one of the places with clear problems. Around the industrial cities of Monchegorsk and Norilsk, where nickel, for example, is mined, all forests have been destroyed by contamination, while the northern and other parts of Russia have been affected by emissions. During the 1990s, people in the West were also interested in the radioactive hazards of nuclear facilities, decommissioned nuclear submarines, and the processing of nuclear waste or spent nuclear fuel. It was also known in the early 1990s that the USSR had transported radioactive material to the Barents Sea and Kara Sea, which was later confirmed by the Russian parliament. The crash of the K-141 Kursk submarine in 2000 in the west further raised concerns. In the past, there were accidents involving submarines K-19, K-8, and K-129. | [
"Georgy Malenkov",
"Alexei Kosygin",
"Nikolai Ryzhkov",
"Nikita Khrushchev",
"Joseph Stalin",
"Ivan Silayev",
"Vladimir Lenin",
"Nikolai Bulganin",
"Nikolai Tikhonov",
"Vyacheslav Molotov",
"Valentin Pavlov"
] |
|
Who was the head of Soviet Union in 06/06/1928? | June 06, 1928 | {
"text": [
"Alexei Rykov"
]
} | L2_Q15180_P6_1 | Vladimir Lenin is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Jul, 1923 to Jan, 1924.
Vyacheslav Molotov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Dec, 1930 to May, 1941.
Alexei Kosygin is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Oct, 1964 to Oct, 1980.
Alexei Rykov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Feb, 1924 to Dec, 1930.
Nikolai Ryzhkov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Sep, 1985 to Jan, 1991.
Nikolai Tikhonov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Oct, 1980 to Sep, 1985.
Nikita Khrushchev is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Mar, 1958 to Oct, 1964.
Nikolai Bulganin is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Feb, 1955 to Mar, 1958.
Georgy Malenkov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Mar, 1953 to Feb, 1955.
Valentin Pavlov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Jan, 1991 to Aug, 1991.
Joseph Stalin is the head of the government of Soviet Union from May, 1941 to Mar, 1953.
Ivan Silayev is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Sep, 1991 to Dec, 1991. | Soviet UnionThe Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), was a socialist state that spanned most of Europe and Asia during its existence from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a federal union of multiple national republics; in practice its government and economy were highly centralized until its final years. The country was a one-party state prior to 1990 governed by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, with Moscow as its capital within its largest and most populous republic, the Russian SFSR. Other major urban centers were Leningrad (Russian SFSR), Kiev (Ukrainian SSR), Minsk (Byelorussian SSR), Tashkent (Uzbek SSR), Alma-Ata (Kazakh SSR) and Novosibirsk (Russian SFSR). It was the largest country in the world, covering over , and spanning eleven time zones. The Soviet Union's five biomes were tundra, taiga, steppes, desert, and mountains. Its diverse population was officially known as the Soviet people.The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 when the Bolsheviks, headed by Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Provisional Government that had earlier replaced the monarchy of the Russian Empire. They established the Russian Soviet Republic, beginning a civil war between the Bolshevik Red Army and many anti-Bolshevik forces across the former Empire, among whom the largest faction was the White Guard, which engaged in violent anti-communist repression against the Bolsheviks and their worker and peasant supporters known as the White Terror. The Red Army expanded and helped local Bolsheviks take power, establishing soviets, repressing their political opponents and rebellious peasants through Red Terror. By 1922, the Bolsheviks had emerged victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian and Byelorussian republics. The New Economic Policy (NEP), which was introduced by Lenin, led to a partial return of a free market and private property; this resulted in a period of economic recovery.Following Lenin's death in 1924, Joseph Stalin came to power. Stalin suppressed all political opposition to his rule inside the Communist Party and inaugurated a command economy. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and forced collectivization, which led to significant economic growth, but also led to a man-made famine in 1932–1933 and expanded the Gulag labour camp system originally established in 1918. Stalin also fomented political paranoia and conducted the Great Purge to remove his actual and perceived opponents from the Party through mass arrests of military leaders, Communist Party members, and ordinary citizens alike, who were then sent to correctional labor camps or sentenced to death.On 23 August 1939, after unsuccessful efforts to form an anti-fascist alliance with Western powers, the Soviets signed the non-aggression agreement with Nazi Germany. After the start of World War II, the formally neutral Soviets invaded and annexed territories of several Eastern European states, including eastern Poland and the Baltic states. In June 1941 the Germans invaded, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the cost of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at intense battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin and won World War II in Europe on 9 May 1945. The territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged in 1947 as a result of a post-war Soviet dominance in Eastern Europe, where the Eastern Bloc confronted the Western Bloc that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949.Following Stalin's death in 1953, a period known as de-Stalinization and the Khrushchev Thaw occurred under the leadership of Nikita Khrushchev. The country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took an early lead in the Space Race with the first ever satellite and the first human spaceflight and the first probe to land on another planet, Venus. In the 1970s, there was a brief "détente" of relations with the United States, but tensions resumed when the Soviet Union deployed troops in Afghanistan in 1979. The war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters.In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to further reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of "glasnost" and "perestroika". The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing economic stagnation. The Cold War ended during his tenure and in 1989, Warsaw Pact countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective Marxist-Leninist regimes. Strong nationalist and separatist movements broke out across the USSR. Gorbachev initiated a referendum—boycotted by the Baltic republics, Armenia, Georgia, and Moldova—which resulted in the majority of participating citizens voting in favor of preserving the Union as a renewed federation. In August 1991, a coup d'état was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a high-profile role in facing down the coup. The main result was the banning of the Communist Party. The republics led by Russia and Ukraine declared independence. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned. All the republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states. The Russian Federation (formerly the Russian SFSR) assumed the Soviet Union's rights and obligations and is recognized as its continued legal personality in world affairs.The USSR produced many significant social and technological achievements and innovations regarding military power. It boasted the world's second-largest economy and the largest standing military in the world. The USSR was recognized as one of the five nuclear weapons states. It was a founding permanent member of the United Nations Security Council as well as a member of the OSCE, the WFTU and the leading member of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and the Warsaw Pact.Before its dissolution, the USSR had maintained its status as one of the world's two superpowers for four decades after World War II. Sometimes also called "Soviet Empire", it exercised its hegemony in Eastern Europe and worldwide with military and economic strength, proxy conflicts and influence in developing countries and funding of scientific research, especially in space technology and weaponry.The word "soviet" is derived from the Russian word "sovet" (), meaning "council", "assembly", "advice", ultimately deriving from the proto-Slavic verbal stem of "vět-iti" ("to inform"), related to Slavic "věst" ("news"), English "wise", the root in "ad-vis-or" (which came to English through French), or the Dutch "weten" ("to know"; cf. "wetenschap" meaning "science"). The word "sovietnik" means "councillor".Some organizations in Russian history were called "council" (). In the Russian Empire, the State Council which functioned from 1810 to 1917 was referred to as a Council of Ministers after the revolt of 1905.During the Georgian Affair, Vladimir Lenin envisioned an expression of Great Russian ethnic chauvinism by Joseph Stalin and his supporters, calling for these nation-states to join Russia as semi-independent parts of a greater union which he initially named as the Union of Soviet Republics of Europe and Asia (). Stalin initially resisted the proposal but ultimately accepted it, although with Lenin's agreement changed the name to the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), albeit all the republics began as "socialist soviet" and did not change to the other order until 1936. In addition, in the national languages of several republics, the word "council" or "conciliar" in the respective language was only quite late changed to an adaptation of the Russian "soviet" and never in others, e.g. Ukraine."СССР" (in Latin alphabet: "SSSR") is the abbreviation of USSR in Russian. It is written in Cyrillic letters. The Soviets used the Cyrillic abbreviation so frequently that audiences worldwide became familiar with its meaning. Notably, both Cyrillic letters used have homoglyphic (but transliterally distinct) letters in Latin alphabets. Because of widespread familiarity with the Cyrillic abbreviation, Latin alphabet users in particular almost always use the Latin homoglyphs "C" and "P" (as opposed to the transliteral Latin letters "S" and "R") when rendering the USSR's native abbreviation.After "СССР", the most common short form names for the Soviet state in Russian were "Советский Союз" (transliteration: "Sovetskiy Soyuz") which literally means "Soviet Union", and also "Союз ССР" (transliteration: "Soyuz SSR") which, after compensating for grammatical differences, essentially translates to "Union of SSR's" in English.In the English language media, the state was referred to as the Soviet Union or the USSR. In other European languages, the locally translated short forms and abbreviations are usually used such as "Union soviétique" and "URSS" in French, or "Sowjetunion" and "UdSSR" in German. In the English-speaking world, the Soviet Union was also informally called Russia and its citizens Russians, although that was technically incorrect since Russia was only one of the republics. Such misapplications of the linguistic equivalents to the term "Russia" and its derivatives were frequent in other languages as well.The Soviet Union covered an area of over , and was the world's largest country, a status that is retained by its successor state, Russia. It covered a sixth of Earth's land surface, and its size was comparable to the continent of North America. Its western part in Europe accounted for a quarter of the country's area and was the cultural and economic center. The eastern part in Asia extended to the Pacific Ocean to the east and Afghanistan to the south, and, except some areas in Central Asia, was much less populous. It spanned over east to west across eleven time zones, and over north to south. It had five climate zones: tundra, taiga, steppes, desert and mountains.The Soviet Union, similarly to Russia, had the world's longest border, measuring over , or circumferences of Earth. Two-thirds of it was a coastline. The country bordered Afghanistan, China, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Hungary, Iran, Mongolia, North Korea, Norway, Poland, Romania, and Turkey from 1945 to 1991. The Bering Strait separated the country from the United States, while the La Pérouse Strait separated it from Japan.The Soviet Union's highest mountain was Communism Peak (now Ismoil Somoni Peak) in Tajik SSR, at . It also included most of the world's largest lakes; the Caspian Sea (shared with Iran), and Lake Baikal in Russia, the world's largest and deepest freshwater lake.Modern revolutionary activity in the Russian Empire began with the 1825 Decembrist revolt. Although serfdom was abolished in 1861, it was done on terms unfavorable to the peasants and served to encourage revolutionaries. A parliament—the State Duma—was established in 1906 after the Russian Revolution of 1905, but Tsar Nicholas II resisted attempts to move from absolute to a constitutional monarchy. Social unrest continued and was aggravated during World War I by military defeat and food shortages in major cities.A spontaneous popular uprising in Petrograd, in response to the wartime decay of Russia's economy and morale, culminated in the February Revolution and the toppling of Nicholas II and the imperial government in March 1917. The tsarist autocracy was replaced by the Russian Provisional Government, which intended to conduct elections to the Russian Constituent Assembly and to continue fighting on the side of the Entente in World War I.At the same time, workers' councils, known in Russian as "Soviets", sprang up across the country. The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, pushed for socialist revolution in the Soviets and on the streets. On 7 November 1917, the Red Guards stormed the Winter Palace in Petrograd, ending the rule of the Provisional Government and leaving all political power to the Soviets. This event would later be officially known in Soviet bibliographies as the Great October Socialist Revolution. In December, the Bolsheviks signed an armistice with the Central Powers, though by February 1918, fighting had resumed. In March, the Soviets ended involvement in the war and signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.A long and bloody Civil War ensued between the Reds and the Whites, starting in 1917 and ending in 1923 with the Reds' victory. It included foreign intervention, the execution of the former tsar and his family, and the famine of 1921, which killed about five million people. In March 1921, during a related conflict with Poland, the Peace of Riga was signed, splitting disputed territories in Belarus and Ukraine between the Republic of Poland and Soviet Russia. Soviet Russia had to resolve similar conflicts with the newly established republics of Estonia, Finland, Latvia, and Lithuania.On 28 December 1922, a conference of plenipotentiary delegations from the Russian SFSR, the Transcaucasian SFSR, the Ukrainian SSR and the Byelorussian SSR approved the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR and the Declaration of the Creation of the USSR, forming the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. These two documents were confirmed by the first Congress of Soviets of the USSR and signed by the heads of the delegations, Mikhail Kalinin, Mikhail Tskhakaya, Mikhail Frunze, Grigory Petrovsky, and Alexander Chervyakov, on 30 December 1922. The formal proclamation was made from the stage of the Bolshoi Theatre.An intensive restructuring of the economy, industry and politics of the country began in the early days of Soviet power in 1917. A large part of this was done according to the Bolshevik Initial Decrees, government documents signed by Vladimir Lenin. One of the most prominent breakthroughs was the GOELRO plan, which envisioned a major restructuring of the Soviet economy based on total electrification of the country. The plan became the prototype for subsequent Five-Year Plans and was fulfilled by 1931. After the economic policy of "War communism" during the Russian Civil War, as a prelude to fully developing socialism in the country, the Soviet government permitted some private enterprise to coexist alongside nationalized industry in the 1920s, and total food requisition in the countryside was replaced by a food tax.From its creation, the government in the Soviet Union was based on the one-party rule of the Communist Party (Bolsheviks). The stated purpose was to prevent the return of capitalist exploitation, and that the principles of democratic centralism would be the most effective in representing the people's will in a practical manner. The debate over the future of the economy provided the background for a power struggle in the years after Lenin's death in 1924. Initially, Lenin was to be replaced by a "troika" consisting of Grigory Zinoviev of the Ukrainian SSR, Lev Kamenev of the Russian SFSR, and Joseph Stalin of the Transcaucasian SFSR.On 1 February 1924, the USSR was recognized by the United Kingdom. The same year, a Soviet Constitution was approved, legitimizing the December 1922 union. According to Archie Brown the constitution was never an accurate guide to political reality in the USSR. For example the fact that the Party played the leading role in making and enforcing policy was not mentioned in it until 1977. The USSR was a federative entity of many constituent republics, each with its own political and administrative entities. However, the term "Soviet Russia"strictly applicable only to the Russian Federative Socialist Republicwas often applied to the entire country by non-Soviet writers.On 3 April 1922, Stalin was named the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Lenin had appointed Stalin the head of the Workers' and Peasants' Inspectorate, which gave Stalin considerable power. By gradually consolidating his influence and isolating and outmanoeuvring his rivals within the party, Stalin became the undisputed leader of the country and, by the end of the 1920s, established a totalitarian rule. In October 1927, Zinoviev and Leon Trotsky were expelled from the Central Committee and forced into exile.In 1928, Stalin introduced the first five-year plan for building a socialist economy. In place of the internationalism expressed by Lenin throughout the Revolution, it aimed to build Socialism in One Country. In industry, the state assumed control over all existing enterprises and undertook an intensive program of industrialization. In agriculture, rather than adhering to the "lead by example" policy advocated by Lenin, forced collectivization of farms was implemented all over the country.Famines ensued as a result, causing deaths estimated at three to seven million; surviving kulaks were persecuted, and many were sent to Gulags to do forced labor. Social upheaval continued in the mid-1930s. Despite the turmoil of the mid-to-late 1930s, the country developed a robust industrial economy in the years preceding World War II.Closer cooperation between the USSR and the West developed in the early 1930s. From 1932 to 1934, the country participated in the World Disarmament Conference. In 1933, diplomatic relations between the United States and the USSR were established when in November, the newly elected President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt, chose to recognize Stalin's Communist government formally and negotiated a new trade agreement between the two countries. In September 1934, the country joined the League of Nations. After the Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936, the USSR actively supported the Republican forces against the Nationalists, who were supported by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany.In December 1936, Stalin unveiled a new constitution that was praised by supporters around the world as the most democratic constitution imaginable, though there was some skepticism. Stalin's Great Purge resulted in the detainment or execution of many "Old Bolsheviks" who had participated in the October Revolution with Lenin. According to declassified Soviet archives, the NKVD arrested more than one and a half million people in 1937 and 1938, of whom 681,692 were shot. Over those two years, there were an average of over one thousand executions a day.In 1939, after attempts to form a military alliance with Britain and France against Germany failed, the Soviet Union made a dramatic shift towards Nazi Germany. Almost a year after Britain and France had concluded the Munich Agreement with Germany, the Soviet Union made agreements with Germany as well, both militarily and economically during extensive talks. The two countries concluded the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and the German–Soviet Commercial Agreement in August 1939. The former made possible the Soviet occupation of Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Bessarabia, northern Bukovina, and eastern Poland, while the Soviets remained formally neutral. In late November, unable to coerce the Republic of Finland by diplomatic means into moving its border back from Leningrad, Stalin ordered the invasion of Finland. In the east, the Soviet military won several decisive victories during border clashes with the Empire of Japan in 1938 and 1939. However, in April 1941, the USSR signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact with Japan, recognizing the territorial integrity of Manchukuo, a Japanese puppet state.Germany broke the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 starting what was known in the USSR as the Great Patriotic War. The Red Army stopped the seemingly invincible German Army at the Battle of Moscow. The Battle of Stalingrad, which lasted from late 1942 to early 1943, dealt a severe blow to Germany from which they never fully recovered and became a turning point in the war. After Stalingrad, Soviet forces drove through Eastern Europe to Berlin before Germany surrendered in 1945. The German Army suffered 80% of its military deaths in the Eastern Front. Harry Hopkins, a close foreign policy advisor to Franklin D. Roosevelt, spoke on 10 August 1943 of the USSR's decisive role in the war.In the same year, the USSR, in fulfilment of its agreement with the Allies at the Yalta Conference, denounced the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1945 and invaded Manchukuo and other Japan-controlled territories on 9 August 1945. This conflict ended with a decisive Soviet victory, contributing to the unconditional surrender of Japan and the end of World War II.The USSR suffered greatly in the war, losing around 27 million people. Approximately 2.8 million Soviet POWs died of starvation, mistreatment, or executions in just eight months of 1941–42. During the war, the country together with the United States, the United Kingdom and China were considered the Big Four Allied powers, and later became the Four Policemen that formed the basis of the United Nations Security Council. It emerged as a superpower in the post-war period. Once denied diplomatic recognition by the Western world, the USSR had official relations with practically every country by the late 1940s. A member of the United Nations at its foundation in 1945, the country became one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, which gave it the right to veto any of its resolutions.During the immediate post-war period, the Soviet Union rebuilt and expanded its economy, while maintaining its strictly centralized control. It took effective control over most of the countries of Eastern Europe (except Yugoslavia and later Albania), turning them into satellite states. The USSR bound its satellite states in a military alliance, the Warsaw Pact, in 1955, and an economic organization, Council for Mutual Economic Assistance or Comecon, a counterpart to the European Economic Community (EEC), from 1949 to 1991. The USSR concentrated on its own recovery, seizing and transferring most of Germany's industrial plants, and it exacted war reparations from East Germany, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. It also instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favor the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Later, the Comecon supplied aid to the eventually victorious Communist Party of China, and its influence grew elsewhere in the world. Fearing its ambitions, the Soviet Union's wartime allies, the United Kingdom and the United States, became its enemies. In the ensuing Cold War, the two sides clashed indirectly in proxy wars.Stalin died on 5 March 1953. Without a mutually agreeable successor, the highest Communist Party officials initially opted to rule the Soviet Union jointly through a troika headed by Georgy Malenkov. This did not last, however, and Nikita Khrushchev eventually won the ensuing power struggle by the mid-1950s. In 1956, he denounced Joseph Stalin and proceeded to ease controls over the party and society. This was known as de-Stalinization.Moscow considered Eastern Europe to be a critically vital buffer zone for the forward defence of its western borders, in case of another major invasion such as the German invasion of 1941. For this reason, the USSR sought to cement its control of the region by transforming the Eastern European countries into satellite states, dependent upon and subservient to its leadership. As a result, Soviet military forces were used to suppress an anti-communist uprising in Hungary in 1956.In the late 1950s, a confrontation with China regarding the Soviet rapprochement with the West, and what Mao Zedong perceived as Khrushchev's revisionism, led to the Sino–Soviet split. This resulted in a break throughout the global Marxist–Leninist movement, with the governments in Albania, Cambodia and Somalia choosing to ally with China.During this period of the late 1950s and early 1960s, the USSR continued to realize scientific and technological exploits in the Space Race, rivaling the United States: launching the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1 in 1957; a living dog named Laika in 1957; the first human being, Yuri Gagarin in 1961; the first woman in space, Valentina Tereshkova in 1963; Alexei Leonov, the first person to walk in space in 1965; the first soft landing on the Moon by spacecraft Luna 9 in 1966; and the first Moon rovers, Lunokhod 1 and Lunokhod 2.Khrushchev initiated "The Thaw", a complex shift in political, cultural and economic life in the country. This included some openness and contact with other nations and new social and economic policies with more emphasis on commodity goods, allowing a dramatic rise in living standards while maintaining high levels of economic growth. Censorship was relaxed as well. Khrushchev's reforms in agriculture and administration, however, were generally unproductive. In 1962, he precipitated a crisis with the United States over the Soviet deployment of nuclear missiles in Cuba. An agreement was made with the United States to remove nuclear missiles from both Cuba and Turkey, concluding the crisis. This event caused Khrushchev much embarrassment and loss of prestige, resulting in his removal from power in 1964.Following the ousting of Khrushchev, another period of collective leadership ensued, consisting of Leonid Brezhnev as General Secretary, Alexei Kosygin as Premier and Nikolai Podgorny as Chairman of the Presidium, lasting until Brezhnev established himself in the early 1970s as the preeminent Soviet leader.In 1968, the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact allies invaded Czechoslovakia to halt the Prague Spring reforms. In the aftermath, Brezhnev justified the invasion and previous military interventions as well as any potential military interventions in the future by introducing the Brezhnev Doctrine, which proclaimed any threat to socialist rule in a Warsaw Pact state as a threat to all Warsaw Pact states, therefore justifying military intervention.Brezhnev presided throughout "détente" with the West that resulted in treaties on armament control (SALT I, SALT II, Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty) while at the same time building up Soviet military might.In October 1977, the third Soviet Constitution was unanimously adopted. The prevailing mood of the Soviet leadership at the time of Brezhnev's death in 1982 was one of aversion to change. The long period of Brezhnev's rule had come to be dubbed one of "standstill", with an ageing and ossified top political leadership. This period is also known as the Era of Stagnation, a period of adverse economic, political, and social effects in the country, which began during the rule of Brezhnev and continued under his successors Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko.In late 1979, the Soviet Union's military intervened in the ongoing civil war in neighboring Afghanistan, effectively ending a détente with the West.Two developments dominated the decade that followed: the increasingly apparent crumbling of the Soviet Union's economic and political structures, and the patchwork attempts at reforms to reverse that process. Kenneth S. Deffeyes argued in "Beyond Oil" that the Reagan administration encouraged Saudi Arabia to lower the price of oil to the point where the Soviets could not make a profit selling their oil, and resulted in the depletion of the country's hard currency reserves.Brezhnev's next two successors, transitional figures with deep roots in his tradition, did not last long. Yuri Andropov was 68 years old and Konstantin Chernenko 72 when they assumed power; both died in less than two years. In an attempt to avoid a third short-lived leader, in 1985, the Soviets turned to the next generation and selected Mikhail Gorbachev. He made significant changes in the economy and party leadership, called "perestroika". His policy of "glasnost" freed public access to information after decades of heavy government censorship. Gorbachev also moved to end the Cold War. In 1988, the USSR abandoned its war in Afghanistan and began to withdraw its forces. In the following year, Gorbachev refused to interfere in the internal affairs of the Soviet satellite states, which paved the way for the Revolutions of 1989. In particular, the standstill of the Soviet Union at the Pan-European Picnic in August 1989 then set a peaceful chain reaction in motion at the end of which the Eastern Bloc collapsed. With the tearing down of the Berlin Wall and with East and West Germany pursuing unification, the Iron Curtain between the West and Soviet-controlled regions came down.At the same time, the Soviet republics started legal moves towards potentially declaring sovereignty over their territories, citing the freedom to secede in Article 72 of the USSR constitution. On 7 April 1990, a law was passed allowing a republic to secede if more than two-thirds of its residents voted for it in a referendum. Many held their first free elections in the Soviet era for their own national legislatures in 1990. Many of these legislatures proceeded to produce legislation contradicting the Union laws in what was known as the "War of Laws". In 1989, the Russian SFSR convened a newly elected Congress of People's Deputies. Boris Yeltsin was elected its chairman. On 12 June 1990, the Congress declared Russia's sovereignty over its territory and proceeded to pass laws that attempted to supersede some of the Soviet laws. After a landslide victory of Sąjūdis in Lithuania, that country declared its independence restored on 11 March 1990.A referendum for the preservation of the USSR was held on 17 March 1991 in nine republics (the remainder having boycotted the vote), with the majority of the population in those republics voting for preservation of the Union. The referendum gave Gorbachev a minor boost. In the summer of 1991, the New Union Treaty, which would have turned the country into a much looser Union, was agreed upon by eight republics. The signing of the treaty, however, was interrupted by the August Coup—an attempted coup d'état by hardline members of the government and the KGB who sought to reverse Gorbachev's reforms and reassert the central government's control over the republics. After the coup collapsed, Yeltsin was seen as a hero for his decisive actions, while Gorbachev's power was effectively ended. The balance of power tipped significantly towards the republics. In August 1991, Latvia and Estonia immediately declared the restoration of their full independence (following Lithuania's 1990 example). Gorbachev resigned as general secretary in late August, and soon afterwards, the party's activities were indefinitely suspended—effectively ending its rule. By the fall, Gorbachev could no longer influence events outside Moscow, and he was being challenged even there by Yeltsin, who had been elected President of Russia in July 1991.The remaining 12 republics continued discussing new, increasingly looser, models of the Union. However, by December all except Russia and Kazakhstan had formally declared independence. During this time, Yeltsin took over what remained of the Soviet government, including the Moscow Kremlin. The final blow was struck on 1 December when Ukraine, the second-most powerful republic, voted overwhelmingly for independence. Ukraine's secession ended any realistic chance of the country staying together even on a limited scale.On 8 December 1991, the presidents of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus (formerly Byelorussia), signed the Belavezha Accords, which declared the Soviet Union dissolved and established the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in its place. While doubts remained over the authority of the accords to do this, on 21 December 1991, the representatives of all Soviet republics except Georgia signed the Alma-Ata Protocol, which confirmed the accords. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned as the President of the USSR, declaring the office extinct. He turned the powers that had been vested in the presidency over to Yeltsin. That night, the Soviet flag was lowered for the last time, and the Russian tricolor was raised in its place.The following day, the Supreme Soviet, the highest governmental body, voted both itself and the country out of existence. This is generally recognized as marking the official, final dissolution of the Soviet Union as a functioning state, and the end of the Cold War. The Soviet Army initially remained under overall CIS command but was soon absorbed into the different military forces of the newly independent states. The few remaining Soviet institutions that had not been taken over by Russia ceased to function by the end of 1991.Following the dissolution, Russia was internationally recognized as its legal successor on the international stage. To that end, Russia voluntarily accepted all Soviet foreign debt and claimed Soviet overseas properties as its own. Under the 1992 Lisbon Protocol, Russia also agreed to receive all nuclear weapons remaining in the territory of other former Soviet republics. Since then, the Russian Federation has assumed the Soviet Union's rights and obligations. Ukraine has refused to recognize exclusive Russian claims to succession of the USSR and claimed such status for Ukraine as well, which was codified in Articles 7 and 8 of its 1991 law On Legal Succession of Ukraine. Since its independence in 1991, Ukraine has continued to pursue claims against Russia in foreign courts, seeking to recover its share of the foreign property that was owned by the USSR.The dissolution was followed by a severe drop in economic and social conditions in post-Soviet states, including a rapid increase in poverty, crime, corruption, unemployment, homelessness, rates of disease, infant mortality and domestic violence, as well as demographic losses and income inequality and the rise of an oligarchical class, along with decreases in calorie intake, life expectancy, adult literacy, and income. Between 1988–1989 and 1993–1995, the Gini ratio increased by an average of 9 points for all former socialist countries. The economic shocks that accompanied wholesale privatization were associated with sharp increases in mortality. Data shows Russia, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia saw a tripling of unemployment and a 42% increase in male death rates between 1991 and 1994. In the following decades, only five or six of the post-communist states are on a path to joining the wealthy capitalist West while most are falling behind, some to such an extent that it will take over fifty years to catch up to where they were before the fall of the Soviet Bloc.In summing up the international ramifications of these events, Vladislav Zubok stated: "The collapse of the Soviet empire was an event of epochal geopolitical, military, ideological, and economic significance." Before the dissolution, the country had maintained its status as one of the world's two superpowers for four decades after World War II through its hegemony in Eastern Europe, military strength, economic strength, aid to developing countries, and scientific research, especially in space technology and weaponry.The analysis of the succession of states for the 15 post-Soviet states is complex. The Russian Federation is seen as the legal "continuator" state and is for most purposes the heir to the Soviet Union. It retained ownership of all former Soviet embassy properties, as well as the old Soviet UN membership and permanent membership on the Security Council.Of the two other co-founding states of the USSR at the time of the dissolution, Ukraine was the only one that had passed laws, similar to Russia, that it is a state-successor of both the Ukrainian SSR and the USSR. Soviet treaties laid groundwork for Ukraine's future foreign agreements as well as they led to Ukraine agreeing to undertake 16.37% of debts of the Soviet Union for which it was going to receive its share of USSR's foreign property. Although it had a tough position at the time, due to Russia's position as a "single continuation of the USSR" that became widely accepted in the West as well as a constant pressure from the Western countries, allowed Russia to dispose state property of USSR abroad and conceal information about it. Due to that Ukraine never ratified "zero option" agreement that Russian Federation had signed with other former Soviet republics, as it denied disclosing of information about Soviet Gold Reserves and its Diamond Fund. The dispute over former Soviet property and assets between the two former republics is still ongoing:Similar situation occurred with restitution of cultural property. Although on 14 February 1992 Russia and other former Soviet republics signed agreement "On the return of cultural and historic property to the origin states" in Minsk, it was halted by Russian State Duma that had eventually passed "Federal Law on Cultural Valuables Displaced to the USSR as a Result of the Second World War and Located on the Territory of the Russian Federation" which made restitution currently impossible.There are additionally four states that claim independence from the other internationally recognised post-Soviet states but possess limited international recognition: Abkhazia, Nagorno-Karabakh, South Ossetia and Transnistria. The Chechen separatist movement of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria lacks any international recognition.During his rule, Stalin always made the final policy decisions. Otherwise, Soviet foreign policy was set by the commission on the Foreign Policy of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, or by the party's highest body the Politburo. Operations were handled by the separate Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It was known as the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs (or Narkomindel), until 1946. The most influential spokesmen were Georgy Chicherin (1872–1936), Maxim Litvinov (1876–1951), Vyacheslav Molotov (1890–1986), Andrey Vyshinsky (1883–1954) and Andrei Gromyko (1909–1989). Intellectuals were based in the Moscow State Institute of International Relations.The Marxist-Leninist leadership of the Soviet Union intensely debated foreign policy issues and change directions several times. Even after Stalin assumed dictatorial control in the late 1920s, there were debates, and he frequently changed positions.During the country's early period, it was assumed that Communist revolutions would break out soon in every major industrial country, and it was the Soviet responsibility to assist them. The Comintern was the weapon of choice. A few revolutions did break out, but they were quickly suppressed (the longest lasting one was in Hungary)—the Hungarian Soviet Republic—lasted only from 21 March 1919 to 1 August 1919. The Russian Bolsheviks were in no position to give any help.By 1921, Lenin, Trotsky, and Stalin realized that capitalism had stabilized itself in Europe and there would not be any widespread revolutions anytime soon. It became the duty of the Russian Bolsheviks to protect what they had in Russia, and avoid military confrontations that might destroy their bridgehead. Russia was now a pariah state, along with Germany. The two came to terms in 1922 with the Treaty of Rapallo that settled long-standing grievances. At the same time, the two countries secretly set up training programs for the illegal German army and air force operations at hidden camps in the USSR.Moscow eventually stopped threatening other states, and instead worked to open peaceful relationships in terms of trade, and diplomatic recognition. The United Kingdom dismissed the warnings of Winston Churchill and a few others about a continuing Marxist-Leninist threat, and opened trade relations and "de facto" diplomatic recognition in 1922. There was hope for a settlement of the pre-war Tsarist debts, but it was repeatedly postponed. Formal recognition came when the new Labour Party came to power in 1924. All the other countries followed suit in opening trade relations. Henry Ford opened large-scale business relations with the Soviets in the late 1920s, hoping that it would lead to long-term peace. Finally, in 1933, the United States officially recognized the USSR, a decision backed by the public opinion and especially by US business interests that expected an opening of a new profitable market.In the late 1920s and early 1930s, Stalin ordered Marxist-Leninist parties across the world to strongly oppose non-Marxist political parties, labor unions or other organizations on the left. Stalin reversed himself in 1934 with the Popular Front program that called on all Marxist parties to join together with all anti-Fascist political, labor, and organizational forces that were opposed to fascism, especially of the Nazi variety.In 1939, half a year after the Munich Agreement, the USSR attempted to form an anti-Nazi alliance with France and Britain. Adolf Hitler proposed a better deal, which would give the USSR control over much of Eastern Europe through the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. In September, Germany invaded Poland, and the USSR also invaded later that month, resulting in the partition of Poland. In response, Britain and France declared war on Germany, marking the beginning of World War II.There were three power hierarchies in the Soviet Union: the legislature represented by the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, the government represented by the Council of Ministers, and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), the only legal party and the final policymaker in the country.At the top of the Communist Party was the Central Committee, elected at Party Congresses and Conferences. In turn, the Central Committee voted for a Politburo (called the Presidium between 1952 and 1966), Secretariat and the General Secretary (First Secretary from 1953 to 1966), the "de facto" highest office in the Soviet Union. Depending on the degree of power consolidation, it was either the Politburo as a collective body or the General Secretary, who always was one of the Politburo members, that effectively led the party and the country (except for the period of the highly personalized authority of Stalin, exercised directly through his position in the Council of Ministers rather than the Politburo after 1941). They were not controlled by the general party membership, as the key principle of the party organization was democratic centralism, demanding strict subordination to higher bodies, and elections went uncontested, endorsing the candidates proposed from above.The Communist Party maintained its dominance over the state mainly through its control over the system of appointments. All senior government officials and most deputies of the Supreme Soviet were members of the CPSU. Of the party heads themselves, Stalin (1941–1953) and Khrushchev (1958–1964) were Premiers. Upon the forced retirement of Khrushchev, the party leader was prohibited from this kind of double membership, but the later General Secretaries for at least some part of their tenure occupied the mostly ceremonial position of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the nominal head of state. The institutions at lower levels were overseen and at times supplanted by primary party organizations.However, in practice the degree of control the party was able to exercise over the state bureaucracy, particularly after the death of Stalin, was far from total, with the bureaucracy pursuing different interests that were at times in conflict with the party. Nor was the party itself monolithic from top to bottom, although factions were officially banned.The Supreme Soviet (successor of the Congress of Soviets) was nominally the highest state body for most of the Soviet history, at first acting as a rubber stamp institution, approving and implementing all decisions made by the party. However, its powers and functions were extended in the late 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, including the creation of new state commissions and committees. It gained additional powers relating to the approval of the Five-Year Plans and the government budget. The Supreme Soviet elected a Presidium (successor of the Central Executive Committee) to wield its power between plenary sessions, ordinarily held twice a year, and appointed the Supreme Court, the Procurator General and the Council of Ministers (known before 1946 as the Council of People's Commissars), headed by the Chairman (Premier) and managing an enormous bureaucracy responsible for the administration of the economy and society. State and party structures of the constituent republics largely emulated the structure of the central institutions, although the Russian SFSR, unlike the other constituent republics, for most of its history had no republican branch of the CPSU, being ruled directly by the union-wide party until 1990. Local authorities were organized likewise into party committees, local Soviets and executive committees. While the state system was nominally federal, the party was unitary.The state security police (the KGB and ) played an important role in Soviet politics. It was instrumental in the Great Purge, but was brought under strict party control after Stalin's death. Under Yuri Andropov, the KGB engaged in the suppression of political dissent and maintained an extensive network of informers, reasserting itself as a political actor to some extent independent of the party-state structure, culminating in the anti-corruption campaign targeting high-ranking party officials in the late 1970s and early 1980s.The constitution, which was promulgated in 1924, 1936 and 1977, did not limit state power. No formal separation of powers existed between the Party, Supreme Soviet and Council of Ministers that represented executive and legislative branches of the government. The system was governed less by statute than by informal conventions, and no settled mechanism of leadership succession existed. Bitter and at times deadly power struggles took place in the Politburo after the deaths of Lenin and Stalin, as well as after Khrushchev's dismissal, itself due to a decision by both the Politburo and the Central Committee. All leaders of the Communist Party before Gorbachev died in office, except Georgy Malenkov and Khrushchev, both dismissed from the party leadership amid internal struggle within the party.Between 1988 and 1990, facing considerable opposition, Mikhail Gorbachev enacted reforms shifting power away from the highest bodies of the party and making the Supreme Soviet less dependent on them. The Congress of People's Deputies was established, the majority of whose members were directly elected in competitive elections held in March 1989. The Congress now elected the Supreme Soviet, which became a full-time parliament, and much stronger than before. For the first time since the 1920s, it refused to rubber stamp proposals from the party and Council of Ministers. In 1990, Gorbachev introduced and assumed the position of the President of the Soviet Union, concentrated power in his executive office, independent of the party, and subordinated the government, now renamed the Cabinet of Ministers of the USSR, to himself.Tensions grew between the Union-wide authorities under Gorbachev, reformists led in Russia by Boris Yeltsin and controlling the newly elected Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR, and communist hardliners. On 19–21 August 1991, a group of hardliners staged a coup attempt. The coup failed, and the State Council of the Soviet Union became the highest organ of state power "in the period of transition". Gorbachev resigned as General Secretary, only remaining President for the final months of the existence of the USSR.The judiciary was not independent of the other branches of government. The Supreme Court supervised the lower courts (People's Court) and applied the law as established by the constitution or as interpreted by the Supreme Soviet. The Constitutional Oversight Committee reviewed the constitutionality of laws and acts. The Soviet Union used the inquisitorial system of Roman law, where the judge, procurator, and defence attorney collaborate to establish the truth.Constitutionally, the USSR was a federation of constituent Union Republics, which were either unitary states, such as Ukraine or Byelorussia (SSRs), or federations, such as Russia or Transcaucasia (SFSRs), all four being the founding republics who signed the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR in December 1922. In 1924, during the national delimitation in Central Asia, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan were formed from parts of Russia's Turkestan ASSR and two Soviet dependencies, the Khorezm and Bukharan SSRs. In 1929, Tajikistan was split off from the Uzbekistan SSR. With the constitution of 1936, the Transcaucasian SFSR was dissolved, resulting in its constituent republics of Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan being elevated to Union Republics, while Kazakhstan and Kirghizia were split off from Russian SFSR, resulting in the same status. In August 1940, Moldavia was formed from parts of Ukraine and Bessarabia and northern Bukovina. Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania (SSRs) were also admitted into the union which was not recognized by most of the international community and was considered an illegal occupation. Karelia was split off from Russia as a Union Republic in March 1940 and was reabsorbed in 1956. Between July 1956 and September 1991, there were 15 union republics (see map below).While nominally a union of equals, in practice the Soviet Union was dominated by Russians. The domination was so absolute that for most of its existence, the country was commonly (but incorrectly) referred to as "Russia". While the RSFSR was technically only one republic within the larger union, it was by far the largest (both in terms of population and area), most powerful, most developed, and the industrial center of the Soviet Union. Historian Matthew White wrote that it was an open secret that the country's federal structure was "window dressing" for Russian dominance. For that reason, the people of the USSR were usually called "Russians", not "Soviets", since "everyone knew who really ran the show".Under the Military Law of September 1925, the Soviet Armed Forces consisted of the Land Forces, the Air Force, the Navy, Joint State Political Directorate (OGPU), and the Internal Troops. The OGPU later became independent and in 1934 joined the NKVD, and so its internal troops were under the joint leadership of the defense and internal commissariats. After World War II, Strategic Missile Forces (1959), Air Defense Forces (1948) and National Civil Defense Forces (1970) were formed, which ranked first, third, and sixth in the official Soviet system of importance (ground forces were second, Air Force Fourth, and Navy Fifth).The army had the greatest political influence. In 1989, there served two million soldiers divided between 150 motorized and 52 armored divisions. Until the early 1960s, the Soviet navy was a rather small military branch, but after the Caribbean crisis, under the leadership of Sergei Gorshkov, it expanded significantly. It became known for battlecruisers and submarines. In 1989 there served 500 000 men. The Soviet Air Force focused on a fleet of strategic bombers and during war situation was to eradicate enemy infrastructure and nuclear capacity. The air force also had a number of fighters and tactical bombers to support the army in the war. Strategic missile forces had more than 1,400 intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), deployed between 28 bases and 300 command centers.In the post-war period, the Soviet Army was directly involved in several military operations abroad. These included the suppression of the uprising in East Germany (1953), Hungarian revolution (1956) and the invasion of Czechoslovakia (1968). The Soviet Union also participated in the war in Afghanistan between 1979 and 1989.In the Soviet Union, general conscription applied.At the end of the 1950s, with the help of engineers and technologies captured and imported from defeated Nazi Germany, the Soviets constructed the first satellite – Sputnik 1 and thus overtook the United States in terms of utilizing space. This was followed by other successful satellites, where test dogs flight was sent. On April 12, 1961, the first cosmonaut, Yuri Gagarin, was sent to the space. He once flew around the Earth and successfully landed in the Kazakh steppe. At that time, the first plans for space shuttles and orbital stations were drawn up in Soviet design offices, but in the end personal disputes between designers and management prevented this.As for Lunar space program; USSR only had a program on automated spacecraft launches; with no manned spacecraft used; passing on the "Moon Race" part of Space Race.In the 1970s, specific proposals for the design of the space shuttle began to emerge, but shortcomings, especially in the electronics industry (rapid overheating of electronics), postponed the program until the end of the 1980s. The first shuttle, the Buran, flew in 1988, but without a human crew. Another shuttle, "Ptichka", eventually ended up under construction, as the shuttle project was canceled in 1991. For their launch into space, there is today an unused superpower rocket, Energia, which is the most powerful in the world.In the late 1980s, the Soviet Union managed to build the "Mir" orbital station. It was built on the construction of "Salyut" stations and its only role was civilian-grade research tasks. The Soviet Union adopted a command economy, whereby production and distribution of goods were centralized and directed by the government. The first Bolshevik experience with a command economy was the policy of War communism, which involved the nationalization of industry, centralized distribution of output, coercive requisition of agricultural production, and attempts to eliminate money circulation, private enterprises and free trade. After the severe economic collapse, Lenin replaced war communism by the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921, legalizing free trade and private ownership of small businesses. The economy quickly recovered as a result.After a long debate among the members of the Politburo about the course of economic development, by 1928–1929, upon gaining control of the country, Stalin abandoned the NEP and pushed for full central planning, starting forced collectivization of agriculture and enacting draconian labor legislation. Resources were mobilized for rapid industrialization, which significantly expanded Soviet capacity in heavy industry and capital goods during the 1930s. The primary motivation for industrialization was preparation for war, mostly due to distrust of the outside capitalist world. As a result, the USSR was transformed from a largely agrarian economy into a great industrial power, leading the way for its emergence as a superpower after World War II. The war caused extensive devastation of the Soviet economy and infrastructure, which required massive reconstruction.By the early 1940s, the Soviet economy had become relatively self-sufficient; for most of the period until the creation of Comecon, only a tiny share of domestic products was traded internationally. After the creation of the Eastern Bloc, external trade rose rapidly. However, the influence of the world economy on the USSR was limited by fixed domestic prices and a state monopoly on foreign trade. Grain and sophisticated consumer manufactures became major import articles from around the 1960s. During the arms race of the Cold War, the Soviet economy was burdened by military expenditures, heavily lobbied for by a powerful bureaucracy dependent on the arms industry. At the same time, the USSR became the largest arms exporter to the Third World. Significant amounts of Soviet resources during the Cold War were allocated in aid to the other socialist states.From the 1930s until its dissolution in late 1991, the way the Soviet economy operated remained essentially unchanged. The economy was formally directed by central planning, carried out by Gosplan and organized in five-year plans. However, in practice, the plans were highly aggregated and provisional, subject to "ad hoc" intervention by superiors. All critical economic decisions were taken by the political leadership. Allocated resources and plan targets were usually denominated in rubles rather than in physical goods. Credit was discouraged, but widespread. The final allocation of output was achieved through relatively decentralized, unplanned contracting. Although in theory prices were legally set from above, in practice they were often negotiated, and informal horizontal links (e.g. between producer factories) were widespread.A number of basic services were state-funded, such as education and health care. In the manufacturing sector, heavy industry and defence were prioritized over consumer goods. Consumer goods, particularly outside large cities, were often scarce, of poor quality and limited variety. Under the command economy, consumers had almost no influence on production, and the changing demands of a population with growing incomes could not be satisfied by supplies at rigidly fixed prices. A massive unplanned second economy grew up at low levels alongside the planned one, providing some of the goods and services that the planners could not. The legalization of some elements of the decentralized economy was attempted with the reform of 1965.Although statistics of the Soviet economy are notoriously unreliable and its economic growth difficult to estimate precisely, by most accounts, the economy continued to expand until the mid-1980s. During the 1950s and 1960s, it had comparatively high growth and was catching up to the West. However, after 1970, the growth, while still positive, steadily declined much more quickly and consistently than in other countries, despite a rapid increase in the capital stock (the rate of capital increase was only surpassed by Japan).Overall, the growth rate of per capita income in the Soviet Union between 1960 and 1989 was slightly above the world average (based on 102 countries). According to Stanley Fischer and William Easterly, growth could have been faster. By their calculation, per capita income in 1989 should have been twice higher than it was, considering the amount of investment, education and population. The authors attribute this poor performance to the low productivity of capital. Steven Rosenfielde states that the standard of living declined due to Stalin's despotism. While there was a brief improvement after his death, it lapsed into stagnation.In 1987, Mikhail Gorbachev attempted to reform and revitalize the economy with his program of "perestroika". His policies relaxed state control over enterprises but did not replace it by market incentives, resulting in a sharp decline in output. The economy, already suffering from reduced petroleum export revenues, started to collapse. Prices were still fixed, and the property was still largely state-owned until after the country's dissolution. For most of the period after World War II until its collapse, Soviet GDP (PPP) was the second-largest in the world, and third during the second half of the 1980s, although on a per-capita basis, it was behind that of First World countries. Compared to countries with similar per-capita GDP in 1928, the Soviet Union experienced significant growth.In 1990, the country had a Human Development Index of 0.920, placing it in the "high" category of human development. It was the third-highest in the Eastern Bloc, behind Czechoslovakia and East Germany, and the 25th in the world of 130 countries.The need for fuel declined in the Soviet Union from the 1970s to the 1980s, both per ruble of gross social product and per ruble of industrial product. At the start, this decline grew very rapidly but gradually slowed down between 1970 and 1975. From 1975 and 1980, it grew even slower, only 2.6%. David Wilson, a historian, believed that the gas industry would account for 40% of Soviet fuel production by the end of the century. His theory did not come to fruition because of the USSR's collapse. The USSR, in theory, would have continued to have an economic growth rate of 2–2.5% during the 1990s because of Soviet energy fields. However, the energy sector faced many difficulties, among them the country's high military expenditure and hostile relations with the First World.In 1991, the Soviet Union had a pipeline network of for crude oil and another for natural gas. Petroleum and petroleum-based products, natural gas, metals, wood, agricultural products, and a variety of manufactured goods, primarily machinery, arms and military equipment, were exported. In the 1970s and 1980s, the USSR heavily relied on fossil fuel exports to earn hard currency. At its peak in 1988, it was the largest producer and second-largest exporter of crude oil, surpassed only by Saudi Arabia.The Soviet Union placed great emphasis on science and technology within its economy, however, the most remarkable Soviet successes in technology, such as producing the world's first space satellite, typically were the responsibility of the military. Lenin believed that the USSR would never overtake the developed world if it remained as technologically backward as it was upon its founding. Soviet authorities proved their commitment to Lenin's belief by developing massive networks, research and development organizations. In the early 1960s, the Soviets awarded 40% of chemistry PhDs to women, compared to only 5% in the United States. By 1989, Soviet scientists were among the world's best-trained specialists in several areas, such as energy physics, selected areas of medicine, mathematics, welding and military technologies. Due to rigid state planning and bureaucracy, the Soviets remained far behind technologically in chemistry, biology, and computers when compared to the First World.Under the Reagan administration, Project Socrates determined that the Soviet Union addressed the acquisition of science and technology in a manner that was radically different from what the US was using. In the case of the US, economic prioritization was being used for indigenous research and development as the means to acquire science and technology in both the private and public sectors. In contrast, the USSR was offensively and defensively maneuvering in the acquisition and utilization of the worldwide technology, to increase the competitive advantage that they acquired from the technology while preventing the US from acquiring a competitive advantage. However, technology-based planning was executed in a centralized, government-centric manner that greatly hindered its flexibility. This was exploited by the US to undermine the strength of the Soviet Union and thus foster its reform.Transport was a vital component of the country's economy. The economic centralization of the late 1920s and 1930s led to the development of infrastructure on a massive scale, most notably the establishment of Aeroflot, an aviation enterprise. The country had a wide variety of modes of transport by land, water and air. However, due to inadequate maintenance, much of the road, water and Soviet civil aviation transport were outdated and technologically backward compared to the First World.Soviet rail transport was the largest and most intensively used in the world; it was also better developed than most of its Western counterparts. By the late 1970s and early 1980s, Soviet economists were calling for the construction of more roads to alleviate some of the burdens from the railways and to improve the Soviet government budget. The street network and automotive industry remained underdeveloped, and dirt roads were common outside major cities. Soviet maintenance projects proved unable to take care of even the few roads the country had. By the early-to-mid-1980s, the Soviet authorities tried to solve the road problem by ordering the construction of new ones. Meanwhile, the automobile industry was growing at a faster rate than road construction. The underdeveloped road network led to a growing demand for public transport.Despite improvements, several aspects of the transport sector were still riddled with problems due to outdated infrastructure, lack of investment, corruption and bad decision-making. Soviet authorities were unable to meet the growing demand for transport infrastructure and services.The Soviet merchant navy was one of the largest in the world.Excess deaths throughout World War I and the Russian Civil War (including the postwar famine) amounted to a combined total of 18 million, some 10 million in the 1930s, and more than 26 million in 1941–5. The postwar Soviet population was 45 to 50 million smaller than it would have been if pre-war demographic growth had continued. According to Catherine Merridale, "... reasonable estimate would place the total number of excess deaths for the whole period somewhere around 60 million."The birth rate of the USSR decreased from 44.0 per thousand in 1926 to 18.0 in 1974, mainly due to increasing urbanization and the rising average age of marriages. The mortality rate demonstrated a gradual decrease as well – from 23.7 per thousand in 1926 to 8.7 in 1974. In general, the birth rates of the southern republics in Transcaucasia and Central Asia were considerably higher than those in the northern parts of the Soviet Union, and in some cases even increased in the post–World War II period, a phenomenon partly attributed to slower rates of urbanistion and traditionally earlier marriages in the southern republics. Soviet Europe moved towards sub-replacement fertility, while Soviet Central Asia continued to exhibit population growth well above replacement-level fertility.The late 1960s and the 1970s witnessed a reversal of the declining trajectory of the rate of mortality in the USSR, and was especially notable among men of working age, but was also prevalent in Russia and other predominantly Slavic areas of the country. An analysis of the official data from the late 1980s showed that after worsening in the late-1970s and the early 1980s, adult mortality began to improve again. The infant mortality rate increased from 24.7 in 1970 to 27.9 in 1974. Some researchers regarded the rise as mostly real, a consequence of worsening health conditions and services. The rises in both adult and infant mortality were not explained or defended by Soviet officials, and the Soviet government stopped publishing all mortality statistics for ten years. Soviet demographers and health specialists remained silent about the mortality increases until the late-1980s, when the publication of mortality data resumed, and researchers could delve into the real causes.Under Lenin, the state made explicit commitments to promote the equality of men and women. Many early Russian feminists and ordinary Russian working women actively participated in the Revolution, and many more were affected by the events of that period and the new policies. Beginning in October 1918, Lenin's government liberalized divorce and abortion laws, decriminalized homosexuality (re-criminalized in the 1930s), permitted cohabitation, and ushered in a host of reforms. However, without birth control, the new system produced many broken marriages, as well as countless out-of-wedlock children. The epidemic of divorces and extramarital affairs created social hardships when Soviet leaders wanted people to concentrate their efforts on growing the economy. Giving women control over their fertility also led to a precipitous decline in the birth rate, perceived as a threat to their country's military power. By 1936, Stalin reversed most of the liberal laws, ushering in a pronatalist era that lasted for decades.By 1917, Russia became the first great power to grant women the right to vote. After heavy casualties in World War I and II, women outnumbered men in Russia by a 4:3 ratio. This contributed to the larger role women played in Russian society compared to other great powers at the time.Anatoly Lunacharsky became the first People's Commissar for Education of Soviet Russia. In the beginning, the Soviet authorities placed great emphasis on the elimination of illiteracy. All left-handed children were forced to write with their right hand in the Soviet school system. Literate people were automatically hired as teachers. For a short period, quality was sacrificed for quantity. By 1940, Stalin could announce that illiteracy had been eliminated. Throughout the 1930s, social mobility rose sharply, which has been attributed to reforms in education. In the aftermath of World War II, the country's educational system expanded dramatically, which had a tremendous effect. In the 1960s, nearly all children had access to education, the only exception being those living in remote areas. Nikita Khrushchev tried to make education more accessible, making it clear to children that education was closely linked to the needs of society. Education also became important in giving rise to the New Man. Citizens directly entering the workforce had the constitutional right to a job and to free vocational training.The education system was highly centralized and universally accessible to all citizens, with affirmative action for applicants from nations associated with cultural backwardness. However, as part of the general antisemitic policy, an unofficial Jewish quota was applied in the leading institutions of higher education by subjecting Jewish applicants to harsher entrance examinations. The Brezhnev era also introduced a rule that required all university applicants to present a reference from the local Komsomol party secretary. According to statistics from 1986, the number of higher education students per the population of 10,000 was 181 for the USSR, compared to 517 for the US.The Soviet Union was an ethnically diverse country, with more than 100 distinct ethnic groups. The total population of the country was estimated at 293 million in 1991. According to a 1990 estimate, the majority of the population were Russians (50.78%), followed by Ukrainians (15.45%) and Uzbeks (5.84%).All citizens of the USSR had their own ethnic affiliation. The ethnicity of a person was chosen at the age of sixteen by the child's parents. If the parents did not agree, the child was automatically assigned the ethnicity of the father. Partly due to Soviet policies, some of the smaller minority ethnic groups were considered part of larger ones, such as the Mingrelians of Georgia, who were classified with the linguistically related Georgians. Some ethnic groups voluntarily assimilated, while others were brought in by force. Russians, Belarusians, and Ukrainians, who were all East Slavic and Orthodox, shared close cultural, ethnic, and religious ties, while other groups did not. With multiple nationalities living in the same territory, ethnic antagonisms developed over the years.Members of various ethnicities participated in legislative bodies. Organs of power like the Politburo, the Secretariat of the Central Committee etc., were formally ethnically neutral, but in reality, ethnic Russians were overrepresented, although there were also non-Russian leaders in the Soviet leadership, such as Joseph Stalin, Grigory Zinoviev, Nikolai Podgorny or Andrei Gromyko. During the Soviet era, a significant number of ethnic Russians and Ukrainians migrated to other Soviet republics, and many of them settled there. According to the last census in 1989, the Russian "diaspora" in the Soviet republics had reached 25 million.In 1917, before the revolution, health conditions were significantly behind those of developed countries. As Lenin later noted, "Either the lice will defeat socialism, or socialism will defeat the lice". The Soviet principle of health care was conceived by the People's Commissariat for Health in 1918. Health care was to be controlled by the state and would be provided to its citizens free of charge, a revolutionary concept at the time. Article 42 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution gave all citizens the right to health protection and free access to any health institutions in the USSR. Before Leonid Brezhnev became General Secretary, the Soviet healthcare system was held in high esteem by many foreign specialists. This changed, however, from Brezhnev's accession and Mikhail Gorbachev's tenure as leader, during which the health care system was heavily criticized for many basic faults, such as the quality of service and the unevenness in its provision. Minister of Health Yevgeniy Chazov, during the 19th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, while highlighting such successes as having the most doctors and hospitals in the world, recognized the system's areas for improvement and felt that billions of Soviet rubles were squandered. After the revolution, life expectancy for all age groups went up. This statistic in itself was seen by some that the socialist system was superior to the capitalist system. These improvements continued into the 1960s when statistics indicated that the life expectancy briefly surpassed that of the United States. Life expectancy started to decline in the 1970s, possibly because of alcohol abuse. At the same time, infant mortality began to rise. After 1974, the government stopped publishing statistics on the matter. This trend can be partly explained by the number of pregnancies rising drastically in the Asian part of the country where infant mortality was the highest while declining markedly in the more developed European part of the Soviet Union.Soviet dental technology and dental health were considered notoriously bad. In 1991, the average 35-year-old had 12 to 14 cavities, fillings or missing teeth. Toothpaste was often not available, and toothbrushes did not conform to standards of modern dentistry.Under Lenin, the government gave small language groups their own writing systems. The development of these writing systems was highly successful, even though some flaws were detected. During the later days of the USSR, countries with the same multilingual situation implemented similar policies. A serious problem when creating these writing systems was that the languages differed dialectally greatly from each other. When a language had been given a writing system and appeared in a notable publication, it would attain "official language" status. There were many minority languages which never received their own writing system; therefore, their speakers were forced to have a second language. There are examples where the government retreated from this policy, most notably under Stalin where education was discontinued in languages that were not widespread. These languages were then assimilated into another language, mostly Russian. During World War II, some minority languages were banned, and their speakers accused of collaborating with the enemy.As the most widely spoken of the Soviet Union's many languages, Russian "de facto" functioned as an official language, as the "language of interethnic communication" (), but only assumed the "de jure" status as the official national language in 1990.Christianity and Islam had the highest number of adherents among the religious citizens. Eastern Christianity predominated among Christians, with Russia's traditional Russian Orthodox Church being the largest Christian denomination. About 90% of the Soviet Union's Muslims were Sunnis, with Shias being concentrated in the Azerbaijan SSR. Smaller groups included Roman Catholics, Jews, Buddhists, and a variety of Protestant denominations (especially Baptists and Lutherans).Religious influence had been strong in the Russian Empire. The Russian Orthodox Church enjoyed a privileged status as the church of the monarchy and took part in carrying out official state functions. The immediate period following the establishment of the Soviet state included a struggle against the Orthodox Church, which the revolutionaries considered an ally of the former ruling classes.In Soviet law, the "freedom to hold religious services" was constitutionally guaranteed, although the ruling Communist Party regarded religion as incompatible with the Marxist spirit of scientific materialism. In practice, the Soviet system subscribed to a narrow interpretation of this right, and in fact utilized a range of official measures to discourage religion and curb the activities of religious groups.The 1918 Council of People's Commissars decree establishing the Russian SFSR as a secular state also decreed that "the teaching of religion in all [places] where subjects of general instruction are taught, is forbidden. Citizens may teach and may be taught religion privately." Among further restrictions, those adopted in 1929 included express prohibitions on a range of church activities, including meetings for organized Bible study. Both Christian and non-Christian establishments were shut down by the thousands in the 1920s and 1930s. By 1940, as many as 90% of the churches, synagogues, and mosques that had been operating in 1917 were closed.Under the doctrine of state atheism, a "government-sponsored program of forced conversion to atheism" was conducted. The government targeted religions based on state interests, and while most organized religions were never outlawed, religious property was confiscated, believers were harassed, and religion was ridiculed while atheism was propagated in schools. In 1925, the government founded the League of Militant Atheists to intensify the propaganda campaign. Accordingly, although personal expressions of religious faith were not explicitly banned, a strong sense of social stigma was imposed on them by the formal structures and mass media, and it was generally considered unacceptable for members of certain professions (teachers, state bureaucrats, soldiers) to be openly religious. While persecution accelerated following Stalin's rise to power, a revival of Orthodoxy was fostered by the government during World War II and the Soviet authorities sought to control the Russian Orthodox Church rather than liquidate it. During the first five years of Soviet power, the Bolsheviks executed 28 Russian Orthodox bishops and over 1,200 Russian Orthodox priests. Many others were imprisoned or exiled. Believers were harassed and persecuted. Most seminaries were closed, and the publication of most religious material was prohibited. By 1941, only 500 churches remained open out of about 54,000 in existence before World War I.Convinced that religious anti-Sovietism had become a thing of the past, and with the looming threat of war, the Stalin regime began shifting to a more moderate religion policy in the late 1930s. Soviet religious establishments overwhelmingly rallied to support the war effort during World War II. Amid other accommodations to religious faith after the German invasion, churches were reopened. Radio Moscow began broadcasting a religious hour, and a historic meeting between Stalin and Orthodox Church leader Patriarch Sergius of Moscow was held in 1943. Stalin had the support of the majority of the religious people in the USSR even through the late 1980s. The general tendency of this period was an increase in religious activity among believers of all faiths.Under Nikita Khrushchev, the state leadership clashed with the churches in 1958–1964, a period when atheism was emphasized in the educational curriculum, and numerous state publications promoted atheistic views. During this period, the number of churches fell from 20,000 to 10,000 from 1959 to 1965, and the number of synagogues dropped from 500 to 97. The number of working mosques also declined, falling from 1,500 to 500 within a decade.Religious institutions remained monitored by the Soviet government, but churches, synagogues, temples, and mosques were all given more leeway in the Brezhnev era. Official relations between the Orthodox Church and the government again warmed to the point that the Brezhnev government twice honored Orthodox Patriarch Alexy I with the Order of the Red Banner of Labour. A poll conducted by Soviet authorities in 1982 recorded 20% of the Soviet population as "active religious believers."The legacy of the USSR remains a controversial topic. The socio-economic nature of communist states such as the USSR, especially under Stalin, has also been much debated, varyingly being labelled a form of bureaucratic collectivism, state capitalism, state socialism, or a totally unique mode of production.The USSR implemented a broad range of policies over a long period of time, with a large amount of conflicting policies being implemented by different leaders. Some have a positive view of it whilst others are critical towards the country, calling it a repressive oligarchy. The opinions on the USSR are complex and have changed over time, with different generations having different views on the matter as well as on Soviet policies corresponding to separate time periods during its history. Leftists have largely varying views on the USSR. Whilst some leftists such as anarchists and other libertarian socialists, agree it did not give the workers control over the means of production and was a centralized oligarchy, others have more positive opinions as to the Bolshevik policies and Vladimir Lenin. Many anti-Stalinist leftists such as anarchists are extremely critical of Soviet authoritarianism and repression. Much of the criticism it receives is centered around massacres in the Soviet Union, the centralized hierarchy present in the USSR and mass political repression as well as violence towards government critics and political dissidents such as other leftists. Critics also point towards its failure to implement any substantial worker cooperatives or implementing worker liberation as well as corruption and the Soviet authoritarian nature.Many Russians and other former Soviet citizens have nostalgia for the USSR, pointing towards most infrastructure being built during Soviet times, increased job security, increased literacy rate, increased caloric intake and supposed ethnic pluralism enacted in the Soviet Union as well as political stability. The Russian Revolution is also seen in a positive light as well as the leadership of Lenin, Nikita Khrushchev and the later USSR, although many view Joseph Stalin's rule as positive for the country. In Armenia, 12% of respondents said the USSR collapse did good, while 66% said it did harm. In Kyrgyzstan, 16% of respondents said the collapse of the USSR did good, while 61% said it did harm. In a 2018 Rating Sociological Group poll, 47% of Ukrainian respondents had a positive opinion of Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, who ruled the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982. Much of the admiration of the USSR comes from the failings of the modern post-Soviet governments such as the control by oligarchs, corruption and outdated Soviet-era infrastructure as well as the rise and dominance of organised crime after the collapse of the USSR all directly leading into nostalgia for it.The 1941–45 period of World War II is still known in Russia as the "Great Patriotic War". The war became a topic of great importance in cinema, literature, history lessons at school, the mass media, and the arts. As a result of the massive losses suffered by the military and civilians during the conflict, Victory Day celebrated on 9 May is still one of the most important and emotional dates in Russia.In some post Soviet republics, there is a more negative view of the USSR, although there is no unanimity on the matter. In large part due to the Holodomor, ethnic Ukrainians have a negative view of it. Russian-speaking Ukrainians of Ukraine's southern and eastern regions have a more positive view of the USSR. In some countries with internal conflict, there is also nostalgia for the USSR, especially for refugees of the post-Soviet conflicts who have been forced to flee their homes and have been displaced. This nostalgia is less an admiration for the country or its policies than it is a longing to return to their homes and not to live in poverty. The many Russian enclaves in the former USSR republics such as Transnistria have in a general a positive remembrance of it.The left's view of the USSR is complex. While some leftists regard the USSR as an example of state capitalism or that it was an oligarchical state, other leftists admire Vladimir Lenin and the Russian Revolution.Council communists generally view the USSR as failing to create class consciousness, turning into a corrupt state in which the elite controlled society. Anarchists are critical of the country, labeling the Soviet system as "red fascism". Soviets actively destroyed anarchist organizations and anarchist communities, labeling anarchists as "enemies of the people". Factors contributing to the animosity towards the USSR included: the Soviet invasion of the anarchist Free Territory, the suppression of the anarchist Kronstadt rebellion and the response to the Norilsk uprising, in which prisoners created a radical system of government based on cooperatives and direct democracy in the Gulag. Anarchist organizations and unions were also banned during the Spanish Civil War under the Republican government by orders from the Soviet government. Due to this, anarchists generally hold a large animosity towards the USSR.The culture of the Soviet Union passed through several stages during the USSR's existence. During the first decade following the revolution, there was relative freedom and artists experimented with several different styles to find a distinctive Soviet style of art. Lenin wanted art to be accessible to the Russian people. On the other hand, hundreds of intellectuals, writers, and artists were exiled or executed, and their work banned, such as Nikolay Gumilyov who was shot for alleged conspiring against the Bolshevik regime, and Yevgeny Zamyatin.The government encouraged a variety of trends. In art and literature, numerous schools, some traditional and others radically experimental, proliferated. Communist writers Maxim Gorky and Vladimir Mayakovsky were active during this time. As a means of influencing a largely illiterate society, films received encouragement from the state, and much of director Sergei Eisenstein's best work dates from this period.During Stalin's rule, the Soviet culture was characterized by the rise and domination of the government-imposed style of socialist realism, with all other trends being severely repressed, with rare exceptions, such as Mikhail Bulgakov's works. Many writers were imprisoned and killed.Following the Khrushchev Thaw, censorship was diminished. During this time, a distinctive period of Soviet culture developed, characterized by conformist public life and an intense focus on personal life. Greater experimentation in art forms was again permissible, resulting in the production of more sophisticated and subtly critical work. The regime loosened its emphasis on socialist realism; thus, for instance, many protagonists of the novels of author Yury Trifonov concerned themselves with problems of daily life rather than with building socialism. Underground dissident literature, known as "samizdat", developed during this late period. In architecture, the Khrushchev era mostly focused on functional design as opposed to the highly decorated style of Stalin's epoch. In music, in response to the increasing popularity of forms of popular music like jazz in the West, many jazz orchestras were permitted throughout the USSR, notably the Melodiya Ensemble, named after the principle record label in the USSR.In the second half of the 1980s, Gorbachev's policies of "perestroika" and "glasnost" significantly expanded freedom of expression throughout the country in the media and the press.Founded on 20 July 1924 in Moscow, "Sovetsky Sport" was the first sports newspaper of the Soviet Union.The Soviet Olympic Committee formed on 21 April 1951, and the IOC recognized the new body in its 45th session. In the same year, when the Soviet representative Konstantin Andrianov became an IOC member, the USSR officially joined the Olympic Movement. The 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki thus became first Olympic Games for Soviet athletes. The Soviet Union was the biggest rival to the United States at the Summer Olympics, winning six of its nine appearances at the games and also topping the medal tally at the Winter Olympics six times. The Soviet Union's Olympics success has been attributed to its large investment in sports to demonstrate its superpower image and political influence on a global stage.The Soviet Union national ice hockey team won nearly every world championship and Olympic tournament between 1954 and 1991 and never failed to medal in any International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) tournament in which they competed.The advent of the state-sponsored "full-time amateur athlete" of the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self-financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. The Soviet Union entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession – in reality, the state paid many of these competitors to train on a full-time basis. Nevertheless, the IOC held to the traditional rules regarding amateurism.A 1989 report by a committee of the Australian Senate claimed that "there is hardly a medal winner at the Moscow Games, certainly not a gold medal winner...who is not on one sort of drug or another: usually several kinds. The Moscow Games might well have been called the Chemists' Games".A member of the IOC Medical Commission, Manfred Donike, privately ran additional tests with a new technique for identifying abnormal levels of testosterone by measuring its ratio to epitestosterone in urine. Twenty percent of the specimens he tested, including those from sixteen gold medalists, would have resulted in disciplinary proceedings had the tests been official. The results of Donike's unofficial tests later convinced the IOC to add his new technique to their testing protocols. The first documented case of "blood doping" occurred at the 1980 Summer Olympics when a runner was transfused with two pints of blood before winning medals in the 5000 m and 10,000 m.Documentation obtained in 2016 revealed the Soviet Union's plans for a statewide doping system in track and field in preparation for the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. Dated before the decision to boycott the 1984 Games, the document detailed the existing steroids operations of the program, along with suggestions for further enhancements. Dr. Sergei Portugalov of the Institute for Physical Culture prepared the communication, directed to the Soviet Union's head of track and field. Portugalov later became one of the leading figures involved in the implementation of Russian doping before the 2016 Summer Olympics.Official Soviet environmental policy has always attached great importance to actions in which human beings actively improve nature. Lenin's quote "Communism is Soviet power and electrification of the country!" in many respects summarizes the focus on modernization and industrial development. During the first five-year plan in 1928, Stalin proceeded to industrialize the country at all costs. Values such as environmental and nature protection have been completely ignored in the struggle to create a modern industrial society. After Stalin's death, they focused more on environmental issues, but the basic perception of the value of environmental protection remained the same.The Soviet media has always focused on the vast expanse of land and the virtually indestructible natural resources. This made it feel that contamination and uncontrolled exploitation of nature were not a problem. The Soviet state also firmly believed that scientific and technological progress would solve all the problems. Official ideology said that under socialism environmental problems could easily be overcome, unlike capitalist countries, where they seemingly could not be solved. The Soviet authorities had an almost unwavering belief that man could transcend nature. However, when the authorities had to admit that there were environmental problems in the USSR in the 1980s, they explained the problems in such a way that socialism had not yet been fully developed; pollution in a socialist society was only a temporary anomaly that would have been resolved if socialism had developed.The Chernobyl disaster in 1986 was the first major accident at a civilian nuclear power plant. Unparalleled in the world, it resulted in a large number of radioactive isotopes being released into the atmosphere. Radioactive doses have scattered relatively far. 4,000 new cases of thyroid cancer were reported after the incident, but this led to a relatively low number of deaths (WHO data, 2005). However, the long-term effects of the accident are unknown. Another major accident is the Kyshtym disaster.After the fall of the USSR, it was discovered that the environmental problems were greater than what the Soviet authorities admitted. The Kola Peninsula was one of the places with clear problems. Around the industrial cities of Monchegorsk and Norilsk, where nickel, for example, is mined, all forests have been destroyed by contamination, while the northern and other parts of Russia have been affected by emissions. During the 1990s, people in the West were also interested in the radioactive hazards of nuclear facilities, decommissioned nuclear submarines, and the processing of nuclear waste or spent nuclear fuel. It was also known in the early 1990s that the USSR had transported radioactive material to the Barents Sea and Kara Sea, which was later confirmed by the Russian parliament. The crash of the K-141 Kursk submarine in 2000 in the west further raised concerns. In the past, there were accidents involving submarines K-19, K-8, and K-129. | [
"Georgy Malenkov",
"Alexei Kosygin",
"Nikolai Ryzhkov",
"Nikita Khrushchev",
"Joseph Stalin",
"Ivan Silayev",
"Vladimir Lenin",
"Nikolai Bulganin",
"Nikolai Tikhonov",
"Vyacheslav Molotov",
"Valentin Pavlov"
] |
|
Who was the head of Soviet Union in Jun 06, 1928? | June 06, 1928 | {
"text": [
"Alexei Rykov"
]
} | L2_Q15180_P6_1 | Vladimir Lenin is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Jul, 1923 to Jan, 1924.
Vyacheslav Molotov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Dec, 1930 to May, 1941.
Alexei Kosygin is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Oct, 1964 to Oct, 1980.
Alexei Rykov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Feb, 1924 to Dec, 1930.
Nikolai Ryzhkov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Sep, 1985 to Jan, 1991.
Nikolai Tikhonov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Oct, 1980 to Sep, 1985.
Nikita Khrushchev is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Mar, 1958 to Oct, 1964.
Nikolai Bulganin is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Feb, 1955 to Mar, 1958.
Georgy Malenkov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Mar, 1953 to Feb, 1955.
Valentin Pavlov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Jan, 1991 to Aug, 1991.
Joseph Stalin is the head of the government of Soviet Union from May, 1941 to Mar, 1953.
Ivan Silayev is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Sep, 1991 to Dec, 1991. | Soviet UnionThe Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), was a socialist state that spanned most of Europe and Asia during its existence from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a federal union of multiple national republics; in practice its government and economy were highly centralized until its final years. The country was a one-party state prior to 1990 governed by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, with Moscow as its capital within its largest and most populous republic, the Russian SFSR. Other major urban centers were Leningrad (Russian SFSR), Kiev (Ukrainian SSR), Minsk (Byelorussian SSR), Tashkent (Uzbek SSR), Alma-Ata (Kazakh SSR) and Novosibirsk (Russian SFSR). It was the largest country in the world, covering over , and spanning eleven time zones. The Soviet Union's five biomes were tundra, taiga, steppes, desert, and mountains. Its diverse population was officially known as the Soviet people.The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 when the Bolsheviks, headed by Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Provisional Government that had earlier replaced the monarchy of the Russian Empire. They established the Russian Soviet Republic, beginning a civil war between the Bolshevik Red Army and many anti-Bolshevik forces across the former Empire, among whom the largest faction was the White Guard, which engaged in violent anti-communist repression against the Bolsheviks and their worker and peasant supporters known as the White Terror. The Red Army expanded and helped local Bolsheviks take power, establishing soviets, repressing their political opponents and rebellious peasants through Red Terror. By 1922, the Bolsheviks had emerged victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian and Byelorussian republics. The New Economic Policy (NEP), which was introduced by Lenin, led to a partial return of a free market and private property; this resulted in a period of economic recovery.Following Lenin's death in 1924, Joseph Stalin came to power. Stalin suppressed all political opposition to his rule inside the Communist Party and inaugurated a command economy. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and forced collectivization, which led to significant economic growth, but also led to a man-made famine in 1932–1933 and expanded the Gulag labour camp system originally established in 1918. Stalin also fomented political paranoia and conducted the Great Purge to remove his actual and perceived opponents from the Party through mass arrests of military leaders, Communist Party members, and ordinary citizens alike, who were then sent to correctional labor camps or sentenced to death.On 23 August 1939, after unsuccessful efforts to form an anti-fascist alliance with Western powers, the Soviets signed the non-aggression agreement with Nazi Germany. After the start of World War II, the formally neutral Soviets invaded and annexed territories of several Eastern European states, including eastern Poland and the Baltic states. In June 1941 the Germans invaded, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the cost of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at intense battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin and won World War II in Europe on 9 May 1945. The territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged in 1947 as a result of a post-war Soviet dominance in Eastern Europe, where the Eastern Bloc confronted the Western Bloc that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949.Following Stalin's death in 1953, a period known as de-Stalinization and the Khrushchev Thaw occurred under the leadership of Nikita Khrushchev. The country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took an early lead in the Space Race with the first ever satellite and the first human spaceflight and the first probe to land on another planet, Venus. In the 1970s, there was a brief "détente" of relations with the United States, but tensions resumed when the Soviet Union deployed troops in Afghanistan in 1979. The war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters.In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to further reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of "glasnost" and "perestroika". The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing economic stagnation. The Cold War ended during his tenure and in 1989, Warsaw Pact countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective Marxist-Leninist regimes. Strong nationalist and separatist movements broke out across the USSR. Gorbachev initiated a referendum—boycotted by the Baltic republics, Armenia, Georgia, and Moldova—which resulted in the majority of participating citizens voting in favor of preserving the Union as a renewed federation. In August 1991, a coup d'état was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a high-profile role in facing down the coup. The main result was the banning of the Communist Party. The republics led by Russia and Ukraine declared independence. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned. All the republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states. The Russian Federation (formerly the Russian SFSR) assumed the Soviet Union's rights and obligations and is recognized as its continued legal personality in world affairs.The USSR produced many significant social and technological achievements and innovations regarding military power. It boasted the world's second-largest economy and the largest standing military in the world. The USSR was recognized as one of the five nuclear weapons states. It was a founding permanent member of the United Nations Security Council as well as a member of the OSCE, the WFTU and the leading member of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and the Warsaw Pact.Before its dissolution, the USSR had maintained its status as one of the world's two superpowers for four decades after World War II. Sometimes also called "Soviet Empire", it exercised its hegemony in Eastern Europe and worldwide with military and economic strength, proxy conflicts and influence in developing countries and funding of scientific research, especially in space technology and weaponry.The word "soviet" is derived from the Russian word "sovet" (), meaning "council", "assembly", "advice", ultimately deriving from the proto-Slavic verbal stem of "vět-iti" ("to inform"), related to Slavic "věst" ("news"), English "wise", the root in "ad-vis-or" (which came to English through French), or the Dutch "weten" ("to know"; cf. "wetenschap" meaning "science"). The word "sovietnik" means "councillor".Some organizations in Russian history were called "council" (). In the Russian Empire, the State Council which functioned from 1810 to 1917 was referred to as a Council of Ministers after the revolt of 1905.During the Georgian Affair, Vladimir Lenin envisioned an expression of Great Russian ethnic chauvinism by Joseph Stalin and his supporters, calling for these nation-states to join Russia as semi-independent parts of a greater union which he initially named as the Union of Soviet Republics of Europe and Asia (). Stalin initially resisted the proposal but ultimately accepted it, although with Lenin's agreement changed the name to the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), albeit all the republics began as "socialist soviet" and did not change to the other order until 1936. In addition, in the national languages of several republics, the word "council" or "conciliar" in the respective language was only quite late changed to an adaptation of the Russian "soviet" and never in others, e.g. Ukraine."СССР" (in Latin alphabet: "SSSR") is the abbreviation of USSR in Russian. It is written in Cyrillic letters. The Soviets used the Cyrillic abbreviation so frequently that audiences worldwide became familiar with its meaning. Notably, both Cyrillic letters used have homoglyphic (but transliterally distinct) letters in Latin alphabets. Because of widespread familiarity with the Cyrillic abbreviation, Latin alphabet users in particular almost always use the Latin homoglyphs "C" and "P" (as opposed to the transliteral Latin letters "S" and "R") when rendering the USSR's native abbreviation.After "СССР", the most common short form names for the Soviet state in Russian were "Советский Союз" (transliteration: "Sovetskiy Soyuz") which literally means "Soviet Union", and also "Союз ССР" (transliteration: "Soyuz SSR") which, after compensating for grammatical differences, essentially translates to "Union of SSR's" in English.In the English language media, the state was referred to as the Soviet Union or the USSR. In other European languages, the locally translated short forms and abbreviations are usually used such as "Union soviétique" and "URSS" in French, or "Sowjetunion" and "UdSSR" in German. In the English-speaking world, the Soviet Union was also informally called Russia and its citizens Russians, although that was technically incorrect since Russia was only one of the republics. Such misapplications of the linguistic equivalents to the term "Russia" and its derivatives were frequent in other languages as well.The Soviet Union covered an area of over , and was the world's largest country, a status that is retained by its successor state, Russia. It covered a sixth of Earth's land surface, and its size was comparable to the continent of North America. Its western part in Europe accounted for a quarter of the country's area and was the cultural and economic center. The eastern part in Asia extended to the Pacific Ocean to the east and Afghanistan to the south, and, except some areas in Central Asia, was much less populous. It spanned over east to west across eleven time zones, and over north to south. It had five climate zones: tundra, taiga, steppes, desert and mountains.The Soviet Union, similarly to Russia, had the world's longest border, measuring over , or circumferences of Earth. Two-thirds of it was a coastline. The country bordered Afghanistan, China, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Hungary, Iran, Mongolia, North Korea, Norway, Poland, Romania, and Turkey from 1945 to 1991. The Bering Strait separated the country from the United States, while the La Pérouse Strait separated it from Japan.The Soviet Union's highest mountain was Communism Peak (now Ismoil Somoni Peak) in Tajik SSR, at . It also included most of the world's largest lakes; the Caspian Sea (shared with Iran), and Lake Baikal in Russia, the world's largest and deepest freshwater lake.Modern revolutionary activity in the Russian Empire began with the 1825 Decembrist revolt. Although serfdom was abolished in 1861, it was done on terms unfavorable to the peasants and served to encourage revolutionaries. A parliament—the State Duma—was established in 1906 after the Russian Revolution of 1905, but Tsar Nicholas II resisted attempts to move from absolute to a constitutional monarchy. Social unrest continued and was aggravated during World War I by military defeat and food shortages in major cities.A spontaneous popular uprising in Petrograd, in response to the wartime decay of Russia's economy and morale, culminated in the February Revolution and the toppling of Nicholas II and the imperial government in March 1917. The tsarist autocracy was replaced by the Russian Provisional Government, which intended to conduct elections to the Russian Constituent Assembly and to continue fighting on the side of the Entente in World War I.At the same time, workers' councils, known in Russian as "Soviets", sprang up across the country. The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, pushed for socialist revolution in the Soviets and on the streets. On 7 November 1917, the Red Guards stormed the Winter Palace in Petrograd, ending the rule of the Provisional Government and leaving all political power to the Soviets. This event would later be officially known in Soviet bibliographies as the Great October Socialist Revolution. In December, the Bolsheviks signed an armistice with the Central Powers, though by February 1918, fighting had resumed. In March, the Soviets ended involvement in the war and signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.A long and bloody Civil War ensued between the Reds and the Whites, starting in 1917 and ending in 1923 with the Reds' victory. It included foreign intervention, the execution of the former tsar and his family, and the famine of 1921, which killed about five million people. In March 1921, during a related conflict with Poland, the Peace of Riga was signed, splitting disputed territories in Belarus and Ukraine between the Republic of Poland and Soviet Russia. Soviet Russia had to resolve similar conflicts with the newly established republics of Estonia, Finland, Latvia, and Lithuania.On 28 December 1922, a conference of plenipotentiary delegations from the Russian SFSR, the Transcaucasian SFSR, the Ukrainian SSR and the Byelorussian SSR approved the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR and the Declaration of the Creation of the USSR, forming the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. These two documents were confirmed by the first Congress of Soviets of the USSR and signed by the heads of the delegations, Mikhail Kalinin, Mikhail Tskhakaya, Mikhail Frunze, Grigory Petrovsky, and Alexander Chervyakov, on 30 December 1922. The formal proclamation was made from the stage of the Bolshoi Theatre.An intensive restructuring of the economy, industry and politics of the country began in the early days of Soviet power in 1917. A large part of this was done according to the Bolshevik Initial Decrees, government documents signed by Vladimir Lenin. One of the most prominent breakthroughs was the GOELRO plan, which envisioned a major restructuring of the Soviet economy based on total electrification of the country. The plan became the prototype for subsequent Five-Year Plans and was fulfilled by 1931. After the economic policy of "War communism" during the Russian Civil War, as a prelude to fully developing socialism in the country, the Soviet government permitted some private enterprise to coexist alongside nationalized industry in the 1920s, and total food requisition in the countryside was replaced by a food tax.From its creation, the government in the Soviet Union was based on the one-party rule of the Communist Party (Bolsheviks). The stated purpose was to prevent the return of capitalist exploitation, and that the principles of democratic centralism would be the most effective in representing the people's will in a practical manner. The debate over the future of the economy provided the background for a power struggle in the years after Lenin's death in 1924. Initially, Lenin was to be replaced by a "troika" consisting of Grigory Zinoviev of the Ukrainian SSR, Lev Kamenev of the Russian SFSR, and Joseph Stalin of the Transcaucasian SFSR.On 1 February 1924, the USSR was recognized by the United Kingdom. The same year, a Soviet Constitution was approved, legitimizing the December 1922 union. According to Archie Brown the constitution was never an accurate guide to political reality in the USSR. For example the fact that the Party played the leading role in making and enforcing policy was not mentioned in it until 1977. The USSR was a federative entity of many constituent republics, each with its own political and administrative entities. However, the term "Soviet Russia"strictly applicable only to the Russian Federative Socialist Republicwas often applied to the entire country by non-Soviet writers.On 3 April 1922, Stalin was named the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Lenin had appointed Stalin the head of the Workers' and Peasants' Inspectorate, which gave Stalin considerable power. By gradually consolidating his influence and isolating and outmanoeuvring his rivals within the party, Stalin became the undisputed leader of the country and, by the end of the 1920s, established a totalitarian rule. In October 1927, Zinoviev and Leon Trotsky were expelled from the Central Committee and forced into exile.In 1928, Stalin introduced the first five-year plan for building a socialist economy. In place of the internationalism expressed by Lenin throughout the Revolution, it aimed to build Socialism in One Country. In industry, the state assumed control over all existing enterprises and undertook an intensive program of industrialization. In agriculture, rather than adhering to the "lead by example" policy advocated by Lenin, forced collectivization of farms was implemented all over the country.Famines ensued as a result, causing deaths estimated at three to seven million; surviving kulaks were persecuted, and many were sent to Gulags to do forced labor. Social upheaval continued in the mid-1930s. Despite the turmoil of the mid-to-late 1930s, the country developed a robust industrial economy in the years preceding World War II.Closer cooperation between the USSR and the West developed in the early 1930s. From 1932 to 1934, the country participated in the World Disarmament Conference. In 1933, diplomatic relations between the United States and the USSR were established when in November, the newly elected President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt, chose to recognize Stalin's Communist government formally and negotiated a new trade agreement between the two countries. In September 1934, the country joined the League of Nations. After the Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936, the USSR actively supported the Republican forces against the Nationalists, who were supported by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany.In December 1936, Stalin unveiled a new constitution that was praised by supporters around the world as the most democratic constitution imaginable, though there was some skepticism. Stalin's Great Purge resulted in the detainment or execution of many "Old Bolsheviks" who had participated in the October Revolution with Lenin. According to declassified Soviet archives, the NKVD arrested more than one and a half million people in 1937 and 1938, of whom 681,692 were shot. Over those two years, there were an average of over one thousand executions a day.In 1939, after attempts to form a military alliance with Britain and France against Germany failed, the Soviet Union made a dramatic shift towards Nazi Germany. Almost a year after Britain and France had concluded the Munich Agreement with Germany, the Soviet Union made agreements with Germany as well, both militarily and economically during extensive talks. The two countries concluded the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and the German–Soviet Commercial Agreement in August 1939. The former made possible the Soviet occupation of Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Bessarabia, northern Bukovina, and eastern Poland, while the Soviets remained formally neutral. In late November, unable to coerce the Republic of Finland by diplomatic means into moving its border back from Leningrad, Stalin ordered the invasion of Finland. In the east, the Soviet military won several decisive victories during border clashes with the Empire of Japan in 1938 and 1939. However, in April 1941, the USSR signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact with Japan, recognizing the territorial integrity of Manchukuo, a Japanese puppet state.Germany broke the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 starting what was known in the USSR as the Great Patriotic War. The Red Army stopped the seemingly invincible German Army at the Battle of Moscow. The Battle of Stalingrad, which lasted from late 1942 to early 1943, dealt a severe blow to Germany from which they never fully recovered and became a turning point in the war. After Stalingrad, Soviet forces drove through Eastern Europe to Berlin before Germany surrendered in 1945. The German Army suffered 80% of its military deaths in the Eastern Front. Harry Hopkins, a close foreign policy advisor to Franklin D. Roosevelt, spoke on 10 August 1943 of the USSR's decisive role in the war.In the same year, the USSR, in fulfilment of its agreement with the Allies at the Yalta Conference, denounced the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1945 and invaded Manchukuo and other Japan-controlled territories on 9 August 1945. This conflict ended with a decisive Soviet victory, contributing to the unconditional surrender of Japan and the end of World War II.The USSR suffered greatly in the war, losing around 27 million people. Approximately 2.8 million Soviet POWs died of starvation, mistreatment, or executions in just eight months of 1941–42. During the war, the country together with the United States, the United Kingdom and China were considered the Big Four Allied powers, and later became the Four Policemen that formed the basis of the United Nations Security Council. It emerged as a superpower in the post-war period. Once denied diplomatic recognition by the Western world, the USSR had official relations with practically every country by the late 1940s. A member of the United Nations at its foundation in 1945, the country became one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, which gave it the right to veto any of its resolutions.During the immediate post-war period, the Soviet Union rebuilt and expanded its economy, while maintaining its strictly centralized control. It took effective control over most of the countries of Eastern Europe (except Yugoslavia and later Albania), turning them into satellite states. The USSR bound its satellite states in a military alliance, the Warsaw Pact, in 1955, and an economic organization, Council for Mutual Economic Assistance or Comecon, a counterpart to the European Economic Community (EEC), from 1949 to 1991. The USSR concentrated on its own recovery, seizing and transferring most of Germany's industrial plants, and it exacted war reparations from East Germany, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. It also instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favor the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Later, the Comecon supplied aid to the eventually victorious Communist Party of China, and its influence grew elsewhere in the world. Fearing its ambitions, the Soviet Union's wartime allies, the United Kingdom and the United States, became its enemies. In the ensuing Cold War, the two sides clashed indirectly in proxy wars.Stalin died on 5 March 1953. Without a mutually agreeable successor, the highest Communist Party officials initially opted to rule the Soviet Union jointly through a troika headed by Georgy Malenkov. This did not last, however, and Nikita Khrushchev eventually won the ensuing power struggle by the mid-1950s. In 1956, he denounced Joseph Stalin and proceeded to ease controls over the party and society. This was known as de-Stalinization.Moscow considered Eastern Europe to be a critically vital buffer zone for the forward defence of its western borders, in case of another major invasion such as the German invasion of 1941. For this reason, the USSR sought to cement its control of the region by transforming the Eastern European countries into satellite states, dependent upon and subservient to its leadership. As a result, Soviet military forces were used to suppress an anti-communist uprising in Hungary in 1956.In the late 1950s, a confrontation with China regarding the Soviet rapprochement with the West, and what Mao Zedong perceived as Khrushchev's revisionism, led to the Sino–Soviet split. This resulted in a break throughout the global Marxist–Leninist movement, with the governments in Albania, Cambodia and Somalia choosing to ally with China.During this period of the late 1950s and early 1960s, the USSR continued to realize scientific and technological exploits in the Space Race, rivaling the United States: launching the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1 in 1957; a living dog named Laika in 1957; the first human being, Yuri Gagarin in 1961; the first woman in space, Valentina Tereshkova in 1963; Alexei Leonov, the first person to walk in space in 1965; the first soft landing on the Moon by spacecraft Luna 9 in 1966; and the first Moon rovers, Lunokhod 1 and Lunokhod 2.Khrushchev initiated "The Thaw", a complex shift in political, cultural and economic life in the country. This included some openness and contact with other nations and new social and economic policies with more emphasis on commodity goods, allowing a dramatic rise in living standards while maintaining high levels of economic growth. Censorship was relaxed as well. Khrushchev's reforms in agriculture and administration, however, were generally unproductive. In 1962, he precipitated a crisis with the United States over the Soviet deployment of nuclear missiles in Cuba. An agreement was made with the United States to remove nuclear missiles from both Cuba and Turkey, concluding the crisis. This event caused Khrushchev much embarrassment and loss of prestige, resulting in his removal from power in 1964.Following the ousting of Khrushchev, another period of collective leadership ensued, consisting of Leonid Brezhnev as General Secretary, Alexei Kosygin as Premier and Nikolai Podgorny as Chairman of the Presidium, lasting until Brezhnev established himself in the early 1970s as the preeminent Soviet leader.In 1968, the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact allies invaded Czechoslovakia to halt the Prague Spring reforms. In the aftermath, Brezhnev justified the invasion and previous military interventions as well as any potential military interventions in the future by introducing the Brezhnev Doctrine, which proclaimed any threat to socialist rule in a Warsaw Pact state as a threat to all Warsaw Pact states, therefore justifying military intervention.Brezhnev presided throughout "détente" with the West that resulted in treaties on armament control (SALT I, SALT II, Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty) while at the same time building up Soviet military might.In October 1977, the third Soviet Constitution was unanimously adopted. The prevailing mood of the Soviet leadership at the time of Brezhnev's death in 1982 was one of aversion to change. The long period of Brezhnev's rule had come to be dubbed one of "standstill", with an ageing and ossified top political leadership. This period is also known as the Era of Stagnation, a period of adverse economic, political, and social effects in the country, which began during the rule of Brezhnev and continued under his successors Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko.In late 1979, the Soviet Union's military intervened in the ongoing civil war in neighboring Afghanistan, effectively ending a détente with the West.Two developments dominated the decade that followed: the increasingly apparent crumbling of the Soviet Union's economic and political structures, and the patchwork attempts at reforms to reverse that process. Kenneth S. Deffeyes argued in "Beyond Oil" that the Reagan administration encouraged Saudi Arabia to lower the price of oil to the point where the Soviets could not make a profit selling their oil, and resulted in the depletion of the country's hard currency reserves.Brezhnev's next two successors, transitional figures with deep roots in his tradition, did not last long. Yuri Andropov was 68 years old and Konstantin Chernenko 72 when they assumed power; both died in less than two years. In an attempt to avoid a third short-lived leader, in 1985, the Soviets turned to the next generation and selected Mikhail Gorbachev. He made significant changes in the economy and party leadership, called "perestroika". His policy of "glasnost" freed public access to information after decades of heavy government censorship. Gorbachev also moved to end the Cold War. In 1988, the USSR abandoned its war in Afghanistan and began to withdraw its forces. In the following year, Gorbachev refused to interfere in the internal affairs of the Soviet satellite states, which paved the way for the Revolutions of 1989. In particular, the standstill of the Soviet Union at the Pan-European Picnic in August 1989 then set a peaceful chain reaction in motion at the end of which the Eastern Bloc collapsed. With the tearing down of the Berlin Wall and with East and West Germany pursuing unification, the Iron Curtain between the West and Soviet-controlled regions came down.At the same time, the Soviet republics started legal moves towards potentially declaring sovereignty over their territories, citing the freedom to secede in Article 72 of the USSR constitution. On 7 April 1990, a law was passed allowing a republic to secede if more than two-thirds of its residents voted for it in a referendum. Many held their first free elections in the Soviet era for their own national legislatures in 1990. Many of these legislatures proceeded to produce legislation contradicting the Union laws in what was known as the "War of Laws". In 1989, the Russian SFSR convened a newly elected Congress of People's Deputies. Boris Yeltsin was elected its chairman. On 12 June 1990, the Congress declared Russia's sovereignty over its territory and proceeded to pass laws that attempted to supersede some of the Soviet laws. After a landslide victory of Sąjūdis in Lithuania, that country declared its independence restored on 11 March 1990.A referendum for the preservation of the USSR was held on 17 March 1991 in nine republics (the remainder having boycotted the vote), with the majority of the population in those republics voting for preservation of the Union. The referendum gave Gorbachev a minor boost. In the summer of 1991, the New Union Treaty, which would have turned the country into a much looser Union, was agreed upon by eight republics. The signing of the treaty, however, was interrupted by the August Coup—an attempted coup d'état by hardline members of the government and the KGB who sought to reverse Gorbachev's reforms and reassert the central government's control over the republics. After the coup collapsed, Yeltsin was seen as a hero for his decisive actions, while Gorbachev's power was effectively ended. The balance of power tipped significantly towards the republics. In August 1991, Latvia and Estonia immediately declared the restoration of their full independence (following Lithuania's 1990 example). Gorbachev resigned as general secretary in late August, and soon afterwards, the party's activities were indefinitely suspended—effectively ending its rule. By the fall, Gorbachev could no longer influence events outside Moscow, and he was being challenged even there by Yeltsin, who had been elected President of Russia in July 1991.The remaining 12 republics continued discussing new, increasingly looser, models of the Union. However, by December all except Russia and Kazakhstan had formally declared independence. During this time, Yeltsin took over what remained of the Soviet government, including the Moscow Kremlin. The final blow was struck on 1 December when Ukraine, the second-most powerful republic, voted overwhelmingly for independence. Ukraine's secession ended any realistic chance of the country staying together even on a limited scale.On 8 December 1991, the presidents of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus (formerly Byelorussia), signed the Belavezha Accords, which declared the Soviet Union dissolved and established the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in its place. While doubts remained over the authority of the accords to do this, on 21 December 1991, the representatives of all Soviet republics except Georgia signed the Alma-Ata Protocol, which confirmed the accords. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned as the President of the USSR, declaring the office extinct. He turned the powers that had been vested in the presidency over to Yeltsin. That night, the Soviet flag was lowered for the last time, and the Russian tricolor was raised in its place.The following day, the Supreme Soviet, the highest governmental body, voted both itself and the country out of existence. This is generally recognized as marking the official, final dissolution of the Soviet Union as a functioning state, and the end of the Cold War. The Soviet Army initially remained under overall CIS command but was soon absorbed into the different military forces of the newly independent states. The few remaining Soviet institutions that had not been taken over by Russia ceased to function by the end of 1991.Following the dissolution, Russia was internationally recognized as its legal successor on the international stage. To that end, Russia voluntarily accepted all Soviet foreign debt and claimed Soviet overseas properties as its own. Under the 1992 Lisbon Protocol, Russia also agreed to receive all nuclear weapons remaining in the territory of other former Soviet republics. Since then, the Russian Federation has assumed the Soviet Union's rights and obligations. Ukraine has refused to recognize exclusive Russian claims to succession of the USSR and claimed such status for Ukraine as well, which was codified in Articles 7 and 8 of its 1991 law On Legal Succession of Ukraine. Since its independence in 1991, Ukraine has continued to pursue claims against Russia in foreign courts, seeking to recover its share of the foreign property that was owned by the USSR.The dissolution was followed by a severe drop in economic and social conditions in post-Soviet states, including a rapid increase in poverty, crime, corruption, unemployment, homelessness, rates of disease, infant mortality and domestic violence, as well as demographic losses and income inequality and the rise of an oligarchical class, along with decreases in calorie intake, life expectancy, adult literacy, and income. Between 1988–1989 and 1993–1995, the Gini ratio increased by an average of 9 points for all former socialist countries. The economic shocks that accompanied wholesale privatization were associated with sharp increases in mortality. Data shows Russia, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia saw a tripling of unemployment and a 42% increase in male death rates between 1991 and 1994. In the following decades, only five or six of the post-communist states are on a path to joining the wealthy capitalist West while most are falling behind, some to such an extent that it will take over fifty years to catch up to where they were before the fall of the Soviet Bloc.In summing up the international ramifications of these events, Vladislav Zubok stated: "The collapse of the Soviet empire was an event of epochal geopolitical, military, ideological, and economic significance." Before the dissolution, the country had maintained its status as one of the world's two superpowers for four decades after World War II through its hegemony in Eastern Europe, military strength, economic strength, aid to developing countries, and scientific research, especially in space technology and weaponry.The analysis of the succession of states for the 15 post-Soviet states is complex. The Russian Federation is seen as the legal "continuator" state and is for most purposes the heir to the Soviet Union. It retained ownership of all former Soviet embassy properties, as well as the old Soviet UN membership and permanent membership on the Security Council.Of the two other co-founding states of the USSR at the time of the dissolution, Ukraine was the only one that had passed laws, similar to Russia, that it is a state-successor of both the Ukrainian SSR and the USSR. Soviet treaties laid groundwork for Ukraine's future foreign agreements as well as they led to Ukraine agreeing to undertake 16.37% of debts of the Soviet Union for which it was going to receive its share of USSR's foreign property. Although it had a tough position at the time, due to Russia's position as a "single continuation of the USSR" that became widely accepted in the West as well as a constant pressure from the Western countries, allowed Russia to dispose state property of USSR abroad and conceal information about it. Due to that Ukraine never ratified "zero option" agreement that Russian Federation had signed with other former Soviet republics, as it denied disclosing of information about Soviet Gold Reserves and its Diamond Fund. The dispute over former Soviet property and assets between the two former republics is still ongoing:Similar situation occurred with restitution of cultural property. Although on 14 February 1992 Russia and other former Soviet republics signed agreement "On the return of cultural and historic property to the origin states" in Minsk, it was halted by Russian State Duma that had eventually passed "Federal Law on Cultural Valuables Displaced to the USSR as a Result of the Second World War and Located on the Territory of the Russian Federation" which made restitution currently impossible.There are additionally four states that claim independence from the other internationally recognised post-Soviet states but possess limited international recognition: Abkhazia, Nagorno-Karabakh, South Ossetia and Transnistria. The Chechen separatist movement of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria lacks any international recognition.During his rule, Stalin always made the final policy decisions. Otherwise, Soviet foreign policy was set by the commission on the Foreign Policy of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, or by the party's highest body the Politburo. Operations were handled by the separate Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It was known as the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs (or Narkomindel), until 1946. The most influential spokesmen were Georgy Chicherin (1872–1936), Maxim Litvinov (1876–1951), Vyacheslav Molotov (1890–1986), Andrey Vyshinsky (1883–1954) and Andrei Gromyko (1909–1989). Intellectuals were based in the Moscow State Institute of International Relations.The Marxist-Leninist leadership of the Soviet Union intensely debated foreign policy issues and change directions several times. Even after Stalin assumed dictatorial control in the late 1920s, there were debates, and he frequently changed positions.During the country's early period, it was assumed that Communist revolutions would break out soon in every major industrial country, and it was the Soviet responsibility to assist them. The Comintern was the weapon of choice. A few revolutions did break out, but they were quickly suppressed (the longest lasting one was in Hungary)—the Hungarian Soviet Republic—lasted only from 21 March 1919 to 1 August 1919. The Russian Bolsheviks were in no position to give any help.By 1921, Lenin, Trotsky, and Stalin realized that capitalism had stabilized itself in Europe and there would not be any widespread revolutions anytime soon. It became the duty of the Russian Bolsheviks to protect what they had in Russia, and avoid military confrontations that might destroy their bridgehead. Russia was now a pariah state, along with Germany. The two came to terms in 1922 with the Treaty of Rapallo that settled long-standing grievances. At the same time, the two countries secretly set up training programs for the illegal German army and air force operations at hidden camps in the USSR.Moscow eventually stopped threatening other states, and instead worked to open peaceful relationships in terms of trade, and diplomatic recognition. The United Kingdom dismissed the warnings of Winston Churchill and a few others about a continuing Marxist-Leninist threat, and opened trade relations and "de facto" diplomatic recognition in 1922. There was hope for a settlement of the pre-war Tsarist debts, but it was repeatedly postponed. Formal recognition came when the new Labour Party came to power in 1924. All the other countries followed suit in opening trade relations. Henry Ford opened large-scale business relations with the Soviets in the late 1920s, hoping that it would lead to long-term peace. Finally, in 1933, the United States officially recognized the USSR, a decision backed by the public opinion and especially by US business interests that expected an opening of a new profitable market.In the late 1920s and early 1930s, Stalin ordered Marxist-Leninist parties across the world to strongly oppose non-Marxist political parties, labor unions or other organizations on the left. Stalin reversed himself in 1934 with the Popular Front program that called on all Marxist parties to join together with all anti-Fascist political, labor, and organizational forces that were opposed to fascism, especially of the Nazi variety.In 1939, half a year after the Munich Agreement, the USSR attempted to form an anti-Nazi alliance with France and Britain. Adolf Hitler proposed a better deal, which would give the USSR control over much of Eastern Europe through the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. In September, Germany invaded Poland, and the USSR also invaded later that month, resulting in the partition of Poland. In response, Britain and France declared war on Germany, marking the beginning of World War II.There were three power hierarchies in the Soviet Union: the legislature represented by the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, the government represented by the Council of Ministers, and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), the only legal party and the final policymaker in the country.At the top of the Communist Party was the Central Committee, elected at Party Congresses and Conferences. In turn, the Central Committee voted for a Politburo (called the Presidium between 1952 and 1966), Secretariat and the General Secretary (First Secretary from 1953 to 1966), the "de facto" highest office in the Soviet Union. Depending on the degree of power consolidation, it was either the Politburo as a collective body or the General Secretary, who always was one of the Politburo members, that effectively led the party and the country (except for the period of the highly personalized authority of Stalin, exercised directly through his position in the Council of Ministers rather than the Politburo after 1941). They were not controlled by the general party membership, as the key principle of the party organization was democratic centralism, demanding strict subordination to higher bodies, and elections went uncontested, endorsing the candidates proposed from above.The Communist Party maintained its dominance over the state mainly through its control over the system of appointments. All senior government officials and most deputies of the Supreme Soviet were members of the CPSU. Of the party heads themselves, Stalin (1941–1953) and Khrushchev (1958–1964) were Premiers. Upon the forced retirement of Khrushchev, the party leader was prohibited from this kind of double membership, but the later General Secretaries for at least some part of their tenure occupied the mostly ceremonial position of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the nominal head of state. The institutions at lower levels were overseen and at times supplanted by primary party organizations.However, in practice the degree of control the party was able to exercise over the state bureaucracy, particularly after the death of Stalin, was far from total, with the bureaucracy pursuing different interests that were at times in conflict with the party. Nor was the party itself monolithic from top to bottom, although factions were officially banned.The Supreme Soviet (successor of the Congress of Soviets) was nominally the highest state body for most of the Soviet history, at first acting as a rubber stamp institution, approving and implementing all decisions made by the party. However, its powers and functions were extended in the late 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, including the creation of new state commissions and committees. It gained additional powers relating to the approval of the Five-Year Plans and the government budget. The Supreme Soviet elected a Presidium (successor of the Central Executive Committee) to wield its power between plenary sessions, ordinarily held twice a year, and appointed the Supreme Court, the Procurator General and the Council of Ministers (known before 1946 as the Council of People's Commissars), headed by the Chairman (Premier) and managing an enormous bureaucracy responsible for the administration of the economy and society. State and party structures of the constituent republics largely emulated the structure of the central institutions, although the Russian SFSR, unlike the other constituent republics, for most of its history had no republican branch of the CPSU, being ruled directly by the union-wide party until 1990. Local authorities were organized likewise into party committees, local Soviets and executive committees. While the state system was nominally federal, the party was unitary.The state security police (the KGB and ) played an important role in Soviet politics. It was instrumental in the Great Purge, but was brought under strict party control after Stalin's death. Under Yuri Andropov, the KGB engaged in the suppression of political dissent and maintained an extensive network of informers, reasserting itself as a political actor to some extent independent of the party-state structure, culminating in the anti-corruption campaign targeting high-ranking party officials in the late 1970s and early 1980s.The constitution, which was promulgated in 1924, 1936 and 1977, did not limit state power. No formal separation of powers existed between the Party, Supreme Soviet and Council of Ministers that represented executive and legislative branches of the government. The system was governed less by statute than by informal conventions, and no settled mechanism of leadership succession existed. Bitter and at times deadly power struggles took place in the Politburo after the deaths of Lenin and Stalin, as well as after Khrushchev's dismissal, itself due to a decision by both the Politburo and the Central Committee. All leaders of the Communist Party before Gorbachev died in office, except Georgy Malenkov and Khrushchev, both dismissed from the party leadership amid internal struggle within the party.Between 1988 and 1990, facing considerable opposition, Mikhail Gorbachev enacted reforms shifting power away from the highest bodies of the party and making the Supreme Soviet less dependent on them. The Congress of People's Deputies was established, the majority of whose members were directly elected in competitive elections held in March 1989. The Congress now elected the Supreme Soviet, which became a full-time parliament, and much stronger than before. For the first time since the 1920s, it refused to rubber stamp proposals from the party and Council of Ministers. In 1990, Gorbachev introduced and assumed the position of the President of the Soviet Union, concentrated power in his executive office, independent of the party, and subordinated the government, now renamed the Cabinet of Ministers of the USSR, to himself.Tensions grew between the Union-wide authorities under Gorbachev, reformists led in Russia by Boris Yeltsin and controlling the newly elected Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR, and communist hardliners. On 19–21 August 1991, a group of hardliners staged a coup attempt. The coup failed, and the State Council of the Soviet Union became the highest organ of state power "in the period of transition". Gorbachev resigned as General Secretary, only remaining President for the final months of the existence of the USSR.The judiciary was not independent of the other branches of government. The Supreme Court supervised the lower courts (People's Court) and applied the law as established by the constitution or as interpreted by the Supreme Soviet. The Constitutional Oversight Committee reviewed the constitutionality of laws and acts. The Soviet Union used the inquisitorial system of Roman law, where the judge, procurator, and defence attorney collaborate to establish the truth.Constitutionally, the USSR was a federation of constituent Union Republics, which were either unitary states, such as Ukraine or Byelorussia (SSRs), or federations, such as Russia or Transcaucasia (SFSRs), all four being the founding republics who signed the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR in December 1922. In 1924, during the national delimitation in Central Asia, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan were formed from parts of Russia's Turkestan ASSR and two Soviet dependencies, the Khorezm and Bukharan SSRs. In 1929, Tajikistan was split off from the Uzbekistan SSR. With the constitution of 1936, the Transcaucasian SFSR was dissolved, resulting in its constituent republics of Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan being elevated to Union Republics, while Kazakhstan and Kirghizia were split off from Russian SFSR, resulting in the same status. In August 1940, Moldavia was formed from parts of Ukraine and Bessarabia and northern Bukovina. Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania (SSRs) were also admitted into the union which was not recognized by most of the international community and was considered an illegal occupation. Karelia was split off from Russia as a Union Republic in March 1940 and was reabsorbed in 1956. Between July 1956 and September 1991, there were 15 union republics (see map below).While nominally a union of equals, in practice the Soviet Union was dominated by Russians. The domination was so absolute that for most of its existence, the country was commonly (but incorrectly) referred to as "Russia". While the RSFSR was technically only one republic within the larger union, it was by far the largest (both in terms of population and area), most powerful, most developed, and the industrial center of the Soviet Union. Historian Matthew White wrote that it was an open secret that the country's federal structure was "window dressing" for Russian dominance. For that reason, the people of the USSR were usually called "Russians", not "Soviets", since "everyone knew who really ran the show".Under the Military Law of September 1925, the Soviet Armed Forces consisted of the Land Forces, the Air Force, the Navy, Joint State Political Directorate (OGPU), and the Internal Troops. The OGPU later became independent and in 1934 joined the NKVD, and so its internal troops were under the joint leadership of the defense and internal commissariats. After World War II, Strategic Missile Forces (1959), Air Defense Forces (1948) and National Civil Defense Forces (1970) were formed, which ranked first, third, and sixth in the official Soviet system of importance (ground forces were second, Air Force Fourth, and Navy Fifth).The army had the greatest political influence. In 1989, there served two million soldiers divided between 150 motorized and 52 armored divisions. Until the early 1960s, the Soviet navy was a rather small military branch, but after the Caribbean crisis, under the leadership of Sergei Gorshkov, it expanded significantly. It became known for battlecruisers and submarines. In 1989 there served 500 000 men. The Soviet Air Force focused on a fleet of strategic bombers and during war situation was to eradicate enemy infrastructure and nuclear capacity. The air force also had a number of fighters and tactical bombers to support the army in the war. Strategic missile forces had more than 1,400 intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), deployed between 28 bases and 300 command centers.In the post-war period, the Soviet Army was directly involved in several military operations abroad. These included the suppression of the uprising in East Germany (1953), Hungarian revolution (1956) and the invasion of Czechoslovakia (1968). The Soviet Union also participated in the war in Afghanistan between 1979 and 1989.In the Soviet Union, general conscription applied.At the end of the 1950s, with the help of engineers and technologies captured and imported from defeated Nazi Germany, the Soviets constructed the first satellite – Sputnik 1 and thus overtook the United States in terms of utilizing space. This was followed by other successful satellites, where test dogs flight was sent. On April 12, 1961, the first cosmonaut, Yuri Gagarin, was sent to the space. He once flew around the Earth and successfully landed in the Kazakh steppe. At that time, the first plans for space shuttles and orbital stations were drawn up in Soviet design offices, but in the end personal disputes between designers and management prevented this.As for Lunar space program; USSR only had a program on automated spacecraft launches; with no manned spacecraft used; passing on the "Moon Race" part of Space Race.In the 1970s, specific proposals for the design of the space shuttle began to emerge, but shortcomings, especially in the electronics industry (rapid overheating of electronics), postponed the program until the end of the 1980s. The first shuttle, the Buran, flew in 1988, but without a human crew. Another shuttle, "Ptichka", eventually ended up under construction, as the shuttle project was canceled in 1991. For their launch into space, there is today an unused superpower rocket, Energia, which is the most powerful in the world.In the late 1980s, the Soviet Union managed to build the "Mir" orbital station. It was built on the construction of "Salyut" stations and its only role was civilian-grade research tasks. The Soviet Union adopted a command economy, whereby production and distribution of goods were centralized and directed by the government. The first Bolshevik experience with a command economy was the policy of War communism, which involved the nationalization of industry, centralized distribution of output, coercive requisition of agricultural production, and attempts to eliminate money circulation, private enterprises and free trade. After the severe economic collapse, Lenin replaced war communism by the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921, legalizing free trade and private ownership of small businesses. The economy quickly recovered as a result.After a long debate among the members of the Politburo about the course of economic development, by 1928–1929, upon gaining control of the country, Stalin abandoned the NEP and pushed for full central planning, starting forced collectivization of agriculture and enacting draconian labor legislation. Resources were mobilized for rapid industrialization, which significantly expanded Soviet capacity in heavy industry and capital goods during the 1930s. The primary motivation for industrialization was preparation for war, mostly due to distrust of the outside capitalist world. As a result, the USSR was transformed from a largely agrarian economy into a great industrial power, leading the way for its emergence as a superpower after World War II. The war caused extensive devastation of the Soviet economy and infrastructure, which required massive reconstruction.By the early 1940s, the Soviet economy had become relatively self-sufficient; for most of the period until the creation of Comecon, only a tiny share of domestic products was traded internationally. After the creation of the Eastern Bloc, external trade rose rapidly. However, the influence of the world economy on the USSR was limited by fixed domestic prices and a state monopoly on foreign trade. Grain and sophisticated consumer manufactures became major import articles from around the 1960s. During the arms race of the Cold War, the Soviet economy was burdened by military expenditures, heavily lobbied for by a powerful bureaucracy dependent on the arms industry. At the same time, the USSR became the largest arms exporter to the Third World. Significant amounts of Soviet resources during the Cold War were allocated in aid to the other socialist states.From the 1930s until its dissolution in late 1991, the way the Soviet economy operated remained essentially unchanged. The economy was formally directed by central planning, carried out by Gosplan and organized in five-year plans. However, in practice, the plans were highly aggregated and provisional, subject to "ad hoc" intervention by superiors. All critical economic decisions were taken by the political leadership. Allocated resources and plan targets were usually denominated in rubles rather than in physical goods. Credit was discouraged, but widespread. The final allocation of output was achieved through relatively decentralized, unplanned contracting. Although in theory prices were legally set from above, in practice they were often negotiated, and informal horizontal links (e.g. between producer factories) were widespread.A number of basic services were state-funded, such as education and health care. In the manufacturing sector, heavy industry and defence were prioritized over consumer goods. Consumer goods, particularly outside large cities, were often scarce, of poor quality and limited variety. Under the command economy, consumers had almost no influence on production, and the changing demands of a population with growing incomes could not be satisfied by supplies at rigidly fixed prices. A massive unplanned second economy grew up at low levels alongside the planned one, providing some of the goods and services that the planners could not. The legalization of some elements of the decentralized economy was attempted with the reform of 1965.Although statistics of the Soviet economy are notoriously unreliable and its economic growth difficult to estimate precisely, by most accounts, the economy continued to expand until the mid-1980s. During the 1950s and 1960s, it had comparatively high growth and was catching up to the West. However, after 1970, the growth, while still positive, steadily declined much more quickly and consistently than in other countries, despite a rapid increase in the capital stock (the rate of capital increase was only surpassed by Japan).Overall, the growth rate of per capita income in the Soviet Union between 1960 and 1989 was slightly above the world average (based on 102 countries). According to Stanley Fischer and William Easterly, growth could have been faster. By their calculation, per capita income in 1989 should have been twice higher than it was, considering the amount of investment, education and population. The authors attribute this poor performance to the low productivity of capital. Steven Rosenfielde states that the standard of living declined due to Stalin's despotism. While there was a brief improvement after his death, it lapsed into stagnation.In 1987, Mikhail Gorbachev attempted to reform and revitalize the economy with his program of "perestroika". His policies relaxed state control over enterprises but did not replace it by market incentives, resulting in a sharp decline in output. The economy, already suffering from reduced petroleum export revenues, started to collapse. Prices were still fixed, and the property was still largely state-owned until after the country's dissolution. For most of the period after World War II until its collapse, Soviet GDP (PPP) was the second-largest in the world, and third during the second half of the 1980s, although on a per-capita basis, it was behind that of First World countries. Compared to countries with similar per-capita GDP in 1928, the Soviet Union experienced significant growth.In 1990, the country had a Human Development Index of 0.920, placing it in the "high" category of human development. It was the third-highest in the Eastern Bloc, behind Czechoslovakia and East Germany, and the 25th in the world of 130 countries.The need for fuel declined in the Soviet Union from the 1970s to the 1980s, both per ruble of gross social product and per ruble of industrial product. At the start, this decline grew very rapidly but gradually slowed down between 1970 and 1975. From 1975 and 1980, it grew even slower, only 2.6%. David Wilson, a historian, believed that the gas industry would account for 40% of Soviet fuel production by the end of the century. His theory did not come to fruition because of the USSR's collapse. The USSR, in theory, would have continued to have an economic growth rate of 2–2.5% during the 1990s because of Soviet energy fields. However, the energy sector faced many difficulties, among them the country's high military expenditure and hostile relations with the First World.In 1991, the Soviet Union had a pipeline network of for crude oil and another for natural gas. Petroleum and petroleum-based products, natural gas, metals, wood, agricultural products, and a variety of manufactured goods, primarily machinery, arms and military equipment, were exported. In the 1970s and 1980s, the USSR heavily relied on fossil fuel exports to earn hard currency. At its peak in 1988, it was the largest producer and second-largest exporter of crude oil, surpassed only by Saudi Arabia.The Soviet Union placed great emphasis on science and technology within its economy, however, the most remarkable Soviet successes in technology, such as producing the world's first space satellite, typically were the responsibility of the military. Lenin believed that the USSR would never overtake the developed world if it remained as technologically backward as it was upon its founding. Soviet authorities proved their commitment to Lenin's belief by developing massive networks, research and development organizations. In the early 1960s, the Soviets awarded 40% of chemistry PhDs to women, compared to only 5% in the United States. By 1989, Soviet scientists were among the world's best-trained specialists in several areas, such as energy physics, selected areas of medicine, mathematics, welding and military technologies. Due to rigid state planning and bureaucracy, the Soviets remained far behind technologically in chemistry, biology, and computers when compared to the First World.Under the Reagan administration, Project Socrates determined that the Soviet Union addressed the acquisition of science and technology in a manner that was radically different from what the US was using. In the case of the US, economic prioritization was being used for indigenous research and development as the means to acquire science and technology in both the private and public sectors. In contrast, the USSR was offensively and defensively maneuvering in the acquisition and utilization of the worldwide technology, to increase the competitive advantage that they acquired from the technology while preventing the US from acquiring a competitive advantage. However, technology-based planning was executed in a centralized, government-centric manner that greatly hindered its flexibility. This was exploited by the US to undermine the strength of the Soviet Union and thus foster its reform.Transport was a vital component of the country's economy. The economic centralization of the late 1920s and 1930s led to the development of infrastructure on a massive scale, most notably the establishment of Aeroflot, an aviation enterprise. The country had a wide variety of modes of transport by land, water and air. However, due to inadequate maintenance, much of the road, water and Soviet civil aviation transport were outdated and technologically backward compared to the First World.Soviet rail transport was the largest and most intensively used in the world; it was also better developed than most of its Western counterparts. By the late 1970s and early 1980s, Soviet economists were calling for the construction of more roads to alleviate some of the burdens from the railways and to improve the Soviet government budget. The street network and automotive industry remained underdeveloped, and dirt roads were common outside major cities. Soviet maintenance projects proved unable to take care of even the few roads the country had. By the early-to-mid-1980s, the Soviet authorities tried to solve the road problem by ordering the construction of new ones. Meanwhile, the automobile industry was growing at a faster rate than road construction. The underdeveloped road network led to a growing demand for public transport.Despite improvements, several aspects of the transport sector were still riddled with problems due to outdated infrastructure, lack of investment, corruption and bad decision-making. Soviet authorities were unable to meet the growing demand for transport infrastructure and services.The Soviet merchant navy was one of the largest in the world.Excess deaths throughout World War I and the Russian Civil War (including the postwar famine) amounted to a combined total of 18 million, some 10 million in the 1930s, and more than 26 million in 1941–5. The postwar Soviet population was 45 to 50 million smaller than it would have been if pre-war demographic growth had continued. According to Catherine Merridale, "... reasonable estimate would place the total number of excess deaths for the whole period somewhere around 60 million."The birth rate of the USSR decreased from 44.0 per thousand in 1926 to 18.0 in 1974, mainly due to increasing urbanization and the rising average age of marriages. The mortality rate demonstrated a gradual decrease as well – from 23.7 per thousand in 1926 to 8.7 in 1974. In general, the birth rates of the southern republics in Transcaucasia and Central Asia were considerably higher than those in the northern parts of the Soviet Union, and in some cases even increased in the post–World War II period, a phenomenon partly attributed to slower rates of urbanistion and traditionally earlier marriages in the southern republics. Soviet Europe moved towards sub-replacement fertility, while Soviet Central Asia continued to exhibit population growth well above replacement-level fertility.The late 1960s and the 1970s witnessed a reversal of the declining trajectory of the rate of mortality in the USSR, and was especially notable among men of working age, but was also prevalent in Russia and other predominantly Slavic areas of the country. An analysis of the official data from the late 1980s showed that after worsening in the late-1970s and the early 1980s, adult mortality began to improve again. The infant mortality rate increased from 24.7 in 1970 to 27.9 in 1974. Some researchers regarded the rise as mostly real, a consequence of worsening health conditions and services. The rises in both adult and infant mortality were not explained or defended by Soviet officials, and the Soviet government stopped publishing all mortality statistics for ten years. Soviet demographers and health specialists remained silent about the mortality increases until the late-1980s, when the publication of mortality data resumed, and researchers could delve into the real causes.Under Lenin, the state made explicit commitments to promote the equality of men and women. Many early Russian feminists and ordinary Russian working women actively participated in the Revolution, and many more were affected by the events of that period and the new policies. Beginning in October 1918, Lenin's government liberalized divorce and abortion laws, decriminalized homosexuality (re-criminalized in the 1930s), permitted cohabitation, and ushered in a host of reforms. However, without birth control, the new system produced many broken marriages, as well as countless out-of-wedlock children. The epidemic of divorces and extramarital affairs created social hardships when Soviet leaders wanted people to concentrate their efforts on growing the economy. Giving women control over their fertility also led to a precipitous decline in the birth rate, perceived as a threat to their country's military power. By 1936, Stalin reversed most of the liberal laws, ushering in a pronatalist era that lasted for decades.By 1917, Russia became the first great power to grant women the right to vote. After heavy casualties in World War I and II, women outnumbered men in Russia by a 4:3 ratio. This contributed to the larger role women played in Russian society compared to other great powers at the time.Anatoly Lunacharsky became the first People's Commissar for Education of Soviet Russia. In the beginning, the Soviet authorities placed great emphasis on the elimination of illiteracy. All left-handed children were forced to write with their right hand in the Soviet school system. Literate people were automatically hired as teachers. For a short period, quality was sacrificed for quantity. By 1940, Stalin could announce that illiteracy had been eliminated. Throughout the 1930s, social mobility rose sharply, which has been attributed to reforms in education. In the aftermath of World War II, the country's educational system expanded dramatically, which had a tremendous effect. In the 1960s, nearly all children had access to education, the only exception being those living in remote areas. Nikita Khrushchev tried to make education more accessible, making it clear to children that education was closely linked to the needs of society. Education also became important in giving rise to the New Man. Citizens directly entering the workforce had the constitutional right to a job and to free vocational training.The education system was highly centralized and universally accessible to all citizens, with affirmative action for applicants from nations associated with cultural backwardness. However, as part of the general antisemitic policy, an unofficial Jewish quota was applied in the leading institutions of higher education by subjecting Jewish applicants to harsher entrance examinations. The Brezhnev era also introduced a rule that required all university applicants to present a reference from the local Komsomol party secretary. According to statistics from 1986, the number of higher education students per the population of 10,000 was 181 for the USSR, compared to 517 for the US.The Soviet Union was an ethnically diverse country, with more than 100 distinct ethnic groups. The total population of the country was estimated at 293 million in 1991. According to a 1990 estimate, the majority of the population were Russians (50.78%), followed by Ukrainians (15.45%) and Uzbeks (5.84%).All citizens of the USSR had their own ethnic affiliation. The ethnicity of a person was chosen at the age of sixteen by the child's parents. If the parents did not agree, the child was automatically assigned the ethnicity of the father. Partly due to Soviet policies, some of the smaller minority ethnic groups were considered part of larger ones, such as the Mingrelians of Georgia, who were classified with the linguistically related Georgians. Some ethnic groups voluntarily assimilated, while others were brought in by force. Russians, Belarusians, and Ukrainians, who were all East Slavic and Orthodox, shared close cultural, ethnic, and religious ties, while other groups did not. With multiple nationalities living in the same territory, ethnic antagonisms developed over the years.Members of various ethnicities participated in legislative bodies. Organs of power like the Politburo, the Secretariat of the Central Committee etc., were formally ethnically neutral, but in reality, ethnic Russians were overrepresented, although there were also non-Russian leaders in the Soviet leadership, such as Joseph Stalin, Grigory Zinoviev, Nikolai Podgorny or Andrei Gromyko. During the Soviet era, a significant number of ethnic Russians and Ukrainians migrated to other Soviet republics, and many of them settled there. According to the last census in 1989, the Russian "diaspora" in the Soviet republics had reached 25 million.In 1917, before the revolution, health conditions were significantly behind those of developed countries. As Lenin later noted, "Either the lice will defeat socialism, or socialism will defeat the lice". The Soviet principle of health care was conceived by the People's Commissariat for Health in 1918. Health care was to be controlled by the state and would be provided to its citizens free of charge, a revolutionary concept at the time. Article 42 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution gave all citizens the right to health protection and free access to any health institutions in the USSR. Before Leonid Brezhnev became General Secretary, the Soviet healthcare system was held in high esteem by many foreign specialists. This changed, however, from Brezhnev's accession and Mikhail Gorbachev's tenure as leader, during which the health care system was heavily criticized for many basic faults, such as the quality of service and the unevenness in its provision. Minister of Health Yevgeniy Chazov, during the 19th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, while highlighting such successes as having the most doctors and hospitals in the world, recognized the system's areas for improvement and felt that billions of Soviet rubles were squandered. After the revolution, life expectancy for all age groups went up. This statistic in itself was seen by some that the socialist system was superior to the capitalist system. These improvements continued into the 1960s when statistics indicated that the life expectancy briefly surpassed that of the United States. Life expectancy started to decline in the 1970s, possibly because of alcohol abuse. At the same time, infant mortality began to rise. After 1974, the government stopped publishing statistics on the matter. This trend can be partly explained by the number of pregnancies rising drastically in the Asian part of the country where infant mortality was the highest while declining markedly in the more developed European part of the Soviet Union.Soviet dental technology and dental health were considered notoriously bad. In 1991, the average 35-year-old had 12 to 14 cavities, fillings or missing teeth. Toothpaste was often not available, and toothbrushes did not conform to standards of modern dentistry.Under Lenin, the government gave small language groups their own writing systems. The development of these writing systems was highly successful, even though some flaws were detected. During the later days of the USSR, countries with the same multilingual situation implemented similar policies. A serious problem when creating these writing systems was that the languages differed dialectally greatly from each other. When a language had been given a writing system and appeared in a notable publication, it would attain "official language" status. There were many minority languages which never received their own writing system; therefore, their speakers were forced to have a second language. There are examples where the government retreated from this policy, most notably under Stalin where education was discontinued in languages that were not widespread. These languages were then assimilated into another language, mostly Russian. During World War II, some minority languages were banned, and their speakers accused of collaborating with the enemy.As the most widely spoken of the Soviet Union's many languages, Russian "de facto" functioned as an official language, as the "language of interethnic communication" (), but only assumed the "de jure" status as the official national language in 1990.Christianity and Islam had the highest number of adherents among the religious citizens. Eastern Christianity predominated among Christians, with Russia's traditional Russian Orthodox Church being the largest Christian denomination. About 90% of the Soviet Union's Muslims were Sunnis, with Shias being concentrated in the Azerbaijan SSR. Smaller groups included Roman Catholics, Jews, Buddhists, and a variety of Protestant denominations (especially Baptists and Lutherans).Religious influence had been strong in the Russian Empire. The Russian Orthodox Church enjoyed a privileged status as the church of the monarchy and took part in carrying out official state functions. The immediate period following the establishment of the Soviet state included a struggle against the Orthodox Church, which the revolutionaries considered an ally of the former ruling classes.In Soviet law, the "freedom to hold religious services" was constitutionally guaranteed, although the ruling Communist Party regarded religion as incompatible with the Marxist spirit of scientific materialism. In practice, the Soviet system subscribed to a narrow interpretation of this right, and in fact utilized a range of official measures to discourage religion and curb the activities of religious groups.The 1918 Council of People's Commissars decree establishing the Russian SFSR as a secular state also decreed that "the teaching of religion in all [places] where subjects of general instruction are taught, is forbidden. Citizens may teach and may be taught religion privately." Among further restrictions, those adopted in 1929 included express prohibitions on a range of church activities, including meetings for organized Bible study. Both Christian and non-Christian establishments were shut down by the thousands in the 1920s and 1930s. By 1940, as many as 90% of the churches, synagogues, and mosques that had been operating in 1917 were closed.Under the doctrine of state atheism, a "government-sponsored program of forced conversion to atheism" was conducted. The government targeted religions based on state interests, and while most organized religions were never outlawed, religious property was confiscated, believers were harassed, and religion was ridiculed while atheism was propagated in schools. In 1925, the government founded the League of Militant Atheists to intensify the propaganda campaign. Accordingly, although personal expressions of religious faith were not explicitly banned, a strong sense of social stigma was imposed on them by the formal structures and mass media, and it was generally considered unacceptable for members of certain professions (teachers, state bureaucrats, soldiers) to be openly religious. While persecution accelerated following Stalin's rise to power, a revival of Orthodoxy was fostered by the government during World War II and the Soviet authorities sought to control the Russian Orthodox Church rather than liquidate it. During the first five years of Soviet power, the Bolsheviks executed 28 Russian Orthodox bishops and over 1,200 Russian Orthodox priests. Many others were imprisoned or exiled. Believers were harassed and persecuted. Most seminaries were closed, and the publication of most religious material was prohibited. By 1941, only 500 churches remained open out of about 54,000 in existence before World War I.Convinced that religious anti-Sovietism had become a thing of the past, and with the looming threat of war, the Stalin regime began shifting to a more moderate religion policy in the late 1930s. Soviet religious establishments overwhelmingly rallied to support the war effort during World War II. Amid other accommodations to religious faith after the German invasion, churches were reopened. Radio Moscow began broadcasting a religious hour, and a historic meeting between Stalin and Orthodox Church leader Patriarch Sergius of Moscow was held in 1943. Stalin had the support of the majority of the religious people in the USSR even through the late 1980s. The general tendency of this period was an increase in religious activity among believers of all faiths.Under Nikita Khrushchev, the state leadership clashed with the churches in 1958–1964, a period when atheism was emphasized in the educational curriculum, and numerous state publications promoted atheistic views. During this period, the number of churches fell from 20,000 to 10,000 from 1959 to 1965, and the number of synagogues dropped from 500 to 97. The number of working mosques also declined, falling from 1,500 to 500 within a decade.Religious institutions remained monitored by the Soviet government, but churches, synagogues, temples, and mosques were all given more leeway in the Brezhnev era. Official relations between the Orthodox Church and the government again warmed to the point that the Brezhnev government twice honored Orthodox Patriarch Alexy I with the Order of the Red Banner of Labour. A poll conducted by Soviet authorities in 1982 recorded 20% of the Soviet population as "active religious believers."The legacy of the USSR remains a controversial topic. The socio-economic nature of communist states such as the USSR, especially under Stalin, has also been much debated, varyingly being labelled a form of bureaucratic collectivism, state capitalism, state socialism, or a totally unique mode of production.The USSR implemented a broad range of policies over a long period of time, with a large amount of conflicting policies being implemented by different leaders. Some have a positive view of it whilst others are critical towards the country, calling it a repressive oligarchy. The opinions on the USSR are complex and have changed over time, with different generations having different views on the matter as well as on Soviet policies corresponding to separate time periods during its history. Leftists have largely varying views on the USSR. Whilst some leftists such as anarchists and other libertarian socialists, agree it did not give the workers control over the means of production and was a centralized oligarchy, others have more positive opinions as to the Bolshevik policies and Vladimir Lenin. Many anti-Stalinist leftists such as anarchists are extremely critical of Soviet authoritarianism and repression. Much of the criticism it receives is centered around massacres in the Soviet Union, the centralized hierarchy present in the USSR and mass political repression as well as violence towards government critics and political dissidents such as other leftists. Critics also point towards its failure to implement any substantial worker cooperatives or implementing worker liberation as well as corruption and the Soviet authoritarian nature.Many Russians and other former Soviet citizens have nostalgia for the USSR, pointing towards most infrastructure being built during Soviet times, increased job security, increased literacy rate, increased caloric intake and supposed ethnic pluralism enacted in the Soviet Union as well as political stability. The Russian Revolution is also seen in a positive light as well as the leadership of Lenin, Nikita Khrushchev and the later USSR, although many view Joseph Stalin's rule as positive for the country. In Armenia, 12% of respondents said the USSR collapse did good, while 66% said it did harm. In Kyrgyzstan, 16% of respondents said the collapse of the USSR did good, while 61% said it did harm. In a 2018 Rating Sociological Group poll, 47% of Ukrainian respondents had a positive opinion of Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, who ruled the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982. Much of the admiration of the USSR comes from the failings of the modern post-Soviet governments such as the control by oligarchs, corruption and outdated Soviet-era infrastructure as well as the rise and dominance of organised crime after the collapse of the USSR all directly leading into nostalgia for it.The 1941–45 period of World War II is still known in Russia as the "Great Patriotic War". The war became a topic of great importance in cinema, literature, history lessons at school, the mass media, and the arts. As a result of the massive losses suffered by the military and civilians during the conflict, Victory Day celebrated on 9 May is still one of the most important and emotional dates in Russia.In some post Soviet republics, there is a more negative view of the USSR, although there is no unanimity on the matter. In large part due to the Holodomor, ethnic Ukrainians have a negative view of it. Russian-speaking Ukrainians of Ukraine's southern and eastern regions have a more positive view of the USSR. In some countries with internal conflict, there is also nostalgia for the USSR, especially for refugees of the post-Soviet conflicts who have been forced to flee their homes and have been displaced. This nostalgia is less an admiration for the country or its policies than it is a longing to return to their homes and not to live in poverty. The many Russian enclaves in the former USSR republics such as Transnistria have in a general a positive remembrance of it.The left's view of the USSR is complex. While some leftists regard the USSR as an example of state capitalism or that it was an oligarchical state, other leftists admire Vladimir Lenin and the Russian Revolution.Council communists generally view the USSR as failing to create class consciousness, turning into a corrupt state in which the elite controlled society. Anarchists are critical of the country, labeling the Soviet system as "red fascism". Soviets actively destroyed anarchist organizations and anarchist communities, labeling anarchists as "enemies of the people". Factors contributing to the animosity towards the USSR included: the Soviet invasion of the anarchist Free Territory, the suppression of the anarchist Kronstadt rebellion and the response to the Norilsk uprising, in which prisoners created a radical system of government based on cooperatives and direct democracy in the Gulag. Anarchist organizations and unions were also banned during the Spanish Civil War under the Republican government by orders from the Soviet government. Due to this, anarchists generally hold a large animosity towards the USSR.The culture of the Soviet Union passed through several stages during the USSR's existence. During the first decade following the revolution, there was relative freedom and artists experimented with several different styles to find a distinctive Soviet style of art. Lenin wanted art to be accessible to the Russian people. On the other hand, hundreds of intellectuals, writers, and artists were exiled or executed, and their work banned, such as Nikolay Gumilyov who was shot for alleged conspiring against the Bolshevik regime, and Yevgeny Zamyatin.The government encouraged a variety of trends. In art and literature, numerous schools, some traditional and others radically experimental, proliferated. Communist writers Maxim Gorky and Vladimir Mayakovsky were active during this time. As a means of influencing a largely illiterate society, films received encouragement from the state, and much of director Sergei Eisenstein's best work dates from this period.During Stalin's rule, the Soviet culture was characterized by the rise and domination of the government-imposed style of socialist realism, with all other trends being severely repressed, with rare exceptions, such as Mikhail Bulgakov's works. Many writers were imprisoned and killed.Following the Khrushchev Thaw, censorship was diminished. During this time, a distinctive period of Soviet culture developed, characterized by conformist public life and an intense focus on personal life. Greater experimentation in art forms was again permissible, resulting in the production of more sophisticated and subtly critical work. The regime loosened its emphasis on socialist realism; thus, for instance, many protagonists of the novels of author Yury Trifonov concerned themselves with problems of daily life rather than with building socialism. Underground dissident literature, known as "samizdat", developed during this late period. In architecture, the Khrushchev era mostly focused on functional design as opposed to the highly decorated style of Stalin's epoch. In music, in response to the increasing popularity of forms of popular music like jazz in the West, many jazz orchestras were permitted throughout the USSR, notably the Melodiya Ensemble, named after the principle record label in the USSR.In the second half of the 1980s, Gorbachev's policies of "perestroika" and "glasnost" significantly expanded freedom of expression throughout the country in the media and the press.Founded on 20 July 1924 in Moscow, "Sovetsky Sport" was the first sports newspaper of the Soviet Union.The Soviet Olympic Committee formed on 21 April 1951, and the IOC recognized the new body in its 45th session. In the same year, when the Soviet representative Konstantin Andrianov became an IOC member, the USSR officially joined the Olympic Movement. The 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki thus became first Olympic Games for Soviet athletes. The Soviet Union was the biggest rival to the United States at the Summer Olympics, winning six of its nine appearances at the games and also topping the medal tally at the Winter Olympics six times. The Soviet Union's Olympics success has been attributed to its large investment in sports to demonstrate its superpower image and political influence on a global stage.The Soviet Union national ice hockey team won nearly every world championship and Olympic tournament between 1954 and 1991 and never failed to medal in any International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) tournament in which they competed.The advent of the state-sponsored "full-time amateur athlete" of the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self-financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. The Soviet Union entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession – in reality, the state paid many of these competitors to train on a full-time basis. Nevertheless, the IOC held to the traditional rules regarding amateurism.A 1989 report by a committee of the Australian Senate claimed that "there is hardly a medal winner at the Moscow Games, certainly not a gold medal winner...who is not on one sort of drug or another: usually several kinds. The Moscow Games might well have been called the Chemists' Games".A member of the IOC Medical Commission, Manfred Donike, privately ran additional tests with a new technique for identifying abnormal levels of testosterone by measuring its ratio to epitestosterone in urine. Twenty percent of the specimens he tested, including those from sixteen gold medalists, would have resulted in disciplinary proceedings had the tests been official. The results of Donike's unofficial tests later convinced the IOC to add his new technique to their testing protocols. The first documented case of "blood doping" occurred at the 1980 Summer Olympics when a runner was transfused with two pints of blood before winning medals in the 5000 m and 10,000 m.Documentation obtained in 2016 revealed the Soviet Union's plans for a statewide doping system in track and field in preparation for the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. Dated before the decision to boycott the 1984 Games, the document detailed the existing steroids operations of the program, along with suggestions for further enhancements. Dr. Sergei Portugalov of the Institute for Physical Culture prepared the communication, directed to the Soviet Union's head of track and field. Portugalov later became one of the leading figures involved in the implementation of Russian doping before the 2016 Summer Olympics.Official Soviet environmental policy has always attached great importance to actions in which human beings actively improve nature. Lenin's quote "Communism is Soviet power and electrification of the country!" in many respects summarizes the focus on modernization and industrial development. During the first five-year plan in 1928, Stalin proceeded to industrialize the country at all costs. Values such as environmental and nature protection have been completely ignored in the struggle to create a modern industrial society. After Stalin's death, they focused more on environmental issues, but the basic perception of the value of environmental protection remained the same.The Soviet media has always focused on the vast expanse of land and the virtually indestructible natural resources. This made it feel that contamination and uncontrolled exploitation of nature were not a problem. The Soviet state also firmly believed that scientific and technological progress would solve all the problems. Official ideology said that under socialism environmental problems could easily be overcome, unlike capitalist countries, where they seemingly could not be solved. The Soviet authorities had an almost unwavering belief that man could transcend nature. However, when the authorities had to admit that there were environmental problems in the USSR in the 1980s, they explained the problems in such a way that socialism had not yet been fully developed; pollution in a socialist society was only a temporary anomaly that would have been resolved if socialism had developed.The Chernobyl disaster in 1986 was the first major accident at a civilian nuclear power plant. Unparalleled in the world, it resulted in a large number of radioactive isotopes being released into the atmosphere. Radioactive doses have scattered relatively far. 4,000 new cases of thyroid cancer were reported after the incident, but this led to a relatively low number of deaths (WHO data, 2005). However, the long-term effects of the accident are unknown. Another major accident is the Kyshtym disaster.After the fall of the USSR, it was discovered that the environmental problems were greater than what the Soviet authorities admitted. The Kola Peninsula was one of the places with clear problems. Around the industrial cities of Monchegorsk and Norilsk, where nickel, for example, is mined, all forests have been destroyed by contamination, while the northern and other parts of Russia have been affected by emissions. During the 1990s, people in the West were also interested in the radioactive hazards of nuclear facilities, decommissioned nuclear submarines, and the processing of nuclear waste or spent nuclear fuel. It was also known in the early 1990s that the USSR had transported radioactive material to the Barents Sea and Kara Sea, which was later confirmed by the Russian parliament. The crash of the K-141 Kursk submarine in 2000 in the west further raised concerns. In the past, there were accidents involving submarines K-19, K-8, and K-129. | [
"Georgy Malenkov",
"Alexei Kosygin",
"Nikolai Ryzhkov",
"Nikita Khrushchev",
"Joseph Stalin",
"Ivan Silayev",
"Vladimir Lenin",
"Nikolai Bulganin",
"Nikolai Tikhonov",
"Vyacheslav Molotov",
"Valentin Pavlov"
] |
|
Who was the head of Soviet Union in 06/06/1928? | June 06, 1928 | {
"text": [
"Alexei Rykov"
]
} | L2_Q15180_P6_1 | Vladimir Lenin is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Jul, 1923 to Jan, 1924.
Vyacheslav Molotov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Dec, 1930 to May, 1941.
Alexei Kosygin is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Oct, 1964 to Oct, 1980.
Alexei Rykov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Feb, 1924 to Dec, 1930.
Nikolai Ryzhkov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Sep, 1985 to Jan, 1991.
Nikolai Tikhonov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Oct, 1980 to Sep, 1985.
Nikita Khrushchev is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Mar, 1958 to Oct, 1964.
Nikolai Bulganin is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Feb, 1955 to Mar, 1958.
Georgy Malenkov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Mar, 1953 to Feb, 1955.
Valentin Pavlov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Jan, 1991 to Aug, 1991.
Joseph Stalin is the head of the government of Soviet Union from May, 1941 to Mar, 1953.
Ivan Silayev is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Sep, 1991 to Dec, 1991. | Soviet UnionThe Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), was a socialist state that spanned most of Europe and Asia during its existence from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a federal union of multiple national republics; in practice its government and economy were highly centralized until its final years. The country was a one-party state prior to 1990 governed by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, with Moscow as its capital within its largest and most populous republic, the Russian SFSR. Other major urban centers were Leningrad (Russian SFSR), Kiev (Ukrainian SSR), Minsk (Byelorussian SSR), Tashkent (Uzbek SSR), Alma-Ata (Kazakh SSR) and Novosibirsk (Russian SFSR). It was the largest country in the world, covering over , and spanning eleven time zones. The Soviet Union's five biomes were tundra, taiga, steppes, desert, and mountains. Its diverse population was officially known as the Soviet people.The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 when the Bolsheviks, headed by Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Provisional Government that had earlier replaced the monarchy of the Russian Empire. They established the Russian Soviet Republic, beginning a civil war between the Bolshevik Red Army and many anti-Bolshevik forces across the former Empire, among whom the largest faction was the White Guard, which engaged in violent anti-communist repression against the Bolsheviks and their worker and peasant supporters known as the White Terror. The Red Army expanded and helped local Bolsheviks take power, establishing soviets, repressing their political opponents and rebellious peasants through Red Terror. By 1922, the Bolsheviks had emerged victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian and Byelorussian republics. The New Economic Policy (NEP), which was introduced by Lenin, led to a partial return of a free market and private property; this resulted in a period of economic recovery.Following Lenin's death in 1924, Joseph Stalin came to power. Stalin suppressed all political opposition to his rule inside the Communist Party and inaugurated a command economy. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and forced collectivization, which led to significant economic growth, but also led to a man-made famine in 1932–1933 and expanded the Gulag labour camp system originally established in 1918. Stalin also fomented political paranoia and conducted the Great Purge to remove his actual and perceived opponents from the Party through mass arrests of military leaders, Communist Party members, and ordinary citizens alike, who were then sent to correctional labor camps or sentenced to death.On 23 August 1939, after unsuccessful efforts to form an anti-fascist alliance with Western powers, the Soviets signed the non-aggression agreement with Nazi Germany. After the start of World War II, the formally neutral Soviets invaded and annexed territories of several Eastern European states, including eastern Poland and the Baltic states. In June 1941 the Germans invaded, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the cost of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at intense battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin and won World War II in Europe on 9 May 1945. The territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged in 1947 as a result of a post-war Soviet dominance in Eastern Europe, where the Eastern Bloc confronted the Western Bloc that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949.Following Stalin's death in 1953, a period known as de-Stalinization and the Khrushchev Thaw occurred under the leadership of Nikita Khrushchev. The country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took an early lead in the Space Race with the first ever satellite and the first human spaceflight and the first probe to land on another planet, Venus. In the 1970s, there was a brief "détente" of relations with the United States, but tensions resumed when the Soviet Union deployed troops in Afghanistan in 1979. The war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters.In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to further reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of "glasnost" and "perestroika". The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing economic stagnation. The Cold War ended during his tenure and in 1989, Warsaw Pact countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective Marxist-Leninist regimes. Strong nationalist and separatist movements broke out across the USSR. Gorbachev initiated a referendum—boycotted by the Baltic republics, Armenia, Georgia, and Moldova—which resulted in the majority of participating citizens voting in favor of preserving the Union as a renewed federation. In August 1991, a coup d'état was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a high-profile role in facing down the coup. The main result was the banning of the Communist Party. The republics led by Russia and Ukraine declared independence. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned. All the republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states. The Russian Federation (formerly the Russian SFSR) assumed the Soviet Union's rights and obligations and is recognized as its continued legal personality in world affairs.The USSR produced many significant social and technological achievements and innovations regarding military power. It boasted the world's second-largest economy and the largest standing military in the world. The USSR was recognized as one of the five nuclear weapons states. It was a founding permanent member of the United Nations Security Council as well as a member of the OSCE, the WFTU and the leading member of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and the Warsaw Pact.Before its dissolution, the USSR had maintained its status as one of the world's two superpowers for four decades after World War II. Sometimes also called "Soviet Empire", it exercised its hegemony in Eastern Europe and worldwide with military and economic strength, proxy conflicts and influence in developing countries and funding of scientific research, especially in space technology and weaponry.The word "soviet" is derived from the Russian word "sovet" (), meaning "council", "assembly", "advice", ultimately deriving from the proto-Slavic verbal stem of "vět-iti" ("to inform"), related to Slavic "věst" ("news"), English "wise", the root in "ad-vis-or" (which came to English through French), or the Dutch "weten" ("to know"; cf. "wetenschap" meaning "science"). The word "sovietnik" means "councillor".Some organizations in Russian history were called "council" (). In the Russian Empire, the State Council which functioned from 1810 to 1917 was referred to as a Council of Ministers after the revolt of 1905.During the Georgian Affair, Vladimir Lenin envisioned an expression of Great Russian ethnic chauvinism by Joseph Stalin and his supporters, calling for these nation-states to join Russia as semi-independent parts of a greater union which he initially named as the Union of Soviet Republics of Europe and Asia (). Stalin initially resisted the proposal but ultimately accepted it, although with Lenin's agreement changed the name to the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), albeit all the republics began as "socialist soviet" and did not change to the other order until 1936. In addition, in the national languages of several republics, the word "council" or "conciliar" in the respective language was only quite late changed to an adaptation of the Russian "soviet" and never in others, e.g. Ukraine."СССР" (in Latin alphabet: "SSSR") is the abbreviation of USSR in Russian. It is written in Cyrillic letters. The Soviets used the Cyrillic abbreviation so frequently that audiences worldwide became familiar with its meaning. Notably, both Cyrillic letters used have homoglyphic (but transliterally distinct) letters in Latin alphabets. Because of widespread familiarity with the Cyrillic abbreviation, Latin alphabet users in particular almost always use the Latin homoglyphs "C" and "P" (as opposed to the transliteral Latin letters "S" and "R") when rendering the USSR's native abbreviation.After "СССР", the most common short form names for the Soviet state in Russian were "Советский Союз" (transliteration: "Sovetskiy Soyuz") which literally means "Soviet Union", and also "Союз ССР" (transliteration: "Soyuz SSR") which, after compensating for grammatical differences, essentially translates to "Union of SSR's" in English.In the English language media, the state was referred to as the Soviet Union or the USSR. In other European languages, the locally translated short forms and abbreviations are usually used such as "Union soviétique" and "URSS" in French, or "Sowjetunion" and "UdSSR" in German. In the English-speaking world, the Soviet Union was also informally called Russia and its citizens Russians, although that was technically incorrect since Russia was only one of the republics. Such misapplications of the linguistic equivalents to the term "Russia" and its derivatives were frequent in other languages as well.The Soviet Union covered an area of over , and was the world's largest country, a status that is retained by its successor state, Russia. It covered a sixth of Earth's land surface, and its size was comparable to the continent of North America. Its western part in Europe accounted for a quarter of the country's area and was the cultural and economic center. The eastern part in Asia extended to the Pacific Ocean to the east and Afghanistan to the south, and, except some areas in Central Asia, was much less populous. It spanned over east to west across eleven time zones, and over north to south. It had five climate zones: tundra, taiga, steppes, desert and mountains.The Soviet Union, similarly to Russia, had the world's longest border, measuring over , or circumferences of Earth. Two-thirds of it was a coastline. The country bordered Afghanistan, China, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Hungary, Iran, Mongolia, North Korea, Norway, Poland, Romania, and Turkey from 1945 to 1991. The Bering Strait separated the country from the United States, while the La Pérouse Strait separated it from Japan.The Soviet Union's highest mountain was Communism Peak (now Ismoil Somoni Peak) in Tajik SSR, at . It also included most of the world's largest lakes; the Caspian Sea (shared with Iran), and Lake Baikal in Russia, the world's largest and deepest freshwater lake.Modern revolutionary activity in the Russian Empire began with the 1825 Decembrist revolt. Although serfdom was abolished in 1861, it was done on terms unfavorable to the peasants and served to encourage revolutionaries. A parliament—the State Duma—was established in 1906 after the Russian Revolution of 1905, but Tsar Nicholas II resisted attempts to move from absolute to a constitutional monarchy. Social unrest continued and was aggravated during World War I by military defeat and food shortages in major cities.A spontaneous popular uprising in Petrograd, in response to the wartime decay of Russia's economy and morale, culminated in the February Revolution and the toppling of Nicholas II and the imperial government in March 1917. The tsarist autocracy was replaced by the Russian Provisional Government, which intended to conduct elections to the Russian Constituent Assembly and to continue fighting on the side of the Entente in World War I.At the same time, workers' councils, known in Russian as "Soviets", sprang up across the country. The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, pushed for socialist revolution in the Soviets and on the streets. On 7 November 1917, the Red Guards stormed the Winter Palace in Petrograd, ending the rule of the Provisional Government and leaving all political power to the Soviets. This event would later be officially known in Soviet bibliographies as the Great October Socialist Revolution. In December, the Bolsheviks signed an armistice with the Central Powers, though by February 1918, fighting had resumed. In March, the Soviets ended involvement in the war and signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.A long and bloody Civil War ensued between the Reds and the Whites, starting in 1917 and ending in 1923 with the Reds' victory. It included foreign intervention, the execution of the former tsar and his family, and the famine of 1921, which killed about five million people. In March 1921, during a related conflict with Poland, the Peace of Riga was signed, splitting disputed territories in Belarus and Ukraine between the Republic of Poland and Soviet Russia. Soviet Russia had to resolve similar conflicts with the newly established republics of Estonia, Finland, Latvia, and Lithuania.On 28 December 1922, a conference of plenipotentiary delegations from the Russian SFSR, the Transcaucasian SFSR, the Ukrainian SSR and the Byelorussian SSR approved the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR and the Declaration of the Creation of the USSR, forming the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. These two documents were confirmed by the first Congress of Soviets of the USSR and signed by the heads of the delegations, Mikhail Kalinin, Mikhail Tskhakaya, Mikhail Frunze, Grigory Petrovsky, and Alexander Chervyakov, on 30 December 1922. The formal proclamation was made from the stage of the Bolshoi Theatre.An intensive restructuring of the economy, industry and politics of the country began in the early days of Soviet power in 1917. A large part of this was done according to the Bolshevik Initial Decrees, government documents signed by Vladimir Lenin. One of the most prominent breakthroughs was the GOELRO plan, which envisioned a major restructuring of the Soviet economy based on total electrification of the country. The plan became the prototype for subsequent Five-Year Plans and was fulfilled by 1931. After the economic policy of "War communism" during the Russian Civil War, as a prelude to fully developing socialism in the country, the Soviet government permitted some private enterprise to coexist alongside nationalized industry in the 1920s, and total food requisition in the countryside was replaced by a food tax.From its creation, the government in the Soviet Union was based on the one-party rule of the Communist Party (Bolsheviks). The stated purpose was to prevent the return of capitalist exploitation, and that the principles of democratic centralism would be the most effective in representing the people's will in a practical manner. The debate over the future of the economy provided the background for a power struggle in the years after Lenin's death in 1924. Initially, Lenin was to be replaced by a "troika" consisting of Grigory Zinoviev of the Ukrainian SSR, Lev Kamenev of the Russian SFSR, and Joseph Stalin of the Transcaucasian SFSR.On 1 February 1924, the USSR was recognized by the United Kingdom. The same year, a Soviet Constitution was approved, legitimizing the December 1922 union. According to Archie Brown the constitution was never an accurate guide to political reality in the USSR. For example the fact that the Party played the leading role in making and enforcing policy was not mentioned in it until 1977. The USSR was a federative entity of many constituent republics, each with its own political and administrative entities. However, the term "Soviet Russia"strictly applicable only to the Russian Federative Socialist Republicwas often applied to the entire country by non-Soviet writers.On 3 April 1922, Stalin was named the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Lenin had appointed Stalin the head of the Workers' and Peasants' Inspectorate, which gave Stalin considerable power. By gradually consolidating his influence and isolating and outmanoeuvring his rivals within the party, Stalin became the undisputed leader of the country and, by the end of the 1920s, established a totalitarian rule. In October 1927, Zinoviev and Leon Trotsky were expelled from the Central Committee and forced into exile.In 1928, Stalin introduced the first five-year plan for building a socialist economy. In place of the internationalism expressed by Lenin throughout the Revolution, it aimed to build Socialism in One Country. In industry, the state assumed control over all existing enterprises and undertook an intensive program of industrialization. In agriculture, rather than adhering to the "lead by example" policy advocated by Lenin, forced collectivization of farms was implemented all over the country.Famines ensued as a result, causing deaths estimated at three to seven million; surviving kulaks were persecuted, and many were sent to Gulags to do forced labor. Social upheaval continued in the mid-1930s. Despite the turmoil of the mid-to-late 1930s, the country developed a robust industrial economy in the years preceding World War II.Closer cooperation between the USSR and the West developed in the early 1930s. From 1932 to 1934, the country participated in the World Disarmament Conference. In 1933, diplomatic relations between the United States and the USSR were established when in November, the newly elected President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt, chose to recognize Stalin's Communist government formally and negotiated a new trade agreement between the two countries. In September 1934, the country joined the League of Nations. After the Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936, the USSR actively supported the Republican forces against the Nationalists, who were supported by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany.In December 1936, Stalin unveiled a new constitution that was praised by supporters around the world as the most democratic constitution imaginable, though there was some skepticism. Stalin's Great Purge resulted in the detainment or execution of many "Old Bolsheviks" who had participated in the October Revolution with Lenin. According to declassified Soviet archives, the NKVD arrested more than one and a half million people in 1937 and 1938, of whom 681,692 were shot. Over those two years, there were an average of over one thousand executions a day.In 1939, after attempts to form a military alliance with Britain and France against Germany failed, the Soviet Union made a dramatic shift towards Nazi Germany. Almost a year after Britain and France had concluded the Munich Agreement with Germany, the Soviet Union made agreements with Germany as well, both militarily and economically during extensive talks. The two countries concluded the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and the German–Soviet Commercial Agreement in August 1939. The former made possible the Soviet occupation of Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Bessarabia, northern Bukovina, and eastern Poland, while the Soviets remained formally neutral. In late November, unable to coerce the Republic of Finland by diplomatic means into moving its border back from Leningrad, Stalin ordered the invasion of Finland. In the east, the Soviet military won several decisive victories during border clashes with the Empire of Japan in 1938 and 1939. However, in April 1941, the USSR signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact with Japan, recognizing the territorial integrity of Manchukuo, a Japanese puppet state.Germany broke the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 starting what was known in the USSR as the Great Patriotic War. The Red Army stopped the seemingly invincible German Army at the Battle of Moscow. The Battle of Stalingrad, which lasted from late 1942 to early 1943, dealt a severe blow to Germany from which they never fully recovered and became a turning point in the war. After Stalingrad, Soviet forces drove through Eastern Europe to Berlin before Germany surrendered in 1945. The German Army suffered 80% of its military deaths in the Eastern Front. Harry Hopkins, a close foreign policy advisor to Franklin D. Roosevelt, spoke on 10 August 1943 of the USSR's decisive role in the war.In the same year, the USSR, in fulfilment of its agreement with the Allies at the Yalta Conference, denounced the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1945 and invaded Manchukuo and other Japan-controlled territories on 9 August 1945. This conflict ended with a decisive Soviet victory, contributing to the unconditional surrender of Japan and the end of World War II.The USSR suffered greatly in the war, losing around 27 million people. Approximately 2.8 million Soviet POWs died of starvation, mistreatment, or executions in just eight months of 1941–42. During the war, the country together with the United States, the United Kingdom and China were considered the Big Four Allied powers, and later became the Four Policemen that formed the basis of the United Nations Security Council. It emerged as a superpower in the post-war period. Once denied diplomatic recognition by the Western world, the USSR had official relations with practically every country by the late 1940s. A member of the United Nations at its foundation in 1945, the country became one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, which gave it the right to veto any of its resolutions.During the immediate post-war period, the Soviet Union rebuilt and expanded its economy, while maintaining its strictly centralized control. It took effective control over most of the countries of Eastern Europe (except Yugoslavia and later Albania), turning them into satellite states. The USSR bound its satellite states in a military alliance, the Warsaw Pact, in 1955, and an economic organization, Council for Mutual Economic Assistance or Comecon, a counterpart to the European Economic Community (EEC), from 1949 to 1991. The USSR concentrated on its own recovery, seizing and transferring most of Germany's industrial plants, and it exacted war reparations from East Germany, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. It also instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favor the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Later, the Comecon supplied aid to the eventually victorious Communist Party of China, and its influence grew elsewhere in the world. Fearing its ambitions, the Soviet Union's wartime allies, the United Kingdom and the United States, became its enemies. In the ensuing Cold War, the two sides clashed indirectly in proxy wars.Stalin died on 5 March 1953. Without a mutually agreeable successor, the highest Communist Party officials initially opted to rule the Soviet Union jointly through a troika headed by Georgy Malenkov. This did not last, however, and Nikita Khrushchev eventually won the ensuing power struggle by the mid-1950s. In 1956, he denounced Joseph Stalin and proceeded to ease controls over the party and society. This was known as de-Stalinization.Moscow considered Eastern Europe to be a critically vital buffer zone for the forward defence of its western borders, in case of another major invasion such as the German invasion of 1941. For this reason, the USSR sought to cement its control of the region by transforming the Eastern European countries into satellite states, dependent upon and subservient to its leadership. As a result, Soviet military forces were used to suppress an anti-communist uprising in Hungary in 1956.In the late 1950s, a confrontation with China regarding the Soviet rapprochement with the West, and what Mao Zedong perceived as Khrushchev's revisionism, led to the Sino–Soviet split. This resulted in a break throughout the global Marxist–Leninist movement, with the governments in Albania, Cambodia and Somalia choosing to ally with China.During this period of the late 1950s and early 1960s, the USSR continued to realize scientific and technological exploits in the Space Race, rivaling the United States: launching the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1 in 1957; a living dog named Laika in 1957; the first human being, Yuri Gagarin in 1961; the first woman in space, Valentina Tereshkova in 1963; Alexei Leonov, the first person to walk in space in 1965; the first soft landing on the Moon by spacecraft Luna 9 in 1966; and the first Moon rovers, Lunokhod 1 and Lunokhod 2.Khrushchev initiated "The Thaw", a complex shift in political, cultural and economic life in the country. This included some openness and contact with other nations and new social and economic policies with more emphasis on commodity goods, allowing a dramatic rise in living standards while maintaining high levels of economic growth. Censorship was relaxed as well. Khrushchev's reforms in agriculture and administration, however, were generally unproductive. In 1962, he precipitated a crisis with the United States over the Soviet deployment of nuclear missiles in Cuba. An agreement was made with the United States to remove nuclear missiles from both Cuba and Turkey, concluding the crisis. This event caused Khrushchev much embarrassment and loss of prestige, resulting in his removal from power in 1964.Following the ousting of Khrushchev, another period of collective leadership ensued, consisting of Leonid Brezhnev as General Secretary, Alexei Kosygin as Premier and Nikolai Podgorny as Chairman of the Presidium, lasting until Brezhnev established himself in the early 1970s as the preeminent Soviet leader.In 1968, the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact allies invaded Czechoslovakia to halt the Prague Spring reforms. In the aftermath, Brezhnev justified the invasion and previous military interventions as well as any potential military interventions in the future by introducing the Brezhnev Doctrine, which proclaimed any threat to socialist rule in a Warsaw Pact state as a threat to all Warsaw Pact states, therefore justifying military intervention.Brezhnev presided throughout "détente" with the West that resulted in treaties on armament control (SALT I, SALT II, Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty) while at the same time building up Soviet military might.In October 1977, the third Soviet Constitution was unanimously adopted. The prevailing mood of the Soviet leadership at the time of Brezhnev's death in 1982 was one of aversion to change. The long period of Brezhnev's rule had come to be dubbed one of "standstill", with an ageing and ossified top political leadership. This period is also known as the Era of Stagnation, a period of adverse economic, political, and social effects in the country, which began during the rule of Brezhnev and continued under his successors Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko.In late 1979, the Soviet Union's military intervened in the ongoing civil war in neighboring Afghanistan, effectively ending a détente with the West.Two developments dominated the decade that followed: the increasingly apparent crumbling of the Soviet Union's economic and political structures, and the patchwork attempts at reforms to reverse that process. Kenneth S. Deffeyes argued in "Beyond Oil" that the Reagan administration encouraged Saudi Arabia to lower the price of oil to the point where the Soviets could not make a profit selling their oil, and resulted in the depletion of the country's hard currency reserves.Brezhnev's next two successors, transitional figures with deep roots in his tradition, did not last long. Yuri Andropov was 68 years old and Konstantin Chernenko 72 when they assumed power; both died in less than two years. In an attempt to avoid a third short-lived leader, in 1985, the Soviets turned to the next generation and selected Mikhail Gorbachev. He made significant changes in the economy and party leadership, called "perestroika". His policy of "glasnost" freed public access to information after decades of heavy government censorship. Gorbachev also moved to end the Cold War. In 1988, the USSR abandoned its war in Afghanistan and began to withdraw its forces. In the following year, Gorbachev refused to interfere in the internal affairs of the Soviet satellite states, which paved the way for the Revolutions of 1989. In particular, the standstill of the Soviet Union at the Pan-European Picnic in August 1989 then set a peaceful chain reaction in motion at the end of which the Eastern Bloc collapsed. With the tearing down of the Berlin Wall and with East and West Germany pursuing unification, the Iron Curtain between the West and Soviet-controlled regions came down.At the same time, the Soviet republics started legal moves towards potentially declaring sovereignty over their territories, citing the freedom to secede in Article 72 of the USSR constitution. On 7 April 1990, a law was passed allowing a republic to secede if more than two-thirds of its residents voted for it in a referendum. Many held their first free elections in the Soviet era for their own national legislatures in 1990. Many of these legislatures proceeded to produce legislation contradicting the Union laws in what was known as the "War of Laws". In 1989, the Russian SFSR convened a newly elected Congress of People's Deputies. Boris Yeltsin was elected its chairman. On 12 June 1990, the Congress declared Russia's sovereignty over its territory and proceeded to pass laws that attempted to supersede some of the Soviet laws. After a landslide victory of Sąjūdis in Lithuania, that country declared its independence restored on 11 March 1990.A referendum for the preservation of the USSR was held on 17 March 1991 in nine republics (the remainder having boycotted the vote), with the majority of the population in those republics voting for preservation of the Union. The referendum gave Gorbachev a minor boost. In the summer of 1991, the New Union Treaty, which would have turned the country into a much looser Union, was agreed upon by eight republics. The signing of the treaty, however, was interrupted by the August Coup—an attempted coup d'état by hardline members of the government and the KGB who sought to reverse Gorbachev's reforms and reassert the central government's control over the republics. After the coup collapsed, Yeltsin was seen as a hero for his decisive actions, while Gorbachev's power was effectively ended. The balance of power tipped significantly towards the republics. In August 1991, Latvia and Estonia immediately declared the restoration of their full independence (following Lithuania's 1990 example). Gorbachev resigned as general secretary in late August, and soon afterwards, the party's activities were indefinitely suspended—effectively ending its rule. By the fall, Gorbachev could no longer influence events outside Moscow, and he was being challenged even there by Yeltsin, who had been elected President of Russia in July 1991.The remaining 12 republics continued discussing new, increasingly looser, models of the Union. However, by December all except Russia and Kazakhstan had formally declared independence. During this time, Yeltsin took over what remained of the Soviet government, including the Moscow Kremlin. The final blow was struck on 1 December when Ukraine, the second-most powerful republic, voted overwhelmingly for independence. Ukraine's secession ended any realistic chance of the country staying together even on a limited scale.On 8 December 1991, the presidents of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus (formerly Byelorussia), signed the Belavezha Accords, which declared the Soviet Union dissolved and established the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in its place. While doubts remained over the authority of the accords to do this, on 21 December 1991, the representatives of all Soviet republics except Georgia signed the Alma-Ata Protocol, which confirmed the accords. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned as the President of the USSR, declaring the office extinct. He turned the powers that had been vested in the presidency over to Yeltsin. That night, the Soviet flag was lowered for the last time, and the Russian tricolor was raised in its place.The following day, the Supreme Soviet, the highest governmental body, voted both itself and the country out of existence. This is generally recognized as marking the official, final dissolution of the Soviet Union as a functioning state, and the end of the Cold War. The Soviet Army initially remained under overall CIS command but was soon absorbed into the different military forces of the newly independent states. The few remaining Soviet institutions that had not been taken over by Russia ceased to function by the end of 1991.Following the dissolution, Russia was internationally recognized as its legal successor on the international stage. To that end, Russia voluntarily accepted all Soviet foreign debt and claimed Soviet overseas properties as its own. Under the 1992 Lisbon Protocol, Russia also agreed to receive all nuclear weapons remaining in the territory of other former Soviet republics. Since then, the Russian Federation has assumed the Soviet Union's rights and obligations. Ukraine has refused to recognize exclusive Russian claims to succession of the USSR and claimed such status for Ukraine as well, which was codified in Articles 7 and 8 of its 1991 law On Legal Succession of Ukraine. Since its independence in 1991, Ukraine has continued to pursue claims against Russia in foreign courts, seeking to recover its share of the foreign property that was owned by the USSR.The dissolution was followed by a severe drop in economic and social conditions in post-Soviet states, including a rapid increase in poverty, crime, corruption, unemployment, homelessness, rates of disease, infant mortality and domestic violence, as well as demographic losses and income inequality and the rise of an oligarchical class, along with decreases in calorie intake, life expectancy, adult literacy, and income. Between 1988–1989 and 1993–1995, the Gini ratio increased by an average of 9 points for all former socialist countries. The economic shocks that accompanied wholesale privatization were associated with sharp increases in mortality. Data shows Russia, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia saw a tripling of unemployment and a 42% increase in male death rates between 1991 and 1994. In the following decades, only five or six of the post-communist states are on a path to joining the wealthy capitalist West while most are falling behind, some to such an extent that it will take over fifty years to catch up to where they were before the fall of the Soviet Bloc.In summing up the international ramifications of these events, Vladislav Zubok stated: "The collapse of the Soviet empire was an event of epochal geopolitical, military, ideological, and economic significance." Before the dissolution, the country had maintained its status as one of the world's two superpowers for four decades after World War II through its hegemony in Eastern Europe, military strength, economic strength, aid to developing countries, and scientific research, especially in space technology and weaponry.The analysis of the succession of states for the 15 post-Soviet states is complex. The Russian Federation is seen as the legal "continuator" state and is for most purposes the heir to the Soviet Union. It retained ownership of all former Soviet embassy properties, as well as the old Soviet UN membership and permanent membership on the Security Council.Of the two other co-founding states of the USSR at the time of the dissolution, Ukraine was the only one that had passed laws, similar to Russia, that it is a state-successor of both the Ukrainian SSR and the USSR. Soviet treaties laid groundwork for Ukraine's future foreign agreements as well as they led to Ukraine agreeing to undertake 16.37% of debts of the Soviet Union for which it was going to receive its share of USSR's foreign property. Although it had a tough position at the time, due to Russia's position as a "single continuation of the USSR" that became widely accepted in the West as well as a constant pressure from the Western countries, allowed Russia to dispose state property of USSR abroad and conceal information about it. Due to that Ukraine never ratified "zero option" agreement that Russian Federation had signed with other former Soviet republics, as it denied disclosing of information about Soviet Gold Reserves and its Diamond Fund. The dispute over former Soviet property and assets between the two former republics is still ongoing:Similar situation occurred with restitution of cultural property. Although on 14 February 1992 Russia and other former Soviet republics signed agreement "On the return of cultural and historic property to the origin states" in Minsk, it was halted by Russian State Duma that had eventually passed "Federal Law on Cultural Valuables Displaced to the USSR as a Result of the Second World War and Located on the Territory of the Russian Federation" which made restitution currently impossible.There are additionally four states that claim independence from the other internationally recognised post-Soviet states but possess limited international recognition: Abkhazia, Nagorno-Karabakh, South Ossetia and Transnistria. The Chechen separatist movement of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria lacks any international recognition.During his rule, Stalin always made the final policy decisions. Otherwise, Soviet foreign policy was set by the commission on the Foreign Policy of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, or by the party's highest body the Politburo. Operations were handled by the separate Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It was known as the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs (or Narkomindel), until 1946. The most influential spokesmen were Georgy Chicherin (1872–1936), Maxim Litvinov (1876–1951), Vyacheslav Molotov (1890–1986), Andrey Vyshinsky (1883–1954) and Andrei Gromyko (1909–1989). Intellectuals were based in the Moscow State Institute of International Relations.The Marxist-Leninist leadership of the Soviet Union intensely debated foreign policy issues and change directions several times. Even after Stalin assumed dictatorial control in the late 1920s, there were debates, and he frequently changed positions.During the country's early period, it was assumed that Communist revolutions would break out soon in every major industrial country, and it was the Soviet responsibility to assist them. The Comintern was the weapon of choice. A few revolutions did break out, but they were quickly suppressed (the longest lasting one was in Hungary)—the Hungarian Soviet Republic—lasted only from 21 March 1919 to 1 August 1919. The Russian Bolsheviks were in no position to give any help.By 1921, Lenin, Trotsky, and Stalin realized that capitalism had stabilized itself in Europe and there would not be any widespread revolutions anytime soon. It became the duty of the Russian Bolsheviks to protect what they had in Russia, and avoid military confrontations that might destroy their bridgehead. Russia was now a pariah state, along with Germany. The two came to terms in 1922 with the Treaty of Rapallo that settled long-standing grievances. At the same time, the two countries secretly set up training programs for the illegal German army and air force operations at hidden camps in the USSR.Moscow eventually stopped threatening other states, and instead worked to open peaceful relationships in terms of trade, and diplomatic recognition. The United Kingdom dismissed the warnings of Winston Churchill and a few others about a continuing Marxist-Leninist threat, and opened trade relations and "de facto" diplomatic recognition in 1922. There was hope for a settlement of the pre-war Tsarist debts, but it was repeatedly postponed. Formal recognition came when the new Labour Party came to power in 1924. All the other countries followed suit in opening trade relations. Henry Ford opened large-scale business relations with the Soviets in the late 1920s, hoping that it would lead to long-term peace. Finally, in 1933, the United States officially recognized the USSR, a decision backed by the public opinion and especially by US business interests that expected an opening of a new profitable market.In the late 1920s and early 1930s, Stalin ordered Marxist-Leninist parties across the world to strongly oppose non-Marxist political parties, labor unions or other organizations on the left. Stalin reversed himself in 1934 with the Popular Front program that called on all Marxist parties to join together with all anti-Fascist political, labor, and organizational forces that were opposed to fascism, especially of the Nazi variety.In 1939, half a year after the Munich Agreement, the USSR attempted to form an anti-Nazi alliance with France and Britain. Adolf Hitler proposed a better deal, which would give the USSR control over much of Eastern Europe through the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. In September, Germany invaded Poland, and the USSR also invaded later that month, resulting in the partition of Poland. In response, Britain and France declared war on Germany, marking the beginning of World War II.There were three power hierarchies in the Soviet Union: the legislature represented by the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, the government represented by the Council of Ministers, and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), the only legal party and the final policymaker in the country.At the top of the Communist Party was the Central Committee, elected at Party Congresses and Conferences. In turn, the Central Committee voted for a Politburo (called the Presidium between 1952 and 1966), Secretariat and the General Secretary (First Secretary from 1953 to 1966), the "de facto" highest office in the Soviet Union. Depending on the degree of power consolidation, it was either the Politburo as a collective body or the General Secretary, who always was one of the Politburo members, that effectively led the party and the country (except for the period of the highly personalized authority of Stalin, exercised directly through his position in the Council of Ministers rather than the Politburo after 1941). They were not controlled by the general party membership, as the key principle of the party organization was democratic centralism, demanding strict subordination to higher bodies, and elections went uncontested, endorsing the candidates proposed from above.The Communist Party maintained its dominance over the state mainly through its control over the system of appointments. All senior government officials and most deputies of the Supreme Soviet were members of the CPSU. Of the party heads themselves, Stalin (1941–1953) and Khrushchev (1958–1964) were Premiers. Upon the forced retirement of Khrushchev, the party leader was prohibited from this kind of double membership, but the later General Secretaries for at least some part of their tenure occupied the mostly ceremonial position of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the nominal head of state. The institutions at lower levels were overseen and at times supplanted by primary party organizations.However, in practice the degree of control the party was able to exercise over the state bureaucracy, particularly after the death of Stalin, was far from total, with the bureaucracy pursuing different interests that were at times in conflict with the party. Nor was the party itself monolithic from top to bottom, although factions were officially banned.The Supreme Soviet (successor of the Congress of Soviets) was nominally the highest state body for most of the Soviet history, at first acting as a rubber stamp institution, approving and implementing all decisions made by the party. However, its powers and functions were extended in the late 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, including the creation of new state commissions and committees. It gained additional powers relating to the approval of the Five-Year Plans and the government budget. The Supreme Soviet elected a Presidium (successor of the Central Executive Committee) to wield its power between plenary sessions, ordinarily held twice a year, and appointed the Supreme Court, the Procurator General and the Council of Ministers (known before 1946 as the Council of People's Commissars), headed by the Chairman (Premier) and managing an enormous bureaucracy responsible for the administration of the economy and society. State and party structures of the constituent republics largely emulated the structure of the central institutions, although the Russian SFSR, unlike the other constituent republics, for most of its history had no republican branch of the CPSU, being ruled directly by the union-wide party until 1990. Local authorities were organized likewise into party committees, local Soviets and executive committees. While the state system was nominally federal, the party was unitary.The state security police (the KGB and ) played an important role in Soviet politics. It was instrumental in the Great Purge, but was brought under strict party control after Stalin's death. Under Yuri Andropov, the KGB engaged in the suppression of political dissent and maintained an extensive network of informers, reasserting itself as a political actor to some extent independent of the party-state structure, culminating in the anti-corruption campaign targeting high-ranking party officials in the late 1970s and early 1980s.The constitution, which was promulgated in 1924, 1936 and 1977, did not limit state power. No formal separation of powers existed between the Party, Supreme Soviet and Council of Ministers that represented executive and legislative branches of the government. The system was governed less by statute than by informal conventions, and no settled mechanism of leadership succession existed. Bitter and at times deadly power struggles took place in the Politburo after the deaths of Lenin and Stalin, as well as after Khrushchev's dismissal, itself due to a decision by both the Politburo and the Central Committee. All leaders of the Communist Party before Gorbachev died in office, except Georgy Malenkov and Khrushchev, both dismissed from the party leadership amid internal struggle within the party.Between 1988 and 1990, facing considerable opposition, Mikhail Gorbachev enacted reforms shifting power away from the highest bodies of the party and making the Supreme Soviet less dependent on them. The Congress of People's Deputies was established, the majority of whose members were directly elected in competitive elections held in March 1989. The Congress now elected the Supreme Soviet, which became a full-time parliament, and much stronger than before. For the first time since the 1920s, it refused to rubber stamp proposals from the party and Council of Ministers. In 1990, Gorbachev introduced and assumed the position of the President of the Soviet Union, concentrated power in his executive office, independent of the party, and subordinated the government, now renamed the Cabinet of Ministers of the USSR, to himself.Tensions grew between the Union-wide authorities under Gorbachev, reformists led in Russia by Boris Yeltsin and controlling the newly elected Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR, and communist hardliners. On 19–21 August 1991, a group of hardliners staged a coup attempt. The coup failed, and the State Council of the Soviet Union became the highest organ of state power "in the period of transition". Gorbachev resigned as General Secretary, only remaining President for the final months of the existence of the USSR.The judiciary was not independent of the other branches of government. The Supreme Court supervised the lower courts (People's Court) and applied the law as established by the constitution or as interpreted by the Supreme Soviet. The Constitutional Oversight Committee reviewed the constitutionality of laws and acts. The Soviet Union used the inquisitorial system of Roman law, where the judge, procurator, and defence attorney collaborate to establish the truth.Constitutionally, the USSR was a federation of constituent Union Republics, which were either unitary states, such as Ukraine or Byelorussia (SSRs), or federations, such as Russia or Transcaucasia (SFSRs), all four being the founding republics who signed the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR in December 1922. In 1924, during the national delimitation in Central Asia, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan were formed from parts of Russia's Turkestan ASSR and two Soviet dependencies, the Khorezm and Bukharan SSRs. In 1929, Tajikistan was split off from the Uzbekistan SSR. With the constitution of 1936, the Transcaucasian SFSR was dissolved, resulting in its constituent republics of Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan being elevated to Union Republics, while Kazakhstan and Kirghizia were split off from Russian SFSR, resulting in the same status. In August 1940, Moldavia was formed from parts of Ukraine and Bessarabia and northern Bukovina. Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania (SSRs) were also admitted into the union which was not recognized by most of the international community and was considered an illegal occupation. Karelia was split off from Russia as a Union Republic in March 1940 and was reabsorbed in 1956. Between July 1956 and September 1991, there were 15 union republics (see map below).While nominally a union of equals, in practice the Soviet Union was dominated by Russians. The domination was so absolute that for most of its existence, the country was commonly (but incorrectly) referred to as "Russia". While the RSFSR was technically only one republic within the larger union, it was by far the largest (both in terms of population and area), most powerful, most developed, and the industrial center of the Soviet Union. Historian Matthew White wrote that it was an open secret that the country's federal structure was "window dressing" for Russian dominance. For that reason, the people of the USSR were usually called "Russians", not "Soviets", since "everyone knew who really ran the show".Under the Military Law of September 1925, the Soviet Armed Forces consisted of the Land Forces, the Air Force, the Navy, Joint State Political Directorate (OGPU), and the Internal Troops. The OGPU later became independent and in 1934 joined the NKVD, and so its internal troops were under the joint leadership of the defense and internal commissariats. After World War II, Strategic Missile Forces (1959), Air Defense Forces (1948) and National Civil Defense Forces (1970) were formed, which ranked first, third, and sixth in the official Soviet system of importance (ground forces were second, Air Force Fourth, and Navy Fifth).The army had the greatest political influence. In 1989, there served two million soldiers divided between 150 motorized and 52 armored divisions. Until the early 1960s, the Soviet navy was a rather small military branch, but after the Caribbean crisis, under the leadership of Sergei Gorshkov, it expanded significantly. It became known for battlecruisers and submarines. In 1989 there served 500 000 men. The Soviet Air Force focused on a fleet of strategic bombers and during war situation was to eradicate enemy infrastructure and nuclear capacity. The air force also had a number of fighters and tactical bombers to support the army in the war. Strategic missile forces had more than 1,400 intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), deployed between 28 bases and 300 command centers.In the post-war period, the Soviet Army was directly involved in several military operations abroad. These included the suppression of the uprising in East Germany (1953), Hungarian revolution (1956) and the invasion of Czechoslovakia (1968). The Soviet Union also participated in the war in Afghanistan between 1979 and 1989.In the Soviet Union, general conscription applied.At the end of the 1950s, with the help of engineers and technologies captured and imported from defeated Nazi Germany, the Soviets constructed the first satellite – Sputnik 1 and thus overtook the United States in terms of utilizing space. This was followed by other successful satellites, where test dogs flight was sent. On April 12, 1961, the first cosmonaut, Yuri Gagarin, was sent to the space. He once flew around the Earth and successfully landed in the Kazakh steppe. At that time, the first plans for space shuttles and orbital stations were drawn up in Soviet design offices, but in the end personal disputes between designers and management prevented this.As for Lunar space program; USSR only had a program on automated spacecraft launches; with no manned spacecraft used; passing on the "Moon Race" part of Space Race.In the 1970s, specific proposals for the design of the space shuttle began to emerge, but shortcomings, especially in the electronics industry (rapid overheating of electronics), postponed the program until the end of the 1980s. The first shuttle, the Buran, flew in 1988, but without a human crew. Another shuttle, "Ptichka", eventually ended up under construction, as the shuttle project was canceled in 1991. For their launch into space, there is today an unused superpower rocket, Energia, which is the most powerful in the world.In the late 1980s, the Soviet Union managed to build the "Mir" orbital station. It was built on the construction of "Salyut" stations and its only role was civilian-grade research tasks. The Soviet Union adopted a command economy, whereby production and distribution of goods were centralized and directed by the government. The first Bolshevik experience with a command economy was the policy of War communism, which involved the nationalization of industry, centralized distribution of output, coercive requisition of agricultural production, and attempts to eliminate money circulation, private enterprises and free trade. After the severe economic collapse, Lenin replaced war communism by the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921, legalizing free trade and private ownership of small businesses. The economy quickly recovered as a result.After a long debate among the members of the Politburo about the course of economic development, by 1928–1929, upon gaining control of the country, Stalin abandoned the NEP and pushed for full central planning, starting forced collectivization of agriculture and enacting draconian labor legislation. Resources were mobilized for rapid industrialization, which significantly expanded Soviet capacity in heavy industry and capital goods during the 1930s. The primary motivation for industrialization was preparation for war, mostly due to distrust of the outside capitalist world. As a result, the USSR was transformed from a largely agrarian economy into a great industrial power, leading the way for its emergence as a superpower after World War II. The war caused extensive devastation of the Soviet economy and infrastructure, which required massive reconstruction.By the early 1940s, the Soviet economy had become relatively self-sufficient; for most of the period until the creation of Comecon, only a tiny share of domestic products was traded internationally. After the creation of the Eastern Bloc, external trade rose rapidly. However, the influence of the world economy on the USSR was limited by fixed domestic prices and a state monopoly on foreign trade. Grain and sophisticated consumer manufactures became major import articles from around the 1960s. During the arms race of the Cold War, the Soviet economy was burdened by military expenditures, heavily lobbied for by a powerful bureaucracy dependent on the arms industry. At the same time, the USSR became the largest arms exporter to the Third World. Significant amounts of Soviet resources during the Cold War were allocated in aid to the other socialist states.From the 1930s until its dissolution in late 1991, the way the Soviet economy operated remained essentially unchanged. The economy was formally directed by central planning, carried out by Gosplan and organized in five-year plans. However, in practice, the plans were highly aggregated and provisional, subject to "ad hoc" intervention by superiors. All critical economic decisions were taken by the political leadership. Allocated resources and plan targets were usually denominated in rubles rather than in physical goods. Credit was discouraged, but widespread. The final allocation of output was achieved through relatively decentralized, unplanned contracting. Although in theory prices were legally set from above, in practice they were often negotiated, and informal horizontal links (e.g. between producer factories) were widespread.A number of basic services were state-funded, such as education and health care. In the manufacturing sector, heavy industry and defence were prioritized over consumer goods. Consumer goods, particularly outside large cities, were often scarce, of poor quality and limited variety. Under the command economy, consumers had almost no influence on production, and the changing demands of a population with growing incomes could not be satisfied by supplies at rigidly fixed prices. A massive unplanned second economy grew up at low levels alongside the planned one, providing some of the goods and services that the planners could not. The legalization of some elements of the decentralized economy was attempted with the reform of 1965.Although statistics of the Soviet economy are notoriously unreliable and its economic growth difficult to estimate precisely, by most accounts, the economy continued to expand until the mid-1980s. During the 1950s and 1960s, it had comparatively high growth and was catching up to the West. However, after 1970, the growth, while still positive, steadily declined much more quickly and consistently than in other countries, despite a rapid increase in the capital stock (the rate of capital increase was only surpassed by Japan).Overall, the growth rate of per capita income in the Soviet Union between 1960 and 1989 was slightly above the world average (based on 102 countries). According to Stanley Fischer and William Easterly, growth could have been faster. By their calculation, per capita income in 1989 should have been twice higher than it was, considering the amount of investment, education and population. The authors attribute this poor performance to the low productivity of capital. Steven Rosenfielde states that the standard of living declined due to Stalin's despotism. While there was a brief improvement after his death, it lapsed into stagnation.In 1987, Mikhail Gorbachev attempted to reform and revitalize the economy with his program of "perestroika". His policies relaxed state control over enterprises but did not replace it by market incentives, resulting in a sharp decline in output. The economy, already suffering from reduced petroleum export revenues, started to collapse. Prices were still fixed, and the property was still largely state-owned until after the country's dissolution. For most of the period after World War II until its collapse, Soviet GDP (PPP) was the second-largest in the world, and third during the second half of the 1980s, although on a per-capita basis, it was behind that of First World countries. Compared to countries with similar per-capita GDP in 1928, the Soviet Union experienced significant growth.In 1990, the country had a Human Development Index of 0.920, placing it in the "high" category of human development. It was the third-highest in the Eastern Bloc, behind Czechoslovakia and East Germany, and the 25th in the world of 130 countries.The need for fuel declined in the Soviet Union from the 1970s to the 1980s, both per ruble of gross social product and per ruble of industrial product. At the start, this decline grew very rapidly but gradually slowed down between 1970 and 1975. From 1975 and 1980, it grew even slower, only 2.6%. David Wilson, a historian, believed that the gas industry would account for 40% of Soviet fuel production by the end of the century. His theory did not come to fruition because of the USSR's collapse. The USSR, in theory, would have continued to have an economic growth rate of 2–2.5% during the 1990s because of Soviet energy fields. However, the energy sector faced many difficulties, among them the country's high military expenditure and hostile relations with the First World.In 1991, the Soviet Union had a pipeline network of for crude oil and another for natural gas. Petroleum and petroleum-based products, natural gas, metals, wood, agricultural products, and a variety of manufactured goods, primarily machinery, arms and military equipment, were exported. In the 1970s and 1980s, the USSR heavily relied on fossil fuel exports to earn hard currency. At its peak in 1988, it was the largest producer and second-largest exporter of crude oil, surpassed only by Saudi Arabia.The Soviet Union placed great emphasis on science and technology within its economy, however, the most remarkable Soviet successes in technology, such as producing the world's first space satellite, typically were the responsibility of the military. Lenin believed that the USSR would never overtake the developed world if it remained as technologically backward as it was upon its founding. Soviet authorities proved their commitment to Lenin's belief by developing massive networks, research and development organizations. In the early 1960s, the Soviets awarded 40% of chemistry PhDs to women, compared to only 5% in the United States. By 1989, Soviet scientists were among the world's best-trained specialists in several areas, such as energy physics, selected areas of medicine, mathematics, welding and military technologies. Due to rigid state planning and bureaucracy, the Soviets remained far behind technologically in chemistry, biology, and computers when compared to the First World.Under the Reagan administration, Project Socrates determined that the Soviet Union addressed the acquisition of science and technology in a manner that was radically different from what the US was using. In the case of the US, economic prioritization was being used for indigenous research and development as the means to acquire science and technology in both the private and public sectors. In contrast, the USSR was offensively and defensively maneuvering in the acquisition and utilization of the worldwide technology, to increase the competitive advantage that they acquired from the technology while preventing the US from acquiring a competitive advantage. However, technology-based planning was executed in a centralized, government-centric manner that greatly hindered its flexibility. This was exploited by the US to undermine the strength of the Soviet Union and thus foster its reform.Transport was a vital component of the country's economy. The economic centralization of the late 1920s and 1930s led to the development of infrastructure on a massive scale, most notably the establishment of Aeroflot, an aviation enterprise. The country had a wide variety of modes of transport by land, water and air. However, due to inadequate maintenance, much of the road, water and Soviet civil aviation transport were outdated and technologically backward compared to the First World.Soviet rail transport was the largest and most intensively used in the world; it was also better developed than most of its Western counterparts. By the late 1970s and early 1980s, Soviet economists were calling for the construction of more roads to alleviate some of the burdens from the railways and to improve the Soviet government budget. The street network and automotive industry remained underdeveloped, and dirt roads were common outside major cities. Soviet maintenance projects proved unable to take care of even the few roads the country had. By the early-to-mid-1980s, the Soviet authorities tried to solve the road problem by ordering the construction of new ones. Meanwhile, the automobile industry was growing at a faster rate than road construction. The underdeveloped road network led to a growing demand for public transport.Despite improvements, several aspects of the transport sector were still riddled with problems due to outdated infrastructure, lack of investment, corruption and bad decision-making. Soviet authorities were unable to meet the growing demand for transport infrastructure and services.The Soviet merchant navy was one of the largest in the world.Excess deaths throughout World War I and the Russian Civil War (including the postwar famine) amounted to a combined total of 18 million, some 10 million in the 1930s, and more than 26 million in 1941–5. The postwar Soviet population was 45 to 50 million smaller than it would have been if pre-war demographic growth had continued. According to Catherine Merridale, "... reasonable estimate would place the total number of excess deaths for the whole period somewhere around 60 million."The birth rate of the USSR decreased from 44.0 per thousand in 1926 to 18.0 in 1974, mainly due to increasing urbanization and the rising average age of marriages. The mortality rate demonstrated a gradual decrease as well – from 23.7 per thousand in 1926 to 8.7 in 1974. In general, the birth rates of the southern republics in Transcaucasia and Central Asia were considerably higher than those in the northern parts of the Soviet Union, and in some cases even increased in the post–World War II period, a phenomenon partly attributed to slower rates of urbanistion and traditionally earlier marriages in the southern republics. Soviet Europe moved towards sub-replacement fertility, while Soviet Central Asia continued to exhibit population growth well above replacement-level fertility.The late 1960s and the 1970s witnessed a reversal of the declining trajectory of the rate of mortality in the USSR, and was especially notable among men of working age, but was also prevalent in Russia and other predominantly Slavic areas of the country. An analysis of the official data from the late 1980s showed that after worsening in the late-1970s and the early 1980s, adult mortality began to improve again. The infant mortality rate increased from 24.7 in 1970 to 27.9 in 1974. Some researchers regarded the rise as mostly real, a consequence of worsening health conditions and services. The rises in both adult and infant mortality were not explained or defended by Soviet officials, and the Soviet government stopped publishing all mortality statistics for ten years. Soviet demographers and health specialists remained silent about the mortality increases until the late-1980s, when the publication of mortality data resumed, and researchers could delve into the real causes.Under Lenin, the state made explicit commitments to promote the equality of men and women. Many early Russian feminists and ordinary Russian working women actively participated in the Revolution, and many more were affected by the events of that period and the new policies. Beginning in October 1918, Lenin's government liberalized divorce and abortion laws, decriminalized homosexuality (re-criminalized in the 1930s), permitted cohabitation, and ushered in a host of reforms. However, without birth control, the new system produced many broken marriages, as well as countless out-of-wedlock children. The epidemic of divorces and extramarital affairs created social hardships when Soviet leaders wanted people to concentrate their efforts on growing the economy. Giving women control over their fertility also led to a precipitous decline in the birth rate, perceived as a threat to their country's military power. By 1936, Stalin reversed most of the liberal laws, ushering in a pronatalist era that lasted for decades.By 1917, Russia became the first great power to grant women the right to vote. After heavy casualties in World War I and II, women outnumbered men in Russia by a 4:3 ratio. This contributed to the larger role women played in Russian society compared to other great powers at the time.Anatoly Lunacharsky became the first People's Commissar for Education of Soviet Russia. In the beginning, the Soviet authorities placed great emphasis on the elimination of illiteracy. All left-handed children were forced to write with their right hand in the Soviet school system. Literate people were automatically hired as teachers. For a short period, quality was sacrificed for quantity. By 1940, Stalin could announce that illiteracy had been eliminated. Throughout the 1930s, social mobility rose sharply, which has been attributed to reforms in education. In the aftermath of World War II, the country's educational system expanded dramatically, which had a tremendous effect. In the 1960s, nearly all children had access to education, the only exception being those living in remote areas. Nikita Khrushchev tried to make education more accessible, making it clear to children that education was closely linked to the needs of society. Education also became important in giving rise to the New Man. Citizens directly entering the workforce had the constitutional right to a job and to free vocational training.The education system was highly centralized and universally accessible to all citizens, with affirmative action for applicants from nations associated with cultural backwardness. However, as part of the general antisemitic policy, an unofficial Jewish quota was applied in the leading institutions of higher education by subjecting Jewish applicants to harsher entrance examinations. The Brezhnev era also introduced a rule that required all university applicants to present a reference from the local Komsomol party secretary. According to statistics from 1986, the number of higher education students per the population of 10,000 was 181 for the USSR, compared to 517 for the US.The Soviet Union was an ethnically diverse country, with more than 100 distinct ethnic groups. The total population of the country was estimated at 293 million in 1991. According to a 1990 estimate, the majority of the population were Russians (50.78%), followed by Ukrainians (15.45%) and Uzbeks (5.84%).All citizens of the USSR had their own ethnic affiliation. The ethnicity of a person was chosen at the age of sixteen by the child's parents. If the parents did not agree, the child was automatically assigned the ethnicity of the father. Partly due to Soviet policies, some of the smaller minority ethnic groups were considered part of larger ones, such as the Mingrelians of Georgia, who were classified with the linguistically related Georgians. Some ethnic groups voluntarily assimilated, while others were brought in by force. Russians, Belarusians, and Ukrainians, who were all East Slavic and Orthodox, shared close cultural, ethnic, and religious ties, while other groups did not. With multiple nationalities living in the same territory, ethnic antagonisms developed over the years.Members of various ethnicities participated in legislative bodies. Organs of power like the Politburo, the Secretariat of the Central Committee etc., were formally ethnically neutral, but in reality, ethnic Russians were overrepresented, although there were also non-Russian leaders in the Soviet leadership, such as Joseph Stalin, Grigory Zinoviev, Nikolai Podgorny or Andrei Gromyko. During the Soviet era, a significant number of ethnic Russians and Ukrainians migrated to other Soviet republics, and many of them settled there. According to the last census in 1989, the Russian "diaspora" in the Soviet republics had reached 25 million.In 1917, before the revolution, health conditions were significantly behind those of developed countries. As Lenin later noted, "Either the lice will defeat socialism, or socialism will defeat the lice". The Soviet principle of health care was conceived by the People's Commissariat for Health in 1918. Health care was to be controlled by the state and would be provided to its citizens free of charge, a revolutionary concept at the time. Article 42 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution gave all citizens the right to health protection and free access to any health institutions in the USSR. Before Leonid Brezhnev became General Secretary, the Soviet healthcare system was held in high esteem by many foreign specialists. This changed, however, from Brezhnev's accession and Mikhail Gorbachev's tenure as leader, during which the health care system was heavily criticized for many basic faults, such as the quality of service and the unevenness in its provision. Minister of Health Yevgeniy Chazov, during the 19th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, while highlighting such successes as having the most doctors and hospitals in the world, recognized the system's areas for improvement and felt that billions of Soviet rubles were squandered. After the revolution, life expectancy for all age groups went up. This statistic in itself was seen by some that the socialist system was superior to the capitalist system. These improvements continued into the 1960s when statistics indicated that the life expectancy briefly surpassed that of the United States. Life expectancy started to decline in the 1970s, possibly because of alcohol abuse. At the same time, infant mortality began to rise. After 1974, the government stopped publishing statistics on the matter. This trend can be partly explained by the number of pregnancies rising drastically in the Asian part of the country where infant mortality was the highest while declining markedly in the more developed European part of the Soviet Union.Soviet dental technology and dental health were considered notoriously bad. In 1991, the average 35-year-old had 12 to 14 cavities, fillings or missing teeth. Toothpaste was often not available, and toothbrushes did not conform to standards of modern dentistry.Under Lenin, the government gave small language groups their own writing systems. The development of these writing systems was highly successful, even though some flaws were detected. During the later days of the USSR, countries with the same multilingual situation implemented similar policies. A serious problem when creating these writing systems was that the languages differed dialectally greatly from each other. When a language had been given a writing system and appeared in a notable publication, it would attain "official language" status. There were many minority languages which never received their own writing system; therefore, their speakers were forced to have a second language. There are examples where the government retreated from this policy, most notably under Stalin where education was discontinued in languages that were not widespread. These languages were then assimilated into another language, mostly Russian. During World War II, some minority languages were banned, and their speakers accused of collaborating with the enemy.As the most widely spoken of the Soviet Union's many languages, Russian "de facto" functioned as an official language, as the "language of interethnic communication" (), but only assumed the "de jure" status as the official national language in 1990.Christianity and Islam had the highest number of adherents among the religious citizens. Eastern Christianity predominated among Christians, with Russia's traditional Russian Orthodox Church being the largest Christian denomination. About 90% of the Soviet Union's Muslims were Sunnis, with Shias being concentrated in the Azerbaijan SSR. Smaller groups included Roman Catholics, Jews, Buddhists, and a variety of Protestant denominations (especially Baptists and Lutherans).Religious influence had been strong in the Russian Empire. The Russian Orthodox Church enjoyed a privileged status as the church of the monarchy and took part in carrying out official state functions. The immediate period following the establishment of the Soviet state included a struggle against the Orthodox Church, which the revolutionaries considered an ally of the former ruling classes.In Soviet law, the "freedom to hold religious services" was constitutionally guaranteed, although the ruling Communist Party regarded religion as incompatible with the Marxist spirit of scientific materialism. In practice, the Soviet system subscribed to a narrow interpretation of this right, and in fact utilized a range of official measures to discourage religion and curb the activities of religious groups.The 1918 Council of People's Commissars decree establishing the Russian SFSR as a secular state also decreed that "the teaching of religion in all [places] where subjects of general instruction are taught, is forbidden. Citizens may teach and may be taught religion privately." Among further restrictions, those adopted in 1929 included express prohibitions on a range of church activities, including meetings for organized Bible study. Both Christian and non-Christian establishments were shut down by the thousands in the 1920s and 1930s. By 1940, as many as 90% of the churches, synagogues, and mosques that had been operating in 1917 were closed.Under the doctrine of state atheism, a "government-sponsored program of forced conversion to atheism" was conducted. The government targeted religions based on state interests, and while most organized religions were never outlawed, religious property was confiscated, believers were harassed, and religion was ridiculed while atheism was propagated in schools. In 1925, the government founded the League of Militant Atheists to intensify the propaganda campaign. Accordingly, although personal expressions of religious faith were not explicitly banned, a strong sense of social stigma was imposed on them by the formal structures and mass media, and it was generally considered unacceptable for members of certain professions (teachers, state bureaucrats, soldiers) to be openly religious. While persecution accelerated following Stalin's rise to power, a revival of Orthodoxy was fostered by the government during World War II and the Soviet authorities sought to control the Russian Orthodox Church rather than liquidate it. During the first five years of Soviet power, the Bolsheviks executed 28 Russian Orthodox bishops and over 1,200 Russian Orthodox priests. Many others were imprisoned or exiled. Believers were harassed and persecuted. Most seminaries were closed, and the publication of most religious material was prohibited. By 1941, only 500 churches remained open out of about 54,000 in existence before World War I.Convinced that religious anti-Sovietism had become a thing of the past, and with the looming threat of war, the Stalin regime began shifting to a more moderate religion policy in the late 1930s. Soviet religious establishments overwhelmingly rallied to support the war effort during World War II. Amid other accommodations to religious faith after the German invasion, churches were reopened. Radio Moscow began broadcasting a religious hour, and a historic meeting between Stalin and Orthodox Church leader Patriarch Sergius of Moscow was held in 1943. Stalin had the support of the majority of the religious people in the USSR even through the late 1980s. The general tendency of this period was an increase in religious activity among believers of all faiths.Under Nikita Khrushchev, the state leadership clashed with the churches in 1958–1964, a period when atheism was emphasized in the educational curriculum, and numerous state publications promoted atheistic views. During this period, the number of churches fell from 20,000 to 10,000 from 1959 to 1965, and the number of synagogues dropped from 500 to 97. The number of working mosques also declined, falling from 1,500 to 500 within a decade.Religious institutions remained monitored by the Soviet government, but churches, synagogues, temples, and mosques were all given more leeway in the Brezhnev era. Official relations between the Orthodox Church and the government again warmed to the point that the Brezhnev government twice honored Orthodox Patriarch Alexy I with the Order of the Red Banner of Labour. A poll conducted by Soviet authorities in 1982 recorded 20% of the Soviet population as "active religious believers."The legacy of the USSR remains a controversial topic. The socio-economic nature of communist states such as the USSR, especially under Stalin, has also been much debated, varyingly being labelled a form of bureaucratic collectivism, state capitalism, state socialism, or a totally unique mode of production.The USSR implemented a broad range of policies over a long period of time, with a large amount of conflicting policies being implemented by different leaders. Some have a positive view of it whilst others are critical towards the country, calling it a repressive oligarchy. The opinions on the USSR are complex and have changed over time, with different generations having different views on the matter as well as on Soviet policies corresponding to separate time periods during its history. Leftists have largely varying views on the USSR. Whilst some leftists such as anarchists and other libertarian socialists, agree it did not give the workers control over the means of production and was a centralized oligarchy, others have more positive opinions as to the Bolshevik policies and Vladimir Lenin. Many anti-Stalinist leftists such as anarchists are extremely critical of Soviet authoritarianism and repression. Much of the criticism it receives is centered around massacres in the Soviet Union, the centralized hierarchy present in the USSR and mass political repression as well as violence towards government critics and political dissidents such as other leftists. Critics also point towards its failure to implement any substantial worker cooperatives or implementing worker liberation as well as corruption and the Soviet authoritarian nature.Many Russians and other former Soviet citizens have nostalgia for the USSR, pointing towards most infrastructure being built during Soviet times, increased job security, increased literacy rate, increased caloric intake and supposed ethnic pluralism enacted in the Soviet Union as well as political stability. The Russian Revolution is also seen in a positive light as well as the leadership of Lenin, Nikita Khrushchev and the later USSR, although many view Joseph Stalin's rule as positive for the country. In Armenia, 12% of respondents said the USSR collapse did good, while 66% said it did harm. In Kyrgyzstan, 16% of respondents said the collapse of the USSR did good, while 61% said it did harm. In a 2018 Rating Sociological Group poll, 47% of Ukrainian respondents had a positive opinion of Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, who ruled the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982. Much of the admiration of the USSR comes from the failings of the modern post-Soviet governments such as the control by oligarchs, corruption and outdated Soviet-era infrastructure as well as the rise and dominance of organised crime after the collapse of the USSR all directly leading into nostalgia for it.The 1941–45 period of World War II is still known in Russia as the "Great Patriotic War". The war became a topic of great importance in cinema, literature, history lessons at school, the mass media, and the arts. As a result of the massive losses suffered by the military and civilians during the conflict, Victory Day celebrated on 9 May is still one of the most important and emotional dates in Russia.In some post Soviet republics, there is a more negative view of the USSR, although there is no unanimity on the matter. In large part due to the Holodomor, ethnic Ukrainians have a negative view of it. Russian-speaking Ukrainians of Ukraine's southern and eastern regions have a more positive view of the USSR. In some countries with internal conflict, there is also nostalgia for the USSR, especially for refugees of the post-Soviet conflicts who have been forced to flee their homes and have been displaced. This nostalgia is less an admiration for the country or its policies than it is a longing to return to their homes and not to live in poverty. The many Russian enclaves in the former USSR republics such as Transnistria have in a general a positive remembrance of it.The left's view of the USSR is complex. While some leftists regard the USSR as an example of state capitalism or that it was an oligarchical state, other leftists admire Vladimir Lenin and the Russian Revolution.Council communists generally view the USSR as failing to create class consciousness, turning into a corrupt state in which the elite controlled society. Anarchists are critical of the country, labeling the Soviet system as "red fascism". Soviets actively destroyed anarchist organizations and anarchist communities, labeling anarchists as "enemies of the people". Factors contributing to the animosity towards the USSR included: the Soviet invasion of the anarchist Free Territory, the suppression of the anarchist Kronstadt rebellion and the response to the Norilsk uprising, in which prisoners created a radical system of government based on cooperatives and direct democracy in the Gulag. Anarchist organizations and unions were also banned during the Spanish Civil War under the Republican government by orders from the Soviet government. Due to this, anarchists generally hold a large animosity towards the USSR.The culture of the Soviet Union passed through several stages during the USSR's existence. During the first decade following the revolution, there was relative freedom and artists experimented with several different styles to find a distinctive Soviet style of art. Lenin wanted art to be accessible to the Russian people. On the other hand, hundreds of intellectuals, writers, and artists were exiled or executed, and their work banned, such as Nikolay Gumilyov who was shot for alleged conspiring against the Bolshevik regime, and Yevgeny Zamyatin.The government encouraged a variety of trends. In art and literature, numerous schools, some traditional and others radically experimental, proliferated. Communist writers Maxim Gorky and Vladimir Mayakovsky were active during this time. As a means of influencing a largely illiterate society, films received encouragement from the state, and much of director Sergei Eisenstein's best work dates from this period.During Stalin's rule, the Soviet culture was characterized by the rise and domination of the government-imposed style of socialist realism, with all other trends being severely repressed, with rare exceptions, such as Mikhail Bulgakov's works. Many writers were imprisoned and killed.Following the Khrushchev Thaw, censorship was diminished. During this time, a distinctive period of Soviet culture developed, characterized by conformist public life and an intense focus on personal life. Greater experimentation in art forms was again permissible, resulting in the production of more sophisticated and subtly critical work. The regime loosened its emphasis on socialist realism; thus, for instance, many protagonists of the novels of author Yury Trifonov concerned themselves with problems of daily life rather than with building socialism. Underground dissident literature, known as "samizdat", developed during this late period. In architecture, the Khrushchev era mostly focused on functional design as opposed to the highly decorated style of Stalin's epoch. In music, in response to the increasing popularity of forms of popular music like jazz in the West, many jazz orchestras were permitted throughout the USSR, notably the Melodiya Ensemble, named after the principle record label in the USSR.In the second half of the 1980s, Gorbachev's policies of "perestroika" and "glasnost" significantly expanded freedom of expression throughout the country in the media and the press.Founded on 20 July 1924 in Moscow, "Sovetsky Sport" was the first sports newspaper of the Soviet Union.The Soviet Olympic Committee formed on 21 April 1951, and the IOC recognized the new body in its 45th session. In the same year, when the Soviet representative Konstantin Andrianov became an IOC member, the USSR officially joined the Olympic Movement. The 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki thus became first Olympic Games for Soviet athletes. The Soviet Union was the biggest rival to the United States at the Summer Olympics, winning six of its nine appearances at the games and also topping the medal tally at the Winter Olympics six times. The Soviet Union's Olympics success has been attributed to its large investment in sports to demonstrate its superpower image and political influence on a global stage.The Soviet Union national ice hockey team won nearly every world championship and Olympic tournament between 1954 and 1991 and never failed to medal in any International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) tournament in which they competed.The advent of the state-sponsored "full-time amateur athlete" of the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self-financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. The Soviet Union entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession – in reality, the state paid many of these competitors to train on a full-time basis. Nevertheless, the IOC held to the traditional rules regarding amateurism.A 1989 report by a committee of the Australian Senate claimed that "there is hardly a medal winner at the Moscow Games, certainly not a gold medal winner...who is not on one sort of drug or another: usually several kinds. The Moscow Games might well have been called the Chemists' Games".A member of the IOC Medical Commission, Manfred Donike, privately ran additional tests with a new technique for identifying abnormal levels of testosterone by measuring its ratio to epitestosterone in urine. Twenty percent of the specimens he tested, including those from sixteen gold medalists, would have resulted in disciplinary proceedings had the tests been official. The results of Donike's unofficial tests later convinced the IOC to add his new technique to their testing protocols. The first documented case of "blood doping" occurred at the 1980 Summer Olympics when a runner was transfused with two pints of blood before winning medals in the 5000 m and 10,000 m.Documentation obtained in 2016 revealed the Soviet Union's plans for a statewide doping system in track and field in preparation for the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. Dated before the decision to boycott the 1984 Games, the document detailed the existing steroids operations of the program, along with suggestions for further enhancements. Dr. Sergei Portugalov of the Institute for Physical Culture prepared the communication, directed to the Soviet Union's head of track and field. Portugalov later became one of the leading figures involved in the implementation of Russian doping before the 2016 Summer Olympics.Official Soviet environmental policy has always attached great importance to actions in which human beings actively improve nature. Lenin's quote "Communism is Soviet power and electrification of the country!" in many respects summarizes the focus on modernization and industrial development. During the first five-year plan in 1928, Stalin proceeded to industrialize the country at all costs. Values such as environmental and nature protection have been completely ignored in the struggle to create a modern industrial society. After Stalin's death, they focused more on environmental issues, but the basic perception of the value of environmental protection remained the same.The Soviet media has always focused on the vast expanse of land and the virtually indestructible natural resources. This made it feel that contamination and uncontrolled exploitation of nature were not a problem. The Soviet state also firmly believed that scientific and technological progress would solve all the problems. Official ideology said that under socialism environmental problems could easily be overcome, unlike capitalist countries, where they seemingly could not be solved. The Soviet authorities had an almost unwavering belief that man could transcend nature. However, when the authorities had to admit that there were environmental problems in the USSR in the 1980s, they explained the problems in such a way that socialism had not yet been fully developed; pollution in a socialist society was only a temporary anomaly that would have been resolved if socialism had developed.The Chernobyl disaster in 1986 was the first major accident at a civilian nuclear power plant. Unparalleled in the world, it resulted in a large number of radioactive isotopes being released into the atmosphere. Radioactive doses have scattered relatively far. 4,000 new cases of thyroid cancer were reported after the incident, but this led to a relatively low number of deaths (WHO data, 2005). However, the long-term effects of the accident are unknown. Another major accident is the Kyshtym disaster.After the fall of the USSR, it was discovered that the environmental problems were greater than what the Soviet authorities admitted. The Kola Peninsula was one of the places with clear problems. Around the industrial cities of Monchegorsk and Norilsk, where nickel, for example, is mined, all forests have been destroyed by contamination, while the northern and other parts of Russia have been affected by emissions. During the 1990s, people in the West were also interested in the radioactive hazards of nuclear facilities, decommissioned nuclear submarines, and the processing of nuclear waste or spent nuclear fuel. It was also known in the early 1990s that the USSR had transported radioactive material to the Barents Sea and Kara Sea, which was later confirmed by the Russian parliament. The crash of the K-141 Kursk submarine in 2000 in the west further raised concerns. In the past, there were accidents involving submarines K-19, K-8, and K-129. | [
"Georgy Malenkov",
"Alexei Kosygin",
"Nikolai Ryzhkov",
"Nikita Khrushchev",
"Joseph Stalin",
"Ivan Silayev",
"Vladimir Lenin",
"Nikolai Bulganin",
"Nikolai Tikhonov",
"Vyacheslav Molotov",
"Valentin Pavlov"
] |
|
Who was the head of Soviet Union in 06-Jun-192806-June-1928? | June 06, 1928 | {
"text": [
"Alexei Rykov"
]
} | L2_Q15180_P6_1 | Vladimir Lenin is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Jul, 1923 to Jan, 1924.
Vyacheslav Molotov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Dec, 1930 to May, 1941.
Alexei Kosygin is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Oct, 1964 to Oct, 1980.
Alexei Rykov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Feb, 1924 to Dec, 1930.
Nikolai Ryzhkov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Sep, 1985 to Jan, 1991.
Nikolai Tikhonov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Oct, 1980 to Sep, 1985.
Nikita Khrushchev is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Mar, 1958 to Oct, 1964.
Nikolai Bulganin is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Feb, 1955 to Mar, 1958.
Georgy Malenkov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Mar, 1953 to Feb, 1955.
Valentin Pavlov is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Jan, 1991 to Aug, 1991.
Joseph Stalin is the head of the government of Soviet Union from May, 1941 to Mar, 1953.
Ivan Silayev is the head of the government of Soviet Union from Sep, 1991 to Dec, 1991. | Soviet UnionThe Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), was a socialist state that spanned most of Europe and Asia during its existence from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a federal union of multiple national republics; in practice its government and economy were highly centralized until its final years. The country was a one-party state prior to 1990 governed by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, with Moscow as its capital within its largest and most populous republic, the Russian SFSR. Other major urban centers were Leningrad (Russian SFSR), Kiev (Ukrainian SSR), Minsk (Byelorussian SSR), Tashkent (Uzbek SSR), Alma-Ata (Kazakh SSR) and Novosibirsk (Russian SFSR). It was the largest country in the world, covering over , and spanning eleven time zones. The Soviet Union's five biomes were tundra, taiga, steppes, desert, and mountains. Its diverse population was officially known as the Soviet people.The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 when the Bolsheviks, headed by Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Provisional Government that had earlier replaced the monarchy of the Russian Empire. They established the Russian Soviet Republic, beginning a civil war between the Bolshevik Red Army and many anti-Bolshevik forces across the former Empire, among whom the largest faction was the White Guard, which engaged in violent anti-communist repression against the Bolsheviks and their worker and peasant supporters known as the White Terror. The Red Army expanded and helped local Bolsheviks take power, establishing soviets, repressing their political opponents and rebellious peasants through Red Terror. By 1922, the Bolsheviks had emerged victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian and Byelorussian republics. The New Economic Policy (NEP), which was introduced by Lenin, led to a partial return of a free market and private property; this resulted in a period of economic recovery.Following Lenin's death in 1924, Joseph Stalin came to power. Stalin suppressed all political opposition to his rule inside the Communist Party and inaugurated a command economy. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and forced collectivization, which led to significant economic growth, but also led to a man-made famine in 1932–1933 and expanded the Gulag labour camp system originally established in 1918. Stalin also fomented political paranoia and conducted the Great Purge to remove his actual and perceived opponents from the Party through mass arrests of military leaders, Communist Party members, and ordinary citizens alike, who were then sent to correctional labor camps or sentenced to death.On 23 August 1939, after unsuccessful efforts to form an anti-fascist alliance with Western powers, the Soviets signed the non-aggression agreement with Nazi Germany. After the start of World War II, the formally neutral Soviets invaded and annexed territories of several Eastern European states, including eastern Poland and the Baltic states. In June 1941 the Germans invaded, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the cost of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at intense battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin and won World War II in Europe on 9 May 1945. The territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged in 1947 as a result of a post-war Soviet dominance in Eastern Europe, where the Eastern Bloc confronted the Western Bloc that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949.Following Stalin's death in 1953, a period known as de-Stalinization and the Khrushchev Thaw occurred under the leadership of Nikita Khrushchev. The country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took an early lead in the Space Race with the first ever satellite and the first human spaceflight and the first probe to land on another planet, Venus. In the 1970s, there was a brief "détente" of relations with the United States, but tensions resumed when the Soviet Union deployed troops in Afghanistan in 1979. The war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters.In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to further reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of "glasnost" and "perestroika". The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing economic stagnation. The Cold War ended during his tenure and in 1989, Warsaw Pact countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective Marxist-Leninist regimes. Strong nationalist and separatist movements broke out across the USSR. Gorbachev initiated a referendum—boycotted by the Baltic republics, Armenia, Georgia, and Moldova—which resulted in the majority of participating citizens voting in favor of preserving the Union as a renewed federation. In August 1991, a coup d'état was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a high-profile role in facing down the coup. The main result was the banning of the Communist Party. The republics led by Russia and Ukraine declared independence. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned. All the republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states. The Russian Federation (formerly the Russian SFSR) assumed the Soviet Union's rights and obligations and is recognized as its continued legal personality in world affairs.The USSR produced many significant social and technological achievements and innovations regarding military power. It boasted the world's second-largest economy and the largest standing military in the world. The USSR was recognized as one of the five nuclear weapons states. It was a founding permanent member of the United Nations Security Council as well as a member of the OSCE, the WFTU and the leading member of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and the Warsaw Pact.Before its dissolution, the USSR had maintained its status as one of the world's two superpowers for four decades after World War II. Sometimes also called "Soviet Empire", it exercised its hegemony in Eastern Europe and worldwide with military and economic strength, proxy conflicts and influence in developing countries and funding of scientific research, especially in space technology and weaponry.The word "soviet" is derived from the Russian word "sovet" (), meaning "council", "assembly", "advice", ultimately deriving from the proto-Slavic verbal stem of "vět-iti" ("to inform"), related to Slavic "věst" ("news"), English "wise", the root in "ad-vis-or" (which came to English through French), or the Dutch "weten" ("to know"; cf. "wetenschap" meaning "science"). The word "sovietnik" means "councillor".Some organizations in Russian history were called "council" (). In the Russian Empire, the State Council which functioned from 1810 to 1917 was referred to as a Council of Ministers after the revolt of 1905.During the Georgian Affair, Vladimir Lenin envisioned an expression of Great Russian ethnic chauvinism by Joseph Stalin and his supporters, calling for these nation-states to join Russia as semi-independent parts of a greater union which he initially named as the Union of Soviet Republics of Europe and Asia (). Stalin initially resisted the proposal but ultimately accepted it, although with Lenin's agreement changed the name to the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), albeit all the republics began as "socialist soviet" and did not change to the other order until 1936. In addition, in the national languages of several republics, the word "council" or "conciliar" in the respective language was only quite late changed to an adaptation of the Russian "soviet" and never in others, e.g. Ukraine."СССР" (in Latin alphabet: "SSSR") is the abbreviation of USSR in Russian. It is written in Cyrillic letters. The Soviets used the Cyrillic abbreviation so frequently that audiences worldwide became familiar with its meaning. Notably, both Cyrillic letters used have homoglyphic (but transliterally distinct) letters in Latin alphabets. Because of widespread familiarity with the Cyrillic abbreviation, Latin alphabet users in particular almost always use the Latin homoglyphs "C" and "P" (as opposed to the transliteral Latin letters "S" and "R") when rendering the USSR's native abbreviation.After "СССР", the most common short form names for the Soviet state in Russian were "Советский Союз" (transliteration: "Sovetskiy Soyuz") which literally means "Soviet Union", and also "Союз ССР" (transliteration: "Soyuz SSR") which, after compensating for grammatical differences, essentially translates to "Union of SSR's" in English.In the English language media, the state was referred to as the Soviet Union or the USSR. In other European languages, the locally translated short forms and abbreviations are usually used such as "Union soviétique" and "URSS" in French, or "Sowjetunion" and "UdSSR" in German. In the English-speaking world, the Soviet Union was also informally called Russia and its citizens Russians, although that was technically incorrect since Russia was only one of the republics. Such misapplications of the linguistic equivalents to the term "Russia" and its derivatives were frequent in other languages as well.The Soviet Union covered an area of over , and was the world's largest country, a status that is retained by its successor state, Russia. It covered a sixth of Earth's land surface, and its size was comparable to the continent of North America. Its western part in Europe accounted for a quarter of the country's area and was the cultural and economic center. The eastern part in Asia extended to the Pacific Ocean to the east and Afghanistan to the south, and, except some areas in Central Asia, was much less populous. It spanned over east to west across eleven time zones, and over north to south. It had five climate zones: tundra, taiga, steppes, desert and mountains.The Soviet Union, similarly to Russia, had the world's longest border, measuring over , or circumferences of Earth. Two-thirds of it was a coastline. The country bordered Afghanistan, China, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Hungary, Iran, Mongolia, North Korea, Norway, Poland, Romania, and Turkey from 1945 to 1991. The Bering Strait separated the country from the United States, while the La Pérouse Strait separated it from Japan.The Soviet Union's highest mountain was Communism Peak (now Ismoil Somoni Peak) in Tajik SSR, at . It also included most of the world's largest lakes; the Caspian Sea (shared with Iran), and Lake Baikal in Russia, the world's largest and deepest freshwater lake.Modern revolutionary activity in the Russian Empire began with the 1825 Decembrist revolt. Although serfdom was abolished in 1861, it was done on terms unfavorable to the peasants and served to encourage revolutionaries. A parliament—the State Duma—was established in 1906 after the Russian Revolution of 1905, but Tsar Nicholas II resisted attempts to move from absolute to a constitutional monarchy. Social unrest continued and was aggravated during World War I by military defeat and food shortages in major cities.A spontaneous popular uprising in Petrograd, in response to the wartime decay of Russia's economy and morale, culminated in the February Revolution and the toppling of Nicholas II and the imperial government in March 1917. The tsarist autocracy was replaced by the Russian Provisional Government, which intended to conduct elections to the Russian Constituent Assembly and to continue fighting on the side of the Entente in World War I.At the same time, workers' councils, known in Russian as "Soviets", sprang up across the country. The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, pushed for socialist revolution in the Soviets and on the streets. On 7 November 1917, the Red Guards stormed the Winter Palace in Petrograd, ending the rule of the Provisional Government and leaving all political power to the Soviets. This event would later be officially known in Soviet bibliographies as the Great October Socialist Revolution. In December, the Bolsheviks signed an armistice with the Central Powers, though by February 1918, fighting had resumed. In March, the Soviets ended involvement in the war and signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.A long and bloody Civil War ensued between the Reds and the Whites, starting in 1917 and ending in 1923 with the Reds' victory. It included foreign intervention, the execution of the former tsar and his family, and the famine of 1921, which killed about five million people. In March 1921, during a related conflict with Poland, the Peace of Riga was signed, splitting disputed territories in Belarus and Ukraine between the Republic of Poland and Soviet Russia. Soviet Russia had to resolve similar conflicts with the newly established republics of Estonia, Finland, Latvia, and Lithuania.On 28 December 1922, a conference of plenipotentiary delegations from the Russian SFSR, the Transcaucasian SFSR, the Ukrainian SSR and the Byelorussian SSR approved the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR and the Declaration of the Creation of the USSR, forming the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. These two documents were confirmed by the first Congress of Soviets of the USSR and signed by the heads of the delegations, Mikhail Kalinin, Mikhail Tskhakaya, Mikhail Frunze, Grigory Petrovsky, and Alexander Chervyakov, on 30 December 1922. The formal proclamation was made from the stage of the Bolshoi Theatre.An intensive restructuring of the economy, industry and politics of the country began in the early days of Soviet power in 1917. A large part of this was done according to the Bolshevik Initial Decrees, government documents signed by Vladimir Lenin. One of the most prominent breakthroughs was the GOELRO plan, which envisioned a major restructuring of the Soviet economy based on total electrification of the country. The plan became the prototype for subsequent Five-Year Plans and was fulfilled by 1931. After the economic policy of "War communism" during the Russian Civil War, as a prelude to fully developing socialism in the country, the Soviet government permitted some private enterprise to coexist alongside nationalized industry in the 1920s, and total food requisition in the countryside was replaced by a food tax.From its creation, the government in the Soviet Union was based on the one-party rule of the Communist Party (Bolsheviks). The stated purpose was to prevent the return of capitalist exploitation, and that the principles of democratic centralism would be the most effective in representing the people's will in a practical manner. The debate over the future of the economy provided the background for a power struggle in the years after Lenin's death in 1924. Initially, Lenin was to be replaced by a "troika" consisting of Grigory Zinoviev of the Ukrainian SSR, Lev Kamenev of the Russian SFSR, and Joseph Stalin of the Transcaucasian SFSR.On 1 February 1924, the USSR was recognized by the United Kingdom. The same year, a Soviet Constitution was approved, legitimizing the December 1922 union. According to Archie Brown the constitution was never an accurate guide to political reality in the USSR. For example the fact that the Party played the leading role in making and enforcing policy was not mentioned in it until 1977. The USSR was a federative entity of many constituent republics, each with its own political and administrative entities. However, the term "Soviet Russia"strictly applicable only to the Russian Federative Socialist Republicwas often applied to the entire country by non-Soviet writers.On 3 April 1922, Stalin was named the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Lenin had appointed Stalin the head of the Workers' and Peasants' Inspectorate, which gave Stalin considerable power. By gradually consolidating his influence and isolating and outmanoeuvring his rivals within the party, Stalin became the undisputed leader of the country and, by the end of the 1920s, established a totalitarian rule. In October 1927, Zinoviev and Leon Trotsky were expelled from the Central Committee and forced into exile.In 1928, Stalin introduced the first five-year plan for building a socialist economy. In place of the internationalism expressed by Lenin throughout the Revolution, it aimed to build Socialism in One Country. In industry, the state assumed control over all existing enterprises and undertook an intensive program of industrialization. In agriculture, rather than adhering to the "lead by example" policy advocated by Lenin, forced collectivization of farms was implemented all over the country.Famines ensued as a result, causing deaths estimated at three to seven million; surviving kulaks were persecuted, and many were sent to Gulags to do forced labor. Social upheaval continued in the mid-1930s. Despite the turmoil of the mid-to-late 1930s, the country developed a robust industrial economy in the years preceding World War II.Closer cooperation between the USSR and the West developed in the early 1930s. From 1932 to 1934, the country participated in the World Disarmament Conference. In 1933, diplomatic relations between the United States and the USSR were established when in November, the newly elected President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt, chose to recognize Stalin's Communist government formally and negotiated a new trade agreement between the two countries. In September 1934, the country joined the League of Nations. After the Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936, the USSR actively supported the Republican forces against the Nationalists, who were supported by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany.In December 1936, Stalin unveiled a new constitution that was praised by supporters around the world as the most democratic constitution imaginable, though there was some skepticism. Stalin's Great Purge resulted in the detainment or execution of many "Old Bolsheviks" who had participated in the October Revolution with Lenin. According to declassified Soviet archives, the NKVD arrested more than one and a half million people in 1937 and 1938, of whom 681,692 were shot. Over those two years, there were an average of over one thousand executions a day.In 1939, after attempts to form a military alliance with Britain and France against Germany failed, the Soviet Union made a dramatic shift towards Nazi Germany. Almost a year after Britain and France had concluded the Munich Agreement with Germany, the Soviet Union made agreements with Germany as well, both militarily and economically during extensive talks. The two countries concluded the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and the German–Soviet Commercial Agreement in August 1939. The former made possible the Soviet occupation of Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Bessarabia, northern Bukovina, and eastern Poland, while the Soviets remained formally neutral. In late November, unable to coerce the Republic of Finland by diplomatic means into moving its border back from Leningrad, Stalin ordered the invasion of Finland. In the east, the Soviet military won several decisive victories during border clashes with the Empire of Japan in 1938 and 1939. However, in April 1941, the USSR signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact with Japan, recognizing the territorial integrity of Manchukuo, a Japanese puppet state.Germany broke the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 starting what was known in the USSR as the Great Patriotic War. The Red Army stopped the seemingly invincible German Army at the Battle of Moscow. The Battle of Stalingrad, which lasted from late 1942 to early 1943, dealt a severe blow to Germany from which they never fully recovered and became a turning point in the war. After Stalingrad, Soviet forces drove through Eastern Europe to Berlin before Germany surrendered in 1945. The German Army suffered 80% of its military deaths in the Eastern Front. Harry Hopkins, a close foreign policy advisor to Franklin D. Roosevelt, spoke on 10 August 1943 of the USSR's decisive role in the war.In the same year, the USSR, in fulfilment of its agreement with the Allies at the Yalta Conference, denounced the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1945 and invaded Manchukuo and other Japan-controlled territories on 9 August 1945. This conflict ended with a decisive Soviet victory, contributing to the unconditional surrender of Japan and the end of World War II.The USSR suffered greatly in the war, losing around 27 million people. Approximately 2.8 million Soviet POWs died of starvation, mistreatment, or executions in just eight months of 1941–42. During the war, the country together with the United States, the United Kingdom and China were considered the Big Four Allied powers, and later became the Four Policemen that formed the basis of the United Nations Security Council. It emerged as a superpower in the post-war period. Once denied diplomatic recognition by the Western world, the USSR had official relations with practically every country by the late 1940s. A member of the United Nations at its foundation in 1945, the country became one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, which gave it the right to veto any of its resolutions.During the immediate post-war period, the Soviet Union rebuilt and expanded its economy, while maintaining its strictly centralized control. It took effective control over most of the countries of Eastern Europe (except Yugoslavia and later Albania), turning them into satellite states. The USSR bound its satellite states in a military alliance, the Warsaw Pact, in 1955, and an economic organization, Council for Mutual Economic Assistance or Comecon, a counterpart to the European Economic Community (EEC), from 1949 to 1991. The USSR concentrated on its own recovery, seizing and transferring most of Germany's industrial plants, and it exacted war reparations from East Germany, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. It also instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favor the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Later, the Comecon supplied aid to the eventually victorious Communist Party of China, and its influence grew elsewhere in the world. Fearing its ambitions, the Soviet Union's wartime allies, the United Kingdom and the United States, became its enemies. In the ensuing Cold War, the two sides clashed indirectly in proxy wars.Stalin died on 5 March 1953. Without a mutually agreeable successor, the highest Communist Party officials initially opted to rule the Soviet Union jointly through a troika headed by Georgy Malenkov. This did not last, however, and Nikita Khrushchev eventually won the ensuing power struggle by the mid-1950s. In 1956, he denounced Joseph Stalin and proceeded to ease controls over the party and society. This was known as de-Stalinization.Moscow considered Eastern Europe to be a critically vital buffer zone for the forward defence of its western borders, in case of another major invasion such as the German invasion of 1941. For this reason, the USSR sought to cement its control of the region by transforming the Eastern European countries into satellite states, dependent upon and subservient to its leadership. As a result, Soviet military forces were used to suppress an anti-communist uprising in Hungary in 1956.In the late 1950s, a confrontation with China regarding the Soviet rapprochement with the West, and what Mao Zedong perceived as Khrushchev's revisionism, led to the Sino–Soviet split. This resulted in a break throughout the global Marxist–Leninist movement, with the governments in Albania, Cambodia and Somalia choosing to ally with China.During this period of the late 1950s and early 1960s, the USSR continued to realize scientific and technological exploits in the Space Race, rivaling the United States: launching the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1 in 1957; a living dog named Laika in 1957; the first human being, Yuri Gagarin in 1961; the first woman in space, Valentina Tereshkova in 1963; Alexei Leonov, the first person to walk in space in 1965; the first soft landing on the Moon by spacecraft Luna 9 in 1966; and the first Moon rovers, Lunokhod 1 and Lunokhod 2.Khrushchev initiated "The Thaw", a complex shift in political, cultural and economic life in the country. This included some openness and contact with other nations and new social and economic policies with more emphasis on commodity goods, allowing a dramatic rise in living standards while maintaining high levels of economic growth. Censorship was relaxed as well. Khrushchev's reforms in agriculture and administration, however, were generally unproductive. In 1962, he precipitated a crisis with the United States over the Soviet deployment of nuclear missiles in Cuba. An agreement was made with the United States to remove nuclear missiles from both Cuba and Turkey, concluding the crisis. This event caused Khrushchev much embarrassment and loss of prestige, resulting in his removal from power in 1964.Following the ousting of Khrushchev, another period of collective leadership ensued, consisting of Leonid Brezhnev as General Secretary, Alexei Kosygin as Premier and Nikolai Podgorny as Chairman of the Presidium, lasting until Brezhnev established himself in the early 1970s as the preeminent Soviet leader.In 1968, the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact allies invaded Czechoslovakia to halt the Prague Spring reforms. In the aftermath, Brezhnev justified the invasion and previous military interventions as well as any potential military interventions in the future by introducing the Brezhnev Doctrine, which proclaimed any threat to socialist rule in a Warsaw Pact state as a threat to all Warsaw Pact states, therefore justifying military intervention.Brezhnev presided throughout "détente" with the West that resulted in treaties on armament control (SALT I, SALT II, Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty) while at the same time building up Soviet military might.In October 1977, the third Soviet Constitution was unanimously adopted. The prevailing mood of the Soviet leadership at the time of Brezhnev's death in 1982 was one of aversion to change. The long period of Brezhnev's rule had come to be dubbed one of "standstill", with an ageing and ossified top political leadership. This period is also known as the Era of Stagnation, a period of adverse economic, political, and social effects in the country, which began during the rule of Brezhnev and continued under his successors Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko.In late 1979, the Soviet Union's military intervened in the ongoing civil war in neighboring Afghanistan, effectively ending a détente with the West.Two developments dominated the decade that followed: the increasingly apparent crumbling of the Soviet Union's economic and political structures, and the patchwork attempts at reforms to reverse that process. Kenneth S. Deffeyes argued in "Beyond Oil" that the Reagan administration encouraged Saudi Arabia to lower the price of oil to the point where the Soviets could not make a profit selling their oil, and resulted in the depletion of the country's hard currency reserves.Brezhnev's next two successors, transitional figures with deep roots in his tradition, did not last long. Yuri Andropov was 68 years old and Konstantin Chernenko 72 when they assumed power; both died in less than two years. In an attempt to avoid a third short-lived leader, in 1985, the Soviets turned to the next generation and selected Mikhail Gorbachev. He made significant changes in the economy and party leadership, called "perestroika". His policy of "glasnost" freed public access to information after decades of heavy government censorship. Gorbachev also moved to end the Cold War. In 1988, the USSR abandoned its war in Afghanistan and began to withdraw its forces. In the following year, Gorbachev refused to interfere in the internal affairs of the Soviet satellite states, which paved the way for the Revolutions of 1989. In particular, the standstill of the Soviet Union at the Pan-European Picnic in August 1989 then set a peaceful chain reaction in motion at the end of which the Eastern Bloc collapsed. With the tearing down of the Berlin Wall and with East and West Germany pursuing unification, the Iron Curtain between the West and Soviet-controlled regions came down.At the same time, the Soviet republics started legal moves towards potentially declaring sovereignty over their territories, citing the freedom to secede in Article 72 of the USSR constitution. On 7 April 1990, a law was passed allowing a republic to secede if more than two-thirds of its residents voted for it in a referendum. Many held their first free elections in the Soviet era for their own national legislatures in 1990. Many of these legislatures proceeded to produce legislation contradicting the Union laws in what was known as the "War of Laws". In 1989, the Russian SFSR convened a newly elected Congress of People's Deputies. Boris Yeltsin was elected its chairman. On 12 June 1990, the Congress declared Russia's sovereignty over its territory and proceeded to pass laws that attempted to supersede some of the Soviet laws. After a landslide victory of Sąjūdis in Lithuania, that country declared its independence restored on 11 March 1990.A referendum for the preservation of the USSR was held on 17 March 1991 in nine republics (the remainder having boycotted the vote), with the majority of the population in those republics voting for preservation of the Union. The referendum gave Gorbachev a minor boost. In the summer of 1991, the New Union Treaty, which would have turned the country into a much looser Union, was agreed upon by eight republics. The signing of the treaty, however, was interrupted by the August Coup—an attempted coup d'état by hardline members of the government and the KGB who sought to reverse Gorbachev's reforms and reassert the central government's control over the republics. After the coup collapsed, Yeltsin was seen as a hero for his decisive actions, while Gorbachev's power was effectively ended. The balance of power tipped significantly towards the republics. In August 1991, Latvia and Estonia immediately declared the restoration of their full independence (following Lithuania's 1990 example). Gorbachev resigned as general secretary in late August, and soon afterwards, the party's activities were indefinitely suspended—effectively ending its rule. By the fall, Gorbachev could no longer influence events outside Moscow, and he was being challenged even there by Yeltsin, who had been elected President of Russia in July 1991.The remaining 12 republics continued discussing new, increasingly looser, models of the Union. However, by December all except Russia and Kazakhstan had formally declared independence. During this time, Yeltsin took over what remained of the Soviet government, including the Moscow Kremlin. The final blow was struck on 1 December when Ukraine, the second-most powerful republic, voted overwhelmingly for independence. Ukraine's secession ended any realistic chance of the country staying together even on a limited scale.On 8 December 1991, the presidents of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus (formerly Byelorussia), signed the Belavezha Accords, which declared the Soviet Union dissolved and established the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in its place. While doubts remained over the authority of the accords to do this, on 21 December 1991, the representatives of all Soviet republics except Georgia signed the Alma-Ata Protocol, which confirmed the accords. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned as the President of the USSR, declaring the office extinct. He turned the powers that had been vested in the presidency over to Yeltsin. That night, the Soviet flag was lowered for the last time, and the Russian tricolor was raised in its place.The following day, the Supreme Soviet, the highest governmental body, voted both itself and the country out of existence. This is generally recognized as marking the official, final dissolution of the Soviet Union as a functioning state, and the end of the Cold War. The Soviet Army initially remained under overall CIS command but was soon absorbed into the different military forces of the newly independent states. The few remaining Soviet institutions that had not been taken over by Russia ceased to function by the end of 1991.Following the dissolution, Russia was internationally recognized as its legal successor on the international stage. To that end, Russia voluntarily accepted all Soviet foreign debt and claimed Soviet overseas properties as its own. Under the 1992 Lisbon Protocol, Russia also agreed to receive all nuclear weapons remaining in the territory of other former Soviet republics. Since then, the Russian Federation has assumed the Soviet Union's rights and obligations. Ukraine has refused to recognize exclusive Russian claims to succession of the USSR and claimed such status for Ukraine as well, which was codified in Articles 7 and 8 of its 1991 law On Legal Succession of Ukraine. Since its independence in 1991, Ukraine has continued to pursue claims against Russia in foreign courts, seeking to recover its share of the foreign property that was owned by the USSR.The dissolution was followed by a severe drop in economic and social conditions in post-Soviet states, including a rapid increase in poverty, crime, corruption, unemployment, homelessness, rates of disease, infant mortality and domestic violence, as well as demographic losses and income inequality and the rise of an oligarchical class, along with decreases in calorie intake, life expectancy, adult literacy, and income. Between 1988–1989 and 1993–1995, the Gini ratio increased by an average of 9 points for all former socialist countries. The economic shocks that accompanied wholesale privatization were associated with sharp increases in mortality. Data shows Russia, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia saw a tripling of unemployment and a 42% increase in male death rates between 1991 and 1994. In the following decades, only five or six of the post-communist states are on a path to joining the wealthy capitalist West while most are falling behind, some to such an extent that it will take over fifty years to catch up to where they were before the fall of the Soviet Bloc.In summing up the international ramifications of these events, Vladislav Zubok stated: "The collapse of the Soviet empire was an event of epochal geopolitical, military, ideological, and economic significance." Before the dissolution, the country had maintained its status as one of the world's two superpowers for four decades after World War II through its hegemony in Eastern Europe, military strength, economic strength, aid to developing countries, and scientific research, especially in space technology and weaponry.The analysis of the succession of states for the 15 post-Soviet states is complex. The Russian Federation is seen as the legal "continuator" state and is for most purposes the heir to the Soviet Union. It retained ownership of all former Soviet embassy properties, as well as the old Soviet UN membership and permanent membership on the Security Council.Of the two other co-founding states of the USSR at the time of the dissolution, Ukraine was the only one that had passed laws, similar to Russia, that it is a state-successor of both the Ukrainian SSR and the USSR. Soviet treaties laid groundwork for Ukraine's future foreign agreements as well as they led to Ukraine agreeing to undertake 16.37% of debts of the Soviet Union for which it was going to receive its share of USSR's foreign property. Although it had a tough position at the time, due to Russia's position as a "single continuation of the USSR" that became widely accepted in the West as well as a constant pressure from the Western countries, allowed Russia to dispose state property of USSR abroad and conceal information about it. Due to that Ukraine never ratified "zero option" agreement that Russian Federation had signed with other former Soviet republics, as it denied disclosing of information about Soviet Gold Reserves and its Diamond Fund. The dispute over former Soviet property and assets between the two former republics is still ongoing:Similar situation occurred with restitution of cultural property. Although on 14 February 1992 Russia and other former Soviet republics signed agreement "On the return of cultural and historic property to the origin states" in Minsk, it was halted by Russian State Duma that had eventually passed "Federal Law on Cultural Valuables Displaced to the USSR as a Result of the Second World War and Located on the Territory of the Russian Federation" which made restitution currently impossible.There are additionally four states that claim independence from the other internationally recognised post-Soviet states but possess limited international recognition: Abkhazia, Nagorno-Karabakh, South Ossetia and Transnistria. The Chechen separatist movement of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria lacks any international recognition.During his rule, Stalin always made the final policy decisions. Otherwise, Soviet foreign policy was set by the commission on the Foreign Policy of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, or by the party's highest body the Politburo. Operations were handled by the separate Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It was known as the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs (or Narkomindel), until 1946. The most influential spokesmen were Georgy Chicherin (1872–1936), Maxim Litvinov (1876–1951), Vyacheslav Molotov (1890–1986), Andrey Vyshinsky (1883–1954) and Andrei Gromyko (1909–1989). Intellectuals were based in the Moscow State Institute of International Relations.The Marxist-Leninist leadership of the Soviet Union intensely debated foreign policy issues and change directions several times. Even after Stalin assumed dictatorial control in the late 1920s, there were debates, and he frequently changed positions.During the country's early period, it was assumed that Communist revolutions would break out soon in every major industrial country, and it was the Soviet responsibility to assist them. The Comintern was the weapon of choice. A few revolutions did break out, but they were quickly suppressed (the longest lasting one was in Hungary)—the Hungarian Soviet Republic—lasted only from 21 March 1919 to 1 August 1919. The Russian Bolsheviks were in no position to give any help.By 1921, Lenin, Trotsky, and Stalin realized that capitalism had stabilized itself in Europe and there would not be any widespread revolutions anytime soon. It became the duty of the Russian Bolsheviks to protect what they had in Russia, and avoid military confrontations that might destroy their bridgehead. Russia was now a pariah state, along with Germany. The two came to terms in 1922 with the Treaty of Rapallo that settled long-standing grievances. At the same time, the two countries secretly set up training programs for the illegal German army and air force operations at hidden camps in the USSR.Moscow eventually stopped threatening other states, and instead worked to open peaceful relationships in terms of trade, and diplomatic recognition. The United Kingdom dismissed the warnings of Winston Churchill and a few others about a continuing Marxist-Leninist threat, and opened trade relations and "de facto" diplomatic recognition in 1922. There was hope for a settlement of the pre-war Tsarist debts, but it was repeatedly postponed. Formal recognition came when the new Labour Party came to power in 1924. All the other countries followed suit in opening trade relations. Henry Ford opened large-scale business relations with the Soviets in the late 1920s, hoping that it would lead to long-term peace. Finally, in 1933, the United States officially recognized the USSR, a decision backed by the public opinion and especially by US business interests that expected an opening of a new profitable market.In the late 1920s and early 1930s, Stalin ordered Marxist-Leninist parties across the world to strongly oppose non-Marxist political parties, labor unions or other organizations on the left. Stalin reversed himself in 1934 with the Popular Front program that called on all Marxist parties to join together with all anti-Fascist political, labor, and organizational forces that were opposed to fascism, especially of the Nazi variety.In 1939, half a year after the Munich Agreement, the USSR attempted to form an anti-Nazi alliance with France and Britain. Adolf Hitler proposed a better deal, which would give the USSR control over much of Eastern Europe through the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. In September, Germany invaded Poland, and the USSR also invaded later that month, resulting in the partition of Poland. In response, Britain and France declared war on Germany, marking the beginning of World War II.There were three power hierarchies in the Soviet Union: the legislature represented by the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, the government represented by the Council of Ministers, and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), the only legal party and the final policymaker in the country.At the top of the Communist Party was the Central Committee, elected at Party Congresses and Conferences. In turn, the Central Committee voted for a Politburo (called the Presidium between 1952 and 1966), Secretariat and the General Secretary (First Secretary from 1953 to 1966), the "de facto" highest office in the Soviet Union. Depending on the degree of power consolidation, it was either the Politburo as a collective body or the General Secretary, who always was one of the Politburo members, that effectively led the party and the country (except for the period of the highly personalized authority of Stalin, exercised directly through his position in the Council of Ministers rather than the Politburo after 1941). They were not controlled by the general party membership, as the key principle of the party organization was democratic centralism, demanding strict subordination to higher bodies, and elections went uncontested, endorsing the candidates proposed from above.The Communist Party maintained its dominance over the state mainly through its control over the system of appointments. All senior government officials and most deputies of the Supreme Soviet were members of the CPSU. Of the party heads themselves, Stalin (1941–1953) and Khrushchev (1958–1964) were Premiers. Upon the forced retirement of Khrushchev, the party leader was prohibited from this kind of double membership, but the later General Secretaries for at least some part of their tenure occupied the mostly ceremonial position of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the nominal head of state. The institutions at lower levels were overseen and at times supplanted by primary party organizations.However, in practice the degree of control the party was able to exercise over the state bureaucracy, particularly after the death of Stalin, was far from total, with the bureaucracy pursuing different interests that were at times in conflict with the party. Nor was the party itself monolithic from top to bottom, although factions were officially banned.The Supreme Soviet (successor of the Congress of Soviets) was nominally the highest state body for most of the Soviet history, at first acting as a rubber stamp institution, approving and implementing all decisions made by the party. However, its powers and functions were extended in the late 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, including the creation of new state commissions and committees. It gained additional powers relating to the approval of the Five-Year Plans and the government budget. The Supreme Soviet elected a Presidium (successor of the Central Executive Committee) to wield its power between plenary sessions, ordinarily held twice a year, and appointed the Supreme Court, the Procurator General and the Council of Ministers (known before 1946 as the Council of People's Commissars), headed by the Chairman (Premier) and managing an enormous bureaucracy responsible for the administration of the economy and society. State and party structures of the constituent republics largely emulated the structure of the central institutions, although the Russian SFSR, unlike the other constituent republics, for most of its history had no republican branch of the CPSU, being ruled directly by the union-wide party until 1990. Local authorities were organized likewise into party committees, local Soviets and executive committees. While the state system was nominally federal, the party was unitary.The state security police (the KGB and ) played an important role in Soviet politics. It was instrumental in the Great Purge, but was brought under strict party control after Stalin's death. Under Yuri Andropov, the KGB engaged in the suppression of political dissent and maintained an extensive network of informers, reasserting itself as a political actor to some extent independent of the party-state structure, culminating in the anti-corruption campaign targeting high-ranking party officials in the late 1970s and early 1980s.The constitution, which was promulgated in 1924, 1936 and 1977, did not limit state power. No formal separation of powers existed between the Party, Supreme Soviet and Council of Ministers that represented executive and legislative branches of the government. The system was governed less by statute than by informal conventions, and no settled mechanism of leadership succession existed. Bitter and at times deadly power struggles took place in the Politburo after the deaths of Lenin and Stalin, as well as after Khrushchev's dismissal, itself due to a decision by both the Politburo and the Central Committee. All leaders of the Communist Party before Gorbachev died in office, except Georgy Malenkov and Khrushchev, both dismissed from the party leadership amid internal struggle within the party.Between 1988 and 1990, facing considerable opposition, Mikhail Gorbachev enacted reforms shifting power away from the highest bodies of the party and making the Supreme Soviet less dependent on them. The Congress of People's Deputies was established, the majority of whose members were directly elected in competitive elections held in March 1989. The Congress now elected the Supreme Soviet, which became a full-time parliament, and much stronger than before. For the first time since the 1920s, it refused to rubber stamp proposals from the party and Council of Ministers. In 1990, Gorbachev introduced and assumed the position of the President of the Soviet Union, concentrated power in his executive office, independent of the party, and subordinated the government, now renamed the Cabinet of Ministers of the USSR, to himself.Tensions grew between the Union-wide authorities under Gorbachev, reformists led in Russia by Boris Yeltsin and controlling the newly elected Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR, and communist hardliners. On 19–21 August 1991, a group of hardliners staged a coup attempt. The coup failed, and the State Council of the Soviet Union became the highest organ of state power "in the period of transition". Gorbachev resigned as General Secretary, only remaining President for the final months of the existence of the USSR.The judiciary was not independent of the other branches of government. The Supreme Court supervised the lower courts (People's Court) and applied the law as established by the constitution or as interpreted by the Supreme Soviet. The Constitutional Oversight Committee reviewed the constitutionality of laws and acts. The Soviet Union used the inquisitorial system of Roman law, where the judge, procurator, and defence attorney collaborate to establish the truth.Constitutionally, the USSR was a federation of constituent Union Republics, which were either unitary states, such as Ukraine or Byelorussia (SSRs), or federations, such as Russia or Transcaucasia (SFSRs), all four being the founding republics who signed the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR in December 1922. In 1924, during the national delimitation in Central Asia, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan were formed from parts of Russia's Turkestan ASSR and two Soviet dependencies, the Khorezm and Bukharan SSRs. In 1929, Tajikistan was split off from the Uzbekistan SSR. With the constitution of 1936, the Transcaucasian SFSR was dissolved, resulting in its constituent republics of Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan being elevated to Union Republics, while Kazakhstan and Kirghizia were split off from Russian SFSR, resulting in the same status. In August 1940, Moldavia was formed from parts of Ukraine and Bessarabia and northern Bukovina. Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania (SSRs) were also admitted into the union which was not recognized by most of the international community and was considered an illegal occupation. Karelia was split off from Russia as a Union Republic in March 1940 and was reabsorbed in 1956. Between July 1956 and September 1991, there were 15 union republics (see map below).While nominally a union of equals, in practice the Soviet Union was dominated by Russians. The domination was so absolute that for most of its existence, the country was commonly (but incorrectly) referred to as "Russia". While the RSFSR was technically only one republic within the larger union, it was by far the largest (both in terms of population and area), most powerful, most developed, and the industrial center of the Soviet Union. Historian Matthew White wrote that it was an open secret that the country's federal structure was "window dressing" for Russian dominance. For that reason, the people of the USSR were usually called "Russians", not "Soviets", since "everyone knew who really ran the show".Under the Military Law of September 1925, the Soviet Armed Forces consisted of the Land Forces, the Air Force, the Navy, Joint State Political Directorate (OGPU), and the Internal Troops. The OGPU later became independent and in 1934 joined the NKVD, and so its internal troops were under the joint leadership of the defense and internal commissariats. After World War II, Strategic Missile Forces (1959), Air Defense Forces (1948) and National Civil Defense Forces (1970) were formed, which ranked first, third, and sixth in the official Soviet system of importance (ground forces were second, Air Force Fourth, and Navy Fifth).The army had the greatest political influence. In 1989, there served two million soldiers divided between 150 motorized and 52 armored divisions. Until the early 1960s, the Soviet navy was a rather small military branch, but after the Caribbean crisis, under the leadership of Sergei Gorshkov, it expanded significantly. It became known for battlecruisers and submarines. In 1989 there served 500 000 men. The Soviet Air Force focused on a fleet of strategic bombers and during war situation was to eradicate enemy infrastructure and nuclear capacity. The air force also had a number of fighters and tactical bombers to support the army in the war. Strategic missile forces had more than 1,400 intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), deployed between 28 bases and 300 command centers.In the post-war period, the Soviet Army was directly involved in several military operations abroad. These included the suppression of the uprising in East Germany (1953), Hungarian revolution (1956) and the invasion of Czechoslovakia (1968). The Soviet Union also participated in the war in Afghanistan between 1979 and 1989.In the Soviet Union, general conscription applied.At the end of the 1950s, with the help of engineers and technologies captured and imported from defeated Nazi Germany, the Soviets constructed the first satellite – Sputnik 1 and thus overtook the United States in terms of utilizing space. This was followed by other successful satellites, where test dogs flight was sent. On April 12, 1961, the first cosmonaut, Yuri Gagarin, was sent to the space. He once flew around the Earth and successfully landed in the Kazakh steppe. At that time, the first plans for space shuttles and orbital stations were drawn up in Soviet design offices, but in the end personal disputes between designers and management prevented this.As for Lunar space program; USSR only had a program on automated spacecraft launches; with no manned spacecraft used; passing on the "Moon Race" part of Space Race.In the 1970s, specific proposals for the design of the space shuttle began to emerge, but shortcomings, especially in the electronics industry (rapid overheating of electronics), postponed the program until the end of the 1980s. The first shuttle, the Buran, flew in 1988, but without a human crew. Another shuttle, "Ptichka", eventually ended up under construction, as the shuttle project was canceled in 1991. For their launch into space, there is today an unused superpower rocket, Energia, which is the most powerful in the world.In the late 1980s, the Soviet Union managed to build the "Mir" orbital station. It was built on the construction of "Salyut" stations and its only role was civilian-grade research tasks. The Soviet Union adopted a command economy, whereby production and distribution of goods were centralized and directed by the government. The first Bolshevik experience with a command economy was the policy of War communism, which involved the nationalization of industry, centralized distribution of output, coercive requisition of agricultural production, and attempts to eliminate money circulation, private enterprises and free trade. After the severe economic collapse, Lenin replaced war communism by the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921, legalizing free trade and private ownership of small businesses. The economy quickly recovered as a result.After a long debate among the members of the Politburo about the course of economic development, by 1928–1929, upon gaining control of the country, Stalin abandoned the NEP and pushed for full central planning, starting forced collectivization of agriculture and enacting draconian labor legislation. Resources were mobilized for rapid industrialization, which significantly expanded Soviet capacity in heavy industry and capital goods during the 1930s. The primary motivation for industrialization was preparation for war, mostly due to distrust of the outside capitalist world. As a result, the USSR was transformed from a largely agrarian economy into a great industrial power, leading the way for its emergence as a superpower after World War II. The war caused extensive devastation of the Soviet economy and infrastructure, which required massive reconstruction.By the early 1940s, the Soviet economy had become relatively self-sufficient; for most of the period until the creation of Comecon, only a tiny share of domestic products was traded internationally. After the creation of the Eastern Bloc, external trade rose rapidly. However, the influence of the world economy on the USSR was limited by fixed domestic prices and a state monopoly on foreign trade. Grain and sophisticated consumer manufactures became major import articles from around the 1960s. During the arms race of the Cold War, the Soviet economy was burdened by military expenditures, heavily lobbied for by a powerful bureaucracy dependent on the arms industry. At the same time, the USSR became the largest arms exporter to the Third World. Significant amounts of Soviet resources during the Cold War were allocated in aid to the other socialist states.From the 1930s until its dissolution in late 1991, the way the Soviet economy operated remained essentially unchanged. The economy was formally directed by central planning, carried out by Gosplan and organized in five-year plans. However, in practice, the plans were highly aggregated and provisional, subject to "ad hoc" intervention by superiors. All critical economic decisions were taken by the political leadership. Allocated resources and plan targets were usually denominated in rubles rather than in physical goods. Credit was discouraged, but widespread. The final allocation of output was achieved through relatively decentralized, unplanned contracting. Although in theory prices were legally set from above, in practice they were often negotiated, and informal horizontal links (e.g. between producer factories) were widespread.A number of basic services were state-funded, such as education and health care. In the manufacturing sector, heavy industry and defence were prioritized over consumer goods. Consumer goods, particularly outside large cities, were often scarce, of poor quality and limited variety. Under the command economy, consumers had almost no influence on production, and the changing demands of a population with growing incomes could not be satisfied by supplies at rigidly fixed prices. A massive unplanned second economy grew up at low levels alongside the planned one, providing some of the goods and services that the planners could not. The legalization of some elements of the decentralized economy was attempted with the reform of 1965.Although statistics of the Soviet economy are notoriously unreliable and its economic growth difficult to estimate precisely, by most accounts, the economy continued to expand until the mid-1980s. During the 1950s and 1960s, it had comparatively high growth and was catching up to the West. However, after 1970, the growth, while still positive, steadily declined much more quickly and consistently than in other countries, despite a rapid increase in the capital stock (the rate of capital increase was only surpassed by Japan).Overall, the growth rate of per capita income in the Soviet Union between 1960 and 1989 was slightly above the world average (based on 102 countries). According to Stanley Fischer and William Easterly, growth could have been faster. By their calculation, per capita income in 1989 should have been twice higher than it was, considering the amount of investment, education and population. The authors attribute this poor performance to the low productivity of capital. Steven Rosenfielde states that the standard of living declined due to Stalin's despotism. While there was a brief improvement after his death, it lapsed into stagnation.In 1987, Mikhail Gorbachev attempted to reform and revitalize the economy with his program of "perestroika". His policies relaxed state control over enterprises but did not replace it by market incentives, resulting in a sharp decline in output. The economy, already suffering from reduced petroleum export revenues, started to collapse. Prices were still fixed, and the property was still largely state-owned until after the country's dissolution. For most of the period after World War II until its collapse, Soviet GDP (PPP) was the second-largest in the world, and third during the second half of the 1980s, although on a per-capita basis, it was behind that of First World countries. Compared to countries with similar per-capita GDP in 1928, the Soviet Union experienced significant growth.In 1990, the country had a Human Development Index of 0.920, placing it in the "high" category of human development. It was the third-highest in the Eastern Bloc, behind Czechoslovakia and East Germany, and the 25th in the world of 130 countries.The need for fuel declined in the Soviet Union from the 1970s to the 1980s, both per ruble of gross social product and per ruble of industrial product. At the start, this decline grew very rapidly but gradually slowed down between 1970 and 1975. From 1975 and 1980, it grew even slower, only 2.6%. David Wilson, a historian, believed that the gas industry would account for 40% of Soviet fuel production by the end of the century. His theory did not come to fruition because of the USSR's collapse. The USSR, in theory, would have continued to have an economic growth rate of 2–2.5% during the 1990s because of Soviet energy fields. However, the energy sector faced many difficulties, among them the country's high military expenditure and hostile relations with the First World.In 1991, the Soviet Union had a pipeline network of for crude oil and another for natural gas. Petroleum and petroleum-based products, natural gas, metals, wood, agricultural products, and a variety of manufactured goods, primarily machinery, arms and military equipment, were exported. In the 1970s and 1980s, the USSR heavily relied on fossil fuel exports to earn hard currency. At its peak in 1988, it was the largest producer and second-largest exporter of crude oil, surpassed only by Saudi Arabia.The Soviet Union placed great emphasis on science and technology within its economy, however, the most remarkable Soviet successes in technology, such as producing the world's first space satellite, typically were the responsibility of the military. Lenin believed that the USSR would never overtake the developed world if it remained as technologically backward as it was upon its founding. Soviet authorities proved their commitment to Lenin's belief by developing massive networks, research and development organizations. In the early 1960s, the Soviets awarded 40% of chemistry PhDs to women, compared to only 5% in the United States. By 1989, Soviet scientists were among the world's best-trained specialists in several areas, such as energy physics, selected areas of medicine, mathematics, welding and military technologies. Due to rigid state planning and bureaucracy, the Soviets remained far behind technologically in chemistry, biology, and computers when compared to the First World.Under the Reagan administration, Project Socrates determined that the Soviet Union addressed the acquisition of science and technology in a manner that was radically different from what the US was using. In the case of the US, economic prioritization was being used for indigenous research and development as the means to acquire science and technology in both the private and public sectors. In contrast, the USSR was offensively and defensively maneuvering in the acquisition and utilization of the worldwide technology, to increase the competitive advantage that they acquired from the technology while preventing the US from acquiring a competitive advantage. However, technology-based planning was executed in a centralized, government-centric manner that greatly hindered its flexibility. This was exploited by the US to undermine the strength of the Soviet Union and thus foster its reform.Transport was a vital component of the country's economy. The economic centralization of the late 1920s and 1930s led to the development of infrastructure on a massive scale, most notably the establishment of Aeroflot, an aviation enterprise. The country had a wide variety of modes of transport by land, water and air. However, due to inadequate maintenance, much of the road, water and Soviet civil aviation transport were outdated and technologically backward compared to the First World.Soviet rail transport was the largest and most intensively used in the world; it was also better developed than most of its Western counterparts. By the late 1970s and early 1980s, Soviet economists were calling for the construction of more roads to alleviate some of the burdens from the railways and to improve the Soviet government budget. The street network and automotive industry remained underdeveloped, and dirt roads were common outside major cities. Soviet maintenance projects proved unable to take care of even the few roads the country had. By the early-to-mid-1980s, the Soviet authorities tried to solve the road problem by ordering the construction of new ones. Meanwhile, the automobile industry was growing at a faster rate than road construction. The underdeveloped road network led to a growing demand for public transport.Despite improvements, several aspects of the transport sector were still riddled with problems due to outdated infrastructure, lack of investment, corruption and bad decision-making. Soviet authorities were unable to meet the growing demand for transport infrastructure and services.The Soviet merchant navy was one of the largest in the world.Excess deaths throughout World War I and the Russian Civil War (including the postwar famine) amounted to a combined total of 18 million, some 10 million in the 1930s, and more than 26 million in 1941–5. The postwar Soviet population was 45 to 50 million smaller than it would have been if pre-war demographic growth had continued. According to Catherine Merridale, "... reasonable estimate would place the total number of excess deaths for the whole period somewhere around 60 million."The birth rate of the USSR decreased from 44.0 per thousand in 1926 to 18.0 in 1974, mainly due to increasing urbanization and the rising average age of marriages. The mortality rate demonstrated a gradual decrease as well – from 23.7 per thousand in 1926 to 8.7 in 1974. In general, the birth rates of the southern republics in Transcaucasia and Central Asia were considerably higher than those in the northern parts of the Soviet Union, and in some cases even increased in the post–World War II period, a phenomenon partly attributed to slower rates of urbanistion and traditionally earlier marriages in the southern republics. Soviet Europe moved towards sub-replacement fertility, while Soviet Central Asia continued to exhibit population growth well above replacement-level fertility.The late 1960s and the 1970s witnessed a reversal of the declining trajectory of the rate of mortality in the USSR, and was especially notable among men of working age, but was also prevalent in Russia and other predominantly Slavic areas of the country. An analysis of the official data from the late 1980s showed that after worsening in the late-1970s and the early 1980s, adult mortality began to improve again. The infant mortality rate increased from 24.7 in 1970 to 27.9 in 1974. Some researchers regarded the rise as mostly real, a consequence of worsening health conditions and services. The rises in both adult and infant mortality were not explained or defended by Soviet officials, and the Soviet government stopped publishing all mortality statistics for ten years. Soviet demographers and health specialists remained silent about the mortality increases until the late-1980s, when the publication of mortality data resumed, and researchers could delve into the real causes.Under Lenin, the state made explicit commitments to promote the equality of men and women. Many early Russian feminists and ordinary Russian working women actively participated in the Revolution, and many more were affected by the events of that period and the new policies. Beginning in October 1918, Lenin's government liberalized divorce and abortion laws, decriminalized homosexuality (re-criminalized in the 1930s), permitted cohabitation, and ushered in a host of reforms. However, without birth control, the new system produced many broken marriages, as well as countless out-of-wedlock children. The epidemic of divorces and extramarital affairs created social hardships when Soviet leaders wanted people to concentrate their efforts on growing the economy. Giving women control over their fertility also led to a precipitous decline in the birth rate, perceived as a threat to their country's military power. By 1936, Stalin reversed most of the liberal laws, ushering in a pronatalist era that lasted for decades.By 1917, Russia became the first great power to grant women the right to vote. After heavy casualties in World War I and II, women outnumbered men in Russia by a 4:3 ratio. This contributed to the larger role women played in Russian society compared to other great powers at the time.Anatoly Lunacharsky became the first People's Commissar for Education of Soviet Russia. In the beginning, the Soviet authorities placed great emphasis on the elimination of illiteracy. All left-handed children were forced to write with their right hand in the Soviet school system. Literate people were automatically hired as teachers. For a short period, quality was sacrificed for quantity. By 1940, Stalin could announce that illiteracy had been eliminated. Throughout the 1930s, social mobility rose sharply, which has been attributed to reforms in education. In the aftermath of World War II, the country's educational system expanded dramatically, which had a tremendous effect. In the 1960s, nearly all children had access to education, the only exception being those living in remote areas. Nikita Khrushchev tried to make education more accessible, making it clear to children that education was closely linked to the needs of society. Education also became important in giving rise to the New Man. Citizens directly entering the workforce had the constitutional right to a job and to free vocational training.The education system was highly centralized and universally accessible to all citizens, with affirmative action for applicants from nations associated with cultural backwardness. However, as part of the general antisemitic policy, an unofficial Jewish quota was applied in the leading institutions of higher education by subjecting Jewish applicants to harsher entrance examinations. The Brezhnev era also introduced a rule that required all university applicants to present a reference from the local Komsomol party secretary. According to statistics from 1986, the number of higher education students per the population of 10,000 was 181 for the USSR, compared to 517 for the US.The Soviet Union was an ethnically diverse country, with more than 100 distinct ethnic groups. The total population of the country was estimated at 293 million in 1991. According to a 1990 estimate, the majority of the population were Russians (50.78%), followed by Ukrainians (15.45%) and Uzbeks (5.84%).All citizens of the USSR had their own ethnic affiliation. The ethnicity of a person was chosen at the age of sixteen by the child's parents. If the parents did not agree, the child was automatically assigned the ethnicity of the father. Partly due to Soviet policies, some of the smaller minority ethnic groups were considered part of larger ones, such as the Mingrelians of Georgia, who were classified with the linguistically related Georgians. Some ethnic groups voluntarily assimilated, while others were brought in by force. Russians, Belarusians, and Ukrainians, who were all East Slavic and Orthodox, shared close cultural, ethnic, and religious ties, while other groups did not. With multiple nationalities living in the same territory, ethnic antagonisms developed over the years.Members of various ethnicities participated in legislative bodies. Organs of power like the Politburo, the Secretariat of the Central Committee etc., were formally ethnically neutral, but in reality, ethnic Russians were overrepresented, although there were also non-Russian leaders in the Soviet leadership, such as Joseph Stalin, Grigory Zinoviev, Nikolai Podgorny or Andrei Gromyko. During the Soviet era, a significant number of ethnic Russians and Ukrainians migrated to other Soviet republics, and many of them settled there. According to the last census in 1989, the Russian "diaspora" in the Soviet republics had reached 25 million.In 1917, before the revolution, health conditions were significantly behind those of developed countries. As Lenin later noted, "Either the lice will defeat socialism, or socialism will defeat the lice". The Soviet principle of health care was conceived by the People's Commissariat for Health in 1918. Health care was to be controlled by the state and would be provided to its citizens free of charge, a revolutionary concept at the time. Article 42 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution gave all citizens the right to health protection and free access to any health institutions in the USSR. Before Leonid Brezhnev became General Secretary, the Soviet healthcare system was held in high esteem by many foreign specialists. This changed, however, from Brezhnev's accession and Mikhail Gorbachev's tenure as leader, during which the health care system was heavily criticized for many basic faults, such as the quality of service and the unevenness in its provision. Minister of Health Yevgeniy Chazov, during the 19th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, while highlighting such successes as having the most doctors and hospitals in the world, recognized the system's areas for improvement and felt that billions of Soviet rubles were squandered. After the revolution, life expectancy for all age groups went up. This statistic in itself was seen by some that the socialist system was superior to the capitalist system. These improvements continued into the 1960s when statistics indicated that the life expectancy briefly surpassed that of the United States. Life expectancy started to decline in the 1970s, possibly because of alcohol abuse. At the same time, infant mortality began to rise. After 1974, the government stopped publishing statistics on the matter. This trend can be partly explained by the number of pregnancies rising drastically in the Asian part of the country where infant mortality was the highest while declining markedly in the more developed European part of the Soviet Union.Soviet dental technology and dental health were considered notoriously bad. In 1991, the average 35-year-old had 12 to 14 cavities, fillings or missing teeth. Toothpaste was often not available, and toothbrushes did not conform to standards of modern dentistry.Under Lenin, the government gave small language groups their own writing systems. The development of these writing systems was highly successful, even though some flaws were detected. During the later days of the USSR, countries with the same multilingual situation implemented similar policies. A serious problem when creating these writing systems was that the languages differed dialectally greatly from each other. When a language had been given a writing system and appeared in a notable publication, it would attain "official language" status. There were many minority languages which never received their own writing system; therefore, their speakers were forced to have a second language. There are examples where the government retreated from this policy, most notably under Stalin where education was discontinued in languages that were not widespread. These languages were then assimilated into another language, mostly Russian. During World War II, some minority languages were banned, and their speakers accused of collaborating with the enemy.As the most widely spoken of the Soviet Union's many languages, Russian "de facto" functioned as an official language, as the "language of interethnic communication" (), but only assumed the "de jure" status as the official national language in 1990.Christianity and Islam had the highest number of adherents among the religious citizens. Eastern Christianity predominated among Christians, with Russia's traditional Russian Orthodox Church being the largest Christian denomination. About 90% of the Soviet Union's Muslims were Sunnis, with Shias being concentrated in the Azerbaijan SSR. Smaller groups included Roman Catholics, Jews, Buddhists, and a variety of Protestant denominations (especially Baptists and Lutherans).Religious influence had been strong in the Russian Empire. The Russian Orthodox Church enjoyed a privileged status as the church of the monarchy and took part in carrying out official state functions. The immediate period following the establishment of the Soviet state included a struggle against the Orthodox Church, which the revolutionaries considered an ally of the former ruling classes.In Soviet law, the "freedom to hold religious services" was constitutionally guaranteed, although the ruling Communist Party regarded religion as incompatible with the Marxist spirit of scientific materialism. In practice, the Soviet system subscribed to a narrow interpretation of this right, and in fact utilized a range of official measures to discourage religion and curb the activities of religious groups.The 1918 Council of People's Commissars decree establishing the Russian SFSR as a secular state also decreed that "the teaching of religion in all [places] where subjects of general instruction are taught, is forbidden. Citizens may teach and may be taught religion privately." Among further restrictions, those adopted in 1929 included express prohibitions on a range of church activities, including meetings for organized Bible study. Both Christian and non-Christian establishments were shut down by the thousands in the 1920s and 1930s. By 1940, as many as 90% of the churches, synagogues, and mosques that had been operating in 1917 were closed.Under the doctrine of state atheism, a "government-sponsored program of forced conversion to atheism" was conducted. The government targeted religions based on state interests, and while most organized religions were never outlawed, religious property was confiscated, believers were harassed, and religion was ridiculed while atheism was propagated in schools. In 1925, the government founded the League of Militant Atheists to intensify the propaganda campaign. Accordingly, although personal expressions of religious faith were not explicitly banned, a strong sense of social stigma was imposed on them by the formal structures and mass media, and it was generally considered unacceptable for members of certain professions (teachers, state bureaucrats, soldiers) to be openly religious. While persecution accelerated following Stalin's rise to power, a revival of Orthodoxy was fostered by the government during World War II and the Soviet authorities sought to control the Russian Orthodox Church rather than liquidate it. During the first five years of Soviet power, the Bolsheviks executed 28 Russian Orthodox bishops and over 1,200 Russian Orthodox priests. Many others were imprisoned or exiled. Believers were harassed and persecuted. Most seminaries were closed, and the publication of most religious material was prohibited. By 1941, only 500 churches remained open out of about 54,000 in existence before World War I.Convinced that religious anti-Sovietism had become a thing of the past, and with the looming threat of war, the Stalin regime began shifting to a more moderate religion policy in the late 1930s. Soviet religious establishments overwhelmingly rallied to support the war effort during World War II. Amid other accommodations to religious faith after the German invasion, churches were reopened. Radio Moscow began broadcasting a religious hour, and a historic meeting between Stalin and Orthodox Church leader Patriarch Sergius of Moscow was held in 1943. Stalin had the support of the majority of the religious people in the USSR even through the late 1980s. The general tendency of this period was an increase in religious activity among believers of all faiths.Under Nikita Khrushchev, the state leadership clashed with the churches in 1958–1964, a period when atheism was emphasized in the educational curriculum, and numerous state publications promoted atheistic views. During this period, the number of churches fell from 20,000 to 10,000 from 1959 to 1965, and the number of synagogues dropped from 500 to 97. The number of working mosques also declined, falling from 1,500 to 500 within a decade.Religious institutions remained monitored by the Soviet government, but churches, synagogues, temples, and mosques were all given more leeway in the Brezhnev era. Official relations between the Orthodox Church and the government again warmed to the point that the Brezhnev government twice honored Orthodox Patriarch Alexy I with the Order of the Red Banner of Labour. A poll conducted by Soviet authorities in 1982 recorded 20% of the Soviet population as "active religious believers."The legacy of the USSR remains a controversial topic. The socio-economic nature of communist states such as the USSR, especially under Stalin, has also been much debated, varyingly being labelled a form of bureaucratic collectivism, state capitalism, state socialism, or a totally unique mode of production.The USSR implemented a broad range of policies over a long period of time, with a large amount of conflicting policies being implemented by different leaders. Some have a positive view of it whilst others are critical towards the country, calling it a repressive oligarchy. The opinions on the USSR are complex and have changed over time, with different generations having different views on the matter as well as on Soviet policies corresponding to separate time periods during its history. Leftists have largely varying views on the USSR. Whilst some leftists such as anarchists and other libertarian socialists, agree it did not give the workers control over the means of production and was a centralized oligarchy, others have more positive opinions as to the Bolshevik policies and Vladimir Lenin. Many anti-Stalinist leftists such as anarchists are extremely critical of Soviet authoritarianism and repression. Much of the criticism it receives is centered around massacres in the Soviet Union, the centralized hierarchy present in the USSR and mass political repression as well as violence towards government critics and political dissidents such as other leftists. Critics also point towards its failure to implement any substantial worker cooperatives or implementing worker liberation as well as corruption and the Soviet authoritarian nature.Many Russians and other former Soviet citizens have nostalgia for the USSR, pointing towards most infrastructure being built during Soviet times, increased job security, increased literacy rate, increased caloric intake and supposed ethnic pluralism enacted in the Soviet Union as well as political stability. The Russian Revolution is also seen in a positive light as well as the leadership of Lenin, Nikita Khrushchev and the later USSR, although many view Joseph Stalin's rule as positive for the country. In Armenia, 12% of respondents said the USSR collapse did good, while 66% said it did harm. In Kyrgyzstan, 16% of respondents said the collapse of the USSR did good, while 61% said it did harm. In a 2018 Rating Sociological Group poll, 47% of Ukrainian respondents had a positive opinion of Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, who ruled the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982. Much of the admiration of the USSR comes from the failings of the modern post-Soviet governments such as the control by oligarchs, corruption and outdated Soviet-era infrastructure as well as the rise and dominance of organised crime after the collapse of the USSR all directly leading into nostalgia for it.The 1941–45 period of World War II is still known in Russia as the "Great Patriotic War". The war became a topic of great importance in cinema, literature, history lessons at school, the mass media, and the arts. As a result of the massive losses suffered by the military and civilians during the conflict, Victory Day celebrated on 9 May is still one of the most important and emotional dates in Russia.In some post Soviet republics, there is a more negative view of the USSR, although there is no unanimity on the matter. In large part due to the Holodomor, ethnic Ukrainians have a negative view of it. Russian-speaking Ukrainians of Ukraine's southern and eastern regions have a more positive view of the USSR. In some countries with internal conflict, there is also nostalgia for the USSR, especially for refugees of the post-Soviet conflicts who have been forced to flee their homes and have been displaced. This nostalgia is less an admiration for the country or its policies than it is a longing to return to their homes and not to live in poverty. The many Russian enclaves in the former USSR republics such as Transnistria have in a general a positive remembrance of it.The left's view of the USSR is complex. While some leftists regard the USSR as an example of state capitalism or that it was an oligarchical state, other leftists admire Vladimir Lenin and the Russian Revolution.Council communists generally view the USSR as failing to create class consciousness, turning into a corrupt state in which the elite controlled society. Anarchists are critical of the country, labeling the Soviet system as "red fascism". Soviets actively destroyed anarchist organizations and anarchist communities, labeling anarchists as "enemies of the people". Factors contributing to the animosity towards the USSR included: the Soviet invasion of the anarchist Free Territory, the suppression of the anarchist Kronstadt rebellion and the response to the Norilsk uprising, in which prisoners created a radical system of government based on cooperatives and direct democracy in the Gulag. Anarchist organizations and unions were also banned during the Spanish Civil War under the Republican government by orders from the Soviet government. Due to this, anarchists generally hold a large animosity towards the USSR.The culture of the Soviet Union passed through several stages during the USSR's existence. During the first decade following the revolution, there was relative freedom and artists experimented with several different styles to find a distinctive Soviet style of art. Lenin wanted art to be accessible to the Russian people. On the other hand, hundreds of intellectuals, writers, and artists were exiled or executed, and their work banned, such as Nikolay Gumilyov who was shot for alleged conspiring against the Bolshevik regime, and Yevgeny Zamyatin.The government encouraged a variety of trends. In art and literature, numerous schools, some traditional and others radically experimental, proliferated. Communist writers Maxim Gorky and Vladimir Mayakovsky were active during this time. As a means of influencing a largely illiterate society, films received encouragement from the state, and much of director Sergei Eisenstein's best work dates from this period.During Stalin's rule, the Soviet culture was characterized by the rise and domination of the government-imposed style of socialist realism, with all other trends being severely repressed, with rare exceptions, such as Mikhail Bulgakov's works. Many writers were imprisoned and killed.Following the Khrushchev Thaw, censorship was diminished. During this time, a distinctive period of Soviet culture developed, characterized by conformist public life and an intense focus on personal life. Greater experimentation in art forms was again permissible, resulting in the production of more sophisticated and subtly critical work. The regime loosened its emphasis on socialist realism; thus, for instance, many protagonists of the novels of author Yury Trifonov concerned themselves with problems of daily life rather than with building socialism. Underground dissident literature, known as "samizdat", developed during this late period. In architecture, the Khrushchev era mostly focused on functional design as opposed to the highly decorated style of Stalin's epoch. In music, in response to the increasing popularity of forms of popular music like jazz in the West, many jazz orchestras were permitted throughout the USSR, notably the Melodiya Ensemble, named after the principle record label in the USSR.In the second half of the 1980s, Gorbachev's policies of "perestroika" and "glasnost" significantly expanded freedom of expression throughout the country in the media and the press.Founded on 20 July 1924 in Moscow, "Sovetsky Sport" was the first sports newspaper of the Soviet Union.The Soviet Olympic Committee formed on 21 April 1951, and the IOC recognized the new body in its 45th session. In the same year, when the Soviet representative Konstantin Andrianov became an IOC member, the USSR officially joined the Olympic Movement. The 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki thus became first Olympic Games for Soviet athletes. The Soviet Union was the biggest rival to the United States at the Summer Olympics, winning six of its nine appearances at the games and also topping the medal tally at the Winter Olympics six times. The Soviet Union's Olympics success has been attributed to its large investment in sports to demonstrate its superpower image and political influence on a global stage.The Soviet Union national ice hockey team won nearly every world championship and Olympic tournament between 1954 and 1991 and never failed to medal in any International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) tournament in which they competed.The advent of the state-sponsored "full-time amateur athlete" of the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self-financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. The Soviet Union entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession – in reality, the state paid many of these competitors to train on a full-time basis. Nevertheless, the IOC held to the traditional rules regarding amateurism.A 1989 report by a committee of the Australian Senate claimed that "there is hardly a medal winner at the Moscow Games, certainly not a gold medal winner...who is not on one sort of drug or another: usually several kinds. The Moscow Games might well have been called the Chemists' Games".A member of the IOC Medical Commission, Manfred Donike, privately ran additional tests with a new technique for identifying abnormal levels of testosterone by measuring its ratio to epitestosterone in urine. Twenty percent of the specimens he tested, including those from sixteen gold medalists, would have resulted in disciplinary proceedings had the tests been official. The results of Donike's unofficial tests later convinced the IOC to add his new technique to their testing protocols. The first documented case of "blood doping" occurred at the 1980 Summer Olympics when a runner was transfused with two pints of blood before winning medals in the 5000 m and 10,000 m.Documentation obtained in 2016 revealed the Soviet Union's plans for a statewide doping system in track and field in preparation for the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. Dated before the decision to boycott the 1984 Games, the document detailed the existing steroids operations of the program, along with suggestions for further enhancements. Dr. Sergei Portugalov of the Institute for Physical Culture prepared the communication, directed to the Soviet Union's head of track and field. Portugalov later became one of the leading figures involved in the implementation of Russian doping before the 2016 Summer Olympics.Official Soviet environmental policy has always attached great importance to actions in which human beings actively improve nature. Lenin's quote "Communism is Soviet power and electrification of the country!" in many respects summarizes the focus on modernization and industrial development. During the first five-year plan in 1928, Stalin proceeded to industrialize the country at all costs. Values such as environmental and nature protection have been completely ignored in the struggle to create a modern industrial society. After Stalin's death, they focused more on environmental issues, but the basic perception of the value of environmental protection remained the same.The Soviet media has always focused on the vast expanse of land and the virtually indestructible natural resources. This made it feel that contamination and uncontrolled exploitation of nature were not a problem. The Soviet state also firmly believed that scientific and technological progress would solve all the problems. Official ideology said that under socialism environmental problems could easily be overcome, unlike capitalist countries, where they seemingly could not be solved. The Soviet authorities had an almost unwavering belief that man could transcend nature. However, when the authorities had to admit that there were environmental problems in the USSR in the 1980s, they explained the problems in such a way that socialism had not yet been fully developed; pollution in a socialist society was only a temporary anomaly that would have been resolved if socialism had developed.The Chernobyl disaster in 1986 was the first major accident at a civilian nuclear power plant. Unparalleled in the world, it resulted in a large number of radioactive isotopes being released into the atmosphere. Radioactive doses have scattered relatively far. 4,000 new cases of thyroid cancer were reported after the incident, but this led to a relatively low number of deaths (WHO data, 2005). However, the long-term effects of the accident are unknown. Another major accident is the Kyshtym disaster.After the fall of the USSR, it was discovered that the environmental problems were greater than what the Soviet authorities admitted. The Kola Peninsula was one of the places with clear problems. Around the industrial cities of Monchegorsk and Norilsk, where nickel, for example, is mined, all forests have been destroyed by contamination, while the northern and other parts of Russia have been affected by emissions. During the 1990s, people in the West were also interested in the radioactive hazards of nuclear facilities, decommissioned nuclear submarines, and the processing of nuclear waste or spent nuclear fuel. It was also known in the early 1990s that the USSR had transported radioactive material to the Barents Sea and Kara Sea, which was later confirmed by the Russian parliament. The crash of the K-141 Kursk submarine in 2000 in the west further raised concerns. In the past, there were accidents involving submarines K-19, K-8, and K-129. | [
"Georgy Malenkov",
"Alexei Kosygin",
"Nikolai Ryzhkov",
"Nikita Khrushchev",
"Joseph Stalin",
"Ivan Silayev",
"Vladimir Lenin",
"Nikolai Bulganin",
"Nikolai Tikhonov",
"Vyacheslav Molotov",
"Valentin Pavlov"
] |
|
Which position did Paul Beresford hold in Oct, 2014? | October 06, 2014 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 55th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q263243_P39_4 | Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 51st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1992 to Apr, 1997.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 55th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 2010 to Mar, 2015.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 57th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 2017 to Nov, 2019.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 53rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 2001 to Apr, 2005.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 54th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 2005 to Apr, 2010.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 52nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1997 to May, 2001.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 56th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 2015 to May, 2017.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 58th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 2019 to Dec, 2022. | Paul BeresfordSir Alexander Paul Beresford (born 6 April 1946) is a British-New Zealander dentist and politician who has served as the British Conservative Party Member of Parliament (MP) for Mole Valley in Surrey since 1997 general election. He was first elected as the MP for Croydon Central in the 1992 general election.Beresford was born in 1946 in Levin, New Zealand, and was educated in Richmond Primary School, Waimea College in Richmond; and the University of Otago in Dunedin, and is a practising dentist. Beresford holds dual British and New Zealand citizenship.Beresford was elected as a Councillor to Wandsworth Borough Council in 1978, and was its Leader between 1983 and 1992, through much of the Thatcher Government. He was knighted in the 1990 New Year Honours for political and public service.Beresford was selected to fight the safe Conservative seat of Croydon Central following the retirement of former Cabinet minister John Moore. Beresford was elected at the 1992 general election and made his maiden speech on 30 June 1992. He entered the Major Government in 1994 as the Parliamentary Under Secretary of State at the Department for the Environment and remained until the Government was defeated in 1997.When the number of seats in Croydon was reduced from four to three before the 1997 general election, he failed to be selected for the newly drawn Croydon Central, and instead fought the safe Conservative Mole Valley seat in Surrey, where Kenneth Baker was retiring, and he was elected at the 1997 election. Croydon Central fell to Labour. Prior to the 2010 general election Beresford was a member of the Communities & Local Government Select committee. In 2012, Beresford was named by the "Conservative Home" website as one of a minority of loyal Conservative backbench MPs not to have voted against the government in any significant rebellions.Beresford, who is a Eurosceptic, campaigned for a Remain vote during the 2016 referendum on EU membership because he believed it was the better option for future generations.During the media coverage of the United Kingdom parliamentary expenses scandal, it was revealed that Beresford, who is a practising dentist, designated his west London property (which includes his dental surgery) as his second home, allowing him to claim allowances of three-quarters of the running costs of the property from the taxpayer.Beresford has a son from his previous marriage who lives in New Zealand. Beresford is currently married to Julie and they have two sons and one daughter. | [
"Member of the 51st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 53rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 57th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 54th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 56th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 58th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 52nd Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Paul Beresford hold in 2014-10-06? | October 06, 2014 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 55th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q263243_P39_4 | Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 51st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1992 to Apr, 1997.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 55th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 2010 to Mar, 2015.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 57th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 2017 to Nov, 2019.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 53rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 2001 to Apr, 2005.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 54th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 2005 to Apr, 2010.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 52nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1997 to May, 2001.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 56th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 2015 to May, 2017.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 58th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 2019 to Dec, 2022. | Paul BeresfordSir Alexander Paul Beresford (born 6 April 1946) is a British-New Zealander dentist and politician who has served as the British Conservative Party Member of Parliament (MP) for Mole Valley in Surrey since 1997 general election. He was first elected as the MP for Croydon Central in the 1992 general election.Beresford was born in 1946 in Levin, New Zealand, and was educated in Richmond Primary School, Waimea College in Richmond; and the University of Otago in Dunedin, and is a practising dentist. Beresford holds dual British and New Zealand citizenship.Beresford was elected as a Councillor to Wandsworth Borough Council in 1978, and was its Leader between 1983 and 1992, through much of the Thatcher Government. He was knighted in the 1990 New Year Honours for political and public service.Beresford was selected to fight the safe Conservative seat of Croydon Central following the retirement of former Cabinet minister John Moore. Beresford was elected at the 1992 general election and made his maiden speech on 30 June 1992. He entered the Major Government in 1994 as the Parliamentary Under Secretary of State at the Department for the Environment and remained until the Government was defeated in 1997.When the number of seats in Croydon was reduced from four to three before the 1997 general election, he failed to be selected for the newly drawn Croydon Central, and instead fought the safe Conservative Mole Valley seat in Surrey, where Kenneth Baker was retiring, and he was elected at the 1997 election. Croydon Central fell to Labour. Prior to the 2010 general election Beresford was a member of the Communities & Local Government Select committee. In 2012, Beresford was named by the "Conservative Home" website as one of a minority of loyal Conservative backbench MPs not to have voted against the government in any significant rebellions.Beresford, who is a Eurosceptic, campaigned for a Remain vote during the 2016 referendum on EU membership because he believed it was the better option for future generations.During the media coverage of the United Kingdom parliamentary expenses scandal, it was revealed that Beresford, who is a practising dentist, designated his west London property (which includes his dental surgery) as his second home, allowing him to claim allowances of three-quarters of the running costs of the property from the taxpayer.Beresford has a son from his previous marriage who lives in New Zealand. Beresford is currently married to Julie and they have two sons and one daughter. | [
"Member of the 51st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 53rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 57th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 54th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 56th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 58th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 52nd Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Paul Beresford hold in 06/10/2014? | October 06, 2014 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 55th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q263243_P39_4 | Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 51st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1992 to Apr, 1997.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 55th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 2010 to Mar, 2015.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 57th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 2017 to Nov, 2019.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 53rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 2001 to Apr, 2005.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 54th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 2005 to Apr, 2010.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 52nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1997 to May, 2001.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 56th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 2015 to May, 2017.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 58th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 2019 to Dec, 2022. | Paul BeresfordSir Alexander Paul Beresford (born 6 April 1946) is a British-New Zealander dentist and politician who has served as the British Conservative Party Member of Parliament (MP) for Mole Valley in Surrey since 1997 general election. He was first elected as the MP for Croydon Central in the 1992 general election.Beresford was born in 1946 in Levin, New Zealand, and was educated in Richmond Primary School, Waimea College in Richmond; and the University of Otago in Dunedin, and is a practising dentist. Beresford holds dual British and New Zealand citizenship.Beresford was elected as a Councillor to Wandsworth Borough Council in 1978, and was its Leader between 1983 and 1992, through much of the Thatcher Government. He was knighted in the 1990 New Year Honours for political and public service.Beresford was selected to fight the safe Conservative seat of Croydon Central following the retirement of former Cabinet minister John Moore. Beresford was elected at the 1992 general election and made his maiden speech on 30 June 1992. He entered the Major Government in 1994 as the Parliamentary Under Secretary of State at the Department for the Environment and remained until the Government was defeated in 1997.When the number of seats in Croydon was reduced from four to three before the 1997 general election, he failed to be selected for the newly drawn Croydon Central, and instead fought the safe Conservative Mole Valley seat in Surrey, where Kenneth Baker was retiring, and he was elected at the 1997 election. Croydon Central fell to Labour. Prior to the 2010 general election Beresford was a member of the Communities & Local Government Select committee. In 2012, Beresford was named by the "Conservative Home" website as one of a minority of loyal Conservative backbench MPs not to have voted against the government in any significant rebellions.Beresford, who is a Eurosceptic, campaigned for a Remain vote during the 2016 referendum on EU membership because he believed it was the better option for future generations.During the media coverage of the United Kingdom parliamentary expenses scandal, it was revealed that Beresford, who is a practising dentist, designated his west London property (which includes his dental surgery) as his second home, allowing him to claim allowances of three-quarters of the running costs of the property from the taxpayer.Beresford has a son from his previous marriage who lives in New Zealand. Beresford is currently married to Julie and they have two sons and one daughter. | [
"Member of the 51st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 53rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 57th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 54th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 56th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 58th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 52nd Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Paul Beresford hold in Oct 06, 2014? | October 06, 2014 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 55th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q263243_P39_4 | Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 51st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1992 to Apr, 1997.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 55th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 2010 to Mar, 2015.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 57th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 2017 to Nov, 2019.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 53rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 2001 to Apr, 2005.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 54th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 2005 to Apr, 2010.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 52nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1997 to May, 2001.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 56th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 2015 to May, 2017.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 58th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 2019 to Dec, 2022. | Paul BeresfordSir Alexander Paul Beresford (born 6 April 1946) is a British-New Zealander dentist and politician who has served as the British Conservative Party Member of Parliament (MP) for Mole Valley in Surrey since 1997 general election. He was first elected as the MP for Croydon Central in the 1992 general election.Beresford was born in 1946 in Levin, New Zealand, and was educated in Richmond Primary School, Waimea College in Richmond; and the University of Otago in Dunedin, and is a practising dentist. Beresford holds dual British and New Zealand citizenship.Beresford was elected as a Councillor to Wandsworth Borough Council in 1978, and was its Leader between 1983 and 1992, through much of the Thatcher Government. He was knighted in the 1990 New Year Honours for political and public service.Beresford was selected to fight the safe Conservative seat of Croydon Central following the retirement of former Cabinet minister John Moore. Beresford was elected at the 1992 general election and made his maiden speech on 30 June 1992. He entered the Major Government in 1994 as the Parliamentary Under Secretary of State at the Department for the Environment and remained until the Government was defeated in 1997.When the number of seats in Croydon was reduced from four to three before the 1997 general election, he failed to be selected for the newly drawn Croydon Central, and instead fought the safe Conservative Mole Valley seat in Surrey, where Kenneth Baker was retiring, and he was elected at the 1997 election. Croydon Central fell to Labour. Prior to the 2010 general election Beresford was a member of the Communities & Local Government Select committee. In 2012, Beresford was named by the "Conservative Home" website as one of a minority of loyal Conservative backbench MPs not to have voted against the government in any significant rebellions.Beresford, who is a Eurosceptic, campaigned for a Remain vote during the 2016 referendum on EU membership because he believed it was the better option for future generations.During the media coverage of the United Kingdom parliamentary expenses scandal, it was revealed that Beresford, who is a practising dentist, designated his west London property (which includes his dental surgery) as his second home, allowing him to claim allowances of three-quarters of the running costs of the property from the taxpayer.Beresford has a son from his previous marriage who lives in New Zealand. Beresford is currently married to Julie and they have two sons and one daughter. | [
"Member of the 51st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 53rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 57th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 54th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 56th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 58th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 52nd Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Paul Beresford hold in 10/06/2014? | October 06, 2014 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 55th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q263243_P39_4 | Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 51st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1992 to Apr, 1997.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 55th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 2010 to Mar, 2015.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 57th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 2017 to Nov, 2019.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 53rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 2001 to Apr, 2005.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 54th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 2005 to Apr, 2010.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 52nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1997 to May, 2001.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 56th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 2015 to May, 2017.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 58th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 2019 to Dec, 2022. | Paul BeresfordSir Alexander Paul Beresford (born 6 April 1946) is a British-New Zealander dentist and politician who has served as the British Conservative Party Member of Parliament (MP) for Mole Valley in Surrey since 1997 general election. He was first elected as the MP for Croydon Central in the 1992 general election.Beresford was born in 1946 in Levin, New Zealand, and was educated in Richmond Primary School, Waimea College in Richmond; and the University of Otago in Dunedin, and is a practising dentist. Beresford holds dual British and New Zealand citizenship.Beresford was elected as a Councillor to Wandsworth Borough Council in 1978, and was its Leader between 1983 and 1992, through much of the Thatcher Government. He was knighted in the 1990 New Year Honours for political and public service.Beresford was selected to fight the safe Conservative seat of Croydon Central following the retirement of former Cabinet minister John Moore. Beresford was elected at the 1992 general election and made his maiden speech on 30 June 1992. He entered the Major Government in 1994 as the Parliamentary Under Secretary of State at the Department for the Environment and remained until the Government was defeated in 1997.When the number of seats in Croydon was reduced from four to three before the 1997 general election, he failed to be selected for the newly drawn Croydon Central, and instead fought the safe Conservative Mole Valley seat in Surrey, where Kenneth Baker was retiring, and he was elected at the 1997 election. Croydon Central fell to Labour. Prior to the 2010 general election Beresford was a member of the Communities & Local Government Select committee. In 2012, Beresford was named by the "Conservative Home" website as one of a minority of loyal Conservative backbench MPs not to have voted against the government in any significant rebellions.Beresford, who is a Eurosceptic, campaigned for a Remain vote during the 2016 referendum on EU membership because he believed it was the better option for future generations.During the media coverage of the United Kingdom parliamentary expenses scandal, it was revealed that Beresford, who is a practising dentist, designated his west London property (which includes his dental surgery) as his second home, allowing him to claim allowances of three-quarters of the running costs of the property from the taxpayer.Beresford has a son from his previous marriage who lives in New Zealand. Beresford is currently married to Julie and they have two sons and one daughter. | [
"Member of the 51st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 53rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 57th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 54th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 56th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 58th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 52nd Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Paul Beresford hold in 06-Oct-201406-October-2014? | October 06, 2014 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 55th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q263243_P39_4 | Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 51st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1992 to Apr, 1997.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 55th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 2010 to Mar, 2015.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 57th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 2017 to Nov, 2019.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 53rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 2001 to Apr, 2005.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 54th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 2005 to Apr, 2010.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 52nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1997 to May, 2001.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 56th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 2015 to May, 2017.
Paul Beresford holds the position of Member of the 58th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 2019 to Dec, 2022. | Paul BeresfordSir Alexander Paul Beresford (born 6 April 1946) is a British-New Zealander dentist and politician who has served as the British Conservative Party Member of Parliament (MP) for Mole Valley in Surrey since 1997 general election. He was first elected as the MP for Croydon Central in the 1992 general election.Beresford was born in 1946 in Levin, New Zealand, and was educated in Richmond Primary School, Waimea College in Richmond; and the University of Otago in Dunedin, and is a practising dentist. Beresford holds dual British and New Zealand citizenship.Beresford was elected as a Councillor to Wandsworth Borough Council in 1978, and was its Leader between 1983 and 1992, through much of the Thatcher Government. He was knighted in the 1990 New Year Honours for political and public service.Beresford was selected to fight the safe Conservative seat of Croydon Central following the retirement of former Cabinet minister John Moore. Beresford was elected at the 1992 general election and made his maiden speech on 30 June 1992. He entered the Major Government in 1994 as the Parliamentary Under Secretary of State at the Department for the Environment and remained until the Government was defeated in 1997.When the number of seats in Croydon was reduced from four to three before the 1997 general election, he failed to be selected for the newly drawn Croydon Central, and instead fought the safe Conservative Mole Valley seat in Surrey, where Kenneth Baker was retiring, and he was elected at the 1997 election. Croydon Central fell to Labour. Prior to the 2010 general election Beresford was a member of the Communities & Local Government Select committee. In 2012, Beresford was named by the "Conservative Home" website as one of a minority of loyal Conservative backbench MPs not to have voted against the government in any significant rebellions.Beresford, who is a Eurosceptic, campaigned for a Remain vote during the 2016 referendum on EU membership because he believed it was the better option for future generations.During the media coverage of the United Kingdom parliamentary expenses scandal, it was revealed that Beresford, who is a practising dentist, designated his west London property (which includes his dental surgery) as his second home, allowing him to claim allowances of three-quarters of the running costs of the property from the taxpayer.Beresford has a son from his previous marriage who lives in New Zealand. Beresford is currently married to Julie and they have two sons and one daughter. | [
"Member of the 51st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 53rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 57th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 54th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 56th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 58th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 52nd Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which employer did Matthew Pratt Guterl work for in Oct, 2003? | October 01, 2003 | {
"text": [
"Indiana University Bloomington"
]
} | L2_Q6791091_P108_2 | Matthew Pratt Guterl works for Washington State University from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2003.
Matthew Pratt Guterl works for Indiana University Bloomington from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2012.
Matthew Pratt Guterl works for Brown University from Jan, 2012 to Dec, 2022.
Matthew Pratt Guterl works for St. John's University from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2000. | Matthew Pratt GuterlMatthew Pratt Guterl is Professor of Africana Studies and American Studies at Brown University. Prior to his arrival at Brown University, Guterl was the James Rudy Professor of American Studies and History at Indiana University and chair of the department of American Studies. He is the author of four books and the co-author of another, and has written for "The Guardian", "The New Republic", "The Chronicle of Higher Education", and "Inside Higher Education." Guterl appeared in the documentary "Race: the Power of an Illusion".Guterl graduated from Richard Stockton College in 1993 with a B.A. in Historical Studies, and in 1999 from Rutgers University with a Ph.D. in History. He has written extensively about growing up in New Jersey in the 1970s as a member of a large, multiracial, adoptive family. Prior to working at Indiana University, Guterl was an Assistant Professor of Comparative American Cultures at Washington State University.Describing himself as "an historian of race and nation, and a scholar of African American, American, and World histories," Guterl's work has shifted over time across subfields and specializations: his first book was on the Progressive Era North, while his second book was on the Civil War Era South, and his more recent work is focused on the post-World War II era. His work is also transnational in scope and topic, and he often draws on archives outside of the United States.Guterl is the author of several books, each taking up the common histories of race and nation and class. His first, "The Color of Race in America, 1900-1940," was published in 2001, and won a "Best Book" award from the American Political Science Association. It was reviewed in the "Los Angeles Times" and the "Economist", among other venues. That book is a narrative of the shifting racial classifications in New York City, as witnessed by the African American civil rights leader W.E.B. Du Bois, the Irish American nationalist Daniel Cohalan, the Nordic supremacist and armchair racial scientist Madison Grant, and the mixed-race novelist Jean Toomer.His second, "American Mediterranean: Southern Slaveholders in the Age of Emancipation," was published in 2008. It received honorable mention in the competition for the 2009 Gordon K. and Sybil Lewis Award, given by the Caribbean Studies Association. Therein, he traces the rise and fall of Southern slaveholding against a hemispheric backdrop, suggesting that the Old South was tightly connected to the Caribbean, the West Indies, and even South America, and that the Civil War fundamentally changed this relationship.A third book, "Seeing Race in Modern America," was published in the Fall of 2013 by the University of North Carolina Press, and considers the history of racial sight over the past two hundred years. Framing the front and back of the book with a critique of racial profiling, Guterl suggests that the practice of seeing race is more commonplace than we think, and that unjust policing tactics share much with other, apparently benign racial sightlines, from narratives about multiracial adoption to platoon movies to silhouetting to debates about mixed-race children.His biography of the famous African American singer and performer, Josephine Baker, published in 2014 by Harvard University Press, focuses on her multiracial, transnational, adopted family in France and the historical contexts of decolonization, civil and human rights, liberalism and utopianism. Recently, he has described this book as a challenge, as well, to the notion of "nation-time" and conventional periodizations in American and world history.In the spring of 2015, Guterl and his co-author, Caroline Field Levander, released "Hotel Life", a book about the social and political work of hotels in contemporary American culture.Guterl is also the co-editor (with James T. Campbell and Robert G. Lee) of "Race, Nation, and Empire in American History," published in 2007. Guterl is also the editor of proposed "Oxford Handbook on the History of Race."Guterl was the 2010 winner of the Mary Turpie Prize for Distinguished Teaching, Advising, and Program Development, from the American Studies Association. In that same year, he was given the Distinguished Alumni Award from the School of Arts and Humanities, Richard Stockton College of New Jersey. He has also been awarded fellowships from the Humanities Research Center, Rice University, the Center for the Study of Race and Ethnicity in America, Brown University, the National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, the Gilder Lehrman Center, Yale University, and the Library Company of Philadelphia. | [
"St. John's University",
"Brown University",
"Washington State University"
] |
|
Which employer did Matthew Pratt Guterl work for in 2003-10-01? | October 01, 2003 | {
"text": [
"Indiana University Bloomington"
]
} | L2_Q6791091_P108_2 | Matthew Pratt Guterl works for Washington State University from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2003.
Matthew Pratt Guterl works for Indiana University Bloomington from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2012.
Matthew Pratt Guterl works for Brown University from Jan, 2012 to Dec, 2022.
Matthew Pratt Guterl works for St. John's University from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2000. | Matthew Pratt GuterlMatthew Pratt Guterl is Professor of Africana Studies and American Studies at Brown University. Prior to his arrival at Brown University, Guterl was the James Rudy Professor of American Studies and History at Indiana University and chair of the department of American Studies. He is the author of four books and the co-author of another, and has written for "The Guardian", "The New Republic", "The Chronicle of Higher Education", and "Inside Higher Education." Guterl appeared in the documentary "Race: the Power of an Illusion".Guterl graduated from Richard Stockton College in 1993 with a B.A. in Historical Studies, and in 1999 from Rutgers University with a Ph.D. in History. He has written extensively about growing up in New Jersey in the 1970s as a member of a large, multiracial, adoptive family. Prior to working at Indiana University, Guterl was an Assistant Professor of Comparative American Cultures at Washington State University.Describing himself as "an historian of race and nation, and a scholar of African American, American, and World histories," Guterl's work has shifted over time across subfields and specializations: his first book was on the Progressive Era North, while his second book was on the Civil War Era South, and his more recent work is focused on the post-World War II era. His work is also transnational in scope and topic, and he often draws on archives outside of the United States.Guterl is the author of several books, each taking up the common histories of race and nation and class. His first, "The Color of Race in America, 1900-1940," was published in 2001, and won a "Best Book" award from the American Political Science Association. It was reviewed in the "Los Angeles Times" and the "Economist", among other venues. That book is a narrative of the shifting racial classifications in New York City, as witnessed by the African American civil rights leader W.E.B. Du Bois, the Irish American nationalist Daniel Cohalan, the Nordic supremacist and armchair racial scientist Madison Grant, and the mixed-race novelist Jean Toomer.His second, "American Mediterranean: Southern Slaveholders in the Age of Emancipation," was published in 2008. It received honorable mention in the competition for the 2009 Gordon K. and Sybil Lewis Award, given by the Caribbean Studies Association. Therein, he traces the rise and fall of Southern slaveholding against a hemispheric backdrop, suggesting that the Old South was tightly connected to the Caribbean, the West Indies, and even South America, and that the Civil War fundamentally changed this relationship.A third book, "Seeing Race in Modern America," was published in the Fall of 2013 by the University of North Carolina Press, and considers the history of racial sight over the past two hundred years. Framing the front and back of the book with a critique of racial profiling, Guterl suggests that the practice of seeing race is more commonplace than we think, and that unjust policing tactics share much with other, apparently benign racial sightlines, from narratives about multiracial adoption to platoon movies to silhouetting to debates about mixed-race children.His biography of the famous African American singer and performer, Josephine Baker, published in 2014 by Harvard University Press, focuses on her multiracial, transnational, adopted family in France and the historical contexts of decolonization, civil and human rights, liberalism and utopianism. Recently, he has described this book as a challenge, as well, to the notion of "nation-time" and conventional periodizations in American and world history.In the spring of 2015, Guterl and his co-author, Caroline Field Levander, released "Hotel Life", a book about the social and political work of hotels in contemporary American culture.Guterl is also the co-editor (with James T. Campbell and Robert G. Lee) of "Race, Nation, and Empire in American History," published in 2007. Guterl is also the editor of proposed "Oxford Handbook on the History of Race."Guterl was the 2010 winner of the Mary Turpie Prize for Distinguished Teaching, Advising, and Program Development, from the American Studies Association. In that same year, he was given the Distinguished Alumni Award from the School of Arts and Humanities, Richard Stockton College of New Jersey. He has also been awarded fellowships from the Humanities Research Center, Rice University, the Center for the Study of Race and Ethnicity in America, Brown University, the National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, the Gilder Lehrman Center, Yale University, and the Library Company of Philadelphia. | [
"St. John's University",
"Brown University",
"Washington State University"
] |
|
Which employer did Matthew Pratt Guterl work for in 01/10/2003? | October 01, 2003 | {
"text": [
"Indiana University Bloomington"
]
} | L2_Q6791091_P108_2 | Matthew Pratt Guterl works for Washington State University from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2003.
Matthew Pratt Guterl works for Indiana University Bloomington from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2012.
Matthew Pratt Guterl works for Brown University from Jan, 2012 to Dec, 2022.
Matthew Pratt Guterl works for St. John's University from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2000. | Matthew Pratt GuterlMatthew Pratt Guterl is Professor of Africana Studies and American Studies at Brown University. Prior to his arrival at Brown University, Guterl was the James Rudy Professor of American Studies and History at Indiana University and chair of the department of American Studies. He is the author of four books and the co-author of another, and has written for "The Guardian", "The New Republic", "The Chronicle of Higher Education", and "Inside Higher Education." Guterl appeared in the documentary "Race: the Power of an Illusion".Guterl graduated from Richard Stockton College in 1993 with a B.A. in Historical Studies, and in 1999 from Rutgers University with a Ph.D. in History. He has written extensively about growing up in New Jersey in the 1970s as a member of a large, multiracial, adoptive family. Prior to working at Indiana University, Guterl was an Assistant Professor of Comparative American Cultures at Washington State University.Describing himself as "an historian of race and nation, and a scholar of African American, American, and World histories," Guterl's work has shifted over time across subfields and specializations: his first book was on the Progressive Era North, while his second book was on the Civil War Era South, and his more recent work is focused on the post-World War II era. His work is also transnational in scope and topic, and he often draws on archives outside of the United States.Guterl is the author of several books, each taking up the common histories of race and nation and class. His first, "The Color of Race in America, 1900-1940," was published in 2001, and won a "Best Book" award from the American Political Science Association. It was reviewed in the "Los Angeles Times" and the "Economist", among other venues. That book is a narrative of the shifting racial classifications in New York City, as witnessed by the African American civil rights leader W.E.B. Du Bois, the Irish American nationalist Daniel Cohalan, the Nordic supremacist and armchair racial scientist Madison Grant, and the mixed-race novelist Jean Toomer.His second, "American Mediterranean: Southern Slaveholders in the Age of Emancipation," was published in 2008. It received honorable mention in the competition for the 2009 Gordon K. and Sybil Lewis Award, given by the Caribbean Studies Association. Therein, he traces the rise and fall of Southern slaveholding against a hemispheric backdrop, suggesting that the Old South was tightly connected to the Caribbean, the West Indies, and even South America, and that the Civil War fundamentally changed this relationship.A third book, "Seeing Race in Modern America," was published in the Fall of 2013 by the University of North Carolina Press, and considers the history of racial sight over the past two hundred years. Framing the front and back of the book with a critique of racial profiling, Guterl suggests that the practice of seeing race is more commonplace than we think, and that unjust policing tactics share much with other, apparently benign racial sightlines, from narratives about multiracial adoption to platoon movies to silhouetting to debates about mixed-race children.His biography of the famous African American singer and performer, Josephine Baker, published in 2014 by Harvard University Press, focuses on her multiracial, transnational, adopted family in France and the historical contexts of decolonization, civil and human rights, liberalism and utopianism. Recently, he has described this book as a challenge, as well, to the notion of "nation-time" and conventional periodizations in American and world history.In the spring of 2015, Guterl and his co-author, Caroline Field Levander, released "Hotel Life", a book about the social and political work of hotels in contemporary American culture.Guterl is also the co-editor (with James T. Campbell and Robert G. Lee) of "Race, Nation, and Empire in American History," published in 2007. Guterl is also the editor of proposed "Oxford Handbook on the History of Race."Guterl was the 2010 winner of the Mary Turpie Prize for Distinguished Teaching, Advising, and Program Development, from the American Studies Association. In that same year, he was given the Distinguished Alumni Award from the School of Arts and Humanities, Richard Stockton College of New Jersey. He has also been awarded fellowships from the Humanities Research Center, Rice University, the Center for the Study of Race and Ethnicity in America, Brown University, the National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, the Gilder Lehrman Center, Yale University, and the Library Company of Philadelphia. | [
"St. John's University",
"Brown University",
"Washington State University"
] |
|
Which employer did Matthew Pratt Guterl work for in Oct 01, 2003? | October 01, 2003 | {
"text": [
"Indiana University Bloomington"
]
} | L2_Q6791091_P108_2 | Matthew Pratt Guterl works for Washington State University from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2003.
Matthew Pratt Guterl works for Indiana University Bloomington from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2012.
Matthew Pratt Guterl works for Brown University from Jan, 2012 to Dec, 2022.
Matthew Pratt Guterl works for St. John's University from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2000. | Matthew Pratt GuterlMatthew Pratt Guterl is Professor of Africana Studies and American Studies at Brown University. Prior to his arrival at Brown University, Guterl was the James Rudy Professor of American Studies and History at Indiana University and chair of the department of American Studies. He is the author of four books and the co-author of another, and has written for "The Guardian", "The New Republic", "The Chronicle of Higher Education", and "Inside Higher Education." Guterl appeared in the documentary "Race: the Power of an Illusion".Guterl graduated from Richard Stockton College in 1993 with a B.A. in Historical Studies, and in 1999 from Rutgers University with a Ph.D. in History. He has written extensively about growing up in New Jersey in the 1970s as a member of a large, multiracial, adoptive family. Prior to working at Indiana University, Guterl was an Assistant Professor of Comparative American Cultures at Washington State University.Describing himself as "an historian of race and nation, and a scholar of African American, American, and World histories," Guterl's work has shifted over time across subfields and specializations: his first book was on the Progressive Era North, while his second book was on the Civil War Era South, and his more recent work is focused on the post-World War II era. His work is also transnational in scope and topic, and he often draws on archives outside of the United States.Guterl is the author of several books, each taking up the common histories of race and nation and class. His first, "The Color of Race in America, 1900-1940," was published in 2001, and won a "Best Book" award from the American Political Science Association. It was reviewed in the "Los Angeles Times" and the "Economist", among other venues. That book is a narrative of the shifting racial classifications in New York City, as witnessed by the African American civil rights leader W.E.B. Du Bois, the Irish American nationalist Daniel Cohalan, the Nordic supremacist and armchair racial scientist Madison Grant, and the mixed-race novelist Jean Toomer.His second, "American Mediterranean: Southern Slaveholders in the Age of Emancipation," was published in 2008. It received honorable mention in the competition for the 2009 Gordon K. and Sybil Lewis Award, given by the Caribbean Studies Association. Therein, he traces the rise and fall of Southern slaveholding against a hemispheric backdrop, suggesting that the Old South was tightly connected to the Caribbean, the West Indies, and even South America, and that the Civil War fundamentally changed this relationship.A third book, "Seeing Race in Modern America," was published in the Fall of 2013 by the University of North Carolina Press, and considers the history of racial sight over the past two hundred years. Framing the front and back of the book with a critique of racial profiling, Guterl suggests that the practice of seeing race is more commonplace than we think, and that unjust policing tactics share much with other, apparently benign racial sightlines, from narratives about multiracial adoption to platoon movies to silhouetting to debates about mixed-race children.His biography of the famous African American singer and performer, Josephine Baker, published in 2014 by Harvard University Press, focuses on her multiracial, transnational, adopted family in France and the historical contexts of decolonization, civil and human rights, liberalism and utopianism. Recently, he has described this book as a challenge, as well, to the notion of "nation-time" and conventional periodizations in American and world history.In the spring of 2015, Guterl and his co-author, Caroline Field Levander, released "Hotel Life", a book about the social and political work of hotels in contemporary American culture.Guterl is also the co-editor (with James T. Campbell and Robert G. Lee) of "Race, Nation, and Empire in American History," published in 2007. Guterl is also the editor of proposed "Oxford Handbook on the History of Race."Guterl was the 2010 winner of the Mary Turpie Prize for Distinguished Teaching, Advising, and Program Development, from the American Studies Association. In that same year, he was given the Distinguished Alumni Award from the School of Arts and Humanities, Richard Stockton College of New Jersey. He has also been awarded fellowships from the Humanities Research Center, Rice University, the Center for the Study of Race and Ethnicity in America, Brown University, the National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, the Gilder Lehrman Center, Yale University, and the Library Company of Philadelphia. | [
"St. John's University",
"Brown University",
"Washington State University"
] |
|
Which employer did Matthew Pratt Guterl work for in 10/01/2003? | October 01, 2003 | {
"text": [
"Indiana University Bloomington"
]
} | L2_Q6791091_P108_2 | Matthew Pratt Guterl works for Washington State University from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2003.
Matthew Pratt Guterl works for Indiana University Bloomington from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2012.
Matthew Pratt Guterl works for Brown University from Jan, 2012 to Dec, 2022.
Matthew Pratt Guterl works for St. John's University from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2000. | Matthew Pratt GuterlMatthew Pratt Guterl is Professor of Africana Studies and American Studies at Brown University. Prior to his arrival at Brown University, Guterl was the James Rudy Professor of American Studies and History at Indiana University and chair of the department of American Studies. He is the author of four books and the co-author of another, and has written for "The Guardian", "The New Republic", "The Chronicle of Higher Education", and "Inside Higher Education." Guterl appeared in the documentary "Race: the Power of an Illusion".Guterl graduated from Richard Stockton College in 1993 with a B.A. in Historical Studies, and in 1999 from Rutgers University with a Ph.D. in History. He has written extensively about growing up in New Jersey in the 1970s as a member of a large, multiracial, adoptive family. Prior to working at Indiana University, Guterl was an Assistant Professor of Comparative American Cultures at Washington State University.Describing himself as "an historian of race and nation, and a scholar of African American, American, and World histories," Guterl's work has shifted over time across subfields and specializations: his first book was on the Progressive Era North, while his second book was on the Civil War Era South, and his more recent work is focused on the post-World War II era. His work is also transnational in scope and topic, and he often draws on archives outside of the United States.Guterl is the author of several books, each taking up the common histories of race and nation and class. His first, "The Color of Race in America, 1900-1940," was published in 2001, and won a "Best Book" award from the American Political Science Association. It was reviewed in the "Los Angeles Times" and the "Economist", among other venues. That book is a narrative of the shifting racial classifications in New York City, as witnessed by the African American civil rights leader W.E.B. Du Bois, the Irish American nationalist Daniel Cohalan, the Nordic supremacist and armchair racial scientist Madison Grant, and the mixed-race novelist Jean Toomer.His second, "American Mediterranean: Southern Slaveholders in the Age of Emancipation," was published in 2008. It received honorable mention in the competition for the 2009 Gordon K. and Sybil Lewis Award, given by the Caribbean Studies Association. Therein, he traces the rise and fall of Southern slaveholding against a hemispheric backdrop, suggesting that the Old South was tightly connected to the Caribbean, the West Indies, and even South America, and that the Civil War fundamentally changed this relationship.A third book, "Seeing Race in Modern America," was published in the Fall of 2013 by the University of North Carolina Press, and considers the history of racial sight over the past two hundred years. Framing the front and back of the book with a critique of racial profiling, Guterl suggests that the practice of seeing race is more commonplace than we think, and that unjust policing tactics share much with other, apparently benign racial sightlines, from narratives about multiracial adoption to platoon movies to silhouetting to debates about mixed-race children.His biography of the famous African American singer and performer, Josephine Baker, published in 2014 by Harvard University Press, focuses on her multiracial, transnational, adopted family in France and the historical contexts of decolonization, civil and human rights, liberalism and utopianism. Recently, he has described this book as a challenge, as well, to the notion of "nation-time" and conventional periodizations in American and world history.In the spring of 2015, Guterl and his co-author, Caroline Field Levander, released "Hotel Life", a book about the social and political work of hotels in contemporary American culture.Guterl is also the co-editor (with James T. Campbell and Robert G. Lee) of "Race, Nation, and Empire in American History," published in 2007. Guterl is also the editor of proposed "Oxford Handbook on the History of Race."Guterl was the 2010 winner of the Mary Turpie Prize for Distinguished Teaching, Advising, and Program Development, from the American Studies Association. In that same year, he was given the Distinguished Alumni Award from the School of Arts and Humanities, Richard Stockton College of New Jersey. He has also been awarded fellowships from the Humanities Research Center, Rice University, the Center for the Study of Race and Ethnicity in America, Brown University, the National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, the Gilder Lehrman Center, Yale University, and the Library Company of Philadelphia. | [
"St. John's University",
"Brown University",
"Washington State University"
] |
|
Which employer did Matthew Pratt Guterl work for in 01-Oct-200301-October-2003? | October 01, 2003 | {
"text": [
"Indiana University Bloomington"
]
} | L2_Q6791091_P108_2 | Matthew Pratt Guterl works for Washington State University from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2003.
Matthew Pratt Guterl works for Indiana University Bloomington from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2012.
Matthew Pratt Guterl works for Brown University from Jan, 2012 to Dec, 2022.
Matthew Pratt Guterl works for St. John's University from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2000. | Matthew Pratt GuterlMatthew Pratt Guterl is Professor of Africana Studies and American Studies at Brown University. Prior to his arrival at Brown University, Guterl was the James Rudy Professor of American Studies and History at Indiana University and chair of the department of American Studies. He is the author of four books and the co-author of another, and has written for "The Guardian", "The New Republic", "The Chronicle of Higher Education", and "Inside Higher Education." Guterl appeared in the documentary "Race: the Power of an Illusion".Guterl graduated from Richard Stockton College in 1993 with a B.A. in Historical Studies, and in 1999 from Rutgers University with a Ph.D. in History. He has written extensively about growing up in New Jersey in the 1970s as a member of a large, multiracial, adoptive family. Prior to working at Indiana University, Guterl was an Assistant Professor of Comparative American Cultures at Washington State University.Describing himself as "an historian of race and nation, and a scholar of African American, American, and World histories," Guterl's work has shifted over time across subfields and specializations: his first book was on the Progressive Era North, while his second book was on the Civil War Era South, and his more recent work is focused on the post-World War II era. His work is also transnational in scope and topic, and he often draws on archives outside of the United States.Guterl is the author of several books, each taking up the common histories of race and nation and class. His first, "The Color of Race in America, 1900-1940," was published in 2001, and won a "Best Book" award from the American Political Science Association. It was reviewed in the "Los Angeles Times" and the "Economist", among other venues. That book is a narrative of the shifting racial classifications in New York City, as witnessed by the African American civil rights leader W.E.B. Du Bois, the Irish American nationalist Daniel Cohalan, the Nordic supremacist and armchair racial scientist Madison Grant, and the mixed-race novelist Jean Toomer.His second, "American Mediterranean: Southern Slaveholders in the Age of Emancipation," was published in 2008. It received honorable mention in the competition for the 2009 Gordon K. and Sybil Lewis Award, given by the Caribbean Studies Association. Therein, he traces the rise and fall of Southern slaveholding against a hemispheric backdrop, suggesting that the Old South was tightly connected to the Caribbean, the West Indies, and even South America, and that the Civil War fundamentally changed this relationship.A third book, "Seeing Race in Modern America," was published in the Fall of 2013 by the University of North Carolina Press, and considers the history of racial sight over the past two hundred years. Framing the front and back of the book with a critique of racial profiling, Guterl suggests that the practice of seeing race is more commonplace than we think, and that unjust policing tactics share much with other, apparently benign racial sightlines, from narratives about multiracial adoption to platoon movies to silhouetting to debates about mixed-race children.His biography of the famous African American singer and performer, Josephine Baker, published in 2014 by Harvard University Press, focuses on her multiracial, transnational, adopted family in France and the historical contexts of decolonization, civil and human rights, liberalism and utopianism. Recently, he has described this book as a challenge, as well, to the notion of "nation-time" and conventional periodizations in American and world history.In the spring of 2015, Guterl and his co-author, Caroline Field Levander, released "Hotel Life", a book about the social and political work of hotels in contemporary American culture.Guterl is also the co-editor (with James T. Campbell and Robert G. Lee) of "Race, Nation, and Empire in American History," published in 2007. Guterl is also the editor of proposed "Oxford Handbook on the History of Race."Guterl was the 2010 winner of the Mary Turpie Prize for Distinguished Teaching, Advising, and Program Development, from the American Studies Association. In that same year, he was given the Distinguished Alumni Award from the School of Arts and Humanities, Richard Stockton College of New Jersey. He has also been awarded fellowships from the Humanities Research Center, Rice University, the Center for the Study of Race and Ethnicity in America, Brown University, the National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, the Gilder Lehrman Center, Yale University, and the Library Company of Philadelphia. | [
"St. John's University",
"Brown University",
"Washington State University"
] |
|
Which position did Thage G. Peterson hold in May, 1991? | May 02, 1991 | {
"text": [
"Speaker of the Parliament of Sweden"
]
} | L2_Q2408431_P39_2 | Thage G. Peterson holds the position of member of the Swedish Riksdag from Oct, 1994 to Oct, 1995.
Thage G. Peterson holds the position of Speaker of the Parliament of Sweden from Oct, 1988 to Sep, 1991.
Thage G. Peterson holds the position of Minister for Government Coordination from Feb, 1997 to Oct, 1998.
Thage G. Peterson holds the position of Minister for Justice from Jul, 1988 to Sep, 1988.
Thage G. Peterson holds the position of Minister for Enterprise from Oct, 1982 to Sep, 1988.
Thage G. Peterson holds the position of Chair of the Committee on the Constitution from Oct, 1991 to Oct, 1994. | Thage G. PetersonThage Edvin Gerhard Peterson (born 24 September 1933 in Växjö Municipality) is a Swedish politician (Social Democrat). | [
"member of the Swedish Riksdag",
"Minister for Enterprise",
"Minister for Government Coordination",
"Minister for Justice",
"Chair of the Committee on the Constitution"
] |
|
Which position did Thage G. Peterson hold in 1991-05-02? | May 02, 1991 | {
"text": [
"Speaker of the Parliament of Sweden"
]
} | L2_Q2408431_P39_2 | Thage G. Peterson holds the position of member of the Swedish Riksdag from Oct, 1994 to Oct, 1995.
Thage G. Peterson holds the position of Speaker of the Parliament of Sweden from Oct, 1988 to Sep, 1991.
Thage G. Peterson holds the position of Minister for Government Coordination from Feb, 1997 to Oct, 1998.
Thage G. Peterson holds the position of Minister for Justice from Jul, 1988 to Sep, 1988.
Thage G. Peterson holds the position of Minister for Enterprise from Oct, 1982 to Sep, 1988.
Thage G. Peterson holds the position of Chair of the Committee on the Constitution from Oct, 1991 to Oct, 1994. | Thage G. PetersonThage Edvin Gerhard Peterson (born 24 September 1933 in Växjö Municipality) is a Swedish politician (Social Democrat). | [
"member of the Swedish Riksdag",
"Minister for Enterprise",
"Minister for Government Coordination",
"Minister for Justice",
"Chair of the Committee on the Constitution"
] |
|
Which position did Thage G. Peterson hold in 02/05/1991? | May 02, 1991 | {
"text": [
"Speaker of the Parliament of Sweden"
]
} | L2_Q2408431_P39_2 | Thage G. Peterson holds the position of member of the Swedish Riksdag from Oct, 1994 to Oct, 1995.
Thage G. Peterson holds the position of Speaker of the Parliament of Sweden from Oct, 1988 to Sep, 1991.
Thage G. Peterson holds the position of Minister for Government Coordination from Feb, 1997 to Oct, 1998.
Thage G. Peterson holds the position of Minister for Justice from Jul, 1988 to Sep, 1988.
Thage G. Peterson holds the position of Minister for Enterprise from Oct, 1982 to Sep, 1988.
Thage G. Peterson holds the position of Chair of the Committee on the Constitution from Oct, 1991 to Oct, 1994. | Thage G. PetersonThage Edvin Gerhard Peterson (born 24 September 1933 in Växjö Municipality) is a Swedish politician (Social Democrat). | [
"member of the Swedish Riksdag",
"Minister for Enterprise",
"Minister for Government Coordination",
"Minister for Justice",
"Chair of the Committee on the Constitution"
] |
|
Which position did Thage G. Peterson hold in May 02, 1991? | May 02, 1991 | {
"text": [
"Speaker of the Parliament of Sweden"
]
} | L2_Q2408431_P39_2 | Thage G. Peterson holds the position of member of the Swedish Riksdag from Oct, 1994 to Oct, 1995.
Thage G. Peterson holds the position of Speaker of the Parliament of Sweden from Oct, 1988 to Sep, 1991.
Thage G. Peterson holds the position of Minister for Government Coordination from Feb, 1997 to Oct, 1998.
Thage G. Peterson holds the position of Minister for Justice from Jul, 1988 to Sep, 1988.
Thage G. Peterson holds the position of Minister for Enterprise from Oct, 1982 to Sep, 1988.
Thage G. Peterson holds the position of Chair of the Committee on the Constitution from Oct, 1991 to Oct, 1994. | Thage G. PetersonThage Edvin Gerhard Peterson (born 24 September 1933 in Växjö Municipality) is a Swedish politician (Social Democrat). | [
"member of the Swedish Riksdag",
"Minister for Enterprise",
"Minister for Government Coordination",
"Minister for Justice",
"Chair of the Committee on the Constitution"
] |
|
Which position did Thage G. Peterson hold in 05/02/1991? | May 02, 1991 | {
"text": [
"Speaker of the Parliament of Sweden"
]
} | L2_Q2408431_P39_2 | Thage G. Peterson holds the position of member of the Swedish Riksdag from Oct, 1994 to Oct, 1995.
Thage G. Peterson holds the position of Speaker of the Parliament of Sweden from Oct, 1988 to Sep, 1991.
Thage G. Peterson holds the position of Minister for Government Coordination from Feb, 1997 to Oct, 1998.
Thage G. Peterson holds the position of Minister for Justice from Jul, 1988 to Sep, 1988.
Thage G. Peterson holds the position of Minister for Enterprise from Oct, 1982 to Sep, 1988.
Thage G. Peterson holds the position of Chair of the Committee on the Constitution from Oct, 1991 to Oct, 1994. | Thage G. PetersonThage Edvin Gerhard Peterson (born 24 September 1933 in Växjö Municipality) is a Swedish politician (Social Democrat). | [
"member of the Swedish Riksdag",
"Minister for Enterprise",
"Minister for Government Coordination",
"Minister for Justice",
"Chair of the Committee on the Constitution"
] |
|
Which position did Thage G. Peterson hold in 02-May-199102-May-1991? | May 02, 1991 | {
"text": [
"Speaker of the Parliament of Sweden"
]
} | L2_Q2408431_P39_2 | Thage G. Peterson holds the position of member of the Swedish Riksdag from Oct, 1994 to Oct, 1995.
Thage G. Peterson holds the position of Speaker of the Parliament of Sweden from Oct, 1988 to Sep, 1991.
Thage G. Peterson holds the position of Minister for Government Coordination from Feb, 1997 to Oct, 1998.
Thage G. Peterson holds the position of Minister for Justice from Jul, 1988 to Sep, 1988.
Thage G. Peterson holds the position of Minister for Enterprise from Oct, 1982 to Sep, 1988.
Thage G. Peterson holds the position of Chair of the Committee on the Constitution from Oct, 1991 to Oct, 1994. | Thage G. PetersonThage Edvin Gerhard Peterson (born 24 September 1933 in Växjö Municipality) is a Swedish politician (Social Democrat). | [
"member of the Swedish Riksdag",
"Minister for Enterprise",
"Minister for Government Coordination",
"Minister for Justice",
"Chair of the Committee on the Constitution"
] |
|
Which team did Corrado Casalini play for in Jun, 1938? | June 12, 1938 | {
"text": [
"Robur Siena"
]
} | L2_Q1607061_P54_1 | Corrado Casalini plays for Juventus FC from Jan, 1939 to Jan, 1940.
Corrado Casalini plays for A.C. Prato from Jan, 1936 to Jan, 1938.
Corrado Casalini plays for Robur Siena from Jan, 1938 to Jan, 1939.
Corrado Casalini plays for A.C. Cuneo 1905 Olmo from Jan, 1941 to Jan, 1942.
Corrado Casalini plays for F.C. Pro Vercelli 1892 from Jan, 1940 to Jan, 1941. | Corrado CasaliniIvo Corrado Casalini (born November 2, 1914 in Bologna) was an Italian professional football player. | [
"F.C. Pro Vercelli 1892",
"Juventus FC",
"A.C. Prato",
"A.C. Cuneo 1905 Olmo"
] |
|
Which team did Corrado Casalini play for in 1938-06-12? | June 12, 1938 | {
"text": [
"Robur Siena"
]
} | L2_Q1607061_P54_1 | Corrado Casalini plays for Juventus FC from Jan, 1939 to Jan, 1940.
Corrado Casalini plays for A.C. Prato from Jan, 1936 to Jan, 1938.
Corrado Casalini plays for Robur Siena from Jan, 1938 to Jan, 1939.
Corrado Casalini plays for A.C. Cuneo 1905 Olmo from Jan, 1941 to Jan, 1942.
Corrado Casalini plays for F.C. Pro Vercelli 1892 from Jan, 1940 to Jan, 1941. | Corrado CasaliniIvo Corrado Casalini (born November 2, 1914 in Bologna) was an Italian professional football player. | [
"F.C. Pro Vercelli 1892",
"Juventus FC",
"A.C. Prato",
"A.C. Cuneo 1905 Olmo"
] |
|
Which team did Corrado Casalini play for in 12/06/1938? | June 12, 1938 | {
"text": [
"Robur Siena"
]
} | L2_Q1607061_P54_1 | Corrado Casalini plays for Juventus FC from Jan, 1939 to Jan, 1940.
Corrado Casalini plays for A.C. Prato from Jan, 1936 to Jan, 1938.
Corrado Casalini plays for Robur Siena from Jan, 1938 to Jan, 1939.
Corrado Casalini plays for A.C. Cuneo 1905 Olmo from Jan, 1941 to Jan, 1942.
Corrado Casalini plays for F.C. Pro Vercelli 1892 from Jan, 1940 to Jan, 1941. | Corrado CasaliniIvo Corrado Casalini (born November 2, 1914 in Bologna) was an Italian professional football player. | [
"F.C. Pro Vercelli 1892",
"Juventus FC",
"A.C. Prato",
"A.C. Cuneo 1905 Olmo"
] |
|
Which team did Corrado Casalini play for in Jun 12, 1938? | June 12, 1938 | {
"text": [
"Robur Siena"
]
} | L2_Q1607061_P54_1 | Corrado Casalini plays for Juventus FC from Jan, 1939 to Jan, 1940.
Corrado Casalini plays for A.C. Prato from Jan, 1936 to Jan, 1938.
Corrado Casalini plays for Robur Siena from Jan, 1938 to Jan, 1939.
Corrado Casalini plays for A.C. Cuneo 1905 Olmo from Jan, 1941 to Jan, 1942.
Corrado Casalini plays for F.C. Pro Vercelli 1892 from Jan, 1940 to Jan, 1941. | Corrado CasaliniIvo Corrado Casalini (born November 2, 1914 in Bologna) was an Italian professional football player. | [
"F.C. Pro Vercelli 1892",
"Juventus FC",
"A.C. Prato",
"A.C. Cuneo 1905 Olmo"
] |
|
Which team did Corrado Casalini play for in 06/12/1938? | June 12, 1938 | {
"text": [
"Robur Siena"
]
} | L2_Q1607061_P54_1 | Corrado Casalini plays for Juventus FC from Jan, 1939 to Jan, 1940.
Corrado Casalini plays for A.C. Prato from Jan, 1936 to Jan, 1938.
Corrado Casalini plays for Robur Siena from Jan, 1938 to Jan, 1939.
Corrado Casalini plays for A.C. Cuneo 1905 Olmo from Jan, 1941 to Jan, 1942.
Corrado Casalini plays for F.C. Pro Vercelli 1892 from Jan, 1940 to Jan, 1941. | Corrado CasaliniIvo Corrado Casalini (born November 2, 1914 in Bologna) was an Italian professional football player. | [
"F.C. Pro Vercelli 1892",
"Juventus FC",
"A.C. Prato",
"A.C. Cuneo 1905 Olmo"
] |
|
Which team did Corrado Casalini play for in 12-Jun-193812-June-1938? | June 12, 1938 | {
"text": [
"Robur Siena"
]
} | L2_Q1607061_P54_1 | Corrado Casalini plays for Juventus FC from Jan, 1939 to Jan, 1940.
Corrado Casalini plays for A.C. Prato from Jan, 1936 to Jan, 1938.
Corrado Casalini plays for Robur Siena from Jan, 1938 to Jan, 1939.
Corrado Casalini plays for A.C. Cuneo 1905 Olmo from Jan, 1941 to Jan, 1942.
Corrado Casalini plays for F.C. Pro Vercelli 1892 from Jan, 1940 to Jan, 1941. | Corrado CasaliniIvo Corrado Casalini (born November 2, 1914 in Bologna) was an Italian professional football player. | [
"F.C. Pro Vercelli 1892",
"Juventus FC",
"A.C. Prato",
"A.C. Cuneo 1905 Olmo"
] |
|
Which team did Philippe Senderos play for in Jan, 2014? | January 01, 2014 | {
"text": [
"Swiss national football team",
"Fulham F.C.",
"Aston Villa F.C.",
"Valencia CF"
]
} | L2_Q187450_P54_9 | Philippe Senderos plays for Servette FC from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2003.
Philippe Senderos plays for Associazione Calcio Milan from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009.
Philippe Senderos plays for Rangers F.C. from Aug, 2016 to Aug, 2017.
Philippe Senderos plays for Valencia CF from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2014.
Philippe Senderos plays for Aston Villa F.C. from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2016.
Philippe Senderos plays for Fulham F.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2014.
Philippe Senderos plays for Switzerland national under-20 football team from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2005.
Philippe Senderos plays for Grasshopper Club Zürich from Jan, 2016 to Aug, 2016.
Philippe Senderos plays for Switzerland national under-21 football team from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2004.
Philippe Senderos plays for Arsenal F.C. from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2010.
Philippe Senderos plays for Swiss national football team from Jan, 2005 to Dec, 2022.
Philippe Senderos plays for Everton F.C from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2010.
Philippe Senderos plays for Switzerland national under-17 football team from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2002. | Philippe SenderosPhilippe Sylvain Senderos (born 14 February 1985) is a Swiss retired professional footballer who played as a defender.Senderos began his career at Servette, before moving to England as a teenager with Arsenal. He made 116 appearances over seven seasons with the North London club, and won the FA Cup in 2005. Following loans to Milan and Everton, he then moved to Fulham on a free transfer in 2010, where he played for four seasons. Senderos then had brief spells at clubs in Spain, England, Scotland, Switzerland and the United States.A full Swiss international from 2005 to 2016, Senderos won 57 caps and scored 5 goals. He was included in the Swiss squads for three FIFA World Cups and at UEFA Euro 2008.Senderos came up through the youth team set up at Swiss club Servette. After a few appearances in his first season, he soon became a regular player in the first team. On 27 July 2002, Senderos scored a brace (and his first goal) in a 2–0 win over Luzern. Senderos signed for Arsenal in December 2002, though he remained working at Servette until the following summer. Shortly after joining Arsenal, Senderos' father and agent said Senderos rejected a move to Real Madrid in favour of joining Arsenal. Senderos himself claimed he made the right decision joining the Gunners.Shortly after joining Arsenal, Senderos' start did not come as planned after he suffered a recurrence of a back problem for six weeks and another injury on a fractured bone in his foot, leaving him out for the rest of the season. During the season, Arsenal went undefeated and won the league.Senderos was an unused substitute when Arsenal won the Community Shield against Manchester United ahead of the 2004–05 season. He made his debut as a starter in a 2–1 win against Manchester City in the third round of the League Cup on 27 October 2004, and played his first Premier League match on 1 January 2005 as an 82nd-minute substitute for the injured Sol Campbell. Profiting from Campbell's injury, Senderos finished his first Premier League season with 13 appearances. Despite Campbell's recovery, Senderos played the 2005 FA Cup Final in his place, and won his first piece of silverware as Arsenal triumphed on penalties after a 0–0 draw with Manchester United.After the season, Senderos committed his long-term future by signing an improved five-year deal. In the 2005 FA Community Shield, he was beaten by Didier Drogba for both goals as Arsenal lost 2–1 to Chelsea. During the 2005–06 season, he scored his first Arsenal goal in a 2–1 loss to West Bromwich Albion on 15 October, and again in a 7–0 win over Middlesbrough on 14 January. He played in Arsenal's run to the final of the UEFA Champions League in 2005–06, but was an unused substitute in the final, which Arsenal lost to Barcelona.On 29 November 2006, Senderos was sent off for the first time in his career, in the 66th minute of Arsenal's 2–1 loss at Fulham for two bookings for offences on Luís Boa Morte. Later in the season, on 3 February 2007, he was sent off for the second time, a straight red card for a foul in the penalty box on Middlesbrough striker Yakubu.Senderos received his third red card on 2 September 2007 after denying Nwankwo Kanu of Portsmouth a clear goalscoring opportunity, although Arsenal went on to win 3–1. In his last full season at the club (2007–08), Senderos added 2 more goals from 17 Premier League appearances: in a 3–2 win against Sunderland on 7 October and the fourth minute of a 2–0 win over Blackburn Rovers on 11 February.Senderos eventually fell out of favour with Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger. On 27 August 2008, he joined Italian club Milan on a season-long loan. Senderos described joining Milan as a "dream come true". He quickly incurred an injury and struggled to make the first team ahead of centre-backs Paolo Maldini and Kakha Kaladze, but finally made his first full appearance for the "Rossoneri" in a UEFA Cup group stage match against Braga, and came on as a substitute for his first Serie A appearance, against Fiorentina, approximately halfway through the season. Despite wanting his move at Milan to be permanent, Senderos returned to Arsenal after 14 Serie A appearances.Senderos made only two appearances for Arsenal in 2009–10, both in the League Cup, and on 25 January 2010, he joined Everton on loan for the remainder of the season, where he wore the number 23, vacated by the departure of Lucas Neill. He made his first appearance for the club in a 1–0 win away against Wigan Athletic. He returned to Arsenal at the end of the season having made only three appearances, two in the Premier League and one in the UEFA Europa League.On 8 June 2010, Senderos signed a three-year deal with Fulham on a free transfer. On 9 August, while training, Senderos tore his Achilles tendon, keeping him out for six months. He underwent surgery and was expected to be out for 6 months. He finally made his debut for Fulham on 30 April 2011 against Sunderland. On 21 April 2012, he scored his first Premier League goal since joining Fulham as they defeated Wigan Athletic 2–1 at Craven Cottage.On 1 March 2013, Senderos signed a one-year contract extension, keeping him at the West London club until June 2014. On 21 October 2013, he scored a goal in a 4–1 win over Crystal Palace.On 31 January 2014, Senderos joined Valencia from Fulham with just hours remaining before the transfer window was due to close. He made his Valencia debut on 8 February 2014, playing 81 minutes in the 5–0 home win over Real Betis in a La Liga match, and scored his first goal (a header) on 13 March in the 3–0 away victory over Bulgarian champions Ludogorets Razgrad in the first leg of the round of 16 of the UEFA Europa League.On 5 June 2014, Senderos joined Aston Villa on a two-year contract. He was signed by Paul Lambert, who said in the run-up to the 2014 FIFA World Cup, "This will be Philippe's third World Cup finals and there aren't too many players who compete at that level over that stretch of time. He'll be a great addition to the group." He made his Premier League debut for Villa in a 1–0 win at Stoke City on 16 August, playing the full 90 minutes.On 3 September 2015, it was announced Senderos had been omitted from Aston Villa's 25-man squad for the first half of the 2015–16 Premier League season. The following 27 January 2016, he left the club by mutual consent.On 29 January 2016, just days after being released by Aston Villa, Senderos returned to his native Switzerland to sign for Grasshoppers on a six-month contract.After being released by Grasshoppers, Senderos signed for Scottish Premiership team Rangers on a one-year deal on 31 August 2016, following a lengthy trial period. Upon signing, he said it was a "no-brainer" to join such a big club. Senderos was sent off on his debut for Rangers, a 5–1 defeat at Celtic in the Old Firm match on 10 September. Senderos was released in May 2017.On 7 August 2017, the Houston Dynamo of Major League Soccer (MLS) announced they had signed Senderos. Senderos made just two appearances in the regular season for a Dynamo squad that finished fourth in the Western Conference. However, injuries to first choice defenders A. J. DeLaGarza and Leonardo opened the door for Senderos to play for Houston in the postseason. Senderos was given the captain's armband by manager Wilmer Cabrera in the second leg of Houston's semi-final matchup away to the Portland Timbers, which Houston won 2–1 to advance to the Western Conference Finals.Senderos scored in a 4–0 over Atlanta United in the 2018 season opener. However, he picked up a hamstring injury the next week that made him miss 10 games. On 3 July, Senderos scored in the 96th minute to give the Dynamo a 2–2 draw with LAFC. During the next game Senderos got a brace to lead Houston to a 3–0 win over Minnesota United. He would appear in every game of the 2018 U.S. Open Cup as he helped the Dynamo win their first such title in club history. He picked up a hamstring injury in the final that forced him to miss the rest of the season. His contract expired at the end of the 2018 season and the Dynamo decided to not re-sign him.On 10 September 2019, Senderos signed with Swiss Challenge League side Chiasso. He made his debut for Chiasso on 9 November in a 4–1 win over FC Wil. On 16 December, he announced his retirement from football.Senderos is a former youth international and has played at all levels of football from the under-15s upward for Switzerland, though he was also eligible to play for Spain or Serbia through his parents. He was captain of the Swiss under-17 squad that won the 2002 UEFA European Under-17 Championship.Senderos made his full international debut on 26 March 2005 in Switzerland's 0–0 draw against France in Paris. On his fifth cap, away to Cyprus on 7 September 2005, he scored his first international goal by opening a 3–1 win. On 12 November 2005, he opened the scoring in Switzerland's win over Turkey in the play-offs. After playing in Switzerland's successful qualifying campaign, he was named in their 2006 FIFA World Cup squad. He started alongside Patrick Müller in all three of Switzerland's group matches, and scored the first goal of the 2–0 win in the third match, against South Korea. He broke his nose and suffered shoulder ligament damage in the match, which ruled him out of the remainder of Switzerland's World Cup campaign.Senderos captained Switzerland for the first time on 6 February 2008, a 2–1 friendly defeat away to England in which he was substituted after 55 minutes for Stéphane Grichting. Senderos was also part of the Swiss squad at the UEFA Euro 2008 finals, appearing in all three group matches as the team failed to qualify for the knockout stages.Senderos scored a brace in a 3–0 win away against Luxembourg in a 2010 World Cup qualifier on 10 October 2009, and was selected in the Swiss final squad for the 2010 World Cup. In the first match, where Switzerland shocked Spain 1–0, he was substituted in the 36th minute after injuring his ankle seriously in an accidental collision with teammate Stephan Lichtsteiner. Swiss head coach Ottmar Hitzfeld said after the match, "He has a sprained ankle, possibly a ruptured ligament. If that is the case, it would be very difficult to replace him."Senderos was also chosen in the Swiss squad for the 2014 World Cup, his third World Cup. He made his first appearance in the second match, against France on 20 June 2014, replacing the injured Steve von Bergen after nine minutes, as Switzerland lost 5–2.Senderos was omitted from the Switzerland squad for Euro 2016.Senderos is a child of Serbian (Zorica Novković) and Spanish (Julián Senderos) immigrants. On 20 July 2009, Senderos married Sara, an English woman of Iranian descent. Senderos speaks seven languages: English, French, Serbian, Spanish, German and Italian. In 2012, Senderos was the victim of fake news from Turkey and Iran claiming that he had converted to Islam; he responded "That's not true. And I don't know where these rumours could have come from. I did a photo once [the one used by the websites] but that's all". His brother Julien was a professional basketball player until 2011.ArsenalHouston DynamoSwitzerland U17Individual | [
"Arsenal F.C.",
"Switzerland national under-21 football team",
"Associazione Calcio Milan",
"Everton F.C",
"Switzerland national under-20 football team",
"Switzerland national under-17 football team",
"Grasshopper Club Zürich",
"Servette FC",
"Rangers F.C.",
"Arsenal F.C.",
"Switzerland national under-21 football team",
"Associazione Calcio Milan",
"Everton F.C",
"Switzerland national under-20 football team",
"Switzerland national under-17 football team",
"Grasshopper Club Zürich",
"Servette FC",
"Rangers F.C.",
"Arsenal F.C.",
"Switzerland national under-21 football team",
"Associazione Calcio Milan",
"Everton F.C",
"Switzerland national under-20 football team",
"Switzerland national under-17 football team",
"Grasshopper Club Zürich",
"Servette FC",
"Rangers F.C."
] |
|
Which team did Philippe Senderos play for in 2014-01-01? | January 01, 2014 | {
"text": [
"Swiss national football team",
"Fulham F.C.",
"Aston Villa F.C.",
"Valencia CF"
]
} | L2_Q187450_P54_9 | Philippe Senderos plays for Servette FC from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2003.
Philippe Senderos plays for Associazione Calcio Milan from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009.
Philippe Senderos plays for Rangers F.C. from Aug, 2016 to Aug, 2017.
Philippe Senderos plays for Valencia CF from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2014.
Philippe Senderos plays for Aston Villa F.C. from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2016.
Philippe Senderos plays for Fulham F.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2014.
Philippe Senderos plays for Switzerland national under-20 football team from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2005.
Philippe Senderos plays for Grasshopper Club Zürich from Jan, 2016 to Aug, 2016.
Philippe Senderos plays for Switzerland national under-21 football team from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2004.
Philippe Senderos plays for Arsenal F.C. from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2010.
Philippe Senderos plays for Swiss national football team from Jan, 2005 to Dec, 2022.
Philippe Senderos plays for Everton F.C from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2010.
Philippe Senderos plays for Switzerland national under-17 football team from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2002. | Philippe SenderosPhilippe Sylvain Senderos (born 14 February 1985) is a Swiss retired professional footballer who played as a defender.Senderos began his career at Servette, before moving to England as a teenager with Arsenal. He made 116 appearances over seven seasons with the North London club, and won the FA Cup in 2005. Following loans to Milan and Everton, he then moved to Fulham on a free transfer in 2010, where he played for four seasons. Senderos then had brief spells at clubs in Spain, England, Scotland, Switzerland and the United States.A full Swiss international from 2005 to 2016, Senderos won 57 caps and scored 5 goals. He was included in the Swiss squads for three FIFA World Cups and at UEFA Euro 2008.Senderos came up through the youth team set up at Swiss club Servette. After a few appearances in his first season, he soon became a regular player in the first team. On 27 July 2002, Senderos scored a brace (and his first goal) in a 2–0 win over Luzern. Senderos signed for Arsenal in December 2002, though he remained working at Servette until the following summer. Shortly after joining Arsenal, Senderos' father and agent said Senderos rejected a move to Real Madrid in favour of joining Arsenal. Senderos himself claimed he made the right decision joining the Gunners.Shortly after joining Arsenal, Senderos' start did not come as planned after he suffered a recurrence of a back problem for six weeks and another injury on a fractured bone in his foot, leaving him out for the rest of the season. During the season, Arsenal went undefeated and won the league.Senderos was an unused substitute when Arsenal won the Community Shield against Manchester United ahead of the 2004–05 season. He made his debut as a starter in a 2–1 win against Manchester City in the third round of the League Cup on 27 October 2004, and played his first Premier League match on 1 January 2005 as an 82nd-minute substitute for the injured Sol Campbell. Profiting from Campbell's injury, Senderos finished his first Premier League season with 13 appearances. Despite Campbell's recovery, Senderos played the 2005 FA Cup Final in his place, and won his first piece of silverware as Arsenal triumphed on penalties after a 0–0 draw with Manchester United.After the season, Senderos committed his long-term future by signing an improved five-year deal. In the 2005 FA Community Shield, he was beaten by Didier Drogba for both goals as Arsenal lost 2–1 to Chelsea. During the 2005–06 season, he scored his first Arsenal goal in a 2–1 loss to West Bromwich Albion on 15 October, and again in a 7–0 win over Middlesbrough on 14 January. He played in Arsenal's run to the final of the UEFA Champions League in 2005–06, but was an unused substitute in the final, which Arsenal lost to Barcelona.On 29 November 2006, Senderos was sent off for the first time in his career, in the 66th minute of Arsenal's 2–1 loss at Fulham for two bookings for offences on Luís Boa Morte. Later in the season, on 3 February 2007, he was sent off for the second time, a straight red card for a foul in the penalty box on Middlesbrough striker Yakubu.Senderos received his third red card on 2 September 2007 after denying Nwankwo Kanu of Portsmouth a clear goalscoring opportunity, although Arsenal went on to win 3–1. In his last full season at the club (2007–08), Senderos added 2 more goals from 17 Premier League appearances: in a 3–2 win against Sunderland on 7 October and the fourth minute of a 2–0 win over Blackburn Rovers on 11 February.Senderos eventually fell out of favour with Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger. On 27 August 2008, he joined Italian club Milan on a season-long loan. Senderos described joining Milan as a "dream come true". He quickly incurred an injury and struggled to make the first team ahead of centre-backs Paolo Maldini and Kakha Kaladze, but finally made his first full appearance for the "Rossoneri" in a UEFA Cup group stage match against Braga, and came on as a substitute for his first Serie A appearance, against Fiorentina, approximately halfway through the season. Despite wanting his move at Milan to be permanent, Senderos returned to Arsenal after 14 Serie A appearances.Senderos made only two appearances for Arsenal in 2009–10, both in the League Cup, and on 25 January 2010, he joined Everton on loan for the remainder of the season, where he wore the number 23, vacated by the departure of Lucas Neill. He made his first appearance for the club in a 1–0 win away against Wigan Athletic. He returned to Arsenal at the end of the season having made only three appearances, two in the Premier League and one in the UEFA Europa League.On 8 June 2010, Senderos signed a three-year deal with Fulham on a free transfer. On 9 August, while training, Senderos tore his Achilles tendon, keeping him out for six months. He underwent surgery and was expected to be out for 6 months. He finally made his debut for Fulham on 30 April 2011 against Sunderland. On 21 April 2012, he scored his first Premier League goal since joining Fulham as they defeated Wigan Athletic 2–1 at Craven Cottage.On 1 March 2013, Senderos signed a one-year contract extension, keeping him at the West London club until June 2014. On 21 October 2013, he scored a goal in a 4–1 win over Crystal Palace.On 31 January 2014, Senderos joined Valencia from Fulham with just hours remaining before the transfer window was due to close. He made his Valencia debut on 8 February 2014, playing 81 minutes in the 5–0 home win over Real Betis in a La Liga match, and scored his first goal (a header) on 13 March in the 3–0 away victory over Bulgarian champions Ludogorets Razgrad in the first leg of the round of 16 of the UEFA Europa League.On 5 June 2014, Senderos joined Aston Villa on a two-year contract. He was signed by Paul Lambert, who said in the run-up to the 2014 FIFA World Cup, "This will be Philippe's third World Cup finals and there aren't too many players who compete at that level over that stretch of time. He'll be a great addition to the group." He made his Premier League debut for Villa in a 1–0 win at Stoke City on 16 August, playing the full 90 minutes.On 3 September 2015, it was announced Senderos had been omitted from Aston Villa's 25-man squad for the first half of the 2015–16 Premier League season. The following 27 January 2016, he left the club by mutual consent.On 29 January 2016, just days after being released by Aston Villa, Senderos returned to his native Switzerland to sign for Grasshoppers on a six-month contract.After being released by Grasshoppers, Senderos signed for Scottish Premiership team Rangers on a one-year deal on 31 August 2016, following a lengthy trial period. Upon signing, he said it was a "no-brainer" to join such a big club. Senderos was sent off on his debut for Rangers, a 5–1 defeat at Celtic in the Old Firm match on 10 September. Senderos was released in May 2017.On 7 August 2017, the Houston Dynamo of Major League Soccer (MLS) announced they had signed Senderos. Senderos made just two appearances in the regular season for a Dynamo squad that finished fourth in the Western Conference. However, injuries to first choice defenders A. J. DeLaGarza and Leonardo opened the door for Senderos to play for Houston in the postseason. Senderos was given the captain's armband by manager Wilmer Cabrera in the second leg of Houston's semi-final matchup away to the Portland Timbers, which Houston won 2–1 to advance to the Western Conference Finals.Senderos scored in a 4–0 over Atlanta United in the 2018 season opener. However, he picked up a hamstring injury the next week that made him miss 10 games. On 3 July, Senderos scored in the 96th minute to give the Dynamo a 2–2 draw with LAFC. During the next game Senderos got a brace to lead Houston to a 3–0 win over Minnesota United. He would appear in every game of the 2018 U.S. Open Cup as he helped the Dynamo win their first such title in club history. He picked up a hamstring injury in the final that forced him to miss the rest of the season. His contract expired at the end of the 2018 season and the Dynamo decided to not re-sign him.On 10 September 2019, Senderos signed with Swiss Challenge League side Chiasso. He made his debut for Chiasso on 9 November in a 4–1 win over FC Wil. On 16 December, he announced his retirement from football.Senderos is a former youth international and has played at all levels of football from the under-15s upward for Switzerland, though he was also eligible to play for Spain or Serbia through his parents. He was captain of the Swiss under-17 squad that won the 2002 UEFA European Under-17 Championship.Senderos made his full international debut on 26 March 2005 in Switzerland's 0–0 draw against France in Paris. On his fifth cap, away to Cyprus on 7 September 2005, he scored his first international goal by opening a 3–1 win. On 12 November 2005, he opened the scoring in Switzerland's win over Turkey in the play-offs. After playing in Switzerland's successful qualifying campaign, he was named in their 2006 FIFA World Cup squad. He started alongside Patrick Müller in all three of Switzerland's group matches, and scored the first goal of the 2–0 win in the third match, against South Korea. He broke his nose and suffered shoulder ligament damage in the match, which ruled him out of the remainder of Switzerland's World Cup campaign.Senderos captained Switzerland for the first time on 6 February 2008, a 2–1 friendly defeat away to England in which he was substituted after 55 minutes for Stéphane Grichting. Senderos was also part of the Swiss squad at the UEFA Euro 2008 finals, appearing in all three group matches as the team failed to qualify for the knockout stages.Senderos scored a brace in a 3–0 win away against Luxembourg in a 2010 World Cup qualifier on 10 October 2009, and was selected in the Swiss final squad for the 2010 World Cup. In the first match, where Switzerland shocked Spain 1–0, he was substituted in the 36th minute after injuring his ankle seriously in an accidental collision with teammate Stephan Lichtsteiner. Swiss head coach Ottmar Hitzfeld said after the match, "He has a sprained ankle, possibly a ruptured ligament. If that is the case, it would be very difficult to replace him."Senderos was also chosen in the Swiss squad for the 2014 World Cup, his third World Cup. He made his first appearance in the second match, against France on 20 June 2014, replacing the injured Steve von Bergen after nine minutes, as Switzerland lost 5–2.Senderos was omitted from the Switzerland squad for Euro 2016.Senderos is a child of Serbian (Zorica Novković) and Spanish (Julián Senderos) immigrants. On 20 July 2009, Senderos married Sara, an English woman of Iranian descent. Senderos speaks seven languages: English, French, Serbian, Spanish, German and Italian. In 2012, Senderos was the victim of fake news from Turkey and Iran claiming that he had converted to Islam; he responded "That's not true. And I don't know where these rumours could have come from. I did a photo once [the one used by the websites] but that's all". His brother Julien was a professional basketball player until 2011.ArsenalHouston DynamoSwitzerland U17Individual | [
"Arsenal F.C.",
"Switzerland national under-21 football team",
"Associazione Calcio Milan",
"Everton F.C",
"Switzerland national under-20 football team",
"Switzerland national under-17 football team",
"Grasshopper Club Zürich",
"Servette FC",
"Rangers F.C.",
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"Associazione Calcio Milan",
"Everton F.C",
"Switzerland national under-20 football team",
"Switzerland national under-17 football team",
"Grasshopper Club Zürich",
"Servette FC",
"Rangers F.C.",
"Arsenal F.C.",
"Switzerland national under-21 football team",
"Associazione Calcio Milan",
"Everton F.C",
"Switzerland national under-20 football team",
"Switzerland national under-17 football team",
"Grasshopper Club Zürich",
"Servette FC",
"Rangers F.C."
] |
|
Which team did Philippe Senderos play for in 01/01/2014? | January 01, 2014 | {
"text": [
"Swiss national football team",
"Fulham F.C.",
"Aston Villa F.C.",
"Valencia CF"
]
} | L2_Q187450_P54_9 | Philippe Senderos plays for Servette FC from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2003.
Philippe Senderos plays for Associazione Calcio Milan from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009.
Philippe Senderos plays for Rangers F.C. from Aug, 2016 to Aug, 2017.
Philippe Senderos plays for Valencia CF from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2014.
Philippe Senderos plays for Aston Villa F.C. from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2016.
Philippe Senderos plays for Fulham F.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2014.
Philippe Senderos plays for Switzerland national under-20 football team from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2005.
Philippe Senderos plays for Grasshopper Club Zürich from Jan, 2016 to Aug, 2016.
Philippe Senderos plays for Switzerland national under-21 football team from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2004.
Philippe Senderos plays for Arsenal F.C. from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2010.
Philippe Senderos plays for Swiss national football team from Jan, 2005 to Dec, 2022.
Philippe Senderos plays for Everton F.C from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2010.
Philippe Senderos plays for Switzerland national under-17 football team from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2002. | Philippe SenderosPhilippe Sylvain Senderos (born 14 February 1985) is a Swiss retired professional footballer who played as a defender.Senderos began his career at Servette, before moving to England as a teenager with Arsenal. He made 116 appearances over seven seasons with the North London club, and won the FA Cup in 2005. Following loans to Milan and Everton, he then moved to Fulham on a free transfer in 2010, where he played for four seasons. Senderos then had brief spells at clubs in Spain, England, Scotland, Switzerland and the United States.A full Swiss international from 2005 to 2016, Senderos won 57 caps and scored 5 goals. He was included in the Swiss squads for three FIFA World Cups and at UEFA Euro 2008.Senderos came up through the youth team set up at Swiss club Servette. After a few appearances in his first season, he soon became a regular player in the first team. On 27 July 2002, Senderos scored a brace (and his first goal) in a 2–0 win over Luzern. Senderos signed for Arsenal in December 2002, though he remained working at Servette until the following summer. Shortly after joining Arsenal, Senderos' father and agent said Senderos rejected a move to Real Madrid in favour of joining Arsenal. Senderos himself claimed he made the right decision joining the Gunners.Shortly after joining Arsenal, Senderos' start did not come as planned after he suffered a recurrence of a back problem for six weeks and another injury on a fractured bone in his foot, leaving him out for the rest of the season. During the season, Arsenal went undefeated and won the league.Senderos was an unused substitute when Arsenal won the Community Shield against Manchester United ahead of the 2004–05 season. He made his debut as a starter in a 2–1 win against Manchester City in the third round of the League Cup on 27 October 2004, and played his first Premier League match on 1 January 2005 as an 82nd-minute substitute for the injured Sol Campbell. Profiting from Campbell's injury, Senderos finished his first Premier League season with 13 appearances. Despite Campbell's recovery, Senderos played the 2005 FA Cup Final in his place, and won his first piece of silverware as Arsenal triumphed on penalties after a 0–0 draw with Manchester United.After the season, Senderos committed his long-term future by signing an improved five-year deal. In the 2005 FA Community Shield, he was beaten by Didier Drogba for both goals as Arsenal lost 2–1 to Chelsea. During the 2005–06 season, he scored his first Arsenal goal in a 2–1 loss to West Bromwich Albion on 15 October, and again in a 7–0 win over Middlesbrough on 14 January. He played in Arsenal's run to the final of the UEFA Champions League in 2005–06, but was an unused substitute in the final, which Arsenal lost to Barcelona.On 29 November 2006, Senderos was sent off for the first time in his career, in the 66th minute of Arsenal's 2–1 loss at Fulham for two bookings for offences on Luís Boa Morte. Later in the season, on 3 February 2007, he was sent off for the second time, a straight red card for a foul in the penalty box on Middlesbrough striker Yakubu.Senderos received his third red card on 2 September 2007 after denying Nwankwo Kanu of Portsmouth a clear goalscoring opportunity, although Arsenal went on to win 3–1. In his last full season at the club (2007–08), Senderos added 2 more goals from 17 Premier League appearances: in a 3–2 win against Sunderland on 7 October and the fourth minute of a 2–0 win over Blackburn Rovers on 11 February.Senderos eventually fell out of favour with Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger. On 27 August 2008, he joined Italian club Milan on a season-long loan. Senderos described joining Milan as a "dream come true". He quickly incurred an injury and struggled to make the first team ahead of centre-backs Paolo Maldini and Kakha Kaladze, but finally made his first full appearance for the "Rossoneri" in a UEFA Cup group stage match against Braga, and came on as a substitute for his first Serie A appearance, against Fiorentina, approximately halfway through the season. Despite wanting his move at Milan to be permanent, Senderos returned to Arsenal after 14 Serie A appearances.Senderos made only two appearances for Arsenal in 2009–10, both in the League Cup, and on 25 January 2010, he joined Everton on loan for the remainder of the season, where he wore the number 23, vacated by the departure of Lucas Neill. He made his first appearance for the club in a 1–0 win away against Wigan Athletic. He returned to Arsenal at the end of the season having made only three appearances, two in the Premier League and one in the UEFA Europa League.On 8 June 2010, Senderos signed a three-year deal with Fulham on a free transfer. On 9 August, while training, Senderos tore his Achilles tendon, keeping him out for six months. He underwent surgery and was expected to be out for 6 months. He finally made his debut for Fulham on 30 April 2011 against Sunderland. On 21 April 2012, he scored his first Premier League goal since joining Fulham as they defeated Wigan Athletic 2–1 at Craven Cottage.On 1 March 2013, Senderos signed a one-year contract extension, keeping him at the West London club until June 2014. On 21 October 2013, he scored a goal in a 4–1 win over Crystal Palace.On 31 January 2014, Senderos joined Valencia from Fulham with just hours remaining before the transfer window was due to close. He made his Valencia debut on 8 February 2014, playing 81 minutes in the 5–0 home win over Real Betis in a La Liga match, and scored his first goal (a header) on 13 March in the 3–0 away victory over Bulgarian champions Ludogorets Razgrad in the first leg of the round of 16 of the UEFA Europa League.On 5 June 2014, Senderos joined Aston Villa on a two-year contract. He was signed by Paul Lambert, who said in the run-up to the 2014 FIFA World Cup, "This will be Philippe's third World Cup finals and there aren't too many players who compete at that level over that stretch of time. He'll be a great addition to the group." He made his Premier League debut for Villa in a 1–0 win at Stoke City on 16 August, playing the full 90 minutes.On 3 September 2015, it was announced Senderos had been omitted from Aston Villa's 25-man squad for the first half of the 2015–16 Premier League season. The following 27 January 2016, he left the club by mutual consent.On 29 January 2016, just days after being released by Aston Villa, Senderos returned to his native Switzerland to sign for Grasshoppers on a six-month contract.After being released by Grasshoppers, Senderos signed for Scottish Premiership team Rangers on a one-year deal on 31 August 2016, following a lengthy trial period. Upon signing, he said it was a "no-brainer" to join such a big club. Senderos was sent off on his debut for Rangers, a 5–1 defeat at Celtic in the Old Firm match on 10 September. Senderos was released in May 2017.On 7 August 2017, the Houston Dynamo of Major League Soccer (MLS) announced they had signed Senderos. Senderos made just two appearances in the regular season for a Dynamo squad that finished fourth in the Western Conference. However, injuries to first choice defenders A. J. DeLaGarza and Leonardo opened the door for Senderos to play for Houston in the postseason. Senderos was given the captain's armband by manager Wilmer Cabrera in the second leg of Houston's semi-final matchup away to the Portland Timbers, which Houston won 2–1 to advance to the Western Conference Finals.Senderos scored in a 4–0 over Atlanta United in the 2018 season opener. However, he picked up a hamstring injury the next week that made him miss 10 games. On 3 July, Senderos scored in the 96th minute to give the Dynamo a 2–2 draw with LAFC. During the next game Senderos got a brace to lead Houston to a 3–0 win over Minnesota United. He would appear in every game of the 2018 U.S. Open Cup as he helped the Dynamo win their first such title in club history. He picked up a hamstring injury in the final that forced him to miss the rest of the season. His contract expired at the end of the 2018 season and the Dynamo decided to not re-sign him.On 10 September 2019, Senderos signed with Swiss Challenge League side Chiasso. He made his debut for Chiasso on 9 November in a 4–1 win over FC Wil. On 16 December, he announced his retirement from football.Senderos is a former youth international and has played at all levels of football from the under-15s upward for Switzerland, though he was also eligible to play for Spain or Serbia through his parents. He was captain of the Swiss under-17 squad that won the 2002 UEFA European Under-17 Championship.Senderos made his full international debut on 26 March 2005 in Switzerland's 0–0 draw against France in Paris. On his fifth cap, away to Cyprus on 7 September 2005, he scored his first international goal by opening a 3–1 win. On 12 November 2005, he opened the scoring in Switzerland's win over Turkey in the play-offs. After playing in Switzerland's successful qualifying campaign, he was named in their 2006 FIFA World Cup squad. He started alongside Patrick Müller in all three of Switzerland's group matches, and scored the first goal of the 2–0 win in the third match, against South Korea. He broke his nose and suffered shoulder ligament damage in the match, which ruled him out of the remainder of Switzerland's World Cup campaign.Senderos captained Switzerland for the first time on 6 February 2008, a 2–1 friendly defeat away to England in which he was substituted after 55 minutes for Stéphane Grichting. Senderos was also part of the Swiss squad at the UEFA Euro 2008 finals, appearing in all three group matches as the team failed to qualify for the knockout stages.Senderos scored a brace in a 3–0 win away against Luxembourg in a 2010 World Cup qualifier on 10 October 2009, and was selected in the Swiss final squad for the 2010 World Cup. In the first match, where Switzerland shocked Spain 1–0, he was substituted in the 36th minute after injuring his ankle seriously in an accidental collision with teammate Stephan Lichtsteiner. Swiss head coach Ottmar Hitzfeld said after the match, "He has a sprained ankle, possibly a ruptured ligament. If that is the case, it would be very difficult to replace him."Senderos was also chosen in the Swiss squad for the 2014 World Cup, his third World Cup. He made his first appearance in the second match, against France on 20 June 2014, replacing the injured Steve von Bergen after nine minutes, as Switzerland lost 5–2.Senderos was omitted from the Switzerland squad for Euro 2016.Senderos is a child of Serbian (Zorica Novković) and Spanish (Julián Senderos) immigrants. On 20 July 2009, Senderos married Sara, an English woman of Iranian descent. Senderos speaks seven languages: English, French, Serbian, Spanish, German and Italian. In 2012, Senderos was the victim of fake news from Turkey and Iran claiming that he had converted to Islam; he responded "That's not true. And I don't know where these rumours could have come from. I did a photo once [the one used by the websites] but that's all". His brother Julien was a professional basketball player until 2011.ArsenalHouston DynamoSwitzerland U17Individual | [
"Arsenal F.C.",
"Switzerland national under-21 football team",
"Associazione Calcio Milan",
"Everton F.C",
"Switzerland national under-20 football team",
"Switzerland national under-17 football team",
"Grasshopper Club Zürich",
"Servette FC",
"Rangers F.C.",
"Arsenal F.C.",
"Switzerland national under-21 football team",
"Associazione Calcio Milan",
"Everton F.C",
"Switzerland national under-20 football team",
"Switzerland national under-17 football team",
"Grasshopper Club Zürich",
"Servette FC",
"Rangers F.C.",
"Arsenal F.C.",
"Switzerland national under-21 football team",
"Associazione Calcio Milan",
"Everton F.C",
"Switzerland national under-20 football team",
"Switzerland national under-17 football team",
"Grasshopper Club Zürich",
"Servette FC",
"Rangers F.C."
] |
|
Which team did Philippe Senderos play for in Jan 01, 2014? | January 01, 2014 | {
"text": [
"Swiss national football team",
"Fulham F.C.",
"Aston Villa F.C.",
"Valencia CF"
]
} | L2_Q187450_P54_9 | Philippe Senderos plays for Servette FC from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2003.
Philippe Senderos plays for Associazione Calcio Milan from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009.
Philippe Senderos plays for Rangers F.C. from Aug, 2016 to Aug, 2017.
Philippe Senderos plays for Valencia CF from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2014.
Philippe Senderos plays for Aston Villa F.C. from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2016.
Philippe Senderos plays for Fulham F.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2014.
Philippe Senderos plays for Switzerland national under-20 football team from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2005.
Philippe Senderos plays for Grasshopper Club Zürich from Jan, 2016 to Aug, 2016.
Philippe Senderos plays for Switzerland national under-21 football team from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2004.
Philippe Senderos plays for Arsenal F.C. from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2010.
Philippe Senderos plays for Swiss national football team from Jan, 2005 to Dec, 2022.
Philippe Senderos plays for Everton F.C from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2010.
Philippe Senderos plays for Switzerland national under-17 football team from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2002. | Philippe SenderosPhilippe Sylvain Senderos (born 14 February 1985) is a Swiss retired professional footballer who played as a defender.Senderos began his career at Servette, before moving to England as a teenager with Arsenal. He made 116 appearances over seven seasons with the North London club, and won the FA Cup in 2005. Following loans to Milan and Everton, he then moved to Fulham on a free transfer in 2010, where he played for four seasons. Senderos then had brief spells at clubs in Spain, England, Scotland, Switzerland and the United States.A full Swiss international from 2005 to 2016, Senderos won 57 caps and scored 5 goals. He was included in the Swiss squads for three FIFA World Cups and at UEFA Euro 2008.Senderos came up through the youth team set up at Swiss club Servette. After a few appearances in his first season, he soon became a regular player in the first team. On 27 July 2002, Senderos scored a brace (and his first goal) in a 2–0 win over Luzern. Senderos signed for Arsenal in December 2002, though he remained working at Servette until the following summer. Shortly after joining Arsenal, Senderos' father and agent said Senderos rejected a move to Real Madrid in favour of joining Arsenal. Senderos himself claimed he made the right decision joining the Gunners.Shortly after joining Arsenal, Senderos' start did not come as planned after he suffered a recurrence of a back problem for six weeks and another injury on a fractured bone in his foot, leaving him out for the rest of the season. During the season, Arsenal went undefeated and won the league.Senderos was an unused substitute when Arsenal won the Community Shield against Manchester United ahead of the 2004–05 season. He made his debut as a starter in a 2–1 win against Manchester City in the third round of the League Cup on 27 October 2004, and played his first Premier League match on 1 January 2005 as an 82nd-minute substitute for the injured Sol Campbell. Profiting from Campbell's injury, Senderos finished his first Premier League season with 13 appearances. Despite Campbell's recovery, Senderos played the 2005 FA Cup Final in his place, and won his first piece of silverware as Arsenal triumphed on penalties after a 0–0 draw with Manchester United.After the season, Senderos committed his long-term future by signing an improved five-year deal. In the 2005 FA Community Shield, he was beaten by Didier Drogba for both goals as Arsenal lost 2–1 to Chelsea. During the 2005–06 season, he scored his first Arsenal goal in a 2–1 loss to West Bromwich Albion on 15 October, and again in a 7–0 win over Middlesbrough on 14 January. He played in Arsenal's run to the final of the UEFA Champions League in 2005–06, but was an unused substitute in the final, which Arsenal lost to Barcelona.On 29 November 2006, Senderos was sent off for the first time in his career, in the 66th minute of Arsenal's 2–1 loss at Fulham for two bookings for offences on Luís Boa Morte. Later in the season, on 3 February 2007, he was sent off for the second time, a straight red card for a foul in the penalty box on Middlesbrough striker Yakubu.Senderos received his third red card on 2 September 2007 after denying Nwankwo Kanu of Portsmouth a clear goalscoring opportunity, although Arsenal went on to win 3–1. In his last full season at the club (2007–08), Senderos added 2 more goals from 17 Premier League appearances: in a 3–2 win against Sunderland on 7 October and the fourth minute of a 2–0 win over Blackburn Rovers on 11 February.Senderos eventually fell out of favour with Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger. On 27 August 2008, he joined Italian club Milan on a season-long loan. Senderos described joining Milan as a "dream come true". He quickly incurred an injury and struggled to make the first team ahead of centre-backs Paolo Maldini and Kakha Kaladze, but finally made his first full appearance for the "Rossoneri" in a UEFA Cup group stage match against Braga, and came on as a substitute for his first Serie A appearance, against Fiorentina, approximately halfway through the season. Despite wanting his move at Milan to be permanent, Senderos returned to Arsenal after 14 Serie A appearances.Senderos made only two appearances for Arsenal in 2009–10, both in the League Cup, and on 25 January 2010, he joined Everton on loan for the remainder of the season, where he wore the number 23, vacated by the departure of Lucas Neill. He made his first appearance for the club in a 1–0 win away against Wigan Athletic. He returned to Arsenal at the end of the season having made only three appearances, two in the Premier League and one in the UEFA Europa League.On 8 June 2010, Senderos signed a three-year deal with Fulham on a free transfer. On 9 August, while training, Senderos tore his Achilles tendon, keeping him out for six months. He underwent surgery and was expected to be out for 6 months. He finally made his debut for Fulham on 30 April 2011 against Sunderland. On 21 April 2012, he scored his first Premier League goal since joining Fulham as they defeated Wigan Athletic 2–1 at Craven Cottage.On 1 March 2013, Senderos signed a one-year contract extension, keeping him at the West London club until June 2014. On 21 October 2013, he scored a goal in a 4–1 win over Crystal Palace.On 31 January 2014, Senderos joined Valencia from Fulham with just hours remaining before the transfer window was due to close. He made his Valencia debut on 8 February 2014, playing 81 minutes in the 5–0 home win over Real Betis in a La Liga match, and scored his first goal (a header) on 13 March in the 3–0 away victory over Bulgarian champions Ludogorets Razgrad in the first leg of the round of 16 of the UEFA Europa League.On 5 June 2014, Senderos joined Aston Villa on a two-year contract. He was signed by Paul Lambert, who said in the run-up to the 2014 FIFA World Cup, "This will be Philippe's third World Cup finals and there aren't too many players who compete at that level over that stretch of time. He'll be a great addition to the group." He made his Premier League debut for Villa in a 1–0 win at Stoke City on 16 August, playing the full 90 minutes.On 3 September 2015, it was announced Senderos had been omitted from Aston Villa's 25-man squad for the first half of the 2015–16 Premier League season. The following 27 January 2016, he left the club by mutual consent.On 29 January 2016, just days after being released by Aston Villa, Senderos returned to his native Switzerland to sign for Grasshoppers on a six-month contract.After being released by Grasshoppers, Senderos signed for Scottish Premiership team Rangers on a one-year deal on 31 August 2016, following a lengthy trial period. Upon signing, he said it was a "no-brainer" to join such a big club. Senderos was sent off on his debut for Rangers, a 5–1 defeat at Celtic in the Old Firm match on 10 September. Senderos was released in May 2017.On 7 August 2017, the Houston Dynamo of Major League Soccer (MLS) announced they had signed Senderos. Senderos made just two appearances in the regular season for a Dynamo squad that finished fourth in the Western Conference. However, injuries to first choice defenders A. J. DeLaGarza and Leonardo opened the door for Senderos to play for Houston in the postseason. Senderos was given the captain's armband by manager Wilmer Cabrera in the second leg of Houston's semi-final matchup away to the Portland Timbers, which Houston won 2–1 to advance to the Western Conference Finals.Senderos scored in a 4–0 over Atlanta United in the 2018 season opener. However, he picked up a hamstring injury the next week that made him miss 10 games. On 3 July, Senderos scored in the 96th minute to give the Dynamo a 2–2 draw with LAFC. During the next game Senderos got a brace to lead Houston to a 3–0 win over Minnesota United. He would appear in every game of the 2018 U.S. Open Cup as he helped the Dynamo win their first such title in club history. He picked up a hamstring injury in the final that forced him to miss the rest of the season. His contract expired at the end of the 2018 season and the Dynamo decided to not re-sign him.On 10 September 2019, Senderos signed with Swiss Challenge League side Chiasso. He made his debut for Chiasso on 9 November in a 4–1 win over FC Wil. On 16 December, he announced his retirement from football.Senderos is a former youth international and has played at all levels of football from the under-15s upward for Switzerland, though he was also eligible to play for Spain or Serbia through his parents. He was captain of the Swiss under-17 squad that won the 2002 UEFA European Under-17 Championship.Senderos made his full international debut on 26 March 2005 in Switzerland's 0–0 draw against France in Paris. On his fifth cap, away to Cyprus on 7 September 2005, he scored his first international goal by opening a 3–1 win. On 12 November 2005, he opened the scoring in Switzerland's win over Turkey in the play-offs. After playing in Switzerland's successful qualifying campaign, he was named in their 2006 FIFA World Cup squad. He started alongside Patrick Müller in all three of Switzerland's group matches, and scored the first goal of the 2–0 win in the third match, against South Korea. He broke his nose and suffered shoulder ligament damage in the match, which ruled him out of the remainder of Switzerland's World Cup campaign.Senderos captained Switzerland for the first time on 6 February 2008, a 2–1 friendly defeat away to England in which he was substituted after 55 minutes for Stéphane Grichting. Senderos was also part of the Swiss squad at the UEFA Euro 2008 finals, appearing in all three group matches as the team failed to qualify for the knockout stages.Senderos scored a brace in a 3–0 win away against Luxembourg in a 2010 World Cup qualifier on 10 October 2009, and was selected in the Swiss final squad for the 2010 World Cup. In the first match, where Switzerland shocked Spain 1–0, he was substituted in the 36th minute after injuring his ankle seriously in an accidental collision with teammate Stephan Lichtsteiner. Swiss head coach Ottmar Hitzfeld said after the match, "He has a sprained ankle, possibly a ruptured ligament. If that is the case, it would be very difficult to replace him."Senderos was also chosen in the Swiss squad for the 2014 World Cup, his third World Cup. He made his first appearance in the second match, against France on 20 June 2014, replacing the injured Steve von Bergen after nine minutes, as Switzerland lost 5–2.Senderos was omitted from the Switzerland squad for Euro 2016.Senderos is a child of Serbian (Zorica Novković) and Spanish (Julián Senderos) immigrants. On 20 July 2009, Senderos married Sara, an English woman of Iranian descent. Senderos speaks seven languages: English, French, Serbian, Spanish, German and Italian. In 2012, Senderos was the victim of fake news from Turkey and Iran claiming that he had converted to Islam; he responded "That's not true. And I don't know where these rumours could have come from. I did a photo once [the one used by the websites] but that's all". His brother Julien was a professional basketball player until 2011.ArsenalHouston DynamoSwitzerland U17Individual | [
"Arsenal F.C.",
"Switzerland national under-21 football team",
"Associazione Calcio Milan",
"Everton F.C",
"Switzerland national under-20 football team",
"Switzerland national under-17 football team",
"Grasshopper Club Zürich",
"Servette FC",
"Rangers F.C.",
"Arsenal F.C.",
"Switzerland national under-21 football team",
"Associazione Calcio Milan",
"Everton F.C",
"Switzerland national under-20 football team",
"Switzerland national under-17 football team",
"Grasshopper Club Zürich",
"Servette FC",
"Rangers F.C.",
"Arsenal F.C.",
"Switzerland national under-21 football team",
"Associazione Calcio Milan",
"Everton F.C",
"Switzerland national under-20 football team",
"Switzerland national under-17 football team",
"Grasshopper Club Zürich",
"Servette FC",
"Rangers F.C."
] |
|
Which team did Philippe Senderos play for in 01/01/2014? | January 01, 2014 | {
"text": [
"Swiss national football team",
"Fulham F.C.",
"Aston Villa F.C.",
"Valencia CF"
]
} | L2_Q187450_P54_9 | Philippe Senderos plays for Servette FC from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2003.
Philippe Senderos plays for Associazione Calcio Milan from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009.
Philippe Senderos plays for Rangers F.C. from Aug, 2016 to Aug, 2017.
Philippe Senderos plays for Valencia CF from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2014.
Philippe Senderos plays for Aston Villa F.C. from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2016.
Philippe Senderos plays for Fulham F.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2014.
Philippe Senderos plays for Switzerland national under-20 football team from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2005.
Philippe Senderos plays for Grasshopper Club Zürich from Jan, 2016 to Aug, 2016.
Philippe Senderos plays for Switzerland national under-21 football team from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2004.
Philippe Senderos plays for Arsenal F.C. from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2010.
Philippe Senderos plays for Swiss national football team from Jan, 2005 to Dec, 2022.
Philippe Senderos plays for Everton F.C from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2010.
Philippe Senderos plays for Switzerland national under-17 football team from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2002. | Philippe SenderosPhilippe Sylvain Senderos (born 14 February 1985) is a Swiss retired professional footballer who played as a defender.Senderos began his career at Servette, before moving to England as a teenager with Arsenal. He made 116 appearances over seven seasons with the North London club, and won the FA Cup in 2005. Following loans to Milan and Everton, he then moved to Fulham on a free transfer in 2010, where he played for four seasons. Senderos then had brief spells at clubs in Spain, England, Scotland, Switzerland and the United States.A full Swiss international from 2005 to 2016, Senderos won 57 caps and scored 5 goals. He was included in the Swiss squads for three FIFA World Cups and at UEFA Euro 2008.Senderos came up through the youth team set up at Swiss club Servette. After a few appearances in his first season, he soon became a regular player in the first team. On 27 July 2002, Senderos scored a brace (and his first goal) in a 2–0 win over Luzern. Senderos signed for Arsenal in December 2002, though he remained working at Servette until the following summer. Shortly after joining Arsenal, Senderos' father and agent said Senderos rejected a move to Real Madrid in favour of joining Arsenal. Senderos himself claimed he made the right decision joining the Gunners.Shortly after joining Arsenal, Senderos' start did not come as planned after he suffered a recurrence of a back problem for six weeks and another injury on a fractured bone in his foot, leaving him out for the rest of the season. During the season, Arsenal went undefeated and won the league.Senderos was an unused substitute when Arsenal won the Community Shield against Manchester United ahead of the 2004–05 season. He made his debut as a starter in a 2–1 win against Manchester City in the third round of the League Cup on 27 October 2004, and played his first Premier League match on 1 January 2005 as an 82nd-minute substitute for the injured Sol Campbell. Profiting from Campbell's injury, Senderos finished his first Premier League season with 13 appearances. Despite Campbell's recovery, Senderos played the 2005 FA Cup Final in his place, and won his first piece of silverware as Arsenal triumphed on penalties after a 0–0 draw with Manchester United.After the season, Senderos committed his long-term future by signing an improved five-year deal. In the 2005 FA Community Shield, he was beaten by Didier Drogba for both goals as Arsenal lost 2–1 to Chelsea. During the 2005–06 season, he scored his first Arsenal goal in a 2–1 loss to West Bromwich Albion on 15 October, and again in a 7–0 win over Middlesbrough on 14 January. He played in Arsenal's run to the final of the UEFA Champions League in 2005–06, but was an unused substitute in the final, which Arsenal lost to Barcelona.On 29 November 2006, Senderos was sent off for the first time in his career, in the 66th minute of Arsenal's 2–1 loss at Fulham for two bookings for offences on Luís Boa Morte. Later in the season, on 3 February 2007, he was sent off for the second time, a straight red card for a foul in the penalty box on Middlesbrough striker Yakubu.Senderos received his third red card on 2 September 2007 after denying Nwankwo Kanu of Portsmouth a clear goalscoring opportunity, although Arsenal went on to win 3–1. In his last full season at the club (2007–08), Senderos added 2 more goals from 17 Premier League appearances: in a 3–2 win against Sunderland on 7 October and the fourth minute of a 2–0 win over Blackburn Rovers on 11 February.Senderos eventually fell out of favour with Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger. On 27 August 2008, he joined Italian club Milan on a season-long loan. Senderos described joining Milan as a "dream come true". He quickly incurred an injury and struggled to make the first team ahead of centre-backs Paolo Maldini and Kakha Kaladze, but finally made his first full appearance for the "Rossoneri" in a UEFA Cup group stage match against Braga, and came on as a substitute for his first Serie A appearance, against Fiorentina, approximately halfway through the season. Despite wanting his move at Milan to be permanent, Senderos returned to Arsenal after 14 Serie A appearances.Senderos made only two appearances for Arsenal in 2009–10, both in the League Cup, and on 25 January 2010, he joined Everton on loan for the remainder of the season, where he wore the number 23, vacated by the departure of Lucas Neill. He made his first appearance for the club in a 1–0 win away against Wigan Athletic. He returned to Arsenal at the end of the season having made only three appearances, two in the Premier League and one in the UEFA Europa League.On 8 June 2010, Senderos signed a three-year deal with Fulham on a free transfer. On 9 August, while training, Senderos tore his Achilles tendon, keeping him out for six months. He underwent surgery and was expected to be out for 6 months. He finally made his debut for Fulham on 30 April 2011 against Sunderland. On 21 April 2012, he scored his first Premier League goal since joining Fulham as they defeated Wigan Athletic 2–1 at Craven Cottage.On 1 March 2013, Senderos signed a one-year contract extension, keeping him at the West London club until June 2014. On 21 October 2013, he scored a goal in a 4–1 win over Crystal Palace.On 31 January 2014, Senderos joined Valencia from Fulham with just hours remaining before the transfer window was due to close. He made his Valencia debut on 8 February 2014, playing 81 minutes in the 5–0 home win over Real Betis in a La Liga match, and scored his first goal (a header) on 13 March in the 3–0 away victory over Bulgarian champions Ludogorets Razgrad in the first leg of the round of 16 of the UEFA Europa League.On 5 June 2014, Senderos joined Aston Villa on a two-year contract. He was signed by Paul Lambert, who said in the run-up to the 2014 FIFA World Cup, "This will be Philippe's third World Cup finals and there aren't too many players who compete at that level over that stretch of time. He'll be a great addition to the group." He made his Premier League debut for Villa in a 1–0 win at Stoke City on 16 August, playing the full 90 minutes.On 3 September 2015, it was announced Senderos had been omitted from Aston Villa's 25-man squad for the first half of the 2015–16 Premier League season. The following 27 January 2016, he left the club by mutual consent.On 29 January 2016, just days after being released by Aston Villa, Senderos returned to his native Switzerland to sign for Grasshoppers on a six-month contract.After being released by Grasshoppers, Senderos signed for Scottish Premiership team Rangers on a one-year deal on 31 August 2016, following a lengthy trial period. Upon signing, he said it was a "no-brainer" to join such a big club. Senderos was sent off on his debut for Rangers, a 5–1 defeat at Celtic in the Old Firm match on 10 September. Senderos was released in May 2017.On 7 August 2017, the Houston Dynamo of Major League Soccer (MLS) announced they had signed Senderos. Senderos made just two appearances in the regular season for a Dynamo squad that finished fourth in the Western Conference. However, injuries to first choice defenders A. J. DeLaGarza and Leonardo opened the door for Senderos to play for Houston in the postseason. Senderos was given the captain's armband by manager Wilmer Cabrera in the second leg of Houston's semi-final matchup away to the Portland Timbers, which Houston won 2–1 to advance to the Western Conference Finals.Senderos scored in a 4–0 over Atlanta United in the 2018 season opener. However, he picked up a hamstring injury the next week that made him miss 10 games. On 3 July, Senderos scored in the 96th minute to give the Dynamo a 2–2 draw with LAFC. During the next game Senderos got a brace to lead Houston to a 3–0 win over Minnesota United. He would appear in every game of the 2018 U.S. Open Cup as he helped the Dynamo win their first such title in club history. He picked up a hamstring injury in the final that forced him to miss the rest of the season. His contract expired at the end of the 2018 season and the Dynamo decided to not re-sign him.On 10 September 2019, Senderos signed with Swiss Challenge League side Chiasso. He made his debut for Chiasso on 9 November in a 4–1 win over FC Wil. On 16 December, he announced his retirement from football.Senderos is a former youth international and has played at all levels of football from the under-15s upward for Switzerland, though he was also eligible to play for Spain or Serbia through his parents. He was captain of the Swiss under-17 squad that won the 2002 UEFA European Under-17 Championship.Senderos made his full international debut on 26 March 2005 in Switzerland's 0–0 draw against France in Paris. On his fifth cap, away to Cyprus on 7 September 2005, he scored his first international goal by opening a 3–1 win. On 12 November 2005, he opened the scoring in Switzerland's win over Turkey in the play-offs. After playing in Switzerland's successful qualifying campaign, he was named in their 2006 FIFA World Cup squad. He started alongside Patrick Müller in all three of Switzerland's group matches, and scored the first goal of the 2–0 win in the third match, against South Korea. He broke his nose and suffered shoulder ligament damage in the match, which ruled him out of the remainder of Switzerland's World Cup campaign.Senderos captained Switzerland for the first time on 6 February 2008, a 2–1 friendly defeat away to England in which he was substituted after 55 minutes for Stéphane Grichting. Senderos was also part of the Swiss squad at the UEFA Euro 2008 finals, appearing in all three group matches as the team failed to qualify for the knockout stages.Senderos scored a brace in a 3–0 win away against Luxembourg in a 2010 World Cup qualifier on 10 October 2009, and was selected in the Swiss final squad for the 2010 World Cup. In the first match, where Switzerland shocked Spain 1–0, he was substituted in the 36th minute after injuring his ankle seriously in an accidental collision with teammate Stephan Lichtsteiner. Swiss head coach Ottmar Hitzfeld said after the match, "He has a sprained ankle, possibly a ruptured ligament. If that is the case, it would be very difficult to replace him."Senderos was also chosen in the Swiss squad for the 2014 World Cup, his third World Cup. He made his first appearance in the second match, against France on 20 June 2014, replacing the injured Steve von Bergen after nine minutes, as Switzerland lost 5–2.Senderos was omitted from the Switzerland squad for Euro 2016.Senderos is a child of Serbian (Zorica Novković) and Spanish (Julián Senderos) immigrants. On 20 July 2009, Senderos married Sara, an English woman of Iranian descent. Senderos speaks seven languages: English, French, Serbian, Spanish, German and Italian. In 2012, Senderos was the victim of fake news from Turkey and Iran claiming that he had converted to Islam; he responded "That's not true. And I don't know where these rumours could have come from. I did a photo once [the one used by the websites] but that's all". His brother Julien was a professional basketball player until 2011.ArsenalHouston DynamoSwitzerland U17Individual | [
"Arsenal F.C.",
"Switzerland national under-21 football team",
"Associazione Calcio Milan",
"Everton F.C",
"Switzerland national under-20 football team",
"Switzerland national under-17 football team",
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"Servette FC",
"Rangers F.C.",
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"Everton F.C",
"Switzerland national under-20 football team",
"Switzerland national under-17 football team",
"Grasshopper Club Zürich",
"Servette FC",
"Rangers F.C.",
"Arsenal F.C.",
"Switzerland national under-21 football team",
"Associazione Calcio Milan",
"Everton F.C",
"Switzerland national under-20 football team",
"Switzerland national under-17 football team",
"Grasshopper Club Zürich",
"Servette FC",
"Rangers F.C."
] |
|
Which team did Philippe Senderos play for in 01-Jan-201401-January-2014? | January 01, 2014 | {
"text": [
"Swiss national football team",
"Fulham F.C.",
"Aston Villa F.C.",
"Valencia CF"
]
} | L2_Q187450_P54_9 | Philippe Senderos plays for Servette FC from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2003.
Philippe Senderos plays for Associazione Calcio Milan from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009.
Philippe Senderos plays for Rangers F.C. from Aug, 2016 to Aug, 2017.
Philippe Senderos plays for Valencia CF from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2014.
Philippe Senderos plays for Aston Villa F.C. from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2016.
Philippe Senderos plays for Fulham F.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2014.
Philippe Senderos plays for Switzerland national under-20 football team from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2005.
Philippe Senderos plays for Grasshopper Club Zürich from Jan, 2016 to Aug, 2016.
Philippe Senderos plays for Switzerland national under-21 football team from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2004.
Philippe Senderos plays for Arsenal F.C. from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2010.
Philippe Senderos plays for Swiss national football team from Jan, 2005 to Dec, 2022.
Philippe Senderos plays for Everton F.C from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2010.
Philippe Senderos plays for Switzerland national under-17 football team from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2002. | Philippe SenderosPhilippe Sylvain Senderos (born 14 February 1985) is a Swiss retired professional footballer who played as a defender.Senderos began his career at Servette, before moving to England as a teenager with Arsenal. He made 116 appearances over seven seasons with the North London club, and won the FA Cup in 2005. Following loans to Milan and Everton, he then moved to Fulham on a free transfer in 2010, where he played for four seasons. Senderos then had brief spells at clubs in Spain, England, Scotland, Switzerland and the United States.A full Swiss international from 2005 to 2016, Senderos won 57 caps and scored 5 goals. He was included in the Swiss squads for three FIFA World Cups and at UEFA Euro 2008.Senderos came up through the youth team set up at Swiss club Servette. After a few appearances in his first season, he soon became a regular player in the first team. On 27 July 2002, Senderos scored a brace (and his first goal) in a 2–0 win over Luzern. Senderos signed for Arsenal in December 2002, though he remained working at Servette until the following summer. Shortly after joining Arsenal, Senderos' father and agent said Senderos rejected a move to Real Madrid in favour of joining Arsenal. Senderos himself claimed he made the right decision joining the Gunners.Shortly after joining Arsenal, Senderos' start did not come as planned after he suffered a recurrence of a back problem for six weeks and another injury on a fractured bone in his foot, leaving him out for the rest of the season. During the season, Arsenal went undefeated and won the league.Senderos was an unused substitute when Arsenal won the Community Shield against Manchester United ahead of the 2004–05 season. He made his debut as a starter in a 2–1 win against Manchester City in the third round of the League Cup on 27 October 2004, and played his first Premier League match on 1 January 2005 as an 82nd-minute substitute for the injured Sol Campbell. Profiting from Campbell's injury, Senderos finished his first Premier League season with 13 appearances. Despite Campbell's recovery, Senderos played the 2005 FA Cup Final in his place, and won his first piece of silverware as Arsenal triumphed on penalties after a 0–0 draw with Manchester United.After the season, Senderos committed his long-term future by signing an improved five-year deal. In the 2005 FA Community Shield, he was beaten by Didier Drogba for both goals as Arsenal lost 2–1 to Chelsea. During the 2005–06 season, he scored his first Arsenal goal in a 2–1 loss to West Bromwich Albion on 15 October, and again in a 7–0 win over Middlesbrough on 14 January. He played in Arsenal's run to the final of the UEFA Champions League in 2005–06, but was an unused substitute in the final, which Arsenal lost to Barcelona.On 29 November 2006, Senderos was sent off for the first time in his career, in the 66th minute of Arsenal's 2–1 loss at Fulham for two bookings for offences on Luís Boa Morte. Later in the season, on 3 February 2007, he was sent off for the second time, a straight red card for a foul in the penalty box on Middlesbrough striker Yakubu.Senderos received his third red card on 2 September 2007 after denying Nwankwo Kanu of Portsmouth a clear goalscoring opportunity, although Arsenal went on to win 3–1. In his last full season at the club (2007–08), Senderos added 2 more goals from 17 Premier League appearances: in a 3–2 win against Sunderland on 7 October and the fourth minute of a 2–0 win over Blackburn Rovers on 11 February.Senderos eventually fell out of favour with Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger. On 27 August 2008, he joined Italian club Milan on a season-long loan. Senderos described joining Milan as a "dream come true". He quickly incurred an injury and struggled to make the first team ahead of centre-backs Paolo Maldini and Kakha Kaladze, but finally made his first full appearance for the "Rossoneri" in a UEFA Cup group stage match against Braga, and came on as a substitute for his first Serie A appearance, against Fiorentina, approximately halfway through the season. Despite wanting his move at Milan to be permanent, Senderos returned to Arsenal after 14 Serie A appearances.Senderos made only two appearances for Arsenal in 2009–10, both in the League Cup, and on 25 January 2010, he joined Everton on loan for the remainder of the season, where he wore the number 23, vacated by the departure of Lucas Neill. He made his first appearance for the club in a 1–0 win away against Wigan Athletic. He returned to Arsenal at the end of the season having made only three appearances, two in the Premier League and one in the UEFA Europa League.On 8 June 2010, Senderos signed a three-year deal with Fulham on a free transfer. On 9 August, while training, Senderos tore his Achilles tendon, keeping him out for six months. He underwent surgery and was expected to be out for 6 months. He finally made his debut for Fulham on 30 April 2011 against Sunderland. On 21 April 2012, he scored his first Premier League goal since joining Fulham as they defeated Wigan Athletic 2–1 at Craven Cottage.On 1 March 2013, Senderos signed a one-year contract extension, keeping him at the West London club until June 2014. On 21 October 2013, he scored a goal in a 4–1 win over Crystal Palace.On 31 January 2014, Senderos joined Valencia from Fulham with just hours remaining before the transfer window was due to close. He made his Valencia debut on 8 February 2014, playing 81 minutes in the 5–0 home win over Real Betis in a La Liga match, and scored his first goal (a header) on 13 March in the 3–0 away victory over Bulgarian champions Ludogorets Razgrad in the first leg of the round of 16 of the UEFA Europa League.On 5 June 2014, Senderos joined Aston Villa on a two-year contract. He was signed by Paul Lambert, who said in the run-up to the 2014 FIFA World Cup, "This will be Philippe's third World Cup finals and there aren't too many players who compete at that level over that stretch of time. He'll be a great addition to the group." He made his Premier League debut for Villa in a 1–0 win at Stoke City on 16 August, playing the full 90 minutes.On 3 September 2015, it was announced Senderos had been omitted from Aston Villa's 25-man squad for the first half of the 2015–16 Premier League season. The following 27 January 2016, he left the club by mutual consent.On 29 January 2016, just days after being released by Aston Villa, Senderos returned to his native Switzerland to sign for Grasshoppers on a six-month contract.After being released by Grasshoppers, Senderos signed for Scottish Premiership team Rangers on a one-year deal on 31 August 2016, following a lengthy trial period. Upon signing, he said it was a "no-brainer" to join such a big club. Senderos was sent off on his debut for Rangers, a 5–1 defeat at Celtic in the Old Firm match on 10 September. Senderos was released in May 2017.On 7 August 2017, the Houston Dynamo of Major League Soccer (MLS) announced they had signed Senderos. Senderos made just two appearances in the regular season for a Dynamo squad that finished fourth in the Western Conference. However, injuries to first choice defenders A. J. DeLaGarza and Leonardo opened the door for Senderos to play for Houston in the postseason. Senderos was given the captain's armband by manager Wilmer Cabrera in the second leg of Houston's semi-final matchup away to the Portland Timbers, which Houston won 2–1 to advance to the Western Conference Finals.Senderos scored in a 4–0 over Atlanta United in the 2018 season opener. However, he picked up a hamstring injury the next week that made him miss 10 games. On 3 July, Senderos scored in the 96th minute to give the Dynamo a 2–2 draw with LAFC. During the next game Senderos got a brace to lead Houston to a 3–0 win over Minnesota United. He would appear in every game of the 2018 U.S. Open Cup as he helped the Dynamo win their first such title in club history. He picked up a hamstring injury in the final that forced him to miss the rest of the season. His contract expired at the end of the 2018 season and the Dynamo decided to not re-sign him.On 10 September 2019, Senderos signed with Swiss Challenge League side Chiasso. He made his debut for Chiasso on 9 November in a 4–1 win over FC Wil. On 16 December, he announced his retirement from football.Senderos is a former youth international and has played at all levels of football from the under-15s upward for Switzerland, though he was also eligible to play for Spain or Serbia through his parents. He was captain of the Swiss under-17 squad that won the 2002 UEFA European Under-17 Championship.Senderos made his full international debut on 26 March 2005 in Switzerland's 0–0 draw against France in Paris. On his fifth cap, away to Cyprus on 7 September 2005, he scored his first international goal by opening a 3–1 win. On 12 November 2005, he opened the scoring in Switzerland's win over Turkey in the play-offs. After playing in Switzerland's successful qualifying campaign, he was named in their 2006 FIFA World Cup squad. He started alongside Patrick Müller in all three of Switzerland's group matches, and scored the first goal of the 2–0 win in the third match, against South Korea. He broke his nose and suffered shoulder ligament damage in the match, which ruled him out of the remainder of Switzerland's World Cup campaign.Senderos captained Switzerland for the first time on 6 February 2008, a 2–1 friendly defeat away to England in which he was substituted after 55 minutes for Stéphane Grichting. Senderos was also part of the Swiss squad at the UEFA Euro 2008 finals, appearing in all three group matches as the team failed to qualify for the knockout stages.Senderos scored a brace in a 3–0 win away against Luxembourg in a 2010 World Cup qualifier on 10 October 2009, and was selected in the Swiss final squad for the 2010 World Cup. In the first match, where Switzerland shocked Spain 1–0, he was substituted in the 36th minute after injuring his ankle seriously in an accidental collision with teammate Stephan Lichtsteiner. Swiss head coach Ottmar Hitzfeld said after the match, "He has a sprained ankle, possibly a ruptured ligament. If that is the case, it would be very difficult to replace him."Senderos was also chosen in the Swiss squad for the 2014 World Cup, his third World Cup. He made his first appearance in the second match, against France on 20 June 2014, replacing the injured Steve von Bergen after nine minutes, as Switzerland lost 5–2.Senderos was omitted from the Switzerland squad for Euro 2016.Senderos is a child of Serbian (Zorica Novković) and Spanish (Julián Senderos) immigrants. On 20 July 2009, Senderos married Sara, an English woman of Iranian descent. Senderos speaks seven languages: English, French, Serbian, Spanish, German and Italian. In 2012, Senderos was the victim of fake news from Turkey and Iran claiming that he had converted to Islam; he responded "That's not true. And I don't know where these rumours could have come from. I did a photo once [the one used by the websites] but that's all". His brother Julien was a professional basketball player until 2011.ArsenalHouston DynamoSwitzerland U17Individual | [
"Arsenal F.C.",
"Switzerland national under-21 football team",
"Associazione Calcio Milan",
"Everton F.C",
"Switzerland national under-20 football team",
"Switzerland national under-17 football team",
"Grasshopper Club Zürich",
"Servette FC",
"Rangers F.C.",
"Arsenal F.C.",
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"Everton F.C",
"Switzerland national under-20 football team",
"Switzerland national under-17 football team",
"Grasshopper Club Zürich",
"Servette FC",
"Rangers F.C.",
"Arsenal F.C.",
"Switzerland national under-21 football team",
"Associazione Calcio Milan",
"Everton F.C",
"Switzerland national under-20 football team",
"Switzerland national under-17 football team",
"Grasshopper Club Zürich",
"Servette FC",
"Rangers F.C."
] |
|
Who was the chair of Mánes Union of Fine Arts in Oct, 1890? | October 11, 1890 | {
"text": [
"Mikoláš Aleš"
]
} | L2_Q2364172_P488_0 | Ivan Exner is the chair of Mánes Union of Fine Arts from Jan, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Jiří T. Kotalík is the chair of Mánes Union of Fine Arts from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009.
Adam Hoffmeister is the chair of Mánes Union of Fine Arts from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2015.
Mikoláš Aleš is the chair of Mánes Union of Fine Arts from Jan, 1887 to Jan, 1896. | Mánes Union of Fine ArtsThe Mánes Association of Fine Artists ( or S.V.U.; commonly abbreviated as "Manes") was an artists' association and exhibition society founded in 1887 in Prague and named after painter Josef Mánes.The Manes was significant for its international exhibitions before and after World War I that encouraged interaction between Czech artists and the foreign avant-garde. It played an important role in the development of Czech Cubism and Rondocubism. Between 1928 and 1930, Manes built a complex with a restaurant, club, showroom and offices at the site of the Štítkovský Mill and water tower on the Vltava. The architect of the 1928 Manes pavilion was member .The union was liquidated under the Communists and was revived after the Velvet Revolution in 1990. Its headquarters became the Diamond House in Prague, itself a landmark of cubist architecture."Svaz výtvarných umělců Mánes" ("Association of Fine Artists Mánes") was established in 1887 as a group of Bohemian artists in the Austrian-Hungarian Empire. Its forerunner was Škréta, spolek mladých českých výtvarníků v Mnichově ("Škréta, a Fellowship of Young Czech Artist in Munich"), an organization of Czech art students in Munich, an art center largely visited by Central and Eastern European art students. The name of this society came from seventeenth century Bohemian painter Karel Škréta. Formed in 1885 it became one of the largest communities of Czech students abroad. It had its own infrastructure and annual show. It had regular contact with the homeland and published a journal in two parts: "Paleta" & "Špachtle" ("Palette" and "Spatula"). This journal was circulated within the association only and all members had to contribute to it on weekly bases. Their focus was mainly on the German art scene. The group accepted other Slavic students as members.The Škréta Fellowship renamed itself to "Svaz výtvarných umělců Mánes" (abb. SVU Mánes), after painter J. Mánes, who lived and worked in the first half of the nineteenth century in Czech Lands and Germany, and who attended the Munich Art Academy. Many founding members of the "Škréta" moved to Prague in 1887 – probably due to reforms at the Prague Art Academy – and finished their studies there. The Škréta Fellowship continued until its members Alfons Mucha and Luděk Marold left Munich for Paris.Between 1885 and 1899 the focus was mainly on "Palette" and "Spatula." "Palette" was a journal of art and literature and "Spatula" was a satirical magazine. These first fourteen years were the most important for the future development of modern Czech art scene. SVU Mánes took under its wings painting, sculpture and architecture. This notion was reflected in their emblem of three shields representing each the three art forms. The goals of SVU Mánes were mainly based on an old idea of patriotism with allegorical paintings from the Czech history, but they soon moved to modern art and its influx in Bohemia. One of the main differences from neighboring groups such as Munich and Viennese Secession was in their constant fight against pan-Germanism. One difference from Polish group "Sztuka" was in SVU Mánes’ openness to the international art scene.SVU Mánes averaged some 300 members between 1887 and 1899. It was a large organization for the Prague environment and for a secessionist group. Its first elected president was painter and illustrator Mikoláš Aleš, a (Aleš illustrated Old Czech manuscripts and was proclaimed by the critics as naïve, but SVU Mánes supported him and presented him with a diploma). Aleš, twenty years older than the rest of the members, had strong leadership and organization skills. Along with a sculptor, principal patron and chief organizer of SVU Mánes, Stanislav Sucharda, they formed a strong lead. The editorial board was elected annually. The first most influential editors were painter Karel Vítězslav and painter and draughtsman Jan Preisler. Probably the most important role in SVU Mánes had , a journalist and an art critic.SVU Mánes rebelled against the old and rigid system of art exhibitions, art politics and pan-Germanism of art in Czech. Multiple events helped the patriotic SVU Mánes to achieve its success before their first exhibition in 1898.In 1897, SVU Mánes opened its first preliminary exhibition of competing posters. These were designed for its first exhibition the following year.SVU Mánes' first exhibition was 5 February to 5 March in 1898 in Topič salon (a commercial gallery in the center) in Prague. With this exhibition, SVU Mánes proclaimed its secession. Thirty participants among the eighty members with landscapes dominating the show. The installation was similar to that in Rudolfínum, but many fewer works were selected.On 3 November another exhibition was held in the same location, exhibiting fifty works from artists Joža Uprka, František Bílek, Zdenka Braunerová, Antonín Hudeček and Antonín Slavíček. With this exhibition, the members refused Rudolfínum as an exhibiting society, and stepped toward their own exhibiting building. This exhibition went up during the same time of preparation of the first exhibition of the Viennese Secession with which they had a competitive relationship. SVU Mánes show attracted members of Viennese society, who offered participation to Czech painters to exhibit in Vienna. František Bílek agreed, while Stanislav Sucharda refused absent an autonomous Czech show in Vienna.In 1899, SVU Mánes began organizing traveling exhibitions in other towns of Bohemia and Moravia to increase public awareness.In 1900 SVU Mánes exhibited in Viennese Künstlerhaus.Also in 1900, SVU Mánes opened its third exhibition, showing sixty works in the Topič salon. KU Ministerium supported this show. It toured Brno and Vienna, getting more credit on its home soil as a competitor to Rudolfínum, but it brought new audiences and recognition in the international press. Among the exhibiting artists was Jan Preisler with his "The Wind and Breeze", František Bílek, who caused surprise and František Kupka. After this exhibition, Antonín Slavíček and Maxmilián Švabinský ("The Poor Country") were invited to Miethke gallery in Vienna and Švabinský became the most exportable Bohemian artist. For the first time, SVU Mánes’ exhibition had a designer in architect Jan Kotěra who focused on simplicity and purity with respect to painting, sculpture and prints. This differed from the over-crowdedness of Rudolfínum and the over-ornamentation of the Viennese Secession. Sculptures were not for decoration but they were installed as autonomous art works.In 1902, SVU Mánes exhibited in Hagenbund, which became its frequent host.After a visit to Paris Exposition of 1900, Alfons Mucha and Josef Mařatka invited sculptor Auguste Rodin to exhibit his works in Prague. This event took place in Manes’ new exhibiting building, the Mánes Pavilion in 1902, designed by Jan Kotěra. Kotěra took on an idea of Paradise with each sculpture displayed in its own space, not competing with the others, with floors covered with gravel and shrubs expanding the garden theme. This show utterly overshadowed Rudolfínum, making SVU Mánes the main exhibiting body in Bohemia. The exhibition also increased public interest in foreign art. Rodin influenced artists such as Sucharda, Ladislav Šaloun and Bohumil Kafka. This show had a political background of Czech intellectuals looking toward France, appealing to French republican artistic freedom. Rodin showed eighty sculptures and seventy drawings. His sculptures revealing intimate bodily details, sexuality and psychological expression, was new to Prague. He was taken as a genius by artists and critics, who appealed for Czech artists to follow his path by looking to themselves. This exhibition had a further impact on Austria and Germany. After Prague, Rodin took some of his pieces to Vienna. This show made Prague an international exhibiting city.Following Rodin’s exhibition, SVU Mánes presented a retrospective of contemporary French painting the Nabis who Czech artists knew since the 1890s from their Parisian visits for their freedom of form and deliberate experiments.Another exhibit presented works of Mikolaš Aleš, Hudeček and French graphic arts.The year's last exhibition was a visiting show in Kraków hosted by Sztuka. Among the 132 Czech artists who exhibited there, belonged František Bílek, Sucharda, Kafka, Šaloun, Joža Úprka, Maxmilián Švabinský, Alois Kalvoda, Antonín Slavíček, František Kupka and others.A similar exhibition opened in 1903 in the Mánes Pavilion, surveying Czech art production, followed by a retrospective of Josef Mánes. He was the only non-contemporary artist exhibited in SVU Mánes.An exhibition of Worpswede continued SVU Mánes’ interest in international art scene along with another show of Croatian contemporary art of Družstvo umjetnosti [Association of Art].Returning to the domestic art scene, SVU Mánes hosted a retrospective of Joža Úprka.SVU Mánes members had their first group show in their new building, followed by a group show of Antonín Slavíček, Bohumil Kafka, Josef Mařatka, Stanislav Sucharda and Ladislav Šaloun.SVU Mánes presented an exhibition of Edvard Munch.Following Munch show was another group exhibition and after that an exhibition of T. F. Simon.In the winter of 1905-06, SVU Mánes hosted Danish artists.1906 brought an exhibition of N. K. Roerich along with Francisco Goya and another member show.The following year Henri le Sidaner together with Louis Dejean exhibited. After that, French Impressionism occupied the Mánes Pavilion.Members and architects established Sdružení architektů Mánese [Association of Mánes’ Architects] that, a year later, began publishing its journal "Styl" [Style] concentrating on contemporary art and design.At the turn of 1907 and 1908, English etchings arrived to Prague under the SVU Mánes’ umbrella.Auguste Rodin together with Ludwig v. Hofmann exhibited in 1908, followed by SVU Mánes’ group show.Émile Bernard; E. A. Bourdelle; SVU Mánes’ group show came in 1909.In 1910 SVU Mánes’ presented a group show of sketches: Les Independents; Slavíček; Axel Gellen-Kellela; Munch; and Swedish Art.When SVU Mánes presented Edvard Munch, the audience was shocked. This artist had an immense impact on the future development of modern art in Bohemia. No other show divided Czech artists as much. The artist community fell into two hostile camps. In 1907, eight art students formed "Osma" [The Eight], finding SVU Mánes too provincial.F. X. Šalda was the only critic who agreed with the new group. The main two members of Osma were Bohumil Kubišta and Emil Filla. Kubišta responded with "Night of Love" in 1908 and Filla with "Reader of Dostoevsky" in 1907. Jan Preisler was the only SVU Mánes member who responded to Munch with his painting "Woman by a Lake", however after harsh criticism he abandoned this style. Criticism of Preisler’s work angered Osma even more.In 1912, SVU Mánes split, following the Cubist art scene in Paris: the Montmartre Cubism of Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, and Section d'Or Cubism led by Albert Gleizes and Jean Metzinger. Prague's key followers of Montmartre Cubism in Prague were artists Emil Filla and Otto Gutfreund, while the nucleus of the opposing camp was created around the Čapek brothers. Bohemian Cubists combined Cubism with Expressionism, some with Futurism, Orphism and Rayonism, while others concentrated on national or existential subject matters. The artists influenced by Montmartre Cubism established Skupina výtvarných umelců [Group of Artists]."Volné Směry" ("Free Currents") was a journal of SVU Mánes first published in 1896. At first the association oriented its journal mainly toward literature, another driving force behind the Czech secessionist movement. Association members competed in its pages. The journal worked as a "Gesamtkunstwerk" [total work of art]. The editors also included information about international and domestic art scene and art criticism.In 1902, installation designs began to appear. The journal competed mainly with Ver Sacrum of the Viennese Secession in content and form. At this point, its primary goal was promotion of Czech art along with introduction and commentary on the international art scene. Its funding came at first from members. The main editors were Vojtěch Preisler and Arnošt Hofbauer. "Volné směry" reached a wide public, with coverage better than its main competitor journal "Moderní revue" [Modern Review]. Other competing journals in Czech at the time were: "L’Art", "L'Art et industrie", "Gazette des Beaux-Arts", "Revue des Arts Decoratifs", "La Plume", "L’ Art et les artistes", "The Art Amateur", "Art Journal", "Art Pictorial & Industrial", "The Studio", "Formenschatz", "Dekorative Kunst", "Die Kunst", "Deutsche Kunst und Dekoration", "Kunst und Handwerk", "Skulpturenschatz", "Zeitschrift für Bildende Kunst" and "Die Graphischen Kunste". In 1897, in its second volume, a special issue was dedicated to regionalist painter Úprka.A year later, Kotěra published an essay to appeal to Czech citizens to think for themselves when looking at art and architecture. He stated that Czech art and architecture should be Czech, with Czech form, using local materials and technologies. Form should reflect modern times and should not mimic foreign art and architecture. Kotěra used a universal and pragmatic tone in his essay, without providing a definition of the Czech form. Open debates in "Volné směry" and other journals considered the planned destruction of Prague’s historical center.In 1899, a special issue was dedicated to symbolist sculptor František Bílek. In the same year, Kotěra became one of the main editors and a professor of University of Architecture and Applied Arts in Prague. He studied directly under Otto Wagner in Vienna. At the turn of the century, a special issue devoted to the Third SVU Mánes exhibition was produced for the first time for Viennese audiences. The Rodin show was accompanied by a special double-issue dedicated to the sculptor in 1901, a year before its opening. By 1903, the journal established a comfortable position financially with approximately 1800 subscribing readers.In 1902 Kotěra designed the Mánes Pavilion for the Rodin exhibition. It was supposed to be only a temporary building, erected in four weeks. The pavilion was functional and flexible. Lit from the top, it had movable walls and Karel Špillar adorned it with a patriotic Slavic wooden lintel and allegorical mosaic. Manes used it until 1914. Its location was near the city center, close to a space where Prague officials wanted to build a modern gallery. | [
"Adam Hoffmeister",
"Ivan Exner",
"Jiří T. Kotalík"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Mánes Union of Fine Arts in 1890-10-11? | October 11, 1890 | {
"text": [
"Mikoláš Aleš"
]
} | L2_Q2364172_P488_0 | Ivan Exner is the chair of Mánes Union of Fine Arts from Jan, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Jiří T. Kotalík is the chair of Mánes Union of Fine Arts from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009.
Adam Hoffmeister is the chair of Mánes Union of Fine Arts from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2015.
Mikoláš Aleš is the chair of Mánes Union of Fine Arts from Jan, 1887 to Jan, 1896. | Mánes Union of Fine ArtsThe Mánes Association of Fine Artists ( or S.V.U.; commonly abbreviated as "Manes") was an artists' association and exhibition society founded in 1887 in Prague and named after painter Josef Mánes.The Manes was significant for its international exhibitions before and after World War I that encouraged interaction between Czech artists and the foreign avant-garde. It played an important role in the development of Czech Cubism and Rondocubism. Between 1928 and 1930, Manes built a complex with a restaurant, club, showroom and offices at the site of the Štítkovský Mill and water tower on the Vltava. The architect of the 1928 Manes pavilion was member .The union was liquidated under the Communists and was revived after the Velvet Revolution in 1990. Its headquarters became the Diamond House in Prague, itself a landmark of cubist architecture."Svaz výtvarných umělců Mánes" ("Association of Fine Artists Mánes") was established in 1887 as a group of Bohemian artists in the Austrian-Hungarian Empire. Its forerunner was Škréta, spolek mladých českých výtvarníků v Mnichově ("Škréta, a Fellowship of Young Czech Artist in Munich"), an organization of Czech art students in Munich, an art center largely visited by Central and Eastern European art students. The name of this society came from seventeenth century Bohemian painter Karel Škréta. Formed in 1885 it became one of the largest communities of Czech students abroad. It had its own infrastructure and annual show. It had regular contact with the homeland and published a journal in two parts: "Paleta" & "Špachtle" ("Palette" and "Spatula"). This journal was circulated within the association only and all members had to contribute to it on weekly bases. Their focus was mainly on the German art scene. The group accepted other Slavic students as members.The Škréta Fellowship renamed itself to "Svaz výtvarných umělců Mánes" (abb. SVU Mánes), after painter J. Mánes, who lived and worked in the first half of the nineteenth century in Czech Lands and Germany, and who attended the Munich Art Academy. Many founding members of the "Škréta" moved to Prague in 1887 – probably due to reforms at the Prague Art Academy – and finished their studies there. The Škréta Fellowship continued until its members Alfons Mucha and Luděk Marold left Munich for Paris.Between 1885 and 1899 the focus was mainly on "Palette" and "Spatula." "Palette" was a journal of art and literature and "Spatula" was a satirical magazine. These first fourteen years were the most important for the future development of modern Czech art scene. SVU Mánes took under its wings painting, sculpture and architecture. This notion was reflected in their emblem of three shields representing each the three art forms. The goals of SVU Mánes were mainly based on an old idea of patriotism with allegorical paintings from the Czech history, but they soon moved to modern art and its influx in Bohemia. One of the main differences from neighboring groups such as Munich and Viennese Secession was in their constant fight against pan-Germanism. One difference from Polish group "Sztuka" was in SVU Mánes’ openness to the international art scene.SVU Mánes averaged some 300 members between 1887 and 1899. It was a large organization for the Prague environment and for a secessionist group. Its first elected president was painter and illustrator Mikoláš Aleš, a (Aleš illustrated Old Czech manuscripts and was proclaimed by the critics as naïve, but SVU Mánes supported him and presented him with a diploma). Aleš, twenty years older than the rest of the members, had strong leadership and organization skills. Along with a sculptor, principal patron and chief organizer of SVU Mánes, Stanislav Sucharda, they formed a strong lead. The editorial board was elected annually. The first most influential editors were painter Karel Vítězslav and painter and draughtsman Jan Preisler. Probably the most important role in SVU Mánes had , a journalist and an art critic.SVU Mánes rebelled against the old and rigid system of art exhibitions, art politics and pan-Germanism of art in Czech. Multiple events helped the patriotic SVU Mánes to achieve its success before their first exhibition in 1898.In 1897, SVU Mánes opened its first preliminary exhibition of competing posters. These were designed for its first exhibition the following year.SVU Mánes' first exhibition was 5 February to 5 March in 1898 in Topič salon (a commercial gallery in the center) in Prague. With this exhibition, SVU Mánes proclaimed its secession. Thirty participants among the eighty members with landscapes dominating the show. The installation was similar to that in Rudolfínum, but many fewer works were selected.On 3 November another exhibition was held in the same location, exhibiting fifty works from artists Joža Uprka, František Bílek, Zdenka Braunerová, Antonín Hudeček and Antonín Slavíček. With this exhibition, the members refused Rudolfínum as an exhibiting society, and stepped toward their own exhibiting building. This exhibition went up during the same time of preparation of the first exhibition of the Viennese Secession with which they had a competitive relationship. SVU Mánes show attracted members of Viennese society, who offered participation to Czech painters to exhibit in Vienna. František Bílek agreed, while Stanislav Sucharda refused absent an autonomous Czech show in Vienna.In 1899, SVU Mánes began organizing traveling exhibitions in other towns of Bohemia and Moravia to increase public awareness.In 1900 SVU Mánes exhibited in Viennese Künstlerhaus.Also in 1900, SVU Mánes opened its third exhibition, showing sixty works in the Topič salon. KU Ministerium supported this show. It toured Brno and Vienna, getting more credit on its home soil as a competitor to Rudolfínum, but it brought new audiences and recognition in the international press. Among the exhibiting artists was Jan Preisler with his "The Wind and Breeze", František Bílek, who caused surprise and František Kupka. After this exhibition, Antonín Slavíček and Maxmilián Švabinský ("The Poor Country") were invited to Miethke gallery in Vienna and Švabinský became the most exportable Bohemian artist. For the first time, SVU Mánes’ exhibition had a designer in architect Jan Kotěra who focused on simplicity and purity with respect to painting, sculpture and prints. This differed from the over-crowdedness of Rudolfínum and the over-ornamentation of the Viennese Secession. Sculptures were not for decoration but they were installed as autonomous art works.In 1902, SVU Mánes exhibited in Hagenbund, which became its frequent host.After a visit to Paris Exposition of 1900, Alfons Mucha and Josef Mařatka invited sculptor Auguste Rodin to exhibit his works in Prague. This event took place in Manes’ new exhibiting building, the Mánes Pavilion in 1902, designed by Jan Kotěra. Kotěra took on an idea of Paradise with each sculpture displayed in its own space, not competing with the others, with floors covered with gravel and shrubs expanding the garden theme. This show utterly overshadowed Rudolfínum, making SVU Mánes the main exhibiting body in Bohemia. The exhibition also increased public interest in foreign art. Rodin influenced artists such as Sucharda, Ladislav Šaloun and Bohumil Kafka. This show had a political background of Czech intellectuals looking toward France, appealing to French republican artistic freedom. Rodin showed eighty sculptures and seventy drawings. His sculptures revealing intimate bodily details, sexuality and psychological expression, was new to Prague. He was taken as a genius by artists and critics, who appealed for Czech artists to follow his path by looking to themselves. This exhibition had a further impact on Austria and Germany. After Prague, Rodin took some of his pieces to Vienna. This show made Prague an international exhibiting city.Following Rodin’s exhibition, SVU Mánes presented a retrospective of contemporary French painting the Nabis who Czech artists knew since the 1890s from their Parisian visits for their freedom of form and deliberate experiments.Another exhibit presented works of Mikolaš Aleš, Hudeček and French graphic arts.The year's last exhibition was a visiting show in Kraków hosted by Sztuka. Among the 132 Czech artists who exhibited there, belonged František Bílek, Sucharda, Kafka, Šaloun, Joža Úprka, Maxmilián Švabinský, Alois Kalvoda, Antonín Slavíček, František Kupka and others.A similar exhibition opened in 1903 in the Mánes Pavilion, surveying Czech art production, followed by a retrospective of Josef Mánes. He was the only non-contemporary artist exhibited in SVU Mánes.An exhibition of Worpswede continued SVU Mánes’ interest in international art scene along with another show of Croatian contemporary art of Družstvo umjetnosti [Association of Art].Returning to the domestic art scene, SVU Mánes hosted a retrospective of Joža Úprka.SVU Mánes members had their first group show in their new building, followed by a group show of Antonín Slavíček, Bohumil Kafka, Josef Mařatka, Stanislav Sucharda and Ladislav Šaloun.SVU Mánes presented an exhibition of Edvard Munch.Following Munch show was another group exhibition and after that an exhibition of T. F. Simon.In the winter of 1905-06, SVU Mánes hosted Danish artists.1906 brought an exhibition of N. K. Roerich along with Francisco Goya and another member show.The following year Henri le Sidaner together with Louis Dejean exhibited. After that, French Impressionism occupied the Mánes Pavilion.Members and architects established Sdružení architektů Mánese [Association of Mánes’ Architects] that, a year later, began publishing its journal "Styl" [Style] concentrating on contemporary art and design.At the turn of 1907 and 1908, English etchings arrived to Prague under the SVU Mánes’ umbrella.Auguste Rodin together with Ludwig v. Hofmann exhibited in 1908, followed by SVU Mánes’ group show.Émile Bernard; E. A. Bourdelle; SVU Mánes’ group show came in 1909.In 1910 SVU Mánes’ presented a group show of sketches: Les Independents; Slavíček; Axel Gellen-Kellela; Munch; and Swedish Art.When SVU Mánes presented Edvard Munch, the audience was shocked. This artist had an immense impact on the future development of modern art in Bohemia. No other show divided Czech artists as much. The artist community fell into two hostile camps. In 1907, eight art students formed "Osma" [The Eight], finding SVU Mánes too provincial.F. X. Šalda was the only critic who agreed with the new group. The main two members of Osma were Bohumil Kubišta and Emil Filla. Kubišta responded with "Night of Love" in 1908 and Filla with "Reader of Dostoevsky" in 1907. Jan Preisler was the only SVU Mánes member who responded to Munch with his painting "Woman by a Lake", however after harsh criticism he abandoned this style. Criticism of Preisler’s work angered Osma even more.In 1912, SVU Mánes split, following the Cubist art scene in Paris: the Montmartre Cubism of Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, and Section d'Or Cubism led by Albert Gleizes and Jean Metzinger. Prague's key followers of Montmartre Cubism in Prague were artists Emil Filla and Otto Gutfreund, while the nucleus of the opposing camp was created around the Čapek brothers. Bohemian Cubists combined Cubism with Expressionism, some with Futurism, Orphism and Rayonism, while others concentrated on national or existential subject matters. The artists influenced by Montmartre Cubism established Skupina výtvarných umelců [Group of Artists]."Volné Směry" ("Free Currents") was a journal of SVU Mánes first published in 1896. At first the association oriented its journal mainly toward literature, another driving force behind the Czech secessionist movement. Association members competed in its pages. The journal worked as a "Gesamtkunstwerk" [total work of art]. The editors also included information about international and domestic art scene and art criticism.In 1902, installation designs began to appear. The journal competed mainly with Ver Sacrum of the Viennese Secession in content and form. At this point, its primary goal was promotion of Czech art along with introduction and commentary on the international art scene. Its funding came at first from members. The main editors were Vojtěch Preisler and Arnošt Hofbauer. "Volné směry" reached a wide public, with coverage better than its main competitor journal "Moderní revue" [Modern Review]. Other competing journals in Czech at the time were: "L’Art", "L'Art et industrie", "Gazette des Beaux-Arts", "Revue des Arts Decoratifs", "La Plume", "L’ Art et les artistes", "The Art Amateur", "Art Journal", "Art Pictorial & Industrial", "The Studio", "Formenschatz", "Dekorative Kunst", "Die Kunst", "Deutsche Kunst und Dekoration", "Kunst und Handwerk", "Skulpturenschatz", "Zeitschrift für Bildende Kunst" and "Die Graphischen Kunste". In 1897, in its second volume, a special issue was dedicated to regionalist painter Úprka.A year later, Kotěra published an essay to appeal to Czech citizens to think for themselves when looking at art and architecture. He stated that Czech art and architecture should be Czech, with Czech form, using local materials and technologies. Form should reflect modern times and should not mimic foreign art and architecture. Kotěra used a universal and pragmatic tone in his essay, without providing a definition of the Czech form. Open debates in "Volné směry" and other journals considered the planned destruction of Prague’s historical center.In 1899, a special issue was dedicated to symbolist sculptor František Bílek. In the same year, Kotěra became one of the main editors and a professor of University of Architecture and Applied Arts in Prague. He studied directly under Otto Wagner in Vienna. At the turn of the century, a special issue devoted to the Third SVU Mánes exhibition was produced for the first time for Viennese audiences. The Rodin show was accompanied by a special double-issue dedicated to the sculptor in 1901, a year before its opening. By 1903, the journal established a comfortable position financially with approximately 1800 subscribing readers.In 1902 Kotěra designed the Mánes Pavilion for the Rodin exhibition. It was supposed to be only a temporary building, erected in four weeks. The pavilion was functional and flexible. Lit from the top, it had movable walls and Karel Špillar adorned it with a patriotic Slavic wooden lintel and allegorical mosaic. Manes used it until 1914. Its location was near the city center, close to a space where Prague officials wanted to build a modern gallery. | [
"Adam Hoffmeister",
"Ivan Exner",
"Jiří T. Kotalík"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Mánes Union of Fine Arts in 11/10/1890? | October 11, 1890 | {
"text": [
"Mikoláš Aleš"
]
} | L2_Q2364172_P488_0 | Ivan Exner is the chair of Mánes Union of Fine Arts from Jan, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Jiří T. Kotalík is the chair of Mánes Union of Fine Arts from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009.
Adam Hoffmeister is the chair of Mánes Union of Fine Arts from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2015.
Mikoláš Aleš is the chair of Mánes Union of Fine Arts from Jan, 1887 to Jan, 1896. | Mánes Union of Fine ArtsThe Mánes Association of Fine Artists ( or S.V.U.; commonly abbreviated as "Manes") was an artists' association and exhibition society founded in 1887 in Prague and named after painter Josef Mánes.The Manes was significant for its international exhibitions before and after World War I that encouraged interaction between Czech artists and the foreign avant-garde. It played an important role in the development of Czech Cubism and Rondocubism. Between 1928 and 1930, Manes built a complex with a restaurant, club, showroom and offices at the site of the Štítkovský Mill and water tower on the Vltava. The architect of the 1928 Manes pavilion was member .The union was liquidated under the Communists and was revived after the Velvet Revolution in 1990. Its headquarters became the Diamond House in Prague, itself a landmark of cubist architecture."Svaz výtvarných umělců Mánes" ("Association of Fine Artists Mánes") was established in 1887 as a group of Bohemian artists in the Austrian-Hungarian Empire. Its forerunner was Škréta, spolek mladých českých výtvarníků v Mnichově ("Škréta, a Fellowship of Young Czech Artist in Munich"), an organization of Czech art students in Munich, an art center largely visited by Central and Eastern European art students. The name of this society came from seventeenth century Bohemian painter Karel Škréta. Formed in 1885 it became one of the largest communities of Czech students abroad. It had its own infrastructure and annual show. It had regular contact with the homeland and published a journal in two parts: "Paleta" & "Špachtle" ("Palette" and "Spatula"). This journal was circulated within the association only and all members had to contribute to it on weekly bases. Their focus was mainly on the German art scene. The group accepted other Slavic students as members.The Škréta Fellowship renamed itself to "Svaz výtvarných umělců Mánes" (abb. SVU Mánes), after painter J. Mánes, who lived and worked in the first half of the nineteenth century in Czech Lands and Germany, and who attended the Munich Art Academy. Many founding members of the "Škréta" moved to Prague in 1887 – probably due to reforms at the Prague Art Academy – and finished their studies there. The Škréta Fellowship continued until its members Alfons Mucha and Luděk Marold left Munich for Paris.Between 1885 and 1899 the focus was mainly on "Palette" and "Spatula." "Palette" was a journal of art and literature and "Spatula" was a satirical magazine. These first fourteen years were the most important for the future development of modern Czech art scene. SVU Mánes took under its wings painting, sculpture and architecture. This notion was reflected in their emblem of three shields representing each the three art forms. The goals of SVU Mánes were mainly based on an old idea of patriotism with allegorical paintings from the Czech history, but they soon moved to modern art and its influx in Bohemia. One of the main differences from neighboring groups such as Munich and Viennese Secession was in their constant fight against pan-Germanism. One difference from Polish group "Sztuka" was in SVU Mánes’ openness to the international art scene.SVU Mánes averaged some 300 members between 1887 and 1899. It was a large organization for the Prague environment and for a secessionist group. Its first elected president was painter and illustrator Mikoláš Aleš, a (Aleš illustrated Old Czech manuscripts and was proclaimed by the critics as naïve, but SVU Mánes supported him and presented him with a diploma). Aleš, twenty years older than the rest of the members, had strong leadership and organization skills. Along with a sculptor, principal patron and chief organizer of SVU Mánes, Stanislav Sucharda, they formed a strong lead. The editorial board was elected annually. The first most influential editors were painter Karel Vítězslav and painter and draughtsman Jan Preisler. Probably the most important role in SVU Mánes had , a journalist and an art critic.SVU Mánes rebelled against the old and rigid system of art exhibitions, art politics and pan-Germanism of art in Czech. Multiple events helped the patriotic SVU Mánes to achieve its success before their first exhibition in 1898.In 1897, SVU Mánes opened its first preliminary exhibition of competing posters. These were designed for its first exhibition the following year.SVU Mánes' first exhibition was 5 February to 5 March in 1898 in Topič salon (a commercial gallery in the center) in Prague. With this exhibition, SVU Mánes proclaimed its secession. Thirty participants among the eighty members with landscapes dominating the show. The installation was similar to that in Rudolfínum, but many fewer works were selected.On 3 November another exhibition was held in the same location, exhibiting fifty works from artists Joža Uprka, František Bílek, Zdenka Braunerová, Antonín Hudeček and Antonín Slavíček. With this exhibition, the members refused Rudolfínum as an exhibiting society, and stepped toward their own exhibiting building. This exhibition went up during the same time of preparation of the first exhibition of the Viennese Secession with which they had a competitive relationship. SVU Mánes show attracted members of Viennese society, who offered participation to Czech painters to exhibit in Vienna. František Bílek agreed, while Stanislav Sucharda refused absent an autonomous Czech show in Vienna.In 1899, SVU Mánes began organizing traveling exhibitions in other towns of Bohemia and Moravia to increase public awareness.In 1900 SVU Mánes exhibited in Viennese Künstlerhaus.Also in 1900, SVU Mánes opened its third exhibition, showing sixty works in the Topič salon. KU Ministerium supported this show. It toured Brno and Vienna, getting more credit on its home soil as a competitor to Rudolfínum, but it brought new audiences and recognition in the international press. Among the exhibiting artists was Jan Preisler with his "The Wind and Breeze", František Bílek, who caused surprise and František Kupka. After this exhibition, Antonín Slavíček and Maxmilián Švabinský ("The Poor Country") were invited to Miethke gallery in Vienna and Švabinský became the most exportable Bohemian artist. For the first time, SVU Mánes’ exhibition had a designer in architect Jan Kotěra who focused on simplicity and purity with respect to painting, sculpture and prints. This differed from the over-crowdedness of Rudolfínum and the over-ornamentation of the Viennese Secession. Sculptures were not for decoration but they were installed as autonomous art works.In 1902, SVU Mánes exhibited in Hagenbund, which became its frequent host.After a visit to Paris Exposition of 1900, Alfons Mucha and Josef Mařatka invited sculptor Auguste Rodin to exhibit his works in Prague. This event took place in Manes’ new exhibiting building, the Mánes Pavilion in 1902, designed by Jan Kotěra. Kotěra took on an idea of Paradise with each sculpture displayed in its own space, not competing with the others, with floors covered with gravel and shrubs expanding the garden theme. This show utterly overshadowed Rudolfínum, making SVU Mánes the main exhibiting body in Bohemia. The exhibition also increased public interest in foreign art. Rodin influenced artists such as Sucharda, Ladislav Šaloun and Bohumil Kafka. This show had a political background of Czech intellectuals looking toward France, appealing to French republican artistic freedom. Rodin showed eighty sculptures and seventy drawings. His sculptures revealing intimate bodily details, sexuality and psychological expression, was new to Prague. He was taken as a genius by artists and critics, who appealed for Czech artists to follow his path by looking to themselves. This exhibition had a further impact on Austria and Germany. After Prague, Rodin took some of his pieces to Vienna. This show made Prague an international exhibiting city.Following Rodin’s exhibition, SVU Mánes presented a retrospective of contemporary French painting the Nabis who Czech artists knew since the 1890s from their Parisian visits for their freedom of form and deliberate experiments.Another exhibit presented works of Mikolaš Aleš, Hudeček and French graphic arts.The year's last exhibition was a visiting show in Kraków hosted by Sztuka. Among the 132 Czech artists who exhibited there, belonged František Bílek, Sucharda, Kafka, Šaloun, Joža Úprka, Maxmilián Švabinský, Alois Kalvoda, Antonín Slavíček, František Kupka and others.A similar exhibition opened in 1903 in the Mánes Pavilion, surveying Czech art production, followed by a retrospective of Josef Mánes. He was the only non-contemporary artist exhibited in SVU Mánes.An exhibition of Worpswede continued SVU Mánes’ interest in international art scene along with another show of Croatian contemporary art of Družstvo umjetnosti [Association of Art].Returning to the domestic art scene, SVU Mánes hosted a retrospective of Joža Úprka.SVU Mánes members had their first group show in their new building, followed by a group show of Antonín Slavíček, Bohumil Kafka, Josef Mařatka, Stanislav Sucharda and Ladislav Šaloun.SVU Mánes presented an exhibition of Edvard Munch.Following Munch show was another group exhibition and after that an exhibition of T. F. Simon.In the winter of 1905-06, SVU Mánes hosted Danish artists.1906 brought an exhibition of N. K. Roerich along with Francisco Goya and another member show.The following year Henri le Sidaner together with Louis Dejean exhibited. After that, French Impressionism occupied the Mánes Pavilion.Members and architects established Sdružení architektů Mánese [Association of Mánes’ Architects] that, a year later, began publishing its journal "Styl" [Style] concentrating on contemporary art and design.At the turn of 1907 and 1908, English etchings arrived to Prague under the SVU Mánes’ umbrella.Auguste Rodin together with Ludwig v. Hofmann exhibited in 1908, followed by SVU Mánes’ group show.Émile Bernard; E. A. Bourdelle; SVU Mánes’ group show came in 1909.In 1910 SVU Mánes’ presented a group show of sketches: Les Independents; Slavíček; Axel Gellen-Kellela; Munch; and Swedish Art.When SVU Mánes presented Edvard Munch, the audience was shocked. This artist had an immense impact on the future development of modern art in Bohemia. No other show divided Czech artists as much. The artist community fell into two hostile camps. In 1907, eight art students formed "Osma" [The Eight], finding SVU Mánes too provincial.F. X. Šalda was the only critic who agreed with the new group. The main two members of Osma were Bohumil Kubišta and Emil Filla. Kubišta responded with "Night of Love" in 1908 and Filla with "Reader of Dostoevsky" in 1907. Jan Preisler was the only SVU Mánes member who responded to Munch with his painting "Woman by a Lake", however after harsh criticism he abandoned this style. Criticism of Preisler’s work angered Osma even more.In 1912, SVU Mánes split, following the Cubist art scene in Paris: the Montmartre Cubism of Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, and Section d'Or Cubism led by Albert Gleizes and Jean Metzinger. Prague's key followers of Montmartre Cubism in Prague were artists Emil Filla and Otto Gutfreund, while the nucleus of the opposing camp was created around the Čapek brothers. Bohemian Cubists combined Cubism with Expressionism, some with Futurism, Orphism and Rayonism, while others concentrated on national or existential subject matters. The artists influenced by Montmartre Cubism established Skupina výtvarných umelců [Group of Artists]."Volné Směry" ("Free Currents") was a journal of SVU Mánes first published in 1896. At first the association oriented its journal mainly toward literature, another driving force behind the Czech secessionist movement. Association members competed in its pages. The journal worked as a "Gesamtkunstwerk" [total work of art]. The editors also included information about international and domestic art scene and art criticism.In 1902, installation designs began to appear. The journal competed mainly with Ver Sacrum of the Viennese Secession in content and form. At this point, its primary goal was promotion of Czech art along with introduction and commentary on the international art scene. Its funding came at first from members. The main editors were Vojtěch Preisler and Arnošt Hofbauer. "Volné směry" reached a wide public, with coverage better than its main competitor journal "Moderní revue" [Modern Review]. Other competing journals in Czech at the time were: "L’Art", "L'Art et industrie", "Gazette des Beaux-Arts", "Revue des Arts Decoratifs", "La Plume", "L’ Art et les artistes", "The Art Amateur", "Art Journal", "Art Pictorial & Industrial", "The Studio", "Formenschatz", "Dekorative Kunst", "Die Kunst", "Deutsche Kunst und Dekoration", "Kunst und Handwerk", "Skulpturenschatz", "Zeitschrift für Bildende Kunst" and "Die Graphischen Kunste". In 1897, in its second volume, a special issue was dedicated to regionalist painter Úprka.A year later, Kotěra published an essay to appeal to Czech citizens to think for themselves when looking at art and architecture. He stated that Czech art and architecture should be Czech, with Czech form, using local materials and technologies. Form should reflect modern times and should not mimic foreign art and architecture. Kotěra used a universal and pragmatic tone in his essay, without providing a definition of the Czech form. Open debates in "Volné směry" and other journals considered the planned destruction of Prague’s historical center.In 1899, a special issue was dedicated to symbolist sculptor František Bílek. In the same year, Kotěra became one of the main editors and a professor of University of Architecture and Applied Arts in Prague. He studied directly under Otto Wagner in Vienna. At the turn of the century, a special issue devoted to the Third SVU Mánes exhibition was produced for the first time for Viennese audiences. The Rodin show was accompanied by a special double-issue dedicated to the sculptor in 1901, a year before its opening. By 1903, the journal established a comfortable position financially with approximately 1800 subscribing readers.In 1902 Kotěra designed the Mánes Pavilion for the Rodin exhibition. It was supposed to be only a temporary building, erected in four weeks. The pavilion was functional and flexible. Lit from the top, it had movable walls and Karel Špillar adorned it with a patriotic Slavic wooden lintel and allegorical mosaic. Manes used it until 1914. Its location was near the city center, close to a space where Prague officials wanted to build a modern gallery. | [
"Adam Hoffmeister",
"Ivan Exner",
"Jiří T. Kotalík"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Mánes Union of Fine Arts in Oct 11, 1890? | October 11, 1890 | {
"text": [
"Mikoláš Aleš"
]
} | L2_Q2364172_P488_0 | Ivan Exner is the chair of Mánes Union of Fine Arts from Jan, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Jiří T. Kotalík is the chair of Mánes Union of Fine Arts from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009.
Adam Hoffmeister is the chair of Mánes Union of Fine Arts from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2015.
Mikoláš Aleš is the chair of Mánes Union of Fine Arts from Jan, 1887 to Jan, 1896. | Mánes Union of Fine ArtsThe Mánes Association of Fine Artists ( or S.V.U.; commonly abbreviated as "Manes") was an artists' association and exhibition society founded in 1887 in Prague and named after painter Josef Mánes.The Manes was significant for its international exhibitions before and after World War I that encouraged interaction between Czech artists and the foreign avant-garde. It played an important role in the development of Czech Cubism and Rondocubism. Between 1928 and 1930, Manes built a complex with a restaurant, club, showroom and offices at the site of the Štítkovský Mill and water tower on the Vltava. The architect of the 1928 Manes pavilion was member .The union was liquidated under the Communists and was revived after the Velvet Revolution in 1990. Its headquarters became the Diamond House in Prague, itself a landmark of cubist architecture."Svaz výtvarných umělců Mánes" ("Association of Fine Artists Mánes") was established in 1887 as a group of Bohemian artists in the Austrian-Hungarian Empire. Its forerunner was Škréta, spolek mladých českých výtvarníků v Mnichově ("Škréta, a Fellowship of Young Czech Artist in Munich"), an organization of Czech art students in Munich, an art center largely visited by Central and Eastern European art students. The name of this society came from seventeenth century Bohemian painter Karel Škréta. Formed in 1885 it became one of the largest communities of Czech students abroad. It had its own infrastructure and annual show. It had regular contact with the homeland and published a journal in two parts: "Paleta" & "Špachtle" ("Palette" and "Spatula"). This journal was circulated within the association only and all members had to contribute to it on weekly bases. Their focus was mainly on the German art scene. The group accepted other Slavic students as members.The Škréta Fellowship renamed itself to "Svaz výtvarných umělců Mánes" (abb. SVU Mánes), after painter J. Mánes, who lived and worked in the first half of the nineteenth century in Czech Lands and Germany, and who attended the Munich Art Academy. Many founding members of the "Škréta" moved to Prague in 1887 – probably due to reforms at the Prague Art Academy – and finished their studies there. The Škréta Fellowship continued until its members Alfons Mucha and Luděk Marold left Munich for Paris.Between 1885 and 1899 the focus was mainly on "Palette" and "Spatula." "Palette" was a journal of art and literature and "Spatula" was a satirical magazine. These first fourteen years were the most important for the future development of modern Czech art scene. SVU Mánes took under its wings painting, sculpture and architecture. This notion was reflected in their emblem of three shields representing each the three art forms. The goals of SVU Mánes were mainly based on an old idea of patriotism with allegorical paintings from the Czech history, but they soon moved to modern art and its influx in Bohemia. One of the main differences from neighboring groups such as Munich and Viennese Secession was in their constant fight against pan-Germanism. One difference from Polish group "Sztuka" was in SVU Mánes’ openness to the international art scene.SVU Mánes averaged some 300 members between 1887 and 1899. It was a large organization for the Prague environment and for a secessionist group. Its first elected president was painter and illustrator Mikoláš Aleš, a (Aleš illustrated Old Czech manuscripts and was proclaimed by the critics as naïve, but SVU Mánes supported him and presented him with a diploma). Aleš, twenty years older than the rest of the members, had strong leadership and organization skills. Along with a sculptor, principal patron and chief organizer of SVU Mánes, Stanislav Sucharda, they formed a strong lead. The editorial board was elected annually. The first most influential editors were painter Karel Vítězslav and painter and draughtsman Jan Preisler. Probably the most important role in SVU Mánes had , a journalist and an art critic.SVU Mánes rebelled against the old and rigid system of art exhibitions, art politics and pan-Germanism of art in Czech. Multiple events helped the patriotic SVU Mánes to achieve its success before their first exhibition in 1898.In 1897, SVU Mánes opened its first preliminary exhibition of competing posters. These were designed for its first exhibition the following year.SVU Mánes' first exhibition was 5 February to 5 March in 1898 in Topič salon (a commercial gallery in the center) in Prague. With this exhibition, SVU Mánes proclaimed its secession. Thirty participants among the eighty members with landscapes dominating the show. The installation was similar to that in Rudolfínum, but many fewer works were selected.On 3 November another exhibition was held in the same location, exhibiting fifty works from artists Joža Uprka, František Bílek, Zdenka Braunerová, Antonín Hudeček and Antonín Slavíček. With this exhibition, the members refused Rudolfínum as an exhibiting society, and stepped toward their own exhibiting building. This exhibition went up during the same time of preparation of the first exhibition of the Viennese Secession with which they had a competitive relationship. SVU Mánes show attracted members of Viennese society, who offered participation to Czech painters to exhibit in Vienna. František Bílek agreed, while Stanislav Sucharda refused absent an autonomous Czech show in Vienna.In 1899, SVU Mánes began organizing traveling exhibitions in other towns of Bohemia and Moravia to increase public awareness.In 1900 SVU Mánes exhibited in Viennese Künstlerhaus.Also in 1900, SVU Mánes opened its third exhibition, showing sixty works in the Topič salon. KU Ministerium supported this show. It toured Brno and Vienna, getting more credit on its home soil as a competitor to Rudolfínum, but it brought new audiences and recognition in the international press. Among the exhibiting artists was Jan Preisler with his "The Wind and Breeze", František Bílek, who caused surprise and František Kupka. After this exhibition, Antonín Slavíček and Maxmilián Švabinský ("The Poor Country") were invited to Miethke gallery in Vienna and Švabinský became the most exportable Bohemian artist. For the first time, SVU Mánes’ exhibition had a designer in architect Jan Kotěra who focused on simplicity and purity with respect to painting, sculpture and prints. This differed from the over-crowdedness of Rudolfínum and the over-ornamentation of the Viennese Secession. Sculptures were not for decoration but they were installed as autonomous art works.In 1902, SVU Mánes exhibited in Hagenbund, which became its frequent host.After a visit to Paris Exposition of 1900, Alfons Mucha and Josef Mařatka invited sculptor Auguste Rodin to exhibit his works in Prague. This event took place in Manes’ new exhibiting building, the Mánes Pavilion in 1902, designed by Jan Kotěra. Kotěra took on an idea of Paradise with each sculpture displayed in its own space, not competing with the others, with floors covered with gravel and shrubs expanding the garden theme. This show utterly overshadowed Rudolfínum, making SVU Mánes the main exhibiting body in Bohemia. The exhibition also increased public interest in foreign art. Rodin influenced artists such as Sucharda, Ladislav Šaloun and Bohumil Kafka. This show had a political background of Czech intellectuals looking toward France, appealing to French republican artistic freedom. Rodin showed eighty sculptures and seventy drawings. His sculptures revealing intimate bodily details, sexuality and psychological expression, was new to Prague. He was taken as a genius by artists and critics, who appealed for Czech artists to follow his path by looking to themselves. This exhibition had a further impact on Austria and Germany. After Prague, Rodin took some of his pieces to Vienna. This show made Prague an international exhibiting city.Following Rodin’s exhibition, SVU Mánes presented a retrospective of contemporary French painting the Nabis who Czech artists knew since the 1890s from their Parisian visits for their freedom of form and deliberate experiments.Another exhibit presented works of Mikolaš Aleš, Hudeček and French graphic arts.The year's last exhibition was a visiting show in Kraków hosted by Sztuka. Among the 132 Czech artists who exhibited there, belonged František Bílek, Sucharda, Kafka, Šaloun, Joža Úprka, Maxmilián Švabinský, Alois Kalvoda, Antonín Slavíček, František Kupka and others.A similar exhibition opened in 1903 in the Mánes Pavilion, surveying Czech art production, followed by a retrospective of Josef Mánes. He was the only non-contemporary artist exhibited in SVU Mánes.An exhibition of Worpswede continued SVU Mánes’ interest in international art scene along with another show of Croatian contemporary art of Družstvo umjetnosti [Association of Art].Returning to the domestic art scene, SVU Mánes hosted a retrospective of Joža Úprka.SVU Mánes members had their first group show in their new building, followed by a group show of Antonín Slavíček, Bohumil Kafka, Josef Mařatka, Stanislav Sucharda and Ladislav Šaloun.SVU Mánes presented an exhibition of Edvard Munch.Following Munch show was another group exhibition and after that an exhibition of T. F. Simon.In the winter of 1905-06, SVU Mánes hosted Danish artists.1906 brought an exhibition of N. K. Roerich along with Francisco Goya and another member show.The following year Henri le Sidaner together with Louis Dejean exhibited. After that, French Impressionism occupied the Mánes Pavilion.Members and architects established Sdružení architektů Mánese [Association of Mánes’ Architects] that, a year later, began publishing its journal "Styl" [Style] concentrating on contemporary art and design.At the turn of 1907 and 1908, English etchings arrived to Prague under the SVU Mánes’ umbrella.Auguste Rodin together with Ludwig v. Hofmann exhibited in 1908, followed by SVU Mánes’ group show.Émile Bernard; E. A. Bourdelle; SVU Mánes’ group show came in 1909.In 1910 SVU Mánes’ presented a group show of sketches: Les Independents; Slavíček; Axel Gellen-Kellela; Munch; and Swedish Art.When SVU Mánes presented Edvard Munch, the audience was shocked. This artist had an immense impact on the future development of modern art in Bohemia. No other show divided Czech artists as much. The artist community fell into two hostile camps. In 1907, eight art students formed "Osma" [The Eight], finding SVU Mánes too provincial.F. X. Šalda was the only critic who agreed with the new group. The main two members of Osma were Bohumil Kubišta and Emil Filla. Kubišta responded with "Night of Love" in 1908 and Filla with "Reader of Dostoevsky" in 1907. Jan Preisler was the only SVU Mánes member who responded to Munch with his painting "Woman by a Lake", however after harsh criticism he abandoned this style. Criticism of Preisler’s work angered Osma even more.In 1912, SVU Mánes split, following the Cubist art scene in Paris: the Montmartre Cubism of Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, and Section d'Or Cubism led by Albert Gleizes and Jean Metzinger. Prague's key followers of Montmartre Cubism in Prague were artists Emil Filla and Otto Gutfreund, while the nucleus of the opposing camp was created around the Čapek brothers. Bohemian Cubists combined Cubism with Expressionism, some with Futurism, Orphism and Rayonism, while others concentrated on national or existential subject matters. The artists influenced by Montmartre Cubism established Skupina výtvarných umelců [Group of Artists]."Volné Směry" ("Free Currents") was a journal of SVU Mánes first published in 1896. At first the association oriented its journal mainly toward literature, another driving force behind the Czech secessionist movement. Association members competed in its pages. The journal worked as a "Gesamtkunstwerk" [total work of art]. The editors also included information about international and domestic art scene and art criticism.In 1902, installation designs began to appear. The journal competed mainly with Ver Sacrum of the Viennese Secession in content and form. At this point, its primary goal was promotion of Czech art along with introduction and commentary on the international art scene. Its funding came at first from members. The main editors were Vojtěch Preisler and Arnošt Hofbauer. "Volné směry" reached a wide public, with coverage better than its main competitor journal "Moderní revue" [Modern Review]. Other competing journals in Czech at the time were: "L’Art", "L'Art et industrie", "Gazette des Beaux-Arts", "Revue des Arts Decoratifs", "La Plume", "L’ Art et les artistes", "The Art Amateur", "Art Journal", "Art Pictorial & Industrial", "The Studio", "Formenschatz", "Dekorative Kunst", "Die Kunst", "Deutsche Kunst und Dekoration", "Kunst und Handwerk", "Skulpturenschatz", "Zeitschrift für Bildende Kunst" and "Die Graphischen Kunste". In 1897, in its second volume, a special issue was dedicated to regionalist painter Úprka.A year later, Kotěra published an essay to appeal to Czech citizens to think for themselves when looking at art and architecture. He stated that Czech art and architecture should be Czech, with Czech form, using local materials and technologies. Form should reflect modern times and should not mimic foreign art and architecture. Kotěra used a universal and pragmatic tone in his essay, without providing a definition of the Czech form. Open debates in "Volné směry" and other journals considered the planned destruction of Prague’s historical center.In 1899, a special issue was dedicated to symbolist sculptor František Bílek. In the same year, Kotěra became one of the main editors and a professor of University of Architecture and Applied Arts in Prague. He studied directly under Otto Wagner in Vienna. At the turn of the century, a special issue devoted to the Third SVU Mánes exhibition was produced for the first time for Viennese audiences. The Rodin show was accompanied by a special double-issue dedicated to the sculptor in 1901, a year before its opening. By 1903, the journal established a comfortable position financially with approximately 1800 subscribing readers.In 1902 Kotěra designed the Mánes Pavilion for the Rodin exhibition. It was supposed to be only a temporary building, erected in four weeks. The pavilion was functional and flexible. Lit from the top, it had movable walls and Karel Špillar adorned it with a patriotic Slavic wooden lintel and allegorical mosaic. Manes used it until 1914. Its location was near the city center, close to a space where Prague officials wanted to build a modern gallery. | [
"Adam Hoffmeister",
"Ivan Exner",
"Jiří T. Kotalík"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Mánes Union of Fine Arts in 10/11/1890? | October 11, 1890 | {
"text": [
"Mikoláš Aleš"
]
} | L2_Q2364172_P488_0 | Ivan Exner is the chair of Mánes Union of Fine Arts from Jan, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Jiří T. Kotalík is the chair of Mánes Union of Fine Arts from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009.
Adam Hoffmeister is the chair of Mánes Union of Fine Arts from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2015.
Mikoláš Aleš is the chair of Mánes Union of Fine Arts from Jan, 1887 to Jan, 1896. | Mánes Union of Fine ArtsThe Mánes Association of Fine Artists ( or S.V.U.; commonly abbreviated as "Manes") was an artists' association and exhibition society founded in 1887 in Prague and named after painter Josef Mánes.The Manes was significant for its international exhibitions before and after World War I that encouraged interaction between Czech artists and the foreign avant-garde. It played an important role in the development of Czech Cubism and Rondocubism. Between 1928 and 1930, Manes built a complex with a restaurant, club, showroom and offices at the site of the Štítkovský Mill and water tower on the Vltava. The architect of the 1928 Manes pavilion was member .The union was liquidated under the Communists and was revived after the Velvet Revolution in 1990. Its headquarters became the Diamond House in Prague, itself a landmark of cubist architecture."Svaz výtvarných umělců Mánes" ("Association of Fine Artists Mánes") was established in 1887 as a group of Bohemian artists in the Austrian-Hungarian Empire. Its forerunner was Škréta, spolek mladých českých výtvarníků v Mnichově ("Škréta, a Fellowship of Young Czech Artist in Munich"), an organization of Czech art students in Munich, an art center largely visited by Central and Eastern European art students. The name of this society came from seventeenth century Bohemian painter Karel Škréta. Formed in 1885 it became one of the largest communities of Czech students abroad. It had its own infrastructure and annual show. It had regular contact with the homeland and published a journal in two parts: "Paleta" & "Špachtle" ("Palette" and "Spatula"). This journal was circulated within the association only and all members had to contribute to it on weekly bases. Their focus was mainly on the German art scene. The group accepted other Slavic students as members.The Škréta Fellowship renamed itself to "Svaz výtvarných umělců Mánes" (abb. SVU Mánes), after painter J. Mánes, who lived and worked in the first half of the nineteenth century in Czech Lands and Germany, and who attended the Munich Art Academy. Many founding members of the "Škréta" moved to Prague in 1887 – probably due to reforms at the Prague Art Academy – and finished their studies there. The Škréta Fellowship continued until its members Alfons Mucha and Luděk Marold left Munich for Paris.Between 1885 and 1899 the focus was mainly on "Palette" and "Spatula." "Palette" was a journal of art and literature and "Spatula" was a satirical magazine. These first fourteen years were the most important for the future development of modern Czech art scene. SVU Mánes took under its wings painting, sculpture and architecture. This notion was reflected in their emblem of three shields representing each the three art forms. The goals of SVU Mánes were mainly based on an old idea of patriotism with allegorical paintings from the Czech history, but they soon moved to modern art and its influx in Bohemia. One of the main differences from neighboring groups such as Munich and Viennese Secession was in their constant fight against pan-Germanism. One difference from Polish group "Sztuka" was in SVU Mánes’ openness to the international art scene.SVU Mánes averaged some 300 members between 1887 and 1899. It was a large organization for the Prague environment and for a secessionist group. Its first elected president was painter and illustrator Mikoláš Aleš, a (Aleš illustrated Old Czech manuscripts and was proclaimed by the critics as naïve, but SVU Mánes supported him and presented him with a diploma). Aleš, twenty years older than the rest of the members, had strong leadership and organization skills. Along with a sculptor, principal patron and chief organizer of SVU Mánes, Stanislav Sucharda, they formed a strong lead. The editorial board was elected annually. The first most influential editors were painter Karel Vítězslav and painter and draughtsman Jan Preisler. Probably the most important role in SVU Mánes had , a journalist and an art critic.SVU Mánes rebelled against the old and rigid system of art exhibitions, art politics and pan-Germanism of art in Czech. Multiple events helped the patriotic SVU Mánes to achieve its success before their first exhibition in 1898.In 1897, SVU Mánes opened its first preliminary exhibition of competing posters. These were designed for its first exhibition the following year.SVU Mánes' first exhibition was 5 February to 5 March in 1898 in Topič salon (a commercial gallery in the center) in Prague. With this exhibition, SVU Mánes proclaimed its secession. Thirty participants among the eighty members with landscapes dominating the show. The installation was similar to that in Rudolfínum, but many fewer works were selected.On 3 November another exhibition was held in the same location, exhibiting fifty works from artists Joža Uprka, František Bílek, Zdenka Braunerová, Antonín Hudeček and Antonín Slavíček. With this exhibition, the members refused Rudolfínum as an exhibiting society, and stepped toward their own exhibiting building. This exhibition went up during the same time of preparation of the first exhibition of the Viennese Secession with which they had a competitive relationship. SVU Mánes show attracted members of Viennese society, who offered participation to Czech painters to exhibit in Vienna. František Bílek agreed, while Stanislav Sucharda refused absent an autonomous Czech show in Vienna.In 1899, SVU Mánes began organizing traveling exhibitions in other towns of Bohemia and Moravia to increase public awareness.In 1900 SVU Mánes exhibited in Viennese Künstlerhaus.Also in 1900, SVU Mánes opened its third exhibition, showing sixty works in the Topič salon. KU Ministerium supported this show. It toured Brno and Vienna, getting more credit on its home soil as a competitor to Rudolfínum, but it brought new audiences and recognition in the international press. Among the exhibiting artists was Jan Preisler with his "The Wind and Breeze", František Bílek, who caused surprise and František Kupka. After this exhibition, Antonín Slavíček and Maxmilián Švabinský ("The Poor Country") were invited to Miethke gallery in Vienna and Švabinský became the most exportable Bohemian artist. For the first time, SVU Mánes’ exhibition had a designer in architect Jan Kotěra who focused on simplicity and purity with respect to painting, sculpture and prints. This differed from the over-crowdedness of Rudolfínum and the over-ornamentation of the Viennese Secession. Sculptures were not for decoration but they were installed as autonomous art works.In 1902, SVU Mánes exhibited in Hagenbund, which became its frequent host.After a visit to Paris Exposition of 1900, Alfons Mucha and Josef Mařatka invited sculptor Auguste Rodin to exhibit his works in Prague. This event took place in Manes’ new exhibiting building, the Mánes Pavilion in 1902, designed by Jan Kotěra. Kotěra took on an idea of Paradise with each sculpture displayed in its own space, not competing with the others, with floors covered with gravel and shrubs expanding the garden theme. This show utterly overshadowed Rudolfínum, making SVU Mánes the main exhibiting body in Bohemia. The exhibition also increased public interest in foreign art. Rodin influenced artists such as Sucharda, Ladislav Šaloun and Bohumil Kafka. This show had a political background of Czech intellectuals looking toward France, appealing to French republican artistic freedom. Rodin showed eighty sculptures and seventy drawings. His sculptures revealing intimate bodily details, sexuality and psychological expression, was new to Prague. He was taken as a genius by artists and critics, who appealed for Czech artists to follow his path by looking to themselves. This exhibition had a further impact on Austria and Germany. After Prague, Rodin took some of his pieces to Vienna. This show made Prague an international exhibiting city.Following Rodin’s exhibition, SVU Mánes presented a retrospective of contemporary French painting the Nabis who Czech artists knew since the 1890s from their Parisian visits for their freedom of form and deliberate experiments.Another exhibit presented works of Mikolaš Aleš, Hudeček and French graphic arts.The year's last exhibition was a visiting show in Kraków hosted by Sztuka. Among the 132 Czech artists who exhibited there, belonged František Bílek, Sucharda, Kafka, Šaloun, Joža Úprka, Maxmilián Švabinský, Alois Kalvoda, Antonín Slavíček, František Kupka and others.A similar exhibition opened in 1903 in the Mánes Pavilion, surveying Czech art production, followed by a retrospective of Josef Mánes. He was the only non-contemporary artist exhibited in SVU Mánes.An exhibition of Worpswede continued SVU Mánes’ interest in international art scene along with another show of Croatian contemporary art of Družstvo umjetnosti [Association of Art].Returning to the domestic art scene, SVU Mánes hosted a retrospective of Joža Úprka.SVU Mánes members had their first group show in their new building, followed by a group show of Antonín Slavíček, Bohumil Kafka, Josef Mařatka, Stanislav Sucharda and Ladislav Šaloun.SVU Mánes presented an exhibition of Edvard Munch.Following Munch show was another group exhibition and after that an exhibition of T. F. Simon.In the winter of 1905-06, SVU Mánes hosted Danish artists.1906 brought an exhibition of N. K. Roerich along with Francisco Goya and another member show.The following year Henri le Sidaner together with Louis Dejean exhibited. After that, French Impressionism occupied the Mánes Pavilion.Members and architects established Sdružení architektů Mánese [Association of Mánes’ Architects] that, a year later, began publishing its journal "Styl" [Style] concentrating on contemporary art and design.At the turn of 1907 and 1908, English etchings arrived to Prague under the SVU Mánes’ umbrella.Auguste Rodin together with Ludwig v. Hofmann exhibited in 1908, followed by SVU Mánes’ group show.Émile Bernard; E. A. Bourdelle; SVU Mánes’ group show came in 1909.In 1910 SVU Mánes’ presented a group show of sketches: Les Independents; Slavíček; Axel Gellen-Kellela; Munch; and Swedish Art.When SVU Mánes presented Edvard Munch, the audience was shocked. This artist had an immense impact on the future development of modern art in Bohemia. No other show divided Czech artists as much. The artist community fell into two hostile camps. In 1907, eight art students formed "Osma" [The Eight], finding SVU Mánes too provincial.F. X. Šalda was the only critic who agreed with the new group. The main two members of Osma were Bohumil Kubišta and Emil Filla. Kubišta responded with "Night of Love" in 1908 and Filla with "Reader of Dostoevsky" in 1907. Jan Preisler was the only SVU Mánes member who responded to Munch with his painting "Woman by a Lake", however after harsh criticism he abandoned this style. Criticism of Preisler’s work angered Osma even more.In 1912, SVU Mánes split, following the Cubist art scene in Paris: the Montmartre Cubism of Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, and Section d'Or Cubism led by Albert Gleizes and Jean Metzinger. Prague's key followers of Montmartre Cubism in Prague were artists Emil Filla and Otto Gutfreund, while the nucleus of the opposing camp was created around the Čapek brothers. Bohemian Cubists combined Cubism with Expressionism, some with Futurism, Orphism and Rayonism, while others concentrated on national or existential subject matters. The artists influenced by Montmartre Cubism established Skupina výtvarných umelců [Group of Artists]."Volné Směry" ("Free Currents") was a journal of SVU Mánes first published in 1896. At first the association oriented its journal mainly toward literature, another driving force behind the Czech secessionist movement. Association members competed in its pages. The journal worked as a "Gesamtkunstwerk" [total work of art]. The editors also included information about international and domestic art scene and art criticism.In 1902, installation designs began to appear. The journal competed mainly with Ver Sacrum of the Viennese Secession in content and form. At this point, its primary goal was promotion of Czech art along with introduction and commentary on the international art scene. Its funding came at first from members. The main editors were Vojtěch Preisler and Arnošt Hofbauer. "Volné směry" reached a wide public, with coverage better than its main competitor journal "Moderní revue" [Modern Review]. Other competing journals in Czech at the time were: "L’Art", "L'Art et industrie", "Gazette des Beaux-Arts", "Revue des Arts Decoratifs", "La Plume", "L’ Art et les artistes", "The Art Amateur", "Art Journal", "Art Pictorial & Industrial", "The Studio", "Formenschatz", "Dekorative Kunst", "Die Kunst", "Deutsche Kunst und Dekoration", "Kunst und Handwerk", "Skulpturenschatz", "Zeitschrift für Bildende Kunst" and "Die Graphischen Kunste". In 1897, in its second volume, a special issue was dedicated to regionalist painter Úprka.A year later, Kotěra published an essay to appeal to Czech citizens to think for themselves when looking at art and architecture. He stated that Czech art and architecture should be Czech, with Czech form, using local materials and technologies. Form should reflect modern times and should not mimic foreign art and architecture. Kotěra used a universal and pragmatic tone in his essay, without providing a definition of the Czech form. Open debates in "Volné směry" and other journals considered the planned destruction of Prague’s historical center.In 1899, a special issue was dedicated to symbolist sculptor František Bílek. In the same year, Kotěra became one of the main editors and a professor of University of Architecture and Applied Arts in Prague. He studied directly under Otto Wagner in Vienna. At the turn of the century, a special issue devoted to the Third SVU Mánes exhibition was produced for the first time for Viennese audiences. The Rodin show was accompanied by a special double-issue dedicated to the sculptor in 1901, a year before its opening. By 1903, the journal established a comfortable position financially with approximately 1800 subscribing readers.In 1902 Kotěra designed the Mánes Pavilion for the Rodin exhibition. It was supposed to be only a temporary building, erected in four weeks. The pavilion was functional and flexible. Lit from the top, it had movable walls and Karel Špillar adorned it with a patriotic Slavic wooden lintel and allegorical mosaic. Manes used it until 1914. Its location was near the city center, close to a space where Prague officials wanted to build a modern gallery. | [
"Adam Hoffmeister",
"Ivan Exner",
"Jiří T. Kotalík"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Mánes Union of Fine Arts in 11-Oct-189011-October-1890? | October 11, 1890 | {
"text": [
"Mikoláš Aleš"
]
} | L2_Q2364172_P488_0 | Ivan Exner is the chair of Mánes Union of Fine Arts from Jan, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Jiří T. Kotalík is the chair of Mánes Union of Fine Arts from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009.
Adam Hoffmeister is the chair of Mánes Union of Fine Arts from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2015.
Mikoláš Aleš is the chair of Mánes Union of Fine Arts from Jan, 1887 to Jan, 1896. | Mánes Union of Fine ArtsThe Mánes Association of Fine Artists ( or S.V.U.; commonly abbreviated as "Manes") was an artists' association and exhibition society founded in 1887 in Prague and named after painter Josef Mánes.The Manes was significant for its international exhibitions before and after World War I that encouraged interaction between Czech artists and the foreign avant-garde. It played an important role in the development of Czech Cubism and Rondocubism. Between 1928 and 1930, Manes built a complex with a restaurant, club, showroom and offices at the site of the Štítkovský Mill and water tower on the Vltava. The architect of the 1928 Manes pavilion was member .The union was liquidated under the Communists and was revived after the Velvet Revolution in 1990. Its headquarters became the Diamond House in Prague, itself a landmark of cubist architecture."Svaz výtvarných umělců Mánes" ("Association of Fine Artists Mánes") was established in 1887 as a group of Bohemian artists in the Austrian-Hungarian Empire. Its forerunner was Škréta, spolek mladých českých výtvarníků v Mnichově ("Škréta, a Fellowship of Young Czech Artist in Munich"), an organization of Czech art students in Munich, an art center largely visited by Central and Eastern European art students. The name of this society came from seventeenth century Bohemian painter Karel Škréta. Formed in 1885 it became one of the largest communities of Czech students abroad. It had its own infrastructure and annual show. It had regular contact with the homeland and published a journal in two parts: "Paleta" & "Špachtle" ("Palette" and "Spatula"). This journal was circulated within the association only and all members had to contribute to it on weekly bases. Their focus was mainly on the German art scene. The group accepted other Slavic students as members.The Škréta Fellowship renamed itself to "Svaz výtvarných umělců Mánes" (abb. SVU Mánes), after painter J. Mánes, who lived and worked in the first half of the nineteenth century in Czech Lands and Germany, and who attended the Munich Art Academy. Many founding members of the "Škréta" moved to Prague in 1887 – probably due to reforms at the Prague Art Academy – and finished their studies there. The Škréta Fellowship continued until its members Alfons Mucha and Luděk Marold left Munich for Paris.Between 1885 and 1899 the focus was mainly on "Palette" and "Spatula." "Palette" was a journal of art and literature and "Spatula" was a satirical magazine. These first fourteen years were the most important for the future development of modern Czech art scene. SVU Mánes took under its wings painting, sculpture and architecture. This notion was reflected in their emblem of three shields representing each the three art forms. The goals of SVU Mánes were mainly based on an old idea of patriotism with allegorical paintings from the Czech history, but they soon moved to modern art and its influx in Bohemia. One of the main differences from neighboring groups such as Munich and Viennese Secession was in their constant fight against pan-Germanism. One difference from Polish group "Sztuka" was in SVU Mánes’ openness to the international art scene.SVU Mánes averaged some 300 members between 1887 and 1899. It was a large organization for the Prague environment and for a secessionist group. Its first elected president was painter and illustrator Mikoláš Aleš, a (Aleš illustrated Old Czech manuscripts and was proclaimed by the critics as naïve, but SVU Mánes supported him and presented him with a diploma). Aleš, twenty years older than the rest of the members, had strong leadership and organization skills. Along with a sculptor, principal patron and chief organizer of SVU Mánes, Stanislav Sucharda, they formed a strong lead. The editorial board was elected annually. The first most influential editors were painter Karel Vítězslav and painter and draughtsman Jan Preisler. Probably the most important role in SVU Mánes had , a journalist and an art critic.SVU Mánes rebelled against the old and rigid system of art exhibitions, art politics and pan-Germanism of art in Czech. Multiple events helped the patriotic SVU Mánes to achieve its success before their first exhibition in 1898.In 1897, SVU Mánes opened its first preliminary exhibition of competing posters. These were designed for its first exhibition the following year.SVU Mánes' first exhibition was 5 February to 5 March in 1898 in Topič salon (a commercial gallery in the center) in Prague. With this exhibition, SVU Mánes proclaimed its secession. Thirty participants among the eighty members with landscapes dominating the show. The installation was similar to that in Rudolfínum, but many fewer works were selected.On 3 November another exhibition was held in the same location, exhibiting fifty works from artists Joža Uprka, František Bílek, Zdenka Braunerová, Antonín Hudeček and Antonín Slavíček. With this exhibition, the members refused Rudolfínum as an exhibiting society, and stepped toward their own exhibiting building. This exhibition went up during the same time of preparation of the first exhibition of the Viennese Secession with which they had a competitive relationship. SVU Mánes show attracted members of Viennese society, who offered participation to Czech painters to exhibit in Vienna. František Bílek agreed, while Stanislav Sucharda refused absent an autonomous Czech show in Vienna.In 1899, SVU Mánes began organizing traveling exhibitions in other towns of Bohemia and Moravia to increase public awareness.In 1900 SVU Mánes exhibited in Viennese Künstlerhaus.Also in 1900, SVU Mánes opened its third exhibition, showing sixty works in the Topič salon. KU Ministerium supported this show. It toured Brno and Vienna, getting more credit on its home soil as a competitor to Rudolfínum, but it brought new audiences and recognition in the international press. Among the exhibiting artists was Jan Preisler with his "The Wind and Breeze", František Bílek, who caused surprise and František Kupka. After this exhibition, Antonín Slavíček and Maxmilián Švabinský ("The Poor Country") were invited to Miethke gallery in Vienna and Švabinský became the most exportable Bohemian artist. For the first time, SVU Mánes’ exhibition had a designer in architect Jan Kotěra who focused on simplicity and purity with respect to painting, sculpture and prints. This differed from the over-crowdedness of Rudolfínum and the over-ornamentation of the Viennese Secession. Sculptures were not for decoration but they were installed as autonomous art works.In 1902, SVU Mánes exhibited in Hagenbund, which became its frequent host.After a visit to Paris Exposition of 1900, Alfons Mucha and Josef Mařatka invited sculptor Auguste Rodin to exhibit his works in Prague. This event took place in Manes’ new exhibiting building, the Mánes Pavilion in 1902, designed by Jan Kotěra. Kotěra took on an idea of Paradise with each sculpture displayed in its own space, not competing with the others, with floors covered with gravel and shrubs expanding the garden theme. This show utterly overshadowed Rudolfínum, making SVU Mánes the main exhibiting body in Bohemia. The exhibition also increased public interest in foreign art. Rodin influenced artists such as Sucharda, Ladislav Šaloun and Bohumil Kafka. This show had a political background of Czech intellectuals looking toward France, appealing to French republican artistic freedom. Rodin showed eighty sculptures and seventy drawings. His sculptures revealing intimate bodily details, sexuality and psychological expression, was new to Prague. He was taken as a genius by artists and critics, who appealed for Czech artists to follow his path by looking to themselves. This exhibition had a further impact on Austria and Germany. After Prague, Rodin took some of his pieces to Vienna. This show made Prague an international exhibiting city.Following Rodin’s exhibition, SVU Mánes presented a retrospective of contemporary French painting the Nabis who Czech artists knew since the 1890s from their Parisian visits for their freedom of form and deliberate experiments.Another exhibit presented works of Mikolaš Aleš, Hudeček and French graphic arts.The year's last exhibition was a visiting show in Kraków hosted by Sztuka. Among the 132 Czech artists who exhibited there, belonged František Bílek, Sucharda, Kafka, Šaloun, Joža Úprka, Maxmilián Švabinský, Alois Kalvoda, Antonín Slavíček, František Kupka and others.A similar exhibition opened in 1903 in the Mánes Pavilion, surveying Czech art production, followed by a retrospective of Josef Mánes. He was the only non-contemporary artist exhibited in SVU Mánes.An exhibition of Worpswede continued SVU Mánes’ interest in international art scene along with another show of Croatian contemporary art of Družstvo umjetnosti [Association of Art].Returning to the domestic art scene, SVU Mánes hosted a retrospective of Joža Úprka.SVU Mánes members had their first group show in their new building, followed by a group show of Antonín Slavíček, Bohumil Kafka, Josef Mařatka, Stanislav Sucharda and Ladislav Šaloun.SVU Mánes presented an exhibition of Edvard Munch.Following Munch show was another group exhibition and after that an exhibition of T. F. Simon.In the winter of 1905-06, SVU Mánes hosted Danish artists.1906 brought an exhibition of N. K. Roerich along with Francisco Goya and another member show.The following year Henri le Sidaner together with Louis Dejean exhibited. After that, French Impressionism occupied the Mánes Pavilion.Members and architects established Sdružení architektů Mánese [Association of Mánes’ Architects] that, a year later, began publishing its journal "Styl" [Style] concentrating on contemporary art and design.At the turn of 1907 and 1908, English etchings arrived to Prague under the SVU Mánes’ umbrella.Auguste Rodin together with Ludwig v. Hofmann exhibited in 1908, followed by SVU Mánes’ group show.Émile Bernard; E. A. Bourdelle; SVU Mánes’ group show came in 1909.In 1910 SVU Mánes’ presented a group show of sketches: Les Independents; Slavíček; Axel Gellen-Kellela; Munch; and Swedish Art.When SVU Mánes presented Edvard Munch, the audience was shocked. This artist had an immense impact on the future development of modern art in Bohemia. No other show divided Czech artists as much. The artist community fell into two hostile camps. In 1907, eight art students formed "Osma" [The Eight], finding SVU Mánes too provincial.F. X. Šalda was the only critic who agreed with the new group. The main two members of Osma were Bohumil Kubišta and Emil Filla. Kubišta responded with "Night of Love" in 1908 and Filla with "Reader of Dostoevsky" in 1907. Jan Preisler was the only SVU Mánes member who responded to Munch with his painting "Woman by a Lake", however after harsh criticism he abandoned this style. Criticism of Preisler’s work angered Osma even more.In 1912, SVU Mánes split, following the Cubist art scene in Paris: the Montmartre Cubism of Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, and Section d'Or Cubism led by Albert Gleizes and Jean Metzinger. Prague's key followers of Montmartre Cubism in Prague were artists Emil Filla and Otto Gutfreund, while the nucleus of the opposing camp was created around the Čapek brothers. Bohemian Cubists combined Cubism with Expressionism, some with Futurism, Orphism and Rayonism, while others concentrated on national or existential subject matters. The artists influenced by Montmartre Cubism established Skupina výtvarných umelců [Group of Artists]."Volné Směry" ("Free Currents") was a journal of SVU Mánes first published in 1896. At first the association oriented its journal mainly toward literature, another driving force behind the Czech secessionist movement. Association members competed in its pages. The journal worked as a "Gesamtkunstwerk" [total work of art]. The editors also included information about international and domestic art scene and art criticism.In 1902, installation designs began to appear. The journal competed mainly with Ver Sacrum of the Viennese Secession in content and form. At this point, its primary goal was promotion of Czech art along with introduction and commentary on the international art scene. Its funding came at first from members. The main editors were Vojtěch Preisler and Arnošt Hofbauer. "Volné směry" reached a wide public, with coverage better than its main competitor journal "Moderní revue" [Modern Review]. Other competing journals in Czech at the time were: "L’Art", "L'Art et industrie", "Gazette des Beaux-Arts", "Revue des Arts Decoratifs", "La Plume", "L’ Art et les artistes", "The Art Amateur", "Art Journal", "Art Pictorial & Industrial", "The Studio", "Formenschatz", "Dekorative Kunst", "Die Kunst", "Deutsche Kunst und Dekoration", "Kunst und Handwerk", "Skulpturenschatz", "Zeitschrift für Bildende Kunst" and "Die Graphischen Kunste". In 1897, in its second volume, a special issue was dedicated to regionalist painter Úprka.A year later, Kotěra published an essay to appeal to Czech citizens to think for themselves when looking at art and architecture. He stated that Czech art and architecture should be Czech, with Czech form, using local materials and technologies. Form should reflect modern times and should not mimic foreign art and architecture. Kotěra used a universal and pragmatic tone in his essay, without providing a definition of the Czech form. Open debates in "Volné směry" and other journals considered the planned destruction of Prague’s historical center.In 1899, a special issue was dedicated to symbolist sculptor František Bílek. In the same year, Kotěra became one of the main editors and a professor of University of Architecture and Applied Arts in Prague. He studied directly under Otto Wagner in Vienna. At the turn of the century, a special issue devoted to the Third SVU Mánes exhibition was produced for the first time for Viennese audiences. The Rodin show was accompanied by a special double-issue dedicated to the sculptor in 1901, a year before its opening. By 1903, the journal established a comfortable position financially with approximately 1800 subscribing readers.In 1902 Kotěra designed the Mánes Pavilion for the Rodin exhibition. It was supposed to be only a temporary building, erected in four weeks. The pavilion was functional and flexible. Lit from the top, it had movable walls and Karel Špillar adorned it with a patriotic Slavic wooden lintel and allegorical mosaic. Manes used it until 1914. Its location was near the city center, close to a space where Prague officials wanted to build a modern gallery. | [
"Adam Hoffmeister",
"Ivan Exner",
"Jiří T. Kotalík"
] |
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