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Hops
Cultivation and harvest & Migrant labor and social impact
of burlap are laid into the hop press at right angles, the hops are poured in and compressed into bales. Hop cones contain different oils, such as lupulin, a yellowish, waxy substance, an oleoresin, that imparts flavour and aroma to beer. Lupulin contains lupulone and humulone, which possess antibiotic properties, suppressing bacterial growth favoring brewer's yeast to grow. After lupulin has been extracted in the brewing process the papery cones are discarded. Migrant labor and social impact The need for massed labor at harvest time meant hop-growing had a big social impact. Around the world, the labor-intensive harvesting work involved large
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Hops
Migrant labor and social impact
numbers of migrant workers who would travel for the annual hop harvest. Whole families would participate and live in hoppers' huts, with even the smallest children helping in the fields. The final chapters of W. Somerset Maugham's Of Human Bondage and a large part of George Orwell's A Clergyman's Daughter contain a vivid description of London families participating in this annual hops harvest. In England, many of those picking hops in Kent were from eastern areas of London. This provided a break from urban conditions that was spent in the countryside. People also came from Birmingham and other Midlands cities
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Hops
Migrant labor and social impact
to pick hops in the Malvern area of Worcestershire. Some photographs have been preserved. Particularly in Kent, because of a shortage of small-denomination coin of the realm, many growers issued their own currency to those doing the labor. In some cases, the coins issued were adorned with fanciful hops images, making them quite beautiful. In the US, Prohibition had a major impact on hops productions, but remnants of this significant industry in West and Northwest US are still noticeable in the form of old hop kilns that survive throughout Sonoma County, among others. Florian Dauenhauer, of Santa Rosa in Sonoma County, became
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160,847
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Hops
Migrant labor and social impact & Chemical composition & Alpha acids
a manufacturer of hop-harvesting machines in 1940, in part because of the hop industry's importance to the county. This mechanization helped destroy the local industry by enabling large-scale mechanized production, which moved to larger farms in other areas. Dauenhauer Manufacturing remains a current producer of hop harvesting machines. Chemical composition In addition to water, cellulose, and various proteins, the chemical composition of hops consists of compounds important for imparting character to beer. Alpha acids Probably the most important chemical compound within hops are the alpha acids or humulones. During wort boiling, the humulones are thermally isomerized into iso-alpha acids or
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Hops
Alpha acids & Beta acids & Essential oils & Flavonoids
isohumulones, which are responsible for the bitter taste of beer. Beta acids Hops contain beta acids or lupulones. These are desirable for their aroma contributions to beer. Essential oils The main components of hops essential oils are terpene hydrocarbons consisting of myrcene, humulene and caryophyllene. Myrcene is responsible for the pungent smell of fresh hops. Humulene and its oxidative reaction products may give beer its prominent hop aroma. Together, myrcene, humulene, and caryophyllene represent 80 to 90% of the total hops essential oil. Flavonoids Xanthohumol is the principal flavonoid in hops. The other well-studied prenylflavonoids are 8-prenylnaringenin and isoxanthohumol. Xanthohumol
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Hops
Flavonoids & Brewing
is under basic research for its potential properties, while 8-prenylnaringenin is a potent phytoestrogen. Brewing Hops are usually dried in an oast house before they are used in the brewing process. Undried or "wet" hops are sometimes (since ca.1990) used. The wort (sugar-rich liquid produced from malt) is boiled with hops before it is cooled down and yeast is added, to start fermentation. The effect of hops on the finished beer varies by type and use, though there are two main hop types: bittering and aroma. Bittering hops have higher concentrations of alpha acids, and are responsible for the large majority of
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Hops
Brewing
the bitter flavour of a beer. European (so-called "noble") hops typically average 5–9% alpha acids by weight (AABW), and the newer American cultivars typically range from 8–19% AABW. Aroma hops usually have a lower concentration of alpha acids (~5%) and are the primary contributors of hop aroma and (nonbitter) flavour. Bittering hops are boiled for a longer period of time, typically 60–90 minutes, to maximize the isomerization of the alpha acids. They often have inferior aromatic properties, as the aromatic compounds evaporate during the boil. The degree of bitterness imparted by hops depends on the degree to which alpha acids are
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Hops
Brewing
isomerized during the boil, and the impact of a given amount of hops is specified in International Bitterness Units. Unboiled hops are only mildly bitter. On the other hand, the nonbitter flavour and aroma of hops come from the essential oils, which evaporate during the boil. Aroma hops are typically added to the wort later to prevent the evaporation of the essential oils, to impart "hop taste" (if during the final 30 minutes of boil) or "hop aroma" (if during the final 10 minutes, or less, of boil). Aroma hops are often added after the wort has cooled and while the
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160,847
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Hops
Brewing
beer ferments, a technique known as "dry hopping", which contributes to the hop aroma. Farnesene is a major component in some hops. The composition of hop essential oils can differ between varieties and between years in the same variety, having a significant influence on flavour and aroma. Today, a substantial amount of "dual-use" hops are used, as well. These have high concentrations of alpha acids and good aromatic properties. These can be added to the boil at any time, depending on the desired effect. Hop acids also contribute to and stabilize the foam qualities of beer. Flavours and aromas are described appreciatively
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Hops
Brewing
using terms which include "grassy", "floral", "citrus", "spicy", "piney", "lemony", "grapefruit", and "earthy". Many pale lagers have fairly low hop influence, while lagers marketed as Pilsener or brewed in the Czech Republic may have noticeable noble hop aroma. Certain ales (particularly the highly hopped style known as India Pale Ale, or IPA) can have high levels of hop bitterness. Brewers may use software tools to control the bittering levels in the boil and adjust recipes to account for a change in the hop bill or seasonal variations in the crop that may lead to the need to compensate for a difference in
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Hops
Brewing & Breeding programmes
alpha acid contribution. Data may be shared with other brewers via BeerXML allowing the reproduction of a recipe allowing for differences in hop availability. Breeding programmes There are many different varieties of hops used in brewing today. Historically, hops varieties were identified by geography (such as Hallertau, Spalt, and Tettnang from Germany), by the farmer who is recognized as first cultivating them (such as Goldings or Fuggles from England), or by their growing habit (e.g., Oregon Cluster). Around 1900, a number of institutions began to experiment with breeding specific hop varieties. The breeding program at Wye College in Wye, Kent was
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Hops
Breeding programmes
started in 1904 and rose to prominence through the work of Prof. E. S. Salmon. Salmon released Brewer's Gold and Brewer's Favorite for commercial cultivation in 1934, and went on to release more than two dozen new cultivars before his death in 1959. Brewer's Gold has become the ancestor of the bulk of new hop releases around the world since its release. Wye College continued its breeding program and again received attention in the 1970s, when Dr. Ray A. Neve released Wye Target, Wye Challenger, Wye Northdown, Wye Saxon and Wye Yeoman. More recently, Wye College and its successor institution Wye
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160,847
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Hops
Breeding programmes
Hops Ltd., have focused on breeding the first dwarf hop varieties, which are easier to pick by machine and far more economical to grow. Wye College have also been responsible for breeding hop varieties that will grow with only 12 hours of daily light for the South African hop farmers. Wye College was closed in 2009 but the legacy of their hop breeding programs, particularly that of the dwarf varieties, is continuing as already the US private and public breeding programs are using their stock material. Particular hop varieties are associated with beer regions and styles, for example pale lagers are
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160,847
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Hops
Breeding programmes & Other uses
usually brewed with European (often German, Polish or Czech) noble hop varieties such as Saaz, Hallertau and Strissel Spalt. British ales use hop varieties such as Fuggles, Goldings and W.G.V. North American beers often use Cascade hops, Columbus hops, Centennial hops, Willamette, Amarillo hops and about forty more varieties as the US have lately been the more significant breeders of new hop varieties, including dwarf hop varieties. Hops from New Zealand, such as Pacific Gem, Motueka and Nelson Sauvin, are used in a "Pacific Pale Ale" style of beer with increasing production in 2014. Other uses In addition to beer, hops
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Hops
Other uses
are used in herbal teas and in soft drinks. These soft drinks include Julmust (a carbonated beverage similar to soda that is popular in Sweden during December), Malta (a Latin American soft drink) and kvass. Hops can be eaten, the young shoots of the vine are edible and can be cooked similar to asparagus. Hops may be used in herbal medicine in a way similar to valerian, as a treatment for anxiety, restlessness, and insomnia. A pillow filled with hops is a popular folk remedy for sleeplessness, and animal research has shown a sedative effect. The relaxing effect of hops may
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160,847
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Hops
Other uses & Toxicity
be due, in part, to the specific degradation product from alpha acids, 2-methyl-3-buten-2-ol, as demonstrated from nighttime consumption of non-alcoholic beer. 2-methyl-3-buten-2-ol is structurally similar to tert-amyl alcohol which was historically used as an anesthetic. Hops tend to be unstable when exposed to light or air and lose their potency after a few months' storage. Hops are of interest for hormone replacement therapy and are under basic research for potential relief of menstruation-related problems. Toxicity Dermatitis sometimes results from harvesting hops. Although few cases require medical treatment, an estimated 3% of the workers suffer some type of skin lesions on the
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Hops
Toxicity & Fiction
face, hands, and legs. Hops are toxic to dogs. Fiction Hops and hops picking form the milieu and atmosphere in the British detective novel, Death in the Hop Fields (1937) by John Rhode. The novel was subsequently issued in the United States under the title, The Harvest Murder.
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160,848
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Huawei Nova
Name & Hardware
Huawei Nova Name The product name "Nova" is a Latin word, which means "new." In astronomy terms,"Nova" also is an exploding star. Hardware The design of Nova and Nova Plus are used sand-blasted aluminum and slightly rounded backs, allowing them to nestle neatly in user's palm. Both models are uses "new generation" of 2.5D glass and 1080p IPS display, the Nova display is 5 inches, while the Nova Plus is larger, which is 5.5 inches. The Nova and Nova Plus also included a fingerprint sensor. According to Huawei, the fingerprint sensor is the fastest in the world, it required 0.3
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Huawei Nova
Hardware
seconds to identify a user. For users longer sessions, both models are included high-capacity battery with Smart Power 4.0, which the Nova is 3,020 mAh, and the Nova Plus 3,340 mAh. Both models are equipped with octa-core advanced 14 nm Snapdragon 625 2 GHz processor. The feature is to increase performance and reduce power consumption. The Nova and Nova Plus supports GSM, UMTS, LTE-TDD, LTE-FDD networks (support bands are vary by models). For Chinese edition of Nova, it also supports TD-SCDMA and CDMA2000 1xEV-DO networks. In some countries, the Dual SIM version is available. These smartphones also support near-field communications (NFC), so they can work
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Huawei Nova
Hardware
with Android Pay. The Nova's rear camera is 12 megapixels, with 1.25 micrometer sensor for better pictures. It can worked indoors, showing realistic colors and shadow. The Nova also supports fast autofocus. For rear camera of Nova Plus, it is larger, which is 16 megapixels. Both phones are equipped front camera with 8 megapixels, and support 4K video recording. They also features DTS Headphone:X technology. Both models come in silver, grey and gold colors. They are equipped with 3GB RAM, 32GB ROM, and microSD support up to 128GB. In China, the Nova comes in white, black, rose gold and silver colors. The
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Huawei Nova
Hardware & Software
hardware configuration is higher than the worldwide version, which equipped with 4GB RAM and 64GB ROM. Software The Nova and the Nova Plus are preloaded with Android 6.0 "Marshmallow" and Huawei's Emotion UI (EMUI) 4.1, but the users can switch to Google Now Launcher. These phones also included a battery manager, which gives users a high level of control over battery related features. They also offers ultra power saving mode, which will disable everything except calls and messages and activate a simply monochrome UI. Both phones's camera offers built-in filters, include car light trails, light graffiti, silky water, and star track.
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Huawei Nova
Software & Release
They also offer some modes, include super night mode, slow-motion mode, All-focus mode and the full manual mode (professional mode). The Nova and the Nova Plus also include Beauty Makeup 2.0 and Beautiful Skin 3.0, which apply cosmetic effects and skin smoothing filters to create more flattering images. Release The Nova and the Nova Plus are started to sale in October 2016 in over 50 countries. The Nova is starting from €399, and the Nova Plus is starting from €429. In China, Zhang Yixing and Guan Xiaotong are spokespersons of Huawei Nova. In time for the Huawei's 100 millionth smartphone is
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160,848
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Huawei Nova
Release & Reception
produced in 2016, Huawei also gifted limited edition of Nova to them. The limited edition's back is printed "100000000", "2016年华为手机第1亿部" (Huawei's 100 millionth smartphone in 2016) and "2016.10.14". Reception In The Verge's review, Vlad Savov wrote "the Nova is a good-looking device with a build quality that matches or exceeds the best in its targeted price range, which the company describes with the cringe-inducing language of aiming for young 'dynamic aspirers.'" It concluded the Nova will be cheap enough for those who can’t afford a flagship to get it. The website Slashgear also reviewed "Huawei, though, didn’t get that memo,
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160,848
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Huawei Nova
Reception & Sales
and proceeded to aggressively challenge the status-quo with a number of devices that could compete on thinness, metal construction, and design." The website Recombu said "...there’s plenty of cool touches to help the Nova stand out in a crowded market." Sales The CEO of Smartphone Division of Huawei Customer BG He Gang said, the Nova will achieve 10 million units' sales target.
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160,849
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Hyaline
Histopathology
Hyaline A hyaline substance is one with a glassy appearance. The word is derived from Greek: ὑάλινος transparent and Greek: ὕαλος crystal, glass. Histopathology In histopathological medical usage, a hyaline substance appears glassy and pink after being stained with haematoxylin and eosin—usually it is an acellular, proteinaceous material. An example is hyaline cartilage, a transparent, glossy articular joint cartilage. Some mistakenly refer to all hyaline as hyaline cartilage; however, hyaline applies to other material besides the cartilage itself. Arterial hyaline is seen in aging, high blood pressure, diabetes mellitus and in association with some drugs (e.g. calcineurin inhibitors). It
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160,849
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Hyaline
Histopathology & Ichthyology and entomology
is bright pink with PAS staining. Ichthyology and entomology In ichthyology and entomology, hyaline denotes a colorless, transparent substance, such as unpigmented fins of fishes or clear insect wings.
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160,850
Q3147408
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Iberavia
Iberavia Iberavia was a Spanish aircraft manufacturing company established in Madrid in 1946. Originally, the firm built aircraft instruments, but from 1948 onwards supplied training gliders of its own design to the Spanish Air Force (the IP-2). In 1951 it flew a prototype light plane, the Iberavia I-11 which only entered production when the firm was bought by AISA shortly thereafter.
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160,851
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International Institute for Nanotechnology
Executive Council & Kabiller Prize
International Institute for Nanotechnology Executive Council The IIN Executive Council is a group of business people, led by David Kabiller, committed to advocating for nanotechnology research and education; promoting the IIN as a high-impact philanthropic opportunity; and advising IIN leadership on philanthropy, marketing, and bringing technology from the laboratory to market. Kabiller Prize Nanomedicine is an emerging field that focuses on using nanotechnology to impact the field of medicine. Powerful new ways of studying, diagnosing, and treating diseases have been the dividends of basic research in the field of nanoscience. Indeed, this field and the materials devices that derive
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International Institute for Nanotechnology
Kabiller Prize & Innovation Ecosystem
from it, have a chance to revolutionize medicine as we currently know it. Through a generous donation from entrepreneur David Kabiller, the IIN established the $250,000 Kabiller Prize in Nanoscience and Nanomedicine and the $10,000 Kabiller Young Investigator Award in Nanoscience and Nanomedicine. Every other year, the Kabiller Prize recognizes individuals who have made a career-long, significant impact in the field of nanotechnology applied to medicine and biology. The Kabiller Young Investigator Award recognizes individuals who have made breaking discoveries within the last few years in the same area that have the potential to make a lasting impact. Innovation Ecosystem
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International Institute for Nanotechnology
Innovation Ecosystem
The IIN has created a new kind of research coalition with a large precompetitive nanoscale science and engineering platform for developing applications, demonstrating manufacturability and training skilled researchers.
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Israel F. Fischer
Education and career & Congressional service
Israel F. Fischer Education and career Born on August 17, 1858, in New York City, New York, Fischer attended the public schools and Cooper Institute (now Cooper Union) in New York City and moved to Brooklyn, New York in September 1887. He was employed as a clerk in a law office, where he read law and was admitted to the bar in 1879. He entered private practice in New York City from 1880 to 1895. He was a member of the executive committee of the Republican state committee from 1888 to 1890. Congressional service Fischer was elected as a Republican
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Israel F. Fischer
Congressional service & Federal judicial service
from New York's 4th congressional district to the United States House of Representatives of the 54th and 55th United States Congresses, serving from March 4, 1895, to March 3, 1899. He was an unsuccessful candidate for reelection in 1898 to the 56th United States Congress. Federal judicial service Fischer received a recess appointment from President William McKinley on May 2, 1899, to a seat on the Board of General Appraisers vacated by member Ferdinand N. Shurtleff. He was nominated to the same position by President McKinley on December 15, 1899. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on January
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Israel F. Fischer
Federal judicial service & Other service and death
17, 1900, and received his commission on January 22, 1900. He served as President from 1902 to 1905. Fischer was reassigned by operation of law to the United States Customs Court on May 28, 1926, to a new Associate Justice seat (Judge from June 17, 1930) authorized by 44 Stat. 669. He served as Chief Justice (Presiding Judge from June 17, 1930) from 1927 to 1932. His service terminated on March 31, 1932, due to his retirement. He was succeeded by Judge Frederick W. Dallinger. Other service and death Fischer was a delegate to the International Customs Congress held in
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Israel F. Fischer
Other service and death
New York City in 1903. He died on March 16, 1940, in New York City. He was interred in Maimonides Cemetery in Brooklyn.
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160,853
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Iyaguchi Station
Lines & Layout & History
Iyaguchi Station Lines The station is served by JR Shikoku's Dosan Line and is located 52.3 km from the beginning of the line at Tadotsu. Layout The station, which is unstaffed, consists of a side platform serving a single tracks on a hillside. A flight of steps leads up to the platform from the access road. There is no station building but a log-style building at the base of the steps serves as a waiting room. A shelter is provided on the platform. History The station opened on 28 November 1935 when the then Kōchi Line was extended northwards from
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Iyaguchi Station
History
Toyonaga to Minawa and the line was renamed the Dosan Line. At this time the station was operated by Japanese Government Railways, later becoming Japanese National Railways (JNR). With the privatization of JNR on 1 April 1987, control of the station passed to JR Shikoku.
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Jón Þorláksson
Career
Jón Þorláksson Career Jón Þorláksson (usually transcribed Thorlaksson) was a farmer’s son, from Vesturhópshólar in Húnavatnssýsla in the northwest of Iceland. He and his two sisters and one brother were unusually gifted. One of his sisters, Björg Þorláksdóttir, was for example the first Icelandic woman to receive a doctorate, from the Sorbonne in 1926. Jón Þorláksson graduated from Menntaskólinn í Reykjavík in 1897, highest in his class and with the best results ever given to a student at that school. He studied civil engineering at the Polytechnic College in Copenhagen (later the Danish Technical University), graduating in 1903. In 1905,
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Jón Þorláksson
Career
he became Iceland’s Chief Engineer, overseeing in the next 12 years the construction of roads and bridges in the country, and advocating (and helping to build) hydroelectric power plants and the use of Iceland’s ample resources of thermal power to heat houses. Jón resigned from his office in 1917, starting a company which imported building materials, but also working as an independent engineer on several projects. He was elected to the parliament in 1921, on a list opposed to the nascent socialist party. Respected rather than popular, he soon became the leader of the conservative and libertarian elements in the
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Jón Þorláksson
Career
parliament, founding in 1924 the Conservative Party. Jón Þorláksson became Finance Minister in the government formed by the Conservative Party in 1924, raising the value of the Icelandic crown in 1925, very much as Winston Churchill raised the value of the pound at the same time. Upon the sudden death of Prime Minister Jón Magnússon in 1926, he became Prime Minister as well. After the defeat of the Conservative Party in the parliamentary elections of 1927, Jón Þorláksson became the leader of the opposition. He was the first leader of the Independence Party which was formed by a merger of
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Jón Þorláksson
Career & Political ideas
the Conservative Party and a small Liberal Party in 1929. He became Mayor of Reykjavík in December 1932. Because of failing health he resigned as leader of the Independence Party in 1934 and died one year later. He was married and had two adopted daughters. Political ideas Jón Þorláksson was a classical liberal who had learnt his economics from the well-known Swedish economist Gustav Cassel. In a magazine article in 1926, Jón Þorláksson distinguished between conservative and radical ideas on the one hand and libertarian and authoritarian ideas on the other hand. He said that those two sets of ideas
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Political ideas
could exist in all four combinations. His opponents in the Icelandic left-wing or socialist parties were for example, he contended, both radical and authoritarian. Sometimes libertarians also had to be radical. But at present they should be conservative, because essentially their task was to conserve the freedom won in the battles of the 18th and 19th centuries, and to defend them against socialism. Thus, Jón Þorláksson defined himself as a conservative libertarian. In a paper read to the general meeting of the Conservative Party in 1929, he briefly, but clearly, outlined the classical liberal idea of how people could, by
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Jón Þorláksson
Political ideas
working solely for their own personal interest, in a competitive environment, unwittingly serve the public interest. There, he forcefully defended free trade and limited government. Publicly, Jón Þorláksson proposed the privatisation of the two commercial banks in Iceland, then in the hands of government.
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Jack Bloomfield (baseball)
Biography
Jack Bloomfield (baseball) Biography Bloomfield was a second baseman, shortstop and third baseman in his playing days. He signed with the Kansas City Athletics in 1955 but was released on April 8 and gained his first professional experience with the independent Harlingen Capitals of the Class B Big State League, where he batted .310. Bloomfield was then drafted by the Milwaukee Braves and played the bulk of his six-year U.S. professional career in the Braves' and Cincinnati Reds' organizations, once again breaking the .300 mark with the 1958 Seattle Rainiers of the Pacific Coast League. Ironically, his final stint
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Jack Bloomfield (baseball)
Biography & Major League coach
as a minor league player came with the Athletics, playing for their Triple-A Portland Beavers affiliate from July 15, 1959, through May 27, 1960, when he was released again. He then played professional baseball in Japan during the 1960s (for the Kintetsu Buffaloes and the Nankai Hawks), where he compiled a .315 batting average and a .472 slugging percentage in more than 2400 at-bats. Major League coach He returned to the U.S. in 1967, becoming a scout for the San Diego Padres in their first season, 1969. After five years in that role, Bloomfield became a coach under Padre manager John
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Jack Bloomfield (baseball)
Major League coach
McNamara in 1974, then switched to the Chicago Cubs, coaching for them from 1975 through 1978. Bloomfield later scouted for the New York Yankees, Houston Astros, Pittsburgh Pirates, Colorado Rockies and Montreal Expos.
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Jackie Searle
Early life and education & Ordained ministry
Jackie Searle Early life and education Searle was born on 26 September 1960 in Redhill, Surrey, England. She was educated at Talbot Heath School, an all-girls independent school in Bournemouth. She studied at Whitelands College, Roehampton, graduating with a Bachelor of Education (BEd) degree in 1982. She worked as a teacher from 1982 until 1989. She trained for ordained ministry at Trinity College, Bristol, an evangelical Anglican theological college between 1990 and 1992. Ordained ministry She was ordained deacon in 1992, and priest in 1994. Her first ecclesiastical post were curacies in Harrow and Ealing. She was a lecturer in
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Jackie Searle
Ordained ministry & Episcopal ministry
applied theology at Trinity College, Bristol from 1996 to 2003; and then Vicar of St Peter, Littleover from 2003 to 2012. Since 2012, she has served as Archdeacon of Gloucester in the Diocese of Gloucester and as a canon residentiary of Gloucester Cathedral. Episcopal ministry In July 2018, it was announced that she would be the next Bishop of Crediton, a suffragan bishop in the Diocese of Exeter. On 27 September 2018, she was consecrated a bishop by John Sentamu, the Archbishop of York, during a service at Southwark Cathedral. She was welcomed into the diocese on 14 October.
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Jackie Searle
Personal life
Personal life In 1992, Searle married David Runcorn. Together they have two children. David is also ordained in the Church of England.
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Jagdstaffel 88
History
Jagdstaffel 88 History Jasta 88 was founded on 28 or 29 October 1918. Its predecessor was Kampfeinsitzerstaffel ("Scout Detachment") 8. The new squadron never became operational.
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James Garrard
Early life and family
James Garrard Early life and family James Garrard was born in Stafford County, Virginia, on January 14, 1749. He was second of three children born to Colonel William and Mary (Naughty) Garrard. Garrard's mother died sometime between 1755 and 1760; afterward, his father married Elizabeth Moss, and the couple had four more children. William Garrard was the county lieutenant of Stafford County, by virtue of which he held the rank of colonel and was in command of the county militia. The Garrard family was moderately wealthy, and the Stafford County courthouse was built on their land. During his childhood, James
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James Garrard
Early life and family
worked on his father's farm. He was educated in the common schools of Stafford County and studied at home, acquiring a fondness for books. Early in life, he associated himself with the Hartwood Baptist Church near Fredericksburg, Virginia. On December 20, 1769, Garrard married his childhood sweetheart, Elizabeth Mountjoy. Shortly thereafter, his sister Mary Anne married Mountjoy's brother, Colonel John Mountjoy. Garrard and his wife had five sons and seven daughters. One son and two daughters died before reaching age two. Of the surviving four sons, all participated in the War of 1812 and all served in the Kentucky General Assembly.
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James Garrard
Early life and family
A number of his grandsons served in the Civil War, including Union Generals Kenner Garrard and Theophilus T. Garrard. Another grandson, James H. Garrard, was elected to five consecutive terms as state treasurer, serving from 1857 until his death in 1865. Garrard served in the Revolutionary War as a member of his father's Stafford County militia, although it is not known how much combat he participated in. While on board a schooner on the Potomac River, he was captured by British forces. His captors offered to free him in exchange for military information, but he refused the offer and later escaped. While
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James Garrard
Early life and family
serving in the militia in 1779, Garrard was elected to represent Stafford County the Virginia House of Delegates, and he assumed his seat for the 1779 legislative session. His major contribution to the session was advocating for a bill that granted religious liberty to all residents of Virginia; passage of the bill ended persecution by citizens who associated with the Church of England upon followers of other faiths and countered an effort by some to establish the Church of England as Virginia's official church. After the session, he returned to his military duties. In 1781, he was promoted to the
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James Garrard
Early life and family & Resettlement in Kentucky
rank of colonel. Resettlement in Kentucky Following the revolution, Garrard faced the dual challenges of a growing family and depleted personal wealth. Acting on favorable reports from his former neighbor, John Edwards, Garrard and Samuel Grant headed west into the recently created Kentucky County. By virtue of his military service, Garrard was entitled to claim any vacant land he surveyed and recorded at the state land office. Beginning in early 1783, Garrard made claims for family and friends, as well as 40,000 acres (160 km²) for himself. Later in 1783, he moved his family to the land he had surveyed in
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James Garrard
Resettlement in Kentucky
Fayette County, which had been created from Kentucky County since his last visit to the region. Three years later, he employed John Metcalfe, a noted stonemason and older half-brother of future Kentucky Governor Thomas Metcalfe, to build his estate, Mount Lebanon, on the Stoner Fork of the Licking River. There, he engaged in agriculture, opened a grist mill and a lumber mill, and distilled whiskey. In 1784, he enlisted in the Fayette County militia. In 1785, Garrard was elected to represent Fayette County in the Virginia legislature. He was placed on a legislative committee with Benjamin Logan and Christopher Greenup to
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James Garrard
Resettlement in Kentucky
draft recommendations regarding the further division of Kentucky County. The committee recommended the creation of three new counties, including Madison, Mercer, and Garrard's county of residence, Bourbon. On his return from the legislature, Garrard was chosen county surveyor and justice of the peace for the newly formed county. At various times, he also served as magistrate and colonel of the county militia. Although some historians have identified Garrard as a member of the Danville Political Club, a secret debating society that was active in Danville, Kentucky, from 1786 to 1790, his name is not found in the Club's official membership records.
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James Garrard
Resettlement in Kentucky
Garrard's biographer, H. E. Everman, concludes that these historians may have mistaken Garrard's membership in the Kentucky Society for the Promotion of Useful Knowledge for membership in the Danville Political Club. The groups had similar aims, were active at about the same time, and had several members in common. Other notable members of the Kentucky Society for the Promotion of Useful Knowledge included Isaac Shelby, Christopher Greenup, and Thomas Todd, all future Kentucky governors or gubernatorial candidates. Garrard's Mount Lebanon estate was designated as the temporary county seat of Bourbon County; the county court first convened there on May 15, 1786,
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James Garrard
Resettlement in Kentucky & Religious leadership
and continued to meet there for many years. In 1789, the Virginia legislature established a permanent county seat named Hopewell, and Garrard was part of the committee chosen to survey the area for the city. He and John Edwards were among the new settlement's first trustees. Upon Garrard's recommendation, the city's name was changed to Paris in 1790. Soon after, he resigned as county surveyor to focus on more pressing needs of defense for the fledgling settlement. At his behest, the Bourbon County Court expanded its militia from one battalion to two at its meeting in August 1790. Religious
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James Garrard
Religious leadership
leadership As early as June 25, 1785, Garrard and his friend Augustine Eastin attended meetings of the Elkhorn Baptist Association. In 1787, he helped organize the Cooper's Run Baptist Church near his estate. He was chosen as one of the church's elders and served the congregation there for ten years. Soon after its formation, the church joined the Elkhorn Baptist Association, and in 1789, it issued Garrard a license to preach. Although he owned as many as 23 slaves to work on his vast agricultural and industrial works, Garrard condemned slavery from the pulpit, calling it a "horrid evil". Whites
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James Garrard
Religious leadership
and blacks participated equally in worship at Cooper's Run. Garrard and the other elders of the church started numerous congregations in the state, including one as far away as Mason County. In 1789, Garrard and Eastin began working to reunite the more orthodox Regular Baptists in the area with the more liberal Separatist Baptists. Garrard's former church in Virginia had been a Regular Baptist congregation, and Garrard was considered a Regular Baptist despite his clear advocacy for religious toleration and his open expression of liberal views. Although he never succeeded in uniting the two factions, he was chosen moderator of the
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James Garrard
Religious leadership
Elkhorn Baptist Association's annual meetings in 1790, 1791, and 1795 in recognition of his efforts. From 1785 to 1799, Garrard served as a trustee of Transylvania Seminary (now Transylvania University). In 1794, the Baptist and more liberal trustees united against the orthodox Presbyterian members of the board to elect the seminary's first non-Presbyterian president. That president was Harry Toulmin, a Unitarian minister from England. Toulmin's daughter Lucinda would later marry Garrard's son Daniel. As a result of Garrard's relationship with Toulmin, he began to accept some tenets of Unitarianism, specifically the doctrines of Socinianism. By 1802, Garrard and Augustine Eastin had
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James Garrard
Religious leadership & Political career
not only adopted these beliefs, but had indoctrinated their Baptist congregations with them. The Elkhorn Baptist Association condemned these beliefs as heretical and encouraged Garrard and Eastin to abandon them. When that effort failed, the Association ceased correspondence and association with both men. This event ended Garrard's ministry and his association with the Baptist church. Political career Residents of what is now Kentucky called a series of ten conventions in Danville to arrange their separation from Virginia. Garrard was a delegate to five of these conventions, held in May and August 1785 and in 1787, 1788, and 1792. At the
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James Garrard
Political career
August 1785 convention, the delegates unanimously approved a formal request for constitutional separation. As a member of the Virginia legislature, Garrard then traveled to Richmond for the legislative session and voted in favor of the act specifying the conditions under which Virginia would accept Kentucky's separation. Before the final convention in 1792, a committee composed of Garrard, Ambrose Dudley, and Augustine Eastin reported to the Elkhorn Baptist Association in favor of forbidding slavery in the constitution then being drafted for the new state. Slavery was a major issue in the 1792 convention that finalized the document. Delegate David Rice, a Presbyterian
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James Garrard
Political career
minister, was the leading voice against the inclusion of slavery protections in the new constitution, while George Nicholas argued most strenuously in favor of them. Garrard encouraged his fellow ministers and Baptists to vote against its inclusion. The motion to delete Article 9 of the proposed document, which protected the rights of slave owners, failed by a vote of 16–26. Each of the seven Christian ministers who served as delegates to the convention (including Garrard) voted in favor of deleting the article. Five Baptist laymen defied Garrard's instructions and voted to retain Article 9; their votes provided the necessary margin
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James Garrard
Political career & Gubernatorial election of 1795
for its inclusion. Historian Lowell H. Harrison wrote that the anti-slavery votes of the ministers may have accounted for the adoption of a provision that forbade ministers from serving in the Kentucky General Assembly. Garrard and the other ministers apparently expressed no dissent against this provision. Aside from his opposition to slavery, Garrard did not take a particularly active role in the convention's proceedings. His most notable action not related to slavery occurred on April 13, 1792, when he reported twenty-two resolutions from the committee of the whole that provided the framework for the new constitution. Gubernatorial election of 1795 Following
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Gubernatorial election of 1795
the constitutional convention, it appeared that Garrard's political career was drawing to a close. He resigned all of his county offices to focus on his work in the Elkhorn Baptist Convention and his agricultural pursuits. He was pleased, however, when his son William was chosen to represent the county in the state legislature in 1793. In 1795, William Garrard was reelected, and the other four state legislators from Bourbon County were close associates of Garrard's, including John Edwards, who had recently been defeated for reelection to the U.S. Senate. When Governor Isaac Shelby announced he would not seek reelection, Garrard's friends
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James Garrard
Gubernatorial election of 1795
encouraged him to become a candidate. The other announced candidates were Benjamin Logan and Thomas Todd. Logan was considered the favorite in the race due to his military heroism while helping settle the Kentucky frontier. However, his oratory was unpolished, and his parliamentary skills were weak, despite his considerable political experience. Todd, who had served as secretary of all ten Kentucky statehood conventions, had the most political experience, but his youth was considered a disadvantage by some. Garrard benefited from his political connections in Bourbon County, and many held him in high regard due to his work in the Baptist
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James Garrard
Gubernatorial election of 1795
church. Under the new constitution, each of Kentucky's legislative districts chose an elector, and these electors voted to choose the governor. Both Logan and Garrard were chosen as electors from their respective counties. On the first ballot, Logan received the votes of 21 electors, Garrard received 17, and Todd received 14. A lone elector cast his vote for John Brown, a Frankfort attorney who would soon be elected to the U.S. Senate. Some speculated that Garrard's moral character prevented him from voting for himself, but his political acumen prevented him from voting for a rival, so he voted for Brown, who
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Gubernatorial election of 1795
had not declared his candidacy. No proof exists that this was the case, however. The constitution did not specify whether a plurality or a majority vote was required to elect the governor, but the electors, following a common practice of other states, decided to hold a second vote between Logan and Garrard in order to achieve a majority. Most of Todd's electors supported Garrard on the second vote, giving him a majority. In a letter dated May 17, 1796, Kentucky Secretary of State James Brown certified Garrard's election, and Governor Shelby sent him a letter of congratulations on his election on
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James Garrard
Gubernatorial election of 1795
May 27. Although he did not believe Garrard had personally done anything wrong, Logan formally protested the outcome of the election to Kentucky Attorney General John Breckinridge. Breckinridge refused to render an official decision on the matter, claiming that neither the constitution nor the laws of the state empowered him to do so. Privately, however, he expressed his opinion that Logan had been legally elected. Logan then appealed to the state senate, which was given the authority to intervene in disputed elections. In November 1796, the Senate opined that the law giving them that authority was unconstitutional because it did not
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James Garrard
Gubernatorial election of 1795 & First term as governor
promote the "peace and welfare" of the state. State senator Green Clay was the primary proponent of this line of reasoning. By this time, Garrard had been serving as governor for five months, and Logan abandoned the quest to unseat him. First term as governor Garrard was regarded as a strong chief executive who surrounded himself with knowledgeable advisors. His friend, John Edwards, and his son, William Garrard, were both in the state senate and kept him abreast of issues there. He showed that he was willing to continue with Shelby's direction for the state by re-appointing Secretary of State
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James Garrard
First term as governor
James Brown, but the aging Brown retired in October 1796, only a few months into Garrard's term. Garrard then appointed Harry Toulmin, who had resigned the presidency of Transylvania Seminary in April due to opposition from the institution's more conservative trustees. Although he did not retain outgoing Attorney General John Breckinridge, who had sided with Logan in the disputed gubernatorial election, Garrard still frequently consulted with him on complex legal questions. During Governor Shelby's term, the General Assembly had passed laws requiring that the governor, auditor, treasurer, and secretary of state live in Frankfort and allocating a sum of 100 pounds
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James Garrard
First term as governor
to rent living quarters for the governor. Shortly after Garrard took office, the state commissioners of public buildings reported to the legislature that it would be more financially sensible to construct a house for the governor and his large family than to rent living quarters for them for the duration of his term. On December 4, 1796, the General Assembly passed legislation appropriating 1,200 pounds for the construction of such a house. The state's first governor's mansion was completed in 1798. Garrard incited considerable public interest when, in 1799, he commissioned a local craftsman to build a piano for one
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James Garrard
First term as governor
of his daughters; most Kentuckians had never seen such a grand instrument, and a considerable number of them flocked to the governor's mansion to see it when it was finished. Kentucky historian Thomas D. Clark also relates that Garrard's addition of carpeting to the mansion – a rare amenity at the time – drew many visitors and was described by one as "the envy and pride of the community". Among the other acts passed during the first year of Garrard's term were laws establishing the Kentucky Court of Appeals and a system of lower district courts. For the first time, lawyers
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James Garrard
First term as governor
in the state were required to be licensed. Six new counties – including one named in Garrard's honor – were created, along with several new settlements. Garrard approved enabling acts creating twenty-six counties; no other Kentucky governor oversaw the creation of as many. Left undone, however, was extending the laws dealing with surveying and registering land claims with the registrar of the state land office. Cognizant that the old law would expire November 30, 1797, Garrard issued a proclamation on November 3 calling the legislature into special session. The legislators convened on November 28, and Garrard, drawing on his experience as
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James Garrard
First term as governor
a surveyor, addressed them regarding the urgency of adopting a new law and forestalling more lawsuits related to land claims, which were already numerous. Although a wealthy landowner himself, Garrard advocated protecting Kentucky's large debtor class from foreclosure on their lands. Garrard supported pro-squatting legislation, including measures that forbade the collection of taxes from squatters on profits they made from working the land they occupied and that required landowners to pay squatters for any improvements they made on their land. Despite opposition from some aristocratic legislators like John Breckinridge, most of the reforms advocated by Garrard were approved in the
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James Garrard
First term as governor
session. Garrard was a member of the Democratic-Republican Party and agreed with party founder Thomas Jefferson's condemnation of the Alien and Sedition Acts. In an address to the General Assembly on November 7, 1798, he denounced the Alien Act on the grounds that it deterred desirable immigration; the Sedition Act, he claimed, denied those accused under its provisions freedom of speech and trial by jury, rights – he pointed out – that he and the other soldiers of the Revolutionary War had fought to secure. He advocated the nullification of both laws, but also encouraged the legislature to reaffirm its loyalty
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James Garrard
First term as governor
to the federal government and the U.S. Constitution. He was supportive of the Kentucky Resolutions of 1798 and 1799. Among the other issues addressed in the 1798 General Assembly was the adoption of penal reforms. Garrard was supportive of the reforms – which included the abolition of the death penalty for all crimes except murder – and lobbied for the education of incarcerated individuals. He also secured the passage of laws reforming and expanding the militia. Among the reforms were the imposition of penalties upon "distractors" in the militia, provisions for citizens' hiring of substitutes to serve in the militia on
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their behalf, and the exemption of jailers, tutors, printers, judges, ministers, and legislative leaders from service. Garrard opposed lowering taxes, instead advocating increased spending on education and business subsidies. To that end, he signed legislation combining Transylvania Seminary and Kentucky Academy into a single institution. A new constitution The difficulties with Garrard's election over Benjamin Logan in 1795 added to a litany of complaints about the state's first constitution. Some believed that it was undemocratic because it required electors to choose the governor and state senators and many offices were appointive rather than elective. Others opposed life terms for judges
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James Garrard
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and other state officials. Still others wanted slavery excluded from the document, or to lift the ban on ministers serving in the General Assembly. In the aftermath of the disputed 1795 election, all parties involved agreed that changes were needed. The present constitution provided no means for amendment, however. The only remedy was another constitutional convention. Calling a constitutional convention required the approval of a majority of voters in two successive elections or a two-thirds majority of both houses of the General Assembly. In February 1797, the General Assembly voted to put the question before the electorate in the upcoming May
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James Garrard
A new constitution
elections. Of the 9,814 votes cast, 5,446 favored the call and 440 opposed it, but 3,928 had not voted at all, and several counties recorded no votes on the issue either way. This cast doubt in the minds of many legislators regarding the true will of the people. Opponents of the convention claimed that the abstentions should be counted as votes against the call; this position had some merit, as it was well known that many Fayette County voters had abstained as a protest against the convention. When all of the irregularities were accounted for, the General Assembly determined that
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James Garrard
A new constitution
the vote had fallen short of the required majority. On February 10, 1798, Garrard's son William, still serving in the state senate, introduced a bill to hold another vote on calling a constitutional convention. In May 1798, 9,188 of the 16,388 votes were in favor of calling a convention. Again, almost 5,000 of the ballots contained no vote either way. On November 21, 1798, the House of Representatives voted 36–15 in favor of a convention, and the Senate provided its requisite two-thirds majority days later. No official tally of the Senate's vote was published. The Assembly's vote rendered moot any doubts
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James Garrard
A new constitution
about the popular vote. Delegates to the July 22, 1799, convention were elected in May 1799. Neither Garrard nor his son William were chosen as delegates, mostly due to their anti-slavery views. Garrard had been a more active governor than his predecessor, frequently employing his veto and clashing with the county courts. As a result, the delegates moved to reign in some of the power given to the state's chief executive. Under the 1799 constitution, the governor was popularly elected, and the threshold for overriding a gubernatorial veto was lowered from a two-thirds majority of each house of the legislature to
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James Garrard
A new constitution
an absolute majority. Although the governor retained broad appointment powers, the state senate was given the power to approve or reject all gubernatorial nominees. New term limits were imposed on the governor, making him ineligible for reelection for seven years following the expiration of his term. The restriction on ministers serving in the legislature was retained and extended to the governor's office. Historian Lowell Harrison held that this restriction was "a clear snub to Garrard", but Garrard biographer H. E. Everman maintained that it was "definitely not a blow aimed at Garrard". Garrard was personally exempted from both the succession
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James Garrard
A new constitution & 1799 gubernatorial election
and ministerial restrictions, clearing the way for him to seek a second term. 1799 gubernatorial election Confident that the results of the 1795 election would be reversed, Benjamin Logan was the first to declare his candidacy for the governorship in 1799. Garrard and Thomas Todd declared their respective candidacies soon after. Former U.S. Representative Christopher Greenup also sought the office. Many of the recent settlers in Kentucky were unaware of his illustrious military record and unimpressed with his unsophisticated speaking skills. Although the candidates themselves rarely spoke negatively of each other, opponents of each candidate independently raised issues that they
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James Garrard
1799 gubernatorial election
felt would hurt that candidate. John Breckinridge, Garrard's long-time political nemesis, tried to goad Garrard into making another impassioned plea for emancipation of slaves, which was a minority position in the state, but Garrard recognized Breckinridge's tactics and refused to express any bold emancipationist sentiments during the campaign. The fact that the slavery protections in the new constitution were even stronger than those in the previous document ensured that the incumbent's previous anti-slavery sentiments were not a major concern to most of the electorate. The family of Henry Field, a prominent leader in Frankfort, attacked Garrard for not issuing a
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James Garrard
1799 gubernatorial election
pardon for Field, who was convicted of murdering his wife with an ax. After examining the evidence in the case, Garrard concluded that the verdict was reached justly and without undue outside influence, but the charge was raised so late in the campaign that Garrard's defense of his refusal to issue a pardon could not be circulated widely. With the advantages of incumbency and a generally popular record, Garrard garnered large majorities in the state's western counties, Jefferson County, and the Bluegrass region of central Kentucky. Surprisingly, he even found support among some voters who had favored Logan four years earlier.
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James Garrard
1799 gubernatorial election & Second term as governor
The final voting showed Garrard the winner with 8,390 votes, followed by Greenup with 6,746, Logan with 3,996, and Todd with 2,166. Due to the term limits imposed by the new constitution, Garrard was the last Kentucky governor elected to succeed himself until a 1992 amendment to the state constitution loosened the prohibition on gubernatorial succession, and Paul E. Patton was reelected in 1999. In 1801, Garrard nominated Todd to fill the next vacancy on the Kentucky Court of Appeals after the election. Similarly, he appointed Greenup to a position on the Frankfort Circuit Court in 1802. Second term as
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James Garrard
Second term as governor
governor The first two years of Garrard's second term were relatively uneventful, but in the 1802 General Assembly, legislators approved two bills related to the circuit court system that Garrard vetoed. The first bill expanded the number of courts and provided that untrained citizens could sit as judges in the court system. Garrard questioned the cost of the additional courts and the wisdom of allowing untrained judges on the bench; he also objected to the bill's circumvention of the governor's authority to appoint judges. The second bill allowed attorneys and judges in the circuit court system to reside outside the
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James Garrard
Second term as governor
districts they served. The General Assembly overrode Garrard's second veto, marking the first time in Kentucky history that a gubernatorial veto was overridden and the only time during Garrard's eight-year tenure. On October 16, 1802, Spanish intendent Don Juan Ventura Morales announced the revocation of the U.S. right of deposit at New Orleans, a right that had been guaranteed under Pinckney's Treaty. The closure of the port to U.S. goods represented a major impediment to Garrard's hopes of establishing a vibrant trade between Kentucky and the other states and territories along the Mississippi River. He urged President Thomas Jefferson to act
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James Garrard
Second term as governor
and publicly declared that Kentucky had 26,000 militiamen ready to take New Orleans by force if necessary. Jefferson was unaware, however, that the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso had ceded control of Louisiana to the French dictator Napoleon Bonaparte in 1800, although a formal transfer had not yet been made. As Jefferson deliberated, Napoleon unexpectedly offered to sell Louisiana to the United States for approximately $15 million. Robert R. Livingston and James Monroe, Jefferson's envoys in France, accepted the offer. The purchase delighted most Kentuckians, and Garrard hailed it as a "noble achievement". Soon after the agreement, the Spanish government
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James Garrard
Second term as governor
claimed that the French had not performed their part of the Treaty of Ildefonso and, as a result, the treaty was nullified and Louisiana still belonged to Spain. Jefferson ignored the Spanish protest and prepared to take Louisiana by force. He instructed Garrard to have 4,000 militiamen ready to march to New Orleans by December 20, 1803. The Kentucky General Assembly quickly passed a measure guaranteeing 150 acres of land to anyone who volunteered for military service, and Garrard was soon able to inform Jefferson that his quota was met. Spain then reversed course, relinquishing its claims to Louisiana, and
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James Garrard
Second term as governor
the territory passed into U.S. control two months later. The last months of Garrard's second term were marred by a dispute with the General Assembly over naming a new registrar of the state's land office. Garrard first named Secretary of State Harry Toulmin, but the Senate rejected that nomination on December 7, 1803. Next, Garrard nominated former rival Christopher Greenup, but Greenup had designs on succeeding Garrard and asked Garrard to withdraw the nomination, which he did. The Senate then rejected Garrard's next nominee, John Coburn, and accused the next, Thomas Jones, of "high criminal offense" and barred him from any
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James Garrard
Second term as governor
further appointive office. Following Jones' rejection, Garrard vetoed a bill that would have allowed the legislature to select the state's presidential and vice-presidential electors; despite the fact that the law ran contrary to the state constitution, Garrard's veto further strained his relations with the Senate. After the Senate rejected nominee William Trigg, the state's newspapers openly talked of an executive-legislative feud and claimed the Senate had its own favorite candidate for the position and would not accept anyone else. When the Senate rejected Willis Green in January 1804, Garrard declared that he would make no more nominations for the position. Accusations
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James Garrard
Second term as governor & Later life and death
of bad faith were exchanged between the governor and the Senate, after which Garrard nominated John Adair, the popular Speaker of the House. The Senate finally confirmed this choice. Later life and death His dispute with the General Assembly over the naming of a land registrar left Garrard embittered, and he retired from politics at the expiration of his second term. He privately backed Christopher Greenup's bid to succeed him in 1804, and Bourbon County's vote broke heavily for Greenup in the election. Although his sons William and James would continue running for public office into the 1830s, Garrard never
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James Garrard
Later life and death
indicated a desire to run again. Garrard returned to Mount Lebanon, where he developed a reputation as a notable agriculturist. His son James oversaw the day-to-day operation of the farm and frequently won prizes for his innovations at local agricultural fairs. The Mount Lebanon estate was badly damaged by one of the New Madrid earthquakes in 1811, but Garrard insisted on repairing the damage as thoroughly as possible in order to reside there for the rest of his life. He imported fine livestock – including thoroughbred horses and cattle – to his farm and invested in several commercial enterprises, including several
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James Garrard
Later life and death
saltworks, which passed to his sons upon his death. He died on January 19, 1822, following several years of feeble health. He was buried on the grounds of his Mount Lebanon estate, and the state of Kentucky erected a monument over his grave site.
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Jan Schaap
History
Jan Schaap History Schaap's contributions to Scouting include the Dutch translation of Scouting for Boys (1924 and several later editions), and other Scouting books. In The Hague, he led the '2nd The Hague Troup' (Dutch: 2e 's-Gravenhaagsche troep), together with Philip baron van Pallandt, who later inherited the site for Gilwell Ada's Hoeve. In July 1923, Schaap organized the first Dutch Wood Badge Scout leadership training on Scout centre Gilwell Ada's Hoeve in Ommen. As the editor of the monthly magazine De Padvinder (1914 onward), he wrote the campsong of the 5th World Scout Jamboree in Vogelenzang.(lyrics: Dutch: In 19-3-7
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Jan Schaap
History
zul je wat beleven, dan komt de jamboree naar Nederland).
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Japan during World War II
Preparations for war
Japan during World War II Preparations for war The decision by Japan to attack the United States remains controversial. Study groups in Japan had predicted ultimate disaster in a war between Japan and the U.S., and the Japanese economy was already straining to keep up with the demands of the war with China. However, the U.S. had placed an oil embargo on Japan and Japan felt that the United States' demands of unconditional withdrawal from China and non-aggression pacts with other Pacific powers were unacceptable. Facing an oil embargo by the United States as well as dwindling domestic reserves, the