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817708671_6777-7403 | The barn owl has a wider distribution than any other species of owl . Many subspecies have been proposed over the years but several are generally considered to be intergrades between more distinct populations . Twenty to thirty are usually recognised , varying mainly in body proportions , size and colour . Island forms are mostly smaller than mainland ones , and those inhabiting forests have darker plumage and shorter wings than those occurring in open grasslands . Barn owls range in colour from the almost beige - and - white nominate subspecies , erlangeri and niveicauda , to the nearly black - and - brown contempta . | Barn owl |
817708671_7404-7522 | In the Handbook of Birds of the World , Volume 5 : Barn - owls to Hummingbirds , the following subspecies are listed : | Barn owl |
817708671_7523-13694 | ( show ) Subspecies Description Range Synonyms T. a . alba ( Scopoli , 1769 ) Light coloured adult Upperparts grey and light buff . Underparts white , with few if any black spots ; males often appear entirely unspotted . W Europe from the British Isles south to the Maghreb and west along Mediterranean coastal regions to NW Turkey in the north and the Nile in the south , where it reaches upstream to NE Sudan . Also Aïr Mountains in the Sahara of Niger , Balearic Islands and Sicily in the Mediterranean , and the W Canary Islands ( El Hierro , La Gomera , La Palma Gran Canaria and Tenerife ) . Intergrades with guttata from the Balkans through Hungary and along the Rhine and lower Meuse rivers , and with affinis around the Egypt - Sudan border . Common barn owl -- Includes hostilis , kirchhoffi , kleinschmidti , pusillus . African populations might belong to erlangeri . T. a . furcata ( Temminck , 1827 ) In Cuba Large . Upperparts pale orange - buff and brownish - grey , underparts whitish with few speckles . Face white . Cuba , Jamaica , Cayman Islands ( rare or extinct on Grand Cayman ) . American Barn Owl -- Might include niveicauda . T. a . tuidara ( J.E. Gray , 1829 ) In Brazil Upperparts grey and orange - buff . Underparts whitish to light buff with little speckling . Face white . Resembles pale Old World guttata . South American lowlands east of the Andes and south of the Amazon River all the way south to Tierra del Fuego ; also on the Falkland Islands . Includes hauchecornei and possibly hellmayri . T. a . guttata ( C.L. Brehm , 1831 ) In flight , Sandesneben ( Germany ) More grey on upperparts than alba . Underparts buff to rufous with some dark speckles ( more than in alba ) . Face whitish . Females are on average redder below than males . C Europe north of the Alps from the Rhine to Latvia , Lithuania and Ukraine , and south to Romania , NE Greece and the S Balkans . Intergrades with alba at the western border of its range . Includes rhenana . T. a . pratincola ( Bonaparte , 1838 ) Adult in flight Large . Upperparts grey and orange - buff . Underparts whitish to light buff with much speckling . Face white . Resembles pale Old World guttata , but usually more speckles below . North America from S Canada south to C Mexico ; Bermuda , Bahamas , Hispaniola ; introduced to Lord Howe Island ( where it became extinct again ) and in 1958 to Hawaii ( where it persists ) . Galápagos barn owl -- Includes lucayana and might include bondi , guatemalae , subandeana . T. a . punctatissima ( G.R. Grey , 1838 ) On Santa Cruz Island ( Galápagos ) Small . Dark greyish brown above , with white part of spots prominent . Underparts white to golden buff , with distinct pattern of brown vermiculations or fine dense spots . Galápagos barn owl -- Endemic to the Galápagos islands . Sometimes considered a distinct species . T. a . poensis ( Fraser , 1842 ) Upperparts golden - brown and grey with very bold pattern . Underparts light buff with extensive speckles . Face white . Endemic to Bioko , if not the same as affinis . T. a . thomensis ( Hartlaub , 1852 ) Smallish . Upperparts dark brownish grey with bold pattern , including lighter brown bands on remiges and rectrices . Underparts golden brown with extensive speckles . Face buff . Endemic to São Tomé Island . A record from Príncipe is in error . São tomé barn owl -- Sometimes considered a distinct species . T. a . affinis ( Blyth , 1862 ) In Tanzania Similar to poensis , but supposedly lighter on average . Upperparts very grey . Underparts light buff with extensive speckles . Face white . Sub-Saharan Africa , including the Comoros , Madagascar , Pemba and Unguja islands ; introduced to the Seychelles . Intergrades with alba around the Egypt - Sudan border . Includes hypermetra ; doubtfully distinct from poensis . T. a . guatemalae ( Ridgway , 1874 ) Similar to dark pratincola ; less grey above , coarser speckles below . Guatemala or S Mexico through Central America to Panama or N Colombia ; Pearl Islands . Includes subandeana ; doubtfully distinct from pratincola . T. a . bargei ( Hartert , 1892 ) Similar to alba ; smaller and noticeably short - winged . Curaçao barn owl -- Endemic to Curaçao and maybe Bonaire in the West Indies . T. a . contempta ( Hartert , 1898 ) Almost black with some dark grey above , the white part of the spotting showing prominently . Reddish brown below . NE Andes from W Venezuela through E Colombia ( rare in the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Occidental ) south to Peru . Includes stictica . T. a . schmitzi ( Hartert , 1900 ) Small . Similar to guttata , but breast region light buff . Endemic to Madeira and Porto Santo islands in the E Atlantic . T. a . ernesti ( Kleinschmidt , 1901 ) Similar to alba ; breast region always pure unspotted white . Endemic to Corsica and Sardinia in the Mediterranean . T. a . gracilirostris ( Hartert , 1905 ) Small . Similar to schmitzi but breast darker , approaching guttata . Face light buff . Canary barn owl -- Endemic to the E Canary Islands ( Chinijo Archipelago , Fuerteventura , Lanzarote ; perhaps formerly also on Lobos ) . T. a . detorta ( Hartert , 1913 ) Similar to guttata , but less reddish . Face buff . Endemic to the Cape Verde Islands . Cape Verde barn owl -- Sometimes considered a distinct species . T. a . erlangeri ( W.L. Sclater , 1921 ) Similar to ernesti ; upperparts lighter and yellower . Crete and southern Aegean islands to Cyprus ; Near and Middle East including Arabian Peninsula coastlands , south to Sinai and east to SW Iran . Might include African populations assigned to alba . T. a . hellmayri ( Griscom & Greenway , 1937 ) Similar to tuidara but larger . NE South American lowlands from E Venezuela south to the Amazon River . Doubtfully distinct from tuidara . T. a . bondi ( Parks & Phillips , 1978 ) Similar to pratincola ; smaller and paler on average . Endemic to Roatán and Guanaja in the Bay Islands . Doubtfully distinct from pratincola . T. a . niveicauda ( Parks & Phillips , 1978 ) Large . Similar to furcata ; paler in general . Resembles Old World alba . Endemic to Isla de la Juventud . Doubtfully distinct from furcata . | Barn owl |
817708671_13716-15297 | The barn owl is a medium - sized , pale - coloured owl with long wings and a short , squarish tail . There is considerable size variation across the subspecies with a typical specimen measuring about 33 to 39 cm ( 13 to 15 in ) in overall length , with a full range of 29 to 44 cm ( 11 to 17 in ) across the species . Barn owls have a typical wingspan of some 80 to 95 cm ( 31 to 37 in ) , with a full range of 68 to 105 cm ( 27 to 41 in ) . Adult body mass is also variable with male owls from the Galapagos ( T. a . punctatissima ) weighing approximately 260 g ( 9.2 oz ) on average while male eastern barn owls ( T. javanica ) average 555 g ( 19.6 oz ) . The full known weight range for the barn owl species can range from 224 to 710 g ( 7.9 to 25.0 oz ) . In general , owls living on small islands are smaller and lighter , perhaps because they have a higher dependence on insect prey and need to be more manoeuvrable . However , the largest bodied race of barn owl , T. a . furcata from Cuba and Jamaica , is also an island race , albeit being found on more sizeable islands with larger prey and few larger owls competing for dietary resources . The shape of the tail is a means of distinguishing the barn owl from typical owls when seen in the air . Other distinguishing features are the undulating flight pattern and the dangling , feathered legs . The pale face with its heart shape and black eyes give the flying bird a distinctive appearance , like a flat mask with oversized , oblique black eye - slits , the ridge of feathers above the beak somewhat resembling a nose . | Barn owl |
817708671_15298-16668 | The bird 's head and upper body typically vary between pale brown and some shade of grey ( especially on the forehead and back ) in most subspecies . Some are purer , richer brown instead , and all have fine black - and - white speckles except on the remiges and rectrices ( main wing feathers ) , which are light brown with darker bands . The heart - shaped face is usually bright white , but in some subspecies it is brown . The left ear is slightly above the eyes on the vertical plane , whereas the right ear is slightly below the eyes . The orientation of the ear coverts in relation to the face also differs between the ears , with a difference of about 15 ° . The underparts , including the tarsometatarsal ( lower leg ) feathers , vary from white to reddish buff among the subspecies , and are either mostly unpatterned or bear a varying number of tiny blackish - brown speckles . It has been found that at least in the continental European populations , females with more spotting are healthier than plainer birds . This does not hold true for European males by contrast , where the spotting varies according to subspecies . The beak varies from pale horn to dark buff , corresponding to the general plumage hue , and the iris is blackish brown . The talons , like the beak , vary in colour , ranging from pink to dark pinkish - grey and the talons are black . | Barn owl |
817708671_16669-17064 | On average within any one population , males tend to have fewer spots on the underside and are paler in colour than females . The latter are also larger with a strong female T. alba of a large subspecies weighing over 550 g ( 19.4 oz ) , while males are typically about 10 % lighter . Nestlings are covered in white down , but the heart - shaped facial disk becomes visible soon after hatching . | Barn owl |
817708671_17065-17873 | Contrary to popular belief , the barn owl does not hoot ( such calls are made by typical owls , like the tawny owl or other members of the genus Strix ) . It instead produces the characteristic shree scream , ear - shattering at close range , an eerie , long - drawn - out shriek . Males in courtship give a shrill twitter . Both young and old can hiss like a snake to scare away intruders . Other sounds produced include a purring chirrup denoting pleasure , and a `` kee - yak '' , which resembles one of the vocalisations of the tawny owl . When captured or cornered , the barn owl throws itself on its back and flails with sharp - taloned feet , making for an effective defence . In such situations it may emit rasping sounds or clicking snaps , produced probably by the beak but possibly by the tongue . | Barn owl |
817708671_17896-18602 | The barn owl is the most widespread landbird species in the world , occurring in every continent except Antarctica . Its range includes all of Europe ( except Fennoscandia and Malta ) , most of Africa apart from the Sahara , the Indian subcontinent , Southeast Asia , Australia , many Pacific Islands , and North , Central and South America . In general it is considered to be sedentary , and indeed many individuals , having taken up residence in a particular location , remain there even when better foraging areas nearby become vacant . In the British Isles , the young seem largely to disperse along river corridors and the distance travelled from their natal site averages about 9 km ( 5.6 mi ) . Barn | Barn owl |
817708671_18657-19844 | In continental Europe the distance travelled is greater , commonly somewhere between 50 and 100 kilometres ( 31 and 62 mi ) but exceptionally 1,500 km ( 932 mi ) , with ringed birds from the Netherlands ending up in Spain and in Ukraine . In the United States , dispersal is typically over distances of 80 and 320 km ( 50 and 199 mi ) , with the most travelled individuals ending up some 1,760 km ( 1,094 mi ) from the point of origin . Movements in the African continent include 1,000 km ( 621 mi ) from Senegambia to Sierra Leone and up to 579 km ( 360 mi ) within South Africa . In Australia there is some migration as the birds move towards the northern coast in the dry season and southward in the wet , and also nomadic movements in association with rodent plagues . Occasionally , some of these birds turn up on Norfolk Island , Lord Howe Island or New Zealand , showing that crossing the ocean is not beyond their capabilities . In 2008 , barn owls were recorded for the first time breeding in New Zealand . The barn owl has been successfully introduced into the Hawaiian island of Kauai in an attempt to control rodents , however it has been found to also feed on native birds . | Barn owl |
817708671_19896-20743 | Like most owls , the barn owl is nocturnal , relying on its acute sense of hearing when hunting in complete darkness . It often becomes active shortly before dusk and can sometimes be seen during the day when relocating from one roosting site to another . In Britain , on various Pacific Islands and perhaps elsewhere , it sometimes hunts by day . This practice may depend on whether the owl is mobbed by other birds if it emerges in daylight . However , in Britain , some birds continue to hunt by day even when mobbed by such birds as magpies , rooks and black - headed gulls , such diurnal activity possibly occurring when the previous night has been wet making hunting difficult . By contrast , in southern Europe and the tropics , the birds seem to be almost exclusively nocturnal , with the few birds that hunt by day being severely mobbed . | Barn owl |
817708671_20744-21512 | Barn owls are not particularly territorial but have a home range inside which they forage . For males in Scotland this has a radius of about 1 km ( 0.6 mi ) from the nest site and an average size of about 300 hectares . Female home ranges largely coincide with that of their mates . Outside the breeding season , males and females usually roost separately , each one having about three favoured sites in which to conceal themselves by day , and which are also visited for short periods during the night . Roosting sites include holes in trees , fissures in cliffs , disused buildings , chimneys and haysheds and are often small in comparison to nesting sites . As the breeding season approaches , the birds move back to the vicinity of the chosen nest to roost . Being | Barn owl |
817708671_21557-22687 | The barn owl is a bird of open country such as farmland or grassland with some interspersed woodland , usually at altitudes below 2,000 metres ( 6,600 ft ) but occasionally as high as 3,000 metres ( 9,800 ft ) in the tropics . This owl prefers to hunt along the edges of woods or in rough grass strips adjoining pasture . It has an effortless wavering flight as it quarters the ground , alert to the sounds made by potential prey . Like most owls , the barn owl flies silently ; tiny serrations on the leading edges of its flight feathers and a hairlike fringe to the trailing edges help to break up the flow of air over the wings , thereby reducing turbulence and the noise that accompanies it . Hairlike extensions to the barbules of its feathers , which give the plumage a soft feel , also minimise noise produced during wingbeats . The behaviour and ecological preferences may differ slightly even among neighbouring subspecies , as shown in the case of the European T. a . guttata and T. a . alba that probably evolved , respectively , in allopatric glacial refugia in southeastern Europe , and in Iberia or southern France . | Barn owl |
817708671_22748-23434 | The diet of the barn owl has been much studied ; the items consumed can be ascertained from identifying the prey fragments in the pellets of indigestible matter that the bird regurgitates . Studies of diet have been made in most parts of the bird 's range , and in moist temperate areas over 90 % of the prey tends to be small mammals , whereas in hot , dry , unproductive areas , the proportion is lower , and a great variety of other creatures are eaten depending on local abundance . Most prey is terrestrial but bats and birds are also taken , as well as lizards , amphibians and insects . Even when they are plentiful and other prey scarce , earthworms do not seem to be consumed . | Barn owl |
817708671_23435-24575 | In North America and most of Europe , voles predominate in the diet and shrews are the second most common food choice . Mice and rats form the main foodstuffs in the Mediterranean region , the tropics , sub-tropics and Australia . Barn owls are usually more specialist feeders in productive areas and generalists in drier areas . On the Cape Verde Islands , geckos are the mainstay of the diet , supplemented by birds such as plovers , godwits , turnstones , weavers and pratincoles , and on a rocky islet off the coast of California , a clutch of four young were being reared on a diet of Leach 's storm petrel ( Oceanodroma leucorhoa ) . In Ireland , the accidental introduction of the bank vole in the 1950s led to a major shift in the barn owl 's diet : where their ranges overlap , the vole is now by far the largest prey item . Locally superabundant rodent species in the weight class of several grams per individual usually make up the single largest proportion of prey . In the United States , rodents and other small mammals usually make up ninety - five percent of the diet and worldwide , over ninety percent of the prey caught . | Barn owl |
817708671_24576-25371 | The barn owl hunts by flying slowly , quartering the ground and hovering over spots that may conceal prey . It may also use branches , fence posts or other lookouts to scan its surroundings , and this is the main means of prey location in the oil palm plantations of Malaysia . The bird has long , broad wings , enabling it to manoeuvre and turn abruptly . Its legs and toes are long and slender which improves its ability to forage among dense foliage or beneath the snow and gives it a wide spread of talons when attacking prey . Studies have shown that an individual barn owl may eat one or more voles ( or their equivalent ) per night , equivalent to about twenty - three percent of the bird 's bodyweight . Excess food is often cached at roosting sites and can be used when food is scarce . | Barn owl |
817708671_25372-26275 | Small prey is usually torn into chunks and eaten completely including bones and fur , while prey larger than about 100 g ( 4 oz ) , such as baby rabbits , Cryptomys blesmols , or Otomys vlei rats , is usually dismembered and the inedible parts discarded . Contrary to what is sometimes assumed , the barn owl does not eat domestic animals on any sort of regular basis . Regionally , non-rodent foods are used as per availability . On bird - rich islands , a barn owl might include some fifteen to twenty percent of birds in its diet , while in grassland it will gorge itself on swarming termites , or on Orthoptera such as Copiphorinae katydids , Jerusalem crickets ( Stenopelmatidae ) or true crickets ( Gryllidae ) . Bats and even frogs , lizards and snakes may make a minor but significant contribution to the diet ; small Soricomorpha like Suncus shrews may be a secondary prey of major importance . | Barn owl |
817708671_26276-27331 | The barn owl has acute hearing , with ears placed asymmetrically . This improves detection of sound position and distance and the bird does not require sight to hunt . The facial disc plays a part in this process , as is shown by the fact that with the ruff feathers removed , the bird can still locate the source in azimuth but fails to do so in elevation . Hunting nocturnally or crepuscularly , this bird can target its prey and dive to the ground , penetrating its talons through snow , grass or brush to seize small creatures with deadly accuracy . Compared to other owls of similar size , the barn owl has a much higher metabolic rate , requiring relatively more food . Weight for weight , barn owls consume more rodents -- often regarded as pests by humans -- than possibly any other creature . This makes the barn owl one of the most economically valuable wildlife animals for agriculture . Farmers often find these owls more effective than poison in keeping down rodent pests , and they can encourage barn owl habitation by providing nest sites . | Barn owl |
817708671_27394-28524 | Barn owls living in tropical regions can breed at any time of year , but some seasonality in nesting is still evident . Where there are distinct wet and dry seasons , egg - laying usually takes place during the dry season , with increased rodent prey becoming available to the birds as the vegetation dies off . In arid regions , such as parts of Australia , breeding may be irregular and may happen in wet periods , triggered by temporary increases in the populations of small mammals . In temperate climates , nesting seasons become more distinct and there are some seasons of the year when no egg - laying takes place . In Europe and North America , most nesting takes place between March and June when temperatures are increasing . The actual dates of egg - laying vary by year and by location , being correlated with the amount of prey - rich foraging habitat around the nest site and often with the phase of the rodent abundance cycle . An increase in rodent populations will usually stimulate the local barn owls to begin nesting ; thus , even in the cooler parts of its range , two broods are often raised in a good year . | Barn owl |
817708671_28525-29497 | Females are ready to breed at ten to eleven months of age although males sometimes wait till the following year . Barn owls are usually monogamous , sticking to one partner for life unless one of the pair dies . During the non-breeding season they may roost separately , but as the breeding season approaches they return to their established nesting site , showing considerable site fidelity . In colder climates , in harsh weather and where winter food supplies may be scarce , they may roost in farm buildings and in barns between hay bales , but they then run the risk that their selected nesting hole may be taken over by some other , earlier - nesting species . Single males may establish feeding territories , patrolling the hunting areas , occasionally stopping to hover , and perching on lofty eminences where they screech to attract a mate . Where a female has lost her mate but maintained her breeding site , she usually seems to manage to attract a new spouse . | Barn owl |
817708671_29498-30351 | Once a pair - bond has been formed , the male will make short flights at dusk around the nesting and roosting sites and then longer circuits to establish a home range . When he is later joined by the female , there is much chasing , turning and twisting in flight , and frequent screeches , the male 's being high - pitched and tremulous and the female 's lower and harsher . At later stages of courtship , the male emerges at dusk , climbs high into the sky and then swoops back to the vicinity of the female at speed . He then sets off to forage . The female meanwhile sits in an eminent position and preens , returning to the nest a minute or two before the male arrives with food for her . Such feeding behaviour of the female by the male is common , helps build the pair - bond and increases the female 's fitness before egg - laying commences . An | Barn owl |
817708671_30462-31477 | Barn owls are cavity nesters . They choose holes in trees , fissures in cliff faces , the large nests of other birds such as the hamerkop ( Scopus umbretta ) and , particularly in Europe and North America , old buildings such as farm sheds and church towers . Buildings are preferred to trees in wetter climates in the British Isles and provide better protection for fledglings from inclement weather . Trees tend to be in open habitats rather than in the middle of woodland and nest holes tend to be higher in North America than in Europe because of possible predation by raccoons ( Procyon lotor ) . No nesting material is used as such but , as the female sits incubating the eggs , she draws in the dry furry material of which her regurgitated pellets are composed , so that by the time the chicks are hatched , they are surrounded by a carpet of shredded pellets . Oftentimes other birds such as jackdaws ( Corvus monedula ) nest in the same hollow tree or building and seem to live harmoniously with the owls . | Barn owl |
817708671_31478-32585 | Before commencing laying , the female spends much time near the nest and is entirely provisioned by the male . Meanwhile , the male roosts nearby and may cache any prey that is surplus to their requirements . When the female has reached peak weight , the male provides a ritual presentation of food and copulation occurs at the nest . The female lays eggs on alternate days and the clutch size averages about five eggs ( range two to nine ) . The eggs are chalky white , somewhat elliptical and about the size of bantam 's eggs , and incubation begins as soon as the first egg is laid . While she is sitting on the nest , the male is constantly bringing more provisions and they may pile up beside the female . The incubation period is about thirty days , hatching takes place over a prolonged period and the youngest chick may be several weeks younger than its oldest sibling . In years with plentiful supplies of food , there may be a hatching success rate of about 75 % . The male continues to copulate with the female when he brings food which makes the newly hatched chicks vulnerable to injury . Brood | Barn owl |
817708671_32644-33842 | The chicks are at first covered with greyish - white down and develop rapidly . Within a week they can hold their heads up and shuffle around in the nest . The female tears up the food brought by the male and distributes it to the chicks . Initially these make a `` chittering '' sound but this soon changes into a food - demanding `` snore '' . By two weeks old they are already half their adult weight and look naked as the amount of down is insufficient to cover their growing bodies . By three weeks old , quills are starting to push through the skin and the chicks stand , making snoring noises with wings raised and tail stumps waggling , begging for food items which are now given whole . The male is the main provider of food until all the chicks are at least four weeks old at which time the female begins to leave the nest and starts to roost elsewhere . By the sixth week the chicks are as big as the adults but have slimmed down somewhat by the ninth week when they are fully fledged and start leaving the nest briefly themselves . They are still dependent on the parent birds until about thirteen weeks and receive training from the female in finding , and eventually catching , prey . | Barn owl |
817708671_33861-34874 | Feathers become abraded over time and all birds need to replace them at intervals . Barn owls are particularly dependent on their ability to fly quietly and manoeuvre efficiently , and in temperate areas their prolonged moult lasts through three phases over a period of two years . The female starts to moult while incubating the eggs and brooding the chicks , a time when the male feeds her so she does not need to fly much . The first primary feather to be shed is the central one , number 6 , and it has regrown completely by the time the female resumes hunting . Feathers 4 , 5 , 7 and 8 are dropped at a similar time the following year and feathers 1 , 2 , 3 , 9 and 10 in the bird 's third year of adulthood . The secondary and tail feathers are lost and replaced over a similar timescale , again starting while incubation is taking place . In the case of the tail , the two outermost tail feathers are first shed followed by the two central ones , the other tail feathers being moulted the following year . | Barn owl |
817708671_34875-35698 | In temperate areas , the male owl moults rather later in the year than the female , at a time when there is an abundance of food , the female has recommenced hunting and the demands of the chicks are lessening . Unmated males without family responsibilities often start losing feathers earlier in the year . The moult follows a similar prolonged pattern to that of the female and the first sign that the male is moulting is often when a tail feather has been dropped at the roost . A consequence of moulting is the loss of thermal insulation . This is of little importance in the tropics and barn owls here usually moult a complete complement of flight feathers annually . The hot - climate moult may still take place over a long period but is usually concentrated at a particular time of year outside the breeding season . | Barn owl |
817708671_35732-36827 | Predators of the barn owl include large American opossums ( Didelphis ) , the common raccoon , and similar carnivorous mammals , as well as eagles , larger hawks and other owls . Among the latter , the great horned owl ( Bubo virginianus ) in the Americas and the Eurasian eagle - owl ( B. bubo ) are noted predators of barn owls . Despite some sources claiming that there is little evidence of predation by great horned owls , one study from Washington found that 10.9 % of the local great horned owl 's diet was made up of barn owls . In Africa , the principle predators of barn owls are Verreaux 's eagle - owls and cape eagle - owls . In Europe , although less dangerous than the eagle owl , the chief diurnal predators are the northern goshawk ( Accipiter gentilis ) and the common buzzard ( Buteo buteo ) . About a dozen other large diurnal raptors and owls have also been reported as predators of barn owls , ranging from the scarcely larger tawny owl to the golden eagle . The goshawk and the eagle owl are on the increase because of the greater protection these birds now receive . Play | Barn owl |
817708671_36880-37217 | When disturbed at its roosting site , an angry barn owl lowers its head and sways it from side to side , or the head may be lowered and stretched forward and the wings drooped while the bird emits hisses and makes snapping noises with its beak . A defensive attitude involves lying flat on the ground or crouching with wings spread out . | Barn owl |
817708671_37218-38210 | Barn owls are hosts to a wide range of parasites . Fleas are present at nesting sites and externally the birds are attacked by feather lice and feather mites which chew the barbules of the feathers and which are transferred from bird to bird by direct contact . Blood - sucking flies such as Ornithomyia avicularia are often present , moving about among the plumage . Internal parasites include the fluke Strigea strigis , the tape worm Paruternia candelabraria , several species of parasitic round worm and spiny - headed worms in the genus Centrorhynchus . These gut parasites are acquired when the birds feed on infected prey which provide intermediate hosts for the parasites . There is some indication that female birds with more and larger spots have a greater resistance to external parasites . This is correlated with smaller bursae of Fabricius , glands associated with antibody production , and a lower fecundity of the blood - sucking fly Carnus hemapterus that attacks nestlings . | Barn owl |
817708671_38316-39395 | Unusually for such a medium - sized carnivorous animal , the barn owl exhibits r - selection , producing large number of offspring with a high growth rate , many of which have a relatively low probability of surviving to adulthood . While wild barn owls are thus decidedly short - lived , the actual longevity of the species is much higher -- captive individuals may reach twenty years of age or more . But occasionally , a wild bird reaches an advanced age . The American record age for a wild barn owl is eleven and a half years , while a Dutch bird was noted to have reached an age of seventeen years , ten months . Another captive barn owl , in England , lived to be over twenty - five years old . Taking into account such extremely long - lived individuals , the average lifespan of the barn owl is about four years , and statistically two - thirds to three - quarters of all adults survive from one year to the next . However , the mortality is not evenly distributed throughout the bird 's life , and only one young in three manages to live to its first breeding attempt . | Barn owl |
817708671_39396-40247 | The most significant cause of death in temperate areas is likely to be starvation , particularly over the autumn and winter period when first year birds are still perfecting their hunting skills . In northern and upland areas , there is some correlation between mortality in older birds and adverse weather , deep - lying snow and prolonged low temperatures . Collision with road vehicles is another cause of mortality , and may result when birds forage on mown verges . Some of these birds are in poor condition and may have been less able to evade oncoming vehicles than fit individuals would have been . Historically , many deaths were caused by the use of pesticides , and this may still be the case in some parts of the world . Collisions with power - lines kill some birds and shooting accounts for others , especially in Mediterranean regions . | Barn owl |
817708671_40336-41274 | Barn owls are relatively common throughout most of their range and not considered globally threatened . However , locally severe declines from organochlorine ( e.g. , DDT ) poisoning in the mid-20th century and rodenticides in the late 20th century have affected some populations , particularly in Europe and North America . Intensification of agricultural practices often means that the rough grassland that provides the best foraging habitat is lost . While barn owls are prolific breeders and able to recover from short - term population decreases , they are not as common in some areas as they used to be . A 1995 -- 1997 survey put their British population at between 3,000 and 5,000 breeding pairs , out of an average of about 150,000 pairs in the whole of Europe . In the USA , barn owls are listed as endangered species in seven Midwestern states , and in the European Community they are considered a Species of European Concern . | Barn owl |
817708671_41275-42160 | On Lanzarote a somewhat larger number of these birds still seem to exist , but altogether this particular subspecies is precariously rare : Probably less than three hundred and perhaps fewer than two hundred individuals still remain . Similarly , the birds on the western Canary Islands which are usually assigned to the nominate subspecies have declined much , and here wanton destruction seems still to be significant . On Tenerife they seem relatively numerous but on the other islands , the situation looks about as bleak as on Fuerteventura . Due to their assignment to the nominate subspecies , which is common in mainland Spain , the western Canary Islands population is not classified as threatened . The Canary barn owl is particularly at risk , and as late as 1975 , hunting by fearful locals was limiting the population on Fuerteventura where only a few dozen pairs remain . | Barn owl |
817708671_42161-42411 | In some areas , it may be an insufficiency of suitable nesting sites that is the factor limiting barn owl numbers . Nest boxes are popular among conservationists who motivate farmers and land owners to install them for use as natural rodent control . | Barn owl |
817708671_42438-43177 | Common names such as `` demon owl '' , `` death owl '' , `` ghost owl '' or `` lich owl '' ( from lich , an old term for a corpse ) show that traditionally , rural populations in many places considered barn owls to be birds of evil omen . For example , the Tzeltal people in Mexico regard them as `` disease givers '' . These owls do n't `` hoot '' but emit raspy screeches and hissing noises or that their white face and underbelly feathers that are visible as they fly overhead make them look `` ghostly '' . Consequently , they were often persecuted by farmers who were unaware of the benefits these birds bring . Negative emotions can also be attributed to the false belief that they could eat large animals such as chickens and cats . | Barn owl |
817708671_43198-43419 | The provision of nest boxes under the eaves of buildings and in other locations can be very successful in increasing the local population . The upper bound to the number of barn owl pairs is set by food or nesting sites . | Barn owl |
817708671_43420-43841 | Nest boxes are used primarily when populations suffer declines although these have many causes . Among them are the availability of natural sites . Early successes among conservationists have led to the widespread application of this method which has become the most used form of population management . The barn owl accepts the provided nest boxes and sometimes prefers them to natural sites , when these are available . | Barn owl |
817708671_43864-44378 | A nest box can also be regarded as an animal surveillance device . Surveilling animals can lead to the discovery of new scientific and industrial fields . For example , biologists and engineers can work on barn owl surveillance techniques and devices , while social scientists document the practices that cause humans to observe an animal . While the diet of the barn owl has been studied , other areas like breeding success are not well known . Nest boxes provide direct physical access to the breeding location . | Barn owl |
817708671_44379-44654 | In Switzerland , a research group aims to install RFID tag readers on the entrance of the nest boxes , thus allowing tracking of barn owl movements from nest box to nest box . Information about the behavior of the owls prior to breeding could be obtained using surveillance . | Barn owl |
817708671_44655-45214 | In the United Kingdom , the `` Barn Owl Nest Box Scheme '' is promoted by the World Owl Trust and has many participants in local areas such as Somerset , where a webcam has been set up inside a nest box in which seven young were reared in 2014 . Another barn owl nest box live - streaming webcam located in California , United States has proved popular online . In May 2012 , it was revealed that farmers in Israel and Jordan had , over a period of ten years , replaced pesticides with barn owls in a joint conservation venture called `` Project Barn Owl '' . | Barn owl |
817708671_45215-45335 | Other research tools include using GPS trackers fitted onto the barn owl allowing precise location tracking of the owl . | Barn owl |
817708671_45382-45602 | In some projects , use of rodenticides for biological pest control was replaced by the installation of nest boxes . It has been shown that the use of nest boxes is less costly than traditional control with rodenticides . | Barn owl |
817708671_45603-45837 | In Israel , a first use for pest control was in 1983 at the Kibbutz Sde Eliyahu , where pesticides were becoming a health hazard to local residents . A local farmer sought after an alternative which he found in installing nest boxes . | Barn owl |
817708671_45838-46629 | In Malaysia , large areas of rainforest were felled to make way for oil palm plantations and with few tree cavities for breeding , the barn owl population , with its ability to control rodent pests , diminished . The provision of two hundred nest boxes in a trial saw almost one hundred percent occupancy and as the programme expanded , the plantations supported one of the densest barn owl populations in the world . Similarly , providing nesting boxes has increased the number of barn owls in rice - growing areas of Malaysia where the rodents do much damage to the crop . However , although barn owl numbers have increased in both these instances , it is unclear as to how effective this biological control of the rats is as compared to the trapping and baiting that occurred previously . | Barn owl |
778947239_143-369 | The Way of the World Facsimile of the original title page for The Way of the World published in 1700 Written by William Congreve Date premiered 1700 Place premiered Lincoln 's Inn Fields Genre Restoration comedy Setting London | The Way of the World |
778947239_370-786 | The Way of the World is a play written by the English playwright William Congreve . It premiered in early March 1700 in the theatre in Lincoln 's Inn Fields in London . It is widely regarded as one of the best Restoration comedies and is still occasionally performed . At the time , however , the play struck many audience members as continuing the immorality of the previous decades , and it was not well received . | The Way of the World |
778947239_961-1358 | The play is centred on the two lovers Mirabell and Millamant ( originally played by John Verbruggen and Anne Bracegirdle ) . In order for them to marry and receive Millamant 's full dowry , Mirabell must receive the blessing of Millamant 's aunt , Lady Wishfort . Unfortunately , Lady Wishfort is a very bitter lady who despises Mirabell and wants her own nephew , Sir Wilfull , to wed Millamant . | The Way of the World |
778947239_1359-1511 | Another character , Fainall , is having a secret affair with Mrs. Marwood , a friend of Mrs. Fainall 's , who in turn once had an affair with Mirabell . | The Way of the World |
778947239_1512-1721 | In the meantime , Mirabell 's servant is married to Foible , Lady Wishfort 's servant . Waitwell pretends to be Sir Rowland and , on Mirabell 's command , tries to trick Lady Wishfort into a false engagement . | The Way of the World |
778947239_1736-2305 | Act 1 is set in a chocolate house where Mirabell and Fainall have just finished playing cards . A footman comes and tells Mirabell that Waitwell ( Mirabell 's male servant ) and Foible ( Lady Wishfort 's female servant ) were married that morning . Mirabell tells Fainall about his love of Millamant and is encouraged to marry her . Witwoud and Petulant appear and Mirabell is informed that should Lady Wishfort marry , he will lose £ 6000 of Millamant 's inheritance. He will only get this money if he can make Lady Wishfort consent to his and Millamant 's marriage . | The Way of the World |
778947239_2306-3028 | Act 2 is set in St. James ' Park . Mrs. Fainall and Mrs. Marwood are discussing their hatred of men . Fainall appears and accuses Mrs. Marwood ( with whom he is having an affair ) of loving Mirabell ( which she does ) . Meanwhile , Mrs. Fainall ( Mirabell 's former lover ) tells Mirabell that she hates her husband , and they begin to plot to deceive Lady Wishfort into giving her consent to the marriage . Millamant appears in the park and , angry about the previous night ( when Mirabell was confronted by Lady Wishfort ) , she tells Mirabell of her displeasure in his plan , which she only has a vague idea about . After she leaves , the newly wed servants appear and Mirabell reminds them of their roles in the plan . | The Way of the World |
778947239_3029-3836 | Acts 3 , 4 and 5 are all set in the home of Lady Wishfort . We are introduced to Lady Wishfort who is encouraged by Foible to marry the supposed Sir Rowland -- Mirabell 's supposed uncle -- so that Mirabell will lose his inheritance . Sir Rowland is , however , Waitwell in disguise , and the plan is to entangle Lady Wishfort in a marriage which can not go ahead , because it would be bigamy , not to mention a social disgrace ( Waitwell is only a serving man , Lady Wishfort an aristocrat ) . Mirabell will offer to help her out of the embarrassing situation if she consents to his marriage . Later , Mrs. Fainall discusses this plan with Foible , but this is overheard by Mrs. Marwood . She later tells the plan to Fainall , who decides that he will take his wife 's money and go away with Mrs. Marwood . | The Way of the World |
778947239_3837-4667 | Mirabell and Millamant , equally strong - willed , discuss in detail the conditions under which they would accept each other in marriage ( otherwise known as the `` proviso scene '' ) , showing the depth of their feeling for each other . Mirabell finally proposes to Millamant and , with Mrs. Fainall 's encouragement ( almost consent , as Millamant knows of their previous relations ) , Millamant accepts . Mirabell leaves as Lady Wishfort arrives , and she lets it be known that she wants Millamant to marry her nephew , Sir Wilfull Witwoud , who has just arrived from the countryside . Lady Wishfort later gets a letter telling her about the Sir Rowland plot . Sir Rowland takes the letter and accuses Mirabell of trying to sabotage their wedding . Lady Wishfort agrees to let Sir Rowland bring a marriage contract that night . | The Way of the World |
778947239_4668-5622 | By Act 5 , Lady Wishfort has found out the plot , and Fainall has had Waitwell arrested . Mrs. Fainall tells Foible that her previous affair with Mirabell is now public knowledge . Lady Wishfort appears with Mrs. Marwood , whom she thanks for unveiling the plot . Fainall then appears and uses the information of Mrs. Fainall 's previous affair with Mirabell and Millamant 's contract to marry him to blackmail Lady Wishfort , telling that she should never marry and that she is to transfer her fortune to him . Lady Wishfort offers Mirabell her consent to the marriage if he can save her fortune and honour . Mirabell calls on Waitwell who brings a contract from the time before the marriage of the Fainalls in which Mrs. Fainall gives all her property to Mirabell . This neutralises the blackmail attempts , after which Mirabell restores Mrs. Fainall 's property to her possession and then is free to marry Millamant with the full £ 6000 inheritance . | The Way of the World |
778947239_5661-5843 | The epigraph found on the title page of the 1700 edition of The Way of the World contains two Latin quotations from Horace 's Satires . In their wider contexts they read in English : | The Way of the World |
778947239_5844-6378 | `` It is worthwhile , for those of you who wish adulterers no success , to hear how much misfortune they suffer , and how often their pleasure is marred by pain and , though rarely achieved , even then fraught with danger . '' `` I have no fear in her company that a husband may rush back from the country , the door burst open , the dog bark , the house shake with the din , the woman , deathly pale , leap from her bed , her complicit maid shriek , she fearing for her limbs , her guilty mistress for her dowry and I for myself . '' | The Way of the World |
778947239_6379-6472 | The quotations offer a forewarning of the chaos to ensue from both infidelity and deception . | The Way of the World |
778947239_6501-7180 | In 1700 , the world of London theatre - going had changed significantly from the days of , for example , The Country Wife . Charles II was no longer on the throne , and the jubilant court that revelled in its licentiousness and opulence had been replaced by the far more dour and utilitarian Dutch - inspired court of William of Orange . His wife , Mary II , was , long before her death , a retiring person who did not appear much in public . William himself was a military king who was reported to be hostile to drama . The political instabilities that had been beneath the surface of many Restoration comedies were still present , but with a different side seeming victorious . | The Way of the World |
778947239_7181-7871 | One of the features of a Restoration comedy is the opposition of the witty and courtly ( and Cavalier ) rake and the dull - witted man of business or the country bumpkin , who is understood to be not only unsophisticated but often ( as , for instance , in the very popular plays of Aphra Behn in the 1670s ) either Puritan or another form of dissenter . In 1685 , the courtly and Cavalier side was in power , and Restoration comedies belittled the bland and foolish losers of the Restoration . However , by 1700 , the other side was ascendant . Therefore , The Way of the World 's recreation of the older Restoration comedy 's patterns is only one of the things that made the play unusual . | The Way of the World |
778947239_7872-8361 | The 1688 revolution concerning the overthrow of James II created a new set of social codes primarily amongst the bourgeoisie . The new capitalist system meant an increasing emphasis on property and property law . Thus , the play is packed with legal jargon and financial and marital contracts . These new legal aspects allow characters like Mrs. Fainall to secure her freedom through an equitable trust and for Mirabell and Millamant 's marriage to be equal though a prenuptial agreement . | The Way of the World |
778947239_8362-8601 | This shift in social perspectives is perhaps best shown in the characters of Fainall and Mirabell , who represent respectively the old form and new form of marital relations : sexual power at first and then developing into material power . | The Way of the World |
778947239_8706-9403 | The love expressed in the play tends to be centred on material gain rather than the love of the partner . This can be seen in the scene where Millamant and Mirabell effectively carry out a pre-nuptial agreement , Millamant insisting on having all manner of liberties and powers , quite unusual for the time . None of the characters in the play can really be seen as ' good ' , and as such it is difficult to find a hero or heroine , or indeed anybody whom one would find deserving of sympathy . It is worth considering that the play itself , while often regarded as a satire on the lives of the idle - classes in 1700 , may simply testify non-satirically to the experiences of the idle - classes . | The Way of the World |
821892178_213-622 | Part of a series on the Culture of Russia History People Languages Traditions Mythology and folklore ( show ) Mythology folklore Cuisine Festivals ( show ) Public holidays Religion Art ( show ) Architecture Literature Music and performing arts ( show ) Music Media ( show ) Television Cinema Sport Monuments ( show ) World Heritage Sites Symbols ( show ) Flag Coat of arms Cultural icons Russia portal Scarlet | Russian culture |
821892178_684-1083 | Russian culture has a long history . Russia can claim a long tradition of dividend in many aspects of the arts , especially when it comes to literature and philosophy , classical music and ballet , architecture and painting , cinema and animation and politics , which all had considerable influence on world culture . The country also has a flavorful material culture and a tradition in technology . | Russian culture |
821892178_1084-2523 | Russian culture grew from that of the East Slavs , with their pagan beliefs and specific way of life in the wooded areas of far Eastern Europe . Early Russian culture was much influenced by neighbouring Finno - Ugric tribes and by the nomadic peoples of the Pontic steppe ( mainly of Kipchak and Iranic origin ) . In the late 1st millennium AD the Varangians ( supposedly Scandinavian Vikings ) , also took part in the forming of Russian identity and the Kievan Rus ' state . Orthodox Christian missionaries began arriving from the Eastern Roman Empire in the 9th century , and Kievan Rus ' converted to Orthodox Christianity in 988 . This largely defined the Russian culture of the next millennium as the synthesis of Slavic and Byzantine cultures . After the fall of Constantinople in 1453 , Russia remained the largest Orthodox nation in the world and claimed succession to the Byzantine legacy in the form of the Third Rome idea . At different points in its history , the country was also strongly influenced by the culture of Western Europe . Since the reforms of Peter the Great , for two centuries Russian culture largely developed in the general context of European culture rather than pursuing its own unique ways . The situation changed in the 20th century , when the Communist ideology became a major factor in the culture of the Soviet Union , where Russia , in the form of the Russian SFSR , was the largest and leading part . | Russian culture |
821892178_2524-2909 | Nowadays , Russian cultural heritage is ranked seventh in the Nation Brands Index , based on interviews of some 20,000 people mainly from Western countries and the Far East . Due to the relatively late involvement of Russia in modern globalization and international tourism , many aspects of Russian culture , like Russian jokes and Russian art , remain largely unknown to foreigners . | Russian culture |
821892178_3950-4796 | Russia 's 160 ethnic groups speak some 100 languages . According to the 2002 census , 142.6 million people speak Russian , followed by Tatar with 5.3 million and Ukrainian with 1.8 million speakers . Russian is the only official state language , but the Constitution gives the individual republics the right to make their native language co-official next to Russian . Despite its wide dispersal , the Russian language is homogeneous throughout Russia . Russian is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken Slavic language . Russian belongs to the Indo - European language family and is one of the living members of the East Slavic languages ; the others being Belarusian and Ukrainian ( and possibly Rusyn ) . Written examples of Old East Slavic ( Old Russian ) are attested from the 10th century onwards . | Russian culture |
821892178_4797-5119 | Over a quarter of the world 's scientific literature is published in Russian . Russian is also applied as a means of coding and storage of universal knowledge -- 60 - 70 % of all world information is published in the English and Russian languages . The language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations . | Russian culture |
821892178_5195-5594 | New Russian folklore takes its roots in the pagan beliefs of ancient Slavs which is nowadays still represented in the Russian fairy tales . Epic Russian bylinas are also an important part of Slavic mythology . The oldest bylinas of Kievan cycle were actually recorded mostly in the Russian North , especially in Karelia , where most of the Finnish national epic Kalevala was recorded as well . Buyan | Russian culture |
821892178_5611-6114 | Many Russian fairy tales and bylinas were adapted for animation films , or for feature movies by famous directors like Aleksandr Ptushko ( Ilya Muromets , Sadko ) and Aleksandr Rou ( Morozko , Vasilisa the Beautiful ) . Some Russian poets , including Pyotr Yershov and Leonid Filatov , created a number of well - known poetical interpretations of classical Russian fairy tales , and in some cases , like that of Alexander Pushkin , also created fully original fairy tale poems that became very popular . | Russian culture |
821892178_6115-6981 | Folklorists today consider the 1920s the Soviet Union 's golden age of folklore . The struggling new government , which had to focus its efforts on establishing a new administrative system and building up the nation 's backwards economy , could not be bothered with attempting to control literature , so studies of folklore thrived . There were two primary trends of folklore study during the decade : the formalist and Finnish schools . Formalism focused on the artistic form of ancient byliny and faerie tales , specifically their use of distinctive structures and poetic devices . The Finnish school was concerned with connections amongst related legends of various Eastern European regions . Finnish scholars collected comparable tales from multiple locales and analyzed their similarities and differences , hoping to trace these epic stories ' migration paths . | Russian culture |
821892178_6982-7986 | Once Joseph Stalin came to power and put his first five - year plan into motion in 1928 , the Soviet government began to criticize and censor folklore studies . Stalin and the Soviet regime repressed folklore , believing that it supported the old tsarist system and a capitalist economy . They saw it as a reminder of the backward Russian society that the Bolsheviks were working to surpass . To keep folklore studies in check and prevent `` inappropriate '' ideas from spreading amongst the masses , the government created the RAPP -- the Russian Association of Proletarian Writers . The RAPP specifically focused on censoring fairy tales and children 's literature , believing that fantasies and `` bourgeois nonsense '' harmed the development of upstanding Soviet citizens . Fairy tales were removed from bookshelves and children were encouraged to read books focusing on nature and science . RAPP eventually increased its levels of censorship and became the Union of Soviet Writers in 1932 . Bogatyrs | Russian culture |
821892178_8112-9214 | In order to continue researching and analyzing folklore , intellectuals needed to justify its worth to the Communist regime . Otherwise , collections of folklore , along with all other literature deemed useless for the purposes of Stalin 's Five Year Plan , would be an unacceptable realm of study . In 1934 , Maksim Gorky gave a speech to the Union of Soviet Writers arguing that folklore could , in fact , be consciously used to promote Communist values . Apart from expounding on the artistic value of folklore , he stressed that traditional legends and fairy tales showed ideal , community - oriented characters , which exemplified the model Soviet citizen . Folklore , with many of its conflicts based on the struggles of a labor - oriented lifestyle , was relevant to Communism as it could not have existed without the direct contribution of the working classes . Also , Gorky explained that folklore characters expressed high levels of optimism , and therefore could encourage readers to maintain a positive mindset , especially as their lives changed with the further development of Communism . | Russian culture |
821892178_9215-10790 | Yuri Sokolov , the head of the folklore section of the Union of Soviet Writers also promoted the study of folklore by arguing that folklore had originally been the oral tradition of the working people , and consequently could be used to motivate and inspire collective projects amongst the present - day proletariat . Characters throughout traditional Russian folktales often found themselves on a journey of self - discovery , a process that led them to value themselves not as individuals , but rather as a necessary part of a common whole . The attitudes of such legendary characters paralleled the mindset that the Soviet government wished to instill in its citizens . He also pointed out the existence of many tales that showed members of the working class outsmarting their cruel masters , again working to prove folklore 's value to Soviet ideology and the nation 's society at large . Convinced by Gorky and Sokolov 's arguments , the Soviet government and the Union of Soviet Writers began collecting and evaluating folklore from across the country . The Union handpicked and recorded particular stories that , in their eyes , sufficiently promoted the collectivist spirit and showed the Soviet regime 's benefits and progress . It then proceeded to redistribute copies of approved stories throughout the population . Meanwhile , local folklore centers arose in all major cities . Responsible for advocating a sense of Soviet nationalism , these organizations ensured that the media published appropriate versions of Russian folktales in a systematic fashion . Sadko | Russian culture |
821892178_10831-12256 | Apart from circulating government - approved fairy tales and byliny that already existed , during Stalin 's rule authors parroting appropriate Soviet ideologies wrote Communist folktales and introduced them to the population . These contemporary folktales combined the structures and motifs of the old byliny with contemporary life in the Soviet Union . Called noviny , these new tales were considered the renaissance of the Russian epic . Folklorists were called upon to teach modern folksingers the conventional style and structure of the traditional byliny . They also explained to the performers the appropriate types of Communist ideology that should be represented in the new stories and songs As the performers of the day were often poorly educated , they needed to obtain a thorough understanding of Marxist ideology before they could be expected to impart folktales to the public in a manner that suited the Soviet government . Besides undergoing extensive education , many folk performers traveled throughout the nation in order to gain insight into the lives of the working class , and thus communicate their stories more effectively . Due to their crucial role in spreading Communist ideals throughout the Soviet Union , eventually some of these performers became highly valued members of Soviet society . A number of them , despite their illiteracy , were even elected as members of the Union of Soviet Writers . | Russian culture |
821892178_12257-13541 | These new Soviet fairy tales and folk songs primarily focused on the contrasts between a miserable life in old tsarist Russia and an improved one under Stalin 's leadership . Their characters represented identities for which Soviet citizens should strive , exemplifying the traits of the `` New Soviet Man . '' The heroes of Soviet tales were meant to portray a transformed and improved version of the average citizen , giving the reader a clear goal for an ideal community - oriented self that the future he or she was meant to become . These new folktales replaced magic with technology , and supernatural forces with Stalin . Instead of receiving essential advice from a mythical being , the protagonist would be given advice from omniscient Stalin . If the character followed Stalin 's divine advice , he could be assured success in all his endeavors and a complete transformation into the `` New Soviet Man . '' The villains of these contemporary fairy tales were the Whites and their leader Idolisce , `` the most monstrous idol , '' who was the equivalent of the tsar . Descriptions of the Whites in noviny mirrored those of the Tartars in byliny . In these new stories , the Whites were incompetent , stagnant capitalists , while the Soviet citizens became invincible heroes . | Russian culture |
821892178_13542-14420 | Once Stalin died in March 1953 , folklorists of the period quickly abandoned the new folktales . Written by individual authors and performers , noviny did not come from the oral traditions of the working class . Consequently , today they are considered pseudo-folklore , rather than genuine Soviet ( or Russian ) folklore . Without any true connection to the masses , there was no reason noviny should be considered anything other than contemporary literature . Specialists decided that attempts to represent contemporary life through the structure and artistry of the ancient epics could not be considered genuine folklore . Stalin 's name has been omitted from the few surviving pseudo-folktales of the period . Instead of considering folklore under Stalin a renaissance of the traditional Russian epic , today it is generally regarded as a period of restraint and falsehood . | Russian culture |
821892178_14552-15693 | Russian literature is considered to be among the most influential and developed in the world , with some of the most famous literary works belonging to it . Russia 's literary history dates back to the 10th century ; in the 18th century its development was boosted by the works of Mikhail Lomonosov and Denis Fonvizin , and by the early 19th century a modern native tradition had emerged , producing some of the greatest writers of all time . This period and the Golden Age of Russian Poetry began with Alexander Pushkin , considered to be the founder of modern Russian literature and often described as the `` Russian Shakespeare '' or the `` Russian Goethe '' . It continued in the 19th century with the poetry of Mikhail Lermontov and Nikolay Nekrasov , dramas of Aleksandr Ostrovsky and Anton Chekhov , and the prose of Nikolai Gogol , Ivan Turgenev , Leo Tolstoy , Fyodor Dostoyevsky , Mikhail Saltykov - Shchedrin , Ivan Goncharov , Aleksey Pisemsky and Nikolai Leskov . Tolstoy and Dostoyevsky in particular were titanic figures , to the point that many literary critics have described one or the other as the greatest novelist ever . | Russian culture |
821892178_15694-16354 | By the 1880s Russian literature had begun to change . The age of the great novelists was over and short fiction and poetry became the dominant genres of Russian literature for the next several decades , which later became known as the Silver Age of Russian Poetry . Previously dominated by realism , Russian literature came under strong influence of symbolism in the years between 1893 and 1914 . Leading writers of this age include Valery Bryusov , Andrei Bely , Vyacheslav Ivanov , Aleksandr Blok , Nikolay Gumilev , Dmitry Merezhkovsky , Fyodor Sologub , Anna Akhmatova , Osip Mandelstam , Marina Tsvetaeva , Leonid Andreyev , Ivan Bunin , and Maxim Gorky . | Russian culture |
821892178_16355-17331 | Following the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the ensuing civil war , Russian cultural life was left in chaos . Some prominent writers , like Ivan Bunin and Vladimir Nabokov left the country , while a new generation of talented writers joined together in different organizations with the aim of creating a new and distinctive working - class culture appropriate for the new state , the Soviet Union . Throughout the 1920s writers enjoyed broad tolerance . In the 1930s censorship over literature was tightened in line with Joseph Stalin 's policy of socialist realism . After his death the restrictions on literature were eased , and by the 1970s and 1980s , writers were increasingly ignoring official guidelines . The leading authors of the Soviet era included Yevgeny Zamiatin , Isaac Babel , Vladimir Mayakovsky , Ilf and Petrov , Yury Olesha , Mikhail Bulgakov , Boris Pasternak , Mikhail Sholokhov , Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn , Yevgeny Yevtushenko , and Andrey Voznesensky . | Russian culture |
821892178_17332-17656 | The Soviet era was also the golden age of Russian science fiction , that was initially inspired by western authors and enthusiastically developed with the success of Soviet space program . Authors like Arkady and Boris Strugatsky , Kir Bulychov , Ivan Yefremov , Alexander Belayev enjoyed mainstream popularity at the time . | Russian culture |
821892178_17657-17834 | Pushkin ( 1799 -- 1837 ) Gogol ( 1809 -- 1852 ) Turgenev ( 1818 -- 1883 ) Dostoevsky ( 1821 -- 1881 ) Tolstoy ( 1828 -- 1910 ) Chekhov ( 1860 -- 1904 ) Bulgakov ( 1891 -- 1940 ) | Russian culture |
821892178_17889-18431 | Some Russian writers , like Tolstoy and Dostoyevsky , are known also as philosophers , while many more authors are known primarily for their philosophical works . Russian philosophy blossomed since the 19th century , when it was defined initially by the opposition of Westernizers , advocating Russia 's following the Western political and economical models , and Slavophiles , insisting on developing Russia as a unique civilization . The latter group includes Nikolai Danilevsky and Konstantin Leontiev , the early founders of eurasianism . | Russian culture |
821892178_18432-18904 | In its further development , Russian philosophy was always marked by a deep connection to literature and interest in creativity , society , politics and nationalism ; cosmos and religion were other primary subjects . Notable philosophers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries include Vladimir Solovyov , Sergei Bulgakov , Pavel Florensky , Nikolai Berdyaev , Vladimir Lossky and Vladimir Vernadsky . In the 20th century Russian philosophy became dominated by Marxism . | Russian culture |
821892178_18905-19033 | Bakunin ( 1814 -- 1876 ) Kropotkin ( 1842 -- 1921 ) Solovyov ( 1853 -- 1900 ) Shestov ( 1866 -- 1938 ) Berdyaev ( 1874 -- 1948 ) | Russian culture |
821892178_19114-19360 | Russia owes much of its wit to the great flexibility and richness of the Russian language , allowing for puns and unexpected associations . As with any other nation , its vast scope ranges from lewd jokes and silly word play to political satire . | Russian culture |
821892178_19361-19776 | Russian jokes , the most popular form of Russian humour , are short fictional stories or dialogues with a punch line . Russian joke culture features a series of categories with fixed and highly familiar settings and characters . Surprising effects are achieved by an endless variety of plots . Russians love jokes on topics found everywhere in the world , be it politics , spouse relations , or mothers - in - law . | Russian culture |
821892178_19777-20268 | Chastushka , a type of traditional Russian poetry , is a single quatrain in trochaic tetrameter with an `` abab '' or `` abcb '' rhyme scheme . Usually humorous , satirical , or ironic in nature , chastushkas are often put to music as well , usually with balalaika or accordion accompaniment . The rigid , short structure ( and to a lesser degree , the type of humor these use ) parallels limericks . The name originates from the Russian word части́ть , meaning `` to speak fast . '' | Russian culture |
821892178_20448-21477 | Russian architecture began with the woodcraft buildings of ancient Slavs . Since the Christianization of Kievan Rus ' , for several centuries Russian architecture was influenced predominantly by the Byzantine architecture , until the Fall of Constantinople . Apart from fortifications ( kremlins ) , the main stone buildings of ancient Rus ' were Orthodox churches , with their many domes , often gilded or brightly painted . Aristotle Fioravanti and other Italian architects brought Renaissance trends into Russia . The 16th century saw the development of unique tent - like churches culminating in Saint Basil 's Cathedral . By that time the onion dome design was also fully developed . In the 17th century , the `` fiery style '' of ornamentation flourished in Moscow and Yaroslavl , gradually paving the way for the Naryshkin baroque of the 1690s . After Peter the Great reforms had made Russia much closer to Western culture , the change of the architectural styles in the country generally followed that of Western Europe . | Russian culture |
821892178_21478-22885 | The 18th - century taste for rococo architecture led to the splendid works of Bartolomeo Rastrelli and his followers . During the reign of Catherine the Great and her grandson Alexander I , the city of Saint Petersburg was transformed into an outdoor museum of Neoclassical architecture . The second half of the 19th century was dominated by the Byzantine and Russian Revival style ( this corresponds to Gothic Revival in Western Europe ) . Prevalent styles of the 20th century were the Art Nouveau ( Fyodor Shekhtel ) , Constructivism ( Moisei Ginzburg and Victor Vesnin ) , and the Stalin Empire style ( Boris Iofan ) . After Stalin 's death a new Soviet leader , Nikita Khrushchev , condemned the `` excesses '' of the former architectural styles , and in the late Soviet era the architecture of the country was dominated by plain functionalism . This helped somewhat to resolve the housing problem , but created the large massives of buildings of low architectural quality , much in contrast with the previous bright architecture . After the end of the Soviet Union the situation improved . Many churches demolished in the Soviet times were rebuilt , and this process continues along with the restoration of various historical buildings destroyed in World War II . As for the original architecture , there is no more any common style in modern Russia , though International style has a great influence . | Russian culture |
821892178_22927-23706 | Saint Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod Golden Gate ( Vladimir ) Cathedral of Christ the Saviour Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir Cathedral of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Archangel Cathedral of the Dormition Church of the Savior on Blood Saint Basil 's Cathedral Kazan Kremlin Saint Isaac 's Cathedral Kazan Cathedral Peter and Paul Cathedral Sukharev Tower Menshikov Tower Moscow Manege Narva Triumphal Gate Kolomenskoye Peterhof Palace Gatchina Troitse - Sergiyeva Lavra Solovetsky Monastery Kunstkamera Russian Museum Catherine Palace Grand Kremlin Palace Winter Palace Simonov Monastery Novodevichy Convent Lenin 's Mausoleum Tatlin 's Tower Palace of the Soviets Seven Sisters ( Moscow ) All - Soviet Exhibition Centre Ostankino Tower Triumph - Palace White House of Russia | Russian culture |
821892178_23776-24498 | Matryoshka doll is a Russian nesting doll . A set of Matryoshka dolls consist of a wooden figure which can be pulled apart to reveal another figure of the same sort but somewhat smaller inside . It has in turn another somewhat smaller figure inside , and so on . The number of nested figures is usually six or more . The shape is mostly cylindrical , rounded at the top for the head and tapered towards the bottom , but little else . The dolls have no extremities , ( except those that are painted ) . The true artistry is in the painting of each doll , which can be extremely elaborate . The theme is usually peasant girls in traditional dress , but can be almost anything ; for instance , fairy tales or Soviet leaders . | Russian culture |
821892178_24499-24632 | Other forms of Russian handicraft include khokhloma , Dymkovo toy , gzhel , Zhostovo painting , Filimonov toys , pisanka and palekh . | Russian culture |
821892178_24718-25409 | Russian icons are typically paintings on wood , often small , though some in churches and monasteries may be as large as a table top . Many religious homes in Russia have icons hanging on the wall in the krasny ugol , the `` red '' or `` beautiful '' corner ( see Icon Corner ) . There is a rich history and elaborate religious symbolism associated with icons . In Russian churches , the nave is typically separated from the sanctuary by an iconostasis ( Russian ikonostás ) a wall of icons . Icon paintings in Russia attempted to help people with their prayers without idolizing the figure in the painting . The most comprehensive collection of Icon art is found at the Tretyakov Gallery . | Russian culture |
821892178_25410-26154 | The use and making of icons entered Kievan Rus ' following its conversion to Orthodox Christianity from the Eastern Roman ( Byzantine ) Empire in 988 AD . As a general rule , these icons strictly followed models and formulas hallowed by usage , some of which had originated in Constantinople . As time passed , the Russians -- notably Andrei Rublev and Dionisius -- widened the vocabulary of iconic types and styles far beyond anything found elsewhere . The personal , improvisatory and creative traditions of Western European religious art are largely lacking in Russia before the seventeenth century , when Simon Ushakov 's painting became strongly influenced by religious paintings and engravings from Protestant as well as Catholic Europe . | Russian culture |
821892178_26155-26870 | In the mid-seventeenth century , changes in liturgy and practice instituted by Patriarch Nikon resulted in a split in the Russian Orthodox Church . The traditionalists , the persecuted `` Old Ritualists '' or `` Old Believers '' , continued the traditional stylization of icons , while the State Church modified its practice . From that time icons began to be painted not only in the traditional stylized and nonrealistic mode , but also in a mixture of Russian stylization and Western European realism , and in a Western European manner very much like that of Catholic religious art of the time . The Stroganov movement and the icons from Nevyansk rank among the last important schools of Russian icon - painting . | Russian culture |
821892178_26983-27226 | The Russian Academy of Arts was created in 1757 , aimed to give Russian artists an international role and status . Notable portrait painters from the Academy include Ivan Argunov , Fyodor Rokotov , Dmitry Levitzky , and Vladimir Borovikovsky . | Russian culture |
821892178_27227-27412 | In the early 19th century , when neoclassicism and romantism flourished , famous academic artists focused on mythological and Biblical themes , like Karl Briullov and Alexander Ivanov . | Russian culture |
821892178_27571-28416 | Realism came into dominance in the 19th century . The realists captured Russian identity in landscapes of wide rivers , forests , and birch clearings , as well as vigorous genre scenes and robust portraits of their contemporaries . Other artists focused on social criticism , showing the conditions of the poor and caricaturing authority ; critical realism flourished under the reign of Alexander II , with some artists making the circle of human suffering their main theme . Others focused on depicting dramatic moments in Russian history . The Peredvizhniki ( wanderers ) group of artists broke with Russian Academy and initiated a school of art liberated from Academic restrictions . Leading realists include Ivan Shishkin , Arkhip Kuindzhi , Ivan Kramskoi , Vasily Polenov , Isaac Levitan , Vasily Surikov , Viktor Vasnetsov and Ilya Repin . | Russian culture |
821892178_28417-28890 | By the turn of the 20th century and on , many Russian artists developed their own unique styles , neither realist nor avante - garde . These include Boris Kustodiev , Kuzma Petrov - Vodkin , Mikhail Vrubel and Nicholas Roerich . Many works by the Peredvizhniki group of artists have been highly sought after by collectors in recent years . Russian art auctions during Russian Art Week in London have increased in demand and works have been sold for record breaking prices . | Russian culture |
821892178_29030-29811 | The Russian avant - garde is an umbrella term used to define the large , influential wave of modernist art that flourished in Russia from approximately 1890 to 1930 . The term covers many separate , but inextricably related , art movements that occurred at the time ; namely neo-primitivism , suprematism , constructivism , rayonism , and futurism . Notable artists from this era include El Lissitzky , Kazimir Malevich , Wassily Kandinsky , Vladimir Tatlin , Alexander Rodchenko , Pavel Filonov and Marc Chagall . The Russian avant - garde reached its creative and popular height in the period between the Russian Revolution of 1917 and 1932 , at which point the revolutionary ideas of the avant - garde clashed with the newly emerged conservative direction of socialist realism . | Russian culture |
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