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805841444_24998-25152 | This example displays as HTML ; in most browsers , pointing the cursor at the abbreviation should display the title text `` Hypertext Markup Language . '' | HTML |
805841444_25153-25334 | Most elements take the language - related attribute dir to specify text direction , such as with `` rtl '' for right - to - left text in , for example , Arabic , Persian or Hebrew . | HTML |
805841444_25448-25779 | As of version 4.0 , HTML defines a set of 252 character entity references and a set of 1,114,050 numeric character references , both of which allow individual characters to be written via simple markup , rather than literally . A literal character and its markup counterpart are considered equivalent and are rendered identically . | HTML |
805841444_25780-27057 | The ability to `` escape '' characters in this way allows for the characters < and & ( when written as < ; and & ; , respectively ) to be interpreted as character data , rather than markup . For example , a literal < normally indicates the start of a tag , and & normally indicates the start of a character entity reference or numeric character reference ; writing it as & ; or & # x26 ; or & # 38 ; allows & to be included in the content of an element or in the value of an attribute . The double - quote character ( `` ) , when not used to quote an attribute value , must also be escaped as " ; or & # x22 ; or & # 34 ; when it appears within the attribute value itself . Equivalently , the single - quote character ( ' ) , when not used to quote an attribute value , must also be escaped as & # x27 ; or & # 39 ; ( or as &apos ; in HTML5 or XHTML documents ) when it appears within the attribute value itself . If document authors overlook the need to escape such characters , some browsers can be very forgiving and try to use context to guess their intent . The result is still invalid markup , which makes the document less accessible to other browsers and to other user agents that may try to parse the document for search and indexing purposes for example . | HTML |
805841444_27058-27769 | Escaping also allows for characters that are not easily typed , or that are not available in the document 's character encoding , to be represented within element and attribute content . For example , the acute - accented e ( é ) , a character typically found only on Western European and South American keyboards , can be written in any HTML document as the entity reference é ; or as the numeric references & # xE9 ; or & # 233 ; , using characters that are available on all keyboards and are supported in all character encodings . Unicode character encodings such as UTF - 8 are compatible with all modern browsers and allow direct access to almost all the characters of the world 's writing systems . | HTML |
805841444_27781-28139 | HTML defines several data types for element content , such as script data and stylesheet data , and a plethora of types for attribute values , including IDs , names , URIs , numbers , units of length , languages , media descriptors , colors , character encodings , dates and times , and so on . All of these data types are specializations of character data . | HTML |
805841444_28166-28376 | HTML documents are required to start with a Document Type Declaration ( informally , a `` doctype '' ) . In browsers , the doctype helps to define the rendering mode -- particularly whether to use quirks mode . | HTML |
805841444_28377-28813 | The original purpose of the doctype was to enable parsing and validation of HTML documents by SGML tools based on the Document Type Definition ( DTD ) . The DTD to which the DOCTYPE refers contains a machine - readable grammar specifying the permitted and prohibited content for a document conforming to such a DTD . Browsers , on the other hand , do not implement HTML as an application of SGML and by consequence do not read the DTD . | HTML |
805841444_28814-28915 | HTML5 does not define a DTD ; therefore , in HTML5 the doctype declaration is simpler and shorter : < | HTML |
805841444_29076-29350 | This declaration references the DTD for the `` strict '' version of HTML 4.01 . SGML - based validators read the DTD in order to properly parse the document and to perform validation . In modern browsers , a valid doctype activates standards mode as opposed to quirks mode . | HTML |
805841444_29351-29707 | In addition , HTML 4.01 provides Transitional and Frameset DTDs , as explained below . Transitional type is the most inclusive , incorporating current tags as well as older or `` deprecated '' tags , with the Strict DTD excluding deprecated tags . Frameset has all tags necessary to make frames on a page along with the tags included in transitional type . | HTML |
805841444_29751-30316 | Semantic HTML is a way of writing HTML that emphasizes the meaning of the encoded information over its presentation ( look ) . HTML has included semantic markup from its inception , but has also included presentational markup , such as < font > , < i > and < center > tags . There are also the semantically neutral span and div tags . Since the late 1990s when Cascading Style Sheets were beginning to work in most browsers , web authors have been encouraged to avoid the use of presentational HTML markup with a view to the separation of presentation and content . | HTML |
805841444_30317-31072 | In a 2001 discussion of the Semantic Web , Tim Berners - Lee and others gave examples of ways in which intelligent software `` agents '' may one day automatically crawl the web and find , filter and correlate previously unrelated , published facts for the benefit of human users . Such agents are not commonplace even now , but some of the ideas of Web 2.0 , mashups and price comparison websites may be coming close . The main difference between these web application hybrids and Berners - Lee 's semantic agents lies in the fact that the current aggregation and hybridization of information is usually designed in by web developers , who already know the web locations and the API semantics of the specific data they wish to mash , compare and combine . | HTML |
805841444_31073-31543 | An important type of web agent that does crawl and read web pages automatically , without prior knowledge of what it might find , is the web crawler or search - engine spider . These software agents are dependent on the semantic clarity of web pages they find as they use various techniques and algorithms to read and index millions of web pages a day and provide web users with search facilities without which the World Wide Web 's usefulness would be greatly reduced . | HTML |
805841444_31544-31907 | In order for search - engine spiders to be able to rate the significance of pieces of text they find in HTML documents , and also for those creating mashups and other hybrids as well as for more automated agents as they are developed , the semantic structures that exist in HTML need to be widely and uniformly applied to bring out the meaning of published text . | HTML |
805841444_31908-32018 | Presentational markup tags are deprecated in current HTML and XHTML recommendations and are illegal in HTML5 . | HTML |
805841444_32019-32386 | Good semantic HTML also improves the accessibility of web documents ( see also Web Content Accessibility Guidelines ) . For example , when a screen reader or audio browser can correctly ascertain the structure of a document , it will not waste the visually impaired user 's time by reading out repeated or irrelevant information when it has been marked up correctly . | HTML |
805841444_32396-32561 | HTML documents can be delivered by the same means as any other computer file . However , they are most often delivered either by HTTP from a web server or by email . | HTML |
805841444_32610-33147 | The World Wide Web is composed primarily of HTML documents transmitted from web servers to web browsers using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol ( HTTP ) . However , HTTP is used to serve images , sound , and other content , in addition to HTML . To allow the web browser to know how to handle each document it receives , other information is transmitted along with the document . This meta data usually includes the MIME type ( e.g. text / html or application / xhtml + xml ) and the character encoding ( see Character encoding in HTML ) . | HTML |
805841444_33148-33541 | In modern browsers , the MIME type that is sent with the HTML document may affect how the document is initially interpreted . A document sent with the XHTML MIME type is expected to be well - formed XML ; syntax errors may cause the browser to fail to render it . The same document sent with the HTML MIME type might be displayed successfully , since some browsers are more lenient with HTML . | HTML |
805841444_33542-33793 | The W3C recommendations state that XHTML 1.0 documents that follow guidelines set forth in the recommendation 's Appendix C may be labeled with either MIME Type . XHTML 1.1 also states that XHTML 1.1 documents should be labeled with either MIME type . | HTML |
805841444_33831-34530 | Most graphical email clients allow the use of a subset of HTML ( often ill - defined ) to provide formatting and semantic markup not available with plain text . This may include typographic information like coloured headings , emphasized and quoted text , inline images and diagrams . Many such clients include both a GUI editor for composing HTML e-mail messages and a rendering engine for displaying them . Use of HTML in e-mail is criticized by some because of compatibility issues , because it can help disguise phishing attacks , because of accessibility issues for blind or visually impaired people , because it can confuse spam filters and because the message size is larger than plain text . | HTML |
805841444_34550-34843 | The most common filename extension for files containing HTML is . html . A common abbreviation of this is . htm , which originated because some early operating systems and file systems , such as DOS and the limitations imposed by FAT data structure , limited file extensions to three letters . | HTML |
805841444_34893-35595 | An HTML Application ( HTA ; file extension ``. hta '' ) is a Microsoft Windows application that uses HTML and Dynamic HTML in a browser to provide the application 's graphical interface . A regular HTML file is confined to the security model of the web browser 's security , communicating only to web servers and manipulating only webpage objects and site cookies . An HTA runs as a fully trusted application and therefore has more privileges , like creation / editing / removal of files and Windows Registry entries . Because they operate outside the browser 's security model , HTAs can not be executed via HTTP , but must be downloaded ( just like an EXE file ) and executed from local file system . | HTML |
805841444_35613-36476 | Since its inception , HTML and its associated protocols gained acceptance relatively quickly . However , no clear standards existed in the early years of the language . Though its creators originally conceived of HTML as a semantic language devoid of presentation details , practical uses pushed many presentational elements and attributes into the language , driven largely by the various browser vendors . The latest standards surrounding HTML reflect efforts to overcome the sometimes chaotic development of the language and to create a rational foundation for building both meaningful and well - presented documents . To return HTML to its role as a semantic language , the W3C has developed style languages such as CSS and XSL to shoulder the burden of presentation . In conjunction , the HTML specification has slowly reined in the presentational elements . | HTML |
805841444_36477-36721 | There are two axes differentiating various variations of HTML as currently specified : SGML - based HTML versus XML - based HTML ( referred to as XHTML ) on one axis , and strict versus transitional ( loose ) versus frameset on the other axis . | HTML |
805841444_36759-37437 | One difference in the latest HTML specifications lies in the distinction between the SGML - based specification and the XML - based specification . The XML - based specification is usually called XHTML to distinguish it clearly from the more traditional definition . However , the root element name continues to be `` html '' even in the XHTML - specified HTML . The W3C intended XHTML 1.0 to be identical to HTML 4.01 except where limitations of XML over the more complex SGML require workarounds . Because XHTML and HTML are closely related , they are sometimes documented in parallel . In such circumstances , some authors conflate the two names as ( X ) HTML or X ( HTML ) . | HTML |
805841444_37438-37532 | Like HTML 4.01 , XHTML 1.0 has three sub-specifications : strict , transitional and frameset . | HTML |
805841444_37533-38418 | Aside from the different opening declarations for a document , the differences between an HTML 4.01 and XHTML 1.0 document -- in each of the corresponding DTDs -- are largely syntactic . The underlying syntax of HTML allows many shortcuts that XHTML does not , such as elements with optional opening or closing tags , and even empty elements which must not have an end tag . By contrast , XHTML requires all elements to have an opening tag and a closing tag . XHTML , however , also introduces a new shortcut : an XHTML tag may be opened and closed within the same tag , by including a slash before the end of the tag like this : < br / > . The introduction of this shorthand , which is not used in the SGML declaration for HTML 4.01 , may confuse earlier software unfamiliar with this new convention . A fix for this is to include a space before closing the tag , as such : < br / > . | HTML |
805841444_38419-38687 | To understand the subtle differences between HTML and XHTML , consider the transformation of a valid and well - formed XHTML 1.0 document that adheres to Appendix C ( see below ) into a valid HTML 4.01 document . To make this translation requires the following steps : | HTML |
805841444_38688-39446 | The language for an element should be specified with a lang attribute rather than the XHTML xml : lang attribute . XHTML uses XML 's built in language - defining functionality attribute . Remove the XML namespace ( xmlns = URI ) . HTML has no facilities for namespaces . Change the document type declaration from XHTML 1.0 to HTML 4.01 . ( see DTD section for further explanation ) . If present , remove the XML declaration . ( Typically this is : < ? xml version = `` 1.0 '' encoding = `` utf - 8 '' ? > ) . Ensure that the document 's MIME type is set to text / html . For both HTML and XHTML , this comes from the HTTP Content - Type header sent by the server . Change the XML empty - element syntax to an HTML style empty element ( < br / > to < br > ) . | HTML |
805841444_39447-39806 | Those are the main changes necessary to translate a document from XHTML 1.0 to HTML 4.01 . To translate from HTML to XHTML would also require the addition of any omitted opening or closing tags . Whether coding in HTML or XHTML it may just be best to always include the optional tags within an HTML document rather than remembering which tags can be omitted . | HTML |
805841444_39807-39992 | A well - formed XHTML document adheres to all the syntax requirements of XML . A valid document adheres to the content specification for XHTML , which describes the document structure . | HTML |
805841444_39993-40187 | The W3C recommends several conventions to ensure an easy migration between HTML and XHTML ( see HTML Compatibility Guidelines ) . The following steps can be applied to XHTML 1.0 documents only : | HTML |
805841444_40188-40597 | Include both xml : lang and lang attributes on any elements assigning language . Use the empty - element syntax only for elements specified as empty in HTML . Include an extra space in empty - element tags : for example < br / > instead of < br > . Include explicit close tags for elements that permit content but are left empty ( for example , < div > < / div > , not < div / > ) . Omit the XML declaration . | HTML |
805841444_40598-41133 | By carefully following the W3C 's compatibility guidelines , a user agent should be able to interpret the document equally as HTML or XHTML . For documents that are XHTML 1.0 and have been made compatible in this way , the W3C permits them to be served either as HTML ( with a text / html MIME type ) , or as XHTML ( with an application / xhtml + xml or application / xml MIME type ) . When delivered as XHTML , browsers should use an XML parser , which adheres strictly to the XML specifications for parsing the document 's contents . | HTML |
805841444_41161-41908 | HTML 4 defined three different versions of the language : Strict , Transitional ( once called Loose ) and Frameset . The Strict version is intended for new documents and is considered best practice , while the Transitional and Frameset versions were developed to make it easier to transition documents that conformed to older HTML specification or did n't conform to any specification to a version of HTML 4 . The Transitional and Frameset versions allow for presentational markup , which is omitted in the Strict version . Instead , cascading style sheets are encouraged to improve the presentation of HTML documents . Because XHTML 1 only defines an XML syntax for the language defined by HTML 4 , the same differences apply to XHTML 1 as well . | HTML |
805841444_41909-42027 | The Transitional version allows the following parts of the vocabulary , which are not included in the Strict version : | HTML |
805841444_42028-44573 | A looser content model Inline elements and plain text are allowed directly in : body , blockquote , form , noscript and noframes Presentation related elements underline ( u ) ( Deprecated . can confuse a visitor with a hyperlink . ) strike - through ( s ) center ( Deprecated . use CSS instead . ) font ( Deprecated . use CSS instead . ) basefont ( Deprecated . use CSS instead . ) Presentation related attributes background ( Deprecated . use CSS instead . ) and bgcolor ( Deprecated . use CSS instead . ) attributes for body ( required element according to the W3C . ) element . align ( Deprecated . use CSS instead . ) attribute on div , form , paragraph ( p ) and heading ( h1 ... h6 ) elements align ( Deprecated . use CSS instead . ) , noshade ( Deprecated . use CSS instead . ) , size ( Deprecated . use CSS instead . ) and width ( Deprecated . use CSS instead . ) attributes on hr element align ( Deprecated . use CSS instead . ) , border , vspace and hspace attributes on img and object ( caution : the object element is only supported in Internet Explorer ( from the major browsers ) ) elements align ( Deprecated . use CSS instead . ) attribute on legend and caption elements align ( Deprecated . use CSS instead . ) and bgcolor ( Deprecated . use CSS instead . ) on table element nowrap ( Obsolete ) , bgcolor ( Deprecated . use CSS instead . ) , width , height on td and th elements bgcolor ( Deprecated . use CSS instead . ) attribute on tr element clear ( Obsolete ) attribute on br element compact attribute on dl , dir and menu elements type ( Deprecated . use CSS instead . ) , compact ( Deprecated . use CSS instead . ) and start ( Deprecated . use CSS instead . ) attributes on ol and ul elements type and value attributes on li element width attribute on pre element Additional elements in Transitional specification menu ( Deprecated . use CSS instead . ) list ( no substitute , though unordered list is recommended ) dir ( Deprecated . use CSS instead . ) list ( no substitute , though unordered list is recommended ) isindex ( Deprecated . ) ( element requires server - side support and is typically added to documents server - side , form and input elements can be used as a substitute ) applet ( Deprecated . use the object element instead . ) The language ( Obsolete ) attribute on script element ( redundant with the type attribute ) . Frame related entities iframe noframes target ( Deprecated in the map , link and form elements . ) attribute on a , client - side image - map ( map ) , link , form and base elements | HTML |
805841444_44574-44725 | The Frameset version includes everything in the Transitional version , as well as the frameset element ( used instead of body ) and the frame element . | HTML |
805841444_44755-45011 | In addition to the above transitional differences , the frameset specifications ( whether XHTML 1.0 or HTML 4.01 ) specify a different content model , with frameset replacing body , that contains either frame elements , or optionally noframes with a body . | HTML |
805841444_45046-46180 | As this list demonstrates , the loose versions of the specification are maintained for legacy support . However , contrary to popular misconceptions , the move to XHTML does not imply a removal of this legacy support . Rather the X in XML stands for extensible and the W3C is modularizing the entire specification and opening it up to independent extensions . The primary achievement in the move from XHTML 1.0 to XHTML 1.1 is the modularization of the entire specification . The strict version of HTML is deployed in XHTML 1.1 through a set of modular extensions to the base XHTML 1.1 specification . Likewise , someone looking for the loose ( transitional ) or frameset specifications will find similar extended XHTML 1.1 support ( much of it is contained in the legacy or frame modules ) . The modularization also allows for separate features to develop on their own timetable . So for example , XHTML 1.1 will allow quicker migration to emerging XML standards such as MathML ( a presentational and semantic math language based on XML ) and XForms -- a new highly advanced web - form technology to replace the existing HTML forms . | HTML |
805841444_46181-46658 | In summary , the HTML 4 specification primarily reined in all the various HTML implementations into a single clearly written specification based on SGML . XHTML 1.0 , ported this specification , as is , to the new XML defined specification . Next , XHTML 1.1 takes advantage of the extensible nature of XML and modularizes the whole specification . XHTML 2.0 was intended to be the first step in adding new features to the specification in a standards - body - based approach . | HTML |
805841444_46722-47246 | The WHATWG considers their work as living standard HTML for what constitutes the state of the art in major browser implementations by Apple ( Safari ) , Google ( Chrome ) , Mozilla ( Firefox ) , Opera ( Opera ) , and others . HTML5 is specified by the HTML Working Group of the W3C following the W3C process . As of 2013 both specifications are similar and mostly derived from each other , i.e. , the work on HTML5 started with an older WHATWG draft , and later the WHATWG living standard was based on HTML5 drafts in 2011 . | HTML |
805841444_47278-47585 | HTML lacks some of the features found in earlier hypertext systems , such as source tracking , fat links and others . Even some hypertext features that were in early versions of HTML have been ignored by most popular web browsers until recently , such as the link element and in - browser Web page editing . | HTML |
805841444_47586-47762 | Sometimes Web services or browser manufacturers remedy these shortcomings . For instance , wikis and content management systems allow surfers to edit the Web pages they visit . | HTML |
805841444_47779-48116 | There are some WYSIWYG editors ( What You See Is What You Get ) , in which the user lays out everything as it is to appear in the HTML document using a graphical user interface ( GUI ) , often similar to word processors . The editor renders the document rather than show the code , so authors do not require extensive knowledge of HTML . | HTML |
805841444_48117-48319 | The WYSIWYG editing model has been criticized , primarily because of the low quality of the generated code ; there are voices advocating a change to the WYSIWYM model ( What You See Is What You Mean ) . | HTML |
805841444_48408-48946 | Relying mainly on layout as opposed to meaning , often using markup that does not convey the intended meaning but simply copies the layout . Often producing extremely verbose and redundant code that fails to make use of the cascading nature of HTML and CSS . Often producing ungrammatical markup , called tag soup or semantically incorrect markup ( such as < em > for italics ) . As a great deal of the information in HTML documents is not in the layout , the model has been criticized for its `` what you see is all you get '' - nature . | HTML |
838538324_171-887 | Part of a series on the History of Greece Neolithic Greece ( show ) Neolithic Greece Greek Bronze Age ( show ) Helladic Cycladic Minoan Mycenaean Ancient Greece ( show ) Greek Dark Ages Archaic Greece Classical Greece Hellenistic Greece Roman Greece Medieval Greece ( show ) Byzantine Greece Frankish and Latin states Early modern Greece ( show ) Stato da Màr Ottoman Greece Modern Greece ( show ) Septinsular Republic War of Independence First Hellenic Republic Kingdom of Greece National Schism Second Hellenic Republic 4th of August Regime Axis occupation ( collaborationist regime ) Civil War Military Junta Third Hellenic Republic History by topic ( show ) Art Constitution Economy Military Names Greece portal | Hellenistic period |
838538324_888-1297 | The Hellenistic period covers the period of Mediterranean history between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the emergence of the Roman Empire as signified by the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the subsequent conquest of Ptolemaic Egypt the following year . The Ancient Greek word Hellas ( Ἑλλάς , Ellás ) is the original word for Greece , from which the word `` Hellenistic '' was derived . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_1298-2129 | At this time , Greek cultural influence and power was at its peak in Europe , North Africa and Western Asia , experiencing prosperity and progress in the arts , exploration , literature , theatre , architecture , music , mathematics , philosophy , and science . It is often considered a period of transition , sometimes even of decadence or degeneration , compared to the enlightenment of the Greek Classical era . The Hellenistic period saw the rise of New Comedy , Alexandrian poetry , the Septuagint and the philosophies of Stoicism and Epicureanism . Greek science was advanced by the works of the mathematician Euclid and the polymath Archimedes . The religious sphere expanded to include new gods such as the Greco - Egyptian Serapis , eastern deities such as Attis and Cybele and the Greek adoption of Buddhism . Hellenistic | Hellenistic period |
838538324_2200-3239 | After Alexander the Great 's invasion of the Persian Empire in 330 BC and its disintegration shortly after , the Hellenistic kingdoms were established throughout south - west Asia ( Seleucid Empire , Kingdom of Pergamon ) , north - east Africa ( Ptolemaic Kingdom ) and South Asia ( Greco - Bactrian Kingdom , Indo - Greek Kingdom ) . The Hellenistic period was characterized by a new wave of Greek colonization which established Greek cities and kingdoms in Asia and Africa . This resulted in the export of Greek culture and language to these new realms , spanning as far as modern - day India . Equally , however , these new kingdoms were influenced by the indigenous cultures , adopting local practices where beneficial , necessary , or convenient . Hellenistic culture thus represents a fusion of the Ancient Greek world with that of the Near East , Middle East , and Southwest Asia . This mixture gave rise to a common Attic - based Greek dialect , known as Koine Greek , which became the lingua franca through the Hellenistic world . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_3240-3860 | Scholars and historians are divided as to what event signals the end of the Hellenistic era . The Hellenistic period may be seen to end either with the final conquest of the Greek heartlands by Rome in 146 BC following the Achean War , with the final defeat of the Ptolemaic Kingdom at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC , or even the move by Roman emperor Constantine the Great of the capital of the Roman Empire to Constantinople in 330 AD . `` Hellenistic '' is distinguished from `` Hellenic '' in that the first encompasses the entire sphere of direct ancient Greek influence , while the latter refers to Greece itself . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_4652-4896 | The word originated from the German term hellenistisch , from Ancient Greek Ἑλληνιστής ( Hellēnistḗs , `` one who uses the Greek language '' ) , from Ἑλλάς ( Hellás , `` Greece '' ) ; as if `` Hellenist '' + `` ic '' . Left | Hellenistic period |
838538324_5423-6219 | `` Hellenistic '' is a modern word and a 19th - century concept ; the idea of a Hellenistic period did not exist in Ancient Greece . Although words related in form or meaning , e.g. Hellenist ( Ancient Greek : Ἑλληνιστής , Hellēnistēs ) , have been attested since ancient times , it was Johann Gustav Droysen in the mid-19th century , who in his classic work Geschichte des Hellenismus ( History of Hellenism ) , coined the term Hellenistic to refer to and define the period when Greek culture spread in the non-Greek world after Alexander 's conquest . Following Droysen , Hellenistic and related terms , e.g. Hellenism , have been widely used in various contexts ; a notable such use is in Culture and Anarchy by Matthew Arnold , where Hellenism is used in contrast with Hebraism . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_6220-6832 | The major issue with the term Hellenistic lies in its convenience , as the spread of Greek culture was not the generalized phenomenon that the term implies . Some areas of the conquered world were more affected by Greek influences than others . The term Hellenistic also implies that the Greek populations were of majority in the areas in which they settled , but in many cases , the Greek settlers were actually the minority among the native populations . The Greek population and the native population did not always mix ; the Greeks moved and brought their own culture , but interaction did not always occur . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_6850-7517 | While a few fragments exist , there is no complete surviving historical work which dates to the hundred years following Alexander 's death . The works of the major Hellenistic historians Hieronymus of Cardia ( who worked under Alexander , Antigonus I and other successors ) , Duris of Samos and Phylarchus which were used by surviving sources are all lost . The earliest and most credible surviving source for the Hellenistic period is Polybius of Megalopolis ( c. 200 - 118 ) , a statesman of the Achaean League until 168 BC when he was forced to go to Rome as a hostage . His Histories eventually grew to a length of forty books , covering the years 220 to 167 BC . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_7518-8147 | The most important source after Polybius is Diodorus Siculus who wrote his Bibliotheca historica between 60 and 30 BC and reproduced some important earlier sources such as Hieronymus , but his account of the Hellenistic period breaks off after the battle of Ipsus ( 301 ) . Another important source , Plutarch 's ( c. 50 -- c. 120 ) Parallel Lives although more preoccupied with issues of personal character and morality , outlines the history of important Hellenistic figures . Appian of Alexandria ( late 1st century AD - before 165 ) wrote a history of the Roman empire that includes information of some Hellenistic kingdoms . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_8148-8688 | Other sources include Justin 's ( 2nd century AD ) epitome of Pompeius Trogus ' Historiae Philipicae and a summary of Arrian 's Events after Alexander , by Photios I of Constantinople . Lesser supplementary sources include Curtius Rufus , Pausanias , Pliny , and the Byzantine encyclopedia the Suda . In the field of philosophy , Diogenes Laertius ' Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers is the main source ; works such as Cicero 's De Natura Deorum also provide some further detail of philosophical schools in the Hellenistic period . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_8914-9812 | Ancient Greece had traditionally been a fractious collection of fiercely independent city - states . After the Peloponnesian War ( 431 -- 404 BC ) , Greece had fallen under a Spartan hegemony , in which Sparta was pre-eminent but not all - powerful . Spartan hegemony was succeeded by a Theban one after the Battle of Leuctra ( 371 BC ) , but after the Battle of Mantinea ( 362 BC ) , all of Greece was so weakened that no one state could claim pre-eminence . It was against this backdrop that the ascendancy of Macedon began , under king Philip II . Macedon was located at the periphery of the Greek world , and although its royal family claimed Greek descent , the Macedonians themselves were looked down upon as semi-barbaric by the rest of the Greeks . However , Macedon had a relatively strong and centralised government , and compared to most Greek states , directly controlled a large area . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_9813-10416 | Philip II was a strong and expansionist king and he took every opportunity to expand Macedonian territory . In 352 BC he annexed Thessaly and Magnesia . In 338 BC , Philip defeated a combined Theban and Athenian army at the Battle of Chaeronea after a decade of desultory conflict . In the aftermath , Philip formed the League of Corinth , effectively bringing the majority of Greece under his direct sway . He was elected Hegemon of the league , and a campaign against the Achaemenid Empire of Persia was planned . However , while this campaign was in its early stages , he was assassinated . Alexander | Hellenistic period |
838538324_10466-10943 | Succeeding his father , Alexander took over the Persian war himself . During a decade of campaigning , Alexander conquered the whole Persian Empire , overthrowing the Persian king Darius III . The conquered lands included Asia Minor , Assyria , the Levant , Egypt , Mesopotamia , Media , Persia , and parts of modern - day Afghanistan , Pakistan , and the steppes of central Asia . The years of constant campaigning had taken their toll however , and Alexander died in 323 BC . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_10944-11398 | After his death , the huge territories Alexander had conquered became subject to a strong Greek influence ( Hellenization ) for the next two or three centuries , until the rise of Rome in the west , and of Parthia in the east . As the Greek and Levantine cultures mingled , the development of a hybrid Hellenistic culture began , and persisted even when isolated from the main centres of Greek culture ( for instance , in the Greco - Bactrian kingdom ) . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_11399-11913 | It can be argued that some of the changes across the Macedonian Empire after Alexander 's conquests and during the rule of the Diadochi would have occurred without the influence of Greek rule . As mentioned by Peter Green , numerous factors of conquest have been merged under the term Hellenistic Period . Specific areas conquered by Alexander 's invading army , including Egypt and areas of Asia Minor and Mesopotamia `` fell '' willingly to conquest and viewed Alexander as more of a liberator than a conqueror . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_11914-12323 | In addition , much of the area conquered would continue to be ruled by the Diadochi , Alexander 's generals and successors . Initially the whole empire was divided among them ; however , some territories were lost relatively quickly , or only remained nominally under Macedonian rule . After 200 years , only much reduced and rather degenerate states remained , until the conquest of Ptolemaic Egypt by Rome . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_12584-12974 | When Alexander the Great died ( June 10 , 323 BC ) , he left behind a huge empire which was composed of many essentially autonomous territories called satrapies . Without a chosen successor there were immediate disputes among his generals as to who should be king of Macedon . These generals became known as the Diadochi ( Greek : Διάδοχοι , Diadokhoi , meaning `` Successors '' ) . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_12975-13909 | Meleager and the infantry supported the candidacy of Alexander 's half - brother , Philip Arrhidaeus , while Perdiccas , the leading cavalry commander , supported waiting until the birth of Alexander 's child by Roxana . After the infantry stormed the palace of Babylon , a compromise was arranged -- Arrhidaeus ( as Philip III ) should become king , and should rule jointly with Roxana 's child , assuming that it was a boy ( as it was , becoming Alexander IV ) . Perdiccas himself would become regent ( epimeletes ) of the empire , and Meleager his lieutenant . Soon , however , Perdiccas had Meleager and the other infantry leaders murdered , and assumed full control . The generals who had supported Perdiccas were rewarded in the partition of Babylon by becoming satraps of the various parts of the empire , but Perdiccas ' position was shaky , because , as Arrian writes , `` everyone was suspicious of him , and he of them '' . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_13910-15026 | The first of the Diadochi wars broke out when Perdiccas planned to marry Alexander 's sister Cleopatra and began to question Antigonus I Monophthalmus ' leadership in Asia Minor . Antigonus fled for Greece , and then , together with Antipater and Craterus ( the satrap of Cilicia who had been in Greece fighting the Lamian war ) invaded Anatolia . The rebels were supported by Lysimachus , the satrap of Thrace and Ptolemy , the satrap of Egypt . Although Eumenes , satrap of Cappadocia , defeated the rebels in Asia Minor , Perdiccas himself was murdered by his own generals Peithon , Seleucus , and Antigenes ( possibly with Ptolemy 's aid ) during his invasion of Egypt ( c. 21 May to 19 June , 320 BC ) . Ptolemy came to terms with Perdiccas 's murderers , making Peithon and Arrhidaeus regents in his place , but soon these came to a new agreement with Antipater at the Treaty of Triparadisus . Antipater was made regent of the Empire , and the two kings were moved to Macedon . Antigonus remained in charge of Asia Minor , Ptolemy retained Egypt , Lysimachus retained Thrace and Seleucus I controlled Babylon . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_15027-15619 | The second Diadochi war began following the death of Antipater in 319 BC . Passing over his own son , Cassander , Antipater had declared Polyperchon his successor as Regent . Cassander rose in revolt against Polyperchon ( who was joined by Eumenes ) and was supported by Antigonus , Lysimachus and Ptolemy . In 317 , Cassander invaded Macedonia , attaining control of Macedon , sentencing Olympias to death and capturing the boy king Alexander IV , and his mother . In Asia , Eumenes was betrayed by his own men after years of campaign and was given up to Antigonus who had him executed . The | Hellenistic period |
838538324_15669-16480 | The third war of the Diadochi broke out because of the growing power and ambition of Antigonus . He began removing and appointing satraps as if he were king and also raided the royal treasuries in Ecbatana , Persepolis and Susa , making off with 25,000 talents . Seleucus was forced to flee to Egypt and Antigonus was soon at war with Ptolemy , Lysimachus , and Cassander . He then invaded Phoenicia , laid siege to Tyre , stormed Gaza and began building a fleet . Ptolemy invaded Syria and defeated Antigonus ' son , Demetrius Poliorcetes , in the Battle of Gaza of 312 BC which allowed Seleucus to secure control of Babylonia , and the eastern satrapies . In 310 , Cassander had young King Alexander IV and his mother Roxane murdered , ending the Argead Dynasty which had ruled Macedon for several centuries . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_16481-17118 | Antigonus then sent his son Demetrius to regain control of Greece . In 307 he took Athens , expelling Demetrius of Phaleron , Cassander 's governor , and proclaiming the city free again . Demetrius now turned his attention to Ptolemy , defeating his fleet at the Battle of Salamis and taking control of Cyprus . In the aftermath of this victory , Antigonus took the title of king ( basileus ) and bestowed it on his son Demetrius Poliorcetes , the rest of the Diadochi soon followed suit . Demetrius continued his campaigns by laying siege to Rhodes and conquering most of Greece in 302 , creating a league against Cassander 's Macedon . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_17119-17698 | The decisive engagement of the war came when Lysimachus invaded and overran much of western Anatolia , but was soon isolated by Antigonus and Demetrius near Ipsus in Phrygia . Seleucus arrived in time to save Lysimachus and utterly crushed Antigonus at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC . Seleucus ' war elephants proved decisive , Antigonus was killed , and Demetrius fled back to Greece to attempt to preserve the remnants of his rule there by recapturing a rebellious Athens . Meanwhile , Lysimachus took over Ionia , Seleucus took Cilicia , and Ptolemy captured Cyprus . Kingdoms | Hellenistic period |
838538324_17855-19512 | After Cassander 's death in 298 BC , however , Demetrius , who still maintained a sizable loyal army and fleet , invaded Macedon , seized the Macedonian throne ( 294 ) and conquered Thessaly and most of central Greece ( 293 - 291 ) . He was defeated in 288 BC when Lysimachus of Thrace and Pyrrhus of Epirus invaded Macedon on two fronts , and quickly carved up the kingdom for themselves . Demetrius fled to central Greece with his mercenaries and began to build support there and in the northern Peloponnese . He once again laid siege to Athens after they turned on him , but then struck a treaty with the Athenians and Ptolemy , which allowed him to cross over to Asia Minor and wage war on Lysimachus ' holdings in Ionia , leaving his son Antigonus Gonatas in Greece . After initial successes , he was forced to surrender to Seleucus in 285 and later died in captivity . Lysimachus , who had seized Macedon and Thessaly for himself , was forced into war when Seleucus invaded his territories in Asia minor and was defeated and killed in 281 BC at the Battle of Corupedium , near Sardis . Seleucus then attempted to conquer Lysimachus ' European territories in Thrace and Macedon , but he was assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunus ( `` the thunderbolt '' ) , who had taken refuge at the Seleucid court and then had himself acclaimed as king of Macedon . Ptolemy was killed when Macedon was invaded by Gauls in 279 -- his head stuck on a spear -- and the country fell into anarchy . Antigonus II Gonatas invaded Thrace in the summer of 277 and defeated a large force of 18,000 Gauls . He was quickly hailed as king of Macedon and went on to rule for 35 years . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_19513-19805 | At this point the tripartite territorial division of the Hellenistic age was in place , with the main Hellenistic powers being Macedon under Demetrius 's son Antigonus II Gonatas , the Ptolemaic kingdom under the aged Ptolemy I and the Seleucid empire under Seleucus ' son Antiochus I Soter . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_19926-20107 | Epirus was a northwestern Greek kingdom in the western Balkans ruled by the Molossian Aeacidae dynasty . Epirus was an ally of Macedon during the reigns of Philip II and Alexander . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_20108-20602 | In 281 Pyrrhus ( nicknamed `` the eagle '' , aetos ) invaded southern Italy to aid the city state of Tarentum . Pyrrhus defeated the Romans in the Battle of Heraclea and at the Battle of Asculum . Though victorious , he was forced to retreat due to heavy losses , hence the term `` Pyrrhic victory '' . Pyrrhus then turned south and invaded Sicily but was unsuccessful and returned to Italy . After the Battle of Beneventum ( 275 BC ) Pyrrhus lost all his Italian holdings and left for Epirus . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_20603-21078 | Pyrrhus then went to war with Macedonia in 275 , deposing Antigonus II Gonatas and briefly ruling over Macedonia and Thessaly until 285 . Afterwards he invaded southern Greece , and was killed in battle against Argos in 272 BC . After the death of Pyrrhus , Epirus remained a minor power . In 233 BC the Aeacid royal family was deposed and a federal state was set up called the Epirote League . The league was conquered by Rome in the Third Macedonian War ( 171 -- 168 BC ) . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_21208-22017 | Antigonus II , a student of Zeno of Citium , spent most of his rule defending Macedon against Epirus and cementing Macedonian power in Greece , first against the Athenians in the Chremonidean War , and then against the Achaean League of Aratus of Sicyon . Under the Antigonids , Macedonia was often short on funds , the Pangaeum mines were no longer as productive as under Philip II , the wealth from Alexander 's campaigns had been used up and the countryside pillaged by the Gallic invasion . A large number of the Macedonian population had also been resettled abroad by Alexander or had chosen to emigrate to the new eastern Greek cities . Up to two thirds of the population emigrated , and the Macedonian army could only count on a levy of 25,000 men , a significantly smaller force than under Philip II . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_22018-22294 | Antigonus II ruled until his death in 239 BC . His son Demetrius II soon died in 229 BC , leaving a child ( Philip V ) as king , with the general Antigonus Doson as regent . Doson led Macedon to victory in the war against the Spartan king Cleomenes III , and occupied Sparta . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_22295-22835 | Philip V , who came to power when Doson died in 221 BC , was the last Macedonian ruler with both the talent and the opportunity to unite Greece and preserve its independence against the `` cloud rising in the west '' : the ever - increasing power of Rome . He was known as `` the darling of Hellas '' . Under his auspices the Peace of Naupactus ( 217 BC ) brought the latest war between Macedon and the Greek leagues ( the social war 220 - 217 ) to an end , and at this time he controlled all of Greece except Athens , Rhodes and Pergamum . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_22836-23752 | In 215 BC Philip , with his eye on Illyria , formed an alliance with Rome 's enemy Hannibal of Carthage , which led to Roman alliances with the Achaean League , Rhodes and Pergamum . The First Macedonian War broke out in 212 BC , and ended inconclusively in 205 BC . Philip continued to wage war against Pergamum and Rhodes for control of the Aegean ( 204 - 200 BC ) and ignored Roman demands for non-intervention in Greece by invading Attica . In 198 BC , during the Second Macedonian War Philip was decisively defeated at Cynoscephalae by the Roman proconsul Titus Quinctius Flamininus and Macedon lost all its territories in Greece proper . Southern Greece was now thoroughly brought into the Roman sphere of influence , though it retained nominal autonomy . The end of Antigonid Macedon came when Philip V 's son , Perseus , was defeated and captured by the Romans in the Third Macedonian War ( 171 -- 168 BC ) . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_23851-24578 | During the Hellenistic period the importance of Greece proper within the Greek - speaking world declined sharply . The great centers of Hellenistic culture were Alexandria and Antioch , capitals of Ptolemaic Egypt and Seleucid Syria respectively . The conquests of Alexander greatly widened the horizons of the Greek world , making the endless conflicts between the cities which had marked the 5th and 4th centuries BC seem petty and unimportant . It led to a steady emigration , particularly of the young and ambitious , to the new Greek empires in the east . Many Greeks migrated to Alexandria , Antioch and the many other new Hellenistic cities founded in Alexander 's wake , as far away as modern Afghanistan and Pakistan . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_24579-25681 | Independent city states were unable to compete with Hellenistic kingdoms and were usually forced to ally themselves to one of them for defense , giving honors to Hellenistic rulers in return for protection . One example is Athens , which had been decisively defeated by Antipater in the Lamian war ( 323 - 322 ) and had its port in the Piraeus garrisoned by Macedonian troops who supported a conservative oligarchy . After Demetrius Poliorcetes captured Athens in 307 and restored the democracy , the Athenians honored him and his father Antigonus by placing gold statues of them on the agora and granting them the title of king . Athens later allied itself to Ptolemaic Egypt to throw off Macedonian rule , eventually setting up a religious cult for the Ptolemaic kings and naming one of the city 's phyles in honour of Ptolemy for his aid against Macedon . In spite of the Ptolemaic monies and fleets backing their endeavors , Athens and Sparta were defeated by Antigonus II during the Chremonidean War ( 267 - 261 ) . Athens was then occupied by Macedonian troops , and run by Macedonian officials . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_25682-26210 | Sparta remained independent , but it was no longer the leading military power in the Peloponnese . The Spartan king Cleomenes III ( 235 -- 222 BC ) staged a military coup against the conservative ephors and pushed through radical social and land reforms in order to increase the size of the shrinking Spartan citizenry able to provide military service and restore Spartan power . Sparta 's bid for supremacy was crushed at the Battle of Sellasia ( 222 ) by the Achaean league and Macedon , who restored the power of the ephors . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_26211-26997 | Other city states formed federated states in self - defense , such as the Aetolian League ( est. 370 BC ) , the Achaean League ( est. 280 BC ) , the Boeotian league , the `` Northern League '' ( Byzantium , Chalcedon , Heraclea Pontica and Tium ) and the `` Nesiotic League '' of the Cyclades . These federations involved a central government which controlled foreign policy and military affairs , while leaving most of the local governing to the city states , a system termed sympoliteia . In states such as the Achaean league , this also involved the admission of other ethnic groups into the federation with equal rights , in this case , non-Achaeans . The Achean league was able to drive out the Macedonians from the Peloponnese and free Corinth , which duly joined the league . The | Hellenistic period |
838538324_27067-27901 | One of the few city states who managed to maintain full independence from the control of any Hellenistic kingdom was Rhodes . With a skilled navy to protect its trade fleets from pirates and an ideal strategic position covering the routes from the east into the Aegean , Rhodes prospered during the Hellenistic period . It became a center of culture and commerce , its coins were widely circulated and its philosophical schools became one of the best in the Mediterranean . After holding out for one year under siege by Demetrius Poliorcetes ( 305 - 304 BC ) , the Rhodians built the Colossus of Rhodes to commemorate their victory . They retained their independence by the maintenance of a powerful navy , by maintaining a carefully neutral posture and acting to preserve the balance of power between the major Hellenistic kingdoms . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_27902-28200 | Initially Rhodes had very close ties with the Ptolemaic kingdom . Rhodes later became a Roman ally against the Seleucids , receiving some territory in Caria for their role in the Roman -- Seleucid War ( 192 -- 188 BC ) . Rome eventually turned on Rhodes and annexed the island as a Roman province . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_28353-29201 | The west Balkan coast was inhabited by various Illyrian tribes and kingdoms such as the kingdom of the Dalmatae and of the Ardiaei , who often engaged in piracy under Queen Teuta ( reigned 231 BC to 227 BC ) . Further inland was the Illyrian Paeonian Kingdom and the tribe of the Agrianes . Illyrians on the coast of the Adriatic were under the effects and influence of Hellenisation and some tribes adopted Greek , becoming bilingual due to their proximity to the Greek colonies in Illyria . Illyrians imported weapons and armor from the Ancient Greeks ( such as the Illyrian type helmet , originally a Greek type ) and also adopted the ornamentation of Ancient Macedon on their shields and their war belts ( a single one has been found , dated 3rd century BC at modern Selce e Poshtme , a part of Macedon at the time under Philip V of Macedon ) . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_29202-30010 | The Odrysian Kingdom was a union of Thracian tribes under the kings of the powerful Odrysian tribe centered around the region of Thrace . Various parts of Thrace were under Macedonian rule under Philip II of Macedon , Alexander the Great , Lysimachus , Ptolemy II , and Philip V but were also often ruled by their own kings . The Thracians and Agrianes were widely used by Alexander as peltasts and light cavalry , forming about one fifth of his army . The Diadochi also used Thracian mercenaries in their armies and they were also used as colonists . The Odrysians used Greek as the language of administration and of the nobility . The nobility also adopted Greek fashions in dress , ornament and military equipment , spreading it to the other tribes . Thracian kings were among the first to be Hellenized . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_30011-30210 | After 278 BC the Odrysians had a strong competitor in the Celtic Kingdom of Tylis ruled by the kings Comontorius and Cavarus , but in 212 BC they conquered their enemies and destroyed their capital . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_30286-31182 | Southern Italy ( Magna Graecia ) and south - eastern Sicily had been colonized by the Greeks during the 8th century . In 4th century Sicily the leading Greek city and hegemon was Syracuse . During the Hellenistic period the leading figure in Sicily was Agathocles of Syracuse ( 361 -- 289 BC ) who seized the city with an army of mercenaries in 317 BC . Agathocles extended his power throughout most of the Greek cities in Sicily , fought a long war with the Carthaginians , at one point invading Tunisia in 310 and defeating a Carthaginian army there . This was the first time a European force had invaded the region . After this war he controlled most of south - east Sicily and had himself proclaimed king , in imitation of the Hellenistic monarchs of the east . Agathocles then invaded Italy ( c. 300 BC ) in defense of Tarentum against the Bruttians and Romans , but was unsuccessful . Gallo | Hellenistic period |
838538324_31473-32592 | Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul were mostly limited to the Mediterranean coast of Provence , France . The first Greek colony in the region was Massalia , which became one of the largest trading ports of Mediterranean by the 4th century BC with 6,000 inhabitants . Massalia was also the local hegemon , controlling various coastal Greek cities like Nice and Agde . The coins minted in Massalia have been found in all parts of Ligurian - Celtic Gaul . Celtic coinage was influenced by Greek designs , and Greek letters can be found on various Celtic coins , especially those of Southern France . Traders from Massalia ventured inland deep into France on the Rivers Durance and Rhône , and established overland trade routes deep into Gaul , and to Switzerland and Burgundy . The Hellenistic period saw the Greek alphabet spread into southern Gaul from Massalia ( 3rd and 2nd centuries BC ) and according to Strabo , Massalia was also a center of education , where Celts went to learn Greek . A staunch ally of Rome , Massalia retained its independence until it sided with Pompey in 49 BC and was then taken by Caesar 's forces . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_32593-33564 | The city of Emporion ( modern Empúries ) , originally founded by Archaic - period settlers from Phocaea and Massalia in the 6th century BC near the village of Sant Martí d'Empúries ( located on an offshore island that forms part of L'Escala , Catalonia , Spain ) , was reestablished in the 5th century BC with a new city ( neapolis ) on the Iberian mainland . Emporion contained a mixed population of Greek colonists and Iberian natives , and although Livy and Strabo assert that they lived in different quarters , these two groups were eventually integrated . The city became a dominant trading hub and center of Hellenistic civilization in Iberia , eventually siding with the Roman Republic against the Carthaginian Empire during the Second Punic War ( 218 - 201 BC ) . However , Emporion lost its political independence around 195 BC with the establishment of the Roman province of Hispania Citerior and by the 1st century BC had become fully Romanized in culture . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_33598-34562 | The Hellenistic states of Asia and Egypt were run by an occupying imperial elite of Greco - Macedonian administrators and governors propped up by a standing army of mercenaries and a small core of Greco - Macedonian settlers . Promotion of immigration from Greece was important in the establishment of this system . Hellenistic monarchs ran their kingdoms as royal estates and most of the heavy tax revenues went into the military and paramilitary forces which preserved their rule from any kind of revolution . Macedonian and Hellenistic monarchs were expected to lead their armies on the field , along with a group of privileged aristocratic companions or friends ( hetairoi , philoi ) which dined and drank with the king and acted as his advisory council . The monarch was also expected to serve as a charitable patron of the people ; this public philanthropy could mean building projects and handing out gifts but also promotion of Greek culture and religion . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_34717-35377 | Ptolemy , a somatophylax , one of the seven bodyguards who served as Alexander the Great 's generals and deputies , was appointed satrap of Egypt after Alexander 's death in 323 BC . In 305 BC , he declared himself King Ptolemy I , later known as `` Soter '' ( saviour ) for his role in helping the Rhodians during the siege of Rhodes . Ptolemy built new cities such as Ptolemais Hermiou in upper Egypt and settled his veterans throughout the country , especially in the region of the Faiyum . Alexandria , a major center of Greek culture and trade , became his capital city . As Egypt 's first port city , it was the main grain exporter in the Mediterranean . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_35378-36596 | The Egyptians begrudgingly accepted the Ptolemies as the successors to the pharaohs of independent Egypt , though the kingdom went through several native revolts . The Ptolemies took on the traditions of the Egyptian Pharaohs , such as marrying their siblings ( Ptolemy II was the first to adopt this custom ) , having themselves portrayed on public monuments in Egyptian style and dress , and participating in Egyptian religious life . The Ptolemaic ruler cult portrayed the Ptolemies as gods , and temples to the Ptolemies were erected throughout the kingdom . Ptolemy I even created a new god , Serapis , who was combination of two Egyptian gods : Apis and Osiris , with attributes of Greek gods . Ptolemaic administration was , like the Ancient Egyptian bureaucracy , highly centralized and focused on squeezing as much revenue out of the population as possible though tariffs , excise duties , fines , taxes and so forth . A whole class of petty officials , tax farmers , clerks and overseers made this possible . The Egyptian countryside was directly administered by this royal bureaucracy . External possessions such as Cyprus and Cyrene were run by strategoi , military commanders appointed by the crown . Ring | Hellenistic period |
838538324_36660-37383 | Under Ptolemy II , Callimachus , Apollonius of Rhodes , Theocritus and a host of other poets made the city a center of Hellenistic literature . Ptolemy himself was eager to patronise the library , scientific research and individual scholars who lived on the grounds of the library . He and his successors also fought a series of wars with the Seleucids , known as the Syrian wars , over the region of Coele - Syria . Ptolemy IV won the great battle of Raphia ( 217 BC ) against the Seleucids , using native Egyptians trained as phalangites . However these Egyptian soldiers revolted , eventually setting up a native breakaway Egyptian state in the Thebaid between 205 - 186 / 5 BC , severely weakening the Ptolemaic state . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_37384-38040 | Ptolemy 's family ruled Egypt until the Roman conquest of 30 BC . All the male rulers of the dynasty took the name Ptolemy . Ptolemaic queens , some of whom were the sisters of their husbands , were usually called Cleopatra , Arsinoe , or Berenice . The most famous member of the line was the last queen , Cleopatra VII , known for her role in the Roman political battles between Julius Caesar and Pompey , and later between Octavian and Mark Antony . Her suicide at the conquest by Rome marked the end of Ptolemaic rule in Egypt though Hellenistic culture continued to thrive in Egypt throughout the Roman and Byzantine periods until the Muslim conquest . | Hellenistic period |
838538324_38118-39446 | Following division of Alexander 's empire , Seleucus I Nicator received Babylonia . From there , he created a new empire which expanded to include much of Alexander 's near eastern territories . At the height of its power , it included central Anatolia , the Levant , Mesopotamia , Persia , today 's Turkmenistan , Pamir , and parts of Pakistan . It included a diverse population estimated at fifty to sixty million people . Under Antiochus I ( c. 324 / 3 -- 261 BC ) , however , the unwieldy empire was already beginning to shed territories . Pergamum broke away under Eumenes I who defeated a Seleucid army sent against him . The kingdoms of Cappadocia , Bithynia and Pontus were all practically independent by this time as well . Like the Ptolemies , Antiochus I established a dynastic religious cult , deifying his father Seleucus I. Seleucus , officially said to be descended from Apollo , had his own priests and monthly sacrifices . The erosion of the empire continued under Seleucus II , who was forced to fight a civil war ( 239 - 236 ) against his brother Antiochus Hierax and was unable to keep Bactria , Sogdiana and Parthia from breaking away . Hierax carved off most of Seleucid Anatolia for himself , but was defeated , along with his Galatian allies , by Attalus I of Pergamon who now also claimed kingship . The | Hellenistic period |
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