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816688746_6884-7285 | Early chaityas enshrined a stupa with space for congregational worship by the monks . This reflected one of the early differences between early Buddhism and Hinduism , with Buddhism favoring congregational worship in contrast to Hinduism 's individual approach . Early chaitya grhas were cut into living rock as caves . These served as a symbol and sites of a sangha congregational life ( uposatha ) . | Chaitya |
816688746_7286-7683 | The earliest rock - cut chaityas , similar to free - standing ones , consisted of an inner circular chamber with pillars to create a circular path around the stupa and an outer rectangular hall for the congregation of the devotees . Over the course of time , the wall separating the stupa from the hall was removed to create an apsidal hall with a colonnade around the nave and the stupa . Chaitya | Chaitya |
816688746_7776-8785 | The chaitya at Bhaja Caves is perhaps the earliest surving chaitya hall , constructed in the second century BCE . It consists of an apsidal hall with stupa . The columns slope inwards in the imitation of wooden columns that would have been structurally necessary to keep a roof up . The ceiling is barrel vaulted with ancient wooden ribs set into them . The walls are polished in the Mauryan style . It was faced by a substantial wooden facade , now entirely lost . A large horseshoe - shaped window , the chaitya - window , was set above the arched doorway and the whole portico - area was carved to imitate a multi-storeyed building with balconies and windows and sculptured men and women who observed the scene below . This created the appearance of an ancient Indian mansion . This , like a similar facade at the Bedse Caves is an early example of what James Fergusson noted in the nineteenth century : `` Everywhere ... in India architectural decoration is made up of small models of large buildings '' . | Chaitya |
816688746_8786-9185 | In Bhaja , as in other chaityas , the entrance acted as the demarcation between the sacred and the profane . The stupa inside the hall was now completely removed from the sight of anyone outside . In this context , in the first century CE , the earlier veneration of the stupa changed to the veneration of an image of Gautama Buddha . Chaityas were commonly part of a monastic complex , the vihara . | Chaitya |
816688746_9186-9470 | The most important of rock - cut complexes are the Karla Caves , Ajanta Caves , Ellora Caves , Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves , Aurangabad Caves and the Pandavleni Caves . Many pillars have capitals on them , often with carvings of a kneeling elephant mounted on bell - shaped bases . | Chaitya |
816688746_9504-10498 | Apparently the last rock - cut chaitya hall to be constructed was Cave 10 at Ellora , in the first half of the 7th century . By this time the role of the chaitya hall was being replaced by the vihara , which had now developed shrine rooms with Buddha images ( easily added to older examples ) , and largely taken over their function for assemblies . The stupa itself had been replaced as a focus for devotion and meditation by the Buddha image , and in Cave 10 , as in other late chaityas ( for example Cave 26 at Ajanta , illustrated here ) , there is a large seated Buddha taking up the front of the stupa . Apart from this , the form of the interior is not much different to the earlier examples from several centuries before . But the form of the windows on the exterior has changed greatly , almost entirely dropping the imitation of wooden architecture , and showing a decorative treatment of the wide surround to the chaitya arch that was to be a major style in later temple decoration . | Chaitya |
816688746_10499-10661 | There are few significant remains of structural chaityas ( those built outside , of stone or brick ) , with examples including ruins at Guntupalle and Lalitgiri . | Chaitya |
816688746_10781-11622 | The broad resemblance between chaityas and the traditional huts still made by the Toda people of the Nilgiri Hills has often been remarked on . In early 20th - century , Indologist Heinrich Zimmer had remarked that the Lomas Rishi cave and chaitya designs may have roots in the Toda huts , which remain in use today by the Toda people of the Nilgiri Hills , Kerala . These are crude huts built with wicker bent to produce arch - shaped roofs . According to Davidson , while ancient wood - based architecture did inspire the chaitya cave and stone temples found after 3rd - century BCE , the ancient Indians mimicked in stone far more complex wooden architecture than a Toda hut . The Toda hut inspiring chaitya view of Zimmer is as meaningless , states Davidson , as proposing that the Pantheon in Rome imitated wood architecture in Greece . | Chaitya |
816688746_11638-12418 | In Nepal , the meaning is somewhat different . A Nepalese chaitya is not a building but a shrine monument consisting of a stupa - like shape on top a plinth , often very elaborately ornamented . They are typically placed in the open air , often in religious compounds , averaging some four to eight feet in height . They are constructed in memory of a dead person by his or her family by the Sherpas , Magars , Gurungs , Tamangs and Newars , among other people of Nepal . The Newar people of the Kathmandu Valley started adding images of the four Tathagatas on the chaitya 's four directions mainly after the twelfth century . They are constructed with beautifully carved stone and mud mortar . They are said to consist of the Mahābhūta -- earth , air , fire , water and space . | Chaitya |
816688746_12437-12707 | In classical Cambodian art chaityas are boundary markers for sacred sites , generally made in sets of four , placed on the site boundary at the four cardinal directions . They generally take a pillar - like form , often topped with a stupa , and are carved on the body . | Chaitya |
816688746_12725-13159 | Nepalese form of chaitya Cambodian sanctuary marker chaitya , Khleang style , c. 975 - 1010 Excavated remains of a structural chaitya at Lalitgiri , Odisha , India Timber ribs on the roof at the Karla Caves ; the umbrella over the stupa is also wood Decorative chaitya arches and lattice railings , Bedse Caves , 1st century BCE Stupa inside Cave 10 , Ellora , the last chaitya hall built , the Buddha image now dominating the stupa . | Chaitya |
838081405_215-644 | Waste minimisation is a process of elimination that involves reducing the amount of waste produced in society and helps to eliminate the generation of harmful and persistent wastes , supporting the efforts to promote a more sustainable society . Waste minimisation involves redesigning products and / or changing societal patterns , concerning consumption and production , of waste generation , to prevent the creation of waste . | Waste minimisation |
838081405_645-1166 | The most environmentally resourceful , economically efficient , and cost effective way to manage waste is to not have to address the problem in the first place . Waste minimisation should be seen as a primary focus for most waste management strategies . Proper waste management can require a significant amount of time and resources ; therefore , it is important to understand the benefits of waste minimisation and how it can be implemented in all sectors of the economy , in an effective , safe and sustainable manner . | Waste minimisation |
838081405_1167-2014 | The basic concept behind waste management is the waste hierarchy , where the most effective approaches to managing waste are at the top . Waste management is in contrast to waste minimisation . Waste management focuses on processing waste after it is created , concentrating on re-use , recycling , and waste - to - energy conversion rather than eliminating the creation of waste in the initial phases of production . Waste minimisation involves efforts to minimize resource and energy use during manufacture . For the same commercial output , usually the less materials are used , the less waste is produced . Waste minimisation usually requires knowledge of the production process , cradle - to - grave analysis ( the tracking of materials from their extraction to their return to earth ) and detailed knowledge of the composition of the waste . | Waste minimisation |
838081405_2015-2519 | The main sources of waste vary from country to country . In the UK , most waste comes from the construction and demolition of buildings , followed by mining and quarrying , industry and commerce . Household waste constitutes a relatively small proportion of all waste . Reasons for the creation of waste sometimes include requirements in the supply chain . For example , a company handling a product may insist that it should be packaged using particular packing because it fits its packaging equipment . | Waste minimisation |
838081405_2756-2886 | Waste minimisation can protect the environment and provide good economic and business practices . Waste minimisation can improve : | Waste minimisation |
838081405_2887-3730 | Efficient production practices . Waste minimisation can achieve more output of product per unit of input of raw materials . Economic returns . More efficient use of products means reduced costs of purchasing new materials improving the financial performance of a company . Public image . The environmental profile of a company is an important part of its overall reputation and waste minimisation reflects a proactive movement towards environmental protection . Quality of products produced . New innovation and technological practices can reduce waste generation and improve the quality of the inputs in the production phase . Environmental responsibility . Minimising or eliminating waste generation makes it easier to meet targets of environmental regulations , policies , and standards . The environmental impact of waste will be reduced . | Waste minimisation |
838081405_3751-4158 | In industries , using more efficient manufacturing processes and better materials will generally reduce the production of waste . The application of waste minimisation techniques has led to the development of innovative and commercially successful replacement products . Waste minimisation has proven benefits to industry and the wider environment . It helps in value creation and increase quality of work . | Waste minimisation |
838081405_4159-4361 | Waste minimisation often requires investment , which is usually compensated by the savings . However , waste reduction in one part of the production process may create waste production in another part . | Waste minimisation |
838081405_4362-4833 | There are government incentives for waste minimisation , which focus on the environmental benefits of adopting waste minimisation strategies . In the UK , several pilot schemes such as The Catalyst Project and the Dee Waste Minimisation Project , have shown the efficacy of such policies . Fourteen companies in Merseyside took part in the Catalyst Project ; the project generated overall savings of £ 9 million and landfill waste was reduced by 12,000 tonnes per year . | Waste minimisation |
838081405_4875-5180 | Minimising the amount of waste produced by organisations or individuals goes hand - in - hand with optimizing their use of raw materials . For example , a dressmaker may arrange pattern pieces on a length of fabric in a particular way to enable the garment to be cut out from the smallest area of fabric . | Waste minimisation |
838081405_5205-5566 | Scraps can be immediately re-incorporated at the beginning of the manufacturing line so that they do not become a waste product . Many industries routinely do this ; for example , paper mills return any damaged rolls to the beginning of the production line , and in the manufacture of plastic items , off - cuts and scrap are re-incorporated into new products . | Waste minimisation |
838081405_5615-5928 | Steps can be taken to ensure that the number of reject batches is kept to a minimum . This is achieved by increasing the frequency of inspection and the number of points of inspection . For example , installing automated continuous monitoring equipment can help to identify production problems at an early stage . | Waste minimisation |
838081405_5945-6151 | This is where the waste product of one process becomes the raw material for a second process . Waste exchanges represent another way of reducing waste disposal volumes for waste that can not be eliminated . | Waste minimisation |
838081405_6173-6399 | This involves making deliveries of incoming raw materials or components direct to the point where they are assembled or used in the manufacturing process to minimise handling and the use of protective wrappings or enclosures . | Waste minimisation |
838081405_6411-6676 | This is a whole systems approach that aims to eliminate waste at the source and at all points down the supply chain , with the intention of producing no waste . It is a design philosophy which emphasizes waste prevention as opposed to end of pipe waste management . | Waste minimisation |
838081405_6701-6990 | Waste minimisation and resource maximisation for manufactured products can most easily be done at the design stage . Reducing the number of components used in a product or making the product easier to take apart can make it easier to be repaired or recycled at the end of its useful life . | Waste minimisation |
838081405_6991-7276 | In some cases , it may be best not to minimise the volume of raw materials used to make a product , but instead reduce the volume or toxicity of the waste created at the end of a product 's life , or the environmental impact of the product 's use . ( See section Durability ) . Fitting | Waste minimisation |
838081405_7303-7777 | In this strategy , products and packages are optimally designed to meet their intended use . This applies especially to packaging materials , which should only be as durable as necessary to serve their intended purpose . On the other hand , it could be more wasteful if food , which has consumed resources and energy in its production , is damaged and spoiled because of extreme measures to reduce the use of paper , metals , glass and plastics in its packaging . Durability | Waste minimisation |
838081405_7787-7962 | Improving product durability , such as extending a vacuum cleaner 's useful life to 15 years instead of 12 , can reduce waste and usually much improves resource optimisation . | Waste minimisation |
838081405_7963-8523 | But in some cases it has a negative environmental impact . If a product is too durable , its replacement with more efficient technology is likely to be delayed . For example , a washing machine produced 10 years ago may use twice as much water , detergent and energy as one produced today . Therefore , extending an older machine 's useful life may place a heavier burden on the environment than scrapping it , recycling its metal and buying a new model . Similarly , older vehicles consume more fuel and produce more emissions than their modern counterparts . | Waste minimisation |
838081405_8524-9166 | Most proponents of waste minimisation consider that the way forward may be to view any manufactured product at the end of its useful life as a resource for recycling and reuse rather than waste . Recycling a product is easier if it is constructed of fewer materials . Car manufacturers have recently reduced the number of plastics used in their cars from twenty or more to three or four , hence simplifying the recovery of plastics from scrapped cars . However , exceptions ( like having a combination of paper and plastic or plastic coating on glass ) do exist , and might enable a product to fulfill its role with the minimum of resources . | Waste minimisation |
838081405_9167-9699 | Making refillable glass bottles strong enough to withstand several journeys between the consumer and the bottling plant requires making them thicker and so heavier , which increases the resources required to transport them . Since transport has a large environmental impact , careful evaluation is required of the number of return journeys bottles make . If a refillable bottle is thrown away after being refilled only several times , the resources wasted may be greater than if the bottle had been designed for a single journey ... | Waste minimisation |
838081405_9700-9832 | Many choices involve trade - offs of environmental impact , and often there is insufficient information to make informed decisions . | Waste minimisation |
838081405_9928-10261 | Appropriate amounts and sizes can be chosen when purchasing goods ; buying large containers of paint for a small decorating job or buying larger amounts of food than can be consumed create unnecessary waste . Also , if a pack or can is to be thrown away , any remaining contents must be removed before the container can be recycled . | Waste minimisation |
838081405_10262-10380 | Home composting , the practice of turning kitchen and garden waste into compost can be considered waste minimisation . | Waste minimisation |
838081405_10381-10966 | The resources that households use can be reduced considerably by using electricity thoughtfully ( e.g. turning off lights and equipment when it is not needed ) and by reducing the number of car journeys made . Individuals can reduce the amount of waste they create by buying fewer products and by buying products which last longer . Mending broken or worn items of clothing or equipment also contributes to minimising household waste . Individuals can minimise their water usage , and walk or cycle to their destination rather than using their car to save fuel and cut down emissions . | Waste minimisation |
838081405_10967-11391 | In a domestic situation , the potential for minimisation is often dictated by lifestyle . Some people may view it as wasteful to purchase new products solely to follow fashion trends when the older products are still usable . Adults working full - time have little free time , and so may have to purchase more convenient foods that require little preparation , or prefer disposable nappies if there is a baby in the family . | Waste minimisation |
838081405_11392-12237 | The amount of waste an individual produces is a small portion of all waste produced by society , and personal waste reduction can only make a small impact on overall waste volumes . Yet , influence on policy can be exerted in other areas . Increased consumer awareness of the impact and power of certain purchasing decisions allows industry and individuals to change the total resource consumption . Consumers can influence manufacturers and distributors by avoiding buying products that do not have eco-labelling , which is currently not mandatory , or choosing products that minimise the use of packaging . In the UK , PullApart combines both environmental and consumer packaging surveys , in a curbside packaging recycling classification system to minimise waste . Where reuse schemes are available , consumers can be proactive and use them . | Waste minimisation |
838081405_12272-12576 | Health - care establishments are massive producers of waste . The major sources of health - care waste are : hospitals , laboratories and research centres , mortuary and autopsy centres , animal research and testing laboratories , blood banks and collection services , and nursing homes for the elderly . | Waste minimisation |
838081405_12577-12872 | Waste minimisation can offer many opportunities to these establishments to use fewer resources , be less wasteful and generate less hazardous waste . Good management and control practices among health - care facilities can have a significant effect on the reduction of waste generated each day . | Waste minimisation |
838081405_12892-13034 | There are many examples of more efficient practices that can encourage waste minimization in healthcare establishments and research facilities | Waste minimisation |
838081405_13052-13360 | Purchasing reductions which ensures the selection of supplies that are less wasteful or less hazardous . The use of physical rather than chemical cleaning methods such as steam disinfection instead of chemical disinfection . Preventing the unnecessary wastage of products in nursing and cleaning activities . | Waste minimisation |
838081405_13411-13694 | Centralized purchasing of hazardous chemicals . Monitoring the flow of chemicals within the health care facility from receipt as a raw material to disposal as a hazardous waste . The careful separation of waste matter to help minimize the quantities of hazardous waste and disposal . | Waste minimisation |
838081405_13752-14069 | Frequent ordering of relatively small quantities rather than large quantities at one time . Using the oldest batch of a product first to avoid expiration dates and unnecessary waste . Using all the contents of a container containing hazardous waste . Checking the expiry date of all products at the time of delivery . | Waste minimisation |
805335016_102-554 | Once Upon a Time ( season 4 ) DVD cover Starring Ginnifer Goodwin Jennifer Morrison Lana Parrilla Josh Dallas Emilie de Ravin Colin O'Donoghue Jared S. Gilmore Michael Socha Robert Carlyle Country of origin United States No. of episodes 22 Release Original network ABC Original release September 28 , 2014 ( 2014 - 09 - 28 ) -- May 10 , 2015 ( 2015 - 05 - 10 ) Season chronology ← Previous Season 3 Next → Season 5 List of Once Upon a Time episodes | Once Upon a Time (season 4) |
805335016_555-922 | The fourth season of the ABC fantasy - drama Once Upon a Time was announced on May 8 , 2014 . On May 13 , 2014 , it was revealed that the season would be split into two parts , the first half airing during autumn 2014 , and the second half during spring 2015 of the 2014 -- 15 television season . It premiered on September 28 , 2014 , and concluded on May 10 , 2015 . | Once Upon a Time (season 4) |
805335016_923-1102 | On April 20 , 2014 , it was confirmed that former Once Upon a Time in Wonderland star Michael Socha would be a series regular as his character Will Scarlet / the Knave of Hearts . | Once Upon a Time (season 4) |
805335016_1103-1489 | New characters introduced to the series include the main antagonists for the two volumes , the Snow Queen , and the Queens of Darkness ( a triad of villains including returning character Maleficent , and new characters Cruella de Vil and Ursula ) . In addition , Elsa , Princess Anna , Kristoff , the Sorcerer 's Apprentice , Little Bo Peep , and Poseidon are introduced to the series . | Once Upon a Time (season 4) |
805335016_1735-3203 | Elsa arrives in Storybrooke , hoping to find her sister Anna . However , things get complicated with the appearance of the Snow Queen , who seems to know both Elsa and Emma . The Snow Queen is later revealed to Elsa 's aunt and one of Emma 's foster mothers ; she plans on making them her new sisters , despite their obvious hatred of her . The Snow Queen enacts the spell of Shattered Sight to make everyone kill each other ; however , she is given a letter written by Elsa and Anna 's mother that shows how much she was loved . Seeing she let herself become a monster , the Snow Queen ends the spell by killing herself . At the same time , Mr. Gold plots to free himself of the Dark One dagger 's control by crushing Hook 's heart in a ceremony ; however , Belle uses the dagger to force Gold to leave Storybrooke . Gold reunites the Queens of Darkness ( Ursula , Cruella De Vil and Maleficent ) to find the Author responsible for writing their stories and force him to give them happy endings . Emma also learns that her old friend Lily is Maleficent 's daughter , helping the two reunite . Allying with the Author , Mr. Gold traps everyone in a new story called Heroes and Villains , where the roles are reversed . Henry frees everyone , becoming the new Author in the process . Things get worse as the darkness in Gold escapes , being revealed to be the true Dark One . To save Regina from becoming possessed by it , Emma forces the Darkness to take her instead . | Once Upon a Time (season 4) |
805335016_3301-3683 | Ginnifer Goodwin as Snow White / Mary Margaret Blanchard Jennifer Morrison as Emma Swan Lana Parrilla as Evil Queen / Regina Mills Josh Dallas as Prince Charming / David Nolan Emilie de Ravin as Belle / Lacey Colin O'Donoghue as Captain Hook / Killian Jones Jared S. Gilmore as Henry Mills Michael Socha as Will Scarlet / Knave of Hearts Robert Carlyle as Rumplestiltskin / Mr. Gold | Once Upon a Time (season 4) |
805335016_3703-4998 | Sean Maguire as Robin Hood Georgina Haig as Elsa Kristin Bauer van Straten as Maleficent Elizabeth Lail as Anna Elizabeth Mitchell as Ingrid / Snow Queen / Sarah Fisher Scott Michael Foster as Kristoff Lee Arenberg as Dreamy / Grumpy / Leroy Beverley Elliott as Widow Lucas / Granny Patrick Fischler as Isaac Heller / Author Timothy Webber as the Sorcerer 's Apprentice Victoria Smurfit as Cruella De Vil / Cruella Feinberg Merrin Dungey as Ursula , the Sea Witch Faustino Di Bauda as Sleepy / Walter Christie Laing as Marian Rebecca Mader as Zelena / Wicked Witch of the West Raphael Alejandro as Roland Eion Bailey as Pinocchio / August Booth Michael Coleman as Happy Gabe Khouth as Sneezy / Tom Clark Abby Ross as Young Emma Swan Keegan Connor Tracy as Blue Fairy / Mother Superior John Rhys - Davies as Grand Pabbie Agnes Bruckner as Lilith `` Lily '' Page Jason Burkart as Little John David Paul Grove as Doc Jeffrey Kaiser as Dopey Mig Macario as Bashful Tony Amendola as Geppetto / Marco Sarah Bolger as Aurora Jakob Davies as young Pinocchio Giancarlo Esposito as Magic Mirror / Sidney Glass JoAnna Garcia Swisher as Ariel Chris Gauthier as William Smee Barbara Hershey as Cora Mills / Queen of Hearts Tony Perez as Prince Henry Mills Raphael Sbarge as Jiminy Cricket / Dr. Archie Hopper | Once Upon a Time (season 4) |
805335016_5014-5805 | Pascale Hutton as Gerda , Queen of Arendelle Tyler Jacob Moore as Prince Hans Nils Hognestad as Franz Marcus Rosner as Jurgen Sally Pressman as Helga Nicole Muñoz as Young Lily Charles Mesure as Blackbeard Wil Traval as Sheriff of Nottingham / Keith Oliver Rice as King of Arendelle Robin Weigert as Bo Peep Gabrielle Rose as Ruth Brad Dourif as Zoso Eric Keenleyside as Maurice / Moe French Frances O'Connor as Colette Jessy Schram as Cinderella / Ashley Boyd Darcey Johnson as Oaken Brighton Sharbino as Young Ingrid Ava Marie Telek as Young Gerda Bailey Herbert as Young Helga Jonathan Runyon as a younger Duke of Weselton Rebecca Wisocky as Madam Faustina Sebastian Roché as King Stefan Ernie Hudson as Poseidon Tiffany Boone as Young Ursula Jonathan Adams voices The Sorcerer / Merlin | Once Upon a Time (season 4) |
805335016_34363-34936 | The fourth season of Once Upon a Time was confirmed on May 8 , 2014 , this announcement was followed by the announcement that the first half of the season will air during the autumn of 2014 , while the second half will air during the spring of 2015 . In August 2014 , Maleficent was reported to be the main villain for the second half of the season . Prior to the season premiere , a special aired recapping the previous three seasons , and finished up with the introduction of the Frozen storyline . The theme for the season is `` Never give up on the people you love '' . | Once Upon a Time (season 4) |
805335016_34937-35713 | Adam Horowitz initially announced that the 2 - part episode , `` Smash the Mirror '' , would air at the earlier time of 7 / 6c and will be two hours long , however this was later contradicted by the official Prime Time schedule which stated that it would premiere in its usual spot of 8 / 7c , the official ABC press release for the episode and the Futon Critic also supported this start time . Horowitz later clarified via Twitter that the extra hour was in addition to the already announced 22 episodes . He also confirmed that the winter finale would air on December 14 , 2014 , and later confirmed that the show will return from winter hiatus on March 1 , 2015 . On March 15 , 2015 , Horowitz confirmed that the last 2 episodes of the season will form a 2 - hour episode . | Once Upon a Time (season 4) |
805335016_35714-36213 | It has been confirmed that , unlike the Frozen arc , the villains of the second half of season 4 will come from `` ( Once Upon a Time ) mythology '' instead of from their respective movies , so their origins will not be how people remember them , in particular , creator Adam Horowitz stated that `` ( Once ) Cruella may have a different backstory than the one that people may remember from the movie '' and explained that Maleficent has already been slotted into the mythology in previous seasons . | Once Upon a Time (season 4) |
805335016_36214-36645 | Another special , similar to the special that aired between the season 3 mid-season finale and premiere , aired an hour before the mid-season premiere on March 1 , 2015 and was titled `` Secrets of Storybrooke '' and narrated by starring cast member , Jennifer Morrison . The special focused on the topic of what it takes to have familiar fairy - tale characters who have been flipped on their heads from their respective origins . | Once Upon a Time (season 4) |
805335016_36663-37724 | After Once Upon a Time in Wonderland was canceled , it was reported that Michael Socha , who portrayed Will Scarlet / the Knave of Hearts on the spin off , was in talks to join the main cast of Once Upon a Time as a series regular should the series receive renewal for a fourth season , this was later confirmed on April 20 , 2014 and on May 8 , 2014 , Socha was hired following the season 4 renewal . Michael Raymond - James was confirmed to not be returning as a main cast member , since his character , Neal Cassidy , was killed off . During Comic Con 2014 , it was officially announced that Ginnifer Goodwin was returning as Snow White / Mary Margaret Blanchard along with fellow cast members Jennifer Morrison as Emma Swan , Josh Dallas as Prince Charming / David Nolan , Colin O'Donoghue as Captain Killian `` Hook '' Jones and Jared S. Gilmore as Henry Mills , Lana Parrilla as the Evil Queen / Regina Mills and Emilie de Ravin as Belle . De Ravin also confirmed Robert Carlyle 's return as Rumpelstiltskin / Mr. Gold , through a photo on her Instagram . | Once Upon a Time (season 4) |
805335016_37725-38617 | On July 1 , 2014 , it was announced that Scott Michael Foster had been cast as Frozen character Kristoff and Elizabeth Lail as Anna . The following day , it was announced Georgina Haig had been cast as Elsa . On July 8 , 2014 , Elizabeth Mitchell was revealed to have been cast in an undisclosed role . It was later revealed that she would be playing an evil Snow Queen , much like the one from the original Hans Christian Andersan fairy tale . The character would be Anna 's and Elsa 's aunt , Ingrid . Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz had also cast a real reindeer as Sven . On July 28 , 2014 , Tyler Jacob Moore and John Rhys - Davies were both announced to be playing Prince Hans and Grand Pabbie , respectively . The third episode , `` Rocky Road '' , revealed that the roles of two of Hans ' brothers , Franz and Jurgen , had been given to Nils Hognestad and Marcus Rosner respectively . | Once Upon a Time (season 4) |
805335016_38618-39056 | Returning recurring cast members include Sean Maguire as Robin Hood , Christie Laing as Maid Marian , Giancarlo Esposito as the Magic Mirror / Sidney Glass , Beverley Elliott as Granny , Lee Arenberg as Grumpy / Leroy , Raphael Sbarge as Jiminy Cricket / Dr. Archie Hopper and Keegan Connor Tracy as the Blue Fairy / Mother Superior . Faustino Di Bauda also returned as Sleepy / Walter and so did Kristin Bauer van Straten as Maleficent . | Once Upon a Time (season 4) |
805335016_39057-39971 | On September 4 , it was revealed that Frances O'Connor was cast as Belle 's mother , Colette for the sixth episode , although appearances later on in the season were also hinted . A new character , Lily , has been cast to Nicole Muñoz , while Sally Pressman was given the role of Helga . It was announced on November 5 , 2014 that Victoria Smurfit would be portraying Cruella de Vil in a recurring capacity later on in the season and that hints will be placed in the next few episodes . Another Disney villain was also cast in the form of Ursula from The Little Mermaid who was portrayed by Merrin Dungey , the character portrayed is named after the original sea - goddess who was portrayed by Yvette Nicole Brown in the season 3 episode , `` Ariel '' . Straten , Smurfit , and Dungey all first appeared in the winter finale , `` Heroes and Villains '' , and are collectively called the `` Queens of Darkness '' . | Once Upon a Time (season 4) |
805335016_39972-40628 | On October 17 , 2014 , Rebecca Wisocky was revealed to have been cast as the con - artist Madam Faustina for the ninth episode , `` Fall '' , while a few days later on October 22 , David Paul Grove , Gabe Khouth , Michael Coleman , Mig Macario and Jeffrey Kaiser were confirmed to be returning as the remaining seven dwarves . On October 25 , 2014 , Ginnifer Goodwin revealed that Mary Margaret 's and David 's son , Neal Nolan , is portrayed by eight different babies , adding : `` I used to be like , ' babies look like babies . ' And now that I have a baby , I 'm like , how does the audience not notice that in every shot , this is a different kid ? '' | Once Upon a Time (season 4) |
805335016_40629-41644 | The season 's first episode , `` A Tale of Two Sisters '' saw the return of Jason Burkart as Little John , who reprised his role in the sixth episode , and Raphael Alejandro as Roland who reprised the role in the third and sixth episodes , and introduced Pascale Hutton as the Queen of Arendelle , Anna and Elsa 's mother , who reappeared in the seventh episode while the second episode , `` White Out '' , introduced Robin Weigert as Bo Peep , and saw the return of Gabrielle Rose as Ruth , Prince Charming 's mother . The fourth episode , `` The Apprentice '' , introduced Timothy Webber as the Sorcerer 's Apprentice who reprised his role in the two - hour episode `` Smash the Mirror '' , and the sixteenth episode , `` Best Laid Plans '' . The fourth episode also saw the return of Brad Dourif as the previous Dark One , Zoso . The fifth episode , `` Breaking Glass '' saw the return of Abby Ross reprised her role as a teenage Emma in `` Breaking Glass '' , `` Shattered Sight '' , and `` Best Laid Plans '' . | Once Upon a Time (season 4) |
805335016_41645-42299 | The sixth episode , `` Family Business '' saw the return of Eric Keenleyside as Maurice , Belle 's father , and introduced Darcey Johnson as Oaken . The following episode , `` The Snow Queen '' , saw the return of Jessy Schram as Ashley / Cinderella and Sarah Bolger as Aurora , and it also introduced Brighton Sharbino as a younger version of Elizabeth Mitchell 's character , Ingrid , Ava Marie Telek as a younger version of Gerda , the Queen of Arendelle , Sally Pressman as Helga , Bailey Herbert as a young Helga , and Jonathan Runyon as a younger Duke of Weselton . The ninth episode , `` Fall '' , saw the return of Charles Mesure as Black Beard . | Once Upon a Time (season 4) |
805335016_42300-42583 | Patrick Fischler has been cast in a `` Key Recurring Role '' as a Peddler named Gorin who first appeared in episode 17 , `` Best Laid Plans '' where he was revealed to also be the `` Author '' . Fischler is also set to reprise his role in the eighteen episode , `` Heart of Gold '' . | Once Upon a Time (season 4) |
805335016_42584-43323 | During a second Q&A on the December 15 , Horowitz confirmed the return of Joanna Garcia Swisher as Ariel . On December 18 , 2014 , Eion Bailey was confirmed to be returning August Booth / Pinocchio for `` multiple Season 4 episodes '' , starting with the fourteenth episode , `` Enter the Dragon '' . It was also revealed that Ernie Hudson had been cast as Poseidon , who is also Ursula 's Father , and Sebastian Roche as King Stefan . In February 2015 , Rebecca Mader was confirmed to be returning as Wicked Witch of the West / Zelena and Wil Traval was revealed to be returning as the Sheriff of Nottingham / Keith . Both Mader and Traval have been confirmed to be reprising their roles in the seventeenth episode , `` Heart of Gold '' . | Once Upon a Time (season 4) |
805335016_43324-44214 | Agnes Bruckner has been confirmed to appear in a three episode arc in the role of an adult Lily , a friend of Emma from her childhood who was portrayed by Nicole Muñoz in the fifth episode , `` Breaking Glass '' . On February 28 , Adam Horowitz confirmed the return of Barbara Hershey in a later part of the season . The thirteenth episode , `` Unforgiven '' , which aired on March 8 , 2015 , saw the return of Tony Amendola as Marco / Geppetto and Jakob Davies as young Pinocchio , his older counterpart August Booth , portrayed by Eion Bailey , was reintroduced in the following episode . The episode that aired on March 22 , 2015 , `` Poor Unfortunate Soul '' , saw the return of Christopher Gauthier as William Smee and introduced Tiffany Boone as a younger version of Ursula . The following episode , `` Best Laid Plans '' , saw the return of Barclay Hope as Lily 's adoptive father . | Once Upon a Time (season 4) |
805335016_44234-44333 | The season airs simultaneously on CTV in Canada . In New Zealand , it is currently airing on TVNZ . | Once Upon a Time (season 4) |
805335016_44380-44801 | The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 58 % approval rating with an average rating of 7.5 / 10 based on 11 reviews among critics and a score of 85 % from 315 audience scores with an average rating of 4.2 / 5 . The website 's consensus reads , `` The addition of a Frozen subplot feels like a marketing angle , but Once Upon a Time Season Four shines , adding more layers to an already complex story . '' | Once Upon a Time (season 4) |
805335016_44819-46495 | No . Title Air date Rating / share ( 18 -- 49 ) Viewers ( millions ) DVR ( 18 -- 49 ) DVR viewers ( millions ) Total ( 18 -- 49 ) Total viewers ( millions ) `` A Tale of Two Sisters '' September 28 , 2014 3.5 / 11 9.47 1.0 2.72 4.5 12.19 `` White Out '' October 5 , 2014 3.2 / 9 8.78 1.2 2.84 4.4 11.62 `` Rocky Road '' October 12 , 2014 2.7 / 7 7.92 1.3 3.02 4.0 10.94 `` The Apprentice '' October 19 , 2014 2.7 / 7 8.07 1.2 2.79 3.9 10.86 5 `` Breaking Glass '' October 26 , 2014 2.4 / 6 6.87 1.1 N / A 3.5 N / A 6 `` Family Business '' November 2 , 2014 2.6 / 7 7.54 1.3 3.04 3.9 10.57 7 `` The Snow Queen '' November 9 , 2014 2.5 / 7 7.42 1.4 3.39 3.9 10.81 8 `` Smash the Mirror '' November 16 , 2014 2.4 / 6 6.80 1.2 2.89 3.6 9.69 9 `` Fall '' November 30 , 2014 2.1 / 5 6.43 1.1 2.69 3.2 9.12 10 `` Shattered Sight '' December 7 , 2014 2.0 / 5 6.20 1.2 2.97 3.2 9.17 11 `` Heroes and Villains '' December 14 , 2014 1.7 / 5 5.69 1.2 2.76 2.9 8.45 12 `` Darkness on the Edge of Town '' March 1 , 2015 2.2 / 6 6.66 1.1 2.55 3.3 9.21 13 `` Unforgiven '' March 8 , 2015 2.1 / 6 6.72 0.9 N / A 3.0 N / A 14 `` Enter the Dragon '' March 15 , 2015 1.8 / 6 5.88 1.1 2.52 2.9 8.40 15 `` Poor Unfortunate Soul '' March 22 , 2015 1.9 / 6 5.79 1.0 2.50 2.9 8.29 16 `` Best Laid Plans '' March 29 , 2015 1.7 / 6 5.48 1.1 2.47 2.8 7.95 17 `` Heart of Gold '' April 12 , 2015 1.6 / 5 5.17 1.1 2.51 2.7 7.68 18 `` Sympathy for the De Vil '' April 19 , 2015 1.7 / 5 5.12 1.0 2.49 2.7 7.61 19 `` Lily '' April 26 , 2015 1.7 / 5 5.21 1.0 2.19 2.7 7.40 20 `` Mother '' May 3 , 2015 1.7 / 6 5.31 1.0 2.37 2.7 7.68 21 / 22 `` Operation Mongoose '' May 10 , 2015 1.8 / 6 5.51 1.0 2.46 2.8 7.97 | Once Upon a Time (season 4) |
805335016_46496-46609 | The premiere episode of the season , `` A Tale of Two Sisters '' , achieved a weekly viewership ranking of # 21 . | Once Upon a Time (season 4) |
820967068_204-355 | External video 20 Minutes of Eva Longoria Sewing , While Reading the Entire Wikipedia Entry on Sewing , 20 : 07 , Glamour Magazine , February 24 , 2016 | Sewing |
820967068_356-815 | Sewing is the craft of fastening or attaching objects using stitches made with a needle and thread . Sewing is one of the oldest of the textile arts , arising in the Paleolithic era . Before the invention of spinning yarn or weaving fabric , archaeologists believe Stone Age people across Europe and Asia sewed fur and skin clothing using bone , antler or ivory needles and `` thread '' made of various animal body parts including sinew , catgut , and veins . | Sewing |
820967068_816-1289 | For thousands of years , all sewing was done by hand . The invention of the sewing machine in the 19th century and the rise of computerization in the 20th century led to mass production and export of sewn objects , but hand sewing is still practiced around the world . Fine hand sewing is a characteristic of high - quality tailoring , haute couture fashion , and custom dressmaking , and is pursued by both textile artists and hobbyists as a means of creative expression . | Sewing |
820967068_1290-1360 | The first known use of the word `` sewing '' was in the 14th century . | Sewing |
820967068_1882-2686 | Sewing has an ancient history estimated to begin during the Paleolithic Age . Sewing was used to stitch together animal hides for clothing and for shelter . The Inuit , for example , used sinew from caribou for thread and needles made of bone ; the indigenous peoples of the American Plains and Canadian Prairies used sophisticated sewing methods to assemble tipi shelters . Sewing was combined with the weaving of plant leaves in Africa to create baskets , such as those made by Zulu weavers , who used thin strips of palm leaf as `` thread '' to stitch wider strips of palm leaf that had been woven into a coil . The weaving of cloth from natural fibres originated in the Middle East around 4000 BC , and perhaps earlier during the Neolithic Age , and the sewing of cloth accompanied this development . | Sewing |
820967068_2687-3929 | During the Middle Ages , Europeans who could afford it employed seamstresses and tailors . Sewing for the most part was a woman 's occupation , and most sewing before the 19th century was practical . Clothing was an expensive investment for most people , and women had an important role in extending the longevity of items of clothing . Sewing was used for mending . Clothing that was faded would be turned inside - out so that it could continue to be worn , and sometimes had to be taken apart and reassembled in order to suit this purpose . Once clothing became worn or torn , it would be taken apart and the reusable cloth sewn together into new items of clothing , made into quilts , or otherwise put to practical use . The many steps involved in making clothing from scratch ( weaving , pattern making , cutting , alterations , and so forth ) meant that women often bartered their expertise in a particular skill with one another . Decorative needlework such as embroidery was a valued skill , and young women with the time and means would practise to build their skill in this area . From the Middle Ages to the 17th century , sewing tools such as needles , pins and pincushions were included in the trousseaus of many European brides . | Sewing |
820967068_3930-5022 | Decorative embroidery was valued in many cultures worldwide . Although most embroidery stitches in the Western repertoire are traditionally British , Irish or Western European in origin , stitches originating in different cultures are known throughout the world today . Some examples are the Cretan Open Filling stitch , Romanian Couching or Oriental Couching , and the Japanese stitch . The stitches associated with embroidery spread by way of the trade routes that were active during the Middle Ages . The Silk Road brought Chinese embroidery techniques to Western Asia and Eastern Europe , while techniques originating in the Middle East spread to Southern and Western Europe through Morocco and Spain . European imperial settlements also spread embroidery and sewing techniques worldwide . However , there are instances of sewing techniques indigenous to cultures in distant locations from one another , where cross-cultural communication would have been historically unlikely . For example , a method of reverse appliqué known to areas of South America is also known to Southeast Asia . | Sewing |
820967068_5217-5997 | The Industrial Revolution shifted the production of textiles from the household to the mills . In the early decades of the Industrial Revolution , the machinery produced whole cloth . The world 's first sewing machine was patented in 1790 by Thomas Saint . By the early 1840s , other early sewing machines began to appear . Barthélemy Thimonnier introduced a simple sewing machine in 1841 to produce military uniforms for France 's army ; shortly afterward , a mob of tailors broke into Thimonnier 's shop and threw the machines out of the windows , believing the machines would put them out of work . By the 1850s , Isaac Singer developed the first sewing machines that could operate quickly and accurately and surpass the productivity of a seamstress or tailor sewing by hand . | Sewing |
820967068_5998-6709 | While much clothing was still produced at home by female members of the family , more and more ready - made clothes for the middle classes were being produced with sewing machines . Textile sweatshops full of poorly paid sewing machine operators grew into entire business districts in large cities like London and New York City . To further support the industry , piece work was done for little money by women living in slums . Needlework was one of the few occupations considered acceptable for women , but it did not pay a living wage . Women doing piece work from home often worked 14 - hour days to earn enough to support themselves , sometimes by renting sewing machines that they could not afford to buy . | Sewing |
820967068_6710-7249 | Tailors became associated with higher - end clothing during this period . In London , this status grew out of the dandy trend of the early 19th century , when new tailor shops were established around Savile Row . These shops acquired a reputation for sewing high - quality handmade clothing in the style of the latest British fashions , as well as more classic styles . The boutique culture of Carnaby Street was absorbed by Savile Row tailors during the late 20th century , ensuring the continued flourishing of Savile Row 's businesses . | Sewing |
820967068_7317-8462 | Sewing underwent further developments during the 20th century . As sewing machines became more affordable to the working class , demand for sewing patterns grew . Women had become accustomed to seeing the latest fashions in periodicals during the late 19th and early 20th centuries , increasing demand for sewing patterns yet more . American tailor and manufacturer Ebenezer Butterick met the demand with paper patterns that could be traced and used by home sewers . The patterns , sold in small packets , became wildly popular . Several pattern companies soon established themselves . Women 's magazines also carried sewing patterns , and continued to do so for much of the 20th century . This practice declined during the later decades of the 20th century , when ready - made clothing became a necessity as women joined the paid workforce in larger numbers , leaving them with less time to sew , if indeed they had an interest . Today , the low price of ready - made clothing in shops means that home sewing is confined largely to hobbyists in Western countries . With the exception of cottage industries in custom dressmaking and upholstery . | Sewing |
820967068_8463-9812 | The spread of sewing machine technology to industrialized economies around the world meant the spread of Western - style sewing methods and clothing styles as well . In Japan , traditional clothing was sewn together with running stitch that could be removed so that the clothing could be taken apart and the assorted pieces laundered separately . The tight - locked stitches made by home sewing machines , and the use of Western clothing patterns , led to a movement towards wearing Western - style clothing during the early 20th century . Western sewing and clothing styles were disseminated in sub-Saharan Africa by Christian missionaries from the 1830s onward . Indigenous cultures , such as the Zulu and Tswana , were indoctrinated in the Western way of dress as a sign of conversion to Christianity . First Western hand sewing techniques , and later machine sewing , spread throughout the regions where the European colonists settled . However , a recent examination of new online learning methods demonstrated that technology can be adapted to share knowledge of a culture 's traditional sewing methods . Using self - paced online tutorials , a Malay sewing class learned how to tailor and sew a traditional men 's Baju Kurung garment in 3 days , whereas a traditional Malay sewing class would have taken 5 days to teach the same information . | Sewing |
820967068_9813-10754 | Advances in industrial technology , such as the development of synthetic fibres during the early 20th century , have brought profound changes to the textile industry as a whole . Textile industries in Western countries have declined sharply as textile companies compete for cheaper labour in other parts of the world . According to the U.S. Department of Labor `` employment of sewers and tailors is expected to experience little or no change , growing 1 percent from 2010 to 2020 '' . It is estimated that every lost textile job in a Western country in recent years has resulted in 1.5 jobs being created in an outsourced country such as China . Textile workers who perform tasks with sewing machines , or do detailed work by hand , are still a vital component of the industry , however . Small - scale sewing is also an economic standby in many developing countries , where many people , both male and female , are self - employed sewers . | Sewing |
820967068_10854-11546 | Garment construction is usually guided by a pattern . A pattern can be quite simple ; some patterns are nothing more than a mathematical formula that the sewer calculates based on the intended wearer 's measurements . Once calculated , the sewer has the measurements needed to cut the cloth and sew the garment together . At the other end of the spectrum are haute couture fashion designs . When a couture garment is made of unusual material , or has extreme proportions , the design may challenge the sewer 's engineering knowledge . Complex designs are drafted and refitted dozens of times , may take around 40 hours to develop a final pattern , and require 60 hours of cutting and sewing . | Sewing |
820967068_11547-11933 | Most clothing today is mass - produced , and conforms to standard sizing , based on body measurements that are intended to fit the greatest proportion of the population . However , while `` standard '' sizing is generally a useful guideline , it is little more than that , because there is no industry standard that is `` both widely accepted and strictly adhered to in all markets '' . | Sewing |
820967068_11934-12545 | Home sewers often work from patterns purchased from companies such as Simplicity , Butterick , McCall 's , Vogue , and many others . A sewer may choose to alter a pattern to make it more accurately fit the intended wearer . Patterns may be changed to increase or reduce length ; to add or remove fullness ; to adjust the position of the waistline , shoulder line , or other seam , or a variety of other adjustments . Volume can be added with elements such as pleats , or reduced with the use of darts . Before work is started on the final garment , test garments may be made , sometimes referred to as muslins . | Sewing |
820967068_12568-12861 | Sewers working on a simple project need only a few sewing tools , such as measuring tape , needle , thread , cloth , and sewing shears . More complex projects may only need a few more simple tools to get the job done , but there are an ever - growing variety of helpful sewing aids available . | Sewing |
820967068_12862-13159 | In addition to sewing shears , rotary cutters may be used for cutting fabric , usually used with a cutting mat to protect other surfaces from being damaged . Seam rippers are used to remove mistaken stitches . Special marking pens and chalk are used to mark the fabric as a guide to construction . | Sewing |
820967068_13160-13482 | Pressing and ironing are an essential part of many sewing projects , and require additional tools . A steam iron is used to press seams and garments , and a variety of pressing aids such as a seam roll or tailor 's ham are used to aid in shaping a garment . A pressing cloth may be used to protect the fabric from damage . | Sewing |
820967068_13483-13677 | Sewing machines are now made for a broad range of specialised sewing purposes , such as quilting machines , computerized machines for embroidery , and sergers for finishing raw edges of fabric . | Sewing |
820967068_13678-13896 | A wide variety of presser foot attachments are available for many sewing machines -- feet exist to help with hemming , pintucks , attaching cording , assembling patchwork , quilting , and a variety of other functions . | Sewing |
820967068_13954-14206 | Seamstresses are provided with the pattern , with the intent of using as little fabric as possible . Thus , patterns will specify whether to cut on the grain or the bias . Special placement may be required for directional , striped , or plaid fabrics . | Sewing |
820967068_14207-14366 | Supporting materials , such as interfacing , interlining , or lining , may be used in garment construction , to give the fabric a more rigid or durable shape . | Sewing |
820967068_14367-14629 | Before or after the pattern pieces are cut , it is often necessary to mark the pieces to provide a guide during the sewing process . Marking methods may include using pens , pencils , or chalk , tailor 's tacks , snips , pins , or thread tracing , among others . | Sewing |
820967068_14630-14861 | In addition to the normal lockstitch , construction stitches include edgestitching , understitching , staystitching and topstitching . Seam types include the plain seam , zigzag seam , flat fell seam , French seam and many others . | Sewing |
820967068_14891-15160 | Clothing technology has evolved to a complicated science weighed against the labor cost making positive and negative effects across the globe . Millions of women in Bangladesh and other developing countries have come out of poverty working as Sewing Machine Operators . | Sewing |
820967068_15347-15633 | With the development of cloth simulation software such as CLO3D , Marvelous Designer and Optitex , seamstresses can now draft patterns on the computer and visualize clothing designs by using the pattern creation tools and virtual sewing machines within these cloth simulation programs . | Sewing |
836247976_556-1319 | Owing to Africa 's position across equatorial and subtropical latitudes in both the northern and southern hemisphere , several different climate types can be found within it . The continent mainly lies within the intertropical zone between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn . Hence , it 's interesting density of humidity intensity is always high , and it is a hot continent . Warm and hot climates prevail all over Africa , but the northern part is that most marked by aridity and high temperatures . Only the northernmost and the southernmost fringes of the continent have a Mediterranean climate. The equator runs through the middle of Africa , as do the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn , making Africa the most tropical continent . | Climate of Africa |
836247976_1320-2169 | The climate of Africa is a range of climates such as the equatorial climate , the tropical wet and dry climate , the tropical monsoon climate , the semi-desert climate ( semi-arid ) , the desert climate ( hyper - arid and arid ) , the subtropical highland climate etc . Temperate climates are rare across the continent except at very high elevations and along the fringes . In fact , the climate of Africa is more variable by rainfall amount than by temperatures , which are consistently high . African deserts are the sunniest and the driest parts of the continent , owing to the prevailing presence of the subtropical ridge with subsiding , hot , dry air masses . Africa holds many heat - related records : the continent has the hottest extended region year - round , the areas with the hottest summer climate , the highest sunshine duration etc . | Climate of Africa |
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