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According to the OED, he first used the word tesseract in 1888 in his book "A New Era of Thought".
He also invented the words "kata" (from the Greek for "down from") and "ana" (from the Greek for "up toward") to describe the additional two opposing fourth-dimensional directions (an additional 4th axis of motion analogous to left-right (x), up-down (y), and forwards-backwards (z)).
Hinton's "Scientific romances", including "What is the Fourth Dimension?"
and "A Plane World", were published as a series of nine pamphlets by Swan Sonnenschein & Co. during 1884–1886.
In the introduction to "A Plane World", Hinton referred to Abbott's recent "Flatland" as having similar design but different intent.
Abbott used the stories as "a setting wherein to place his satire and his lessons.
But we wish in the first place to know the physical facts."
Hinton's world existed along the perimeter of a circle rather than on an infinite flat plane.
He extended the connection to Abbott's work with "An Episode of Flatland: Or How a Plane Folk Discovered the Third Dimension" (1907).
Hinton's advocacy of the tesseract as a means to perceive higher dimensions spawned a long lineage of science fiction, fantasy, and spiritual works that similarly refer to the tesseract as a way to understand—or even access—higher dimensions, including Charles Leadbeater's "Clairvoyance" (1899), Claude Bragdon's "A Primer of Higher Space" (1913), Algernon Blackwood's "Victim of Higher Space" (1914), H. P. Lovecraft's "The Shadow Out of Time" (1935), Robert Heinlein's "—And He Built a Crooked House—" (1941), Madeleine L'Engle's "A Wrinkle in Time" (1962), and Christopher Nolan's film "Interstellar" (2014).
Hinton was one of the many thinkers who circulated in Jorge Luis Borges's pantheon of writers.
Hinton is mentioned in Borges' short stories "Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius", "There Are More Things" and "El milagro secreto" ("The Secret Miracle"):
Hinton influenced P. D. Ouspensky's thinking.
Many of ideas Ouspensky presents in "Tertium Organum" mention Hinton's works.
Hinton's "scientific romance," the "Unlearner" is cited by John Dewey in "Art as Experience", chapter 3.
Hinton is the main character of Carlos Atanes's play "Un genio olvidado (Un rato en la vida de Charles Howard Hinton)".
The play was premiered on Madrid in May 2015 and published in May 2017.
Hinton is mentioned several times in Alan Moore's graphic novel "From Hell"; his theories regarding the fourth dimension form the basis of the book's final chapter.
His father, James Hinton, appears in chapters 4 and 10.
He is mentioned twice in Aleister Crowley's novel "Moonchild".
The first mention mistakenly names his father, James Hinton.
Plantar reflex
The plantar reflex is a reflex elicited when the sole of the foot is stimulated with a blunt instrument.
The reflex can take one of two forms.
In healthy adults, the plantar reflex causes a downward response of the hallux (flexion).
An upward response (extension) of the hallux is known as the Babinski response or Babinski sign, named after the neurologist Joseph Babinski.
The presence of the Babinski sign can identify disease of the spinal cord and brain in adults, and also exists as a primitive reflex in infants.
While first described in the medical literature by Babinski in 1896, the reflex has been identified in art at least as early as Botticelli's "Madonna and Child With an Angel", painted in the mid-15th century.
The lateral side of the sole of the foot is rubbed with a blunt instrument or device so as not to cause pain, discomfort, or injury to the skin; the instrument is run from the heel along a curve to the toes (metatarsal pads).
Many reflex hammers taper at the end of the handle to a point which was used for testing the plantar response in the past, however, due to the tightening of infection control regulation this is no longer recommended.
Either a single use device or the thumb nail should be used.
There are three responses possible:
As the lesion responsible for the sign expands, so does the area from which the afferent Babinski response may be elicited.
The Babinski response is also normal while asleep and after a long period of walking.
The Babinski sign can indicate upper motor neuron lesion constituting damage to the corticospinal tract.
Occasionally, a pathological plantar reflex is the first and only indication of a serious disease process and a clearly abnormal plantar reflex often prompts detailed neurological investigations, including CT scanning of the brain or MRI of the spine, as well as lumbar puncture for the study of cerebrospinal fluid.
The phrase "negative Babinski sign" is sometimes used for the normal flexor plantar response.
Infants will usually show an extensor response.
In one study of 256 healthy infants, the response to testing was extensor in 73.8%, flexor in 8.9%, and equivocal in 17.3% This extensor response occurs because the corticospinal pathways that run from the brain down the spinal cord are not fully myelinated at this age, so the reflex is not inhibited by the cerebral cortex.
The extensor response usually disappears – giving way to the flexor response – by 12 months of age.
Its persistence beyond age 2–3 indicates a problem in the brain or spinal cord.
The Hoffmann's reflex is sometimes described as the upper limb equivalent of the Babinski sign because both indicate upper motor neuron dysfunction.
Mechanistically, they differ significantly; the finger flexor reflex is a simple monosynaptic spinal reflex involving the flexor digitorum profundus that is normally fully inhibited by upper motor neurons.
The pathway producing the plantar response is more complicated, and is not monosynaptic.
The plantar reflex can be elicited in a number of ways, which were described in the late 19th and early 20th century.
These have their own eponyms.
Bolívar's campaign to liberate New Granada
Bolívar's campaign to liberate New Granada of 1819-1820 was part of the Colombian and Venezuelan wars of independence and was one of the many military campaigns fought by Simón Bolívar.
Bolívar's victory in New Granada (today, Colombia) secured the eventual independence of northern South America.
It provided Bolívar with the economic and human resources to complete his victory over the Spanish in Venezuela and Colombia.
Bolívar's attack on New Granada is considered one of the most daring in military history, compared by contemporaries and some historians to Napoleon's crossing of the Alps in 1800 and José San Martín's Crossing of the Andes in 1817.
During the years 1815 and 1816, Spain had reconquered most of New Granada after five years of de facto and official independence.
By 1817, Bolívar had set up his headquarters in the Orinoco region in southern Venezuela.
It was an area from which the Spaniards could not easily oust him.
There he engaged the services of several thousand foreign soldiers and officers, mostly British and Irish, set up his capital at Angostura (now Ciudad Bolívar) and established liaisons with the revolutionary forces of the Llanos, including one group of Venezuelan "llaneros" (cowboys) led by José Antonio Páez and another group of New Granadan exiles led by Francisco de Paula Santander.
By 1819, José María Barreiro, who was in charge of the royalist troops in New Granada, counted with at least 4,500 trained soldiers at his command (without including the troops scattered throughout the region).
Bolivar was able to round up merely 2,200 able men, which he distributed into four battalions, three regiments, one squadron, and an artillery company that lacked cannons.
In the most part, Bolivar's soldiers were non-Spanish men, many of them recruited from the Venezuelan plains.
Simon Bolivar's plan consisted of mobilizing his army from Venezuela to Casanare, in New Granada, to unite forces with Francisco de Paula Santander and his men, and infiltrate the territory through Tunja to combat the troops of Viceroy Juán de Sámano.
Bolívar conceived of the operation in late 1818 and early 1819 after the Congress of Angostura began its deliberations and had reappointed him president of Venezuela.
If Bolívar could liberate New Granada, he would have a whole new base from which to operate against Pablo Morillo, head of the royalist forces in the area.
Central New Granada held great promise since, unlike Venezuela, it had only been recently conquered by Morillo and it had a prior six-year experience of independent government.
Royalist sentiment, therefore, was not strong.
But it would be hard to take the initiative against the better prepared and supplied royalist army.
To surprise it, Bolívar decided to move during the rainy season, when the Llanos flooded up to a meter and the campaign season ended.
Morillo's forces would be gone from the Llanos for months and no one would anticipate that Bolívar's troops would be on the move.
The proposed route, however, was considered impassable, and therefore the plan understandably received little support from the Congress or from Páez.
With only the forces he and Santander had recruited in the Apure and Meta River regions, Bolívar set off in June 1819.
The route that the small army of about 2,500 men—including a British legion—took went from the hot and humid, flood-swept plains of Venezuela to the icy mountain pass of the Páramo de Pisba, at an altitude of 3,960 meters (13,000 feet), through the Cordillera Oriental.
After the hardships of wading through a virtual sea, the mostly "llanero" army was not prepared and poorly clothed for the cold and altitude of the mountains.
Many became ill or died.
Despite some intelligence that Bolívar was on the move, the Spanish doubted Bolívar's army could make the trip, and therefore, they were taken by surprise when Bolívar's small army emerged from the mountains on 5 July.
Bolívar rebuilt his forces by placing a levy on the local population.
In a series of battles the republican army cleared its way to Bogotá.
First at the Battle of Vargas Swamp on 25 July, Bolívar intercepted a royalist force attempting to reach the poorly defended capital.
After the Vargas Swamp Battle, Bolivar reorganized his men, resting them until 4 August, when he ordered a return to Venezuela.
However, in the night, he redirects his forces towards Tunja, and took the city by mid-day of 5 August 1819.
Due to Bolivar's flash conquest, Barreiro was obliged to mobilize his troops to defend the capital, Santafé, from Bolivar.
The Royalist men took the fastest route to Bogota (which led through the Boyacá Bridge) but were unable to pass, as Bolivar intercepted them, early morning of 7 August.
Bolivar's republican troops were composed of approximately 2,850 men, which successfully divided and defeated the 2,670 royalist soldiers in a battle that lasted two hours.
The battle resulted in the death of 66 republicans, 250 royalists, as well as the capture of approximately 1,600 of the remaining royal troops.
The Battle of Boyacá on 7 August 1819, the bulk of the royalist army surrendered to Bolívar.
On the day of the battle of Boyacá, Colonel Barrerio (leader of the royalist forces in Nueva Granada) was captured alongside 37 Spanish officers.
The 38 prisoners were executed on 11 October 1819 by decree of Francisco de Paula Santander, keeping true to Bolivar's motto of 'war to the death.'
On receiving the news, the viceroy, Juan José de Sámano, and the rest of royalist government fled the capital to Cartagena de Indias so fast that they left behind the treasury.
On the afternoon of 10 August Bolívar's army entered Bogotá without any royalist resistance.
His arrival concluded the campaign for liberating Nueva Granada.
The battle of Boyacá was a decisive triumph over Spanish power in Nueva Granada, and the Spanish America as a whole.
Despite the Royalists' strength in the other provinces of the region, such as Santa Marta and Pasto - where resistance would withstand various years of revolutionary uprisings - the capital of the viceroyalty of Nueva Granada had fallen in the hands of the New Granadans.
With New Granada secure Bolívar returned to Venezuela, in a position of unprecedented military, political and financial strength.
In his absence the Congress had flirted with deposing him, assuming that he would meet his death in New Granada.
The vice-president Francisco Antonio Zea was deposed and replaced by Juan Bautista Arismendi.
All this was quickly reversed when word got to the Congress of Bolívar's success.
In December Bolívar returned to Angostura, where he urged the Congress to proclaim the creation of a new state: the Republic of Colombia (Gran Colombia).
It did so on 17 December and elected him president of the new country.
Since two of its three regions, Venezuela and Quito (Ecuador), were still under royalist control, it was only a limited achievement.
Bolívar continued his efforts against the royalist areas of Venezuela, culminating in the Battle of Carabobo two years later, which all but secured his control of northern South America.
Bolívar's victory in New Granada was, therefore, a major turning point in the history of northern South America.
With this shift in political power, the path was laid out for the union of Nueva Granada and Venezuela into the Republic of Colombia.
However, the campaigns for independence would continue: Antonio José de Sucre marched South, towards Pasto, the Audiencia de Quito, the Viceroyalty of Peru, and the Alto Perú, while Bolivar sought to expand the campaign to the westernmost regions of Venezuela, which still lay under Spanish power, and counted with 27,000 soldiers for its defense.