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It was replaced by the P-15M in 1972, which was a further development of the P-15U, with enhanced capabilities (its export simplified variants were designated P-21 and P-22, depending on the sensor installed and a whole export system was designated the P-20M).
In total, the P-15 family had the following models:
The Chinese used this missile as a basis for their "Silkworm" series, with IR, radar and turbojets or rocket engines depending on the model.
It had a fuselage of 75–80 cm width and a mass of over 2 tonnes.
This is comparable to the 600–800 kg and 35–40 cm of Western missiles.
With improved electronics, the warhead reduced to 250 kg and the original rocket engine replaced with a turbojet, this weapon was much improved with a range of over 100 km.
Chinese Silkworm missiles were used in hundreds of ships and shore batteries.
The Chinese Navy built more than two hundred modified versions of the 183R ("Komar"-class), the "Hegu"-class, (complete with a longer hull and an additional 25mm mount aft) and the "Osa"-class.
Frigates and destroyers were also equipped with the missile.
Some were exported and they were used in shore batteries built for North Korea, Iraq and Iran.
The Soviet Union developed an equivalent, the P-120 Malakhit.
Substitutes of these missiles are the FL-2 and FL-7, which were solid-rocket fuelled and the C-701 and C-801, which were similar to the Exocet and other missile systems, among them the SS-N-22 "Sunburn", it was bought for Sovremenny class destroyers.
This missile, despite its mass, was used in small and medium ships, from 60 to 4,000 tons, shore batteries and (only for derived models) aircraft and submarines.
The main users were:
The first use of these weapons was in 1962, during the Cuban Missile Crisis.
"Komar"-class missile boats were deployed in Operation "Anadyr" ("Анадырь"), organized by the Soviet Union to help the Castro government.
At least eight were sent in cargo ships, due partly to their small dimensions and were presumably left to the Cuban Navy after the crisis, together with many other weapons of Soviet origin.
During the War of Attrition, after the Six-Day War in 1967, the Israeli destroyer "Eilat" was sailing at low speed outside Port Said on 21 October.
At a range of , she was attacked by two Egyptian "Komars", acting as a coastal missile battery by firing both their missiles from inside the harbour.
"Eilat" was hit, despite defensive anti-aircraft fire.
The first two missiles almost blew the "Eilat" in two; another hit soon after, and the last exploded near the wreck in the sea.
"Eilat" sank two hours after the first attack.
47 crew were killed.
After this engagement, interest in this type of weapon was raised in both offensive weapons and defensive weapons such as the CIWS (Close-in weapon system) and ECM.
During the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, Indian "Osa"-class boats raided the port of Karachi in two highly successful operations causing severe damage and sinking several ships with their P-15s, among them the destroyer, "Khaibar".
She was a former Battle-class destroyer, originally designed as an anti-aircraft ship.
Her armament might be effective against conventional air threats, (mounting 5 × 114mm guns and several 40mm Bofors), but had little chance against anti-ship missiles.
These raids were meant to strike Karachi and destroy the Pakistani Navy in Western Pakistan.
The first action, Operation Trident, was carried out by three "Osa" class missile boats on the night of 5 December .
'Operation Trident' involved:
Around 20:30, a target was acquired by radar, at a distance of over , and "Nirghat" fired two missiles.
This target was the destroyer "Khaibar", sailing at .
The crew of the ship saw a "bright light" in the sky, low on the water.
Believing it to be the afterburner of a fighter aircraft, "Khaibar" opened fire with her Bofors guns, but these were not effective against such a small, fast target.
The missile struck the starboard side at 22:45, destroying the electrical system.
One of the boilers, possibly struck by the HEAT charge, also exploded.
Despite thick smoke and a fire, "Khaibar" was still able to engage the second missile, again mistaking it for an enemy fighter.
This missile struck the ship four minutes after the first, destroying and quickly sinking her.
During this action, "Nipat" attacked another two ships; the cargo vessel "Venus Challenger", which was carrying ammunition from Saigon, was destroyed.
Her escort, the destroyer PNS "Shahjahan" was severely damaged and later scrapped.
"Veer" then attacked "Muhafiz" at 23:05, (she was a minesweeper that had witnessed the attacks against "Khaibar"); she was hit and disintegrated, throwing most of the crew into the water before she sank.
"Nipat" fired two missiles at the port of Karachi.
This is the first known use of an anti-ship missile against land targets.
Large oil tanks, identified by radar, were hit by the first missile, destroying it, while the second weapon failed.
Over the following nights there were other ship actions.
Karachi was again attacked with missiles, while "Petja"-class frigates provided anti-submarine protection to the "Osa"-class boats.
On the night of 8 December, in the second operation, Operation Python, the "Osa"-class boat "Vinash", escorted by two frigates, fired missiles at Karachi in a six-minute action.
One missile hit an oil tank, destroying it.
The British ship "Harmattan" was sunk, the Panamanian ship "Gulfstar" was set on fire.
The Pakistan Navy fleet tanker, PNS "Dacca", was badly damaged and only survived because the commanding officer, Captain.
S.Q.
Raza S.J.
P.N., ordered the release of steam in the pipes that prevented the fire reaching the tanks.
Though anti-aircraft guns opened fire in response, they only managed to hit a Greek ship, "Zoë", that was moored in the port and consequently sank.
In all these actions against large ships, the P-15 proved to be an effective weapon, with a devastating warhead.
Out of eleven missiles fired, only one malfunctioned, giving a 91% success rate.
This gave every "Osa" FAC the possibility of striking several targets.
Big ships, without any specialized defence, were targets for P-15s.
Despite these early successes, the 1973 Yom Kippur War saw P-15 missiles used by the Egyptian and Syrian navies prove ineffective against Israeli ships.
The Israeli Navy had phased out their old ships, building a fleet of Sa'ar-class FACs: faster, smaller, more maneuverable and equipped with new missiles and countermeasures.
Although the range of the P-15 was twice that of the Israeli Gabriel, allowing Arab ships to fire first, radar jamming and chaff degraded their accuracy.
In the Battle of Latakia and Battle of Baltim, several dozen P-15s were fired and all missed.
Arab ships did not possess heavy firepower required for surface combat against enemy vessels, usually only 25 and 30mm guns, and "Osa" and "Komar" boats were not always able to outrun their Israeli pursuers.
P-15 variants, including the Chinese duplication ""Silkworm"", were employed by Iran against Iraq in the 1980–1988 Iran–Iraq War, with some success.
As the Iranian coastline is longer than Iraq's, control of the Persian Gulf was relatively easy.
Shore batteries with missiles can control a large part of this area, especially around the Hormuz Strait.
Iraq also acquired Silkworms, some with an IR homing capability.
Iraqi OSA-class missile boats equipped with SS-N-2 used them against the IRIN navy, managed to hit and sink an Iranian La Combattante IIa-class fast attack craft, but sustained heavy losses, especially from Iranian Harpoons and Mavericks.
Iraqi forces also combined SS-N-2, launched from Tu-22, French-made Exocet launched from Mirage F1 & Super Etendard and Chinese-made Silkworm as well as C-601 launched from Tu-16 and H-6 bombers bought from Soviet Union and China to engage the Iranian Navy and tankers carrying Iranian oil.
During the First Gulf War an Iraqi missile crew attacked US battleship with a Silkworm, while it was escorting a fleet of minesweepers engaged in coastal anti-mine operations.
HMS "Gloucester" engaged the missile with a salvo shot of Sea Dart missiles which destroyed it after it had flown over its initial target.
The P-15 missile family and their clones were widely deployed from the 1960s.
They were big and powerful weapons, but quite cheap and so made in the thousands.
It is difficult even to list all the operators.
The German Navy, after reunification, gave its stock of almost 200 P-15s to the United States Navy in 1991, these weapons being mainly the P-15M/P-22.
They were used for missile defence tests.
Gérard D. Levesque
Gérard D. Levesque (May 2, 1926 – November 17, 1993) was a longtime Quebec politician and Cabinet minister, who twice served as interim leader of the Quebec Liberal Party.
Levesque was first elected to what is now called the Quebec National Assembly in the riding of Bonaventure in 1956 and sat in the legislature continuously until the end of his life.
Under Premier Jean Lesage he served as minister of housing and fisheries and then as minister for trade.
In the first cabinet of Robert Bourassa, who came to power in 1970, he served in various capacities including minister of trade, Minister of Justice and deputy premier.
After the defeat of the Bourassa government in 1976, Levesque served as Leader of the opposition until 1979, while leaders Robert Bourassa and then Claude Ryan were without parliamentary seats.
Levesque was noted for his fierce opposition to what was introduced as Bill 1, the Charter of the French Language; his procedural wrangling meant it had to be eventually reintroduced as Bill 101.
Levesque was also interim leader of the party between Bourassa's resignation and the election of Ryan.
Levesque again served as Leader of the Opposition and acting leader of the party from August 1982 to September 1983 after the resignation of Ryan and until the return of Bourassa for his second stint as party leader.
In the second Bourassa government, elected in 1985, Levesque served as minister of finance, a position he held until his death in 1993 at the age of 67.
The name of the fictional character Gérard D. Laflaque, protagonist of the satirical TV program "Et Dieu créa... Laflaque", is a variation of his name.
Proximal tubule
The proximal tubule is the segment of the nephron in kidneys which begins from the renal pole of the Bowman's capsule to the beginning of loop of Henle.
It can be further classified into the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) and the proximal straight tubule (PST).
The most distinctive characteristic of the proximal tubule is its luminal brush border.
The luminal surface of the epithelial cells of this segment of the nephron is covered with densely packed microvilli forming a border readily visible under the light microscope giving the brush border cell its name.
The microvilli greatly increase the luminal surface area of the cells, presumably facilitating their reabsorptive function as well as putative flow sensing within the lumen.
The cytoplasm of the cells is densely packed with mitochondria, which are largely found in the basal region within the infoldings of the basal plasma membrane.
The high quantity of mitochondria gives the cells an acidophilic appearance.
The mitochondria are needed in order to supply the energy for the active transport of sodium ions out of the cells to create a concentration gradient which allows more sodium ions to enter the cell from the luminal side.
Water passively follows the sodium out of the cell along its concentration gradient.
Cuboidal epithelial cells lining the proximal tubule have extensive lateral interdigitations between neighboring cells, which lend an appearance of having no discrete cell margins when viewed with a light microscope.
Agonal resorption of the proximal tubular contents after interruption of circulation in the capillaries surrounding the tubule often leads to disturbance of the cellular morphology of the proximal tubule cells, including the ejection of cell nuclei into the tubule lumen.
This has led some observers to describe the lumen of proximal tubules as occluded or "dirty-looking", in contrast to the "clean" appearance of distal tubules, which have quite different properties.