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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Rabbi Abbahu (Hebrew: אבהו) was a Jew and Talmudist of the Talmudic Academies in Syria Palaestina from about 279 to 320 CE and is counted a member of the third generation of Amoraim. He is sometimes cited as Rabbi Abbahu of Kisrin (Caesarea Maritima).", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "His rabbinical education was acquired mainly at Tiberias in the academy presided over by Johanan bar Nappaha, with whom his relationship was almost that of a son. He frequently made pilgrimages to Tiberias even after he had become well known as rector of the Caesarean academy.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Abbahu was an authority on weights and measures. He encouraged the study of Koine Greek by Jews. He learned Greek in order to become useful to his people, then under the Roman proconsuls, that language having become, to a considerable extent, the rival of Hebrew even in prayer. In spite of the bitter protests of Shimon bar Abba, he also taught his daughters Greek. Indeed, it was said of Abbahu that he was a living illustration of the biblical maxim: \"It is good that you should take hold of this [the study of the Law]; yea, also from that [other branches of knowledge] withdraw not your hand: for he that fears God shall come forth of them all\".", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Being wise, handsome, and wealthy, Abbahu became not only popular with his coreligionists, but also influential with the proconsular government. On one occasion, when his senior colleagues, Hiyya bar Abba, Rabbi Ammi, and Rabbi Assi, had punished a certain woman, and feared the wrath of the proconsul, Abbahu was deputed to intercede for them. He had, however, anticipated the rabbis' request, and wrote to them that he had appeased the informers but not the accuser. The witty enigmatic letter describing this incident, preserved in the Talmud, is in the main pure Hebrew, and even includes Hebrew translations of Greek proper names, to avoid the danger of possible exposure should the letter have fallen into the hands of enemies and informers.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "After his ordination he declined a teacher's position, recommending in his stead a more needy friend, Abba of Acre, as worthier than himself. He thereby illustrated his own doctrine that it is a divine virtue to sympathise with a friend in his troubles as well as to partake of his joys. Later he assumed the office of rector in Caesarea, the former seat of Hoshaiah Rabbah, and established himself at the so-called Kenishta Maradta (Insurrectionary Synagogue); from which some of the most prominent teachers of the next generation issued. In Caesarea he originated several ritual rules, one of which (regulating the sounding of the shofar) has since been universally adopted, and is referred to by rishonim as \"the Enactment of R. Abbahu\".", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "He did not confine his activity to Caesarea, but also visited and taught in many other Jewish towns. On these journeys, Abbahu gathered so many halakhot that scholars turned to him for information on mooted questions. In the course of these travels he made a point of complying with all local enactments, even where such compliance laid him open to the charge of inconsistency. On the other hand, where circumstances required it, he did not spare even the princes of his people. Where, however, the rigorous exposition of laws created hardship for the common people, he did not scruple to modify the decisions of his colleagues for the benefit of the community. As for himself, he was very strict in the observance of the laws. Once he ordered some Samaritan wine, but subsequently heard that the Samaritans no longer strictly observed the dietary laws. With the assistance of his colleagues (Hiyya bar Abba, Rabbi Ammi, and Rabbi Assi) he investigated the report and, ascertaining it to be well founded, ruled the Samaritans to be equivalent to Gentiles for all ritual purposes.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Abbahu's chief characteristic seems to have been modesty. While lecturing in different towns, he met R. Hiyya bar Abba, who was lecturing on intricate halakhic themes. As Abbahu delivered popular sermons, the peopole naturally crowded to hear him, and deserted the halakhist. At this apparent slight, Hiyya manifested chagrin, and Abbahu hastened to comfort him by comparing himself to the peddler of glittering fineries that always attracted the eyes of the masses, while his rival was a trader in precious stones, the virtues and values of which were appreciated only by the connoisseur. This speech not having the desired effect, R. Abbahu showed special respect for his slighted colleague by following him for the remainder of that day. \"What,\" said Abbahu, \"is my modesty as compared with that of Abba of Acre, who does not even remonstrate with his interpreter for interpolating his own comments in the lecturer's expositions.\" When his wife reported to him that his interpreter's wife had boasted of her own husband's greatness, Abbahu simply said, \"What difference does it make which of us is really the greater, so long as through both of us heaven is glorified?\" His principle of life he expressed in the maxim, \"Let man ever be of the persecuted, and not of the persecutors; for there are none among the birds more persecuted than turtle-doves and pigeons, and the Scriptures declare them worthy of the altar.\"", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Abbahu had two sons, Zeira and Hanina. Some writers ascribe to him a third son, Abimi. Abbahu sent Hanina to the academy at Tiberias, where he had studied, but the youth occupied himself with the burial of the dead, and on hearing of this, the father sent him a reproachful message in this laconic style: \"Is it because there are no graves in Caesarea that I have sent you off to Tiberias? Study must precede practice\". Abbahu left behind him a number of disciples, the most prominent among whom were the leaders of the 4th amoraic generation, R. Jonah and R. Jose. At Abbahu's death the mourning was so great that it was said \"even the statues of Caesarea shed tears\".", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "R. Abbahu, although eminent as a halakhist, was more distinguished as an aggadist and controversialist. He had many interesting disputes with the Christians of his day. Sometimes these disputes were of a humorous nature. Thus, a heretic bearing the name of Sason (=Joy) once remarked to him, \"In the next world your people will have to draw water for me; for thus it is written in the Bible, 'With joy shall ye draw water.'\" To this R. Abbahu replied, \"Had the Bible said 'for joy' [le-sason], it would mean as you say, but since it says 'with joy' [be-sason], it means that we shall make bottles of your skin and fill them with water\". These controversies, although forced on him, provoked resentment, and it was even related that his physician, Jacob the Schismatic (Minaah), was slowly poisoning him, but Rabbi Ammi and Rabbi Assi discovered the crime in time.", "title": "Against the Christians" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "A Christian (Minaah) once asked Abbahu \"When does your Messiah come?\" in a tone of mockery. Abbahu replied: \"When you will be wrapped in darkness, for it says, 'Behold, darkness shall cover the earth, and gross darkness the nations; then shall the Lord rise upon you and His glory shall be seen on you'.\" A Christian came to Abbahu with the quibbling question: \"How could your God in His priestly holiness bury Moses without providing for purificatory rites, yet oceans are declared insufficient?\" Abbahu replied: \"Does it not say, 'The Lord comes with fire'? Fire is the true element of purification, according to Numbers 31:23.\" Another question of the same character: \"Why the boastful claim, 'What nation on earth is like Your people Israel', since we read, 'All the nations are as nothing before Him'?\" Abbahu replied: \"Do we not read of Israel, he 'shall not be reckoned among the nations'?\"", "title": "Against the Christians" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Abbahu made a notable exception with reference to the Tosefta's statement that the Gilyonim (Gospels) and other books of the heretics (Minnin) are not to be saved from a fire on Shabbat: \"the books of those [written by Minnin for the purpose of debating with Jews] at Abidan may or may not be saved.\" In regard to the line \"Barukh Shem Kevod Malkhuto\" (Blessed be the Name of His glorious Kingdom) recited after the Shema, Abbahu says that in Palestine, where the Christians look for points of controversy, the words should be recited aloud (lest the Jews be accused of silently tampering with the unity of God proclaimed in the Shema), whereas in the Babylonian city of Nehardea, where there are no Christians, the words are recited with a low voice. Preaching directly against the Christian dogma, Abbahu says: \"A king of flesh and blood may have a father, a brother, or a son to share in or dispute his sovereignty, but the Lord says, 'I am the Lord your God! I am the first - that is, I have no father; and I am the last - that is, I have no brother; and besides me there is no God - that is, I have no son'\". His comment on Numbers 23:19 has a still more polemical tone: \"God is not a man that he should lie; neither the son of man, that he should repent; if a man says: 'I am God,' he is a liar; if he says: 'I am a son of man,' he will have cause to regret it; and if he says, 'I will go up to heaven,' he has said [something] but will not keep his word\".", "title": "Against the Christians" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "Some of his controversies on Christian theological subjects, as on Adam, on Enoch, and on the resurrection, are less clear and direct.", "title": "Against the Christians" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "There are several other Abbahus mentioned in the Talmudim and Midrashim, prominent among whom is Abbahu (Abuha, Aibut) b. Ihi (Ittai), a Babylonian halakhist, contemporary of Samuel and Anan, and brother of Minyamin (Benjamin) bar Ihi. While this Abbahu repeatedly applied to Samuel for information, Samuel in return learned many halakhot from him.", "title": "Other Abbahus" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906). \"Abbahu\". The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. Retrieved June 18, 2013. It has the following bibliography:", "title": "References" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "An Abbreviator (plural \"Abbreviators\" in English and \"Abbreviatores\" in Latin) or Breviator was a writer of the Papal Chancery who adumbrated and prepared in correct form Papal bulls, briefs, and consistorial decrees before these were written out in extenso by the scriptores.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "They are first mentioned in the Papal bull Extravagantes of Pope John XXII and in a Papal bull of Pope Benedict XII.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "After the protonotaries left the adumbration of the minutes to the Abbreviators, those de Parco majori of the dignity of prelate were the most important officers of the Papal Chancery. By the pontificate of Pope Martin V their signature was essential to the validity of the acts of the Chancery. Over time they obtained many important privileges.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Abbreviators make an abridgment or abstract of a long writing or discourse by contracting the parts, i. e., the words and sentences; an abbreviated form of writing common among the ancient Romans. Abbreviations were of two kinds: the use of a single letter for a single word and the use of a sign, note, or mark for a word or phrase. The Emperor Justinian forbade the use of abbreviations in the compilation of the Digest and afterward extended his prohibition to all other writings. This prohibition was not universally obeyed. The Abbreviators found it convenient to use the abbreviated form, and this was especially the case in Rome. The early Christians practised the abbreviated mode, no doubt as an easy and safe way of communicating with one another and safeguarding their secrets from enemies and false brethren.", "title": "Roman lay origin" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "In course of time the Papal Chancery adopted this mode of writing as the \"curial\" style, still further abridging by omitting the diphthongs \"ae\" and \"oe\", and likewise all lines and marks of punctuation. The Abbreviatores were officials of the Roman Curia.", "title": "Ecclesiastical abbreviatores" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The scope of its labour, as well as the number of its officials, varied over time. Up to the twelfth or thirteenth century, the duty of the Apostolic – or Roman – Chancery was to prepare and expedite the Papal letters and writs for collation of ecclesiastical dignitaries and other matters of grave importance which were discussed and decided in Papal consistory. About the thirteenth or fourteenth century, the Popes, then residing in Avignon, France, began to reserve the collation of a great many benefices, so that all the benefices, especially the greater ones, were to be conferred through the Roman Curia (Lega, Praelectiones Jur. Can., 1, 2, 287). As a consequence, the labour was immensely augmented, and the number of Abbreviatores necessarily increased. To regulate the proper expedition of these reserved benefices, Pope John XXII instituted the rules of chancery to determine the competency and mode of procedure of the Chancery. Afterwards the establishment of the Dataria Apostolica and the Secretariate of Briefs lightened the work of the Chancery and led to a reduction in the number of Abbreviatores.", "title": "Ecclesiastical abbreviatores" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "According to Ciampini (Lib. de abbreviatorum de parco majore etc., Cap. 1) the institution of curial abbreviators was very ancient, succeeding after the persecutions to the notaries who recorded the acts of the martyrs. Other authors reject this early institution and ascribe it to Pope John XXII in 1316. It is certain that he uses the name \"abbreviatores\", but speaks as if they had existed before his time, and had, by over-taxation of their labour, caused much complaint and protest. He (Extravag. Joan., Tit. 13, \"Cum ad Sacrosanctae Romanae Ecclesiae\") prescribed their work, determined how much they could charge for their labour, fixed a certain tax for an abstract or abridgment of twenty-five words or their equivalent at 150 letters, forbade them to charge more, even though the abstract was over twenty-five words but less than fifty words, enacted that the basis of the tax was the labour employed in writing, expediting, etc. the bulls, and by no means the emoluments that accrued to the recipient of the favour or benefice conferred by the bull, and declared that whoever charged more than the tax fixed by him was suspended for six months from office, and upon a second violation of the law, was deprived of it altogether, and if the delinquent was an abbreviator, he was excommunicated. Should a large letter have to be rewritten, owing to the inexact copy of the abbreviator, the abbreviator and not the receiver of the bull had to pay the extra charge for the extra labour to the Apostolic writer.", "title": "Ecclesiastical abbreviatores" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Whatever may be the date of the institution of the office of abbreviator, it is certain that it became of greater importance and more highly privileged upon its erection into a college of prelates. Pope Martin V (Constit. 3 \"In Apostolicae\", 2 and 5) fixed the manner for their examination and approbation and also the tax they could demand for their labour and the punishment for overcharge. He also assigned to them certain remunerations. The Abbreviators of the lower, or lesser, were to be promoted to the higher, or greater, bar or presidency. Their offices were compatible with other offices, i. e. they could hold two benefices or offices simultaneously, some conferred by the Cardinal Vice Chancellor, others by the Pope.", "title": "Ecclesiastical abbreviatores" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "In the pontificate of Pope Pius II, their number, which had been fixed at twenty-four, had overgrown to such an extent as to diminish considerably the individual remuneration, and, as a consequence, competent men no longer sought the office, and hence the old style of writing and expediting the bulls was no longer used, to the great injury of justice, the interested parties, and the dignity of the Apostolic See. To remedy this and to restore the old established chancery style, the Pope selected out of the many then living Abbreviators seventy, and formed them into a college of prelates denominated the \"College of Abbreviators\", and decreed that their office should be perpetual, that certain remunerations should be attached to it, and granted certain privileges to the possessors of the same. He ordained further that some should be called \"Abbreviators of the Upper Bar\" (Abbreviatores de Parco Majori; the name derived from a place in the Chancery that was surrounded by a grating, in which the officials sat, which is called higher or lower (major or minor) according to the proximity of the seats to that of the Vice Chancellor), the others of the Lower Bar (Abbreviatores de Parco Minori); that the former should sit upon a slightly raised portion of the chamber, separated from the rest of the chamber by lattice work, assist the Cardinal Vice-Chancellor, subscribe the letters and have the principal part in examining, revising, and expediting the Apostolic letters to be issued with the leaden seal; that the latter, however, should sit among the Apostolic writers upon benches in the lower part of the chamber, and their duty was to carry the signed schedules or supplications to the prelates of the Upper Bar. Then one of the prelates of the Upper Bar made an abstract, and another prelate of the same bar revised it. Prelates of the Upper Bar formed a quasi-tribunal, in which as a college they decided all doubts that might arise about the form and quality of the letters, of the clauses and decrees to be adjoined to the Apostolic letters, and sometimes about the payment of the remunerations and other contingencies. Their opinion about questions concerning Chancery business was held in the highest estimation by all the Roman tribunals.", "title": "Institution of the College of Abbreviators" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Pope Paul II suppressed the college; but Pope Sixtus IV (Constitutio 16, \"Divina\") re-instituted it. He appointed seventy-two abbreviators, of whom twelve were of the upper, or greater, and twenty-two of the lower, or lesser, presidency (\"parco\"), and thirty-eight examiners on first appearance of letters. They were bound to be in attendance on certain days under penalty of fine, and sign letters and diplomas. Ciampini mentions a decree of the Vice Chancellor by which absentees were mulcted in the loss of their share of the remuneration of the following session of the Chancery. The same Pope also granted many privileges to the College of Abbreviators, but especially to the members of the greater presidency.", "title": "Institution of the College of Abbreviators" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Pope Pius VII suppressed many of the offices of the Chancery, and so the Tribunal of Correctors and the Abbreviators of the lower presidency disappeared. Of the Tribunal of Correctors, a substitute-corrector alone remains. Bouix (Curia Romana, edit. 1859) chronicled the suppression of the lower presidency and put the number of Abbreviators at that date at eleven. Later the College consisted of seventeen prelates, six substitutes, and one sub-substitute, all of whom, except the prelates, were clerics or laity. Although the duty of Abbreviators was originally to make abstracts and abridgments of the Apostolic letters, diplomas, et cetera, using the legal abbreviations, clauses, and formularies, in course of time, as their office grew in importance they delegated that part of their office to their substitute and confined themselves to overseeing the proper expedition of the Apostolic letters. Prior to 1878, all Apostolic letters and briefs requiring for their validity the leaden seal were engrossed upon rough parchment in Gothic characters or round letters, also called \"Gallicum\" and commonly \"Bollatico\", but in Italy \"Teutonic\", without lines, diphthongs, or marks of punctuation. Bulls engrossed on a different parchment, or in different characters with lines and punctuation marks, or without the accustomed abbreviations, clauses, and formularies, were rejected as spurious. Pope Leo XIII in his Constitutio Universae Eccles. of 29 December 1878 ordained that they should be written henceforth in ordinary Latin characters upon ordinary parchment and that no abbreviations were to be used except those easily understood.", "title": "Institution of the College of Abbreviators" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "Many great privileges were conferred upon Abbreviators. By decree of Pope Leo X they were elevated as Papal nobles, ranking as Comes palatinus (\"Count Palatine\"), familiars and members of the Papal household, so that they might enjoy all the privileges of domestic prelates and of prelates in actual attendance on the Pope, as regards plurality of benefices as well as expectatives. They and their clerics and their properties were exempt from all jurisdiction except the immediate jurisdiction of the Pope, and they were not subject to the judgments of the Auditor of Causes or the Cardinal Vicar. He also empowered them to confer, later within strict limitations, the degree of Doctor, with all university privileges, institute notaries (later abrogated), legitimize children so as to make them eligible to receive benefices vacated by their fathers (later revoked), also to ennoble three persons and to make Knights of the Order of St. Sylvester (Militiae Aureae), the same to enjoy and to wear the insignia of nobility. Pope Gregory XVI rescinded this privilege and reserved to the Pope the right of institution of such knights (Acta Pont. Greg. XVI, Vol. 3, 178-179-180).", "title": "Titles and privileges" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Pope Paul V, who in early manhood was a member of the college (Const. 2, \"Romani\"), made them Referendaries of Favours, and after three years of service, Referendaries of Justice, enjoying the privileges of Referendaries and permitting one to assist in the signatures before the Pope, giving all a right to a portion in the Papal palace and exempting them from the registration of favours as required by Pope Pius IV (Const., 98) with regard to matters pertaining to the Apostolic Chamber.", "title": "Titles and privileges" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "They followed immediately after the twelve voting members of the Signature in capella. Abbreviators of the greater presidency were permitted to wear the purple cassock and cappa, as also rochet in capella. Abbreviators of the lower presidency before their suppression were simple clerics, and according to permission granted by Pope Sixtus IV (loc. cit.) might be even married.", "title": "Titles and privileges" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "These offices becoming vacant by death of the Abbreviator, no matter where the death occurred, were reserved to the Roman Curia. The prelates could resign their office in favour of others. Formerly these offices as well as those of the other Chancery officers from the Regent down were occasions of venality, until Popes, especially Pope Benedict XIV and Pope Pius VII, gradually abolished that. Pope Leo XIII in a motu proprio of 4 July 1898 most solemnly decreed the abolition of all venality in the transfer or collation of the said offices.", "title": "Titles and privileges" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "As domestic prelates, prelates of the Roman Curia, they had personal preeminence in every diocese of the world. They were addressed as \"Reverendissimus\", \"Right Reverend\", and \"Monsignor\". As prelates, and therefore possessing the legal dignity, they were competent to receive and execute Papal commands. Pope Benedict XIV (Const. 3, \"Maximo\") granted prelates of the greater presidency the privilege of wearing a hat with a purple band, which right they held even after they ceased to be abbreviators.", "title": "Titles and privileges" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "Pope Pius X abrogated the College in 1908 and their obligations were transferred to the protonotarii apostolici participantes.", "title": "Suppression" } ]

[ "Template:EB1911", "Template:Catholic", "Template:Reflist" ]

[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī (Arabic: عبداللطيف البغدادي, 1162 Baghdad–1231 Baghdad), short for Muwaffaq al-Dīn Muḥammad ʿAbd al-Laṭīf ibn Yūsuf al-Baghdādī (Arabic: موفق الدين محمد عبد اللطيف بن يوسف البغدادي), was a physician, philosopher, historian, Arabic grammarian and traveller, and one of the most voluminous writers of his time.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Many details of ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī's life are known from his autobiography as presented in Ibn Abī Uṣaybiʿah's literary history of medicine. As a young man, he studied grammar, law, tradition, medicine, alchemy and philosophy. He focused his studies on ancient authors, in particular Aristotle, after first adopting Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā) as his philosophical mentor at the suggestion of a wandering scholar from the Maghreb. He travelled extensively and resided in Mosul (in 1189) where he studied the works of al-Suhrawardi before travelling on to Damascus (1190) and the camp of Saladin outside Acre (1191). It was at this last location that he met Baha al-Din ibn Shaddad and Imad al-Din al-Isfahani and acquired the Qadi al-Fadil's patronage. He went on to Cairo, where he met Abu'l-Qasim al-Shari'i, who introduced him to the works of al-Farabi, Alexander of Aphrodisias, and Themistius and (according to al-Latif) turned him away from Avicenna and alchemy.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "In 1192 he met Saladin in Jerusalem and enjoyed his patronage, then went to Damascus again before returning to Cairo. He journeyed to Jerusalem and to Damascus in 1207-8, and eventually made his way via Aleppo to Erzindjan, where he remained at the court of the Mengujekid Ala’-al-Din Da’ud (Dāwūd Shāh) until the city was conquered by the Rūm Seljuk ruler Kayqubād II (Kayqubād Ibn Kaykhusraw). ‘Abd al-Latif returned to Baghdad in 1229, travelling back via Erzerum, Kamakh, Divriği and Malatya. He died in Baghdad two years later.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "ʿAbd al-Laṭīf was a man of great knowledge and of an inquisitive and penetrating mind. Of the numerous works (mostly on medicine) which Ibn Abī Uṣaybiʿah ascribes to him, one only, his graphic and detailed Account of Egypt (in two parts), appeared to be known in Europe.", "title": "Account of Egypt" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "ʿAbd-al-Laṭīf was well aware of the value of ancient monuments. He praised some Muslim rulers for preserving and protecting pre-Islamic artefacts and monuments, but he also criticized others for failing to do so. He noted that the preservation of antiquities presented a number of benefits for Muslims:", "title": "Account of Egypt" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "While discussing the profession of treasure hunting, he notes that poorer treasure hunters were often sponsored by rich businessmen to go on archeological expeditions. In some cases, an expedition could turn out to be fraudulent, with the treasure hunter disappearing with large amounts of money extracted from sponsors.", "title": "Account of Egypt" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "His manuscript was one of the earliest works on Egyptology. It contains a vivid description of a famine caused by the Nile failing to overflow its banks (which occurred during the author's residence in Egypt). He also wrote detailed descriptions on ancient Egyptian monuments.", "title": "Account of Egypt" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Al-Baghdādī wrote that during the famine in Egypt in 597 AH (1200 AD), he had the opportunity to observe and examine a large number of skeletons, through which he came to the view that Galen was incorrect regarding the formation of the bones of the lower jaw [mandible], coccyx and sacrum.", "title": "Account of Egypt" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Al-Baghdādī's Arabic manuscript was discovered in 1665 by the English orientalist Edward Pococke and is preserved in the Bodleian Library. Pococke published the Arabic manuscript in the 1680s. His son, Edward Pococke the Younger, translated the work into Latin, although he was only able to publish less than half of his work. Thomas Hunt attempted to publish Pococke's complete translation in 1746, although his attempt was unsuccessful. Pococke's complete Latin translation was eventually published by Joseph White of Oxford in 1800. The work was then translated into French, with valuable notes, by Silvestre de Sacy in 1810.", "title": "Account of Egypt" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "As far as philosophy is concerned, one may adduce that ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī regarded philosophers as paragons of real virtue and therefore he refused to accept as a true philosopher one lacking not only true insight, but also a truly moral personality as true philosophy was in the service of religion, verifying both belief and action. Apart from this he regarded the philosophers’ ambitions as vain (Endress, in Martini Bonadeo, Philosophical journey, xi). ʿAbd al-Laṭīf composed several philosophical works, among which is an important and original commentary on Aristotle's Metaphysics (Kitāb fī ʿilm mā baʿd al-ṭabīʿa). This is a critical work in the process of the Arabic assimilation of Greek thought, demonstrating its author's acquaintance with the most important Greek metaphysical doctrines, as set out in the writings of al-Kindī (d. circa 185-252/801-66) and al-Fārābī (d. 339/950). The philosophical section of his Book of the Two Pieces of Advice (Kitāb al-Naṣīḥatayn) contains an interesting and challenging defence of philosophy and illustrates the vibrancy of philosophical debate in the Islamic colleges. It moreover emphasises the idea that Islamic philosophy did not decline after the twelfth century CE (Martini Bonadeo, Philosophical journey; Gutas). ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī may therefore well be an exponent of what Gutas calls the “golden age of Arabic philosophy” (Gutas, 20).", "title": "Philosophy" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "ʿAbd al-Laṭīf also penned two passionate and somewhat grotesque pamphlets against the art of alchemy in all its facets. Although he engaged in alchemy for a short while, he later abandoned the art completely by rejecting not only its practice, but also its theory. In ʿAbd al-Laṭīf's view alchemy could not be placed in the system of the sciences, and its false presumptions and pretensions must be distinguished from true scientific knowledge, which can be given a rational basis (Joosse, Rebellious intellectual, 29–62; Joosse, Unmasking the craft, 301–17; Martini Bonadeo, Philosophical journey, 5-6 and 203–5; Stern, 66–7; Allemann).", "title": "Alchemy" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "During the years following the First World War, ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī's name reappeared within the spiritualistic movement in the United Kingdom. He was introduced to the public by the Irish medium Eileen J. Garrett, the author Sir Arthur Conan Doyle and the spiritualist R.H. Saunders and became known by the name Abduhl Latif, the great Arab physician. He is said to have acted as a control of mediums until the mid 1960s (Joosse, Geest, 221–9). The Bodleian Library (MS Pococke 230) and the interpretation of the Videans (Zand-Videan, 8–9) may also have prompted the whimsical short-story ‘Ghost Writer’, as told to Tim Mackintosh-Smith, in which ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī speaks in the first person.", "title": "Spiritualism" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Media related to Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi at Wikimedia Commons", "title": "External links" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Abd al-Rahman ibn Mu'awiya ibn Hisham (Arabic: عبد الرحمن إبن معاوية إبن هشام; 7 March 731 – 30 September 788), commonly known as Abd al-Rahman I, was the founder of the Umayyad dynasty that ruled the greater part of Iberia in Al-Andalus for nearly three centuries (including the succeeding Caliphate of Córdoba). Abd al-Rahman was a member of the Umayyad dynasty in Damascus, and his establishment of a government in Iberia represented a break with the Abbasids, who had overthrown the Umayyads in Damascus in 750.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "He was also known by the surnames al-Dakhil (\"the Entrant\"), Saqr Quraish (\"the Falcon of Quraysh\") and as Saqr al-Andalus (\"the Falcon of Andalusia\"). Variations of the spelling of his name include Abd ar-Rahman, Abdul Rahman I, Abdar Rahman, and Abderraman.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Abd al-Rahman was born in Palmyra, near Damascus in the heartland of the Umayyad Caliphate, the son of the Umayyad prince Mu'awiya ibn Hisham and his concubine Raha, a Berber woman from the Nafza tribe, and thus the grandson of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, caliph from 724 to 743. He was twenty when his family, the ruling Umayyads, were overthrown by the Abbasid Revolution in 748–750. Abd al-Rahman and a small part of his family fled Damascus, where the center of Umayyad power had been; people moving with him included his brother Yahya, his four-year-old son Sulayman, and some of his sisters, as well as his Greek mawla (freedman or client), Bedr. The family fled from Damascus to the River Euphrates. All along the way the path was filled with danger, as the Abbasids had dispatched horsemen across the region to try to find the Umayyad prince and kill him. The Abbasids were merciless with all Umayyads that they found. Abbasid agents closed in on Abd al-Rahman and his family while they were hiding in a small village. He left his young son with his sisters and fled with Yahya. Accounts vary, but Bedr likely escaped with Abd al-Rahman. Some histories indicate that Bedr met up with Abd al-Rahman at a later date.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Abd al-Rahman, Yahya, and Bedr quit the village, narrowly escaping the Abbasid assassins. On the way south, Abbasid horsemen again caught up with the trio. Abd al-Rahman and his companions then threw themselves into the River Euphrates. The horsemen urged them to return, promising that no harm would come to them; and Yahya, perhaps from fear of drowning, turned back. The 17th-century historian Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari poignantly described Abd al-Rahman's reaction as he implored Yahya to keep going: \"O brother! Come to me, come to me!\" Yahya returned to the near shore, and was quickly dispatched by the horsemen. They cut off his head and left his body to rot. Al-Maqqari quotes earlier historians reporting that Abd al-Rahman was so overcome with fear that from the far shore he ran until exhaustion overcame him. Only he and Bedr were left to face the unknown.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "After barely escaping with their lives, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr continued south through Palestine, the Sinai, and then into Egypt. Abd al-Rahman had to keep a low profile as he traveled. It may be assumed that he intended to go at least as far as northwestern Africa (Maghreb), the land of his mother, which had been partly conquered by his Umayyad predecessors. The journey across Egypt would prove perilous. At the time, Abd al-Rahman ibn Habib al-Fihri was the semi-autonomous governor of Ifriqiya (roughly, modern Tunisia) and a former Umayyad vassal. The ambitious Ibn Habib, a member of the illustrious Fihrid family, had long sought to carve out Ifriqiya as a private dominion for himself. At first, he sought an understanding with the Abbasids, but when they refused his terms and demanded his submission, Ibn Habib broke openly with the Abbasids and invited the remnants of the Umayyad dynasty to take refuge in his dominions. Abd al-Rahman was only one of several surviving Umayyad family members to make their way to Ifriqiya at this time.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "But Ibn Habib soon changed his mind. He feared the presence of prominent Umayyad exiles in Ifriqiya, a family more illustrious than his own, might become a focal point for intrigue among local nobles against his own usurped powers. Around 755, believing he had discovered plots involving some of the more prominent Umayyad exiles in Kairouan, Ibn Habib turned against them. At the time, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr were keeping a low profile, staying in Kabylie, at the camp of a Nafza Berber chieftain friendly to their plight. Ibn Habib dispatched spies to look for the Umayyad prince. When Ibn Habib's soldiers entered the camp, the Berber chieftain's wife Tekfah hid Abd al-Rahman under her personal belongings to help him go unnoticed. Once they were gone, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr immediately set off westwards.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "In 755, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr reached modern-day Morocco near Ceuta. Their next step would be to cross the sea to al-Andalus, where Abd al-Rahman could not have been sure whether or not he would be welcomed. Following the Berber Revolt of the 740s, the province was in a crisis, with the Muslim community torn by tribal dissensions among the Arabs (the Qays–Yemeni feud) and racial tensions between the Arabs and Berbers. At that moment, the nominal ruler of al-Andalus, emir Yusuf ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri—another member of the Fihrid family and a favorite of the old Arab settlers (baladiyun), mostly of south Arabian or \"Yemeni\" tribal stock—was locked in a contest with his vizier (and son-in-law) al-Sumayl ibn Hatim al-Kilabi, the head of the \"Syrians\"—the shamiyun, drawn from the junds or military regiments of Syria, mostly of north Arabian Qaysid tribes—who had arrived in 742.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Among the Syrian junds were contingents of old Umayyad clients, numbering perhaps 500, and Abd al-Rahman believed he might tug on old loyalties and get them to receive him. Bedr was dispatched across the straits to make contact. Bedr managed to line up three Syrian commanders—Ubayd Allah ibn Uthman and Abd Allah ibn Khalid, both originally of Damascus, and Yusuf ibn Bukht of Qinnasrin. The trio approached the Syrian arch-commander al-Sumayl (then in Zaragoza) to get his consent, but al-Sumayl refused, fearing Abd al-Rahman would try to make himself emir. As a result, Bedr and the Umayyad clients sent out feelers to their rivals, the Yemeni commanders. Although the Yemenis were not natural allies (the Umayyads are a Qaysid tribe), their interest was piqued. The emir Yusuf al-Fihri had proven himself unable to keep the powerful al-Sumayl in check and several Yemeni chieftains felt their future prospects were poor, whether in a Fihrid or Syrian-dominated Spain, so that they had a better chance of advancement if they hitched themselves to the glitter of the Umayyad name. Although the Umayyads did not have a historical presence in the region (no member of the Umayyad family was known to have ever set foot in al-Andalus before) and there were grave concerns about young Abd al-Rahman's inexperience, several of the lower-ranking Yemeni commanders felt they had little to lose and much to gain, and agreed to support the prince.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Bedr returned to Africa to tell Abd al-Rahman of the invitation of the Umayyad clients in al-Andalus. Shortly thereafter, they set off with a small group of followers for Europe. When some local Berber tribesmen learned of Abd al-Rahman's intent to set sail for al-Andalus, they quickly rode to catch up with him on the coast. The tribesmen might have figured that they could hold Abd al-Rahman as hostage, and force him to buy his way out of Africa. He did indeed hand over some amount of dinars to the suddenly hostile local Berbers. Just as Abd al-Rahman launched his boat, another group of Berbers arrived. They also tried to obtain a fee from him for leaving. One of the Berbers held on to Abd al-Rahman's vessel as it made for al-Andalus, and allegedly had his hand cut off by one of the boat's crew.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Abd al-Rahman landed at Almuñécar in al-Andalus, to the east of Málaga, in September 755; however, his landing site was unconfirmed.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Upon landing in Torrox, al-Andalus, Abd al-Rahman was greeted by clients Abu Uthman and Ibn Khalid and an escort of 300 cavalry. During his brief time in Málaga, he was able to amass local support quickly. Waves of people made their way to Málaga to pay respect to the prince they thought was dead, including many of the aforementioned Syrians. One famous story that persisted through history related to a gift Abd al-Rahman was given while in Málaga. The gift was a beautiful young slave girl, but Abd al-Rahman humbly returned her to her previous master.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "News of the prince's arrival spread like wildfire throughout the peninsula. During this time, emir al-Fihri and the Syrian commander al-Sumayl pondered what to do about the new threat to their shaky hold on power. They decided to try to marry Abd al-Rahman into their family. If that did not work, then Abd al-Rahman would have to be killed. Abd al-Rahman was apparently sagacious enough to expect such a plot. In order to help speed his ascension to power, he was prepared to take advantage of the feuds and dissensions. However, before anything could be done, trouble broke out in northern al-Andalus. Zaragoza, an important trade city on the Upper March of al-Andalus, made a bid for autonomy. Al-Fihri and al-Sumayl rode north to quash the rebellion. This might have been fortunate timing for Abd al-Rahman, since he was still getting a solid foothold in al-Andalus. By March 756, Abd al-Rahman and his growing following of Umayyad clients and Yemeni junds, were able to take Sevilla without violence. He managed to break the rebellion attempt in Zaragoza, but just about that time the Cordovan governor received news of a Basque rebellion in Pamplona. An important detachment was sent by Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman to quash it, but his troops were annihilated. After the setback, al-Fihri turned his army back south to face the \"pretender\". The fight for the right to rule al-Andalus was about to begin. The two contingents met on opposite sides of the River Guadalquivir, just outside the capital of Córdoba on the plains of Musarah.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "The river was, for the first time in years, overflowing its banks, heralding the end of a long drought. Nevertheless, food was still scarce, and Abd al-Rahman's army suffered from hunger. In an attempt to demoralize Abd al-Rahman's troops, al-Fihri ensured that his troops not only were well fed, but also ate gluttonous amounts of food in full view of the Umayyad lines. An attempt at negotiations soon followed in which it is likely that Abd al-Rahman was offered the hand of al-Fihri's daughter in marriage and great wealth. Abd al-Rahman, however, would settle for nothing less than control of the emirate, and an impasse was reached. Even before the fight began, dissension spread through some of Abd al-Rahman's lines. Specifically, the Yemeni Arabs were unhappy that the prince was mounted on a fine Spanish steed and that his mettle was untried in battle. The Yemenis observed significantly that such a fine horse would provide an excellent mount to escape from battle.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "Being the ever-wary politician, Abd al-Rahman acted quickly to regain Yemeni support, and rode to a Yemeni chief who was mounted on a mule named \"Lightning\". Abd al-Rahman averred that his horse proved difficult to ride and was wont to buck him out of the saddle. He offered to exchange his horse for the mule, a deal to which the surprised chief readily agreed. The swap quelled the simmering Yemeni rebellion. Soon both armies were in their lines on the same bank of the Guadalquivir. Abd al-Rahman had no banner, and so one was improvised by unwinding a green turban and binding it round the head of a spear. Subsequently, the turban and the spear became the banner and symbol of the Andalusian Umayyads. Abd al-Rahman led the charge toward al-Fihri's army. Al-Sumayl in turn advanced his cavalry out to meet the Umayyad threat. After a long and difficult fight \"Abd ar-Rahman obtained a most complete victory, and the field was strewn with the bodies of the enemy.\". Both al-Fihri and al-Sumayl managed to escape the field (probably) with parts of the army too. Abd al-Rahman triumphantly marched into the capital, Córdoba. Danger was not far behind, as al-Fihri planned a counter attack. He reorganized his forces and set out for the capital Abd al-Rahman had usurped from him. Again Abd al-Rahman met al-Fihri with his army; this time negotiations were successful, although the terms were somewhat changed. In exchange for al-Fihri's life and wealth, he would be a prisoner and not allowed to leave the city limits of Córdoba. Al-Fihri would have to report once a day to Abd al-Rahman, as well as turn over some of his sons and daughters as hostages. For a while al-Fihri met the obligations of the one-sided truce, but he still had many people loyal to him--people who would have liked to see him back in power.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "Al-Fihri eventually did make another bid for power. He quit Córdoba and quickly started gathering supporters. While at large, al-Fihri managed to gather an army allegedly numbering 20,000. It is doubtful, however, that his troops were \"regular\" soldiers, but rather a hodge-podge of men from various parts of al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman's appointed governor in Sevilla took up the chase, and after a series of small fights, managed to defeat al-Fihri's army. Al-Fihri himself managed to escape to the former Visigoth capital of Toledo in central al-Andalus; once there, he was promptly killed. Al-Fihri's head was sent to Córdoba, where Abd al-Rahman had it nailed to a bridge. With this act, Abd al-Rahman proclaimed himself the emir of al-Andalus. However, in order to take over southern Iberia, al-Fihri's general, al-Sumayl, had to be dealt with, and he was garroted in Córdoba's jail. Still, most of central and northern al-Andalus (Toledo, Zaragoza, Barcelona, etc.) was out of his rule, with large swathes remaining in the hands of Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri's supporters until 779 (submission of Zaragoza).", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "It is unclear whether Abd al-Rahman proclaimed himself caliph. There are documents in the archives of Cordoba that state that this was his first act upon entering the city. However, historically he is recorded as Emir and not Caliph. Abd al-Rahman's 7th descendant, Abd al-Rahman III, would, however, take up the title of caliph. In the meantime, a call went out through the Muslim world that al-Andalus was a safe haven for friends of the house of Umayya, if not for Abd al-Rahman's scattered family that managed to evade the Abbasids. Abd al-Rahman probably was quite happy to see his call answered by waves of Umayyad faithful and family. He was finally reacquainted with his son Sulayman, whom he last saw weeping on the banks of the Euphrates with his sisters. Abd al-Rahman's sisters were unable to make the long voyage to al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman placed his family members in high offices across the land, as he felt he could trust them more than non-family. The Umayyad family would again grow large and prosperous over successive generations. One of these kinsmen, Abd al-Malik ibn Umar ibn Marwan, persuaded Abd al-Rahman in 757 to drop the name of the Abbasid caliph from the Friday prayers (a traditional recognition of sovereignty in medieval Islam), and became one of his top generals and his governor in Seville.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "By 763 Abd ar-Rahman had to get back to the business of war. Al-Andalus had been invaded by an Abbasid army. Far away in Baghdad, the current Abbasid caliph, al-Mansur, had long been planning to depose the Umayyad who dared to call himself emir of al-Andalus. Al-Mansur installed al-Ala ibn-Mugith as governor of Africa (whose title gave him dominion over the province of al-Andalus). It was al-Ala who headed the Abbasid army that landed in al-Andalus, possibly near Beja (in modern-day Portugal). Much of the surrounding area of Beja capitulated to al-Ala, and in fact rallied under the Abbasid banners against Abd al-Rahman. Abd al-Rahman had to act quickly. The Abbasid contingent was vastly superior in size, said to have numbered 7,000 men. The emir quickly made for the redoubt of Carmona with his army. The Abbasid army was fast on their heels, and laid siege to Carmona for approximately two months. Abd al-Rahman must have sensed that time was against him as food and water became scarce, and his troops morale likely came into question. Finally Abd al-Rahman gathered his men as he was \"resolved on an audacious sally\". Abd al-Rahman hand-picked 700 fighters from his army and led them to Carmona's main gate. There, he started a great fire and threw his scabbard into the flames. Abd al-Rahman told his men that time had come to go down fighting rather than die of hunger. The gate lifted and Abd al-Rahman's men fell upon the unsuspecting Abbasids, thoroughly routing them. Most of the Abbasid army was killed. The heads of the main Abbasid leaders were cut off, preserved in salt, identifying tags pinned to their ears, and then bundled together in a gruesome package and sent to the Abbasid caliph, who was on pilgrimage at Mecca. Upon receiving the evidence of al-Ala's defeat in al-Andalus, al-Mansur is said to have gasped, \"God be praised for placing a sea between us!\" Al-Mansur hated, and yet apparently respected Abd al-Rahman to such a degree that he dubbed him the \"Hawk of Quraysh\" (the Umayyads were from a branch of the Quraysh tribe).", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "Despite such a tremendous victory, Abd al-Rahman had to continuously put down rebellions in al-Andalus. Various Arab and Berber tribes fought each other for varying degrees of power, some cities tried to break away and form their own state, and even members of Abd al-Rahman's family tried to wrest power from him. During a large revolt, dissidents marched on Córdoba itself; However, Abd al-Rahman always managed to stay one step ahead, and crushed all opposition; as he always dealt severely with dissidents in al-Andalus.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "Zaragoza proved to be a most difficult city to reign over for not only Abd ar-Rahman, but his successors as well. In the year 777–778, several notable men including Sulayman ibn Yokdan al-Arabi al-Kelbi, the self-appointed governor of Zaragoza, met with delegates of the leader of the Franks, Charlemagne. \"[Charlemagne's] army was enlisted to help the Muslim governors of Barcelona and Zaragoza against the Umayyad [emir] in Cordoba....\" Essentially Charlemagne was being hired as a mercenary, even though he likely had other plans of acquiring the area for his own empire. After Charlemagne's columns arrived at the gates of Zaragoza, Sulayman got cold feet and refused to let the Franks into the city, after his subordinate, al-Husayn ibn Yahiya, had successfully defeated and captured Abd al-Rahman's most trusted general, Thalaba Ibn Ubayd. It is possible that he realized that Charlemagne would want to usurp power from him. After capturing Sulayman, Charlemagne's force eventually headed back to France via a narrow pass in the Pyrenees, where his rearguard was wiped out by Basque and Gascon rebels (this disaster inspired the epic Chanson de Roland). Charlemagne was also attacked by Sulayman's relatives, who had freed Sulayman.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "Now Abd al-Rahman could deal with Sulayman and the city of Zaragoza without having to fight a massive Christian army. In 779 Abd al-Rahman offered Husayn, one of Sulayman's allies, the job of Zaragoza's governorship. The temptation was too much for al-Husayn, who murdered his colleague Sulayman. As promised, al-Husayn was awarded Zaragoza with the expectation that he would always be a subordinate of Córdoba. However, within two years al-Husayn broke off relations with Abd al-Rahman and announced that Zaragoza would be an independent city-state. Once again Abd al-Rahman had to be concerned with developments in the Upper March. He was intent on keeping this important northern border city within the Umayyad fold. By 783 Abd al-Rahman's army advanced on Zaragoza. It appeared as though Abd al-Rahman wanted to make clear to this troublesome city that independence was out of the question. Included in the arsenal of Abd al-Rahman's army were thirty-six siege engines. Zaragoza's famous white granite defensive walls were breached under a torrent of ordnance from the Umayyad lines. Abd al-Rahman's warriors spilled into the city's streets, quickly thwarting al-Husayn's desires for independence.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "After the aforementioned period of conflict, Abd al-Rahman continued in his improvement of al-Andalus' infrastructure. He ensured roadways were begun, aqueducts were constructed or improved, and that a new mosque was well funded in his capital at Córdoba. Construction on what would in time become the world-famous Great Mosque of Córdoba was started circa the year 786. Abd al-Rahman knew that one of his sons would one day inherit the rule of al-Andalus, but that it was a land torn by strife. In order to successfully rule in such a situation, Abd al-Rahman needed to create a reliable civil service and organize a standing army. He felt that he could not always rely on the local populace in providing a loyal army; and therefore bought a massive standing army consisting mainly of Berbers from North Africa as well as slaves from other areas. The total number of soldiers under his command was nearly 40,000. As was common during the years of Islamic expansion from Arabia, religious tolerance was practiced. Abd al-Rahman continued to allow Jews and Christians and other monotheistic religions to retain and practice their faiths, in exchange for the jizya. Possibly because of tribute taxes, \"the bulk of the country's population must have become Muslim\". However, other scholars have argued that though 80% of al-Andalus converted to Islam, it did not truly occur until near the 10th century.", "title": "Legacy and death" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "Christians more often converted to Islam than Jews although there were converted Jews among the new followers of Islam. There was a great deal of freedom of interaction among the groups: for example, Sarah, the granddaughter of the Visigoth king Wittiza, married a Muslim man and bore two sons who were later counted among the ranks of the highest Arab nobility.", "title": "Legacy and death" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "Abd al-Rahman I was able to forge a new Umayyad dynasty by standing successfully against Charlemagne, the Abbasids, the Berbers, and other Muslim Spaniards. His legacy started a new chapter for the Umayyad Dynasty ensuring their survival and culminating in the new Umayyad Caliphate of Cordoba by his descendants.", "title": "Legacy and death" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "Abd al-Rahman died c. 788 in Córdoba, and was supposedly buried under the site of the Mezquita. Abd al-Rahman's alleged favorite son was his choice for successor, and would later be known as Hisham I. Abd al-Rahman's progeny would continue to rule al-Andalus in the name of the house of Umayya for several generations, with the zenith of their power coming during the reign of Abd al-Rahman III.", "title": "Legacy and death" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "Abd al-Rahman was the son of Mu'awiya, son of Hisham, son of Abd al-Malik, according to Abd el-Wahid Merrakechi when reciting his ancestry. Abd al-Rahman's mother was a member of the Nafza Berbers with whom he found refuge after the murder of his family in 750.", "title": "Family" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "Abd al-Rahman married a Spanish Sephardi woman named Hulal. She is said to have been very beautiful and was the mother of Hisham. Abd al-Rahman was the father of several sons, but the identity of their mother(s) is not clear:", "title": "Family" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "In his lifetime, Abd al-Rahman was known as al Dakhil (\"the Entrant\"), but he was also known as Saqr Quraish (\"The Falcon of the Quraish\"), bestowed on him by one of his greatest enemies, the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur.", "title": "Legends" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "According to the chroniclers, al-Mansur once asked his courtiers who deserved the exalted title of \"Falcon of the Quraysh\" (Saqr Quraish, foremost of the Quraysh). The obsequious courtiers naturally replied \"You, O Commander of the Faithful!\", but the Caliph denied this. Then they suggested Mu'awiya (founder of the Umayyad Caliphate), but the Caliph again denied it. Then they suggested Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (one of the greatest of the Umayyad caliphs), but again no. They asked who it was, and al-Mansur replied:", "title": "Legends" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "The falcon of Quraysh is Abd al-Rahman, who escaped by his cunning the spearheads of the lances and the blades of the swords, who after wandering solitary through the deserts of Asia and Africa, had the boldness to seek his fortune without an army, in lands unknown to him beyond the sea. Having naught to rely upon save his own wits and perseverance, he nonetheless humiliated his proud foes, exterminated rebels, organized cities, mobilized armies, secured his frontiers against the Christians, founded a great empire and reunited under his scepter a realm that seemed already parcelled out among others. No man before him ever did such deeds. Mu'awiya rose to his stature through the support of Umar and Uthman, whose backing allowed him to overcome difficulties; Abd al-Malik, because of previous appointment; and the Commander of the Faithful [i.e. al-Mansur himself] through the struggle of his kin and the solidarity of his partisans. But Abd al-Rahman did it alone, with the support of none other than his own judgment, depending on no one but his own resolve.", "title": "Legends" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Abd ar-Rahman II (Arabic: عبد الرحمن الأوسط) (792–852) was the fourth Umayyad Emir of Córdoba in al-Andalus from 822 until his death. A vigorous and effective frontier warrior, he was also well known as a patron of the arts.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Abd ar-Rahman was born in Toledo, the son of Emir al-Hakam I. In his youth he took part in the so-called \"massacre of the ditch\", when 72 nobles and hundreds of their attendants were massacred at a banquet by order of al-Hakam.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "He succeeded his father as Emir of Córdoba in 822 and for 20 years engaged in nearly continuous warfare against Alfonso II of Asturias, whose southward advance he halted. In 825, he had a new city, Murcia, built, and proceeded to settle it with Arab loyalists to ensure stability. In 835, he confronted rebellious citizens of Mérida by having a large internal fortress built. In 837, he suppressed a revolt of Christians and Jews in Toledo with similar measures. He issued a decree by which the Christians were forbidden to seek martyrdom, and he had a Christian synod held to forbid martyrdom.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "In 839 or 840, he sent an embassy under al-Ghazal to Constantinople to sign a pact with the Byzantine Empire against the Abbasids. Another embassy that was sent an may have either went to Ireland or Denmark, likely encouraging trade in fur and slaves.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "In 844, Abd ar-Rahman repulsed an assault by Vikings who had disembarked in Cádiz, conquered Seville (with the exception of its citadel) and attacked Córdoba itself. Where Abderrahman || defeated the Vikings by letting them into the city and surrounded with best of his army to slaughter them to the end. Thereafter he constructed a fleet and naval arsenal at Seville to repel future raids.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "He responded to William of Septimania's requests of assistance in his struggle against Charles the Bald who had claimed lands William considered to be his.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Abd ar-Rahman was famous for his public building program in Córdoba. He made additions to the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba. A vigorous and effective frontier warrior, he was also well known as a patron of the arts. He was also involved in the execution of the \"Martyrs of Córdoba\", and was a patron of the great composer Ziryab. He died in 852 in Córdoba", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn al-Ḥakam al-Rabdī ibn Hishām ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Dākhil (Arabic: عبدالرحمن بن محمد بن عبداللہ بن محمد بن عبدالرحمن بن الحكم بن هشام بن عبد الرحمن الداخل; 890–961), or simply ʿAbd al-Raḥmān III, was the Umayyad Emir of Córdoba from 912 to 929, at which point he founded the Caliphate of Córdoba, serving as its first caliph until his death. Abd al-Rahman won the laqab (sobriquet) al-Nāṣir li-Dīn Allāh (lit. 'the Defender of God's Faith') in his early 20s when he supported the Maghrawa Berbers in North Africa against Fatimid expansion and later claimed the title of Caliph for himself. His half-century reign was known for its religious tolerance.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Abd al-Rahman was born in Córdoba, on 18 December 890. His year of birth is also given as 889 and 891. He was the grandson of Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi, seventh independent Umayyad emir of al-Andalus. His parents were Abdullah's son Muhammad and Muzna (or Muzayna), a Christian concubine. His paternal grandmother was also a Christian, the royal infanta Onneca Fortúnez, daughter of the captive king Fortún Garcés of Pamplona. Abd al-Rahman was thus nephew in the half-blood of queen Toda of Pamplona. He is described as having \"white skin, blue eyes and attractive face; good looking, although somewhat sturdy and stout. His legs were short, to the point that the stirrups of his saddle were mounted just one palm under it. When mounted, he looked tall, but on his feet he was quite short. He dyed his beard black.\" His natural hair was described as being reddish-blond, and he apparently wished to avoid looking like a Visigoth (from many European concubines in his ancestry), desiring to look more like an Umayyad Arab. Due to the fact that each successive Caliph had children almost exclusively with European Christian slave girls, the \"Arab\" gene was reduced in half, so that the last Umayyad Caliph, Hisham II was around only .09% Arab.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Muhammad was assassinated by his brother Al-Mutarrif, who had allegedly grown jealous of the favour Muhammad had gained in the eyes of their father Abdallah. Al-Mutarrif had accused Muhammad of plotting with the rebel Umar ibn Hafsun, and Muhammad had been imprisoned. According to some sources, the emir himself was behind Muhammad's fall, as well as Al-Mutarrif's death in 895. Abd al-Rahman spent his youth in his mother's harem. Al-Mutarrif's sister, known as al-Sayyida (\"the Lady\"), was entrusted with his education. She made sure that Abd al-Rahman's education was conducted with some rigour. It was claimed that he had learned and known the local Mozarabic language.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Emir Abdallah died at the age of 72. Despite four of his sons (Aban, Abd al Rahman, Muhammad and Ahmad) being alive at the time of his death, all of them were passed over for succession. Abdallah instead chose as his successor his grandson, Abd al-Rahman III (the son of his first son). This came as no surprise, since Abdallah had already demonstrated his affection for his grandson in many ways, namely by allowing him to live in his own tower (something he did not allow for any of his sons), and allowing him to sit on the throne on some festive occasions. Most importantly, Abdallah gave Abd al-Rahman his ring, the symbol of power, when Abdallah fell ill prior to his death.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Abd al-Rahman succeeded Abdallah the day after his death, 16 October 912. Historiographers of the time, such as Al-Bayan al-Mughrib and the Crónica anónima de Abd al-Rahman III, state that his succession was \"without incident\". At the time, Abd al-Rahman was about 21 or 22 years old. He inherited an emirate on the verge of dissolution, his power extending not far beyond the vicinity of Córdoba. To the north, the Christian Kingdom of Asturias was continuing its program of Reconquista in the Douro valley. To the south in Ifriqiya, the Fatimids had created an independent caliphate that threatened to attract the allegiance of the Muslim population, who had suffered under the harsh rule of Abdullah. On the internal front the discontented Muwallad families (Muslims of Iberian origin) represented a constant danger for the Córdoban emir. The most powerful of the latter was Umar ibn Hafsun, who, from his impregnable fortress of Bobastro, controlled much of eastern Al-Andalus.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "From the very early stages of his reign, Abd al-Rahman showed a firm resolve to quash the rebels of al-Andalus, consolidate and centralise power, and re-establish internal order within the emirate. Within 10 days of taking the throne, he exhibited the head of a rebel leader in Cordoba. From this point on he led annual expeditions against the northern and southern tribes to maintain control over them. To accomplish his aims he introduced into the court the saqalibah, slaves of East European origin. The saqalibah represented a third ethnic group that could neutralise the endless strife between his subjects of Muslim Arab heritage, and those of Muslim Berber heritage.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Hasdai ibn Shaprut, a Jewish courtier in the king's court who served as financier to the king, wrote of the king's revenues:", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "The revenue of the king [Abd al-Rahman] amounts annually to 100,000 florins, this arising only from the income derived from the numerous merchants who come hither from various countries and isles. All their commerce and affairs must be subjected to my guidance, praised be the Almighty, who bestows his mercy upon me! The kings of the world no sooner perceive of the greatness of my monarch, than they hasten to convey to him presents in abundance. It is myself who am appointed to receive such presents, and at the same time to return rewards awarded to them.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "During the first 20 years of his rule, Abd al-Rahman avoided military action against the northern Christian kingdoms, Asturias and the Kingdom of Navarre. The Muwallad rebels were the first problem he confronted. Those powerful families were supported by Iberians who were openly or secretly Christians and had acted with the rebels. These elements, which formed the bulk of the population, were not averse to supporting a strong ruler who would protect them against the Arab aristocracy. Abd al-Rahman moved to subdue them by means of a mercenary army that included Christians.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "He first had to suppress the rebel Umar ibn Hafsun. On 1 January 913 an army, led by the eunuch Badr, conquered the fortress of Écija, at some 50 kilometres (31 mi) from the capital. All the city's fortifications were destroyed, aside from the citadel, which was left as the residence of the governor and a garrison for the emirati troops.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "In the following spring, after sixty-five days of meticulous preparations, Abd al-Rahman personally led an expedition to the south of his realm. His troops were able to recover the Kūras (provinces) of Jaén and Granada, while a cavalry detachment was sent to free Málaga from ibn Hafsun's siege. He also obtained the capitulation of Fiñana (in the modern province of Almería), after setting fire to its suburbs. Subsequently, he moved against the castle of Juviles in the Alpujarras. After devastating the surrounding countryside to deprive the castle of any resources, he encircled it. Finding it difficult to bombard with catapults, he ordered the construction of a platform where his siege engines could be mounted to greater effect, and cut the water supply. The Muwallad defenders surrendered after a few days: their lives, apart from fifty-five die-hards who were beheaded, were spared in exchange for their allegiance to the emir. The campaign continued in a similar vein, lasting for a total of ninety days. Abd al-Rahman forced the defeated Muwallad to send hostages and treasures to Córdoba, in order to secure their continued submission.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "During the first year of his reign, Abd al-Rahman took advantage of the rivalries between the Banu Hajjaj lords of Seville and Carmona to force them to submit. He initially sent a special corps (hasam) under Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Hudayr, governor of Écija, to Seville, to obtain their submission. This attempt failed, but gained him the support of Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Hayyay, lord of Carmona, and a cousin of the Sevillan lord, Ahmad ibn Maslama. When the latter was surrounded by Umayyad troops, he sued for help to Ibn Hafsun, but the latter was defeated by the besiegers and returned to Bobastro. Abd al-Rahman next went after the forts in the provinces of Elvira, Granada, and Jaén, all of which were either directly or indirectly controlled by Hafsun. Seville finally capitulated on 20 December 913. Ibn al-Mundhir al-Qurays, a member of the royal family, was named governor of the city, while the Lord of Carmona obtained the title of vizier. Muhammad ibn Ibrahim enjoyed his office for only a single day, for Abd al-Rahman soon discovered his collusion with the rebel governor of Carmona. Muhammad was sent to prison, where he later met his death.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "The region of Valencia submitted peacefully in 915.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "Abd al-Rahman's next objective was to quash the long-standing rebellion of Umar ibn Hafsun.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "His troops left Córdoba on 7 May 914 and, after a few days, encamped before the walls of Balda (identified with today's Cuevas de San Marcos). His cavalry ravaged the nearby woods and the countryside, while the rest of the troops moved to Turrus, a castle located in the present municipality of Algarinejo, which was surrounded within five days, while its environs were also devastated.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "The Umayyad army then moved to the citadel of ʿUmar ibn Hafsun, while the cavalry was sent to the castle of Sant Batir, which was abandoned by the defenders, allowing Abd al-Rahman's troops to secure a large booty. Then it was the turn of the castles of Olías and Reina. The latter fell after a violent fight, leaving the road open to the major city and provincial capital of Málaga, which he captured after one day. Abd al-Rahman then turned and followed the coast by Montemayor, near Benahavís, Suhayl (Fuengirola) and another castle called Turrus or Turrus Jusayn (identified by Évariste Lévi-Provençal as Ojén). He finally arrived at Algeciras on 1 June 914. He ordered a patrol of the coast to destroy the boats that supplied the citadel of Umar ibn Hafsun from the Maghreb. Many of them were captured and set afire in front of the emir. The rebellious castles near Algeciras surrendered as soon as the Cordoban army appeared.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "Abd al-Rahman launched three different campaigns against Ibn Hafsun (who died in 917) and his sons. One of Ibn Hafsun's sons, Jaʿfar ibn Hafsun, held the stronghold of Toledo. Abd al-Rahman ravaged the countryside around the city. Ja'far, after two years of siege, escaped from the city to ask for help in the northern Christian kingdoms. In the meantime Abd al-Rahman obtained the surrender of the city from its population, after promising them immunity, although 4,000 rebels escaped in a night sally. The city surrendered on 2 August 932, after a siege of two years.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "In 921 the Banu Muhallab of Guadix submitted, followed by those of Jerez de la Frontera and Cádiz, as well as the trading republic of Pechina a year later. In 927, Abd al-Rahman also launched a campaign against the rebel Banu Qasi, but was forced to break it off following the intervention of Jimeno Garcés of Pamplona.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "The last of the sons of Ibn Hafsun to fall was Hafs, who commanded his powerful fortress of Umar ibn Hafsun. Surrounded by troops commanded by Abd al-Rahman's vizier, Said ibn al-Mundhir, who had ordered the construction of bastions around the city, he resisted the siege for six months, until he surrendered in 928 and had his life spared.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "The continued expeditions against the Hafsunids did not distract Abd al-Rahman III from the situation in other regions in al-Andalus, which recognized him only nominally, if not being in open revolt. Most of the loyal governors of the cities were in a weak position, such as the governor of Évora, who could not prevent an attack by the king of Galicia (and future king of León), Ordoño II, who captured the city in the summer of 913, taking back a sizable booty and 4,000 prisoners and massacring many Muslims. In most of the eastern and western provinces, Abd al-Rahman's authority was not recognized. The lord of Badajoz, Abd Allah ibn Muhammad, grandson of Abd al-Rahman ibn Marwan al-Yilliqi, not only fortified his city against a possible attack from Ordoño, but also acted in complete independence from Córdoba.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "To avoid the fall of Évora into the hands of the Berber groups of the region, the governor ordered the destruction of its defensive towers and lowered the walls, though a year later he decided to reconstruct it, giving its control to his ally Masud ibn Sa' dun al-Surunbaqi. The Algarve was dominated completely by a muladí coalition led by Saʿid ibn Mal, who had expelled the Arabs from Beja, and the lords of Ocsónoba, Yahya ibn Bakr, and of Niebla, Ibn Ufayr. Alcácer do Sal and Lisbon were under the control of the Banu Dānis.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "The absence of royal authority enabled Ordoño II to easily campaign in this area, his main objective being the city of Mérida, in the summer of 915. Abd al-Rahman III did not send an army and only several local Berber jefes offered some resistance which was ineffective.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "We are the most worthy to fulfill our right, and the most entitled to complete our good fortune, and to put on the clothing granted by the nobility of God, because of the favour which He has shown us, and the renown which He has given us, and the power to which He has raised us, because of what He has enabled us to acquire, and because of what He has made easy for us and for our state [? dynasty; Arabic: dawla] to achieve; He has made our name and the greatness of our power celebrated everywhere; and He has made the hopes of the worlds depend on us [Arabic: a‘laqa], and made their errings turn again to us and their rejoicing at good news be (rejoicing at good news) about our dynasty [Arabic: dawla]. And praise be to God, possessed of grace and kindness, for the grace which He has shown, [God] most worthy of superiority for the superiority which He has granted us. We have decided that the da‘wa should be to us as Commander of the Faithful and that letters emanating from us or coming to us should be [headed] in the same manner. Everyone who calls himself by this name apart from ourselves is arrogating it to himself [unlawfully] and trespassing upon it and is branded with something to which he has no right. We know that if we were to continue [allowing] the neglect of this duty which is owed to us in this matter then we should be forfeiting our right and neglecting our title, which is certain. So order the khaṭīb in your place to pronounce [the khuṭba] using [this title] and address your communications to us accordingly, if God will. Written on Thursday, 2 Dhū al-Ḥijja 316 [16 January 929].", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "Translated by David Wasserstein", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "Despite having defeated only some of the rebels, Abd al-Rahman III considered himself powerful enough to declare himself Caliph of Córdoba on 16 January 929, effectively breaking his allegiance to, and ties with, the Fatimid and Abbasid caliphs. The caliphate was thought only to belong to the Emperor who ruled over the sacred cities of Mecca and Medina, and his ancestors had until then been content with the title of emir. But the force of this tradition had weakened over time; and the title increased Abd al-Rahman's prestige with his subjects, both in Iberia and Africa. He based his claim to the caliphate on his Umayyad ancestors who had held undisputed control of the caliphate until they were overthrown by the Abbasids.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "Abd al-Rahman's move made him both the political and the religious leader of all the Muslims in al-Andalus, as well as the protector of his Christian and Jewish subjects. The symbols of his new caliphal power were a sceptre (jayzuran) and the throne (sarir). In the mint he had founded in November 928, Abd al-Rahman started to mint gold dinars and silver dirhams, replacing the \"al-Andalus\" title with his name.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "In his new role as caliph, he achieved the surrender of Ibn Marwan of Badajoz in 930 as well as the surrender of the Banu Dānis of Alcácer do Sal. On the southern front, to counter the increasing Fatimid power in North Africa, abd al-Rahmad ordered the construction of a fleet based in Almeria. The caliph helped the Maghrawa Berbers conquer Melilla (927), Ceuta (931) and Tangiers (951), who, in return, accepted his suzerainty. However, he was unable to defeat Jawhar al-Siqilli of the Fatimids. In 951 he signed a peace with the new king of León, Ordoño III, in order to have a free hand against the Fatimids whose ships were harassing caliphal shipping in the Mediterranean and had even launched an assault against Almeria. Abd al-Rahman's force, led by prime minister Ahmad ibn Said, besieged the Fatimid port of Tunis, which bought its safety by paying a huge sum.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "In the end he was able to create a protectorate covering the northern and central Maghreb, supporting the Idrisid dynasty; the Caliphate's influence in the area disappeared after a Fatimid offensive in 958, after which abd al-Rahman kept only the strongholds of Ceuta and Tangiers.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "Even before al-Andalus was firmly under his rule, he had restarted the war against King Ordoño II of León, who had taken advantage of the previous troublesome situation to capture some boundary areas and menace the Umayyad territory. In 917 the then emir had sent a large army under his general Ahmad ibn Abi Abda against León, but this force was destroyed at the Battle of San Esteban de Gormaz in September of that year.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "Recognizing he had underestimated the power of Ordoño II, in 920 Abd al-Rahman mustered another powerful army to reclaim the territories lost after the previous campaign. He captured the forts of Osma and San Esteban de Gormaz. After defeating King Sancho Garcés I of Navarre and the king of León at Valdejunquera on 26 July, he penetrated into Navarre, overcoming Aragon by the classic route of the invasions from the south. Abd al-Rahman reached the Basque city of Pamplona, which was sacked and its cathedral church demolished.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "In 924 Abd al-Rahman felt obliged to avenge the massacre of Viguera castle perpetrated by King Sancho Ordóñez of Navarre one year earlier. He launched a counter offensive against Sancho in which Abd al-Rahman devastated a large area of Basque territory.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "The succession crisis which struck León after Ordoño II's death in the same year caused hostilities to cease until Ramiro II gained the throne in 932; a first attempt by him to assist the besieged rebels in Toledo was repelled in 932, despite the Christian king capturing Madrid and scoring a victory at Osma.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "In 934, after reasserting supremacy over Pamplona and Álava, Abd al-Rahmad forced Ramiro to retreat to Burgos, and forced the Navarrese queen Toda, his aunt, to submit to him as a vassal and withdraw from direct rule as regent for her son García Sánchez I. In 937 Abd al-Rahman conquered some thirty castles in León. Next he turned to Muhammad ibn Hashim al-Tugib, governor of Zaragoza, who had allied with Ramiro but was pardoned after the capture of his city.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "Despite early defeats, Ramiro and García were able to crush the caliphal army in 939 at the Battle of Simancas, and almost kill Abd al-Rahman, due to treason by Arab elements in the caliph's army. After this defeat, Abd al-Rahman stopped taking personal command of his military campaigns. His cause was helped, however, by Fernán González of Castile, one of the Christian leaders at Simancas, who subsequently launched a sustained rebellion against Ramiro. The victory of Simancas enabled the Christian kingdom to maintain the military initiative in the peninsula until the defeat of Ramiro's successor, Ordoño III of León, in 956. However, they did not press this advantage as civil war broke out in the Christian territories.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "In 950 Abd al-Rahman received in Córdoba an embassy from count Borrell II of Barcelona, by which the northern county recognized caliphal supremacy in exchange for peace and mutual support. In 958, Sancho, the exiled king of León, King García Sánchez of Pamplona, and his mother Queen Toda all paid homage to Abd al-Rahman in Córdoba.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "Until 961, the caliphate played an active role in the dynastic strife characterising the Christian kingdoms during the period. Ordoño III's half-brother and successor, Sancho the Fat, had been deposed by his cousin Ordoño IV. Together with his grandmother Toda of Pamplona, Sancho sought an alliance with Córdoba. In exchange for some castles, Abd al-Rahman helped them to take back Zamora (959) and Oviedo (960) and to overthrow Ordoño IV.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 36, "text": "Abd al-Rahman was accused of retreating in his later years into the \"self-indulgent\" comforts of his harem. Indeed, he is known to have openly kept a male as well as a female harem (common with a few previous rulers such as Hisham II and Al-Mu'tamid). This likely influenced the polemical story of his sexual attraction for a 13-year-old boy (later enshrined as a Christian martyr and canonised as Saint Pelagius of Córdoba) who refused the Caliph's advances. This story may have been a construct on top of an original tale, however, in which he ordered the boy-slave to convert to Islam. Either way, enraged, he had the boy tortured and dismembered, thus contributing to the Christian perception of Muslim brutality.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 37, "text": "Abd al-Rahman spent the rest of his years in his new palace outside Córdoba. He died on 15 October 961 and was succeeded by his son al-Hakam II.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 38, "text": "Abd al-Rahman was a great humanist and patron of arts, especially architecture. A third of his revenue sufficed for the ordinary expenses of government, a third was hoarded, and a third was spent on buildings. After declaring the caliphate, he had a massive palace complex, known as the Medina Azahara, built some five kilometres north of Córdoba. The Medina Azahara was modelled after the old Umayyad palace in Damascus and served as a symbolic tie between the new caliph and his ancestors. It was said that Córdoba contained 3000 mosques and 100,000 shops and homes during his reign.", "title": "Legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 39, "text": "Under his reign, Córdoba became the most important intellectual centre of Western Europe. He expanded the city's library, which would be further enriched by his successors.", "title": "Legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 40, "text": "He also reinforced the Iberian fleet, which became the most powerful in Mediterranean Europe. Iberian raiders moved up to Galicia, Asturias, and North Africa. The colonisers of Fraxinetum came from al-Andalus as well.", "title": "Legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 41, "text": "Due to his consolidation of power, Muslim Iberia became a power for a few centuries. It also brought prosperity, and with this he created mints where pure gold and silver coins were created. He renovated and added to the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba.", "title": "Legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 42, "text": "He was very wary of losing control and kept tight reins on his family. In 949, he executed one of his sons for conspiring against him. He was tolerant of non-Muslims, and Jews and Christians were treated fairly. European kingdoms sent emissaries, including from Otto I of Germany and the Byzantine emperor.", "title": "Legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 43, "text": "Abd al-Rahman III's mother Muzna was a Christian captive, possibly from the Pyrenean region. His paternal grandmother Onneca Fortúnez was a Christian princess from the Kingdom of Pamplona. In his immediate ancestry, Abd al-Rahman III was Arab and Hispano–Basque.", "title": "Ancestry" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Abd ar-Rahman IV Mortada (Arabic: عبد الرحمن المرتضى, romanized: ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān al-Murtaḍā) was the Caliph of Córdoba in the Umayyad dynasty in Al-Andalus, succeeding Sulayman ibn al-Hakam, in 1018. That same year, he was murdered at Cadiz while fleeing from a battle in which he had been deserted by the very supporters which had brought him into power. His brief reign was similar to that of Abd ar-Rahman V Mostadir.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "", "title": "References" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Abd ar-Rahman V (Arabic: عبد الرحمن بن هشام المستظهر بالله, romanized: ʿAbd ar-Raḥmān ibn Hishām al-Mustaẓhir bi-llāh) was an Umayyad Caliph of Córdoba.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "In the agony of the Umayyad dynasty in the Al-Andalus (Moorish Iberia), two princes of the house were proclaimed Caliph of Córdoba for a very short time, Abd-ar-Rahman IV Mortada (1017), and Abd-ar-Rahman V Mostadir (1023–1024). Both were the mere puppets of factions, who deserted them at once. Abd-ar-Rahman IV was murdered the same year he was proclaimed at Cadiz, in flight from a battle in which he had been deserted by his supporters. Abd-ar-Rahman V was proclaimed caliph in December 1023 at Córdoba, and murdered in January 1024 by a mob of unemployed workmen, headed by one of his own cousins.", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Abdulaziz (Ottoman Turkish: عبد العزيز, romanized: ʿAbdü'l-ʿAzîz; Turkish: Abdülaziz; 8 February 1830 – 4 June 1876) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 25 June 1861 to 30 May 1876, when he was overthrown in a government coup. He was a son of Sultan Mahmud II and succeeded his brother Abdulmejid I in 1861.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Born at Eyüp Palace, Constantinople (Istanbul), on 8 February 1830, Abdulaziz received an Ottoman education but was nevertheless an ardent admirer of the material progress that was being achieved in the West. He was the first Ottoman sultan who travelled to Western Europe, visiting a number of important European capitals including Paris, London, and Vienna in the summer of 1867.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Apart from his passion for the Ottoman Navy, which had the world's third largest fleet in 1875 (after the British and French navies), the Sultan took an interest in documenting the Ottoman Empire. He was also interested in literature and was a classical music composer. Some of his compositions, together with those of the other members of the Ottoman dynasty, have been collected in the album European Music at the Ottoman Court by the London Academy of Ottoman Court Music. He was deposed on the grounds of having mismanaged the Ottoman economy on 30 May 1876, and was found dead six days later in mysterious circumstances.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "His parents were Mahmud II and Pertevniyal Sultan, originally named Besime, a Circassian. In 1868 Pertevniyal was residing at Dolmabahçe Palace. That year Abdulaziz took the visiting Eugénie de Montijo, Empress of France, to see his mother. Pertevniyal considered the presence of a foreign woman within her private quarters of the seraglio to be an insult. She reportedly slapped Eugénie across the face, which almost caused an international incident. According to another account, Pertevniyal was outraged by the forwardness of Eugénie in taking the arm of one of her sons while he gave a tour of the palace garden, and she gave the Empress a slap on the stomach as a possibly more subtly intended reminder that they were not in France.", "title": "Early life" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The Pertevniyal Valide Sultan Mosque was built under the patronage of his mother. The construction work began in November 1869 and the mosque was finished in 1871.", "title": "Early life" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "His paternal grandparents were Sultan Abdul Hamid I and Sultana Nakşidil Sultan. Several accounts identify his paternal grandmother with Aimée du Buc de Rivéry, a cousin of Empress Joséphine. Pertevniyal was a sister of Khushiyar Qadin, third wife of Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt. Khushiyar and Ibrahim were the parents of Isma'il Pasha.", "title": "Early life" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Between 1861 and 1871, the Tanzimat reforms which began during the reign of his brother Abdulmejid I were continued under the leadership of his chief ministers, Mehmed Fuad Pasha and Mehmed Emin Âli Pasha. New administrative districts (vilayets) were set up in 1864 and a Council of State was established in 1868. Public education was organized on the French model and Istanbul University was reorganised as a modern institution in 1861. He was also integral in establishing the first Ottoman civil code. Under his reign, Turkey's first postage stamps were issued in 1863, and the Ottoman Empire joined the Universal Postal Union in 1875 as a founding member.", "title": "Reign" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Abdulaziz cultivated good relations with France and the United Kingdom. In 1867 he was the first Ottoman sultan to visit Western Europe. His voyage in visiting order (from 21 June 1867 to 7 August 1867): Istanbul – Messina – Naples – Toulon – Marseille – Paris – Boulogne – Dover – London – Dover – Calais – Brussels – Koblenz – Vienna – Budapest – Orșova – Vidin – Ruse – Varna – Istanbul. His trip included a visit to the Exposition Universelle (1867) in Paris and a trip to the United Kingdom, where he was made a Knight of the Garter by Queen Victoria and shown a Royal Navy Fleet Review with Ismail Pasha. He travelled by a private rail car, which today can be found in the Rahmi M. Koç Museum in Istanbul. His fellow Knights of the Garter created in 1867 were Charles Gordon-Lennox, 6th Duke of Richmond, Charles Manners, 6th Duke of Rutland, Henry Somerset, 8th Duke of Beaufort, Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn (a son of Queen Victoria), Franz Joseph I of Austria and Alexander II of Russia. Impressed by the museums in Paris (30 June – 10 July 1867), London (12–23 July 1867) and Vienna (28–30 July 1867) he ordered the establishment of an Imperial Museum in Istanbul: the Istanbul Archaeology Museum.", "title": "Reign" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "In 1869, Abdulaziz received visits from Eugénie de Montijo, Empress consort of Napoleon III of France and other foreign monarchs on their way to the opening of the Suez Canal. The Prince of Wales, the future Edward VII, twice visited Istanbul.", "title": "Reign" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "The first Ottoman railroads were opened between İzmir–Aydın and Alexandria–Cairo in 1856, during the reign of Sultan Abdulmejid I. The first large railway terminal within present-day Turkey, the Alsancak Terminal in Izmir, was opened in 1858. However, these were individual, unconnected railroads, without a railway network. Sultan Abdulaziz established the first Ottoman railway networks. On 17 April 1869, the concession for the Rumelia Railway (i.e. Balkan Railways, Rumeli (Rumelia) meaning the Balkan peninsula in Ottoman Turkish) which connected Istanbul to Vienna was awarded to Baron Maurice de Hirsch (Moritz Freiherr Hirsch auf Gereuth), a Bavaria-born banker from Belgium. The project foresaw a railway route from Istanbul via Edirne, Plovdiv and Sarajevo to the shore of the Sava River. In 1873, the first Sirkeci Terminal in Istanbul was opened. The temporary Sirkeci terminal building was later replaced with the current one which was built between 1888 and 1890 (during the reign of Abdülhamid II) and became the final destination terminus of the Orient Express. In 1871, Sultan Abdulaziz established the Anatolia Railway. Construction works of the 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) standard gauge on the Asian side of Istanbul, from Haydarpaşa to Pendik, began in 1871. The line was opened on 22 September 1872. The railway was extended to Gebze, which opened on 1 January 1873. In August 1873 the railway reached Izmit. Another railway extension was built in 1871 to serve a populated area along Bursa and the Sea of Marmara. The Anatolia Railway was then extended to Ankara and eventually to Mesopotamia, Syria and Arabia during the reign of Sultan Abdulhamid II, with the completion of the Baghdad Railway and Hejaz Railway.", "title": "Reign" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Also in 1867, Abdulaziz became the first Ottoman Sultan to formally recognize the title of Khedive (Viceroy) to be used by the Governor of the Ottoman Eyalet of Egypt and Sudan (1517–1867), which thus became the autonomous Ottoman Khedivate of Egypt and Sudan (1867–1914). Muhammad Ali Pasha and his descendants had been the governors of Ottoman Egypt and Sudan since 1805, but were willing to use the higher title of Khedive, which was unrecognized by the Ottoman government until 1867. In return, the first Khedive, Ismail Pasha, had agreed a year earlier (in 1866) to increase the annual tax revenues which Egypt and Sudan would provide for the Ottoman treasury. Between 1854 and 1894, the revenues from Egypt and Sudan were often declared as a surety by the Ottoman government for borrowing loans from British and French banks.", "title": "Reign" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "Abdulaziz gave special emphasis on modernizing the Ottoman Navy. In 1875, the Ottoman Navy had 21 battleships and 173 warships of other types, ranking as the third largest navy in the world after the British and French navies. His passion for the Navy, ships and sea can be observed in the wall paintings and pictures of the Beylerbeyi Palace, which was constructed during his reign. However, the large budget for modernizing and expanding the Navy (combined with a severe drought in 1873 and incidents of flooding in 1874 which damaged Ottoman agriculture and reduced the government's tax revenues) contributed to the financial difficulties which caused the Porte to declare a sovereign default with the \"Ramazan Kanunnamesi\" on 30 October 1875. The subsequent decision to increase agricultural taxes for paying the Ottoman public debt to foreign creditors (mainly British and French banks) triggered the Great Eastern Crisis in the empire's Balkan provinces. The crisis culminated in the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78) that devastated the already struggling Ottoman economy, and the establishment of the Ottoman Public Debt Administration in 1881, during the early years of Sultan Abdulhamid II's reign.", "title": "Reign" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "This financial turmoil increased the importance of Britain for the sureties regarding the Ottoman revenues from Egypt and Sudan. Combined with the much more important Suez Canal which was opened in 1869, these sureties were influential in the British government's decision to occupy Egypt and Sudan in 1882, with the pretext of helping the Ottoman-Egyptian government to put down the ʻUrabi revolt (1879–1882). Egypt and Sudan (together with Cyprus) nominally remained Ottoman territories until 5 November 1914, when the British Empire declared war against the Ottoman Empire during World War I.", "title": "Reign" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "By 1871, both Fuad Pasha and Âli Pasha were dead. The Second French Empire, his Western European model, had been defeated in the Franco-Prussian War. Abdulaziz turned to the Russian Empire for friendship, as unrest in the Balkan provinces continued. In 1875, the Herzegovinian rebellion was the beginning of further unrest in the Balkan provinces. In 1876, the April Uprising saw insurrection spreading among the Bulgarians. Ill feeling mounted against Russia for its encouragement of the rebellions.", "title": "Reign" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "While no one event led to his being deposed, the crop failure of 1873 and his lavish expenditures on the Ottoman Navy and on new palaces which he had built, along with mounting public debt, helped to create an atmosphere conducive to his being overthrown. Abdulaziz was deposed by his ministers on 30 May 1876.", "title": "Reign" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "Following Sultan Abdulaziz's dethronement, he was taken into a room at Topkapi Palace. This room happened to be the same room that Sultan Selim III was murdered in. The room caused him to be concerned for his life and he subsequently requested to be moved to Beylerbeyi Palace. His request was denied for the palace was considered inconvenient for his situation and he was moved to Feriye Palace instead. He nevertheless had grown increasingly nervous and paranoid about his security. In the morning of 5 June, Abdulaziz asked for a pair of scissors to trim his beard. Shortly after this, he was found dead in a pool of blood flowing from two wounds in his arms.", "title": "Death" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "Several physicians were allowed to examine his body. Among which \"Dr. Marco, Nouri, A. Sotto, Physician attached to the Imperial and Royal Embassy of Austria‐Hungary; Dr. Spagnolo, Marc Markel, Jatropoulo, Abdinour, Servet, J. de Castro, A. Marroin, Julius Millingen, C. Caratheodori; E. D. Dickson, Physician of the British Embassy; Dr. O. Vitalis, Physician of the Sanitary Board; Dr. E. Spadare, J. Nouridjian, Miltiadi Bey, Mustafa, Mehmed\" certified that the death had been \"caused by the loss of blood produced by the wounds of the blood‐vessels at the joints of the arms\" and that \"the direction and nature of the wounds, together with the instrument which is said to have produced them, lead us to conclude that suicide had been committed\". One of those physicians also stated that \"His skin was very pale, and entirely free from bruises, marks or spots of any kind whatever. There was no lividity of the lips indicating suffocation nor any sign of pressure having been applied to the throat\". Abdulaziz's death at was documented as a suicide.", "title": "Death" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "There are several sources claiming the death of Abdulaziz was due to an assassination. Islamic nationalist author Necip Fazıl Kısakürek claimed that it was a clandestine operation carried out by the British.", "title": "Death" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "Another similar claim is based on the book The Memoirs of Sultan Abdulhamid II. In the book, which turned out to be a fraud, Abdulhamid II claims that Sultan Murad V had begun to show signs of paranoia, madness, and continuous fainting and vomiting until the day of his coronation, and he even threw himself into a pool yelling at his guards to protect his life. High-ranking politicians of the time were afraid the public would become outraged and revolt to bring Abdulaziz back to power. Thus, they arranged the assassination of Abdulaziz by cutting his wrists and announced that \"he committed suicide\". This book of memoir was commonly referred to as a first-hand testimony of the assassination of Abdulaziz. Yet it was proven, later on, that Abdulhamid II never wrote nor dictated such a document.", "title": "Death" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "Abdülaziz's family was also convinced that he was murdered, according to the statements of one of his consorts Neşerek Kadın and his daughter Nazime Sultan.", "title": "Death" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "Abdülaziz's harem was known because, although slavery in the Ottoman Empire had already been abolished, his mother Pertevniyal Sultan continued to send slave girls from the Caucasus.", "title": "Family" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "Abdülaziz had six consorts:", "title": "Family" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "In addition to these, Abdülaziz planned to marry the Egyptian princess Tawhida Hanim, daughter of the Egyptian chedive Isma'il Pasha. His Grand Vizier, Mehmed Fuad Pasha, was opposed to marriage and wrote a note for the sultan explaining that marriage would be politically counterproductive and would give Egypt an undue advantage. However, the Grand Chamberlain, instead of handing the note to the sultan, read it to him in public, humiliating him. Although the marriage project was abandoned, Fuad was fired for the accident.", "title": "Family" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "Abdülaziz had six sons:", "title": "Family" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "Abdülaziz had seven daughters:", "title": "Family" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "Media related to Abdül Aziz I at Wikimedia Commons", "title": "External links" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "Works by or about Abdülaziz at Wikisource", "title": "External links" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Abdera was an ancient Carthaginian and Roman port on a hill above the modern Adra on the southeastern Mediterranean coast of Spain. It was located between Malaca (now Málaga) and Carthago Nova (now Cartagena) in the district inhabited by the Bastuli.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Abdera shares its name with a city in Thrace and another in North Africa. Its coins bore the inscription ʾBDRT (Punic: 𐤏𐤁𐤃𐤓𐤕). The first element in the name appears to be the Punic word for \"servant\" or \"slave\"; the second element seems shared by the Phoenician names for Gadir (now Cadiz) and Cythera but of unclear meaning.", "title": "Name" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "It appears in Greek sources as tà Ábdēra (Greek: τὰ Ἄβδηρα) and Aúdēra (Αὔδηρα), Ábdara (Ἄβδαρα), and tò Ábdēron (τὸ Ἄβδηρον).", "title": "Name" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Abdera was founded in the 8th century BCE as a Phoenician colony. It became a Carthaginian trading station and, after a period of decline, became one of the more important towns in the Roman province of Hispania Baetica. Tiberius seems to have made the place a Roman colony.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The most ancient coins bear its name with the head of Melqart and a tuna. Coins from the time of Tiberius show the town's main temple with two erect tunas as its columns. Early Roman coins were bilingual with Latin inscriptions on one side stating the name of the emperor and the town and with Punic text on the other side simply stating the name of the town.", "title": "Coins" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Abdera (Greek: Άβδηρα) is a municipality in the Xanthi regional unit of Thrace, Greece. In classical antiquity, it was a major Greek polis on the Thracian coast.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The ancient polis is to be distinguished from the municipality, which was named in its honor. The polis lay 17 km east-northeast of the mouth of the Nestos River, almost directly opposite the island of Thasos. It was a colony placed in previously unsettled Thracian territory, not then a part of Hellas, during the age of Greek colonization. The city that developed from it became of major importance in ancient Greece. After the 4th century AD it declined, contracted to its acropolis, and was abandoned, never to be reoccupied except by archaeologists.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "During the Early Middle Ages, a new settlement emerged near the ancient city. It was called Polystylon (Greek: Πολύστυλον), and later considered as the New Abdera (Greek: Νέα Άβδηρα). In 2011 the modern municipality of Abdera was synoecized from three previous municipalities comprising a number of modern settlements. The ancient site remains in it as a ruin. The municipality of Abdera has 19,005 inhabitants (2011). The seat of the municipality is the town Genisea.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The name Abdera is of Phoenician origin and was shared in antiquity by Abdera, Spain and a town near Carthage in North Africa. It was variously Hellenized as Ἄβδηρα (Ábdēra), Αὔδηρα (Aúdēra), Ἄβδαρα (Ábdara), Ἄβδηρον (Ábdēron), and Ἄβδηρος (Ábdēros), before being Latinized as Abdera. Greek legend attributed the name to an eponymous Abderus who fell nearby and was memorialized by Hercules's founding of a city at the location.", "title": "Name" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The present-day town is written Avdira (Άβδηρα) and pronounced [ˈavðira] in modern Greek.", "title": "Name" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The Phoenicians apparently began the settlement of Abdera at some point before the mid-7th century and the town long maintained Phoenician standards in its coinage.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "The Greek settlement was begun as a failed colony from Klazomenai, traditionally dated to 654 BC. (Evidence in 7th-century-BC Greek pottery tends to support the traditional date but the exact timing remains uncertain.) Herodotus reports that the leader of the colony had been Timesios but, within his generation, the Thracians had expelled the colonists. Timesios was subsequently honored as a local protective spirit by the later Abderans from Teos. Others recount various legends about this colony. Plutarch and Aelian relate that Timesios grew insufferable to his colonists because of his desire to do everything by himself; when one of their children let him know how they all really felt, he quit the settlement in disgust; modern scholars have tried to split the difference between the two accounts of early Abdera's failure by giving the latter as the reason for Timesios's having left Klazomenai.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Strabo describes Abdera as \"a Thracian city\" at the time of Anacreon and the migration of people from Teos to that area. The successful colonisation occurred in 544 BC, when the majority of the people of Teos (including the poet Anacreon) migrated to Abdera to escape the Persian yoke. The chief coin type, a griffon, is identical with that of Teos; the rich silver coinage is noted for the beauty and variety of its reverse types.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "In 513 and 512 BC, the Persians, under Darius conquered Abdera, by which time the city seems to have become a place of considerable importance, and is mentioned as one of the cities which had the expensive honour of entertaining the great king on his march into Greece. In 492 BC, after the Ionian Revolt, the Persians again conquered Abdera, again under Darius I but led by his general Mardonius. On his flight after the Battle of Salamis, Xerxes stopped at Abdera and acknowledged the hospitality of its inhabitants by presenting them with a tiara and scimitar of gold. Thucydides mentions Abdera as the westernmost limit of the Odrysian kingdom when at its height at the beginning of the Peloponnesian war. It later became part of the Delian League and fought on the side of Athens in the Peloponnesian war.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Abdera was a wealthy city, the third richest in the League, due to its status as a prime port for trade with the interior of Thrace and the Odrysian kingdom. In 408 BC, Abdera was reduced under the power of Athens by Thrasybulus, then one of the Athenian generals in that quarter.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "A valuable prize, the city was repeatedly sacked: by the Triballi in 376 BC, Philip II of Macedon in 350 BC; later by Lysimachos of Thrace, the Seleucids, the Ptolemies, and again by the Macedonians. In 170 BC the Roman armies and those of Eumenes II of Pergamon besieged and sacked it.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "The town seems to have declined in importance after the middle of the 4th century BC. Cicero ridicules the city as a byword for stupidity in his letters to Atticus, writing of a debate in the Senate, \"Here was Abdera, but I wasn't silent\" (\"Hic, Abdera non tacente me\"). The Philogelos, a Greek-language joke book compiled in the 4th century AD, has a chapter dedicated to jokes about dumb Abderans. Nevertheless, the city counted among its citizens the philosophers Democritus, Protagoras and Anaxarchus, historian and philosopher Hecataeus of Abdera, and the lyric poet Anacreon. Pliny the Elder speaks of Abdera as being in his time a free city.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Abdera had flourished especially in ancient times mainly for two reasons: because of the large area of their territory and their highly strategic position. The city controlled two great road passages (one of Nestos river and other through the mountains north of Xanthi). Furthermore, from their ports passed the sea road, which from Troas led to the Thracian and then the Macedonian coast.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "The ruins of the town may still be seen on Cape Balastra (40°56'1.02\"N 24°58'21.81\"E); they cover seven small hills, and extend from an eastern to a western harbor; on the southwestern hills are the remains of the medieval settlement of Polystylon (Greek: Πολύστυλον). Since the 9th century, Byzantine Polystylon was an episcopal see, under the jurisdiction of the metropolitan bishop of Philippi. By the end of the 14th century it fell under the Ottoman rule.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "Avdira as a modern administrative unit (community) was established in 1924, and consisted of the villages Avdira, Myrodato (Kalfalar), Pezoula, Giona, Veloni and Mandra, but Myrodato and Mandra became separate communities in 1928. The municipality Avdira was formed in 1997 by the merger of the former communities Avdira, Mandra, Myrodato and Nea Kessani. At the 2011 local government reform it merged with the former municipalities Selero and Vistonida, and the town Genisea became its seat.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "The municipality has an area of 352.047 km, the municipal unit 161.958 km. The municipal unit Avdira is subdivided into the communities Avdira, Mandra, Myrodato and Nea Kessani. The community Avdira consists of the settlements Avdira, Giona, Lefkippos, Pezoula and Skala.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "Landmarks of Abdera include the Archaeological Museum of Abdera, and Agios Ioannis Beach (also Paralia Avdiron) near the village Lefkippos.", "title": "Landmarks" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Apollos (Greek: Ἀπολλώς) was a 1st-century Alexandrian Jewish Christian mentioned several times in the New Testament. A contemporary and colleague of Paul the Apostle, he played an important role in the early development of the churches of Ephesus and Corinth.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Apollos is first mentioned as a Christian preacher who had come to Ephesus (probably in AD 52 or 53), where he is described as \"being fervent in spirit: he spoke and taught accurately the things concerning Jesus, though he knew only the baptism of John\". Priscilla and Aquila, a Jewish Christian couple who had come to Ephesus with the Apostle Paul, instructed Apollos:", "title": "Biblical account" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The differences between the two understandings probably related to the Christian baptism, since Apollos \"knew only the baptism of John\". Later, during Apollos' absence, the writer of the Acts of the Apostles recounts an encounter between Paul and some disciples at Ephesus:", "title": "Biblical account" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "And he said to them, \"Did you receive the Holy Spirit when you believed?\" And they said, \"No, we have not even heard that there is a Holy Spirit.\" And he said, \"Into what then were you baptized?\" They said, \"Into John's baptism.\" And Paul said, \"John baptized with the baptism of repentance, telling the people to believe in the one who was to come after him, that is, Jesus.\" On hearing this, they were baptized in the name of the Lord Jesus. And when Paul had laid his hands on them, the Holy Spirit came on them, and they began speaking in tongues and prophesying.", "title": "Biblical account" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Before Paul's arrival, Apollos had moved from Ephesus to Achaia and was living in Corinth, the provincial capital of Achaia. Acts reports that Apollos arrived in Achaia with a letter of recommendation from the Ephesian Christians and \"greatly helped those who through grace had believed, for he powerfully refuted the Jews in public, showing by the Scriptures that the Christ was Jesus.", "title": "Biblical account" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians (AD 55) mentions Apollos as an important figure at Corinth. Paul describes Apollos' role at Corinth:", "title": "Biblical account" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Paul's Epistle refers to a schism between four parties in the Corinthian church, of which two attached themselves to Paul and Apollos respectively, using their names (the third and fourth were Peter, identified as Cephas, and Jesus Christ himself). It is possible, though, that, as Msgr. Ronald Knox suggests, the parties were actually two, one claiming to follow Paul, the other claiming to follow Apollos. \"It is surely probable that the adherents of St. Paul [...] alleged in defence of his orthodoxy the fact that he was in full agreement with, and in some sense commissioned by, the Apostolic College. Hence 'I am for Cephas'. [...] What reply was the faction of Apollos to make? It devised an expedient which has been imitated by sectaries more than once in later times; appealed behind the Apostolic College itself to him from whom the Apostolic College derived its dignity; 'I am for Christ'.\" Paul states that the schism arose because of the Corinthians' immaturity in faith.", "title": "Biblical account" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Apollos was a devout Jew born in Alexandria. Apollos' origin in Alexandria has led to speculations that he would have preached in the allegorical style of Philo. Theologian Jerome Murphy-O'Connor, for example, commented: \"It is difficult to imagine that an Alexandrian Jew ... could have escaped the influence of Philo, the great intellectual leader ... particularly since the latter seems to have been especially concerned with education and preaching.\"", "title": "Biblical account" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "There is no indication that Apollos favored or approved an overestimation of his person. Paul urged him to go to Corinth at the time, but Apollos declined, stating that he would come later when he had an opportunity.", "title": "Biblical account" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Apollos is mentioned one more time in the New Testament. In the Epistle to Titus, the recipient is exhorted to \"speed Zenas the lawyer and Apollos on their way\".", "title": "Biblical account" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Jerome states that Apollos was so dissatisfied with the division at Corinth that he retired to Crete with Zenas; and that once the schism had been healed by Paul's letters to the Corinthians, Apollos returned to the city and became one of its elders. Less probable traditions assign to him the bishopric of Duras, or of Iconium in Phrygia, or of Caesarea.", "title": "Extrabiblical information" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "Pope Benedict XVI suggested that the name \"Apollos\" was probably short for Apollonius or Apollodorus. He also suggested there were those in Corinth \"...fascinated by [Apollo's] way of speaking....\"", "title": "Extrabiblical information" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Martin Luther and some modern scholars have proposed Apollos as the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, rather than Paul or Barnabas. Both Apollos and Barnabas were Jewish Christians with sufficient intellectual authority. The Pulpit Commentary treats Apollos' authorship of Hebrews as \"generally believed\". Other than this, there are no known surviving texts attributed to Apollos.", "title": "Significance" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "Apollos is regarded as a saint by several Christian churches, including the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod, which hold a commemoration for him, together with saints Aquila and Priscilla, on 13 February. Apollos is considered one of the 70 apostles and his feast day is December 8 in the Eastern Orthodox church.", "title": "Significance" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "Apollos is not to be confused with St. Apollo of Egypt, a monk who died in 395 and whose feast day is January 25. Apollos does not have a feast day of his own in the traditional Roman Martyrology, nor is he reputed to have ever been a monk (as most monks come after St. Anthony the Great).", "title": "Significance" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The Community acquis or acquis communautaire (/ˈækiː kəˈmjuːnətɛər/; French: [aˌki kɔmynoˈtɛːʁ]), sometimes called the EU acquis and often shortened to acquis, is the accumulated legislation, legal acts and court decisions that constitute the body of European Union law that came into being since 1993. The term is French: acquis meaning \"that which has been acquired or obtained\", and communautaire meaning \"of the community\".", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "During the process of the enlargement of the European Union, the acquis was divided into 31 chapters for the purpose of negotiation between the EU and the candidate member states for the fifth enlargement (the ten that joined in 2004 plus Romania and Bulgaria which joined in 2007). These chapters were:", "title": "Chapters" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "For the negotiations with Croatia (which joined in 2013), Iceland, Turkey, Montenegro, Serbia, Ukraine, Moldova, and in the future, with North Macedonia, Albania and Bosnia and Herzegovina (candidate countries), the acquis is split up into 35 chapters instead, with the purpose of better balancing between the chapters: (dividing the most difficult ones into separate chapters for easier negotiation, uniting some easier chapters, moving some policies between chapters, as well as renaming a few of them in the process)", "title": "Chapters" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Correspondence between chapters of the 5th and the 6th Enlargement:", "title": "Chapters" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Such negotiations usually involved agreeing transitional periods before new member states needed to implement the laws of the European Union fully and before they and their citizens acquired full rights under the acquis.", "title": "Chapters" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The term acquis is also used to describe laws adopted under the Schengen Agreement, prior to its integration into the European Union legal order by the Treaty of Amsterdam, in which case one speaks of the Schengen acquis.", "title": "Terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "The term acquis has been borrowed by the World Trade Organization Appellate Body, in the case Japan – Taxes on Alcoholic Beverages, to refer to the accumulation of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and WTO law (\"acquis gattien\"), though this usage is not well established.", "title": "Terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "It has been used to describe the achievements of the Council of Europe (an international organisation unconnected with the European Union):", "title": "Terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "The Council of Europe's acquis in standard setting activities in the fields of democracy, the rule of law and fundamental human rights and freedoms should be considered as milestones towards the European political project, and the European Court of Human Rights should be recognised as the pre-eminent judicial pillar of any future architecture.", "title": "Terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "It has also been applied to the body of \"principles, norms and commitments\" of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE):", "title": "Terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Another question under debate has been how the Partners and others could implement the OSCE acquis, in other words its principles, norms, and commitments on a voluntary basis.", "title": "Terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) introduced the concept of the OECD Acquis in its \"Strategy for enlargement and outreach\", May 2004.", "title": "Terminology" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "An antacid is a substance which neutralizes stomach acidity and is used to relieve heartburn, indigestion or an upset stomach. Some antacids have been used in the treatment of constipation and diarrhea. Marketed antacids contain salts of aluminum, calcium, magnesium, or sodium. Some preparations contain a combination of two salts, such as magnesium carbonate and aluminium hydroxide (e.g. hydrotalcite).", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Antacids are available over the counter and are taken by mouth to quickly relieve occasional heartburn, the major symptom of gastroesophageal reflux disease and indigestion. Treatment with antacids alone is symptomatic and only justified for minor symptoms. Alternative uses for antacids include constipation, diarrhea, hyperphosphatemia, and urinary alkalization. Some antacids are also used as an adjunct to pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy in the treatment of pancreatic insufficiency.", "title": "Medical uses" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Non-particulate antacids (sodium citrate) increase gastric pH with little or no effect on gastric volume, and therefore may see some limited use in pre-operative procedures. Sodium citrate should be given within 1 hour of surgery to be the most effective.", "title": "Medical uses" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Conventional effervescent tablets contain a significant amount of sodium and are associated with increased odds of adverse cardiovascular events according to a 2013 study. Alternative sodium-free formulations containing magnesium salts may cause diarrhea, whereas those containing calcium or aluminum may cause constipation. Rarely, long-term use of calcium carbonate may cause kidney stones. Long-term use of antacids containing aluminum may increase the risk of developing osteoporosis. In vitro studies have found a potential for acid rebound to occur due to antacid overuse, however the significance of this finding has been called into question.", "title": "Side effects" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "When an excess amount of acid is produced in the stomach, the natural mucous barrier that protects the lining of the stomach can degrade, leading to pain and irritation. There is also potential for the development of acid reflux, which can cause pain and damage to the esophagus. Antacids contain alkaline ions that chemically neutralize stomach gastric acid, reducing damage to the stomach lining and esophagus, and relieving pain. Some antacids also inhibit pepsin, an enzyme that can damage the esophagus in acid reflux.", "title": "Properties of antacids" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Antacids do not directly inhibit acid secretion, and thus are distinct from acid-reducing drugs like H2-receptor antagonists or proton pump inhibitors. Antacids do not kill the bacteria Helicobacter pylori, which causes most ulcers.", "title": "Properties of antacids" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Antacids are known to interact with several oral medications, including fluoroquinolone and tetracycline antibiotics, iron, itraconazole, and prednisone. Metal chelation is responsible for some of these interactions (e.g. fluoroquinolones, tetracyclines), leading to decreased absorption of the chelated drug. Some interactions may be due to the pH increase observed in the stomach following antacid ingestion, leading to increased absorption of weak acids, and decreased absorption of weak bases. Antacids also cause an increase in pH of the urine (alkalization), which may cause increased blood concentrations of weak bases, and increased excretion of weak acids.", "title": "Interactions" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "A proposed method to mitigate the effects of stomach acidity and chelation on drug absorption is to space out the administration of antacids with interacting medications, however this method has not been well studied for drugs affected by urine alkalization.", "title": "Interactions" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "There are concerns regarding interactions between delayed-release tablets and antacids, as antacids may increase the stomach pH to a point at which the coating of the delayed-release tablet will dissolve, leading to degradation of the drug if it is pH sensitive.", "title": "Interactions" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Antacids may be formulated with other active ingredients such as simethicone to control gas, or alginic acid to act as a physical barrier to acid.", "title": "Formulations" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Several liquid antacid preparations are marketed. Common liquid preparations include milk of magnesia and magnesium/aluminum combinations. A potential advantage of using a liquid preparation over a tablet is that liquids may provide quicker relief, however this may coincide with a shorter duration of action.", "title": "Formulations" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "Chewable tablets are one of the most common forms of antacids, and are readily available over the counter. Upon reaching the stomach, the tablet powder will dissolve in the stomach acid, allowing the cations to be released and neutralize excess stomach acid. Common salts available in tablet form include those of calcium, magnesium, aluminum, and sodium.", "title": "Formulations" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Some common American brand are Tums, Gaviscon chewable tablets, and Maalox chewable tablets.", "title": "Formulations" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "Effervescent tablets are tablets which are designed to dissolve in water, and then release carbon dioxide. Common ingredients include citric acid and sodium bicarbonate, which react when in contact with water to produce carbon dioxide. Effervescent antacids may also contain aspirin, sodium carbonate, or tartaric acid. Those containing aspirin may cause further gastric irritation and ulceration due to aspirin's effects on the mucous membrane of the stomach.", "title": "Formulations" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "Common American brands include Alka-Seltzer, Gaviscon, and Eno.", "title": "Formulations" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "The dictionary definition of antacid at Wiktionary", "title": "External links" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "An anti-diarrhoeal drug (or anti-diarrheal drug in American English) is any medication which provides symptomatic relief for diarrhoea.", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Áed mac Cináeda (Modern Scottish Gaelic: Aodh mac Choinnich; Latin: Ethus; Anglicized: Hugh; died 878) was a son of Cináed mac Ailpín. He became king of the Picts in 877, when he succeeded his brother Constantín mac Cináeda. He was nicknamed Áed of the White Flowers, the wing-footed (Latin: alipes) or the white-foot (Latin: albipes).", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba says of Áed: \"Edus [Áed] held the same [i.e., the kingdom] for one year. The shortness of his reign has bequeathed nothing memorable to history. He was slain in the civitas of Nrurim.\" Nrurim is unidentified.", "title": "Sources" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The Annals of Ulster say that, in 878, \"Áed mac Cináeda, king of the Picts, was killed by his associates.\" Tradition, reported by George Chalmers in his Caledonia (1807), and by the New Statistical Account (1834–1845), has it that the early-historic mound of the Cunninghillock by Inverurie is the burial place of Áed. This is based on reading Nrurim as Inruriu.", "title": "Sources" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "A longer account is interpolated in Andrew of Wyntoun's Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland. This says that Áed reigned one year and was killed by his successor Giric in Strathallan and other king lists have the same report.", "title": "Sources" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "It is uncertain which, if any, of the Prophecy of Berchán's kings should be taken to be Áed. William Forbes Skene presumed that the following verses referred to Áed:", "title": "Sources" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "129. Another king will take [sovereignty]; small is the profit that he does not divide. Alas for Scotland thenceforward. His name will be the Furious.130. He will be but a short time over Scotland. The will be no [word uncertain] unplundered. Alas for Scotland, through the youth; alas for their books, alas for their bequests.131. He will be nine years in the kingdom. I shall tell you—it will be a tale of truth—he dies without bell, with communion, at evening, in a fatal pass.", "title": "Sources" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Áed's son, Constantín mac Áeda, became king in 900.", "title": "Sources" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Media related to Áed mac Cinaéda at Wikimedia Commons", "title": "External links" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Abdulhamid or Abdul Hamid I (Ottoman Turkish: عبد الحميد اول, `Abdü’l-Ḥamīd-i evvel; Turkish: I. Abdülhamid; 20 March 1725 – 7 April 1789) was the 27th sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1774 to 1789.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Abdul Hamid was born on 20 March 1725, in Constantinople. He was a younger son of Sultan Ahmed III (reigned 1703–1730) and his consort Şermi Kadın. Ahmed III abdicated his power in favour of his nephew Mahmud I, who was then succeeded by his brother Osman III, and Osman by Ahmed's elder son Mustafa III. As a potential heir to the throne, Abdul Hamid was imprisoned in comfort by his cousins and older brother, which was customary. His imprisonment lasted until 1767. During this period, he received his early education from his mother Rabia Şermi, who taught him history and calligraphy.", "title": "Early life" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "On the day of Mustafa's death on 21 January 1774, Abdul Hamid ascended to the throne with a ceremony held in the palace. The next day Mustafa III's funeral procession was held. The new sultan sent a letter to the Grand Vizier Serdar-ı Ekrem Muhsinzade Mehmed Pasha on the front and informed him to continue with the war against Russia. On 27 January 1774, he went to the Eyüp Sultan Mosque, where he was given the Sword of Osman.", "title": "Reign" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Abdul Hamid's long imprisonment had left him indifferent to state affairs and malleable to the designs of his advisors. Yet he was also very religious and a pacifist by nature. At his accession, the financial straits of the treasury were such that the usual donative could not be given to the Janissary Corps. The new Sultan told the Janissaries \"There are no longer gratuities in our treasury, as all of our soldier sons should learn.\"", "title": "Reign" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Abdul Hamid sought to reform the Empire's armed forces including the Janissary corps and the navy. He also established a new artillery corps and is credited with the creation of the Imperial Naval Engineering School.", "title": "Reign" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Abdul Hamid tried to strengthen Ottoman rule over Syria, Egypt and Iraq. However, small successes against rebellions in Syria and the Morea could not compensate for the loss of the Crimean Peninsula, which had become nominally independent in 1774 but was in practice actually controlled by Russia.", "title": "Reign" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Russia repeatedly exploited its position as protector of Eastern Christians to interfere in the Ottoman Empire. Ultimately, the Ottomans declared war against Russia in 1787. Austria soon joined Russia. Turkey initially held its own in the conflict, but on 6 December 1788, Ochakov fell to Russia (all of its inhabitants being massacred). Upon hearing this, Abdul Hamid I had a stroke, which resulted in his death.", "title": "Reign" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "In spite of his failures, Abdul Hamid was regarded as the most gracious Ottoman Sultan. He personally directed the fire brigade during the Constantinople fire of 1782. He was admired by the people for his religious devotion and was even called a Veli (\"saint\"). He also outlined a reform policy, supervised the government closely, and worked with statesmen.", "title": "Reign" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Abdul Hamid, I turned to internal affairs after the war with Russia ended. He tried to suppress internal revolts through Algerian Gazi Hasan Pasha, and to regulate the reform works through Silâhdar Seyyid Mehmed Pasha (Karavezir) and Halil Hamid Pasha.", "title": "Reign" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "In Syria, the rebellion led by Zahir al-Umar, who cooperated with the admirals of the Russian navy in the Mediterranean, benefiting from the confusion caused by the Russian expedition of 1768 Russian campaign, and suppressed the rebellion in Egypt in 1775, as well as the Kölemen who were in rebellion in Egypt, was brought to the road. On the other hand, the confusion in Peloponnese was ended, and calm was achieved. Kaptanıderyâ Gazi Hasan Pasha and Cezzâr Ahmed Pasha played an important role in suppressing all these events.", "title": "Reign" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Despite his pacific inclinations, the Ottoman Empire was forced to renew the ongoing war with Russia almost immediately. This led to complete Turkish defeat at Kozludzha and the humiliating Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, signed on 21 July 1774. The Ottomans ceded territory to Russia, and also the right to intervene on behalf of the Orthodox Christians in the Empire.", "title": "Reign" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "With the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, the territory left, as well as Russia's ambassador at the Istanbul level and an authorised representative, this ambassador's participation in other ceremonies at the state ceremonies, the right to pass through the Straits to Russia, as the envoys of the Russian envoy were given immunity. Marketing opportunities for all kinds of commodities in Istanbul and other ports, as well as the full commercial rights of England and France, were given. It was also in the treaty that the Russian state had a church built in Galata. Under the circumstances, this church would be open to the public, referred to as the Russo-Greek Church, and forever under the protection of Russian ambassadors in Istanbul.", "title": "Reign" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "In 1789, Tipu Sultan, ruler of the Sultanate of Mysore sent an embassy to Abdul Hamid, urgently requesting assistance against the British East India Company, and proposed an offensive and defensive alliance. Abdul Hamid informed the Mysore ambassadors that the Ottomans were still entangled and exhausted from the ongoing war with Russia and Austria.", "title": "Reign" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "Abdul Hamid, I left behind many architectural works, mostly in Istanbul. The most important of these is his mausoleum (I. Abdülhamid Türbesi) in Sirkeci erected 1776/77. He built a fountain, an imaret (soup kitchen), a madrasah, and a library next to this building. The books in the library are kept in the Süleymaniye Library today and the madrasah is used as a stock exchange building. During the construction of the Vakıf Inn, the imaret was, the fountain removed by construction and transferred to the corner of Zeynep Sultan Mosque opposite Gülhane Park.", "title": "Architecture" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "In addition to these works, in 1778 he built the Beylerbeyi Mosque, dedicated to Râbia Şermi Kadın, and built fountains in Çamlıca Kısıklı Square. He additionally built a mosque, a fountain, a bath, and shops around Emirgi in Emirgân in 1783, and another one for Hümâşah Sultan and his son Mehmed. In addition to these, there is a fountain next to Neslişah Mosque in Istinye, and another fountain on the embankment between Dolmabahçe and Kabataş.", "title": "Architecture" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "He wrote down the troubles he saw before, to the grand vizier or to the governor of his empire. He accepted the invitations of his grand vizier and went to his mansions, followed by the reading of the Quran. He was humble and a religious Sultan.", "title": "Character" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "It is known that Abdul Hamid I was fond of his children, was interested in family life, and spent the summer months in Karaağaç, Beşiktaş with his consorts, sons and daughters. His daughter Esma Sultan's dressing styles, her passion for entertainment, and her journey to the objects with her journeymen and concubines have set an example for Istanbul ladies.", "title": "Character" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "Abdülhamid I is famous for having concubines even during the period of confinement in the Kafes, thus violating the rules of the harem. From these relationships at least one daughter was conceived, secretly born and raised outside the Palace until the enthronement of Abdülhamid, when she was accepted at court as the sultan's \"adopted daughter\".", "title": "Family" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "Abdülhamid I had at least fourteen consorts:", "title": "Family" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "Abdülhamid I had at least eleven sons:", "title": "Family" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "Abdülhamid I had at least sixteen daughters:", "title": "Family" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "Abdul Hamid died on 7 April 1789, at the age of sixty-four, in Istanbul. He was buried in Bahcekapi, a tomb he had built for himself.", "title": "Death" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "He bred Arabian horses with great passion. One breed of Küheylan Arabians was named \"Küheylan Abdülhamid\" after him.", "title": "Death" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Abdur Rahman Khan GCSI (Pashto/Dari: عبدالرحمن خان) (between 1840 and 1844 – 1 October 1901) also known by his epithets, The Iron Amir, or The Dracula Amir, was Amir of Afghanistan from 1880 to his death in 1901. He is known for uniting the country after years of internal fighting and negotiation of the Durand Line Agreement with British India.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Abdur Rahman Khan was the first child and only son of Mohammad Afzal Khan, and grandson of Dost Mohammad Khan, founder of the Barakzai dynasty. Abdur Rahman Khan re-established the writ of the Afghan government after the disarray that followed the second Anglo-Afghan war. He became known as The Iron Amir because his government was a military despotism. This despotism rested upon a well-appointed army and was administered through officials subservient to an inflexible will and controlled by a widespread system of espionage.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The nickname, The Iron Amir, is also associated due to his victory over a number of rebellions by various tribes who were led by his relatives. One source says that during his reign there were over 40 rebellions throughout his rule. Abdur Rahman Khan's rule was termed by one British official as a \"reign of terror\", as he was considered despotic and had up to 100,000 people judicially executed during his 21 years as Emir. Thousands more starved to death, caught deadly diseases and died, were massacred by his army, or were killed during his forceful migrations of tribes. However, he was perhaps the greatest military genius Afghanistan ever produced.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Abdur Rahman Khan was a Pashtun, born in Kabul in 1844. He spent most of his youth in Balkh with his father, Mohammad Afzal Khan. Abdul Rahman learned conventional warfare tactics from the Anglo-Indian soldier William Campbell.", "title": "Early life" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Before his death in Herat, on 9 June 1863, Abdur Rahman's grandfather, Dost Mohammad Khan, nominated his third son, Sher Ali Khan, as his successor, passing over the two elder brothers, Afzal Khan and Azam Khan. At first, the new Amir was quietly recognized. But after a few months, Afzal Khan raised an insurrection in the north of the country, where he had been governing when his father died. This began a fierce internecine conflict for power between Dost Mohammad's sons, which lasted for nearly five years. The Musahiban are descendants of Dost Mohammad Khan's older brother, Sultan Mohammad Khan.", "title": "Background and early career" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Described by the American scholar and explorer Eugene Schuyler as \"a tall well-built man, with a large head, and a marked Afghan, almost Jewish, face\", Abdur Rahman distinguished himself for his ability and energetic daring. Although his father, Afzal Khan came to terms with Amir Sher Ali, Abdur's behavior in the northern province soon excited Amir's suspicion and, when he was summoned to Kabul, fled across the Oxus into Bukhara. Sher Ali threw Afzal Khan into prison, and a revolt followed in southern Afghanistan.", "title": "Background and early career" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "The Amir had scarcely suppressed it by winning a desperate battle when Abdur Rahman's reappearance in the north was a signal for a mutiny by troops stationed in those parts and a gathering of armed bands to his standard. After some delay and desultory fighting, he and his uncle, Azam Khan, occupied Kabul in March 1866. The Amir Sher Ali marched up against them from Kandahar; but in the battle that ensued at Sheikhabad on 10 May, he was deserted by a large body of his troops, and after his signal defeat Abdur Rahman released his father, Afzal Khan, from prison in Ghazni, and installed him upon the throne as Amir of Afghanistan. Notwithstanding the new Amir's incapacity, and some jealousy between the real leaders, Abdur Rahman and his uncle, they again routed Sher Ali's forces and occupied Kandahar in 1867. When Afzal Khan died at the end of the year, Azam Khan became the new ruler, with Abdur Rahman installed as governor in the northern province. But towards the end of 1868, Sher Ali's return and a general rising in his favor resulted in Abdur Rahman and Azam Khan's defeat at Tinah Khan on 3 January 1869. Both sought refuge to the east in Central Asia, where Abdur Rahman placed himself under Russian protection at Samarkand. Azam died in Kabul in October 1869.", "title": "Background and early career" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Abdur Rahman lived in exile in Tashkent. He was one of the most powerful opponents of the British. He was being told to cross the Oxus and claim throne for Amir. In March 1880, a report reached India that Abdur Rahman was in northern Afghanistan; and the Governor-General, Lord Lytton, opened communications with him to the effect that the British government were prepared to withdraw their troops, and to recognize Abdur Rahman as Amir of Afghanistan, except Kandahar and some districts adjacent to it. After some negotiations, and an interview with Lepel Griffin, the diplomatic representative at Kabul of the Indian government. Griffin described Abdur Rahman as a man of middle height, with an exceedingly intelligent face and frank and courteous manners, shrewd and able in conversation on the business in hand.", "title": "Exile and negotiated return to power" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "At the durbar on 22 July 1880, Abdur Rahman was officially recognized as Amir, granted assistance in arms and money, and promised, in case of unprovoked foreign aggression, such further aid as might be necessary to repel it, provided that he align his foreign policy with the British. The British evacuation of Afghanistan was settled on the terms proposed, and in 1881, the British troops also handed over Kandahar to the new Amir.", "title": "Reign" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "However, Ayub Khan, one of Sher Ali Khan's sons, marched upon that city from Herat, defeated Abdur Rahman's troops, and occupied the place in July 1880. This serious reverse roused the Amir, who had not displayed much activity. Instead, Ayub Khan was defeated in Kandahar by the British General Frederick Roberts on 1 September 1880. Ayub Khan was forced to flee into Persia. From that time Abdur Rahman was fairly seated firm on the throne at Kabul, thanks to the unwavering British protections in terms of giving large supplies of arms and money. In the course of the next few years, Abdul Rahman consolidated his grip over all Afghanistan, suppressing insurrection by a relentless and brutal use of his despotic authority. The powerful Ghilzai revolted against the severity of his measures several times. In that same year, Ayub Khan made a fruitless inroad from Persia.", "title": "Reign" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "In 1885, at the moment when the Amir was in conference with the British viceroy, Lord Dufferin, in India, the news came of a skirmish between Russian and Afghan troops at Panjdeh, over a disputed point in the demarcation of the northwestern frontier of Afghanistan. Abdur Rahman's attitude at this critical juncture is a good example of his political sagacity. To one who had been a man of war from his youth, who had won and lost many fights, the rout of a detachment and the forcible seizure of some debatable frontier lands was an untoward incident; but it was not a sufficient reason for calling upon the British, although they had guaranteed his territory's integrity, to vindicate his rights by hostilities which would certainly bring upon him a Russian invasion from the north, and would compel his British allies to throw an army into Afghanistan from the southeast. He also published his autobiography in 1885, which served more as an advice guide for princes than anything else.", "title": "Reign" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "His interest lay in keeping powerful neighbours, whether friends or foes, outside his kingdom. He knew this to be the only policy that would be supported by the Afghan nation; and although for some time a rupture with Russia seemed imminent, while the Government of India made ready for that contingency, the Amir's reserved and circumspect tone in the consultations with him helped to turn the balance between peace and war, and substantially conduced towards a pacific solution. Abdur Rahman left on those who met him in India the impression of a clear-headed man of action, with great self-reliance and hardihood, not without indications of the implacable severity that too often marked his administration. His investment with the insignia of the highest grade of the Order of the Star of India appeared to give him much pleasure.", "title": "Reign" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "His adventurous life, his forcible character, the position of his state as a barrier between the Indian and the Russian empires, and the skill with which he held the balance in dealing with them, combined to make him a prominent figure in contemporary Asian politics and will mark his reign as an epoch in the history of Afghanistan. The Amir received an annual subsidy from the British government of 1,850,000 rupees. He was allowed to import munitions of war. He succeeded in imposing an organized government upon the fiercest and most unruly population in Asia; he availed himself of European inventions for strengthening his armament, while he sternly set his face against all innovations which, like railways and telegraphs, might give Europeans a foothold within his country.", "title": "Reign" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "He also built himself several summer and guest houses, including the Bagh-e Bala Palace and Chihil Sutun Palace in Kabul, and the Jahan Nama Palace in Kholm.", "title": "Reign" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "The Amir found himself unable, by reason of ill-health, to accept an invitation from Queen Victoria to visit England; but his second son Nasrullah Khan, the crown prince, went instead.", "title": "Reign" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "In 1893, Mortimer Durand was deputed to Kabul by the government of British India for this purpose of settling an exchange of territory required by the demarcation of the boundary between northeastern Afghanistan and the Russian possessions, and in order to discuss with Amir Abdur Rahman Khan other pending questions. Abdur Rahman Khan showed his usual ability in diplomatic argument, his tenacity where his own views or claims were in debate, with a sure underlying insight into the real situation.", "title": "Durand Line" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "In the agreement that followed relations between the British Indian and Afghan governments, as previously arranged, were confirmed; and an understanding was reached upon the important and difficult subject of the border line of Afghanistan on the east, towards India. A Royal Commission was set up to determine the boundary between Afghanistan and British-governed India, and was tasked to negotiate terms for agreeing to the Durand Line, between the two parties camped at Parachinar, now part of FATA Pakistan, which is near Khost, Afghanistan. From the British side the camp was attended by Mortimer Durand and Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum, British Political Agent in Khyber. Afghanistan was represented by Sahibzada Abdul Latif and the Governor Sardar Shireendil Khan representing Amir Abdur Rahman Khan.", "title": "Durand Line" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "In 1893, Mortimer Durand negotiated with Abdur Rahman Khan the Durand Line Treaty for the demarcation of the frontier between Afghanistan, the FATA, North-West Frontier Province and Baluchistan, now provinces of Pakistan as a successor state of British India. In 1905, Amir Habibullah Khan signed a new agreement with the United Kingdom which confirmed the legality of the Durand Line. Similarly, the legality of the Durand Line was once again confirmed by King Amanullah Khan through the Treaty of Rawalpindi in 1919.", "title": "Durand Line" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "The Durand Line was once again recognised as international border between Pakistan and Afghanistan by Sardar Mohammed Daoud Khan (former prime minister and later president of Afghanistan) during his visit to Pakistan in August 1976.", "title": "Durand Line" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "Abdur Rahman Khan's government was a military despotism resting upon a well-appointed army; it was administered through officials absolutely subservient to an inflexible will and controlled by a widespread system of espionage; while the exercise of his personal authority was too often stained by acts of unnecessary cruelty. He held open courts for the receipt of petitioners and the dispensation of justice; and in the disposal of business he was indefatigable.", "title": "Dictatorship and the \"Iron Amir\"" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "In the 1880s, the \"Iron Emir\" decided to strategically displace some members of different ethnic groups in order to bring better security. For example, he \"uprooted troublesome Durrani and Ghilzai Pashtun tribes and transported them to Uzbek and Tajik populated areas in the north, where they could spy on local Dari-speaking, non-Pashtun ethnic groups and act as a screen against further Russian encroachments on Afghan territory.\" From the end of 1888, the Amir spent eighteen months in his northern provinces bordering upon the Oxus, where he was engaged in pacifying the country that had been disturbed by revolts, and in punishing with a heavy hand all who were known or suspected to have taken any part in rebellion.", "title": "Dictatorship and the \"Iron Amir\"" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "In 1895–1896, Abdur Rahman directed the invasion of Kafiristan and the conversion of its indigenous peoples to Islam. The region was subsequently renamed Nuristan. In 1896, he adopted the title of Zia-ul-Millat-Wa-ud Din (\"Light of the nation and religion\"), and his zeal for the cause of Islam induced him to publish treatises on jihad.", "title": "Dictatorship and the \"Iron Amir\"" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "Chitral, Yarkand and Ferghana became shelters for refugees in 1887 and 1883 from Badakhshan who fled from the campaigns of Abdul Rahman.", "title": "Dictatorship and the \"Iron Amir\"" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "In the early 1890s Hazaras revolted against Abdur Rahman. As the Kabul Newsletters written by the British agents indicate, Abdur Rahman was an extremely ruthless man. He has been called 'The Dracula Amir' by some writers. Due to Abdur Rahman's depredations, over 50–60 percent of the total Hazara population was massacred and numerous towers of Hazara heads were made from the defeated rebels. Upon each victory Abdur Rahman claimed, it unleashed a reign of terror. This resulted in Hazara women being forcibly married to Pashtuns, as well as Hazara territories, specifically in largely ethnic Hazara areas such as Urzugan, Ghazni, Maiden Shah, and Zawar being depopulated of Hazara populations. The territories of prominent Hazara chiefs in these areas were given to Mohammadzai sardars, or other closely related government loyalists. Alongside this, the Jizya tax was also enforced on Shias, which was only meant to be for non-Muslims. It caused some Hazaras to migrate to Quetta in Balochistan, and to Mashhad in northeastern Iran. In the Bamyan region, Abdur Rahman ordered soldiers to destroy the faces of the Buddhas of Bamiyan during a military campaign against a Hazara rebellion in the area.", "title": "Dictatorship and the \"Iron Amir\"" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "Abdur Rahman died on 1 October 1901, inside his summer palace, being succeeded by his son Habibullah Khan who is the father of Amanullah Khan.", "title": "Death and descendants" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "Today, his descendants can be found in many places outside Afghanistan, such as in America, France, Germany, and even in Scandinavian countries such as Denmark. His two eldest sons, Habibullah Khan and Nasrullah Khan, were born at Samarkand. His youngest son, Mahomed Omar Jan, was born in 1889 of an Afghan mother, connected by descent with the Barakzai family. One of the Amir’s grandchildren, Azizullah Khan Ziai was the ambassador of Iran from 1930-1932, he was the son of Nasrullah Khan.", "title": "Death and descendants" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "One of the Amir’s most notable descendants is Prince Ali Seraj.", "title": "Death and descendants" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "Afghan society has mixed feelings about his rule. A majority of Pashtuns (his native ethnics) remember him as a ruler who initiated many programs for modernization, and effectively prevented the country from being occupied by Russia by using the \"financial and advisory\" support of British Empire during the Great Game. The Emir was effectively dependent on British arms and money to stay in power.", "title": "Legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "To some historians he is called a tyrant, to other people he is a hero. But what did Abdul Rahman give us? He united Afghanistan under one king and one flag.", "title": "Legacy" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The Abencerrages or Abencerrajes (from the Arabic for \"Saddler's Son\") were a family or faction that is said to have held a prominent position in the Kingdom of Granada in the 15th century.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The name appears to have been derived from Yussuf ben-Serragh, the head of the tribe in the time of Muhammed VII, Sultan of Granada (1370–1408), who did that sovereign good service in his struggles to retain the crown of which he was three times deprived.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Little is known of the family with certainty. The Chambers Biographical Dictionary records that they arrived in Spain in the 8th century but the name is familiar from the romance by Ginés Pérez de Hita, Guerras civiles de Granada, which celebrates the feuds of the Abencerrages and the rival family of the Benedin (Arabic banu Edin), and the cruel treatment to which the former were subjected. J. P. de Florian's Gonsalve de Cordoue and Chateaubriand's Le dernier des Abencerrages are adaptations of Pérez de Hita's story.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The story is told that one of the Abencerrages, having fallen in love with a lady of the royal family, was caught in the act of climbing up to her window. The assassinations were ordered by Ibrahim Benedin, who had a feud with the family. He was enraged and shut up the whole family in one of the halls of the Alhambra, and gave orders to kill them all. The apartment where this is said to have taken place is one of the most beautiful courts of the Alhambra, and is still called the Hall of the Abencerrages.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Washington Irving in Tales of the Alhambra (1832) disagrees, saying the massacre was a fiction, but that a number of Abencerrages were killed in one of the battles at the time. Nonetheless, many poems and plays, the novella The Abencerraje and two operas (Les Abencérages, by Luigi Cherubini, and L'esule di Granata, by Giacomo Meyerbeer) mention the legend.", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Aberavon (Welsh: Aberafan) is a constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom since 2015 by Stephen Kinnock of the Welsh Labour Party. It includes the town of Aberavon, although the largest town in the constituency is Port Talbot.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The constituency is set to be abolished, as part of the 2023 Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies and under the June 2023 final recommendations of the Boundary Commission for Wales for the next United Kingdom general election. Its wards is to be split between Aberafan Maesteg and Neath and Swansea East.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The constituency was created for the 1918 general election by the dividing of the Swansea District. With the exception of the first term, it has always been held by the Labour Party. Ramsay MacDonald, who became Labour's first Prime Minister in 1924, held the seat from 1922 to 1929. Its current MP, Stephen Kinnock, is the son of Neil Kinnock, who was Labour leader and Leader of the Opposition from 1983 to 1992.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "It is one of the most consistently safe seats for Labour; since the end of the Second World War, the Labour candidate has always won Aberavon with a majority at least 33%, and with the exception of 2015, the Labour candidate has also always won an overall majority of the vote in the seat. In 2015, Kinnock only won 48.9% of the vote in Aberavon, against a surge in the vote for the UKIP candidate; however, in 2017, Kinnock's vote share rose by 19.2 percentage points, the biggest increase in the Labour vote in the seat's history, and his majority increased to 50.4%, the highest for an Aberavon MP since 2001. The 2017 result also made Aberavon the safest Labour seat in Wales, however the seat saw a significant swing against Labour in 2019.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "1918–1950: The Borough of Aberavon, the Urban Districts of Briton Ferry, Glencorwg, Margam, and Porthcawl, and part of the Rural Districts of Neath and Penybont.", "title": "Boundaries" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "1950–1983: The Borough of Port Talbot, the Urban Districts of Glyncorrwg and Porthcawl, and part of the Rural District of Penybont.", "title": "Boundaries" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "1983–1997: The Borough of Afan, and the Borough of Neath wards nos. 3 and 6.", "title": "Boundaries" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "1997–2010: The Borough of Port Talbot, and the Borough of Neath wards of Briton Ferry East, Briton Ferry West, Coedffranc Central, Coedffranc North and Coedffranc West.", "title": "Boundaries" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "2010–present: The Neath Port Talbot County Borough electoral divisions of Aberavon, Baglan, Briton Ferry East, Briton Ferry West, Bryn and Cwmavon, Coedffranc Central, Coedffranc North, Coedffranc West, Cymmer, Glyncorrwg, Gwynfi, Margam, Port Talbot, Sandfields East, Sandfields West, and Tai-bach.", "title": "Boundaries" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "The constituency is in South Wales, situated on the right bank of the River Afan, near its mouth in Swansea Bay.", "title": "Boundaries" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Commenting on the 1983 boundary changes to the constituency when moving the 2000 Loyal Address of the Blair Government in Parliament, the seat's then-MP Sir John Morris, who would retire at the next general election, said:", "title": "Boundaries" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "\"It is a happy tradition on this occasion to refer to one's constituency and to the people who sent one here....Whatever may occur in future, I would deplore the loss of the Member-constituency link. When, after 23 years, I lost part of my constituency, I missed the friendship of two generations. My constituents and I had grown up and grown older together.\"", "title": "Boundaries" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Of the 44 rejected ballots:", "title": "Elections" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "Of the 57 rejected ballots:", "title": "Elections" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "Of the 57 rejected ballots:", "title": "Elections" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "Of the 82 rejected ballots:", "title": "Elections" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "51°36′00″N 3°48′43″W / 51.600°N 3.812°W / 51.600; -3.812", "title": "External links" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Abercarn is a town and community in Caerphilly county borough, Wales. It is 10 miles (16 km) northwest of Newport on the A467 between Cwmcarn and Newbridge, within the historic boundaries of Monmouthshire. Jack Bennett sold his soul to the devil and abandoned his own hometown to play for the Abercarn local rugby team who play in Division 11C alongside Holyhead 4ths.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "An estate at Abercarn was owned by the ironmaster Richard Crawshay; in 1808, it passed to his son-in-law, the industrialist and politician Benjamin Hall.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The district was traditionally associated with the coal mining collieries, ironworks and tinplate works of the South Wales coalfield and South Wales Valleys, although all have now closed; the town, which lies in the middle portion of the Ebbw valley, being situated on the south-eastern flank of the once great mining region of Glamorgan and Monmouthshire.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "On 11 September 1878, an underground explosion at the Prince of Wales Colliery killed 268 coal miners.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The area was part of the ancient Monmouthshire parish of Mynyddislwyn until the late 19th century. In 1892 a local board of health and local government district of Abercarn was formed. This became Abercarn urban district in 1894, governed by an urban district council of twelve members. Under the Local Government Act 1972 the urban district was abolished in 1974, becoming part of the borough of Islwyn, Gwent. Further local government organisation in 1996 placed the area in the county borough of Caerphilly. The former urban district corresponds to the three communities of Abercarn, Crumlin and Newbridge.", "title": "Local government" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Abercarn is home to Abercarn Rugby Club which is a member of the Welsh Rugby Union, and to Abercarn United Football Club which plays in division one of the Gwent County League.", "title": "Sport" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "The town is served by Stagecoach South Wales services including:", "title": "Transport" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "The town is lies between Newbridge railway station and Crosskeys railway station, with the latter is slightly the closer of the two. Both are approximately a four-minute drive or thirty minute walk away. The town was formerly served by Abercarn railway station, which closed to passengers in April 1962.", "title": "Transport" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Following the formation of the Territorial Force in 1908, the Abercarn Territorial Cadet Company was formed within the wider Army Cadet Force. Following its formation the company was assigned to the 2nd Battalion, Monmouthshire Regiment. In 1912 the company was affiliated with the new formed 1st Cadet Battalion, The Monmouthshire Regiment.", "title": "Military" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "The surgeon Sir Clement Price Thomas (1893–1973) was born in Abercarn. He was famous for his 1951 operation on King George VI.", "title": "Notable people" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Aberdare (/ˌæbərˈdɛər/ ab-ər-DAIR; Welsh: Aberdâr) is a town in the Cynon Valley area of Rhondda Cynon Taf, Wales, at the confluence of the Rivers Dare (Dâr) and Cynon. Aberdare has a population of 39,550 (mid-2017 estimate). Aberdare is 4 miles (6 km) south-west of Merthyr Tydfil, 20 miles (32 km) north-west of Cardiff and 22 miles (35 km) east-north-east of Swansea. During the 19th century it became a thriving industrial settlement, which was also notable for the vitality of its cultural life and as an important publishing centre.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The name Aberdare means \"mouth/confluence of the river Dare\", as the town is located where the Dare river (Welsh: Afon Dâr) meets the Cynon (Welsh: Afon Cynon). While the town's Welsh spelling uses formal conventions, the English spelling of the name reflects the town's pronunciation in the local Gwenhwyseg dialect of South East Wales.", "title": "Etymology" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Dâr is an archaic Welsh word for oaks (derwen is the singulative), and the valley was noted for its large and fine oaks as late as the 19th century. In ancient times, the river may have been associated with Daron, an ancient Celtic goddess of oak. As such, the town would share an etymology with Aberdaron and the Daron river. As with many Welsh toponyms, it is likely that the locality was known by this name long before the development of the town.", "title": "Etymology" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "There are several cairns and the remains of a circular British encampment on the mountain between Aberdare and Merthyr. This may have led to the mountain itself being named Bryn-y-Beddau (hill of graves) although other local traditions associate the name with the Battle of Hirwaun Wrgant.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Aberdare lies within the commote (cwmwd) of Meisgyn, in the cantref of Penychen. The area is traditionally given as the scene of the battle of Hirwaun Wrgant, where the allied forces of the Norman Robert Fitzhamon and Iestyn ap Gwrgant, the last Welsh prince of Glamorgan, defeated Rhys ap Tewdwr, prince of Dyfed. The battle is thought to have started at Aberdare, with the areas now known as Upper and Lower Gadlys (The battle Court(s)), traditionally given as each armies' headquarters.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The settlement of Aberdare dates from at least this period, with the first known reference being in a monastic chapter of 1203 concerning grazing right on Hirwaun Common. It was originally a small village in an agricultural district, centred around the Church of St John the Baptist, said to date from at least 1189. By the middle of the 15th century, Aberdare contained a water mill in addition to a number of thatched cottages, of which no evidence remains.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Aberdare grew rapidly in the early 19th century through two major industries: first iron, then coal. A branch of the Glamorganshire Canal (1811) was opened to transport these products; then the railway became the main means of transport to the South Wales coast. From the 1870s onwards, the economy of the town was dominated by the coal mining industry, with only a small tinplate works. There were also several brickworks and breweries. During the latter half of the 19th century, considerable improvements were made to the town, which became a pleasant place to live, despite the nearby collieries. A postgraduate theological college opened in connection with the Church of England in 1892, but in 1907 it moved to Llandaff.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "With the ecclesiastical parishes of St Fagan's (Trecynon) and Aberaman carved out of the ancient parish, Aberdare had 12 Anglican churches and one Catholic church, built in 1866 in Monk Street near the site of a cell attached to Penrhys monastery; and at one time there were over 50 Nonconformist chapels (including those in surrounding settlements such as Cwmaman and Llwydcoed). The services in the majority of the chapels were in Welsh. Most of these chapels have now closed, with many converted to other uses. The former urban district included what were once the separate villages of Aberaman, Abernant, Cwmaman, Cwmbach, Cwmdare, Llwydcoed, Penywaun and Trecynon.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "In 1801, the population of the parish of Aberdare was just 1,486, but the early 19th century saw rapid industrial growth, first through the ironworks, and later through the iron and steam coal industries. By the 1840s the parish population was increasing by 1,000 people every year, almost exclusively migrant workers from west Wales, which was suffering from an agricultural depression. This growth was increasingly concentrated in the previously agricultural areas of Blaengwawr and Cefnpennar to the south of the town. The population of the Aberdare District (centred on the town) was 9,322 in 1841, 18,774 in 1851, and 37,487 in 1861.", "title": "Population growth" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Despite a small decline in the 1870s, population levels continued to increase, with the first decade of the 20th century seeing a notably sharp increase, largely as a result of the steam coal trade, reaching 53,779 in 1911. The population has since declined owing to the loss of most of the heavy industry.", "title": "Population growth" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "The Aberdare population at the 2001 census was 31,705 (ranked 13th largest in Wales). By 2011 it was 29,748, though the figure includes the surrounding populations of Aberaman, Abercwmboi, Cwmbach and Llwydcoed.", "title": "Population growth" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "Welsh was the prominent language until the mid 20th century and Aberdare was an important centre of Welsh language publishing. A large proportion of the early migrant population were Welsh speaking, and in 1851 only ten per cent of the population had been born outside of Wales.", "title": "Language" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "In his controversial evidence to the 1847 Inquiry into the State of Education in Wales (the report of which is known in Wales as the Brad y Llyfrau Gleision, Treason of the Blue Books), the Anglican vicar of Aberdare, John Griffith, stated that the English language was \"generally understood\" and referred to the arrival of people from anglicised areas such as Radnorshire and south Pembrokeshire. Griffith also made allegations about the Welsh-speaking population and what he considered to be the degraded character of the women of Aberdare, alleging sexual promiscuity was an accepted social convention, that drunkenness and improvidence amongst the miners was common and attacking what he saw as exaggerated emotion in the religious practices of the Nonconformists.", "title": "Language" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "This evidence helped inform the findings of the report which would go on to stigmatise Welsh people as \"ignorant\", \"lazy\" and \"immoral\" and found the reason for this was the continued use of the Welsh language, which it described as \"evil\". The controversial reports allowed the local nonconformist minister Thomas Price of Calfaria to arrange public meetings, from which he would emerge as a leading critic of the vicar's evidence and, by implication, a defender of both the Welsh language and the morality of the local population, It is still contended that Griffiths was made vicar of Merthyr in the neighbouring valley to escape local anger, even though it was over ten years before he left Aberdare. The reports and subsequent defence would maintain the perceptions of Aberdare, the Cynon Valley and even the wider area as proudly nonconformist and defiantly Welsh speaking throughout its industrialised history.", "title": "Language" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "By 1901, the census recorded that 71.5% of the population of Aberdare Urban District spoke Welsh, but this fell to 65.2% in 1911. The 1911 data shows that Welsh was more widely spoken among the older generation compared to the young, and amongst women compared to men. A shift in language was expedited with the loss of men during the First World War and the resulting economic turmoil. English gradually began to replace Welsh as the community language, as shown by the decline of the Welsh language press in the town. This pattern continued after the Second World War despite the advent of Welsh medium education. Ysgol Gymraeg Aberdâr, the Welsh-medium primary school, was established in the 1950s with Idwal Rees as head teacher.", "title": "Language" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "According to the 2011 Census, 11.6% of Aberdare residents aged three years and over could speak Welsh, with 24.8% of 3- to 15-year-olds stating that they could speak it.", "title": "Language" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "Ironworks were established at Llwydcoed and Abernant in 1799 and 1800 respectively, followed by others at Gadlys and Aberaman in 1827 and 1847. The iron industry began to expand in a significant way around 1818 when the Crawshay family of Merthyr purchased the Hirwaun ironworks and placed them under independent management. In the following year, Rowland Fothergill took over the ironworks at Abernant and a few years later did the same at Llwydcoed. Both concerns later fell into the hands of his nephew Richard Fothergill. The Gadlys Ironworks was established in 1827 by Matthew Wayne, who had previously managed the Cyfarthfa ironworks at Merthyr. The Gadlys works, now considered an important archaeological site, originally comprised four blast furnaces, inner forges, rowing mills and puddling furnaces. The development of these works provided impetus to the growth of Aberdare as a nucleated town. The iron industry was gradually superseded by coal and all the five iron works had closed by 1875, as the local supply of iron ore was inadequate to meet the ever-increasing demand created by the invention of steel, and as a result the importing of ore proved more profitable.", "title": "Industry" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "The iron industry had a relatively small impact upon the economy of Aberdare and in 1831 only 1.2% of the population was employed in manufacturing, as opposed to 19.8% in neighbouring Merthyr Tydfil. In the early years of Aberdare's development, most of the coal worked in the parish was coking coal, and was consumed locally, chiefly in the ironworks. Although the Gadlys works was small in comparison with the other ironworks it became significant as the Waynes also became involved in the production of sale coal. In 1836, this activity led to the exploitation of the \"Four-foot Seam\" of high-calorific value steam coal began, and pits were sunk in rapid succession.", "title": "Industry" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "In 1840, Thomas Powell sank a pit at Cwmbach, and during the next few years he opened another four pits. In the next few years, other local entrepreneurs now became involved in the expansion of the coal trade, including David Williams at Ynysgynon and David Davis at Blaengwawr, as well as the latter's son David Davis, Maesyffynnon. They were joined by newcomers such as Crawshay Bailey at Aberaman and, in due course, George Elliot in the lower part of the valley. This coal was valuable for steam railways and steam ships, and an export trade began, via the Taff Vale Railway and the port of Cardiff. The population of the parish rose from 6,471 in 1841 to 14,999 in 1851 and 32,299 in 1861 and John Davies described it as \"the most dynamic place in Wales\". In 1851, the Admiralty decided to use Welsh steam coal in ships of the Royal Navy, and this decision boosted the reputation of Aberdare's product and launched a huge international export market. Coal mined in Aberdare parish rose from 177,000 long tons (180,000 t) in 1844 to 477,000 long tons (485,000 t) in 1850, and the coal trade, which after 1875 was the chief support of the town, soon reached huge dimensions.", "title": "Industry" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "The growth of the coal trade inevitably led to a number of industrial disputes, some of which were local and others which affected the wider coalfield. Trade unionism began to appear in the Aberdare Valley at intervals from the 1830s onwards but the first significant manifestation occurred during the Aberdare Strike of 1857–8. The dispute was initiated by the depression in trade which followed the Crimean War and saw the local coal owners successfully impose a reduction in wages. The dispute did, however, witness an early manifestation of mass trade unionism amongst the miners of the valley and although unsuccessful the dispute saw the emergence of a stronger sense of solidarity amongst the miners.", "title": "Industry" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "Steam coal was subsequently found in the Rhondda and further west, but many of the great companies of the Welsh coal industry's Gilded Age started operation in Aberdare and the lower Cynon Valley, including those of Samuel Thomas, David Davies and Sons, Nixon's Navigation and Powell Duffryn.", "title": "Industry" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "During the early years of the twentieth century, the Aberdare valley became the focus of increased militancy among the mining workforce and an unofficial strike by 11,000 miners in the district from 20 October 1910 unyil 2 February 1911 attracted much attention at the time, although it was ultimately overshadowed by the Cambrian dispute in the neighbouring Rhondda valley which became synonymous with the so-called Tonypandy Riots.", "title": "Industry" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "In common with the rest of the South Wales coalfield, Aberdare's coal industry commenced a long decline after World War I, and the last two deep mines still in operation in the 1960s were the small Aberaman and Fforchaman collieries, which closed in 1962 and 1965 respectively.", "title": "Industry" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "On 11 May 1919, an extensive fire broke out on Cardiff Street, Aberdare.", "title": "Industry" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "With the decline of both iron and coal, Aberdare has become reliant on commercial businesses as a major source of employment. Its industries include cable manufacture, smokeless fuels, and tourism.", "title": "Industry" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "As a small village in the upland valleys of Glamorgan, Aberdare did not play any significant part in political life until its development as an industrial settlement. It was part of the lordship of Miskin, and the ancient office of High Constable continued in ceremonial form until relatively recent times.", "title": "Government" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "In 1832, Aberdare was removed from the Glamorgan county constituency and became part of the parliamentary borough (constituency) of Merthyr Tydfil. For much of the nineteenth century, the representation was initially controlled by the ironmasters of Merthyr, notably the Guest family. From 1852 until 1868 the seat was held by Henry Austen Bruce whose main industrial interests lay in the Aberdare valley. Bruce was a Liberal but was viewed with suspicion by the more radical faction which became increasingly influential within Welsh Liberalism in the 1860s. The radicals supported such policies as the disestablishment of the Church of England and were closely allied to the Liberation Society.", "title": "Government" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "Nonconformist ministers played a prominent role in this new politics and, at Aberdare, they found an effective spokesman in the Rev Thomas Price minister of Calfaria, Aberdare. Following the granting of a second parliamentary seat to the borough of Merthyr Tydfil in 1867, the Liberals of Aberdare sought to ensure that a candidate from their part of the constituency was returned alongside the sitting member, Henry Austen Bruce. Their choice fell upon Richard Fothergill, owner of the ironworks at Abernant, who was enthusiastically supported by the Rev Thomas Price. Shortly before the election, however, Henry Richard intervened as a radical Liberal candidate, invited by the radicals of Merthyr. To many people's surprise, Price was lukewarm about his candidature and continued to support Fothergill. Ultimately, Henry Richard won a celebrated victory with Fothergill in second place and Bruce losing his seat. Richard thus became one of the-first radical MPs from Wales.", "title": "Government" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "At the 1874 General Election, both Richard and Fothergill were again returned, although the former was criticised for his apparent lack of sympathy towards the miners during the industrial disputes of the early 1870s. This led to the emergence of Thomas Halliday as the first labour or working-class candidate to contest a Welsh constituency. Although he polled well, Halliday fell short of being elected. For the remainder of the nineteenth century, the constituency was represented by industrialists, most notably David Alfred Thomas. In 1900, however, Thomas was joined by Keir Hardie, the ILP candidate, who became the first labour representative to be returned for a Welsh constituency independent of the Liberal Party.", "title": "Government" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "The Aberdare constituency came into being at the 1918 election. The first representative was Charles Butt Stanton, who had been elected at a by-election following Hardie's death in 1915. However, in 1922, Stanton was defeated by a Labour candidate, and Labour has held the seat ever since. The only significant challenge came from Plaid Cymru at the 1970 and February 1974 General Elections, but these performances have not since been repeated. From 1984 until 2019 the parliamentary seat, now known as Cynon Valley, was held by Ann Clwyd of Labour.", "title": "Government" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "Aberdare was an ancient parish within Glamorgan. Until the mid-19th century the local government of Aberdare and its locality remained in the hands of traditional structures such as the parish vestry and the High Constable, who was chosen annually. However, with the rapid industrial development of the parish, these traditional bodies could not cope with the realities of an urbanised, industrial community which had developed without any planning or facilities. During the early decades of the 19th century the ironmasters gradually imposed their influence over local affairs, and this remained the case following the formation of the Merthyr Board of Guardians in 1836. During the 1850s and early 1860s, however, as coal displaced iron as the main industry in the valley, the ironmasters were displaced as the dominant group in local government and administration by an alliance between mostly indigenous coal owners, shopkeepers and tradesmen, professional men and dissenting ministers. A central figure in this development was the Rev Thomas Price. The growth of this alliance was rooted in the reaction to the 1847 Education Reports and the subsequent efforts to establish a British School at Aberdare.", "title": "Government" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "In the 1840s there were no adequate sanitary facilities or water supply, and mortality rates were high. Outbreaks of cholera and typhus were commonplace. Against this background, Thomas Webster Rammell prepared a report for the General Board of Health on the sanitary condition of the parish, which recommended that a local board of health be established. The whole parish of Aberdare was formally declared a local board district on 31 July 1854, to be governed by the Aberdare Local Board of Health. Its first chairman was Richard Fothergill and the members included David Davis, Blaengwawr, David Williams (Alaw Goch), Rees Hopkin Rhys and the Rev. Thomas Price. It was followed by the Aberdare School Board in 1871.", "title": "Government" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "By 1889, the Local Board of Health had initiated a number of developments: these included the purchase of local reservoirs from the Aberdare Waterworks Company for £97,000, a sewerage scheme costing £35,000, as well as the opening of Aberdare Public Park and a local fever hospital. The lack of a Free Library, however, remained a concern.", "title": "Government" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "Later, the formation of the Glamorgan County Council (upon which Aberdare had five elected members) in 1889, followed by the Aberdare Urban District Council, which replaced the Local Board in 1894, transformed the local politics of the Aberdare valley.", "title": "Government" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "At the 1889 Glamorgan County Council Elections most of the elected representatives were coalowners and industrialists, and the only exception in the earlier period was the miners' agent David Morgan (Dai o'r Nant), elected in 1892 as a labour representative. From the early 1900s, however, Labour candidates began to gain ground and dominated local government from the 1920s onwards. The same pattern was seen on the Aberdare UDC.", "title": "Government" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "Aberdare Urban District was abolished in 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972. The area became part of the borough of Cynon Valley within the new county of Mid Glamorgan. The area of the former urban district was made a community, later being subdivided in 1982 into five communities: Aberaman, Cwmbach, Llwydcoed, Penywaun, and a smaller Aberdare community. The Aberdare community was further divided in 2017 into two communities called Aberdare East and Aberdare West. Aberdare East includes Aberdare town centre and the village of Abernant. Aberdare West includes Cwmdare, Cwm Sian and Trecynon. No community council exists for either of the Aberdare communities.", "title": "Government" }, { "paragraph_id": 36, "text": "Cynon Valley Borough Council and Mid Glamorgan County Council were both abolished in 1996, since when Aberdare has been governed by Rhondda Cynon Taf County Borough Council. The town lies mainly in the Aberdare East ward, represented by two county councillors. Nearby Cwmdare, Llwydcoed and Trecynon are represented by the Aberdare West/Llwydcoed ward. Both wards have been represented by the Labour Party since 2012.", "title": "Government" }, { "paragraph_id": 37, "text": "Aberdare, during its boom years, was considered a centre of Welsh culture: it hosted the first National Eisteddfod in 1861, with which David Williams (Alaw Goch) was closely associated. The town erected a monument in the local park to commemorate the occasion. A number of local eisteddfodau had long been held in the locality, associated with figures such as William Williams (Carw Coch) The Eisteddfod was again held in Aberdare in 1885, and also in 1956 at Aberdare Park, where the Gorsedd standing stones still exist. At the last National Eisteddfod held in Aberdare in 1956 Mathonwy Hughes won the chair. From the mid 19th century, Aberdare was an important publishing centre where a large number of books and journals were produced, the majority of which were in the Welsh language. A newspaper entitled Y Gwladgarwr (the Patriot) was published at Aberdare from 1856 until 1882 and was circulated widely throughout the South Wales valleys. From 1875 a more successful newspaper, Tarian y Gweithiwr (the Workman's Shield) was published at Aberdare by John Mills. Y Darian, as it was known, strongly supported the trade union movements among the miners and ironworkers of the valleys. The miners' leader, William Abraham, derived support from the newspaper, which was also aligned with radical nonconformist liberalism. The rise of the political labour movement and the subsequent decline of the Welsh language in the valleys, ultimately led to its decline and closure in 1934.", "title": "Culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 38, "text": "The Coliseum Theatre is Aberdare's main arts venue, containing a 600-seat auditorium and cinema. It is situated in nearby Trecynon and was built in 1938 using miners' subscriptions.", "title": "Culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 39, "text": "The Second World War poet Alun Lewis was born near Aberdare in the village of Cwmaman; there is a plaque commemorating him, including a quotation from his poem The Mountain over Aberdare.", "title": "Culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 40, "text": "The founding members of the rock band Stereophonics originated from Cwmaman. It is also the hometown of guitarist Mark Parry of Vancouver rock band The Manvils. Famed anarchist-punk band Crass played their last live show for striking miners in Aberdare during the UK miners' strike.", "title": "Culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 41, "text": "Griffith Rhys Jones − or Caradog as he was commonly known − was the conductor of the famous 'Côr Mawr' (\"great choir\") of some 460 voices (the South Wales Choral Union), which twice won first prize at Crystal Palace choral competitions in London in the 1870s. He is depicted in the town's most prominent statue by sculptor Goscombe John, unveiled on Victoria Square in 1920.", "title": "Culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 42, "text": "Aberdare was culturally twinned with the German town of Ravensburg.", "title": "Culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 43, "text": "The original parish church of St John the Baptist was originally built in 1189. Some of its original architecture is still intact.", "title": "Religion" }, { "paragraph_id": 44, "text": "With the development of Aberdare as an industrial centre in the nineteenth century it became increasingly apparent that the ancient church was far too small to service the perceived spiritual needs of an urban community, particularly in view of the rapid growth of nonconformity from the 1830s onwards. Eventually, John Griffith, the rector of Aberdare, undertook to raise funds to build a new church, leading to the rapid construction of St Elvan's Church in the town centre between 1851 and 1852. This Church in Wales church still stands the heart of the parish of Aberdare and has had extensive work since it was built. The church has a modern electrical, two-manual and pedal board pipe organ, that is still used in services.", "title": "Religion" }, { "paragraph_id": 45, "text": "John Griffith, vicar of Aberdare, who built St Elvan's, transformed the role of the Anglican church in the valley by building a number of other churches, including St Fagan's, Trecynon. Other churches in the parish are St Luke's (Cwmdare), St James's (Llwydcoed) and St Matthew's (1891) (Abernant).", "title": "Religion" }, { "paragraph_id": 46, "text": "In the parish of Aberaman and Cwmaman is St Margaret's Church, with a beautiful old pipe organ with two manuals and a pedal board. Also in this parish is St Joseph's Church, Cwmaman. St Joseph's has recently undergone much recreational work, almost converting the church into a community centre, surrounded by a beautiful floral garden and leading to the Cwmaman Sculpture Trail. However, regular church services still take place. Here, there is a two-manual and pedal board electric organ, with speakers at the front and sides of the church.", "title": "Religion" }, { "paragraph_id": 47, "text": "In 1910 there were 34 Anglican churches in the Urban District of Aberdare. A survey of the attendance at places of worship on a particular Sunday in that year recorded that 17.8% of worshippers attended church services, with the remainder attending nonconformist chapels.", "title": "Religion" }, { "paragraph_id": 48, "text": "The Aberdare Valley was a stronghold of Nonconformity from the mid-nineteenth century until the inter-war years. In the aftermath of the 1847 Education Reports nonconformists became increasingly active in the political and educational life of Wales and in few places was this as prevalent as at Aberdare. The leading figure was Thomas Price, minister of Calfaria, Aberdare.", "title": "Religion" }, { "paragraph_id": 49, "text": "Aberdare was a major centre of the 1904–05 Religious Revival, which had begun at Loughor near Swansea. The revival aroused alarm among ministers for the revolutionary, even anarchistic, impact it had upon chapel congregations and denominational organisation. In particular, it was seen as drawing attention away from pulpit preaching and the role of the minister. The local newspaper, the Aberdare Leader, regarded the revival with suspicion from the outset, objecting to the 'abnormal heat' which it engendered. Trecynon was particularly affected by the revival, and the meetings held there were said to have aroused more emotion and excitement than the more restrained meetings in Aberdare itself. The impact of the revival was significant in the short term, but in the longer term was fairly transient.", "title": "Religion" }, { "paragraph_id": 50, "text": "Once the immediate impact of the revival had faded, it was clear from the early 20th century that there was a gradual decline in the influence of the chapels. This can be explained by several factors, including the rise of socialism and the process of linguistic change which saw the younger generation increasingly turn to the English language. There were also theological controversies such as that over the New Theology propounded by R.J. Campbell.", "title": "Religion" }, { "paragraph_id": 51, "text": "Of the many chapels, few are still used for their original purpose and a number have closed since the turn of the millennium. Many have been converted for housing or other purposes (including one at Robertstown which has become a mosque), and others demolished. Among the notable chapels were Calfaria, Aberdare and Seion, Cwmaman (Baptist); Saron, Aberaman and Siloa, Aberdare (Independent); and Bethania, Aberdare (Calvinistic Methodist).", "title": "Religion" }, { "paragraph_id": 52, "text": "The earliest Welsh Independent, or Congregationalist chapel in the Aberdare area was Ebenezer, Trecynon, although meetings had been held from the late 18th century in dwelling houses in the locality, for example at Hirwaun. During the 19th century, the Independents showed the biggest increases in terms of places of worship: from two in 1837 to twenty-five (four of them being English causes), in 1897. By 1910 there were 35 Independent chapels, with a total membership of 8,612. Siloa Chapel was the largest of the Independent chapels in Aberdare and is one of the few that remain open today, having been 're-established' as a Welsh language chapel. The Independent ministers of nineteenth-century Aberdare included some powerful personalities, but none had the kind of wider social authority which Thomas Price enjoyed amongst the Baptists.", "title": "Religion" }, { "paragraph_id": 53, "text": "Of the other Independent chapels in the valley, Saron, in Davis Street, Aberaman, was used for regular services by a small group of members until 2011. For many years, these were held in a small side-room, and not the chapel itself. The chapel has a large vestry comprising rows of two-way-facing wooden benches and a stage, with a side entrance onto Beddoe Street and back entrance to Lewis Street. Although the building is not in good repair, the interior, including pulpit and balcony seating area (back and sides), was in good order but the chapel eventually closed due to the very small number of members remaining. In February 1999, Saron became a Grade II Listed Building.", "title": "Religion" }, { "paragraph_id": 54, "text": "The Baptists were the most influential of the nonconformist denominations in Aberdare and their development was led by the Rev. Thomas Price who came to Aberdare in the early 1840s as minister of Calfaria Chapel. In 1837 the Baptists had three chapels, but in 1897 there were twenty, seventeen of them being Welsh. By 1910 the number of chapels had increased to 30, with a total membership of 7,422. Most of these Baptist chapels were established under the influence of Thomas Price who encouraged members to establish branch chapels to attract migrants who flocked to the town and locality from rural Wales. The chapels came together for regular gatherings, including baptismal services which were held in the River Cynon As a result, Price exerted an influence in the religious life of the locality which was far greater than that of any other minister.", "title": "Religion" }, { "paragraph_id": 55, "text": "By 1910 there were 24 Calvinistic Methodist chapels in the Aberdare Urban District with a total membership of 4,879. The most prominent of these was Bethania, Aberdare, once the largest chapel in Aberdare. Derelict for many years, it was demolished in 2015. The Methodists were numerically powerful and while some of their ministers such as William James of Bethania served on the Aberdare School Board and other public bodies, their constitution militated against the sort of active political action which came more naturally to the Baptists and Independents.", "title": "Religion" }, { "paragraph_id": 56, "text": "In 1878 Mother Shepherd, a native Welsh speaker, was sent to Aberdare by the Salvation Army at the start of a period of growth for their mission. After five years she had created seven new stations before she was recalled to London. Shepherd would return to Aberdare working for the community. In 1930 she was given a public funeral.", "title": "Religion" }, { "paragraph_id": 57, "text": "The Wesleyan Methodists had 14 places of worship by 1910. There was also a significant Unitarian tradition in the valley and three places of worship by 1910. Highland Place Unitarian Church celebrated its 150th anniversary in 2010, with a number of lectures on its history and the history of Unitarianism in Wales taking place there. The church has a two-manual pipe organ with pedal board that is used to accompany all services. The current organist is Grace Jones, the sister of the former organist Jacob Jones. The connected schoolroom is used for post-service meetings and socialising.", "title": "Religion" }, { "paragraph_id": 58, "text": "Seymour Street was once home to a synagogue which opened its doors in the late 1800s but closed in 1957. The site now has a blue plaque.", "title": "Religion" }, { "paragraph_id": 59, "text": "The state of education in the parish was a cause for concern during the early industrial period as is illustrated by the reaction to the 1847 Education Reports. Initially, there was an outcry, led by the Rev Thomas Price against the comments made by the vicar of Aberdare in his submission to the commissioners. However, on closer reflection, the reports related the deficiencies of educational provision, not only in Aberdare itself but also in the communities of the valleys generally. In so doing they not only criticised the ironmasters for their failure to provide schools for workers' children but also the nonconformists for not establishing British Schools. At the ten schools in Aberdare there was accommodation for only 1,317 children, a small proportion of the population. Largely as a result of these criticisms, the main nonconformist denominations worked together to establish a British School, known locally as Ysgol y Comin, which was opened in 1848, accommodating 200 pupils. Funds were raised which largely cleared the debts and the opening of the school was marked by a public meeting addressed by Price and David Williams (Alaw Goch).", "title": "Education" }, { "paragraph_id": 60, "text": "Much energy was expended during this period on conflicts between Anglicans and nonconformists over education. The establishment of the Aberdare School Board in 1871 brought about an extension of educational provision but also intensified religious rivalries. School Board elections were invariably fought on religious grounds. Despite these tensions the Board took over a number of existing schools and established new ones. By 1889, fourteen schools were operated by the Board but truancy and lack of attendance remained a problem, as in many industrial districts.", "title": "Education" }, { "paragraph_id": 61, "text": "In common with other public bodies at the time (see 'Local Government' above), membership of the School Board was dominated by coal owners and colliery officials, nonconformist ministers, professional men and tradesmen. Only occasionally was an Anglican clergyman elected and, with the exception of David Morgan (Dai o'r Nant), no working class candidates were elected for more than one term.", "title": "Education" }, { "paragraph_id": 62, "text": "The town is served by Aberdare railway station and Aberdare bus station, opposite each other in the town centre. The town has also been subject to an extensive redevelopment scheme during 2012–13.", "title": "Transport" }, { "paragraph_id": 63, "text": "Aberdare was noted as \"very remarkable\" for its traditions of Taplasau Hâf (summer games), races and gwrolgampau (\"manly sports\") which were said to have been a feature of the area since at least the 1640s. The town is also home to Yr Ynys, an historic sports ground which has the distinction of hosting the first Rugby League international, a professional Rugby League team, a football League side and an All Blacks' tour match. Today the Ynys hosts the town's Rugby union and cricket teams, as well as the Sobell Leisure Centre and the Ron Jones Athletics Stadium, a 263-seat stadium with crumb rubber track and field sports facilities, home to Aberdare Valley AAC.", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 64, "text": "A cricket club was re-established at the Ynys in 1968 and was named Riverside Cricket Club in reference to its location near the banks of the river. The club would later be renamed Dare Valley CC, before finally changing its name to Aberdare CC. In 2008 the club was granted a 25-year lease on the land outside the boundary of the Ynys' pitch 1, where a club house and training nets were soon constructed. This was followed by the building of a Community Hub and Café in the 2010s. Today, the club runs 3 adult teams and 4 junior sides.", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 65, "text": "The Northern Union hired the Ynys on 1 January 1908 to host what would be the first ever international rugby league match. Played on a near frozen pitch, the match between Wales and the New Zealand All Golds proved to be a close and exciting game. The decisive score came from local star and former Aberdare RFC player, Dai \"Tarw\" Jones, who scored a try just minutes before the final whistle, giving Wales a 9–8 victory.", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 66, "text": "The match attracted 15,000 paying spectators, with the gate receipts of £560 highlighting the commercial potential of rugby league at the Ynys. This took place at a time when the Northern Union was looking to establish professional teams across south Wales and just months after the Welsh Rugby Union had sanctioned Aberdare RFC for professionalism (banning Jones for life). As such, discussions on the establishment of a Rugby League club in Aberdare advanced quickly and on 21 July 1908, Aberdare RLFC were admitted to the Northern Union's Rugby League. On 5 September 1908 the new team played their first match against Wigan in front of a crowd of 3,000 at the Ynys.", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 67, "text": "The potential for crowd support was again demonstrated on 10 November 1908, when the Ynys hosted its second international side as 5,000 spectators watched Aberdare take on the first touring Australian team. However the Aberdare club side could not replicate the heroics of the Welsh team, losing the match 10–37. Indeed, Aberdare struggled under Northern Union rules and initially high crowd numbers deteriorated with the poor results, which saw Aberdare finishing their only season in the Rugby Football League as the bottom club. Finally on 10 July 1909, Aberdare reported 'unexpected difficulties' in its finances and resigned from the Northern Rugby League.", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 68, "text": "A rugby club representing Aberdare was recorded as early as 1876, but the modern Aberdare RFC traces its history back to a foundation of 1890. The club had great success in the early twentieth century with local star Dai 'Tarw' Jones captaining the club from 1905 to 1907. Jones gained recognition as a player in club, representative and international games. Most notably, Jones played an important part in the \"Match of the century\", when Wales defeated the New Zealand All Blacks. In 1907, Jones and the Aberdare club played a pivotal role in the professionalism scandal, with the Welsh Rugby Union permanently suspending the club's entire committee and a number of players (including a lifetime ban for Jones). These events would quickly lead to many of the town's players and fans switching to rugby league, with the first ever rugby league international and the founding of Aberdare RLFC in 1908.", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 69, "text": "Despite the suspensions, rugby union continued in the town as the club (renamed Aberaman RFC) moved to Aberaman Park. The Ynys Stadium would host its first international rugby union side on 12 December 1935, when the 1935-36 All Blacks played a tour match against a Mid-Districts side. The All Blacks won the match 31–10 in front of a crowd of 6,000.", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 70, "text": "Aberaman RFC returned to the Ynys in the 1960s. In February 1971, a clubhouse was opened at the old Crown Hotel in Gloucester Street, this was followed by the construction of a grand stand at the Ynys costing £20,000. Following the advent of professionalism in rugby union, the WRU sanctions against Aberdare were no longer applicable. As such, the club took the name Aberdare RUFC once again. Aberdare is also home to Abercwmboi RFC and Hirwaun RFC.", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 71, "text": "The Ynys stadium was also home to Aberdare Athletic F.C., members of the Football League between 1921 and 1927. Aberdare finished bottom in their final season and folded in 1928 after failing to be re-elected to the league.", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 72, "text": "Aberaman Athletic F.C. continued to play until World War II, and was succeeded by Aberdare & Aberaman Athletic in 1945 and Aberdare Town F.C. in 1947. The club continue to play in the Welsh Football League. Today, Aberdare Town plays in the South Wales Alliance League and are based at Aberaman Park.", "title": "Sports" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "An aberration is something that deviates from the normal way.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Aberration may also refer to:", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "In astronomy, aberration (also referred to as astronomical aberration, stellar aberration, or velocity aberration) is a phenomenon where celestial objects exhibit an apparent motion about their true positions based on the velocity of the observer: It causes objects to appear to be displaced towards the observer's direction of motion. The change in angle is of the order of v/c where c is the speed of light and v the velocity of the observer. In the case of \"stellar\" or \"annual\" aberration, the apparent position of a star to an observer on Earth varies periodically over the course of a year as the Earth's velocity changes as it revolves around the Sun, by a maximum angle of approximately 20 arcseconds in right ascension or declination.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The term aberration has historically been used to refer to a number of related phenomena concerning the propagation of light in moving bodies. Aberration is distinct from parallax, which is a change in the apparent position of a relatively nearby object, as measured by a moving observer, relative to more distant objects that define a reference frame. The amount of parallax depends on the distance of the object from the observer, whereas aberration does not. Aberration is also related to light-time correction and relativistic beaming, although it is often considered separately from these effects.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Aberration is historically significant because of its role in the development of the theories of light, electromagnetism and, ultimately, the theory of special relativity. It was first observed in the late 1600s by astronomers searching for stellar parallax in order to confirm the heliocentric model of the Solar System. However, it was not understood at the time to be a different phenomenon. In 1727, James Bradley provided a classical explanation for it in terms of the finite speed of light relative to the motion of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun, which he used to make one of the earliest measurements of the speed of light. However, Bradley's theory was incompatible with 19th-century theories of light, and aberration became a major motivation for the aether drag theories of Augustin Fresnel (in 1818) and G. G. Stokes (in 1845), and for Hendrik Lorentz's aether theory of electromagnetism in 1892. The aberration of light, together with Lorentz's elaboration of Maxwell's electrodynamics, the moving magnet and conductor problem, the negative aether drift experiments, as well as the Fizeau experiment, led Albert Einstein to develop the theory of special relativity in 1905, which presents a general form of the equation for aberration in terms of such theory.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Aberration may be explained as the difference in angle of a beam of light in different inertial frames of reference. A common analogy is to consider the apparent direction of falling rain. If rain is falling vertically in the frame of reference of a person standing still, then to a person moving forwards the rain will appear to arrive at an angle, requiring the moving observer to tilt their umbrella forwards. The faster the observer moves, the more tilt is needed.", "title": "Explanation" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The net effect is that light rays striking the moving observer from the sides in a stationary frame will come angled from ahead in the moving observer's frame. This effect is sometimes called the \"searchlight\" or \"headlight\" effect.", "title": "Explanation" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "In the case of annual aberration of starlight, the direction of incoming starlight as seen in the Earth's moving frame is tilted relative to the angle observed in the Sun's frame. Since the direction of motion of the Earth changes during its orbit, the direction of this tilting changes during the course of the year, and causes the apparent position of the star to differ from its true position as measured in the inertial frame of the Sun.", "title": "Explanation" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "While classical reasoning gives intuition for aberration, it leads to a number of physical paradoxes observable even at the classical level (see history). The theory of special relativity is required to correctly account for aberration. The relativistic explanation is very similar to the classical one however, and in both theories aberration may be understood as a case of addition of velocities.", "title": "Explanation" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "In the Sun's frame, consider a beam of light with velocity equal to the speed of light c, with x and y velocity components u x {\\displaystyle u_{x}} and u y {\\displaystyle u_{y}} , and thus at an angle θ such that tan ( θ ) = u y / u x {\\displaystyle \\tan(\\theta )=u_{y}/u_{x}} . If the Earth is moving at velocity v {\\displaystyle v} in the x direction relative to the Sun, then by velocity addition the x component of the beam's velocity in the Earth's frame of reference is u x ′ = u x + v {\\displaystyle u_{x}'=u_{x}+v} , and the y velocity is unchanged, u y ′ = u y {\\displaystyle u_{y}'=u_{y}} . Thus the angle of the light in the Earth's frame in terms of the angle in the Sun's frame is", "title": "Explanation" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "In the case of θ = 90 ∘ {\\displaystyle \\theta =90^{\\circ }} , this result reduces to tan ( θ − ϕ ) = v / c {\\displaystyle \\tan(\\theta -\\phi )=v/c} , which in the limit v / c ≪ 1 {\\displaystyle v/c\\ll 1} may be approximated by θ − ϕ = v / c {\\displaystyle \\theta -\\phi =v/c} .", "title": "Explanation" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "The reasoning in the relativistic case is the same except that the relativistic velocity addition formulas must be used, which can be derived from Lorentz transformations between different frames of reference. These formulas are", "title": "Explanation" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "where γ = 1 / 1 − v 2 / c 2 {\\displaystyle \\gamma =1/{\\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}} , giving the components of the light beam in the Earth's frame in terms of the components in the Sun's frame. The angle of the beam in the Earth's frame is thus", "title": "Explanation" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "In the case of θ = 90 ∘ {\\displaystyle \\theta =90^{\\circ }} , this result reduces to sin ( θ − ϕ ) = v / c {\\displaystyle \\sin(\\theta -\\phi )=v/c} , and in the limit v / c ≪ 1 {\\displaystyle v/c\\ll 1} this may be approximated by θ − ϕ = v / c {\\displaystyle \\theta -\\phi =v/c} . This relativistic derivation keeps the speed of light u x 2 + u y 2 = c {\\displaystyle {\\sqrt {u_{x}^{2}+u_{y}^{2}}}=c} constant in all frames of reference, unlike the classical derivation above.", "title": "Explanation" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Aberration is related to two other phenomena, light-time correction, which is due to the motion of an observed object during the time taken by its light to reach an observer, and relativistic beaming, which is an angling of the light emitted by a moving light source. It can be considered equivalent to them but in a different inertial frame of reference. In aberration, the observer is considered to be moving relative to a (for the sake of simplicity) stationary light source, while in light-time correction and relativistic beaming the light source is considered to be moving relative to a stationary observer.", "title": "Explanation" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "Consider the case of an observer and a light source moving relative to each other at constant velocity, with a light beam moving from the source to the observer. At the moment of emission, the beam in the observer's rest frame is tilted compared to the one in the source's rest frame, as understood through relativistic beaming. During the time it takes the light beam to reach the observer the light source moves in the observer's frame, and the 'true position' of the light source is displaced relative to the apparent position the observer sees, as explained by light-time correction. Finally, the beam in the observer's frame at the moment of observation is tilted compared to the beam in source's frame, which can be understood as an aberrational effect. Thus, a person in the light source's frame would describe the apparent tilting of the beam in terms of aberration, while a person in the observer's frame would describe it as a light-time effect.", "title": "Explanation" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "The relationship between these phenomena is only valid if the observer and source's frames are inertial frames. In practice, because the Earth is not an inertial rest frame but experiences centripetal acceleration towards the Sun, many aberrational effects such as annual aberration on Earth cannot be considered light-time corrections. However, if the time between emission and detection of the light is short compared to the orbital period of the Earth, the Earth may be approximated as an inertial frame and aberrational effects are equivalent to light-time corrections.", "title": "Explanation" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "The Astronomical Almanac describes several different types of aberration, arising from differing components of the Earth's and observed object's motion:", "title": "Types" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "Annual aberration is caused by the motion of an observer on Earth as the planet revolves around the Sun. Due to orbital eccentricity, the orbital velocity v {\\displaystyle v} of Earth (in the Sun's rest frame) varies periodically during the year as the planet traverses its elliptic orbit and consequently the aberration also varies periodically, typically causing stars to appear to move in small ellipses.", "title": "Types" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "Approximating Earth's orbit as circular, the maximum displacement of a star due to annual aberration is known as the constant of aberration, conventionally represented by κ {\\displaystyle \\kappa } . It may be calculated using the relation κ = θ − ϕ ≈ v / c {\\displaystyle \\kappa =\\theta -\\phi \\approx v/c} substituting the Earth's average speed in the Sun's frame for v {\\displaystyle v} and the speed of light c {\\displaystyle c} . Its accepted value is 20.49552 arcseconds (sec) or 0.000099365 radians (rad) (at J2000).", "title": "Types" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "Assuming a circular orbit, annual aberration causes stars exactly on the ecliptic (the plane of Earth's orbit) to appear to move back and forth along a straight line, varying by κ {\\displaystyle \\kappa } on either side of their position in the Sun's frame. A star that is precisely at one of the ecliptic poles (at 90° from the ecliptic plane) will appear to move in a circle of radius κ {\\displaystyle \\kappa } about its true position, and stars at intermediate ecliptic latitudes will appear to move along a small ellipse.", "title": "Types" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "For illustration, consider a star at the northern ecliptic pole viewed by an observer at a point on the Arctic Circle. Such an observer will see the star transit at the zenith, once every day (strictly speaking sidereal day). At the time of the March equinox, Earth's orbit carries the observer in a southwards direction, and the star's apparent declination is therefore displaced to the south by an angle of κ {\\displaystyle \\kappa } . On the September equinox, the star's position is displaced to the north by an equal and opposite amount. On either solstice, the displacement in declination is 0. Conversely, the amount of displacement in right ascension is 0 on either equinox and at maximum on either solstice.", "title": "Types" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "In actuality, Earth's orbit is slightly elliptic rather than circular, and its speed varies somewhat over the course of its orbit, which means the description above is only approximate. Aberration is more accurately calculated using Earth's instantaneous velocity relative to the barycenter of the Solar System.", "title": "Types" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "Note that the displacement due to aberration is orthogonal to any displacement due to parallax. If parallax is detectable, the maximum displacement to the south would occur in December, and the maximum displacement to the north in June. It is this apparently anomalous motion that so mystified early astronomers.", "title": "Types" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "A special case of annual aberration is the nearly constant deflection of the Sun from its position in the Sun's rest frame by κ {\\displaystyle \\kappa } towards the west (as viewed from Earth), opposite to the apparent motion of the Sun along the ecliptic (which is from west to east, as seen from Earth). The deflection thus makes the Sun appear to be behind (or retarded) from its rest-frame position on the ecliptic by a position or angle κ {\\displaystyle \\kappa } .", "title": "Types" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "This deflection may equivalently be described as a light-time effect due to motion of the Earth during the 8.3 minutes that it takes light to travel from the Sun to Earth. The relation with κ {\\displaystyle \\kappa } is : [0.000099365 rad / 2 π rad] x [365.25 d x 24 h/d x 60 min/h] = 8.3167 min ≈ 8 min 19 sec = 499 sec. This is possible since the transit time of sunlight is short relative to the orbital period of the Earth, so the Earth's frame may be approximated as inertial. In the Earth's frame, the Sun moves, at a mean velocity v = 29.789 km/s, by a distance Δ x = v t {\\displaystyle \\Delta x=vt} ≈ 14,864.7 km in the time it takes light to reach Earth, t = R / c {\\displaystyle t=R/c} ≈ 499 sec for the orbit of mean radius R {\\displaystyle R} = 1 AU = 149,597,870.7 km. This gives an angular correction tan ( θ ) ≈ θ = Δ x / R {\\displaystyle \\tan(\\theta )\\approx \\theta =\\Delta x/R} ≈ 0.000099364 rad = 20.49539 sec, which can be solved to give θ = v / c = κ {\\displaystyle \\theta =v/c=\\kappa } ≈ 0.000099365 rad = 20.49559 sec, very nearly the same as the aberrational correction (here κ {\\displaystyle \\kappa } is in radian and not in arcsecond).", "title": "Types" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "Diurnal aberration is caused by the velocity of the observer on the surface of the rotating Earth. It is therefore dependent not only on the time of the observation, but also the latitude and longitude of the observer. Its effect is much smaller than that of annual aberration, and is only 0.32 arcseconds in the case of an observer at the Equator, where the rotational velocity is greatest.", "title": "Types" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "The secular component of aberration, caused by the motion of the Solar System in space, has been further subdivided into several components: aberration resulting from the motion of the solar system barycenter around the center of our Galaxy, aberration resulting from the motion of the Galaxy relative to the Local Group, and aberration resulting from the motion of the Local Group relative to the cosmic microwave background. Secular aberration affects the apparent positions of stars and extragalactic objects. The large, constant part of secular aberration cannot be directly observed and \"It has been standard practice to absorb this large, nearly constant effect into the reported\" positions of stars.", "title": "Types" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "In about 200 million years, the Sun circles the galactic center, whose measured location is near right ascension (α = 266.4°) and declination (δ = −29.0°). The constant, unobservable, effect of the solar system's motion around the galactic center has been computed variously as 150 or 165 arcseconds. The other, observable, part is an acceleration toward the galactic center of approximately 2.5 × 10 m/s, which yields a change of aberration of about 5 µas/yr. Highly precise measurements extending over several years can observe this change in secular aberration, often called the secular aberration drift or the acceleration of the Solar System, as a small apparent proper motion.", "title": "Types" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "Recently, highly precise astrometry of extragalactic objects using both Very Long Baseline Interferometry and the Gaia space observatory have successfully measured this small effect. The first VLBI measurement of the apparent motion, over a period of 20 years, of 555 extragalactic objects towards the center of our galaxy at equatorial coordinates of α = 263° and δ = −20° indicated a secular aberration drift 6.4 ±1.5 μas/yr. Later determinations using a series of VLBI measurements extending over almost 40 years determined the secular aberration drift to be 5.83 ± 0.23 μas/yr in the direction α = 270.2 ± 2.3° and δ = −20.2° ± 3.6°. Optical observations using only 33 months of Gaia satellite data of 1.6 million extragalactic sources indicated an acceleration of the solar system of 2.32 ± 0.16 × 10 m/s and a corresponding secular aberration drift of 5.05 ± 0.35 µas/yr in the direction of α = 269.1° ± 5.4°, δ = −31.6° ± 4.1°. It is expected that later Gaia data releases, incorporating about 66 and 120 months of data, will reduce the random errors of these results by factors of 0.35 and 0.15. The latest edition of the International Celestial Reference Frame (ICRF3) adopted a recommended galactocentric aberration constant of 5.8 µas/yr and recommended a correction for secular aberration to obtain the highest positional accuracy for times other than the reference epoch 2015.0.", "title": "Types" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "Planetary aberration is the combination of the aberration of light (due to Earth's velocity) and light-time correction (due to the object's motion and distance), as calculated in the rest frame of the Solar System. Both are determined at the instant when the moving object's light reaches the moving observer on Earth. It is so called because it is usually applied to planets and other objects in the Solar System whose motion and distance are accurately known.", "title": "Types" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "The discovery of the aberration of light was totally unexpected, and it was only by considerable perseverance and perspicacity that Bradley was able to explain it in 1727. It originated from attempts to discover whether stars possessed appreciable parallaxes.", "title": "Discovery and first observations" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "The Copernican heliocentric theory of the Solar System had received confirmation by the observations of Galileo and Tycho Brahe and the mathematical investigations of Kepler and Newton. As early as 1573, Thomas Digges had suggested that parallactic shifting of the stars should occur according to the heliocentric model, and consequently if stellar parallax could be observed it would help confirm this theory. Many observers claimed to have determined such parallaxes, but Tycho Brahe and Giovanni Battista Riccioli concluded that they existed only in the minds of the observers, and were due to instrumental and personal errors. However, in 1680 Jean Picard, in his Voyage d’Uranibourg, stated, as a result of ten years' observations, that Polaris, the Pole Star, exhibited variations in its position amounting to 40″ annually. Some astronomers endeavoured to explain this by parallax, but these attempts failed because the motion differed from that which parallax would produce. John Flamsteed, from measurements made in 1689 and succeeding years with his mural quadrant, similarly concluded that the declination of Polaris was 40″ less in July than in September. Robert Hooke, in 1674, published his observations of γ Draconis, a star of magnitude 2 which passes practically overhead at the latitude of London (hence its observations are largely free from the complex corrections due to atmospheric refraction), and concluded that this star was 23″ more northerly in July than in October.", "title": "Discovery and first observations" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "Consequently, when Bradley and Samuel Molyneux entered this sphere of research in 1725, there was still considerable uncertainty as to whether stellar parallaxes had been observed or not, and it was with the intention of definitely answering this question that they erected a large telescope at Molyneux's house at Kew. They decided to reinvestigate the motion of γ Draconis with a telescope constructed by George Graham (1675–1751), a celebrated instrument-maker. This was fixed to a vertical chimney stack in such manner as to permit a small oscillation of the eyepiece, the amount of which (i.e. the deviation from the vertical) was regulated and measured by the introduction of a screw and a plumb line.", "title": "Discovery and first observations" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "The instrument was set up in November 1725, and observations on γ Draconis were made starting in December. The star was observed to move 40″ southwards between September and March, and then reversed its course from March to September. At the same time, 35 Camelopardalis, a star with a right ascension nearly exactly opposite to that of γ Draconis, was 19\" more northerly at the beginning of March than in September. These results were completely unexpected and inexplicable by existing theories.", "title": "Discovery and first observations" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "Bradley and Molyneux discussed several hypotheses in the hope of finding the solution. Since the apparent motion was evidently caused neither by parallax nor observational errors, Bradley first hypothesized that it could be due to oscillations in the orientation of the Earth's axis relative to the celestial sphere – a phenomenon known as nutation. 35 Camelopardalis was seen to possess an apparent motion which could be consistent with nutation, but since its declination varied only one half as much as that of γ Draconis, it was obvious that nutation did not supply the answer (however, Bradley later went on to discover that the Earth does indeed nutate). He also investigated the possibility that the motion was due to an irregular distribution of the Earth's atmosphere, thus involving abnormal variations in the refractive index, but again obtained negative results.", "title": "Discovery and first observations" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "On August 19, 1727, Bradley embarked upon a further series of observations using a telescope of his own erected at the Rectory, Wanstead. This instrument had the advantage of a larger field of view and he was able to obtain precise positions of a large number of stars over the course of about twenty years. During his first two years at Wanstead, he established the existence of the phenomenon of aberration beyond all doubt, and this also enabled him to formulate a set of rules that would allow the calculation of the effect on any given star at a specified date.", "title": "Discovery and first observations" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "Bradley eventually developed his explanation of aberration in about September 1728 and this theory was presented to the Royal Society in mid January the following year. One well-known story was that he saw the change of direction of a wind vane on a boat on the Thames, caused not by an alteration of the wind itself, but by a change of course of the boat relative to the wind direction. However, there is no record of this incident in Bradley's own account of the discovery, and it may therefore be apocryphal.", "title": "Discovery and first observations" }, { "paragraph_id": 36, "text": "The following table shows the magnitude of deviation from true declination for γ Draconis and the direction, on the planes of the solstitial colure and ecliptic prime meridian, of the tangent of the velocity of the Earth in its orbit for each of the four months where the extremes are found, as well as expected deviation from true ecliptic longitude if Bradley had measured its deviation from right ascension:", "title": "Discovery and first observations" }, { "paragraph_id": 37, "text": "Bradley proposed that the aberration of light not only affected declination, but right ascension as well, so that a star in the pole of the ecliptic would describe a little ellipse with a diameter of about 40\", but for simplicity, he assumed it to be a circle. Since he only observed the deviation in declination, and not in right ascension, his calculations for the maximum deviation of a star in the pole of the ecliptic are for its declination only, which will coincide with the diameter of the little circle described by such star. For eight different stars, his calculations are as follows:", "title": "Discovery and first observations" }, { "paragraph_id": 38, "text": "Based on these calculations, Bradley was able to estimate the constant of aberration at 20.2\", which is equal to 0.00009793 radians, and with this was able to estimate the speed of light at 183,300 miles (295,000 km) per second. By projecting the little circle for a star in the pole of the ecliptic, he could simplify the calculation of the relationship between the speed of light and the speed of the Earth's annual motion in its orbit as follows:", "title": "Discovery and first observations" }, { "paragraph_id": 39, "text": "Thus, the speed of light to the speed of the Earth's annual motion in its orbit is 10,210 to one, from whence it would follow, that light moves, or is propagated as far as from the Sun to the Earth in 8 minutes 12 seconds.", "title": "Discovery and first observations" }, { "paragraph_id": 40, "text": "The original motivation of the search for stellar parallax was to test the Copernican theory that the Earth revolves around the Sun. The change of aberration in the course of the year demonstrates the relative motion of the Earth and the stars.", "title": "Discovery and first observations" }, { "paragraph_id": 41, "text": "In the prior century, René Descartes argued that if light were not instantaneous, then shadows of moving objects would lag; and if propagation times over terrestrial distances were appreciable, then during a lunar eclipse the Sun, Earth, and Moon would be out of alignment by hours' motion, contrary to observation. Huygens commented that, on Rømer's lightspeed data (yielding an earth-moon round-trip time of only seconds), the lag angle would be imperceptible. What they both overlooked is that aberration (as understood only later) would exactly counteract the lag even if large, leaving this eclipse method completely insensitive to light speed. (Otherwise, shadow-lag methods could be made to sense absolute translational motion, contrary to a basic principle of relativity.)", "title": "Discovery and first observations" }, { "paragraph_id": 42, "text": "The phenomenon of aberration became a driving force for many physical theories during the 200 years between its observation and the explanation by Albert Einstein.", "title": "Historical theories of aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 43, "text": "The first classical explanation was provided in 1729, by James Bradley as described above, who attributed it to the finite speed of light and the motion of Earth in its orbit around the Sun. However, this explanation proved inaccurate once the wave nature of light was better understood, and correcting it became a major goal of the 19th century theories of luminiferous aether. Augustin-Jean Fresnel proposed a correction due to the motion of a medium (the aether) through which light propagated, known as \"partial aether drag\". He proposed that objects partially drag the aether along with them as they move, and this became the accepted explanation for aberration for some time. George Stokes proposed a similar theory, explaining that aberration occurs due to the flow of aether induced by the motion of the Earth. Accumulated evidence against these explanations, combined with new understanding of the electromagnetic nature of light, led Hendrik Lorentz to develop an electron theory which featured an immobile aether, and he explained that objects contract in length as they move through the aether. Motivated by these previous theories, Albert Einstein then developed the theory of special relativity in 1905, which provides the modern account of aberration.", "title": "Historical theories of aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 44, "text": "Bradley conceived of an explanation in terms of a corpuscular theory of light in which light is made of particles. His classical explanation appeals to the motion of the earth relative to a beam of light-particles moving at a finite velocity, and is developed in the Sun's frame of reference, unlike the classical derivation given above.", "title": "Historical theories of aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 45, "text": "Consider the case where a distant star is motionless relative to the Sun, and the star is extremely far away, so that parallax may be ignored. In the rest frame of the Sun, this means light from the star travels in parallel paths to the Earth observer, and arrives at the same angle regardless of where the Earth is in its orbit. Suppose the star is observed on Earth with a telescope, idealized as a narrow tube. The light enters the tube from the star at angle θ {\\displaystyle \\theta } and travels at speed c {\\displaystyle c} taking a time h / c {\\displaystyle h/c} to reach the bottom of the tube, where it is detected. Suppose observations are made from Earth, which is moving with a speed v {\\displaystyle v} . During the transit of the light, the tube moves a distance v h / c {\\displaystyle vh/c} . Consequently, for the particles of light to reach the bottom of the tube, the tube must be inclined at an angle ϕ {\\displaystyle \\phi } different from θ {\\displaystyle \\theta } , resulting in an apparent position of the star at angle ϕ {\\displaystyle \\phi } . As the Earth proceeds in its orbit it changes direction, so ϕ {\\displaystyle \\phi } changes with the time of year the observation is made. The apparent angle and true angle are related using trigonometry as:", "title": "Historical theories of aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 46, "text": "In the case of θ = 90 ∘ {\\displaystyle \\theta =90^{\\circ }} , this gives tan ( θ − ϕ ) = v / c {\\displaystyle \\tan(\\theta -\\phi )=v/c} . While this is different from the more accurate relativistic result described above, in the limit of small angle and low velocity they are approximately the same, within the error of the measurements of Bradley's day. These results allowed Bradley to make one of the earliest measurements of the speed of light.", "title": "Historical theories of aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 47, "text": "In the early nineteenth century the wave theory of light was being rediscovered, and in 1804 Thomas Young adapted Bradley's explanation for corpuscular light to wavelike light traveling through a medium known as the luminiferous aether. His reasoning was the same as Bradley's, but it required that this medium be immobile in the Sun's reference frame and must pass through the earth unaffected, otherwise the medium (and therefore the light) would move along with the earth and no aberration would be observed. He wrote:", "title": "Historical theories of aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 48, "text": "Upon consideration of the phenomena of the aberration of the stars I am disposed to believe that the luminiferous aether pervades the substance of all material bodies with little or no resistance, as freely perhaps as the wind passes through a grove of trees.", "title": "Historical theories of aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 49, "text": "However, it soon became clear Young's theory could not account for aberration when materials with a non-vacuum index of refraction were present. An important example is of a telescope filled with water. The velocity of the light in such a telescope will be slower than in vacuum, and is given by c / n {\\displaystyle c/n} rather than c {\\displaystyle c} where n {\\displaystyle n} is the index of refraction of the water. Thus, by Bradley and Young's reasoning the aberration angle is given by", "title": "Historical theories of aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 50, "text": "which predicts a medium-dependent angle of aberration. When refraction at the telescope's objective is taken into account this result deviates even more from the vacuum result. In 1810 François Arago performed a similar experiment and found that the aberration was unaffected by the medium in the telescope, providing solid evidence against Young's theory. This experiment was subsequently verified by many others in the following decades, most accurately by Airy in 1871, with the same result.", "title": "Historical theories of aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 51, "text": "In 1818, Augustin Fresnel developed a modified explanation to account for the water telescope and for other aberration phenomena. He explained that the aether is generally at rest in the Sun's frame of reference, but objects partially drag the aether along with them as they move. That is, the aether in an object of index of refraction n {\\displaystyle n} moving at velocity v {\\displaystyle v} is partially dragged with a velocity ( 1 − 1 / n 2 ) v {\\displaystyle (1-1/n^{2})v} bringing the light along with it. This factor is known as \"Fresnel's dragging coefficient\". This dragging effect, along with refraction at the telescope's objective, compensates for the slower speed of light in the water telescope in Bradley's explanation. With this modification Fresnel obtained Bradley's vacuum result even for non-vacuum telescopes, and was also able to predict many other phenomena related to the propagation of light in moving bodies. Fresnel's dragging coefficient became the dominant explanation of aberration for the next decades.", "title": "Historical theories of aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 52, "text": "However, the fact that light is polarized (discovered by Fresnel himself) led scientists such as Cauchy and Green to believe that the aether was a totally immobile elastic solid as opposed to Fresnel's fluid aether. There was thus renewed need for an explanation of aberration consistent both with Fresnel's predictions (and Arago's observations) as well as polarization.", "title": "Historical theories of aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 53, "text": "In 1845, Stokes proposed a 'putty-like' aether which acts as a liquid on large scales but as a solid on small scales, thus supporting both the transverse vibrations required for polarized light and the aether flow required to explain aberration. Making only the assumptions that the fluid is irrotational and that the boundary conditions of the flow are such that the aether has zero velocity far from the Earth, but moves at the Earth's velocity at its surface and within it, he was able to completely account for aberration. The velocity of the aether outside of the Earth would decrease as a function of distance from the Earth so light rays from stars would be progressively dragged as they approached the surface of the Earth. The Earth's motion would be unaffected by the aether due to D'Alembert's paradox.", "title": "Historical theories of aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 54, "text": "Both Fresnel and Stokes' theories were popular. However, the question of aberration was put aside during much of the second half of the 19th century as focus of inquiry turned to the electromagnetic properties of aether.", "title": "Historical theories of aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 55, "text": "In the 1880s once electromagnetism was better understood, interest turned again to the problem of aberration. By this time flaws were known to both Fresnel's and Stokes' theories. Fresnel's theory required that the relative velocity of aether and matter to be different for light of different colors, and it was shown that the boundary conditions Stokes had assumed in his theory were inconsistent with his assumption of irrotational flow. At the same time, the modern theories of electromagnetic aether could not account for aberration at all. Many scientists such as Maxwell, Heaviside and Hertz unsuccessfully attempted to solve these problems by incorporating either Fresnel or Stokes' theories into Maxwell's new electromagnetic laws.", "title": "Historical theories of aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 56, "text": "Hendrik Lorentz spent considerable effort along these lines. After working on this problem for a decade, the issues with Stokes' theory caused him to abandon it and to follow Fresnel's suggestion of a (mostly) stationary aether (1892, 1895). However, in Lorentz's model the aether was completely immobile, like the electromagnetic aethers of Cauchy, Green and Maxwell and unlike Fresnel's aether. He obtained Fresnel's dragging coefficient from modifications of Maxwell's electromagnetic theory, including a modification of the time coordinates in moving frames (\"local time\"). In order to explain the Michelson–Morley experiment (1887), which apparently contradicted both Fresnel's and Lorentz's immobile aether theories, and apparently confirmed Stokes' complete aether drag, Lorentz theorized (1892) that objects undergo \"length contraction\" by a factor of 1 − v 2 / c 2 {\\displaystyle {\\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}} in the direction of their motion through the aether. In this way, aberration (and all related optical phenomena) can be accounted for in the context of an immobile aether. Lorentz' theory became the basis for much research in the next decade, and beyond. Its predictions for aberration are identical to those of the relativistic theory.", "title": "Historical theories of aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 57, "text": "Lorentz' theory matched experiment well, but it was complicated and made many unsubstantiated physical assumptions about the microscopic nature of electromagnetic media. In his 1905 theory of special relativity, Albert Einstein reinterpreted the results of Lorentz' theory in a much simpler and more natural conceptual framework which disposed of the idea of an aether. His derivation is given above, and is now the accepted explanation. Robert S. Shankland reported some conversations with Einstein, in which Einstein emphasized the importance of aberration:", "title": "Historical theories of aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 58, "text": "He continued to say the experimental results which had influenced him most were the observations of stellar aberration and Fizeau’s measurements on the speed of light in moving water. “They were enough,” he said.", "title": "Historical theories of aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 59, "text": "Other important motivations for Einstein's development of relativity were the moving magnet and conductor problem and (indirectly) the negative aether drift experiments, already mentioned by him in the introduction of his first relativity paper. Einstein wrote in a note in 1952:", "title": "Historical theories of aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 60, "text": "My own thought was more indirectly influenced by the famous Michelson-Morley experiment. I learned of it through Lorentz’ path breaking investigation on the electrodynamics of moving bodies (1895), of which I knew before the establishment of the special theory of relativity. Lorentz’ basic assumption of a resting ether did not seem directly convincing to me, since it led to an [struck out: to me artificial appearing] interpretation of the Michelson-Morley experiment, which [struck out: did not convince me] seemed unnatural to me. My direct path to the sp. th. rel. was mainly determined by the conviction that the electromotive force induced in a conductor moving in a magnetic field is nothing other than an electric field. But the result of Fizeau’s experiment and the phenomenon of aberration also guided me.", "title": "Historical theories of aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 61, "text": "While Einstein's result is the same as Bradley's original equation except for an extra factor of γ {\\displaystyle \\gamma } , Bradley's result does not merely give the classical limit of the relativistic case, in the sense that it gives incorrect predictions even at low relative velocities. Bradley's explanation cannot account for situations such as the water telescope, nor for many other optical effects (such as interference) that might occur within the telescope. This is because in the Earth's frame it predicts that the direction of propagation of the light beam in the telescope is not normal to the wavefronts of the beam, in contradiction with Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism. It also does not preserve the speed of light c between frames. However, Bradley did correctly infer that the effect was due to relative velocities.", "title": "Historical theories of aberration" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "In optics, aberration is a property of optical systems, such as lenses, that causes light to be spread out over some region of space rather than focused to a point. Aberrations cause the image formed by a lens to be blurred or distorted, with the nature of the distortion depending on the type of aberration. Aberration can be defined as a departure of the performance of an optical system from the predictions of paraxial optics. In an imaging system, it occurs when light from one point of an object does not converge into (or does not diverge from) a single point after transmission through the system. Aberrations occur because the simple paraxial theory is not a completely accurate model of the effect of an optical system on light, rather than due to flaws in the optical elements.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "An image-forming optical system with aberration will produce an image which is not sharp. Makers of optical instruments need to correct optical systems to compensate for aberration.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Aberration can be analyzed with the techniques of geometrical optics. The articles on reflection, refraction and caustics discuss the general features of reflected and refracted rays.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "With an ideal lens, light from any given point on an object would pass through the lens and come together at a single point in the image plane (or, more generally, the image surface). Real lenses do not focus light exactly to a single point, however, even when they are perfectly made. These deviations from the idealized lens performance are called aberrations of the lens.", "title": "Overview" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Aberrations fall into two classes: monochromatic and chromatic. Monochromatic aberrations are caused by the geometry of the lens or mirror and occur both when light is reflected and when it is refracted. They appear even when using monochromatic light, hence the name.", "title": "Overview" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Chromatic aberrations are caused by dispersion, the variation of a lens's refractive index with wavelength. Because of dispersion, different wavelengths of light come to focus at different points. Chromatic aberration does not appear when monochromatic light is used.", "title": "Overview" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "The most common monochromatic aberrations are:", "title": "Overview" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Although defocus is technically the lowest-order of the optical aberrations, it is usually not considered as a lens aberration, since it can be corrected by moving the lens (or the image plane) to bring the image plane to the optical focus of the lens.", "title": "Overview" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "In addition to these aberrations, piston and tilt are effects which shift the position of the focal point. Piston and tilt are not true optical aberrations, since when an otherwise perfect wavefront is altered by piston and tilt, it will still form a perfect, aberration-free image, only shifted to a different position.", "title": "Overview" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Chromatic aberration occurs when different wavelengths are not focussed to the same point. Types of chromatic aberration are:", "title": "Overview" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "In a perfect optical system in the classical theory of optics, rays of light proceeding from any object point unite in an image point; and therefore the object space is reproduced in an image space. The introduction of simple auxiliary terms, due to Gauss, named the focal lengths and focal planes, permits the determination of the image of any object for any system. The Gaussian theory, however, is only true so long as the angles made by all rays with the optical axis (the symmetrical axis of the system) are infinitely small, i.e., with infinitesimal objects, images and lenses; in practice these conditions may not be realized, and the images projected by uncorrected systems are, in general, ill-defined and often blurred if the aperture or field of view exceeds certain limits.", "title": "Theory of monochromatic aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "The investigations of James Clerk Maxwell and Ernst Abbe showed that the properties of these reproductions, i.e., the relative position and magnitude of the images, are not special properties of optical systems, but necessary consequences of the supposition (per Abbe) of the reproduction of all points of a space in image points, and are independent of the manner in which the reproduction is effected. These authors showed, however, that no optical system can justify these suppositions, since they are contradictory to the fundamental laws of reflection and refraction. Consequently, the Gaussian theory only supplies a convenient method of approximating reality; realistic optical systems fall short of this unattainable ideal. Currently, all that can be accomplished is the projection of a single plane onto another plane; but even in this, aberrations always occurs and it may be unlikely that these will ever be entirely corrected.", "title": "Theory of monochromatic aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Let S (fig. 1) be any optical system, rays proceeding from an axis point O under an angle u1 will unite in the axis point O'1; and those under an angle u2 in the axis point O'2. If there is refraction at a collective spherical surface, or through a thin positive lens, O'2 will lie in front of O'1 so long as the angle u2 is greater than u1 (under correction); and conversely with a dispersive surface or lenses (over correction). The caustic, in the first case, resembles the sign > (greater than); in the second < (less than). If the angle u1 is very small, O'1 is the Gaussian image; and O'1 O'2 is termed the longitudinal aberration, and O'1R the lateral aberration of the pencils with aperture u2. If the pencil with the angle u2 is that of the maximum aberration of all the pencils transmitted, then in a plane perpendicular to the axis at O'1 there is a circular disk of confusion of radius O'1R, and in a parallel plane at O'2 another one of radius O'2R2; between these two is situated the disk of least confusion.", "title": "Theory of monochromatic aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "The largest opening of the pencils, which take part in the reproduction of O, i.e., the angle u, is generally determined by the margin of one of the lenses or by a hole in a thin plate placed between, before, or behind the lenses of the system. This hole is termed the stop or diaphragm; Abbe used the term aperture stop for both the hole and the limiting margin of the lens. The component S1 of the system, situated between the aperture stop and the object O, projects an image of the diaphragm, termed by Abbe the entrance pupil; the exit pupil is the image formed by the component S2, which is placed behind the aperture stop. All rays which issue from O and pass through the aperture stop also pass through the entrance and exit pupils, since these are images of the aperture stop. Since the maximum aperture of the pencils issuing from O is the angle u subtended by the entrance pupil at this point, the magnitude of the aberration will be determined by the position and diameter of the entrance pupil. If the system be entirely behind the aperture stop, then this is itself the entrance pupil (front stop); if entirely in front, it is the exit pupil (back stop).", "title": "Theory of monochromatic aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "If the object point be infinitely distant, all rays received by the first member of the system are parallel, and their intersections, after traversing the system, vary according to their perpendicular height of incidence, i.e. their distance from the axis. This distance replaces the angle u in the preceding considerations; and the aperture, i.e., the radius of the entrance pupil, is its maximum value.", "title": "Theory of monochromatic aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "If rays issuing from O (fig. 1) are concurrent, it does not follow that points in a portion of a plane perpendicular at O to the axis will be also concurrent, even if the part of the plane be very small. As the diameter of the lens increases (i.e., with increasing aperture), the neighboring point N will be reproduced, but attended by aberrations comparable in magnitude to ON. These aberrations are avoided if, according to Abbe, the sine condition, sin u'1/sin u1=sin u'2/sin u2, holds for all rays reproducing the point O. If the object point O is infinitely distant, u1 and u2 are to be replaced by h1 and h2, the perpendicular heights of incidence; the sine condition then becomes sin u'1/h1=sin u'2/h2. A system fulfilling this condition and free from spherical aberration is called aplanatic (Greek a-, privative, plann, a wandering). This word was first used by Robert Blair to characterize a superior achromatism, and, subsequently, by many writers to denote freedom from spherical aberration as well.", "title": "Theory of monochromatic aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "Since the aberration increases with the distance of the ray from the center of the lens, the aberration increases as the lens diameter increases (or, correspondingly, with the diameter of the aperture), and hence can be minimized by reducing the aperture, at the cost of also reducing the amount of light reaching the image plane.", "title": "Theory of monochromatic aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "A point O (fig. 2) at a finite distance from the axis (or with an infinitely distant object, a point which subtends a finite angle at the system) is, in general, even then not sharply reproduced if the pencil of rays issuing from it and traversing the system is made infinitely narrow by reducing the aperture stop; such a pencil consists of the rays which can pass from the object point through the now infinitely small entrance pupil. It is seen (ignoring exceptional cases) that the pencil does not meet the refracting or reflecting surface at right angles; therefore it is astigmatic (Gr. a-, privative, stigmia, a point). Naming the central ray passing through the entrance pupil the axis of the pencil or principal ray, it can be said: the rays of the pencil intersect, not in one point, but in two focal lines, which can be assumed to be at right angles to the principal ray; of these, one lies in the plane containing the principal ray and the axis of the system, i.e. in the first principal section or meridional section, and the other at right angles to it, i.e. in the second principal section or sagittal section. We receive, therefore, in no single intercepting plane behind the system, as, for example, a focusing screen, an image of the object point; on the other hand, in each of two planes lines O' and O\" are separately formed (in neighboring planes ellipses are formed), and in a plane between O' and O\" a circle of least confusion. The interval O'O\", termed the astigmatic difference, increases, in general, with the angle W made by the principal ray OP with the axis of the system, i.e. with the field of view. Two astigmatic image surfaces correspond to one object plane; and these are in contact at the axis point; on the one lie the focal lines of the first kind, on the other those of the second. Systems in which the two astigmatic surfaces coincide are termed anastigmatic or stigmatic.", "title": "Theory of monochromatic aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "Sir Isaac Newton was probably the discoverer of astigmation; the position of the astigmatic image lines was determined by Thomas Young; and the theory was developed by Allvar Gullstrand. A bibliography by P. Culmann is given in Moritz von Rohr's Die Bilderzeugung in optischen Instrumenten.", "title": "Theory of monochromatic aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "By opening the stop wider, similar deviations arise for lateral points as have been already discussed for axial points; but in this case they are much more complicated. The course of the rays in the meridional section is no longer symmetrical to the principal ray of the pencil; and on an intercepting plane there appears, instead of a luminous point, a patch of light, not symmetrical about a point, and often exhibiting a resemblance to a comet having its tail directed towards or away from the axis. From this appearance it takes its name. The unsymmetrical form of the meridional pencil—formerly the only one considered—is coma in the narrower sense only; other errors of coma have been treated by Arthur König and Moritz von Rohr, and later by Allvar Gullstrand.", "title": "Theory of monochromatic aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "If the above errors be eliminated, the two astigmatic surfaces united, and a sharp image obtained with a wide aperture—there remains the necessity to correct the curvature of the image surface, especially when the image is to be received upon a plane surface, e.g. in photography. In most cases the surface is concave towards the system.", "title": "Theory of monochromatic aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "Even if the image is sharp, it may be distorted compared to ideal pinhole projection. In pinhole projection, the magnification of an object is inversely proportional to its distance to the camera along the optical axis so that a camera pointing directly at a flat surface reproduces that flat surface. Distortion can be thought of as stretching the image non-uniformly, or, equivalently, as a variation in magnification across the field. While \"distortion\" can include arbitrary deformation of an image, the most pronounced modes of distortion produced by conventional imaging optics is \"barrel distortion\", in which the center of the image is magnified more than the perimeter (figure 3a). The reverse, in which the perimeter is magnified more than the center, is known as \"pincushion distortion\" (figure 3b). This effect is called lens distortion or image distortion, and there are algorithms to correct it.", "title": "Theory of monochromatic aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "Systems free of distortion are called orthoscopic (orthos, right, skopein to look) or rectilinear (straight lines).", "title": "Theory of monochromatic aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "This aberration is quite distinct from that of the sharpness of reproduction; in unsharp, reproduction, the question of distortion arises if only parts of the object can be recognized in the figure. If, in an unsharp image, a patch of light corresponds to an object point, the center of gravity of the patch may be regarded as the image point, this being the point where the plane receiving the image, e.g., a focusing screen, intersects the ray passing through the middle of the stop. This assumption is justified if a poor image on the focusing screen remains stationary when the aperture is diminished; in practice, this generally occurs. This ray, named by Abbe a principal ray (not to be confused with the principal rays of the Gaussian theory), passes through the center of the entrance pupil before the first refraction, and the center of the exit pupil after the last refraction. From this it follows that correctness of drawing depends solely upon the principal rays; and is independent of the sharpness or curvature of the image field. Referring to fig. 4, we have O'Q'/OQ = a' tan w'/a tan w = 1/N, where N is the scale or magnification of the image. For N to be constant for all values of w, a' tan w'/a tan w must also be constant. If the ratio a'/a be sufficiently constant, as is often the case, the above relation reduces to the condition of Airy, i.e. tan w'/ tan w= a constant. This simple relation (see Camb. Phil. Trans., 1830, 3, p. 1) is fulfilled in all systems which are symmetrical with respect to their diaphragm (briefly named symmetrical or holosymmetrical objectives), or which consist of two like, but different-sized, components, placed from the diaphragm in the ratio of their size, and presenting the same curvature to it (hemisymmetrical objectives); in these systems tan w' / tan w = 1.", "title": "Theory of monochromatic aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "The constancy of a'/a necessary for this relation to hold was pointed out by R. H. Bow (Brit. Journ. Photog., 1861), and Thomas Sutton (Photographic Notes, 1862); it has been treated by O. Lummer and by M. von Rohr (Zeit. f. Instrumentenk., 1897, 17, and 1898, 18, p. 4). It requires the middle of the aperture stop to be reproduced in the centers of the entrance and exit pupils without spherical aberration. M. von Rohr showed that for systems fulfilling neither the Airy nor the Bow-Sutton condition, the ratio a' cos w'/a tan w will be constant for one distance of the object. This combined condition is exactly fulfilled by holosymmetrical objectives reproducing with the scale 1, and by hemisymmetrical, if the scale of reproduction be equal to the ratio of the sizes of the two components.", "title": "Theory of monochromatic aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "Circular wavefront profiles associated with aberrations may be mathematically modeled using Zernike polynomials. Developed by Frits Zernike in the 1930s, Zernike's polynomials are orthogonal over a circle of unit radius. A complex, aberrated wavefront profile may be curve-fitted with Zernike polynomials to yield a set of fitting coefficients that individually represent different types of aberrations. These Zernike coefficients are linearly independent, thus individual aberration contributions to an overall wavefront may be isolated and quantified separately.", "title": "Theory of monochromatic aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "There are even and odd Zernike polynomials. The even Zernike polynomials are defined as", "title": "Theory of monochromatic aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "and the odd Zernike polynomials as", "title": "Theory of monochromatic aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "where m and n are nonnegative integers with n ≥ m {\\displaystyle n\\geq m} , Φ is the azimuthal angle in radians, and ρ is the normalized radial distance. The radial polynomials R n m {\\displaystyle R_{n}^{m}} have no azimuthal dependence, and are defined as", "title": "Theory of monochromatic aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "and R n m ( ρ ) = 0 {\\displaystyle R_{n}^{m}(\\rho )=0} if n − m {\\displaystyle n-m} is odd.", "title": "Theory of monochromatic aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "The first few Zernike polynomials, multiplied by their respective fitting coefficients, are:", "title": "Theory of monochromatic aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "where ρ {\\displaystyle \\rho } is the normalized pupil radius with 0 ≤ ρ ≤ 1 {\\displaystyle 0\\leq \\rho \\leq 1} , ϕ {\\displaystyle \\phi } is the azimuthal angle around the pupil with 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ 2 π {\\displaystyle 0\\leq \\phi \\leq 2\\pi } , and the fitting coefficients a 0 , … , a 8 {\\displaystyle a_{0},\\ldots ,a_{8}} are the wavefront errors in wavelengths.", "title": "Theory of monochromatic aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "As in Fourier synthesis using sines and cosines, a wavefront may be perfectly represented by a sufficiently large number of higher-order Zernike polynomials. However, wavefronts with very steep gradients or very high spatial frequency structure, such as produced by propagation through atmospheric turbulence or aerodynamic flowfields, are not well modeled by Zernike polynomials, which tend to low-pass filter fine spatial definition in the wavefront. In this case, other fitting methods such as fractals or singular value decomposition may yield improved fitting results.", "title": "Theory of monochromatic aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "The circle polynomials were introduced by Frits Zernike to evaluate the point image of an aberrated optical system taking into account the effects of diffraction. The perfect point image in the presence of diffraction had already been described by Airy, as early as 1835. It took almost hundred years to arrive at a comprehensive theory and modeling of the point image of aberrated systems (Zernike and Nijboer). The analysis by Nijboer and Zernike describes the intensity distribution close to the optimum focal plane. An extended theory that allows the calculation of the point image amplitude and intensity over a much larger volume in the focal region was recently developed (Extended Nijboer-Zernike theory). This Extended Nijboer-Zernike theory of point image or 'point-spread function' formation has found applications in general research on image formation, especially for systems with a high numerical aperture, and in characterizing optical systems with respect to their aberrations.", "title": "Theory of monochromatic aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "The preceding review of the several errors of reproduction belongs to the Abbe theory of aberrations, in which definite aberrations are discussed separately; it is well suited to practical needs, for in the construction of an optical instrument certain errors are sought to be eliminated, the selection of which is justified by experience. In the mathematical sense, however, this selection is arbitrary; the reproduction of a finite object with a finite aperture entails, in all probability, an infinite number of aberrations. This number is only finite if the object and aperture are assumed to be infinitely small of a certain order; and with each order of infinite smallness, i.e. with each degree of approximation to reality (to finite objects and apertures), a certain number of aberrations is associated. This connection is only supplied by theories which treat aberrations generally and analytically by means of indefinite series.", "title": "Analytic treatment of aberrations" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "A ray proceeding from an object point O (fig. 5) can be defined by the coordinates (ξ, η). Of this point O in an object plane I, at right angles to the axis, and two other coordinates (x, y), the point in which the ray intersects the entrance pupil, i.e. the plane II. Similarly the corresponding image ray may be defined by the points (ξ', η'), and (x', y'), in the planes I' and II'. The origins of these four plane coordinate systems may be collinear with the axis of the optical system; and the corresponding axes may be parallel. Each of the four coordinates ξ', η', x', y' are functions of ξ, η, x, y; and if it be assumed that the field of view and the aperture be infinitely small, then ξ, η, x, y are of the same order of infinitesimals; consequently by expanding ξ', η', x', y' in ascending powers of ξ, η, x, y, series are obtained in which it is only necessary to consider the lowest powers. It is readily seen that if the optical system be symmetrical, the origins of the coordinate systems collinear with the optical axis and the corresponding axes parallel, then by changing the signs of ξ, η, x, y, the values ξ', η', x', y' must likewise change their sign, but retain their arithmetical values; this means that the series are restricted to odd powers of the unmarked variables.", "title": "Analytic treatment of aberrations" }, { "paragraph_id": 36, "text": "The nature of the reproduction consists in the rays proceeding from a point O being united in another point O'; in general, this will not be the case, for ξ', η' vary if ξ, η be constant, but x, y variable. It may be assumed that the planes I' and II' are drawn where the images of the planes I and II are formed by rays near the axis by the ordinary Gaussian rules; and by an extension of these rules, not, however, corresponding to reality, the Gauss image point O'0, with coordinates ξ'0, η'0, of the point O at some distance from the axis could be constructed. Writing Dξ'=ξ'-ξ'0 and Dη'=η'-η'0, then Dξ' and Dη' are the aberrations belonging to ξ, η and x, y, and are functions of these magnitudes which, when expanded in series, contain only odd powers, for the same reasons as given above. On account of the aberrations of all rays which pass through O, a patch of light, depending in size on the lowest powers of ξ, η, x, y which the aberrations contain, will be formed in the plane I'. These degrees, named by J. Petzval the numerical orders of the image, are consequently only odd powers; the condition for the formation of an image of the mth order is that in the series for Dξ' and Dη' the coefficients of the powers of the 3rd, 5th...(m-2)th degrees must vanish. The images of the Gauss theory being of the third order, the next problem is to obtain an image of 5th order, or to make the coefficients of the powers of 3rd degree zero. This necessitates the satisfying of five equations; in other words, there are five alterations of the 3rd order, the vanishing of which produces an image of the 5th order.", "title": "Analytic treatment of aberrations" }, { "paragraph_id": 37, "text": "The expression for these coefficients in terms of the constants of the optical system, i.e. the radii, thicknesses, refractive indices and distances between the lenses, was solved by L. Seidel; in 1840, J. Petzval constructed his portrait objective, from similar calculations which have never been published. The theory was elaborated by S. Finterswalder, who also published a posthumous paper of Seidel containing a short view of his work; a simpler form was given by A. Kerber. A. Konig and M. von Rohr have represented Kerber's method, and have deduced the Seidel formulae from geometrical considerations based on the Abbe method, and have interpreted the analytical results geometrically.", "title": "Analytic treatment of aberrations" }, { "paragraph_id": 38, "text": "The aberrations can also be expressed by means of the characteristic function of the system and its differential coefficients, instead of by the radii, &c., of the lenses; these formulae are not immediately applicable, but give, however, the relation between the number of aberrations and the order. Sir William Rowan Hamilton (British Assoc. Report, 1833, p. 360) thus derived the aberrations of the third order; and in later times the method was pursued by Clerk Maxwell (Proc. London Math. Soc., 1874–1875; (see also the treatises of R. S. Heath and L. A. Herman), M. Thiesen (Berlin. Akad. Sitzber., 1890, 35, p. 804), H. Bruns (Leipzig. Math. Phys. Ber., 1895, 21, p. 410), and particularly successfully by K. Schwarzschild (Göttingen. Akad. Abhandl., 1905, 4, No. 1), who thus discovered the aberrations of the 5th order (of which there are nine), and possibly the shortest proof of the practical (Seidel) formulae. A. Gullstrand (vide supra, and Ann. d. Phys., 1905, 18, p. 941) founded his theory of aberrations on the differential geometry of surfaces.", "title": "Analytic treatment of aberrations" }, { "paragraph_id": 39, "text": "The aberrations of the third order are: (1) aberration of the axis point; (2) aberration of points whose distance from the axis is very small, less than of the third order — the deviation from the sine condition and coma here fall together in one class; (3) astigmatism; (4) curvature of the field; (5) distortion.", "title": "Analytic treatment of aberrations" }, { "paragraph_id": 40, "text": "The classical imaging problem is to reproduce perfectly a finite plane (the object) onto another plane (the image) through a finite aperture. It is impossible to do so perfectly for more than one such pair of planes (this was proven with increasing generality by Maxwell in 1858, by Bruns in 1895, and by Carathéodory in 1926, see summary in Walther, A., J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 6, 415–422 (1989)). For a single pair of planes (e.g. for a single focus setting of an objective), however, the problem can in principle be solved perfectly. Examples of such a theoretically perfect system include the Luneburg lens and the Maxwell fish-eye.", "title": "Practical elimination of aberrations" }, { "paragraph_id": 41, "text": "Practical methods solve this problem with an accuracy which mostly suffices for the special purpose of each species of instrument. The problem of finding a system which reproduces a given object upon a given plane with given magnification (insofar as aberrations must be taken into account) could be dealt with by means of the approximation theory; in most cases, however, the analytical difficulties were too great for older calculation methods but may be ameliorated by application of modern computer systems. Solutions, however, have been obtained in special cases. At the present time constructors almost always employ the inverse method: they compose a system from certain, often quite personal experiences, and test, by the trigonometrical calculation of the paths of several rays, whether the system gives the desired reproduction (examples are given in A. Gleichen, Lehrbuch der geometrischen Optik, Leipzig and Berlin, 1902). The radii, thicknesses and distances are continually altered until the errors of the image become sufficiently small. By this method only certain errors of reproduction are investigated, especially individual members, or all, of those named above. The analytical approximation theory is often employed provisionally, since its accuracy does not generally suffice.", "title": "Practical elimination of aberrations" }, { "paragraph_id": 42, "text": "In order to render spherical aberration and the deviation from the sine condition small throughout the whole aperture, there is given to a ray with a finite angle of aperture u* (width infinitely distant objects: with a finite height of incidence h*) the same distance of intersection, and the same sine ratio as to one neighboring the axis (u* or h* may not be much smaller than the largest aperture U or H to be used in the system). The rays with an angle of aperture smaller than u* would not have the same distance of intersection and the same sine ratio; these deviations are called zones, and the constructor endeavors to reduce these to a minimum. The same holds for the errors depending upon the angle of the field of view, w: astigmatism, curvature of field and distortion are eliminated for a definite value, w*, zones of astigmatism, curvature of field and distortion, attend smaller values of w. The practical optician names such systems: corrected for the angle of aperture u* (the height of incidence h*) or the angle of field of view w*. Spherical aberration and changes of the sine ratios are often represented graphically as functions of the aperture, in the same way as the deviations of two astigmatic image surfaces of the image plane of the axis point are represented as functions of the angles of the field of view.", "title": "Practical elimination of aberrations" }, { "paragraph_id": 43, "text": "The final form of a practical system consequently rests on compromise; enlargement of the aperture results in a diminution of the available field of view, and vice versa. But the larger aperture will give the larger resolution. The following may be regarded as typical:", "title": "Practical elimination of aberrations" }, { "paragraph_id": 44, "text": "In optical systems composed of lenses, the position, magnitude and errors of the image depend upon the refractive indices of the glass employed (see Lens (optics) and Monochromatic aberration, above). Since the index of refraction varies with the color or wavelength of the light (see dispersion), it follows that a system of lenses (uncorrected) projects images of different colors in somewhat different places and sizes and with different aberrations; i.e. there are chromatic differences of the distances of intersection, of magnifications, and of monochromatic aberrations. If mixed light be employed (e.g. white light) all these images are formed and they cause a confusion, named chromatic aberration; for instance, instead of a white margin on a dark background, there is perceived a colored margin, or narrow spectrum. The absence of this error is termed achromatism, and an optical system so corrected is termed achromatic. A system is said to be chromatically under-corrected when it shows the same kind of chromatic error as a thin positive lens, otherwise it is said to be overcorrected.", "title": "Chromatic or color aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 45, "text": "If, in the first place, monochromatic aberrations be neglected — in other words, the Gaussian theory be accepted — then every reproduction is determined by the positions of the focal planes, and the magnitude of the focal lengths, or if the focal lengths, as ordinarily happens, be equal, by three constants of reproduction. These constants are determined by the data of the system (radii, thicknesses, distances, indices, etc., of the lenses); therefore their dependence on the refractive index, and consequently on the color, are calculable. The refractive indices for different wavelengths must be known for each kind of glass made use of. In this manner the conditions are maintained that any one constant of reproduction is equal for two different colors, i.e. this constant is achromatized. For example, it is possible, with one thick lens in air, to achromatize the position of a focal plane of the magnitude of the focal length. If all three constants of reproduction be achromatized, then the Gaussian image for all distances of objects is the same for the two colors, and the system is said to be in stable achromatism.", "title": "Chromatic or color aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 46, "text": "In practice it is more advantageous (after Abbe) to determine the chromatic aberration (for instance, that of the distance of intersection) for a fixed position of the object, and express it by a sum in which each component conlins the amount due to each refracting surface. In a plane containing the image point of one color, another colour produces a disk of confusion; this is similar to the confusion caused by two zones in spherical aberration. For infinitely distant objects the radius Of the chromatic disk of confusion is proportional to the linear aperture, and independent of the focal length (vide supra, Monochromatic Aberration of the Axis Point); and since this disk becomes the less harmful with an increasing image of a given object, or with increasing focal length, it follows that the deterioration of the image is proportional to the ratio of the aperture to the focal length, i.e. the relative aperture. (This explains the gigantic focal lengths in vogue before the discovery of achromatism.)", "title": "Chromatic or color aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 47, "text": "Examples:", "title": "Chromatic or color aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 48, "text": "Newton failed to perceive the existence of media of different dispersive powers required by achromatism; consequently he constructed large reflectors instead of refractors. James Gregory and Leonhard Euler arrived at the correct view from a false conception of the achromatism of the eye; this was determined by Chester More Hall in 1728, Klingenstierna in 1754 and by Dollond in 1757, who constructed the celebrated achromatic telescopes. (See telescope.)", "title": "Chromatic or color aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 49, "text": "Glass with weaker dispersive power (greater v {\\displaystyle v} ) is named crown glass; that with greater dispersive power, flint glass. For the construction of an achromatic collective lens ( f {\\displaystyle f} positive) it follows, by means of equation (4), that a collective lens I. of crown glass and a dispersive lens II. of flint glass must be chosen; the latter, although the weaker, corrects the other chromatically by its greater dispersive power. For an achromatic dispersive lens the converse must be adopted. This is, at the present day, the ordinary type, e.g., of telescope objective; the values of the four radii must satisfy the equations (2) and (4). Two other conditions may also be postulated: one is always the elimination of the aberration on the axis; the second either the Herschel or Fraunhofer Condition, the latter being the best vide supra, Monochromatic Aberration). In practice, however, it is often more useful to avoid the second condition by making the lenses have contact, i.e. equal radii. According to P. Rudolph (Eder's Jahrb. f. Photog., 1891, 5, p. 225; 1893, 7, p. 221), cemented objectives of thin lenses permit the elimination of spherical aberration on the axis, if, as above, the collective lens has a smaller refractive index; on the other hand, they permit the elimination of astigmatism and curvature of the field, if the collective lens has a greater refractive index (this follows from the Petzval equation; see L. Seidel, Astr. Nachr., 1856, p. 289). Should the cemented system be positive, then the more powerful lens must be positive; and, according to (4), to the greater power belongs the weaker dispersive power (greater v {\\displaystyle v} ), that is to say, crown glass; consequently the crown glass must have the greater refractive index for astigmatic and plane images. In all earlier kinds of glass, however, the dispersive power increased with the refractive index; that is, v {\\displaystyle v} decreased as n {\\displaystyle n} increased; but some of the Jena glasses by E. Abbe and O. Schott were crown glasses of high refractive index, and achromatic systems from such crown glasses, with flint glasses of lower refractive index, are called the new achromats, and were employed by P. Rudolph in the first anastigmats (photographic objectives).", "title": "Chromatic or color aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 50, "text": "Instead of making d f {\\displaystyle df} vanish, a certain value can be assigned to it which will produce, by the addition of the two lenses, any desired chromatic deviation, e.g. sufficient to eliminate one present in other parts of the system. If the lenses I. and II. be cemented and have the same refractive index for one color, then its effect for that one color is that of a lens of one piece; by such decomposition of a lens it can be made chromatic or achromatic at will, without altering its spherical effect. If its chromatic effect ( d f / f {\\displaystyle df/f} ) be greater than that of the same lens, this being made of the more dispersive of the two glasses employed, it is termed hyper-chromatic.", "title": "Chromatic or color aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 51, "text": "For two thin lenses separated by a distance D {\\displaystyle D} the condition for achromatism is D = v 1 f 1 + v 2 f 2 {\\displaystyle D=v_{1}f_{1}+v_{2}f_{2}} ; if v 1 = v 2 {\\displaystyle v_{1}=v_{2}} (e.g. if the lenses be made of the same glass), this reduces to D = ( f 1 + f 2 ) / 2 {\\displaystyle D=(f_{1}+f_{2})/2} , known as the condition for oculars.", "title": "Chromatic or color aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 52, "text": "If a constant of reproduction, for instance the focal length, be made equal for two colors, then it is not the same for other colors, if two different glasses are employed. For example, the condition for achromatism (4) for two thin lenses in contact is fulfilled in only one part of the spectrum, since d n 2 / d n 1 {\\displaystyle dn_{2}/dn_{1}} varies within the spectrum. This fact was first ascertained by J. Fraunhofer, who defined the colors by means of the dark lines in the solar spectrum; and showed that the ratio of the dispersion of two glasses varied about 20% from the red to the violet (the variation for glass and water is about 50%). If, therefore, for two colors, a and b, f a = f b = f {\\displaystyle f_{a}=f_{b}=f} , then for a third color, c, the focal length is different; that is, if c lies between a and b, then f c < f {\\displaystyle f_{c}<f} , and vice versa; these algebraic results follow from the fact that towards the red the dispersion of the positive crown glass preponderates, towards the violet that of the negative flint. These chromatic errors of systems, which are achromatic for two colors, are called the secondary spectrum, and depend upon the aperture and focal length in the same manner as the primary chromatic errors do.", "title": "Chromatic or color aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 53, "text": "In fig. 6, taken from M. von Rohr's Theorie und Geschichte des photographischen Objectivs, the abscissae are focal lengths, and the ordinates wavelengths. The Fraunhofer lines used are shown in adjacent table.", "title": "Chromatic or color aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 54, "text": "The focal lengths are made equal for the lines C and F. In the neighborhood of 550 nm the tangent to the curve is parallel to the axis of wavelengths; and the focal length varies least over a fairly large range of color, therefore in this neighborhood the color union is at its best. Moreover, this region of the spectrum is that which appears brightest to the human eye, and consequently this curve of the secondary on spectrum, obtained by making f C = f F {\\displaystyle f_{C}=f_{F}} , is, according to the experiments of Sir G. G. Stokes (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1878), the most suitable for visual instruments (optical achromatism,). In a similar manner, for systems used in photography, the vertex of the color curve must be placed in the position of the maximum sensibility of the plates; this is generally supposed to be at G'; and to accomplish this the F and violet mercury lines are united. This artifice is specially adopted in objectives for astronomical photography (pure actinic achromatism). For ordinary photography, however, there is this disadvantage: the image on the focusing-screen and the correct adjustment of the photographic sensitive plate are not in register; in astronomical photography this difference is constant, but in other kinds it depends on the distance of the objects. On this account the lines D and G' are united for ordinary photographic objectives; the optical as well as the actinic image is chromatically inferior, but both lie in the same place; and consequently the best correction lies in F (this is known as the actinic correction or freedom from chemical focus).", "title": "Chromatic or color aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 55, "text": "Should there be in two lenses in contact the same focal lengths for three colours a, b, and c, i.e. f a = f b = f c = f {\\displaystyle f_{a}=f_{b}=f_{c}=f} , then the relative partial dispersion ( n c − n b ) ( n a − n b ) {\\displaystyle (n_{c}-n_{b})(n_{a}-n_{b})} must be equal for the two kinds of glass employed. This follows by considering equation (4) for the two pairs of colors ac and bc. Until recently no glasses were known with a proportional degree of absorption; but R. Blair (Trans. Edin. Soc., 1791, 3, p. 3), P. Barlow, and F. S. Archer overcame the difficulty by constructing fluid lenses between glass walls. Fraunhofer prepared glasses which reduced the secondary spectrum; but permanent success was only assured on the introduction of the Jena glasses by E. Abbe and O. Schott. In using glasses not having proportional dispersion, the deviation of a third colour can be eliminated by two lenses, if an interval be allowed between them; or by three lenses in contact, which may not all consist of the old glasses. In uniting three colors an achromatism of a higher order is derived; there is yet a residual tertiary spectrum, but it can always be neglected.", "title": "Chromatic or color aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 56, "text": "The Gaussian theory is only an approximation; monochromatic or spherical aberrations still occur, which will be different for different colors; and should they be compensated for one color, the image of another color would prove disturbing. The most important is the chromatic difference of aberration of the axis point, which is still present to disturb the image, after par-axial rays of different colors are united by an appropriate combination of glasses. If a collective system be corrected for the axis point for a definite wavelength, then, on account of the greater dispersion in the negative components — the flint glasses, — overcorrection will arise for the shorter wavelengths (this being the error of the negative components), and under-correction for the longer wavelengths (the error of crown glass lenses preponderating in the red). This error was treated by Jean le Rond d'Alembert, and, in special detail, by C. F. Gauss. It increases rapidly with the aperture, and is more important with medium apertures than the secondary spectrum of par-axial rays; consequently, spherical aberration must be eliminated for two colors, and if this be impossible, then it must be eliminated for those particular wavelengths which are most effectual for the instrument in question (a graphical representation of this error is given in M. von Rohr, Theorie und Geschichte des photographischen Objectivs).", "title": "Chromatic or color aberration" }, { "paragraph_id": 57, "text": "The condition for the reproduction of a surface element in the place of a sharply reproduced point — the constant of the sine relationship must also be fulfilled with large apertures for several colors. E. Abbe succeeded in computing microscope objectives free from error of the axis point and satisfying the sine condition for several colors, which therefore, according to his definition, were aplanatic for several colors; such systems he termed apochromatic. While, however, the magnification of the individual zones is the same, it is not the same for red as for blue; and there is a chromatic difference of magnification. This is produced in the same amount, but in the opposite sense, by the oculars, which Abbe used with these objectives (compensating oculars), so that it is eliminated in the image of the whole microscope. The best telescope objectives, and photographic objectives intended for three-color work, are also apochromatic, even if they do not possess quite the same quality of correction as microscope objectives do. The chromatic differences of other errors of reproduction seldom have practical importance.", "title": "Chromatic or color aberration" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Amy Lee Grant (born November 25, 1960) is an American singer-songwriter and musician. She began in contemporary Christian music (CCM) before crossing over to pop music in the 1980s and 1990s. She has been referred to as \"The Queen of Christian Pop\".", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "As of 2009 she had sold more than 30 million albums worldwide, won six Grammy Awards, 22 Gospel Music Association Dove Awards, and had the first Christian album to go platinum. She was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2006 for her contributions to the entertainment industry and in 2022, she was announced as a recipient of the Kennedy Center Honors.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Grant made her debut as a teenager, gaining fame in Christian music during the 1980s with such hits as \"Father's Eyes\", \"El Shaddai\", and \"Angels\". In the mid-1980s, she began broadening her audience and soon became one of the first CCM artists to cross over into mainstream pop on the heels of her successful albums Unguarded and Lead Me On.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "In 1986, she scored her first Billboard Hot 100 no. 1 song in a duet with Peter Cetera, \"The Next Time I Fall\". In 1991, she released the blockbuster album Heart in Motion which became her best-selling album to date, topping the Billboard Christian album chart for 32 weeks, selling five million copies in the U.S. and producing her second no. 1 pop single \"Baby Baby\" and produced another three top 10 on Billboard Hot 100; \"That's What Love Is For\", \"Every Heartbeat\" and \"Good for Me\".", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "She is the author of several books, including a memoir, Mosaic: Pieces of My Life So Far, and a book based on the popular Christmas song \"Breath of Heaven (Mary's Song)\" that she co-wrote.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Born in Augusta, Georgia, Grant is the youngest of four sisters. Her family settled in Nashville in 1967. She is a great-granddaughter of Nashville philanthropist A. M. Burton (founder of Life and Casualty Insurance Company, eponym of Nashville's Life & Casualty Tower, WLAC Radio, and WLAC-TV) and Lillie Burton. She has acknowledged the influence of the Burtons on her development as a musician, starting with their common membership in Nashville's Ashwood Church of Christ.", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "In 1976, Grant wrote her first song (\"Mountain Top\"), performed in public for the first time at Harpeth Hall School, the all-girls school she attended in Nashville. She recorded a demo tape for her parents with church youth-leader Brown Bannister. While Bannister was dubbing a copy of the tape, Chris Christian, the owner of the recording studio heard the demo and called Word Records. He played it over the phone and she was offered a recording contract, five weeks before her 16th birthday.", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "In 1977, she recorded her first album, Amy Grant, produced by Brown Bannister, who would also produce her next 11 albums. It was released in early 1978, one month before her high-school graduation. Toward the end of 1978 she performed her first ticketed concert after beginning her first year at Furman University.", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "In May 1979, while at the album-release party for her second album, My Father's Eyes, Grant met Gary Chapman, who had written the title track and would become her first husband. Grant and Chapman toured together in mid-1979. In late 1980, she transferred to Vanderbilt University where she was a member of the sorority Kappa Alpha Theta. Grant then made a few more albums before dropping out of college to pursue a career in music—Never Alone, followed by a pair of live albums in 1981 (In Concert and In Concert Volume Two), both backed by an augmented edition of the DeGarmo & Key band. It was during these early shows that Grant also established one of her concert trademarks: performing barefoot. To date, Grant continues to take off her shoes midway through performances, as she has said, \"it is just more comfortable.\"", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "1982 saw the release of her breakthrough album Age to Age. The album contains the signature track, \"El Shaddai\" (written by Michael Card) and the Grant-Chapman penned song, \"In a Little While\". \"El Shaddai\" was later awarded one of the \"Songs of the Century\" by the RIAA in 2001. Grant received her first Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Gospel Performance, as well as two GMA Dove Awards for Gospel Artist of the Year and Pop/Contemporary Album of the Year. Age to Age became the first Christian album by a solo artist to be certified gold (1983) and the first Christian album to be certified platinum (1985).", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "In the mid-1980s, Grant began touring and recording with young up-and-coming songwriter Michael W. Smith. Grant and Smith continue to have a strong friendship and creative relationship, often writing songs for or contributing vocals to each other's albums, and as of 2019, often touring together annually during November and December putting on Christmas concerts. During the 1980s, Grant was also a backup singer for Bill Gaither.", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "Grant followed this album with the first of her Christmas albums, which would later be the basis for her holiday shows. In 1984, she released another pop-oriented Christian hit, Straight Ahead, earning Grant her first appearance at the Grammy Awards show in 1985. The head of NBC took notice of Grant's performance and called her manager to book her for her own Christmas special.", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Shortly after Grant established herself as the \"Queen of Christian Pop\" she changed directions to widen her fan base (and hence her musical message). Her goal was to become the first Christian singer-songwriter who was also successful as a contemporary pop singer. Unguarded (1985) surprised some fans for its very mainstream sound (and Grant's leopard-print jacket, in four poses for four different covers). \"Find a Way\", from Unguarded, became one of the few non-Christmas Christian songs to hit the Billboard Top 40 list, also reaching No. 7 on the Adult Contemporary chart. She also scored No. 18 on Billboard AC in 1986 with \"Stay for Awhile\". Grant scored her first Billboard No. 1 song in 1986 with \"The Next Time I Fall\", a duet with former Chicago singer/bassist Peter Cetera. That year, she also recorded a duet with singer Randy Stonehill for his Love Beyond Reason album, titled \"I Could Never Say Goodbye\", and recorded The Animals' Christmas with Art Garfunkel.", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "Lead Me On (1988) contained many songs which were about Christianity and love relationships, but some interpreted it as not being enough of a \"Christian\" record. Years later Lead Me On would be chosen as the greatest Contemporary Christian album of all time by CCM Magazine. The mainstream song \"Saved by Love\" was a minor hit, receiving airplay on radio stations featuring the newly emerging Adult Contemporary format. The album's title song received some pop radio airplay and crossed over to No. 96 on the Billboard Hot 100, and \"1974 (We Were Young)\" and \"Saved By Love\" also charted as Adult Contemporary songs. In 1989, she appeared in a Target ad campaign, performing songs off the album.", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "When Heart in Motion was released in 1991, many fans were surprised that the album was so clearly one of contemporary pop music. Grant's desire to widen her audience was frowned upon by the confines of the popular definitions of ministry at the time. The track \"Baby Baby\" (written for Grant's newborn daughter Millie, of whom Grant wrote, her \"six-week-old face was my inspiration\") became a pop hit (hitting No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100), and Grant was established as a name in the mainstream music world. \"Baby Baby\" received Grammy nominations for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance, and Record and Song of the Year (although it failed to win in any of those categories).", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "Four other hits from the album made the Pop top 20: \"Every Heartbeat\" (No. 2), \"That's What Love Is For\" (No. 7), \"Good for Me\" (No. 8), and \"I Will Remember You\" (No. 20). On the Adult Contemporary chart, all five songs were top 10 hits, with two of the five (\"Baby Baby\" and \"That's What Love Is For\") reaching No. 1. Many Christian fans remained loyal, putting the album atop Billboard Contemporary Christian Chart for 32 weeks. Heart in Motion is Grant's best-selling album, having sold over five million copies according to the RIAA. Grant followed the album with her second Christmas album, Home For Christmas in 1992, which included the song \"Breath of Heaven (Mary's Song)\", written by Chris Eaton and Grant, and would later be covered by many artists, including Donna Summer, Jessica Simpson (who acknowledged Grant as one of her favorite artists), Vince Gill, Sara Groves, Point of Grace, Gladys Knight, and Broadway star Barbara Cook.", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "House of Love in 1994 continued in the same vein, boasting catchy pop songs mingled with spiritual lyrics. The album was a multi-platinum success and produced the pop hit \"Lucky One\" (No. 18 pop and No. 2 AC; No. 1 on Radio & Records) as well as the title track (a duet with country music star and future husband Vince Gill) (No. 37 pop) and a cover of Joni Mitchell's frequently covered \"Big Yellow Taxi\" (No. 67 pop) (in which she changed the line \"And they charged the people a dollar and a half just to see'em\" to \"And then they charged the people 25 bucks just to see'em\").", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "After she covered the 10cc song \"The Things We Do for Love\" for the Mr. Wrong soundtrack, Behind the Eyes was released in September 1997. The album struck a much darker note, leaning more towards downtempo, acoustic soft-rock songs, with more mature (yet still optimistic) lyrics. She called it her \"razor blades and Prozac\" album. Although \"Takes a Little Time\" was a moderate hit single, the album failed to sell like the previous two albums, which had both gone multi-platinum. Behind The Eyes was eventually certified Gold by the RIAA. The video for \"Takes a Little Time\" was a new direction for Grant; with a blue light filter, acoustic guitar, the streets and characters of New York City, and a plot, Grant was re-cast as an adult light rocker. She followed up \"Behind The Eyes\" with A Christmas To Remember, her third Christmas album, in 1999. The album was certified gold in 2000.", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "Following the 9/11 attacks Grant's \"I Will Remember You\" saw a resurgence in popularity as many radio DJs mixed a special tribute version of the song. In the same year Grant won $125,000 for charity on the \"Rock Star Edition\" of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "Grant returned to Christian pop with the 2002 release of an album of hymns titled Legacy... Hymns and Faith. The album featured a Vince Gill-influenced mix of bluegrass and pop and marked Grant's 25th anniversary in the music industry. Grant followed this up with Simple Things in 2003. The album did not have the success of her previous pop or gospel efforts. Soon after Simple Things, Grant and Interscope/A&M parted ways. The same year, Grant was inducted into the Gospel Music Hall of Fame by the Gospel Music Association, an industry trade organization of which she is a longstanding member, in her first year of eligibility. Grant released a sequel in 2005 titled Rock of Ages...Hymns and Faith.", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "Grant joined the reality television phenomenon by hosting Three Wishes, a show in which she and a team of helpers make wishes come true for small-town residents. The show debuted on NBC in the fall of 2005 however it was canceled at the end of its first season due to high production costs. After Three Wishes was canceled, Grant won her 6th Grammy Award for Rock of Ages... Hymns & Faith. In a February 2006 webchat, Grant said she believes her \"best music is still ahead\".", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "In April 2006, a live CD/DVD titled Time Again... Amy Grant Live was recorded in Fort Worth, Texas, at Bass Performance Hall. (Grant's first paid public performance was at the Will Rogers Auditorium in Fort Worth.) The concert was released on September 26, 2006. In addition to receiving a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, media appearances included write-ups in CCM Magazine, and a performance on The View.", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "In a February 2007 web chat on her web site, Grant discussed a book she was working on titled Mosaic: Pieces of My Life So Far, saying, \"It's not an autobiography, but more a collection of memories, song lyrics, poetry and a few pictures.\" The book was released on October 16, 2007. In November, it debuted at No. 35 on the New York Times Best Seller list. In the same web chat, Grant noted that she is \"anxious to get back in the studio after the book is finished, and reinvent myself as an almost-50 performing woman\".", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "2007 was Grant's 30th year in music. She left Word/Warner, and contracted with EMI CMG who re-released her regular studio albums as remastered versions on August 14, 2007. Marking the start of Grant's new contract is a career-spanning greatest hits album, with all the songs digitally remastered. The album was released as both a single-disc CD edition, and a two-disc CD/DVD Special Edition, the DVD featuring music videos and interviews.", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "Grant appeared with Gill on The Oprah Winfrey Show for a holiday special in December 2007. Grant has plans to appear on CMT, a Food Network special, the Gospel Music Channel, and The Hour of Power.", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "In February 2008, Grant joined the writing team from Compassionart as a guest vocalist at the Abbey Road studios, London, to record a song called \"Highly Favoured\", which was included on the album CompassionArt.", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "On June 24, 2008, Grant re-released her 1988 album, Lead Me On, in honor of its 20th anniversary. The two-disc release includes the original album and a second disc with new acoustic recordings, live performances from 1989, and interviews with Amy. Grant recreated the Lead Me On tour in the fall of 2008.", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "On June 27, 2008, at Creation Festival Northeast she performed \"Lead Me On\" and a few other songs backed by Hawk Nelson. At the end of the concert, Grant returned to the stage and sang \"Thy Word\". She appeared on the 2008 album Anne Murray Duets: Friends & Legends singing \"Could I Have This Dance\".", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "On May 5, 2009, Grant released an EP containing two new songs, \"She Colors My Day\", and \"Unafraid\", as well as the previously released songs \"Baby Baby\" and \"Oh How the Years Go By\". The EP, exclusively through iTunes, benefited the Entertainment Industry Foundation's (EIF) Women's Cancer Research Fund.", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "In 2010, Grant released Somewhere Down the Road, featuring the hit single \"Better Than a Hallelujah\", which peaked at No. 8 on Billboard Top Christian Songs chart. When asked about the new album during an interview with CBN.com, Grant says, \"... my hope is just for those songs to provide companionship, remind myself and whoever else is listening what's important. I feel like songs have the ability to connect us to ourselves and to each other, and to our faith, to the love of Jesus, in a way that conversation doesn't do. Songs kind of slip in and move you before you realize it.\"", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "In September 2012, Grant took part in a campaign called \"30 Songs / 30 Days\" to support Half the Sky: Turning Oppression into Opportunity for Women Worldwide, a multi-platform media project inspired by Nicholas Kristof and Sheryl WuDunn's book.", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "Grant's next album, How Mercy Looks from Here, was released on May 14, 2013, and was produced by Marshall Altman. The album reached No. 12 on the Billboard 200 chart, making it her highest-charting album since 1997's Behind the Eyes. Two singles were released from the album: \"Don't Try So Hard\" and \"If I Could See\", both of which charted on the US Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart.", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "On August 19, 2014, she released an album of hits remixed by well known engineers and DJs. The album was titled In Motion: The Remixes. It charted at 110 on the US Billboard 200 chart and at No. 5 on the US Dance chart. To promote the album, several new remix EPs were released on iTunes the following month including \"Find a Way, \"Stay for Awhile\", \"Baby Baby, \"Every Heartbeat\" and \"That's What Love Is For\". Due to club play of the remixes of \"Baby Baby\" and \"Every Heartbeat\", they charted at No. 3 and 13, respectively on the U.S. Dance Chart. This marked her first appearance on that chart in 23 years. On September 30, 2014, Grant released a new single titled \"Welcome Yourself\". In honor of Breast Cancer Awareness Month, proceeds of the single go to breast cancer research.", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "On February 12, 2015, she announced a new compilation album titled Be Still and Know... Hymns & Faith, to be released. The album was released on April 14, 2015, and charted at No. 7 in the U.S. on the Billboard Christian Albums chart. .", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "Grant released a Christmas album on October 21, 2016, Tennessee Christmas, which is a combination of classic Christmas songs and original material. It charted in the U.S. at No. 31 on the Billboard 200 and at No. 3 on the Billboard Top Holiday Albums chart. The single from the album, \"To Be Together\", reached No. 32 on the Hot Christian Songs chart and No. 19 on the Holiday Digital Song Sales chart. She supported the album with a series of Christmas concerts with Vince Gill at the Ryman Auditorium. She also toured the U.S. and Canada with Christmas concerts accompanied by Michael W. Smith and season 9 winner of The Voice, Jordan Smith.", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "In February 2017, she released a new song, \"Say It With a Kiss\", with accompanying video. During November and December 2017, Grant performed another series of Christmas concerts with Vince Gill at the Ryman and embarked on another U.S. and Canada Christmas tour with Michael W. Smith and Jordan Smith. Grant has been a guest narrator for Disney's Candlelight Processional at Walt Disney World in 2012, 2013, and 2015.", "title": "Background" }, { "paragraph_id": 36, "text": "On June 19, 1982, Grant married fellow Christian musician Gary Chapman. Their marriage produced three children. In March 1999 she filed for divorce from Chapman.", "title": "Personal life" }, { "paragraph_id": 37, "text": "On March 10, 2000, Grant married country singer-songwriter Vince Gill, who had been previously married to country singer Janis Oliver of Sweethearts of the Rodeo. Grant and Gill have one daughter together, Corrina Grant Gill, born March 12, 2001.", "title": "Personal life" }, { "paragraph_id": 38, "text": "In the November 1999 CCM Magazine, Grant explained why she left Chapman and married Gill:", "title": "Personal life" }, { "paragraph_id": 39, "text": "I didn't get a divorce because 'I had a great marriage and then along came Vince Gill.' Gary and I had a rocky road from day one. I think what was so hard—and this is (what) one of our counselors said—sometimes an innocent party can come into a situation, and they're like a big spotlight. What they do is reveal, by comparison, the painful dynamics that are already in existence.", "title": "Personal life" }, { "paragraph_id": 40, "text": "In June 2020, Grant had an open-heart surgery to repair partial anomalous pulmonary venous return (PAPVR), a congenital heart condition.", "title": "Personal life" }, { "paragraph_id": 41, "text": "On July 27, 2022, Grant was injured and briefly hospitalized when she fell from her bicycle while riding near Nashville's Harpeth Hills Golf Course. She sustained cuts and abrasions.", "title": "Personal life" }, { "paragraph_id": 42, "text": "Along with praise for her contributions to the contemporary Christian genre, Grant has also generated controversy within the Christian community, from \"complaints that she was too worldly and too sexy\" to a \"barrage of condemnation\" following her divorce and remarriage.", "title": "Public views and perception" }, { "paragraph_id": 43, "text": "In an interview early in her career, Grant stated, \"I have a healthy sense of right and wrong, but sometimes, for example, using foul, exclamation-point words among friends can be good for a laugh.\" The article which was based on that interview was constructed in such a manner so as to make it appear as though Grant condoned premarital sex. Later Grant reflected on how the article misrepresented her views, stating: \"We probably talked for two hours about sexual purity, but when the interview finally came out he worded it in such a way that it sounded like I condoned premarital sex. So I picked up that article and thought, 'You've made me say something I've never said, and you've totally disregarded two hours of Bible put in one flippant comment that I made about a moan.'\"", "title": "Public views and perception" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Arthur William à Beckett (25 October 1844 – 14 January 1909) was an English journalist and intellectual.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "He was a younger son of Gilbert Abbott à Beckett and Mary Anne à Beckett, brother of Gilbert Arthur à Beckett and educated at Felsted School. Besides fulfilling other journalistic engagements, Beckett was on the staff of Punch from 1874 to 1902, edited the Sunday Times 1891–1895, and the Naval and Military Magazine in 1896.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "He gave an account of his father and his own reminiscences in The à Becketts of Punch (1903). A childhood friend (and distant relative) of W. S. Gilbert, Beckett briefly feuded with Gilbert in 1869, but the two patched up the friendship, and Gilbert even later collaborated on projects with Beckett's brother.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "He was married to Suzanne Frances Winslow, daughter of the noted psychiatrist Forbes Benignus Winslow. He is buried in the churchyard at St Mary Magdalen, Mortlake.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "He published:", "title": "Works" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "He wrote for the theatre two three-act comedies:", "title": "Works" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "and", "title": "Works" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Aberdeen (Lakota: Ablíla) is a city in and the county seat of Brown County, South Dakota, United States, located approximately 125 miles (201 km) northeast of Pierre. The city population was 28,495 at the 2020 census, making it the third most populous city in the state after Sioux Falls and Rapid City. Aberdeen is home of Northern State University.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Before Aberdeen or Brown County was inhabited by European settlers, it was inhabited by the Sioux Indians from approximately 1700 to 1879. Europeans entered the region for business, founding fur trading posts during the 1820s; these trading posts operated until the mid-1830s. The first \"settlers\" of this region were the Arikara Indians, but they would later be joined by others.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The first group of Euro-American settlers to reach the area that is now Brown County was a party of four people, three horses, two mules, fifteen cattle, and two wagons. This group of settlers was later joined by another group the following spring, and, eventually, more settlers migrated toward this general area, currently known as Columbia, South Dakota. This town was established on June 15, 1879, was settled in 1880, and was incorporated in 1882.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Aberdeen, like many towns of the Midwest, was built around the newly developing railroad systems. Aberdeen was first officially plotted as a town site on January 3, 1881, by Charles Prior, the superintendent of the Minneapolis office of the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul Railroad, or the Milwaukee Road for short, which was presided over by Alexander Mitchell, Charles Prior's boss, who was responsible for the choice of town names. He was born in Aberdeen, Scotland, after which the town of Aberdeen was named. Aberdeen was officially founded on July 6, 1881, the date of the first arrival of a Milwaukee Railroad train. Aberdeen then operated under a city charter granted by the Territorial Legislature in March 1883.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "As Aberdeen grew, many businesses and buildings were constructed along Aberdeen's Main Street. However, this soon became a problem due to Aberdeen's periodic flooding, which led to it being referred to as \"The Town in the Frog Pond\". At first, this unique condition presented no problem to the newly constructed buildings because it had not rained very much but, when heavy rains fell, the Pond reappeared and flooded the basements of every building on Main Street, causing many business owners and home owners much turmoil. When this flooding happened, the city had one steam-powered pump that had to be used to dry out the entire area that had been flooded, which would take days, if not weeks – and more often than not, it would have rained again in this time period and caused even more flooding, even in the basements that had already been emptied of the water. When the water was gone from the basements, the city still had to deal with the mud that also resulted from the heavy rains.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The city decided in 1882 to build an artesian ditch to control the \"Frog Pond\" effects; the plan was later upgraded and developed into an artesian well in 1884 to combat the heavy rains and keep the basements from flooding. The artesian well was designed by the city engineers to prevent flooding and develop a water system. However, during the digging of the well, the water stream that was found underground was too powerful to be contained. The water came blasting out with violent force and had the entire Main Street submerged in up to four feet of water. The engineers realized the previous flaws of the artesian well plan and soon added a gate valve to the well to control the flow of water, giving Aberdeen its first working water supply.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Aberdeen had four different railroad companies with depots built in the newly developing town. With these four railroads intersecting here, Aberdeen soon became known as the \"Hub City of the Dakotas\". When looking down on Aberdeen from above, the railroad tracks converging in Aberdeen resembled the spokes of a wheel converging at a hub, hence the name \"Hub City of the Dakotas\". These four railroad companies are the reason why Aberdeen was able to grow and flourish as it did. The only railroad still running through Aberdeen is the BNSF Railway.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "L. Frank Baum, who was later author of the book The Wonderful Wizard of Oz and its many sequels, lived here with his wife and children from 1888 to 1891. He ran a fancy goods store, Baum's Bazaar, for over a year, which failed. He later published one of the city's then nine newspapers, where he used his editorials to campaign for women's suffrage (a suffrage amendment to the new [South Dakota constitution was on the ballot at the time). The city's small amusement park has some features reflective of the Oz series. After his sojourn in Aberdeen he moved to Chicago, Illinois in 1892.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Aberdeen is located in northeastern South Dakota, in the James River valley, approximately 11 miles (18 km) west of the river. The James River enters northeastern South Dakota in Brown County, where it is dammed to form two reservoirs northeast of Aberdeen. The city is bisected by Moccasin Creek, a slow-moving waterway which flows south and then northeast to the James River.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 15.60 square miles (40.40 km), of which 15.50 square miles (40.14 km) is land and 0.10 square miles (0.26 km) is water.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Aberdeen experiences a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfa) influenced by its position far from moderating bodies of water. This brings four distinct seasons, a phenomenon that is characterized by hot, relatively humid summers and cold, dry winters, and it lies in USDA Hardiness Zone 4b. The monthly daily average temperature ranges from 12.8 °F (−10.7 °C) in January to 72.3 °F (22.4 °C) in July, while there are 16 days of 90 °F (32 °C)+ highs and 38 days with sub-0 °F (−18 °C) lows annually. Snowfall occurs mostly in light to moderate amounts during the winter, totaling 42 inches (107 cm). Precipitation, at 21.8 inches (554 mm) annually, is concentrated in the warmer months. Extreme temperatures have ranged from −46 °F (−43 °C) on January 12, 1912, and February 8, 1895, to 115 °F (46 °C) on July 6 and 15, 1936, although a −42 °F (−41 °C) reading occurred as recently as January 15, 2009.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "The National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration maintains a National Weather Service office in Aberdeen. Their area of responsibility includes northern and eastern South Dakota and two counties in west-central Minnesota.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Aberdeen is the principal city of the Aberdeen Micropolitan Statistical Area, which includes all of Brown and Edmunds counties and has a population of 42,287 in 2020.", "title": "Demographics" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "At the 2010 census, there were 26,091 people, 11,418 households and 6,354 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,683.3 per square mile (649.9/km). There were 12,158 housing units at an average density of 784.4 per square mile (302.9/km). The racial make-up was 91.8% White, 0.7% African American, 3.6% Native American, 1.3% Asian, 0.2% Pacific Islander, 0.5% from other races and 2.0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.6% of the population.", "title": "Demographics" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "There were 11,418 households, of which 27.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.1% were married couples living together, 9.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 44.4% were non-families. 36.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.18 and the average family size was 2.86.", "title": "Demographics" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "The median age was 36.4 years. 22.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 12.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24.1% were from 25 to 44; 24.4% were from 45 to 64; 16.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender make-up of the city was 47.6% male and 52.4% female.", "title": "Demographics" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "At the 2000 census, there were 24,658 people, 10,553 households and 6,184 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,902.1 per square mile (734.4/km). There were 11,259 housing units at an average density of 868.5 per square mile (335.3/km). The racial make-up of the city was 94.61% White, 0.37% Black or African American, 3.17% Native American, 0.54% Asian, 0.13% Pacific Islander, 0.19% from other races and 0.99% from two or more races. 0.79% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 53.7% were of German, 15% Norwegian and 8.5% Irish ancestry.", "title": "Demographics" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "There were 10,553 households, of which 27.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.0% were married couples living together, 8.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.4% were non-families. 34.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.21 and the average family size was 2.86.", "title": "Demographics" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "21.8% of the population were under the age of 18, 14.1% from 18 to 24, 26.4% from 25 to 44, 20.4% from 45 to 64, and 17.2% were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 89.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.3 males.", "title": "Demographics" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "The median household income was $33,276 and the median family income was $43,882. Males had a median income of $30,355 and females $20,092. The per capita income was $17,923. About 7.6% of families and 10.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.6% of those under age 18 and 10.1% of those age 65 or over.", "title": "Demographics" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "There are several Roman Catholic, Baptist, Lutheran, Methodist, Pentecostal, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints churches in the area, as well as one synagogue.", "title": "Demographics" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "Super 8 Motels was founded in 1972 by Dennis Brown and Ron Rivett as a motel referral system, which was replaced with a franchise operation in 1973. The first Super 8, with 60 rooms, was opened in 1974 in Aberdeen and still operates today as the Super 8 Aberdeen East.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "The Aberdeen Area Arts Council publishes a small monthly newspaper, ARTiFACTS, with information on area events.", "title": "Arts and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "The Aberdeen Community Theatre was created in 1979 and performs at the Capitol Theatre in downtown Aberdeen. The Capitol Theatre opened in 1927 and donated to the Aberdeen Community Theatre in 1991; since then more than $963,000 has been spent on renovating and preserving the historical aspect of the Capitol Theatre. Today, the Aberdeen Community Theatre performs five mainstage productions and three youth productions per year.", "title": "Arts and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "The South Dakota Film Festival established in 2007 is held annually in the fall. The festival has been host to Kevin Costner, Graham Greene, Adam Greenberg, CSA and many more stars of film and television. The festival's first feature film screened was Into The Wild, shot partially in SD. The festival is held at the historic Capitol Theatre.", "title": "Arts and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "The Northern State University Theater Department puts on plays during the school year.", "title": "Arts and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "There are four galleries in Aberdeen: Presentation College's Wein Gallery, Northern State University's Lincoln Gallery, the Aberdeen Recreation & Cultural Center (ARCC) Gallery and the ArtWorks Cooperative Gallery located in The Aberdeen Mall.", "title": "Arts and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "The Village Bowl in Aberdeen is a modern bowling center with multiple lanes. Located at 1314 8th Ave NW.", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "Aberdeen has had three minor league baseball teams since 1920. The Aberdeen Boosters, a class D league team, played in 1920, the Aberdeen Grays, also a class D team, played from 1921 to 1923. The class C Aberdeen Pheasants from 1946 to 1971, and 1995 to 1997. The Pheasants were the affiliate of the former St. Louis Browns (and current Baltimore Orioles). Aberdeen was a stop to the majors for such notable players as Don Larsen (perfect game in the World Series), Lou Piniella (AL rookie of the year with Kansas City Royals in 1969), and Jim Palmer, Baseball Hall of Fame pitcher for the Baltimore Orioles.", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "Aberdeen has 19 public tennis courts throughout the city – Melgaard Park (4), Northern State University (6), and Holgate Middle School (8).", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "Aberdeen has three golf courses: Lee Park Municipal Golf Course, Moccasin Creek Country Club and Rolling Hills Country Club. Lee Park and Moccasin Creek are both 18-hole courses. Rolling Hills is a combined nine-hole course and housing development which opened in 2005.", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "Aberdeen has several outdoor skating rinks and hockey rinks open to the public during winter months. Aberdeen is also home to the NAHL team, Aberdeen Wings.", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "Aberdeen has a skate park located between East Melgaard Road and 17th Ave SE at Melgaard Park. The equipment installed includes a quarter pipe, penalty box with half pyramid, bank ramp, spine, kinked rail and a ground rail.", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "Aberdeen has two disc golf courses, Melgaard Park, and the Richmond Lake Disc Golf Course.", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "Aberdeen has an All-women's Roller Derby league \"A-Town Roller Girlz\" established in 2011, also bringing Junior Roller Derby to the area. A men's league is to follow in the midst of interest in the dynamic of the sport.", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "The full service Young Micah Hanson Memorial Colosseum of Athletics, “YMCA,” hereinafter, includes an aquatic center with a competitive size lap pool, zero depth entry recreation pool with play features and hot tub. There are three gyms one of which has a climbing wall. There are two racquetball courts. Saunas and steam rooms are in the men's and women's locker rooms. Over 100 group fitness classes are offered each week with child watch available (short term childcare). A wellness center that has cardio equipment, weight machines and free weights.", "title": "Parks and recreation" }, { "paragraph_id": 36, "text": "Completed in the summer of 2007, this complex includes a zero entry pool, competition lap pool, lazy river, numerous water slides, play sand area, and a concession area.", "title": "Parks and recreation" }, { "paragraph_id": 37, "text": "Wylie Park Recreation Area features go-kart racing, sand volleyball courts, access to Wylie Lake, camping area, picnic areas, and is connected to Storybook Land. Wylie Lake is a small man-made lake, open in the summer months for swimming, lying on the beach, and paddle boating.", "title": "Parks and recreation" }, { "paragraph_id": 38, "text": "Storybook Land is a park with attractions from several different children's storybooks. The park contains a castle, as well as a train that takes visitors through the park. There are two barns which contain petting zoos. Humpty Dumpty's Great Fall Roller Coaster was added to the park, summer 2015. Newly added is the Land of Oz, that features characters and attractions from L. Frank Baum's The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. Baum was a resident of Aberdeen in the 1880s. He left after a severe drought led to the failure of first, his variety store Baum's Bazaar, and then his newspaper The Aberdeen Saturday Pioneer, where he wrote an opinion column, Our Landlady.", "title": "Parks and recreation" }, { "paragraph_id": 39, "text": "The Kuhnert Arboretum provides many new learning experiences for the residents of the Aberdeen area, including school-aged children. The Arboretum offers environmental education, a children's area, rose garden collection, recreational trails and much more.", "title": "Parks and recreation" }, { "paragraph_id": 40, "text": "The Richmond Lake Recreation Area is used by all types of outdoors enthusiasts. Three separate areas in this park cater to the needs of campers, swimmers, naturalists, boaters and anglers. Campers stay in the South Unit, while the 200-acre (0.8 km) Forest Drive Unit is a great place for wildlife viewing. The Boat Ramp Unit provides access to the more than 1,000-acre (4 km) lake.", "title": "Parks and recreation" }, { "paragraph_id": 41, "text": "Richmond Lake Recreation Area's small campground offers a quiet camping experience. The park also features a wheelchair accessible camping cabin.", "title": "Parks and recreation" }, { "paragraph_id": 42, "text": "The park's extensive trail system features over 10 miles (16 km) of trails, including both accessible and interpretive trails. Hikers, bikers, and horseback riders can observe the abundance of prairie plants and wildlife of the area up-close.", "title": "Parks and recreation" }, { "paragraph_id": 43, "text": "The park has multiple private and public boat ramps as well as an accessible fishing dock. Richmond Lake has a population of walleye, northern pike, bass, perch, crappie, bluegill, catfish, and bullheads within its waters. An entrance fee is required to gain access to the water and park itself.", "title": "Parks and recreation" }, { "paragraph_id": 44, "text": "Aberdeen is the center of government for Brown County. City government is overseen by a City Manager/Council form of government with a mayor and eight council members. The city manager is Robin Bobzien, and the city council is composed of mayor Travis Shaunaman and council members Char Liebelt, Josh Rife, Erin Fouberg, Rob Ronayne, Alan Johnson, Tiffany Langer, David Novstup and Justin Reinbold. Each council member serves a five-year term.", "title": "Government" }, { "paragraph_id": 45, "text": "County government is overseen by five commissioners. Each county commissioner serves a five-year term. The county commissioners include Duane Sutton, Drew Dennert, Mike Wiese, Mike Gage, and Doug Fjeldheim. Aberdeen is home to Brown County offices including clerk-magistrate, county auditor, landfill office, register of deeds, county treasurer, coroner, emergency management, highway superintendent, public welfare, state's attorney, and a few others.", "title": "Government" }, { "paragraph_id": 46, "text": "The state senators from Brown County include Brock Greenfield and Al Novstrup, and the state representatives included Lana Greefield, Kaleb Wies, Carl Perry and Drew Dennert. They are all in office until December 2020", "title": "Government" }, { "paragraph_id": 47, "text": "In 2008, Governor Mike Rounds named Aberdeen as the South Dakota Community of the Year.", "title": "Government" }, { "paragraph_id": 48, "text": "Aberdeen Public Schools are part of the Aberdeen School District. The school district has six elementary schools, two middle schools, and one high school.", "title": "Education" }, { "paragraph_id": 49, "text": "The elementary schools are C.C. Lee Elementary School, Lincoln Elementary School, May Overby Elementary School, O.M. Tiffany Elementary School, Simmons Elementary School and Mike Miller Elementary School. The two middle schools are Holgate Middle School, which serves the north side of Aberdeen, and Simmons Middle School, which serves the south side of the city. Students in the district attend Central High School. The Hub Area Technical School is located in the district. Aberdeen also has an alternative middle and high school.", "title": "Education" }, { "paragraph_id": 50, "text": "The Aberdeen School District's enrollment for the year 2011–2012 was approximately 3,945 students, and the average class size was in the low to mid-twenties. Due to a projected increase in enrollment and the modernization of facilities, Simmons Middle School was completely remodeled with the demolition of the original 1929 building and the addition of a new classroom and cafeteria building which was completed in August 2008. The public school in Aberdeen is AA under the SDHSAA.", "title": "Education" }, { "paragraph_id": 51, "text": "Aberdeen has several parochial schools, including the Catholic-affiliated Roncalli High School, the nondenominational Aberdeen Christian School, and Trinity Lutheran School of the WELS.", "title": "Education" }, { "paragraph_id": 52, "text": "The South Dakota School for the Blind and Visually Impaired is a state special school under the direction of the South Dakota Board of Regents.", "title": "Education" }, { "paragraph_id": 53, "text": "Northern State University (NSU) is a public university that was founded in 1901 and today occupies a 72-acre (290,000 m) campus. 2,528 students, ranging from first-year to graduate students, attended NSU for the 2006–2007 school year. The student to teacher ratio is 19:1.", "title": "Education" }, { "paragraph_id": 54, "text": "NSU was originally called the Institute of South Dakota before changing its name to Northern Normal and Industrial School in 1901. It changed its name again in 1939 when it became the Northern State Teachers College, and again in 1964, becoming Northern State College before finalizing at Northern State University in 1989.", "title": "Education" }, { "paragraph_id": 55, "text": "NSU offers thirty-eight majors and forty-two minors as well as other degrees, and also has nine graduate degree areas for students wishing to further their education after achieving their first degree.", "title": "Education" }, { "paragraph_id": 56, "text": "The mascot of NSU is the wolf named Thunder.", "title": "Education" }, { "paragraph_id": 57, "text": "Presentation College is a Catholic college on a 100-acre (0.40 km) campus, and was founded in 1951. Enrollment in fall 2014 was reported to be 735. PC offers 26 programs between the main Aberdeen campus and the other campuses located throughout the state. Most of the degrees offered are in the health-care field. The student to teacher ratio is 12:1. Presentation's mascot is the Saint, giving it the nickname the Presentation College Saints. Presentation College announced that it would no longer take new enrollments, and close the college at the end of the summer semester in 2023.", "title": "Education" }, { "paragraph_id": 58, "text": "The American News was founded as a weekly newspaper in 1885, by C.W. Starling and Paul Ware. It is now a daily newspaper.", "title": "Media" }, { "paragraph_id": 59, "text": "The Aberdeen Regional Airport is currently served by Delta Connection. It offers flights to Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport using the Bombardier CRJ700 aircraft.", "title": "Infrastructure" }, { "paragraph_id": 60, "text": "There are two major US highways that serve Aberdeen. One is US Highway 281, a north–south highway that runs continuously from the Canadian border to the Mexican border, the only three-digit U.S. highway to do so. This also makes it the longest three-digit U.S. highway. The second highway is US Highway 12 that runs east–west across northern South Dakota from the Minnesota border before curving northwest into the southwestern corner of North Dakota. The western terminus is in Aberdeen, Washington, and the eastern terminus is in downtown Detroit, Michigan. US Highway 12 is the major thoroughfare in Aberdeen, and is signed in the city of Aberdeen as 6th Avenue South. US Highway 281 was recently realigned onto a new bypass that was constructed around the western area of the city.", "title": "Infrastructure" }, { "paragraph_id": 61, "text": "Jefferson Lines is a bus service from Aberdeen that connects to Sioux Falls, South Dakota, Fargo, North Dakota, and Minneapolis, Minnesota.", "title": "Infrastructure" }, { "paragraph_id": 62, "text": "Ride Line Transportation Services provides demand response service to the Aberdeen area. Aberdeen is the largest city in South Dakota without fixed-route service.", "title": "Infrastructure" }, { "paragraph_id": 63, "text": "The BNSF Railway conveys freight and grain through Aberdeen. Until 1969 the Milwaukee Road ran trains between Aberdeen and Minneapolis. Earlier, until 1961, trains from Chicago to Seattle ran through the railroad's Aberdeen station. Burlington Northern purchased parts of the Milwaukee Road's \"Pacific Extension\" into Montana when the Milwaukee Road when bankrupt and ended service in 1977.", "title": "Infrastructure" }, { "paragraph_id": 64, "text": "In addition, the Great Northern Railway was absorbed into the Burlington Northern in March 1970 with the merger of the Spokane, Portland, & Seattle Railway, the Chicago, Burlington, & Quincy Railroad, and the Northern Pacific Railway into one railroad company. The former Great Northern trackage was later purchased from Burlington Northern by Dakota, Missouri Valley & Western Railroad.", "title": "Infrastructure" }, { "paragraph_id": 65, "text": "The Minneapolis & St. Louis Railway had a lightly used branch line from Donde South Dakota through Aberdeen, South Dakota to Long Lake, South Dakota and this line became Chicago & Northwestern Railway property when the Minneapolis & St. Louis Railway merged with the Chicago & Northwestern Railway October 1960. Chicago & Northwestern already had a lightly used branch line from James Valley Junction, South Dakota to Oakes, North Dakota. All the lines saw little traffic and were eventually abandoned by the Chicago and Northwestern before its 1995 merger with the Union Pacific Railroad.", "title": "Infrastructure" }, { "paragraph_id": 66, "text": "Aberdeen Taxi service provides general taxi service in Aberdeen. Aberdeen Shuttle provides shuttle service to and from the airport along with general taxi services.", "title": "Infrastructure" }, { "paragraph_id": 67, "text": "There are five car rental services in Aberdeen: Hertz, Avis, Dollar-Thrifty, Toyota Rent-a-Car, and Nissan Rental Car. Hertz and Avis Car rental are located in the airport terminal. Dollar-Thrifty is located in Aberdeen Flying Service. Toyota Rent-a-Car and Nissan Rental Car are located at Harr Motors across from the airport.", "title": "Infrastructure" }, { "paragraph_id": 68, "text": "Aberdeen has two hospitals, Avera St. Luke's Hospital and Sanford Aberdeen Medical Center.", "title": "Infrastructure" }, { "paragraph_id": 69, "text": "There are several nursing homes in the area, including Avera Mother Joseph Manor, Manor Care, Bethesda Home of Aberdeen, Aberdeen Health and Rehab, Angelhaus and Gellhaus Carehaus.", "title": "Infrastructure" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Au, AU, au or a.u. may refer to:", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Aberdour (/ˌæbərˈdaʊər/ ; Scots: /ˌeɪbərˈdur/, Scottish Gaelic: Obar Dobhair) is a scenic and historic village on the south coast of Fife, Scotland. It is on the north shore of the Firth of Forth, looking south to the island of Inchcolm and its Abbey, and to Leith and Edinburgh beyond. According to the 2011 census, the village has a population of 1,633.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The village's winding High Street lies a little inland from the coast. Narrow lanes run off it, providing access to the more hidden parts of the village and the shoreline itself. The village nestles between the bigger coastal towns of Burntisland to the east and Dalgety Bay to the west.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The parish of Aberdour takes its name from this village, and had a population of 1,972 at the 2011 Census.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Aberdour means 'mouth of the Dour'. The first element is the Pictish word aber 'river mouth'. The name of the Dour Burn, which enters the River Forth at the village's harbour, is from Pictish duvr 'water'. A cognate of this word is also seen in Dover and Andover. The Pictish word was subsequently changed to Gaelic dobhar. Aberdour is recorded in 1179 as Abirdoure and in 1126 as \"Abirdaur\".", "title": "Etymology" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "For much of its history Aberdour was two villages, Wester Aberdour and Easter Aberdour, on either side of the Dour Burn; however this distinction was blurred by the 19th century arrival of the railway.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "In the 18th century Aberdour's harbour was improved by the addition of a stone pier to help handle the coal traffic from nearby collieries. However, in the 1850s the traffic changed dramatically, and Aberdour Harbour became a popular destination for pleasure steamers from Leith. This in turn led to the building of a deeper water pier a little around the bay at Hawkcraig, and to the development of hotels and many of the other services still on view today in the village.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "The railway came to Aberdour in 1890, with the building of the line east from the newly opened Forth Bridge. The station has won many \"best kept station\" awards.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "The A921, the main road along the south coast of Fife, leads down the High Street of Wester Aberdour, before kinking sharply left to cross the railway line, then right again to progress through Easter Aberdour's Main Street.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Wester Aberdour has a narrow through road more closely hemmed in by shops and hotels. A number of vernacular buildings of the 17th-early 19th centuries add to the historic scene. Close to the railway bridge, three lanes continue eastwards, presumably once the route of the original High Street before the arrival of the railway. One now leads to Aberdour railway station, a beautifully kept and cared for example of a traditional station, in keeping with its role of transporting at least a quarter of the village's working population to their work each day.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "A second lane leads alongside the railway line to Aberdour Castle, while a third leads to the restored Aberdour House. A little further west, a narrow road closely lined with high walls, Shore Road, leads down to the West Sands and the Harbour. For many this area is the highlight of any visit to Aberdour; parking at the foot of Shore Road is usually at a premium.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Another road leads coastwards from Easter Aberdour. Hawkcraig Road leads past St Fillan's Church and through Silversand Park, home to Aberdour Shinty Club, en route to the much better parking area on Hawkcraig. This was formerly a sandstone quarry and then used as the council refuse tip before becoming a carpark, part of the overgrown and rocky bluff separating Aberdour's two bays. From here is it a short walk to the Silver Sands, Aberdour's busiest and most popular beach.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "On the west side of Hawkcraig Point there is a short concrete jetty that was used as part of the development of radio controlled torpedoes during World War I. The foundations of the Radio Hut can still be seen in the lea of the hill.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Virtually between the two former settlements, though actually part of Easter Aberdour, lies Aberdour Castle. This started life as a modest hall house on a site overlooking the Dour Burn in the 13th century. The oldest part of the present semi-ruin constitutes one of the earliest surviving stone castles in mainland Scotland. Over the next four hundred years the Castle was successively developed according to contemporary architectural ideas. Notable are the parts, still largely roofed, built by the Earls of Morton, with refined Renaissance detail, in the second half of the 16th century.", "title": "Landmarks" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "A fire in the late 17th century was followed by some repairs, but in 1725 the family purchased 17th-century Aberdour House, on the west side of the burn and in Wester Aberdour, and the medieval Castle was allowed to fall into relative decay. Aberdour Castle is now in the care of Historic Environment Scotland and open to the public (entrance charge). After a period of dereliction Aberdour House was developed for residential use in the early 1990s.", "title": "Landmarks" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "Neighbouring St Fillan's Church is one of the best-preserved medieval parish churches in Scotland, dating largely to the 12th century and originally under control of Inchcolm Abbey. A south arcade was added to the nave in the early 16th century (open in summer). It was controversially considered for closure by the Church of Scotland in 2022, but a campaign was mounted to keep it open.", "title": "Landmarks" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "The Aberdour obelisk was built by Lord Morton on his departure from the village to relocate to a large home in Edinburgh, it was built so he could see his former hometown from his new house when he looked through binoculars – it stands in a cowfield between the castle and the beach.", "title": "Landmarks" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "Aberdour hosts an annual festival, which runs from late July to early August and features musical events, shows, sporting events and children's events.", "title": "Culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "Aberdour was a 2005 finalist in the prestigious \"Beautiful Scotland in Bloom\" awards. It was nominated for \"Best Coastal Resort\" in Scotland along with St Andrews in Fife, North Berwick in East Lothian, and Rothesay in Argyll and Bute. In 2014 Aberdour was voted Best Coastal Village in Fife and Best Small Coastal Village in Scotland. It also received a Gold Award in Beautiful Fife and Beautiful Scotland. In 2018 Aberdour was voted the second-best place to live in Scotland by The Sunday Times list of Best Places to Live", "title": "Culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "Aberdour is home to Fife's only senior shinty club. Aberdour Shinty Club field teams in both the men's and women's senior national leagues.", "title": "Culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "Aberdour is one of the few communities outside of Turkmenistan to celebrate Melon Day on the second sunday of every August.", "title": "Culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "Aberdour has two beaches – the Silver Sands, and the Black Sands.", "title": "Aberdour's beaches" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "The Silver Sands are located on the East side of the village, and have previously held a \"Blue flag\" beach award, which denotes an exemplary standard of cleanliness, facilities, safety, environmental education and management. New facilities are currently under construction by Fife Council, which will much improve the beach throughout the year.", "title": "Aberdour's beaches" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "The Black Sands (also known as the West Beach), as the contrasting name would suggest, have a rockier and darker sand, and are also popular with visitors exploring the rock caves and unique sea life. During the summer months (April–September), dogs are banned from the Silver Sands but they are allowed all year round at the West Beach. The two beaches are linked by part of the Fife Coastal Path which also takes hikers past the harbour and the Hawkcraig – a popular rock climbing location.", "title": "Aberdour's beaches" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "Silver Sands is becoming more popular with open water swimmers, who swim daily in the sea, both as a leisure pursuit, and as training for open water competition. The bay provides safety from the currents, although only the adventurous swim round to the harbour.", "title": "Aberdour's beaches" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "Several scenes of Richard Jobson's 2003 movie 16 Years of Alcohol were filmed at the Black Sands in Aberdour.", "title": "Aberdour's beaches" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "The island of Inchcolm, or Island (Gaelic innis) of Columba, a quarter of a mile from the shore, forms part of the parish of Aberdour. Its name implies associations dating back to the time of Columba and, although undocumented before the 12th century, it may have served the monks of the Columban family as an 'Iona of the east' from early times.", "title": "Inchcolm" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "During the First and Second World Wars, Inchcolm was occupied by the army as part of the defences of the Firth of Forth. There are extensive remains of gun emplacements, barracks, etc. from these periods.", "title": "Inchcolm" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "The island is notable for its wildlife, especially seabirds and seals. These draw many visitors in summer, along with the remains of the historic Abbey, and is a popular setting for weddings.", "title": "Inchcolm" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "Notable past and present residents of the town include:", "title": "Notable residents" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Aberfoyle (Scottish Gaelic: Obar Phuill) is a village in the historic county and registration county of Perthshire and the council area of Stirling, Scotland. The settlement lies 27 miles (43 kilometres) northwest of Glasgow.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The parish of Aberfoyle takes its name from this village, and had a population of 1,065 at the 2011 census.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The town is situated on the River Forth at the foot of Craigmore (387 m or 1,270 ft high). Since 1885, when the Duke of Montrose constructed a road over the eastern shoulder of Craigmore to join the older road at the entrance of the Trossachs pass, Aberfoyle has become the alternative route to the Trossachs and Loch Katrine; this road, known as the Duke's Road or Duke's Pass, was opened to the public in 1931 when the Forestry Commission acquired the land.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Loch Ard, about 2 miles (3 kilometres) west of Aberfoyle, lies 40 m (130 ft) above the sea. It is 3 mi (5 km) long (including the narrows at the east end) and 1 mi (1.5 km) broad. Towards the west end is Eilean Gorm (the green isle), and near the north-western shore are the falls of Ledard. The loch's northern shores are dominated by the mountain ridge of Beinn an Fhogharaidh (616 m or 2,021 ft). Two miles (three kilometres) northwest of Loch Ard is Loch Chon, at 90 m (300 ft) above the sea, 1+1⁄4 mi (2 km) long and about 1⁄2 mi (800 m) broad. It drains by the Avon Dhu to Loch Ard, which is drained in turn by the Forth.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Aberfoyle supposedly originates from the Brittonic Celtic, aber poll or aber phuill (Scottish Gaelic, Obar Phuill), meaning (place at the) mouth of the Phuill Burn (the Pow Burn enters the River Forth at Aberfoyle). Historically, alternative spellings such as Abirfull, Aberfule, Aberfoill and Aberfoil have been recorded before the current spelling became accepted by the 20th century. The river-name is from either Gaelic poll or Brittonic pol, both of which mean 'pool, sluggish water'.", "title": "Toponym" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The slate quarries on Craigmore which operated from the 1820s to the 1950s are now defunct; at its peak this was a major industry. Other industries included an ironworks, established in the 1720s, as well as wool spinning and a lint mill.", "title": "Industry" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "From 1882 the village was served by Aberfoyle railway station, the terminus of the Strathendrick and Aberfoyle Railway which connected to Glasgow via Dumbarton or Kirkintilloch. The station closed to passenger traffic in 1951, and the remaining freight services ceased in 1959.", "title": "Industry" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "The above industries have since died out, and Aberfoyle is supported mainly by the forestry, industry and tourism.", "title": "Industry" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Visitors were first attracted to Aberfoyle and the surrounding area after the publication of The Lady of the Lake by Sir Walter Scott in 1810. The poem described the beauty of Loch Katrine. Aberfoyle describes itself as The Gateway to the Trossachs, and is well situated for visitors to access attractions such as Loch Lomond and Inchmahome Priory at the Lake of Menteith. A tourist information office run by VisitScotland sits in the centre of town, offering free information, selling souvenirs and acting as a booking office for many of the local B&B's and hotels. Aberfoyle Golf Club was built in 1860 and is located just south of town near the Rob Roy restaurant. Aberfoyle is also part of the Loch Lomond and The Trossachs National Park.", "title": "Tourism" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Aberfoyle is also home to the largest Go Ape adventure course in the UK, featuring the longest death slide, or 'zip-line', in the UK.", "title": "Tourism" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Aberfoyle has connections to many historical figures such as Rob Roy and Mary, Queen of Scots. Robert Roy MacGregor was born at the head of nearby Loch Katrine, and his well-known cattle stealing exploits took him all around the area surrounding Aberfoyle. It is recorded, for example, that in 1691, the MacGregors raided every barn in the village of Kippen and stole all the villagers' livestock. There currently stands a tree in the village that MacGregor was reputed to have climbed and hid in to escape the clutches of the law. Also, Mary, Queen of Scots, visited nearby Inchmahome Priory often as a child, and during her short reign. She also used the priory during her short reign, particularly in 1547, where she felt safe from the English Army.", "title": "Historical figures" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "However, the most local historical figure is the Reverend Robert Kirk, born in 1644. It was the Rev. Kirk who provided the first translation into Scottish Gaelic of the Metrical Psalms and then the whole Christian Bible, however, he is better remembered for the publication of his book \"The Secret Commonwealth of Elves, Fauns, and Fairies\" in 1691. Kirk had long been researching fairies, and the book collected several personal accounts and stories of folk who claimed to have encountered them. It was after this, while Kirk was minister of Aberfoyle parish, that he died in unusual circumstances.", "title": "Historical figures" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Kirk had long believed that the local Doon Hill was the gateway to the \"Secret Commonwealth\", or the Celtic Otherworld. It was a place that Kirk visited often, taking daily walks there from his manse. The story goes that the Fairies of Doon Hill were angry with the Rev. Kirk for going into the domain of the Unseelie court, where he had been warned not to go, and decided to imprison him in Doon Hill — for one night in May 1692, the Rev. Kirk went out for a walk to the hill, in his nightshirt. Some accounts claim that he simply vanished, however he suddenly collapsed. He was found and brought home, but died soon afterwards. He was buried in his own kirkyard, although local legends claim that the fairies took his body away, and the coffin contains only stones. The huge pine tree that still stands at the top of Doon Hill is said to contain Kirk's imprisoned spirit.", "title": "Historical figures" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "Kirk's cousin, Graham of Duchray, was later to claim that the spectre of Kirk had visited him in the night, and told him that he had been carried off into the Celtic Otherworld. Having left his widow pregnant, Kirk told Graham that he would appear at the baptism of his unborn child. Graham was to throw an iron knife at the apparition, which would set Kirk free from his imprisonment by the fairies. However, when the Minister's spectre appeared at the baptism, Graham of Duchray, similarly to Orpheus, was too shocked to throw the iron knife, and Kirk faded away forever.", "title": "Historical figures" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "Today, visitors to Doon Hill write their wishes on pieces of white silk, or other white cloth, and tie them to the branches of the trees for the Good People to grant.", "title": "Historical figures" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Abergavenny (/ˌæbərɡəˈvɛni/; Welsh: Y Fenni pronounced [ə ˈvɛnɪ], archaically Abergafenni meaning \"mouth of the River Gavenny\") is a market town and community in Monmouthshire, Wales. Abergavenny is promoted as a Gateway to Wales; it is approximately 6 miles (10 km) from the border with England and is located where the A40 trunk road and the A465 Heads of the Valleys road meet.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Originally the site of a Roman fort, Gobannium, it became a medieval walled town within the Welsh Marches. The town contains the remains of a medieval stone castle built soon after the Norman conquest of Wales.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Abergavenny is situated at the confluence of the River Usk and a tributary stream, the Gavenny. It is almost entirely surrounded by mountains and hills: the Blorenge (559 m, 1,834 ft), the Sugar Loaf (596 m, 1,955 ft), Ysgyryd Fawr (Great Skirrid), Ysgyryd Fach (Little Skirrid), Deri, Rholben and Mynydd Llanwenarth, known locally as \"Llanwenarth Breast\". Abergavenny provides access to the nearby Black Mountains and the Brecon Beacons National Park. The Marches Way and Beacons Way pass through Abergavenny whilst the Offa's Dyke Path passes through Pandy five miles to the north and the Usk Valley Walk passes through nearby Llanfoist.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "In the UK 2011 census, the six relevant wards (Lansdown, Grofield, Castle, Croesonen, Cantref and Priory) collectively listed Abergavenny's population as 12,515. The town hosted the 2016 National Eisteddfod of Wales.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The town derives its name from a Brythonic word Gobannia meaning \"river of the blacksmiths\", and relates to the town's pre-Roman importance in iron smelting. The name is related to the modern Welsh word gof (blacksmith), and so is also associated with the Welsh smith Gofannon from folklore. The river later became, in Welsh, Gafenni, and the town's name became Abergafenni, meaning \"mouth of (Welsh: Aber) the Gavenny (Gafenni)\". In Welsh, the shortened form Y Fenni may have come into use after about the 15th century, and is now used as the Welsh name. Abergavenny, the English spelling, is in general use.", "title": "Etymology" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The town originally developed on the high ground to the north of the floodplain of the River Usk and to the west of the valley of the much smaller Gavenny River though has since extended to the east of the latter. It has merged with the originally separate settlement of Mardy to the north but remains separate from that of Llanfoist to the south due to the presence of the river and its floodplain; nevertheless Llanfoist is in many ways a suburb of the town. The ground rises gradually in the north of the town before steepening to form the Deri and Rholben spurs of Sugar Loaf. The A4143 crossing of the Usk by means of the historic Usk Bridge is sited at the narrowest point of the floodplain, a site also chosen for the former crossing of a tramroad and the later mainline railway. The high ground at either side is formed by a legacy of the last ice age, the recessional Llanfoist moraine which underlies both the village which gives it its name, the town centre and the Nevill Hall area. The older parts of the town north of its centre are built upon a relatively flat-lying alluvial fan extending west from the area of St Mary's Priory to Cantref and of similar age to the moraine.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "In the UK 2011 census, the six relevant wards (Lansdown, Grofield, Castle, Croesonen, Cantref and Priory) collectively listed Abergavenny's population as 12,515.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Gobannium was a Roman fort guarding the road along the valley of the River Usk, which linked the legionary fortress of Burrium (Usk) and later Isca Augusta or Isca Silurum (Caerleon) in the south with Y Gaer, Brecon and Mid Wales. It was also built to keep the peace among the local British Iron Age tribe, the Silures. Cadw considers that the fort was occupied from around CE50 to CE150. Remains of the walls of this fort were discovered west of the castle when excavating the foundations for a new post office and telephone exchange building in the late 1960s.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Abergavenny grew as a town in early Norman times under the protection of the Baron Bergavenny (or Abergavenny). The first Baron was Hamelin de Balun, from Ballon, a small town with a castle in Maine-Anjou near Le Mans. Today it is in the Sarthe département of France. He founded the Benedictine priory, now the Priory Church of St Mary, in the late 11th century. The Priory belonged originally to the Benedictine foundation of St. Vincent Abbaye at Le Mans. It was subsequently endowed by William de Braose, with a tithe of the profits of the castle and town. The church contains some unique alabaster effigies, church monuments and unique medieval wood carving, such as the Tree of Jesse.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Owing to its geographical location, the town was frequently embroiled in the border warfare and power play of the 12th and 13th centuries in the Welsh Marches. In 1175, Abergavenny Castle was the site of a massacre of Seisyll ap Dyfnwal and his associates by William de Braose, 4th Lord of Bramber. Reference to a market at Abergavenny is found in a charter granted to the Prior by William de Braose.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Owain Glyndŵr attacked Abergavenny in 1404. According to popular legend, his raiders gained access to the walled town with the aid of a local woman who sympathised with the rebellion, letting a small party in via the Market Street gate at midnight. They were able to open the gate and allow a much larger party who set fire to the town and plundered its churches and homes leaving Abergavenny Castle intact. Market Street has been referred to as \"Traitors' Lane\" thereafter. In 1404 Abergavenny was declared its own nation by Ieuan ab Owain Glyndŵr, illegitimate son of Owain Glyndŵr. The arrangement lasted approximately two weeks.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "At the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1541, the priory's endowment went towards the foundation of a free grammar school, King Henry VIII Grammar School, the site itself passing to the Gunter family. During the Civil War, prior to the siege of Raglan Castle in 1645, King Charles I visited Abergavenny and presided in person over the trial of Sir Trefor Williams, 1st Baronet of Llangibby, a Royalist who changed sides, and other Parliamentarians. In 1639, Abergavenny received a charter of incorporation under the title of bailiff and burgesses. A charter with extended privileges was drafted in 1657, but appears never to have been enrolled or to have come into effect. Owing to the refusal of the chief officers of the corporation to take the oath of allegiance to William III in 1688, the charter was annulled, and the town subsequently declined in prosperity. Chapter 28 of the 1535 Act of Henry VIII, which provided that Monmouth, as county town, should return one burgess to Parliament, further stated that other ancient Monmouthshire boroughs were to contribute towards the payment of the member. In consequence of this clause Abergavenny on various occasions shared in the election, the last instance being in 1685.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "The right to hold two weekly markets and three yearly fairs, beginning in the 13th century, was held ever since as confirmed in 1657. Abergavenny was celebrated for the production of Welsh flannel, and also for the manufacture, whilst the fashion prevailed, of goats' hair periwigs.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "Abergavenny railway station, situated south-east of the town centre, opened on 2 January 1854 as part of the Newport, Abergavenny and Hereford Railway. The London North Western Railway sponsored the construction of the railway linking Newport station to Hereford station. The line was taken over by the West Midland Railway in 1860 before becoming part of the Great Western Railway in 1863. A railway line also ran up the valley towards Brynmawr and to Merthyr Tydfil; this was closed during the Beeching cuts in the 1960s and the line to Clydach Gorge is now a cycle track and footpath. The Baker Street drill hall was completed in 1896. Adolf Hitler's deputy, Rudolf Hess, was kept under escort at Maindiff Court Hospital during the Second World War, after his flight to Britain. In 1964, the Royal Observer Corps opened a small monitoring bunker to be used in the event of a nuclear attack. It was closed in 1968 but reopened in 1973 due to the closure of a bunker near Brynmawr. It closed in 1991 on the stand down of the ROC. It remains mostly intact.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "The title of Baron Abergavenny, in the Nevill family, dates from the 15th century with Edward Nevill, 3rd Baron Bergavenny. From him it has descended continuously, the title being increased to an earldom in 1784; and in 1876 William Nevill [sic] 5th Earl, an indefatigable and powerful supporter of the Tory Party, was created 1st Marquess of Abergavenny.", "title": "Baron of Abergavenny" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "Coldbrook Park was a country house in an estate some 1+1⁄4 miles (2 km) southeast of the town. The house was originally built in the 14th century and belonged to the Herbert family for many generations until purchased by John Hanbury for his son, the diplomat Sir Charles Hanbury Williams. Sir Charles reconstructed the house in 1746 with the addition of a nine-bay two-storey Georgian façade with a Doric portico. It subsequently passed down in the Hanbury Williams family until it was demolished in 1954.", "title": "Baron of Abergavenny" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "Held during the first week of August every year, the National Eisteddfod is a celebration of the culture and language in Wales. The festival travels from place to place, alternating between north and south Wales, attracting around 150,000 visitors and over 250 tradestands and stalls. In 2016 it was held in Abergavenny for the first time since 1913. The Chair and Crown for 2016 were presented to the festival's Executive Committee at a ceremony held in Monmouth on 14 June 2016.", "title": "Events" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "The Abergavenny Food Festival is held in the second week of September each year. The Steam, Veteran and Vintage Rally takes place in May every year. The event expands year on year with the 2016 rally including a rock choir, shire horses, motorcycling stunts, vintage cars and steam engines. The Country and Western Music Festival is attended by enthusiasts of country music. It marked its third year in 2016 and was attended by acts including Ben Thompson, LA Country and many more. The event was last held in 2017. The Abergavenny Writing Festival began in April 2016 and is a celebration of writing and the written word. The Abergavenny Arts Festival, first held in 2018, celebrates arts in their broadest sense and showcases amateur and professional artists from the vibrant local arts scene together with some from further afield.", "title": "Events" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "In recent decades the number of Welsh speakers in the town has increased dramatically. The 2001 census recorded 10% of the local population spoke the language, a five-fold increase over ten years from the figure of 2% recorded in 1991. The town has one of the two Welsh-medium primary schools in Monmouthshire, Ysgol Gymraeg y Fenni, which was founded in the early 1990s. It is also home to the Abergavenny Welsh society, Cymreigyddion y Fenni, and the local Abergavenny Eisteddfod.", "title": "Welsh language" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "Abergavenny was the home of Abergavenny Thursdays F.C., formed in 1927 and merged with Govilon, the local village side in 2013. The new club, Abergavenny Town F.C., plays at the Pen-y-pound Stadium, maintained and run by Thursday’s football trust, as members of the Ardal South East league (tier 3) for the 2021–22 season. It is also the home of Abergavenny RFC, a rugby union club founded in 1875 who play at Bailey Park, Abergavenny. In the 2018–19 season, they play in the Welsh Rugby Union Division Three East A league. Abergavenny Hockey Club, formed in 1897, currently play at the Abergavenny Leisure Centre on Old Hereford Road.", "title": "Sport" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "Abergavenny Cricket Club play at Pen-y-Pound, Avenue Road and Glamorgan CCC also play some of their games here. Abergavenny Cricket Club was founded in 1834 and celebrated the 175th anniversary of its foundation in 2009. Abergavenny Tennis Club also play at Pen-y-Pound and plays in the South Wales Doubles League and Aegon Team Tennis. The club engages the services of a head tennis professional to run a coaching programme for the town and was crowned Tennis Wales' Club of the Year in 2010. Abergavenny hosted the British National Cycling Championships in 2007, 2009 and 2014, as part of the town's Festival of Cycling.", "title": "Sport" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "A cattle market was held in Abergavenny from 1863 to December 2013. During the period 1825–1863 a sheep market was held at a site in Castle Street, to stop the sale of sheep on the streets of the town. At the time of its closure the market was leased and operated by Abergavenny Market Auctioneers Ltd, who held regular livestock auctions on the site. Market days were held on Tuesdays for the auction sale of finished sheep, cull ewe/store and fodder (hay and straw), and some Fridays for the auction sale of cattle. Following the closure of Newport's cattle market in 2009 for redevelopment, Newport’s sales were held at Abergavenny every Wednesday.", "title": "Cattle market" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "In 2011 doubts about the future of Abergavenny Cattle Market were raised following the granting of planning permission by Monmouthshire County Council for its demolition and replacement with a supermarket, car park, and library. In January 2012 the Welsh Government announced the repeal the Abergavenny Improvement Acts of 1854 to 1871 which obliged the holding of a livestock market within the boundaries of Abergavenny town; that repeal being effective from 26 March 2012. Monmouthshire County Council, which requested that the Abergavenny Improvement Acts be repealed, supported plans for a new cattle market to be established about 10 miles (16 km) from Abergavenny in countryside at Bryngwyn, some 3 miles (5 km) from Raglan. There was local opposition to this site. The new Monmouthshire Livestock Centre, a 27-acre site at Bryngwyn, opened in November 2013.", "title": "Cattle market" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "Abergavenny has hosted the National Eisteddfod of Wales in 1838, 1913 and most recently in 2016. In 2017 the town was named one of the best places to live in Wales. The town's local radio stations are currently Sunshine Radio 107.8 FM and NH Sound 1287 AM. Abergavenny is home to an award-winning brass band. Formed in Abergavenny prior to 1884 the band became joint National Welsh League Champions in 2006 and joint National Welsh League Champions in 2011. The band also operate a Junior Band training local young musicians.", "title": "Culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "The Borough Theatre in Abergavenny town centre hosts live events covering drama, opera, ballet, music, children's events, dance, comedy, storytelling, tribute bands and talks. The Melville Centre is close to the town centre and includes the Melville Theatre that hosts a range of live events. The town held its first Abergavenny Arts Festival in 2018 and also hosts the Abergavenny Food Festival in September each year.", "title": "Culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "William Shakespeare's play Henry VIII features the character Lord Abergavenny. In 1968 \"Abergavenny\" was the title of a UK single by Marty Wilde. In 1969, it was also released in the US, under a Marty Wilde pseudonym Shannon, where it was also a minor hit. In The Adventure of the Priory School Sherlock Holmes refers to a case he is working on in Abergavenny. Abergavenny is mentioned by Stan Shunpike, the conductor of the Knight Bus when the bus takes a detour there to drop off a passenger in J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban. The TV series Upstairs, Downstairs, features a character in the second season, Thomas Watkins, the devious Bellamy family chauffeur, who comes from Abergavenny. In the 1979 spinoff of Upstairs, Downstairs titled Thomas & Sarah, Watkins and Sarah Moffat, another major character, marry and return briefly to Abergavenny. * Much of the 1996 film, Intimate Relations starring Julie Walters, Rupert Graves, Les Dennis and Amanda Holden, was filmed at many locations in and around Abergavenny.", "title": "Culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "Abergavenny railway station lies on the Welsh Marches Line from Newport to Hereford. The weekday daytime service pattern typically sees one train per hour in each direction between Manchester Piccadilly and Cardiff Central, with most trains continuing beyond Cardiff to Swansea and west Wales. There is also a two-hourly service between Cardiff and the North Wales Coast Line to Holyhead, via Wrexham General. These services are all operated by Transport for Wales.", "title": "Transport" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "The town is located where the A40 trunk road and the A465 Heads of the Valleys road meet.", "title": "Transport" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "Abergavenny Castle is located strategically just south of the town centre overlooking the River Usk. It was built in about 1067 by the Norman baron Hamelin de Ballon to guard against incursions by the Welsh from the hills to the north and west. All that remains is defensive ditches and the ruins of the stone keep, towers, and part of the curtain wall. It is a Grade I listed building.", "title": "Notable buildings" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "Various markets are held in the Market Hall, for example: Tuesdays, Fridays and Saturdays – retail market; Wednesdays – flea market; fourth Thursday of each month – farmers' market; third Sunday of each month – antique fair; second Saturday of each month – craft fair.", "title": "Notable buildings" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "The Church in Wales church of the Holy Trinity is in the Diocese of Monmouth. Holy Trinity Church was consecrated by the Bishop of Llandaff on 6 November 1840. It was originally built as a chapel to serve the adjacent almshouses and the nearby school. It has been Grade II listed since January 1974.", "title": "Notable buildings" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "Other listed buildings in the town include the parish Priory Church of St Mary, a medieval and Victorian building that was originally the church of the Benedictine priory founded in Abergavenny before 1100; the sixteenth century Tithe Barn near St Mary's; the Victorian Church of the Holy Trinity; the Grade II* listed St John's Masonic Lodge; Abergavenny Museum; the Public Library; the Town Hall; and the remains of Abergavenny town walls behind Neville Street.", "title": "Notable buildings" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "From 1851, the Monmouthshire lunatic asylum, later Pen-y-Fal Hospital, a psychiatric hospital, stood on the outskirts of Abergavenny. Between 1851 and 1950, over 3,000 patients died at the hospital. A memorial plaque for the deceased has now been placed at the site. After closure in the 1990s, its buildings and grounds were redeveloped as housing. Some psychiatric services are now administered from Maindiff Court Hospital on the outskirts of the town, close to the foot of the Skirrid mountain.", "title": "Notable buildings" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "Abergavenny has three public urban parks which are listed on the Register of Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in Wales: the grounds of Abergavenny Castle, Linda Vista Gardens and Bailey Park. A fourth registered garden, at The Hill to the north of the town, forms part of the grounds of a residential development.", "title": "Parks and gardens" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "One of the eleven Victoria Cross medals won at Rorke's Drift was awarded to John Fielding from Abergavenny. He had enlisted under the false name of Williams. One was also awarded for the same action to Robert Jones, born at Clytha between Abergavenny and Raglan. Another Abergavenny-born soldier, Thomas Monaghan received his VC for defending his colonel during the Indian Rebellion. In 1908 following the formation of the Territorial Force the Abergavenny Cadet Corps was formed and affiliated with the 3rd Battalion, The Monmouthshire Regiment. In 1912 the regiment was affiliated with the new formed 1st Cadet Battalion, The Monmouthshire Regiment.", "title": "Military" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "See also Category:People from Abergavenny", "title": "Notable people" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Abersychan is a town and community north of Pontypool in Torfaen, Wales, and lies within the boundaries of the historic county of Monmouthshire and the preserved county of Gwent.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Abersychan lies in the narrow northern section of the Afon Lwyd valley.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The town includes two schools; Abersychan Comprehensive School and Victoria Primary School; together with various shops and other amenities including Abersychan Rugby Club.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Abersychan was the birthplace of the politicians Roy Jenkins, Don Touhig and Paul Murphy (member of parliament for Torfaen); and of the rugby footballers Wilfred Hodder, Candy Evans and Bryn Meredith.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Like many of the 17th century isolated agricultural hamlets in the forested South Wales Valleys, Abersychan became a thriving industrial centre in the 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly for iron production.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "After the discovery of iron stone locally, the principal ironworks were built by the British Iron Company in 1825, served mainly by the London and North Western Railway's Brynmawr and Blaenavon Railway. The ironwork's main office building and quadrangle were designed by architect Decimus Burton, best known for his design of London Zoo. The works passed to the New British Iron Company in 1843 and to the Ebbw Vale Company in 1852, before closing in 1889. On 6 February 1890, an underground explosion at Llanerch Colliery killed 176.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "The site of the former ironworks today is a core site of 71 hectares (180 acres), and a total land area of 526 hectares (1,300 acres), includes a number of listed buildings:", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Various proposals have been made over the years to redevelop the site, currently under the ownership of HSBC, but none have so far passed the requirements of Torfaen county council.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Abersychan constitutes a community and electoral ward of the county borough of Torfaen. The area was part of the ancient parish of Trevethin, in Monmouthshire. On 3 June 1864 Abersychan was constituted a local government district, governed by a local board. In 1894 Abersychan became an urban district and civil parish. The urban district was abolished in 1935, with most of its area passing to Pontypool urban district, and a small area going to Abercarn UD.", "title": "Local government" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "In 1974 the area became part of the borough of Torfaen, in the new local government county of Gwent. The community of Abersychan was formed in 1985, but no community council has yet been formed. Abersychan and Cwmavon is now a ward for the Pontypool Community Council. In 1996 Torfaen became a unitary authority.", "title": "Local government" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "The Abersychan community includes Abersychan, Cwmavon, Garndiffaith, Pentwyn, Talywain, Varteg, and Victoria Village.", "title": "Local government" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "The nearest railway stations to Abersychan are Pontypool & New Inn (3 miles), Llanhilleth (3.5 miles) and Abergavenny (7 miles). Abersychan was served by the following (disused) stations:", "title": "Local Transport" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Pentwyn, Torfaen is a small village located in the district of Abersychan. It contains a post office, several houses and a small play park. The village has a cricket team (Pontnewynydd CC) and is located right next to the old railway line. The cricket club celebrated its 100-year anniversary in 2006 with a successful tour to Cork, Ireland. The village has superb views over the River Severn and Newport to the south.", "title": "Places nearby" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "Victoria Village is a small hamlet located in the district of Abersychan. It comprises a small village school and a number of houses. A small group of houses on Incline Road mark the beginning of the village and the village boundary is near Cwmavon. Victoria Primary School is also in this area, housed in large grounds. Many homes are built around the school's boundaries. Victoria Village primary school was opened in 1903 and closed by the council in 2018. The last head of the school was Miss Joy Dando. And caretaker Miss Debbie Williams.", "title": "Places nearby" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "Media related to Abersychan at Wikimedia Commons", "title": "References" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Abertillery (/ˌæbərtɪˈlɛəri/; Welsh: Abertyleri) is a town and a community of the Ebbw Fach valley in the historic county of Monmouthshire, Wales. Following local government reorganisation it became part of the Blaenau Gwent County Borough administrative area.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The surrounding landscape borders the Brecon Beacons National Park and the Blaenavon World heritage Site. Formerly a major coal mining centre the Abertillery area was transformed in the 1990s using EU and other funding to return to a greener environment.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Situated on the A467 the town is 15 miles (24 km) north of the M4 and 5 miles (8 km) south of the A465 \"Heads of the Valleys\" trunk road. It is about 25 miles (40 km) by road from Cardiff and 47 miles (76 km) from Bristol.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "According to the 2011 Census, 4.8% of the ward's 4,416 (212 residents) resident-population can speak, read, and write Welsh. This is below the county's figure of 5.5% of 67,348 (3,705 residents) who can speak, read, and write Welsh.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The name of the community means \"the mouth of the River Tyleri\", which flows into the town. The name Tyleri is probably derived from a personal name.", "title": "Etymology" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Abertillery's traditional-style town centre mainly developed in the late 19th century and as such has some interesting Victorian architecture. Spread over 4 main streets the town in its heyday had two department stores and a covered Victorian arcade linking two of the main shopping areas. These were all included in a Blaenau Gwent Borough Council remodelling and modernisation project using European Union funding in a £13 million programme spread over a 5-year period ending in 2015.", "title": "Town centre" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "The project included a new multi-storey car park, a revamp of public areas and the town's Metropole Theatre. This building provides production, exhibition, conference and meeting facilities as well as housing Abertillery museum. In March 2014 Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex, officiated at the launch of Jubilee Square, a public facility in the town centre next to St Michael's Church.", "title": "Town centre" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Major industry came to the area in 1843 when the locality's first deep coal mine was sunk at Tir Nicholas Farm, Cwmtillery. The town developed rapidly thereafter and played a major part in the South Wales coalfield. Its population rose steeply, being 10,846 in the 1891 census and 21,945 ten years later. The population peaked just short of 40,000 around the beginning of the 1930s. Eventually there were six deep coal mines, numerous small coal levels, a tin works, brick works, iron foundry and light engineering businesses in the area. Just one of the coal mines, Cwmtillery, produced over 32 million tons of coal in its lifetime and at its height employed 2760 men and boys.", "title": "Coal mining" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "In 1960 an underground explosion at Six Bells Colliery resulted in the loss of life of 45 local miners. Fifty years later the archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams officiated at the launch of the Guardian mining memorial. This artistically acclaimed monument standing at 20m tall overlooks Parc Arael Griffin, the now reclaimed and landscaped former colliery site. The adjoining Ty Ebbw Fach visitor centre provides conference facilities, a restaurant and a \"mining valley\" experience room. Not long after the disaster the renowned artist L. S. Lowry visited the area and recorded the scene. The resultant landscape painting now hangs in National Museum Cardiff.", "title": "Coal mining" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "The coal mines remained the predominant economic emphasis until the general run down of the industry in the 1980s.", "title": "Coal mining" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Away from the town centre, the often steep sided nature of the landscape, imposes its own demands on development. Whilst this sounds limiting it has helped provide the almost amphitheatre nature of Abertillery Park, often described as one of the most attractive rugby grounds in world rugby.", "title": "Abertillery Conurbation" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "The street plan and housing stock flow uninterrupted from Cwmtillery in the north to Six Bells in the south, forming the town that is Abertillery. Prior to 1974 local government was provided by Abertillery Urban District Council (AUDC). Its area included the small neighbouring villages of Aberbeeg, Llanhilleth and Brynithel. Historical data relating to Abertillery occasionally refers to this AUDC area meaning that it can be difficult to compare like with like. For example, the 2014 population for the wider conurbation area is around 20,000 rather than the 11,000 often quoted for Abertillery itself.", "title": "Abertillery Conurbation" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Whilst in the main the area has an older housing stock there are several developments of modern, often large homes, generally found on the outskirts of the town with views out over the surrounding area. These apart, terraced council tax band A and B properties predominate, meaning that average house prices are among the most affordable in the UK.", "title": "Abertillery Conurbation" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "There are very few written historical records relating to the area before the town developed in the middle of the 19th century. Nevertheless, there are facts that you can use to outline important events.", "title": "Local history" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "Before the coming of major industry, Abertillery was little more than an area of scattered farms in the ancient parish of Aberystruth. In 1779 the parish minister Edmund Jones described the area thus: \"The valley of Tyleri ... is the most delightful. The trees ... especially the beech trees, abounding about rivers great and small, the hedges and lanes make these places exceeding pleasant and the passing by them delightful and affecting ... in these warm valleys, with the prospect of the grand high mountains about them would make very delightful habitations.\" In 1799 clergyman and historian Archdeacon William Coxe toured the area and in writing a diary of his travels described it as \"... richly wooded, and highly cultivated...we looked down with delight upon numerous valleys ... with romantic scenery\". The entire population of Aberystruth parish at the turn of the 19th century was just a little over 800. It is not known what the population of Abertillery was at the time but it was probably in the very low hundreds, all of whom would have spoken Welsh only.", "title": "Local history" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "The area's first deep coal mine was sunk in 1843.", "title": "Local history" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "The first reading rooms were set up in Abertillery in 1856. However, when Thomas Powell took over the Tillery Colliery in 1882 he made a commitment to establish educational facilities for his workers.", "title": "Local history" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "Formed in 1877, Abertillery Urban District Council incorporated the adjoining smaller communities of Six Bells, Cwmtillery, Brynithel, Aberbeeg and Llanhilleth. The population of this conurbation climbed to almost 40,000 in 1931 making it the second largest town in Monmouthshire. The council was abolished in 1974 as part of major UK wide local government reorganisation.", "title": "Local history" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "The reopening of Abertillery railway station has been identified as a future development of the Ebbw Valley Railway.", "title": "Transport" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "Abertillery Learning Community provides all-through education for the town and neighbouring areas. Until the 1970s the town had its own local authority-run Grammar school providing education up to the age of eighteen. Tertiary education is now provided by Coleg Gwent at Ebbw Vale – opened in 2013.", "title": "Education" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "There are several small and medium-sized business parks in the area offering a range of business premises. In 2014 the largest employer was Tyleri Valley Foods. Many local people commute outside the area to work.", "title": "Industry" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "Abertillery Town cricket club and Abertillery Blaenau Gwent RFC formed in the 1880s. Both have their playing headquarters at \"the Park\" one of the most picturesque sporting complexes in the UK.", "title": "Sport, leisure and tourism" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "The town supports two local Saturday football teams: Abertillery Bluebirds and Abertillery Excelsiors. There are numerous other sports activities running on an organized basis such as bowls, badminton, squash etc.", "title": "Sport, leisure and tourism" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "The surrounding landscape provides hill walking opportunities and walker led groups are thriving in the area. One example is Ebbw Fach Trekkers walking group.", "title": "Sport, leisure and tourism" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "The local museum has displays showing what life was like in the area in its heyday. It also has its own \"valleys\" Italian café complete with original furnishings.", "title": "Sport, leisure and tourism" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "The Metropole theatre holds musical and drama events – from Blues to amateur dramatics and dance.", "title": "Sport, leisure and tourism" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "The 20-metre-tall (66 ft) Guardian memorial is a destination for visitors to South Wales and amateur photographers in particular as evidenced by trip advisor. The visitor centre Tŷ Ebbw Fach stands nearby and provides cafe and visitor \"mining valley\" experience facilities.", "title": "Sport, leisure and tourism" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "Local people of note in the fields of civil engineering, sport, science, medicine, religion and art:", "title": "Notable people" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "Abertillery is twinned with:", "title": "International relations" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Abeyance (from the Old French abeance meaning \"gaping\") is a state of expectancy in respect of property, titles or office, when the right to them is not vested in any one person, but awaits the appearance or determination of the true owner. In law, the term abeyance can be applied only to such future estates as have not yet vested or possibly may not vest. For example, an estate is granted to A for life, with remainder to the heir of B. Following A's death, if B is still alive, the remainder is in abeyance, for B has no heirs until B's death. Similarly, the freehold of a benefice, on the death of the incumbent, is said to be in abeyance until the next incumbent takes possession.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The term hold in abeyance is used in lawsuits and court cases when a case is temporarily put on hold.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The most common use of the term is in the case of English peerage dignities. Most such peerages pass to heirs-male, but the ancient baronies created by writ, as well as some very old earldoms, pass instead to heirs-general (by cognatic primogeniture). In this system, sons are preferred from eldest to youngest, the heirs of a son over the next son, and any son over daughters, but there is no preference among daughters: they or their heirs inherit equally.", "title": "English peerage law" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "If the daughter is an only child or her sisters are deceased and have no living issue, she (or her heir) is vested with the title; otherwise, since a peerage cannot be shared nor divided, the dignity goes into abeyance between the sisters or their heirs, and is held by no one. If through lack of issue, marriage, or both, eventually only one person represents the claims of all the sisters, they can claim the dignity as a matter of right, and the abeyance is said to be terminated. On the other hand, the number of prospective heirs can grow quite large, since each share potentially can be divided between daughters, where the owner of a share dies without leaving a son.", "title": "English peerage law" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "A co-heir may petition the Crown for a termination of the abeyance. The Crown may choose to grant the petition, but if there is any doubt whatsoever as to the pedigree of the petitioner, the claim is normally referred to the Committee for Privileges. If the claim is unopposed, the committee will generally award the claim, unless there is evidence of collusion, the peerage has been in abeyance for more than a century, or the petitioner holds less than one-third of the claim.", "title": "English peerage law" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "This doctrine is a 17th-century innovation, although it is now applied retrospectively for centuries. It cannot be applied perfectly; for example, the eighth Baron De La Warr had three surviving sons; the first died without children, the second left two daughters, and the third left a son. In modern law, the title would have fallen into abeyance between the two daughters of the second son, and nobody else would have been able to claim it even if the abeyance were settled; however, in 1597, the grandson of the third son (whose father had been re-created Baron De La Warr in 1570) claimed the title and its precedence.", "title": "English peerage law" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "In 1604, the Baron le Despencer case was the first peerage abeyance ever settled; the second was at the Restoration in 1660. Most subsequent abeyances (only a few dozen cases) were settled after a few years, in favour of the holder of the family properties; there were two periods in which long-abeyant peerages (in some cases peerages of doubtful reality) were brought back: between 1838 and 1841 and between 1909 and 1921. The Complete Peerage reports that only baronies have been called out of abeyance, although the Earldom of Cromartie was called out of a two-year abeyance in 1895.", "title": "English peerage law" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "It is entirely possible for a peerage to remain in abeyance for centuries. For example, the Barony of Grey of Codnor was in abeyance for over 490 years between 1496 and 1989, and the Barony of Hastings was similarly in abeyance for over 299 years from 1542 to 1841. Some other baronies became abeyant in the 13th century, and the abeyance has yet to be terminated. The only modern examples of titles other than a barony that have yet gone into abeyance are the earldom of Arlington and the viscountcy of Thetford, which are united, and (as noted above) the earldom of Cromartie.", "title": "English peerage law" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "It is no longer straightforward to claim English peerages after long abeyances. In 1927 a parliamentary Select Committee on Peerages in Abeyance recommended that no claim should be considered where the abeyance has lasted more than 100 years, nor where the claimant lays claim to less than one third of the dignity. The Barony of Grey of Codnor was treated as an exception to this principle, as a claim to it had been submitted prior to these recommendations being made to the Sovereign.", "title": "English peerage law" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Titles in the Peerage of Scotland cannot go into abeyance, because in Scottish law the eldest sister is preferred over younger sisters; sisters are not considered equal co-heirs.", "title": "English peerage law" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "It is common, but incorrect, to speak of peerage dignities which are dormant (i.e. unclaimed) as being in abeyance.", "title": "English peerage law" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "Abeyance can be used in cases where parties are interested in temporarily settling litigation while still holding the right to seek relief later if necessary. This may be considered a desirable outcome in cases where the party to the lawsuit is an organization with a transient membership and political perspective. The use of abeyance in such instances can allow such an organization to 'settle' with the party without officially binding its actions in the future, should a new group of decision makers within the organization choose to pursue taking the dispute to court.", "title": "Settling litigation" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "For example, abeyance was used as a settlement method in a Canadian lawsuit involving the University of Victoria Students' Society (UVSS), the British Columbia Civil Liberties Association, and a campus anti-abortion club to whom the UVSS denied funding. The parties agreed to settle the lawsuit by holding the case in abeyance in return for the UVSS temporarily giving resources back to the club. With this arrangement, the anti-abortion club held on to its right to immediately reopen the case again should the UVSS deny resources to the club in the future, and the UVSS was able to avoid an expensive legal battle it did not have the will to pursue at the time. Thus, the use of abeyance provided the security of a settlement for the anti-abortion campus club, while preserving the student society's voting membership's ability to take the matter back to court should they choose in the future to deny resources to the club.", "title": "Settling litigation" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "Other court cases may be held in abeyance when the issue may be resolved by another court or another event. This saves time and effort trying to resolve a dispute that may be made moot by the other events. During lawsuits related to the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act after the Supreme Court of the United States granted certiorari in King v. Burwell, attorneys in Halbig v. Burwell requested abeyance of that case as the matter would be resolved in King and it would be a waste of time and effort to try to resolve it in the Halbig case.", "title": "Settling litigation" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Anders Celsius (Swedish pronunciation: [ˈânːdɛʂ ˈsɛ̌lːsɪɵs]; 27 November 1701 – 25 April 1744) was a Swedish astronomer, physicist and mathematician. He was professor of astronomy at Uppsala University from 1730 to 1744, but traveled from 1732 to 1735 visiting notable observatories in Germany, Italy and France. He founded the Uppsala Astronomical Observatory in 1741, and in 1742 proposed (an inverted form of) the Centigrade temperature scale which was later renamed Celsius in his honour.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Anders Celsius was born in Uppsala, Sweden, on 27 November 1701. His family originated from Ovanåker in the province of Hälsingland. Their family estate was at Doma, also known as Höjen or Högen (locally as Högen 2). The name Celsius is a latinization of the estate's name (Latin celsus 'mound').", "title": "Early life and education" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "As the son of an astronomy professor, Nils Celsius, nephew of botanist Olof Celsius and the grandson of the mathematician Magnus Celsius and the astronomer Anders Spole, Celsius chose a career in science. He was a talented mathematician from an early age. Anders Celsius studied at Uppsala University, where his father was a teacher, and in 1730 he, too, became a professor of astronomy there. Noted Swedish dramatic poet and actor Johan Celsius was also his uncle.", "title": "Early life and education" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "In 1730, Celsius published the Nova Methodus distantiam solis a terra determinandi (New Method for Determining the Distance from the Earth to the Sun). His research also involved the study of auroral phenomena, which he conducted with his assistant Olof Hiorter, and he was the first to suggest a connection between the aurora borealis and changes in the magnetic field of the Earth. He observed the variations of a compass needle and found that larger deflections correlated with stronger auroral activity. At Nuremberg in 1733, he published a collection of 316 observations of the aurora borealis made by himself and others over the period 1716–1732.", "title": "Career" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Celsius traveled frequently in the early 1730s, including to Germany, Italy and France, when he visited most of the major European observatories. In Paris he advocated the measurement of an arc of the meridian in Lapland. In 1736, he participated in the expedition organized for that purpose by the French Academy of Sciences, led by the French mathematician Pierre Louis Maupertuis (1698–1759) to measure a degree of latitude. The aim of the expedition was to measure the length of a degree along a meridian, close to the pole, and compare the result with a similar expedition to Peru, today in Ecuador, near the equator. The expeditions confirmed Isaac Newton's belief that the shape of the Earth is an ellipsoid flattened at the poles.", "title": "Career" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "In 1738, he published the De observationibus pro figura telluris determinanda (Observations on Determining the Shape of the Earth). Celsius's participation in the Lapland expedition won him much respect in Sweden with the government and his peers, and played a key role in generating interest from the Swedish authorities in donating the resources required to construct a new modern observatory in Uppsala. He was successful in the request, and Celsius founded the Uppsala Astronomical Observatory in 1741. The observatory was equipped with instruments purchased during his long voyage abroad, comprising the most modern instrumental technology of the period.", "title": "Career" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "He made observations of eclipses and various astronomical objects and published catalogues of carefully determined magnitudes for some 300 stars using his own photometric system (mean error=0.4 mag). In 1742 he proposed the Celsius temperature scale in a paper to the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala, the oldest Swedish scientific society, founded in 1710. His thermometer was calibrated with a value of 0 for the boiling point of water and 100 for the freezing point. In 1745, a year after Celsius's death, the scale was reversed by Carl Linnaeus to facilitate more practical measurement.", "title": "Career" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Celsius conducted many geographical measurements for the Swedish General map, and was one of earliest to note that much of Scandinavia is slowly rising above sea level, a continuous process which has been occurring since the melting of the ice from the latest ice age. However, he wrongly posed the notion that the water was evaporating.", "title": "Career" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "In 1725 he became secretary of the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala, and served at this post until his death from tuberculosis in 1744. He supported the formation of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in Stockholm in 1739 by Linnaeus and five others, and was elected a member at the first meeting of this academy. It was in fact Celsius who proposed the new academy's name.", "title": "Career" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "", "title": "External links" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Adam Carolla (born May 27, 1964) is an American radio personality, comedian, actor and podcaster. He hosts The Adam Carolla Show, a talk show distributed as a podcast which set the record as the \"most downloaded podcast\" as judged by Guinness World Records in 2011.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Carolla co-hosted the syndicated radio call-in program Loveline with Drew Pinsky from 1995 to 2005 as well as the show's television incarnation on MTV from 1996 to 2000. He was the co-host and co-creator of the television program The Man Show (1999–2004), and the co-creator and a regular performer on the television show Crank Yankers (2002–2007, 2019–present). He hosted The Adam Carolla Project, a home improvement television program which aired on TLC in 2005 and The Car Show on Speed in 2011.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Carolla has also appeared on the network reality television programs Dancing with the Stars and The Celebrity Apprentice. His book In Fifty Years We'll All Be Chicks debuted on The New York Times Best Seller list in 2010, and his second book, Not Taco Bell Material, also reached The New York Times bestseller status.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Carolla has made numerous guest appearances on political talk shows as a commentator. He hosted a weekly segment, \"Rollin' with Carolla\", on Bill O'Reilly's The O'Reilly Factor.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Adam Carolla was born on May 27, 1964, to Jim and Kris (née McCall) Carolla. Some sources list his birthplace as Los Angeles County, California, while others list it as Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He grew up in the Los Angeles San Fernando Valley, and his parents separated when he was young. Carolla was not given a middle name by his parents; on his driver's license application he listed his middle name as \"Lakers\" as a joke. The application was processed without notice. His maternal step-grandfather was screenwriter László Görög.", "title": "Early life" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Carolla was raised in the North Hollywood neighborhood of Los Angeles. He attended Colfax Elementary School, Walter Reed Junior High, and North Hollywood High School. Carolla did not receive his high school diploma until years later as it was held by the school until a library fine was paid. Carolla can be seen paying off the book and receiving his diploma in an episode of his 2005 television show, The Adam Carolla Project.", "title": "Early life" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "During his youth, Carolla played Pop Warner football for seven years; he later suggested that being involved in sports saved him from a chaotic home life. During his senior year at North Hollywood High School, Carolla distinguished himself in football. In December 1981, he was named to the First Team Offensive Line, Central Valley League, one of 8 leagues at the time in the LA City Section of the California Interscholastic Federation. In October 2020 he spoke of being recruited by \"7 or 8\" schools including UC-Davis, Cal Poly Pomona, and Cal Poly San Luis Obispo.", "title": "Early life" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "He began living on his own at the age of 18. He briefly attended Los Angeles Valley College, a community college, where he was placed on academic probation before dropping out to work in a series of jobs, including carpet cleaner, carpenter, boxing instructor, and traffic school instructor. Although broke, Carolla, his friends, and roommates owned a 1963 Cadillac limousine.", "title": "Early life" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "In the early 1990s, Carolla studied improvisational comedy with The Groundlings and was a member of the ACME Comedy Theatre troupe.", "title": "Early life" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "In 1994, Carolla volunteered his services as a boxing trainer to prepare Jimmy Kimmel for a bout being staged by KROQ-FM's morning radio program Kevin and Bean. Kimmel was a regular on the show as \"Jimmy the Sports Guy\" and he was set to fight another KROQ personality in a boxing exhibition which was being billed as the \"Bleeda in Reseda\". Carolla parlayed this opportunity into a long-running friendship and business partnership with Kimmel as well as a recurring role on Kevin and Bean as cranky woodshop teacher, Mr. Birchum.", "title": "Radio" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "In October 1995, after being signed to the William Morris Agency by Mark Itkin, Carolla was offered the job of co-hosting the evening radio call-in show Loveline. His co-hosts were the physician Drew Pinsky (\"Dr. Drew\") and metal DJ Riki Rachtman. Carolla received the offer after Pinsky heard him on Kevin and Bean (Rachtman left the show the following year.) Loveline was broadcast on KROQ-FM in Los Angeles and was syndicated nationwide on the former Westwood One radio network.", "title": "Radio" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "While the format of the program was primarily that of a call-in show wherein listeners would ask questions about sex and relationships, Carolla would often spend much of the show ranting about various topics from fart jokes to extended parodies of radio morning shows, including mocking the format's penchant for useless and repetitive weather and traffic reports. In contrast to the reserved, thoughtful Pinsky, Carolla served as the loud, funny side of the show. Carolla's character was described by one reviewer as \"a toned-down version of Howard Stern minus the huge ego\".", "title": "Radio" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "In a late-2003 Loveline episode, Carolla said that Hawaiians are \"dumb\", \"in-bred\", \"retarded\" people who are among the \"dumbest people we have\". The comments were met with anger in Hawaii and resulted in Loveline's cancellation on Hawaiian affiliate KPOI.", "title": "Radio" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "In October 2005, Carolla was announced as the host of a new morning radio show on the Infinity Broadcasting network. His new show would replace the popular syndicated Howard Stern Show (which was moving to satellite radio) in twelve of the 27 markets in which Stern had been broadcast including Los Angeles, Las Vegas, San Francisco, San Diego, Phoenix, and Portland, Oregon. The Adam Carolla Show debuted in January 2006.", "title": "Radio" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "In early 2008, actor Gerard Butler sat in and observed Adam Carolla on The Adam Carolla Show in order to prepare for his role in The Ugly Truth as a cynical and crass talk-radio host allegedly based on Carolla.", "title": "Radio" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "On February 18, 2009, The Adam Carolla Show was canceled as part of a format switch at KLSX to AMP FM, a new top 40 station. The final show was Friday, February 20, 2009.", "title": "Radio" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "Carolla started a daily podcast on February 23, 2009, at his personal website, which would evolve into the ACE Broadcasting Network. The first Adam Carolla podcast was downloaded more than 250,000 times in the initial 24 hours, and by the third podcast, it was the number one podcast on iTunes in both the U.S. and Canada. During the debut week, the Adam Carolla podcast recorded 1.6 million downloads. In the second week it recorded 2.4 million downloads. By the fourth episode of the second week, featuring former Adam Carolla Show sidekick Dave Dameshek, the show was downloaded more than 500,000 times. Adam stated that bandwidth cost more than $9,000 a month as of May 2009.", "title": "Podcasts" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "At the end of 2009, The Adam Carolla Podcast was selected by iTunes for its end-of-the-year awards as the Best Audio Podcast of 2009.", "title": "Podcasts" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "On the April 4, 2010, episode of The Adam Carolla Show, Carolla referred to Filipino boxer Manny Pacquiao as a \"fucking idiot\" and said of the Philippines: \"They got this and sex tours, that's all they have over there. Get your shit together, Philippines.\" A spokesman for President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo called Carolla an \"ignorant fool\". Carolla subsequently apologized via Twitter.", "title": "Podcasts" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "On May 18, 2011, Carolla noted on Jimmy Kimmel Live! that The Adam Carolla Show had taken the Guinness World Record for the most downloaded podcast ever from previous holder Ricky Gervais by receiving 59,574,843 unique downloads from March 2009 to March 16, 2011.", "title": "Podcasts" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "In 2010, Carolla posed for the NOH8 Campaign. In August 2011, Carolla released a podcast where he mocked a petition to the producers of Sesame Street that demanded Bert and Ernie get married on air. He said on air that gay activists should \"[j]ust get married, and please shut up\" and that \"Y.U.C.K.\" would be more memorable acronym than LGBT, and referring to transgender people he asked: \"When did we start giving a shit about these people?\" GLAAD characterized the previous remarks by Carolla as offensive, including an assertion that \"all things being equal\", heterosexual parents make better parents than homosexual parents. Carolla responded: \"I'm sorry my comments were hurtful. I'm a comedian, not a politician.\"", "title": "Podcasts" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "In 2013, Personal Audio filed a patent infringement lawsuit against Lotzi Digital, Inc., producers of The Adam Carolla Show and several other podcasts on the Carolla Digital Network, in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Texas. The suit alleged that owner Adam Carolla and his network of content infringed on Personal Audio's patent 8,112,504.", "title": "Podcasts" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "Using the crowdfunding site FundAnything.com, listeners contributed more than $475,000 (as of August 2014) to support Carolla throughout the legal proceedings.", "title": "Podcasts" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "Personal Audio dropped the lawsuit July 29, 2014, stating that the defendants were not \"making significant money from infringing Personal Audio's patents\". However, Carolla countersued, having already spent hundreds of thousands of dollars mounting a defense against claims he deemed unfounded. Among claims sought by the countersuit was a request that the initial patent be invalidated. On August 15, 2014, Carolla and Personal Audio filed a joint motion to dismiss after reaching a settlement, the details of which were not made public but included a six-week \"quiet period\" during which neither party could speak to the media. Both parties' claims were dropped without prejudice and, as such, could be refiled at a later date.", "title": "Podcasts" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "From 1996 to 2000, Carolla and Dr. Drew hosted Loveline on MTV, a television version of the radio show. Carolla began his first original television series with The Man Show, along with partner and friend Jimmy Kimmel, on Comedy Central from 1999 to 2003. He left The Man Show at the same time as Kimmel. Carolla has continued his work with Kimmel as a writer and guest on Jimmy Kimmel Live!. He also appeared on an episode of Space Ghost Coast to Coast around this time.", "title": "Television" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "Carolla and partner Daniel Kellison are the heads of Jackhole Productions. The two created the television show Crank Yankers for Comedy Central, which revived the Mr. Birchum character. The show premiered in 2002 on Comedy Central and returned to MTV2 on February 9, 2007, running again until March 30, 2007. The show screened in Australia on SBS Television and The Comedy Channel between 2003 and 2008. The show revived in 2019.", "title": "Television" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "From August 2005 to November 2005, Carolla hosted the talk show Too Late with Adam Carolla on Comedy Central.", "title": "Television" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "Also in 2005, Carolla was featured in a home remodeling program called The Adam Carolla Project wherein he and a crew of old friends renovated his childhood home. The 13 episodes aired on the cable channel TLC (The Learning Channel) from October through December 2005. The house was then sold for 1.2 million dollars.", "title": "Television" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "In 2006, Carolla appeared on the special summer series Gameshow Marathon as a celebrity panelist on the Match Game episode.", "title": "Television" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "On the February 18, 2008, broadcast of his radio show, Carolla announced that he would be one of the contestants on the next season of Dancing with the Stars. Later in the broadcast, it was revealed to Carolla that his partner would be Julianne Hough. He was voted off on the April 8, 2008, episode after his performance of the Paso Doble, after incorporating a demonstration of unicycle riding in his dance routine.", "title": "Television" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "On June 16, 2008, Carolla was selected to host a pilot of an American version of the popular BBC show Top Gear for NBC. In December 2008, NBC decided not to pick up the show.", "title": "Television" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "On February 21, 2009, a day after his Los Angeles-based morning radio show was canceled – as part of a format change at KLSX-FM – CBS ordered a comedy pilot, Ace in the Hole, starring Carolla as a husband and father who works as a driving instructor. Carolla created and wrote the pilot with Kevin Hench (Jimmy Kimmel Live!). Carolla stated that Pamela Adlon was to play his wife and Windell Middlebrooks would play his best friend. During his March 30, 2009, podcast, Carolla briefly described the show as being \"All in the Family, essentially\", with Carolla playing a similar role to that of Archie Bunker. On the July 23, 2009, episode of the Adam Carolla Podcast, Carolla announced that CBS was not picking up the pilot for the 2009 season, \"in any way, shape or form\".", "title": "Television" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "On October 22, 2009, it was reported in Variety that Carolla had struck a deal with NBC to produce a half-hour pilot for a sitcom. The report was later confirmed on January 4, 2010, and was the first comedy pilot ordered by NBC for the season. The untitled project, written by Carolla and Kevin Hench, was a single-camera sitcom that starred Carolla as a contractor and father who attempts to rebuild his life after his wife leaves him. Carolla was set to executive produce the NBC project along with frequent collaborators Kimmel and Hench, as well as his agent James \"Babydoll\" Dixon, Jon Pollack, Gail Berman, Daniel Kellison, and Lloyd Braun. Universal Media Studios, BermanBraun, and Carolla and Jimmy Kimmel's own Jackhole Industries.", "title": "Television" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "On the February 13, 2010, episode of Carolla's CarCast podcast, he revealed that The History Channel had picked up Top Gear US, which NBC had decided against in 2008. On the March 26, 2010, episode of CarCast, Carolla said that he would not be co-hosting Top Gear US because of scheduling conflicts with his NBC sitcom project. In June 2010, Carolla said that his NBC pilot had not been picked up and was now \"dead\".", "title": "Television" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "Premiering on February 19, 2012, Carolla was also one of the contestants in the 12th season of NBC's The Celebrity Apprentice. He was fired in Week 4, because host Donald Trump perceived that Carolla did not utilize teammate Mario Andretti's car background during a Buick presentation.", "title": "Television" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "In 2022, Carolla competed in season eight of The Masked Singer as \"Avocado\". He was eliminated on \"Comedy Roast Night\" alongside Chris Jericho as \"Bride\".", "title": "Television" }, { "paragraph_id": 36, "text": "Carolla's The Car Show debuted on Speed TV July 13, 2011. Appearing Wednesdays at 10 pm Eastern, it featured Carolla as the host, along with Dan Neil, John Salley, and Matt Farah. It had a format similar to Top Gear, mixing car reviews, tests and humor. The show was initially met with positive reviews from car enthusiasts and comedy fans. Talk show host and comedian Jay Leno called The Car Show, \"a lot of fun\". The Car Show was cancelled after one season, after undergoing format changes due to low ratings, as Carolla mentioned on his podcast on January 13, 2012.", "title": "Television" }, { "paragraph_id": 37, "text": "Catch a Contractor is a non-scripted, original series on Spike, hosted by Carolla along with \"no-nonsense contractor\" Skip Bedell and his wife, investigator Alison Bedell. Together they expose unethical contractors and seek retribution for wronged homeowners.", "title": "Television" }, { "paragraph_id": 38, "text": "The show premiered on March 9, 2014, to 1.2 million viewers, the largest audience for a series debut on Spike since Coal in March 2011. The show was cancelled in 2015.", "title": "Television" }, { "paragraph_id": 39, "text": "Premiering on Spike TV on March 14, 2017, Adam Carolla and Friends Build Stuff Live features Carolla building projects live and in studio with some of his Hollywood friends, and tackling viewers' home improvement projects via social media.", "title": "Television" }, { "paragraph_id": 40, "text": "Carolla has also done voice acting in animation, including Commander Nebula on the Disney animated series Buzz Lightyear of Star Command, Death on Family Guy (replacing Norm Macdonald) and Spanky Ham on Drawn Together. He was also the voice of the éclair police officer, Wynchell, in the Disney film Wreck-It Ralph. In 2008 and 2009, he was the spokesperson for T.G.I. Friday's.", "title": "Television" }, { "paragraph_id": 41, "text": "In 2003, he appeared in Windy City Heat as himself. In 2006, Carolla finished work on The Hammer, a semi-autobiographical independent film he co-wrote and co-produced, in which he stars opposite Heather Juergensen. The film is based loosely on his own life and is filmed at a gym he helped build with his co-star, Ozzie, played by Oswaldo Castillo, his friend in real life whom he met while building the gym when they both worked in construction. The film made its world premiere at the 2007 Tribeca Film Festival in New York City and shortly thereafter received a positive review in Variety. The film was released on March 21, 2008. The film is rated 80% on Rotten Tomatoes.", "title": "Film" }, { "paragraph_id": 42, "text": "Adam made a short appearance in Jeff Balis' Still Waiting... (a sequel to Waiting...) playing a pick-up artist guru.", "title": "Film" }, { "paragraph_id": 43, "text": "Adam helped write an unproduced screenplay for a film entitled Deaf Frat Guy: Showdown at Havasu.", "title": "Film" }, { "paragraph_id": 44, "text": "He is the voice of Virgil in the independent short film Save Virgil.", "title": "Film" }, { "paragraph_id": 45, "text": "In July 2013, Carolla used crowdfunding for Road Hard; a film he directed and starred in, about the lives of aging road comics. Adam confirmed through a press conference that the film would co-star David Alan Grier, Illeana Douglas, Diane Farr, and Larry Miller. It had limited theatrical release in the United States. Several minutes of the credits are devoted to listing the names of those who helped crowdfund the film.", "title": "Film" }, { "paragraph_id": 46, "text": "Carolla also directed the documentary Winning: The Racing Life of Paul Newman on the 35-year car racing career of Paul Newman. The documentary showcases Newman's racing life as both a prolific driver and owner.", "title": "Film" }, { "paragraph_id": 47, "text": "In 2017, Carolla and Dennis Prager began filming No Safe Spaces, a documentary about political correctness at universities. No Safe Spaces had a limited opening on October 25, 2019, and did well enough to open nationwide on December 6, 2019.", "title": "Film" }, { "paragraph_id": 48, "text": "Carolla and Drew Pinsky co-wrote (with Marshall Fine) the self-help book The Dr. Drew and Adam Book: A Survival Guide to Life and Love, published in 1998. The book is a compilation of some of the advice the pair compiled while producing Loveline.", "title": "Books" }, { "paragraph_id": 49, "text": "In November 2010, Carolla's In Fifty Years We'll All Be Chicks... And Other Complaints from an Angry Middle-Aged White Guy was published by Crown Archetype and debuted at number eight on The New York Times Best Seller list for hardcover non-fiction on November 21, 2010. The book was compiled from rants Carolla had delivered on his radio show and podcast along with some new material and was dictated to and ghost-written by Mike Lynch.", "title": "Books" }, { "paragraph_id": 50, "text": "Carolla published a short, illustrated e-book entitled Rich Man, Poor Man in January 2012. The book details some similarities in the experiences of the very rich and the very poor which are not shared by the middle class. The book was illustrated by Michael Narren.", "title": "Books" }, { "paragraph_id": 51, "text": "Carolla's book Not Taco Bell Material was published by Crown Archetype on June 12, 2012.It climbed The New York Times Bestseller list and received widespread praise for its satirical humor and honest, self-deprecating style.", "title": "Books" }, { "paragraph_id": 52, "text": "In President Me: The America That's in My Head, Carolla presents the comedian's fantasy of the United States with him at the helm. When asked in separate interviews, both before and after the book's release, about whether the \"if-I-were-king\" critique of America was a serious piece, he said it's both: \"Well, there's a lot of jokes in it, but you know, it's like... Well, if you have a fat friend you may make a lot of fat jokes about your fat friend, but he's still fat\".", "title": "Books" }, { "paragraph_id": 53, "text": "In Daddy, Stop Talking!: And Other Things My Kids Want But Won't Be Getting, Carolla writes about modern parenting. Carolla describes what he believes adults must do if they don't want to have to support their kids forever. Carolla uses his own childhood as a cautionary tale, and decries helicopter parenting.", "title": "Books" }, { "paragraph_id": 54, "text": "Carolla's book, I'm Your Emotional Support Animal: Navigating Our All Woke, No Joke Culture, was published by Post Hill Press on June 16, 2020.", "title": "Books" }, { "paragraph_id": 55, "text": "Carolla's latest book, Everything Reminds Me of Something, was published by Post Hill Press on July 19, 2022.", "title": "Books" }, { "paragraph_id": 56, "text": "Carolla is an atheist.", "title": "Views" }, { "paragraph_id": 57, "text": "Regarding his political views, Carolla has stated, \"I guess I would be Republican, in the sense that I want a secure border, I'm not into the welfare state, I'm not into all those freebie lunch programs. It just kind of demeans people.\" He goes on to state, however, that he is also in favor of typically liberal causes such as the legalization of marijuana (he is a member of the advisory board of the Marijuana Policy Project) and support for some progressive causes such as \"[being] against semi-automatic and automatic weapons. I'm not an NRA guy by any stretch of the imagination. I'd like alternative energy to be explored and electric cars to be used, but I want them to be powered by nuclear power plants.\" Elsewhere, he has stated, \"My feeling is this whole country is founded on the principle of 'If you are not hurting anyone, and you're not fucking with someone else's shit, and you are paying your taxes, you should be able to just do what you want to do.' It's the freedom and the independence.\" In an interview with Reason TV, Carolla described his views as libertarian. Carolla expressed his support for Andrew Yang's 2020 presidential run.", "title": "Views" }, { "paragraph_id": 58, "text": "In June 2012, Carolla gave a printed interview to the New York Post, where among other things he stated that \"chicks\" are \"always the least funny on the writing staff\" and that \"dudes are funnier than chicks\". Carolla's comments were criticized as sexist. Carolla criticized coverage of his comments as over-simplistic and misleading.", "title": "Views" }, { "paragraph_id": 59, "text": "Carolla said, \"If you meet anyone over 45, they'll tell you they got paddled, they got swatted, the teacher would smack them with a ruler. … Paddling a kid sounds pretty outrageous in 2020 and nobody would stand for it. ... But the people who engaged in it at the time when it was common practice or had a context, we don't need to build a time machine so we can cancel-culture them\". In an interview with Tucker Carlson, Carolla said that cancel culture is \"destroying free speech and killing comedy.\"", "title": "Views" }, { "paragraph_id": 60, "text": "On September 28, 2002, Carolla married Lynette Paradise. The couple's twins Natalia and Santino \"Sonny\" Richard Carolla were born June 7, 2006. Carolla announced in May 2021 that he and Lynette were divorcing after 19 years. He currently lives in La Cañada Flintridge, California.", "title": "Personal life" }, { "paragraph_id": 61, "text": "Carolla was a part owner of Amalfi, an Italian restaurant in Los Angeles, saying, \"I own about two percent of it, but I've never seen a penny.\"", "title": "Personal life" }, { "paragraph_id": 62, "text": "Carolla won the 2013 Pro/Celebrity Race as a professional and the 2012 Pro/Celebrity Race at the Toyota Grand Prix of Long Beach as an amateur. The 2012 race was run on April 14, 2012, and was broadcast on Speed TV. Carolla has previously participated in the race in 2010 and 2003. He finished ninth among 19 racers (fifth among the ten celebrities) in 2010 despite being regarded as a pre-race favorite. He is also a serious automobile collector with over 20 cars. His collection includes several Lamborghinis from the 1960s and early 1970s, including two Miuras (of 764 examples ever produced), one of which he has loaned to the Petersen Automotive Museum in Los Angeles, two 400GT 2+2s (of 247 units produced) and a 1965 350GT (one of 135 built). At least one Ferrari, an Aston Martin, and several vintage race cars round out the collection.", "title": "Personal life" }, { "paragraph_id": 63, "text": "Carolla and Drew Pinsky received a Sexual Health in Entertainment (SHINE) Award from The Media Project in 2000 for \"incorporating accurate and honest portrayals of sexuality\" in the talk show category for Loveline.", "title": "Honors" }, { "paragraph_id": 64, "text": "Asteroid (4535) Adamcarolla is named in his honor.", "title": "Honors" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Autocorrelation, sometimes known as serial correlation in the discrete time case, is the correlation of a signal with a delayed copy of itself as a function of delay. Informally, it is the similarity between observations of a random variable as a function of the time lag between them. The analysis of autocorrelation is a mathematical tool for finding repeating patterns, such as the presence of a periodic signal obscured by noise, or identifying the missing fundamental frequency in a signal implied by its harmonic frequencies. It is often used in signal processing for analyzing functions or series of values, such as time domain signals.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Different fields of study define autocorrelation differently, and not all of these definitions are equivalent. In some fields, the term is used interchangeably with autocovariance.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Unit root processes, trend-stationary processes, autoregressive processes, and moving average processes are specific forms of processes with autocorrelation.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "In statistics, the autocorrelation of a real or complex random process is the Pearson correlation between values of the process at different times, as a function of the two times or of the time lag. Let { X t } {\\displaystyle \\left\\{X_{t}\\right\\}} be a random process, and t {\\displaystyle t} be any point in time ( t {\\displaystyle t} may be an integer for a discrete-time process or a real number for a continuous-time process). Then X t {\\displaystyle X_{t}} is the value (or realization) produced by a given run of the process at time t {\\displaystyle t} . Suppose that the process has mean μ t {\\displaystyle \\mu _{t}} and variance σ t 2 {\\displaystyle \\sigma _{t}^{2}} at time t {\\displaystyle t} , for each t {\\displaystyle t} . Then the definition of the auto-correlation function between times t 1 {\\displaystyle t_{1}} and t 2 {\\displaystyle t_{2}} is", "title": "Auto-correlation of stochastic processes" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "where E {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {E} } is the expected value operator and the bar represents complex conjugation. Note that the expectation may not be well defined.", "title": "Auto-correlation of stochastic processes" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Subtracting the mean before multiplication yields the auto-covariance function between times t 1 {\\displaystyle t_{1}} and t 2 {\\displaystyle t_{2}} :", "title": "Auto-correlation of stochastic processes" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Note that this expression is not well defined for all time series or processes, because the mean may not exist, or the variance may be zero (for a constant process) or infinite (for processes with distribution lacking well-behaved moments, such as certain types of power law).", "title": "Auto-correlation of stochastic processes" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "If { X t } {\\displaystyle \\left\\{X_{t}\\right\\}} is a wide-sense stationary process then the mean μ {\\displaystyle \\mu } and the variance σ 2 {\\displaystyle \\sigma ^{2}} are time-independent, and further the autocovariance function depends only on the lag between t 1 {\\displaystyle t_{1}} and t 2 {\\displaystyle t_{2}} : the autocovariance depends only on the time-distance between the pair of values but not on their position in time. This further implies that the autocovariance and auto-correlation can be expressed as a function of the time-lag, and that this would be an even function of the lag τ = t 2 − t 1 {\\displaystyle \\tau =t_{2}-t_{1}} . This gives the more familiar forms for the auto-correlation function", "title": "Auto-correlation of stochastic processes" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "and the auto-covariance function:", "title": "Auto-correlation of stochastic processes" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "In particular, note that", "title": "Auto-correlation of stochastic processes" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "It is common practice in some disciplines (e.g. statistics and time series analysis) to normalize the autocovariance function to get a time-dependent Pearson correlation coefficient. However, in other disciplines (e.g. engineering) the normalization is usually dropped and the terms \"autocorrelation\" and \"autocovariance\" are used interchangeably.", "title": "Auto-correlation of stochastic processes" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "The definition of the auto-correlation coefficient of a stochastic process is", "title": "Auto-correlation of stochastic processes" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "If the function ρ X X {\\displaystyle \\rho _{XX}} is well defined, its value must lie in the range [ − 1 , 1 ] {\\displaystyle [-1,1]} , with 1 indicating perfect correlation and −1 indicating perfect anti-correlation.", "title": "Auto-correlation of stochastic processes" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "For a wide-sense stationary (WSS) process, the definition is", "title": "Auto-correlation of stochastic processes" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": ".", "title": "Auto-correlation of stochastic processes" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "The normalization is important both because the interpretation of the autocorrelation as a correlation provides a scale-free measure of the strength of statistical dependence, and because the normalization has an effect on the statistical properties of the estimated autocorrelations.", "title": "Auto-correlation of stochastic processes" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "The fact that the auto-correlation function R X X {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {R} _{XX}} is an even function can be stated as", "title": "Auto-correlation of stochastic processes" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "respectively for a WSS process:", "title": "Auto-correlation of stochastic processes" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "For a WSS process:", "title": "Auto-correlation of stochastic processes" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "Notice that R X X ( 0 ) {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {R} _{XX}(0)} is always real.", "title": "Auto-correlation of stochastic processes" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "The Cauchy–Schwarz inequality, inequality for stochastic processes:", "title": "Auto-correlation of stochastic processes" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "The autocorrelation of a continuous-time white noise signal will have a strong peak (represented by a Dirac delta function) at τ = 0 {\\displaystyle \\tau =0} and will be exactly 0 {\\displaystyle 0} for all other τ {\\displaystyle \\tau } .", "title": "Auto-correlation of stochastic processes" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "The Wiener–Khinchin theorem relates the autocorrelation function R X X {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {R} _{XX}} to the power spectral density S X X {\\displaystyle S_{XX}} via the Fourier transform:", "title": "Auto-correlation of stochastic processes" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "For real-valued functions, the symmetric autocorrelation function has a real symmetric transform, so the Wiener–Khinchin theorem can be re-expressed in terms of real cosines only:", "title": "Auto-correlation of stochastic processes" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "The (potentially time-dependent) auto-correlation matrix (also called second moment) of a (potentially time-dependent) random vector X = ( X 1 , … , X n ) T {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {X} =(X_{1},\\ldots ,X_{n})^{\\rm {T}}} is an n × n {\\displaystyle n\\times n} matrix containing as elements the autocorrelations of all pairs of elements of the random vector X {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {X} } . The autocorrelation matrix is used in various digital signal processing algorithms.", "title": "Auto-correlation of random vectors" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "For a random vector X = ( X 1 , … , X n ) T {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {X} =(X_{1},\\ldots ,X_{n})^{\\rm {T}}} containing random elements whose expected value and variance exist, the auto-correlation matrix is defined by", "title": "Auto-correlation of random vectors" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "where T {\\displaystyle {}^{\\rm {T}}} denotes transposition and has dimensions n × n {\\displaystyle n\\times n} .", "title": "Auto-correlation of random vectors" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "Written component-wise:", "title": "Auto-correlation of random vectors" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "If Z {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {Z} } is a complex random vector, the autocorrelation matrix is instead defined by", "title": "Auto-correlation of random vectors" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "Here H {\\displaystyle {}^{\\rm {H}}} denotes Hermitian transposition.", "title": "Auto-correlation of random vectors" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "For example, if X = ( X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ) T {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {X} =\\left(X_{1},X_{2},X_{3}\\right)^{\\rm {T}}} is a random vector, then R X X {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {R} _{\\mathbf {X} \\mathbf {X} }} is a 3 × 3 {\\displaystyle 3\\times 3} matrix whose ( i , j ) {\\displaystyle (i,j)} -th entry is E [ X i X j ] {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {E} [X_{i}X_{j}]} .", "title": "Auto-correlation of random vectors" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "In signal processing, the above definition is often used without the normalization, that is, without subtracting the mean and dividing by the variance. When the autocorrelation function is normalized by mean and variance, it is sometimes referred to as the autocorrelation coefficient or autocovariance function.", "title": "Auto-correlation of deterministic signals" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "Given a signal f ( t ) {\\displaystyle f(t)} , the continuous autocorrelation R f f ( τ ) {\\displaystyle R_{ff}(\\tau )} is most often defined as the continuous cross-correlation integral of f ( t ) {\\displaystyle f(t)} with itself, at lag τ {\\displaystyle \\tau } .", "title": "Auto-correlation of deterministic signals" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "where f ( t ) ¯ {\\displaystyle {\\overline {f(t)}}} represents the complex conjugate of f ( t ) {\\displaystyle f(t)} . Note that the parameter t {\\displaystyle t} in the integral is a dummy variable and is only necessary to calculate the integral. It has no specific meaning.", "title": "Auto-correlation of deterministic signals" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "The discrete autocorrelation R {\\displaystyle R} at lag ℓ {\\displaystyle \\ell } for a discrete-time signal y ( n ) {\\displaystyle y(n)} is", "title": "Auto-correlation of deterministic signals" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "The above definitions work for signals that are square integrable, or square summable, that is, of finite energy. Signals that \"last forever\" are treated instead as random processes, in which case different definitions are needed, based on expected values. For wide-sense-stationary random processes, the autocorrelations are defined as", "title": "Auto-correlation of deterministic signals" }, { "paragraph_id": 36, "text": "For processes that are not stationary, these will also be functions of t {\\displaystyle t} , or n {\\displaystyle n} .", "title": "Auto-correlation of deterministic signals" }, { "paragraph_id": 37, "text": "For processes that are also ergodic, the expectation can be replaced by the limit of a time average. The autocorrelation of an ergodic process is sometimes defined as or equated to", "title": "Auto-correlation of deterministic signals" }, { "paragraph_id": 38, "text": "These definitions have the advantage that they give sensible well-defined single-parameter results for periodic functions, even when those functions are not the output of stationary ergodic processes.", "title": "Auto-correlation of deterministic signals" }, { "paragraph_id": 39, "text": "Alternatively, signals that last forever can be treated by a short-time autocorrelation function analysis, using finite time integrals. (See short-time Fourier transform for a related process.)", "title": "Auto-correlation of deterministic signals" }, { "paragraph_id": 40, "text": "If f {\\displaystyle f} is a continuous periodic function of period T {\\displaystyle T} , the integration from − ∞ {\\displaystyle -\\infty } to ∞ {\\displaystyle \\infty } is replaced by integration over any interval [ t 0 , t 0 + T ] {\\displaystyle [t_{0},t_{0}+T]} of length T {\\displaystyle T} :", "title": "Auto-correlation of deterministic signals" }, { "paragraph_id": 41, "text": "which is equivalent to", "title": "Auto-correlation of deterministic signals" }, { "paragraph_id": 42, "text": "In the following, we will describe properties of one-dimensional autocorrelations only, since most properties are easily transferred from the one-dimensional case to the multi-dimensional cases. These properties hold for wide-sense stationary processes.", "title": "Auto-correlation of deterministic signals" }, { "paragraph_id": 43, "text": "Multi-dimensional autocorrelation is defined similarly. For example, in three dimensions the autocorrelation of a square-summable discrete signal would be", "title": "Multi-dimensional autocorrelation" }, { "paragraph_id": 44, "text": "When mean values are subtracted from signals before computing an autocorrelation function, the resulting function is usually called an auto-covariance function.", "title": "Multi-dimensional autocorrelation" }, { "paragraph_id": 45, "text": "For data expressed as a discrete sequence, it is frequently necessary to compute the autocorrelation with high computational efficiency. A brute force method based on the signal processing definition R x x ( j ) = ∑ n x n x ¯ n − j {\\displaystyle R_{xx}(j)=\\sum _{n}x_{n}\\,{\\overline {x}}_{n-j}} can be used when the signal size is small. For example, to calculate the autocorrelation of the real signal sequence x = ( 2 , 3 , − 1 ) {\\displaystyle x=(2,3,-1)} (i.e. x 0 = 2 , x 1 = 3 , x 2 = − 1 {\\displaystyle x_{0}=2,x_{1}=3,x_{2}=-1} , and x i = 0 {\\displaystyle x_{i}=0} for all other values of i) by hand, we first recognize that the definition just given is the same as the \"usual\" multiplication, but with right shifts, where each vertical addition gives the autocorrelation for particular lag values:", "title": "Efficient computation" }, { "paragraph_id": 46, "text": "Thus the required autocorrelation sequence is R x x = ( − 2 , 3 , 14 , 3 , − 2 ) {\\displaystyle R_{xx}=(-2,3,14,3,-2)} , where R x x ( 0 ) = 14 , {\\displaystyle R_{xx}(0)=14,} R x x ( − 1 ) = R x x ( 1 ) = 3 , {\\displaystyle R_{xx}(-1)=R_{xx}(1)=3,} and R x x ( − 2 ) = R x x ( 2 ) = − 2 , {\\displaystyle R_{xx}(-2)=R_{xx}(2)=-2,} the autocorrelation for other lag values being zero. In this calculation we do not perform the carry-over operation during addition as is usual in normal multiplication. Note that we can halve the number of operations required by exploiting the inherent symmetry of the autocorrelation. If the signal happens to be periodic, i.e. x = ( … , 2 , 3 , − 1 , 2 , 3 , − 1 , … ) , {\\displaystyle x=(\\ldots ,2,3,-1,2,3,-1,\\ldots ),} then we get a circular autocorrelation (similar to circular convolution) where the left and right tails of the previous autocorrelation sequence will overlap and give R x x = ( … , 14 , 1 , 1 , 14 , 1 , 1 , … ) {\\displaystyle R_{xx}=(\\ldots ,14,1,1,14,1,1,\\ldots )} which has the same period as the signal sequence x . {\\displaystyle x.} The procedure can be regarded as an application of the convolution property of Z-transform of a discrete signal.", "title": "Efficient computation" }, { "paragraph_id": 47, "text": "While the brute force algorithm is order n, several efficient algorithms exist which can compute the autocorrelation in order n log(n). For example, the Wiener–Khinchin theorem allows computing the autocorrelation from the raw data X(t) with two fast Fourier transforms (FFT):", "title": "Efficient computation" }, { "paragraph_id": 48, "text": "where IFFT denotes the inverse fast Fourier transform. The asterisk denotes complex conjugate.", "title": "Efficient computation" }, { "paragraph_id": 49, "text": "Alternatively, a multiple τ correlation can be performed by using brute force calculation for low τ values, and then progressively binning the X(t) data with a logarithmic density to compute higher values, resulting in the same n log(n) efficiency, but with lower memory requirements.", "title": "Efficient computation" }, { "paragraph_id": 50, "text": "For a discrete process with known mean and variance for which we observe n {\\displaystyle n} observations { X 1 , X 2 , … , X n } {\\displaystyle \\{X_{1},\\,X_{2},\\,\\ldots ,\\,X_{n}\\}} , an estimate of the autocorrelation coefficient may be obtained as", "title": "Estimation" }, { "paragraph_id": 51, "text": "for any positive integer k < n {\\displaystyle k<n} . When the true mean μ {\\displaystyle \\mu } and variance σ 2 {\\displaystyle \\sigma ^{2}} are known, this estimate is unbiased. If the true mean and variance of the process are not known there are several possibilities:", "title": "Estimation" }, { "paragraph_id": 52, "text": "The advantage of estimates of the last type is that the set of estimated autocorrelations, as a function of k {\\displaystyle k} , then form a function which is a valid autocorrelation in the sense that it is possible to define a theoretical process having exactly that autocorrelation. Other estimates can suffer from the problem that, if they are used to calculate the variance of a linear combination of the X {\\displaystyle X} 's, the variance calculated may turn out to be negative.", "title": "Estimation" }, { "paragraph_id": 53, "text": "In regression analysis using time series data, autocorrelation in a variable of interest is typically modeled either with an autoregressive model (AR), a moving average model (MA), their combination as an autoregressive-moving-average model (ARMA), or an extension of the latter called an autoregressive integrated moving average model (ARIMA). With multiple interrelated data series, vector autoregression (VAR) or its extensions are used.", "title": "Regression analysis" }, { "paragraph_id": 54, "text": "In ordinary least squares (OLS), the adequacy of a model specification can be checked in part by establishing whether there is autocorrelation of the regression residuals. Problematic autocorrelation of the errors, which themselves are unobserved, can generally be detected because it produces autocorrelation in the observable residuals. (Errors are also known as \"error terms\" in econometrics.) Autocorrelation of the errors violates the ordinary least squares assumption that the error terms are uncorrelated, meaning that the Gauss Markov theorem does not apply, and that OLS estimators are no longer the Best Linear Unbiased Estimators (BLUE). While it does not bias the OLS coefficient estimates, the standard errors tend to be underestimated (and the t-scores overestimated) when the autocorrelations of the errors at low lags are positive.", "title": "Regression analysis" }, { "paragraph_id": 55, "text": "The traditional test for the presence of first-order autocorrelation is the Durbin–Watson statistic or, if the explanatory variables include a lagged dependent variable, Durbin's h statistic. The Durbin-Watson can be linearly mapped however to the Pearson correlation between values and their lags. A more flexible test, covering autocorrelation of higher orders and applicable whether or not the regressors include lags of the dependent variable, is the Breusch–Godfrey test. This involves an auxiliary regression, wherein the residuals obtained from estimating the model of interest are regressed on (a) the original regressors and (b) k lags of the residuals, where 'k' is the order of the test. The simplest version of the test statistic from this auxiliary regression is TR, where T is the sample size and R is the coefficient of determination. Under the null hypothesis of no autocorrelation, this statistic is asymptotically distributed as χ 2 {\\displaystyle \\chi ^{2}} with k degrees of freedom.", "title": "Regression analysis" }, { "paragraph_id": 56, "text": "Responses to nonzero autocorrelation include generalized least squares and the Newey–West HAC estimator (Heteroskedasticity and Autocorrelation Consistent).", "title": "Regression analysis" }, { "paragraph_id": 57, "text": "In the estimation of a moving average model (MA), the autocorrelation function is used to determine the appropriate number of lagged error terms to be included. This is based on the fact that for an MA process of order q, we have R ( τ ) ≠ 0 {\\displaystyle R(\\tau )\\neq 0} , for τ = 0 , 1 , … , q {\\displaystyle \\tau =0,1,\\ldots ,q} , and R ( τ ) = 0 {\\displaystyle R(\\tau )=0} , for τ > q {\\displaystyle \\tau >q} .", "title": "Regression analysis" }, { "paragraph_id": 58, "text": "Serial dependence is closely linked to the notion of autocorrelation, but represents a distinct concept (see Correlation and dependence). In particular, it is possible to have serial dependence but no (linear) correlation. In some fields however, the two terms are used as synonyms.", "title": "Serial dependence" }, { "paragraph_id": 59, "text": "A time series of a random variable has serial dependence if the value at some time t {\\displaystyle t} in the series is statistically dependent on the value at another time s {\\displaystyle s} . A series is serially independent if there is no dependence between any pair.", "title": "Serial dependence" }, { "paragraph_id": 60, "text": "If a time series { X t } {\\displaystyle \\left\\{X_{t}\\right\\}} is stationary, then statistical dependence between the pair ( X t , X s ) {\\displaystyle (X_{t},X_{s})} would imply that there is statistical dependence between all pairs of values at the same lag τ = s − t {\\displaystyle \\tau =s-t} .", "title": "Serial dependence" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Atlas Autocode (AA) is a programming language developed around 1963 at the University of Manchester. A variant of the language ALGOL, it was developed by Tony Brooker and Derrick Morris for the Atlas computer. The initial AA and AB compilers were written by Jeff Rohl and Tony Brooker using the Brooker-Morris Compiler-compiler, with a later hand-coded non-CC implementation (ABC) by Jeff Rohl.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The word Autocode was basically an early term for programming language. Different autocodes could vary greatly.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "AA was a block structured language that featured explicitly typed variables, subroutines, and functions. It omitted some ALGOL features such as passing parameters by name, which in ALGOL 60 means passing the memory address of a short subroutine (a thunk) to recalculate a parameter each time it is mentioned.", "title": "Features" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The AA compiler could generate range-checking for array accesses, and allowed an array to have dimensions that were determined at runtime, i.e., an array could be declared as integer array Thing (i:j), where i and j were calculated values.", "title": "Features" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "AA high-level routines could include machine code, either to make an inner loop more efficient or to effect some operation which otherwise cannot be done easily.", "title": "Features" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "AA included a complex data type to represent complex numbers, partly because of pressure from the electrical engineering department, as complex numbers are used to represent the behavior of alternating current. The imaginary unit square root of -1 was represented by i, which was treated as a fixed complex constant = i.", "title": "Features" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "The complex data type was dropped when Atlas Autocode later evolved into the language Edinburgh IMP. IMP was an extension of AA and was used to write the Edinburgh Multiple Access System (EMAS) operating system.", "title": "Features" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "AA's second-greatest claim to fame (after being the progenitor of IMP and EMAS) was that it had many of the features of the original Compiler Compiler. A variant of the AA compiler included run-time support for a top-down recursive descent parser. The style of parser used in the Compiler Compiler was in use continuously at Edinburgh from the 60's until almost the year 2000.", "title": "Features" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Other Autocodes were developed for the Titan computer, a prototype Atlas 2 at Cambridge, and the Ferranti Mercury.", "title": "Features" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Atlas Autocode's syntax was largely similar to ALGOL, though it was influenced by the output device which the author had available, a Friden Flexowriter. Thus, it allowed symbols like ½ for .5 and the superscript for to the power of 2. The Flexowriter supported overstriking and thus, AA did also: up to three characters could be overstruck as a single symbol. For example, the character set had no ↑ symbol, so exponentiation was an overstrike of | and *. The aforementioned underlining of reserved words (keywords) could also be done using overstriking. The language is described in detail in the Atlas Autocode Reference Manual.", "title": "Syntax" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Other Flexowriter characters that were found a use in AA were: α in floating-point numbers, e.g., 3.56α-7 for modern 3.56e-7 ; β to mean the second half of a 48-bit Atlas memory word; π for the mathematical constant pi.", "title": "Syntax" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "When AA was ported to the English Electric KDF9 computer, the character set was changed to International Organization for Standardization (ISO). That compiler has been recovered from an old paper tape by the Edinburgh Computer History Project and is available online, as is a high-quality scan of the original Edinburgh version of the Atlas Autocode manual.", "title": "Syntax" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Keywords in AA were distinguishable from other text by being underlined, which was implemented via overstrike in the Flexowriter (compare to bold in ALGOL). There were also two stropping regimes. First, there was an \"uppercasedelimiters\" mode where all uppercase letters (outside strings) were treated as underlined lowercase. Second, in some versions (but not in the original Atlas version), it was possible to strop keywords by placing a \"%\" sign in front of them, for example the keyword endofprogramme could be typed as %end %of %programme or %endofprogramme. This significantly reduced typing, due to only needing one character, rather than overstriking the whole keyword. As in ALGOL, there were no reserved words in the language as keywords were identified by underlining (or stropping), not by recognising reserved character sequences. In the statement if token=if then result = token, there is both a keyword if and a variable named if.", "title": "Syntax" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "As in ALGOL, AA allowed spaces in variable names, such as integer previous value. Spaces were not significant and were removed before parsing in a trivial pre-lexing stage called \"line reconstruction\". What the compiler would see in the above example would be \"iftoken=ifthenresult=token\". Spaces were possible due partly to keywords being distinguished in other ways, and partly because the source was processed by scannerless parsing, without a separate lexing phase, which allowed the lexical syntax to be context-sensitive.", "title": "Syntax" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "The syntax for expressions let the multiplication operator be omitted, e.g., 3a was treated as 3*a, and a(i+j) was treated as a*(i+j) if a was not an array. In ambiguous uses, the longest possible name was taken (maximal munch), for example ab was not treated as a*b, whether or not a and b had been declared.", "title": "Syntax" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Arthur J. Stone (1847–1938), a leading American silversmith, was born, trained and worked in Sheffield, England, and Edinburgh, Scotland, before travelling to the United States in 1884. He was one of the last silversmiths in America to train apprentices to carry out designs in hand-wrought silver. In 1901, Stone set up a workshop in Gardner, Massachusetts which operated under his name until its sale in 1937 to Henry Heywood. Heywood was a Gardner businessman, who renamed it The Stone Silver Shop, and later, Stone Associates. Heywood died in 1945. His sons Henry, Jr. and Jerome ran Stone Associates until 1957.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "One of the silversmiths in Arthur Stone's shop was George Porter Blanchard, father of silversmith Porter Blanchard.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "", "title": "External links" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The Au file format is a simple audio file format introduced by Sun Microsystems. The format was common on NeXT systems and on early Web pages. Originally it was headerless, being simply 8-bit μ-law-encoded data at an 8000 Hz sample rate. Hardware from other vendors often used sample rates as high as 8192 Hz, often integer multiples of video clock signal frequencies. Newer files have a header that consists of six unsigned 32-bit words, an optional information chunk which is always of non-zero size, and then the data (in big-endian format).", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Although the format now supports many audio encoding formats, it remains associated with the μ-law logarithmic encoding. This encoding was native to the SPARCstation 1 hardware, where SunOS exposed the encoding to application programs through the /dev/audio device file interface. This encoding and interface became a de facto standard for Unix sound.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "All fields are stored in big-endian format, including the sample data.", "title": "New format" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The type of encoding depends on the value of the \"encoding\" field (word 3 of the header). Formats 2 through 7 are uncompressed linear PCM, therefore technically lossless (although not necessarily free of quantization error, especially in 8-bit form). Formats 1 and 27 are μ-law and A-law, respectively, both companding logarithmic representations of PCM, and arguably lossy as they pack what would otherwise be almost 16 bits of dynamic range into 8 bits of encoded data, even though this is achieved by an altered dynamic response and no data is actually \"thrown away\". Formats 23 through 26 are ADPCM, which is an early form of lossy compression, usually but not always with 4 bits of encoded data per audio sample (for 4:1 efficiency with 16-bit input, or 2:1 with 8-bit; equivalent to e.g. encoding CD quality MP3 at a 352kbit rate using a low quality encoder). Several of the others (number 8 through 22) are DSP commands or data, designed to be processed by the NeXT Music Kit software.", "title": "New format" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Note: PCM formats are encoded as signed data (as opposed to unsigned).", "title": "New format" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The current format supports only a single audio data segment per file. The variable-length annotation field is currently ignored by most audio applications.", "title": "New format" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "April 25 is the 115th day of the year (116th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar; 250 days remain until the end of the year.", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "April 24 is the 114th day of the year (115th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar; 251 days remain until the end of the year.", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "April 7 is the 97th day of the year (98th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar; 268 days remain until the end of the year.", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Andalusia (UK: /ˌændəˈluːsiə, -ziə/, US: /-ʒ(i)ə, -ʃ(i)ə/; Spanish: Andalucía [andaluˈθi.a] ) is the southernmost autonomous community in Peninsular Spain. Andalusia is located in the south of the Iberian Peninsula, in southwestern Europe. It is the most populous and the second-largest autonomous community in the country. It is officially recognised as a historical nationality and a national reality. The territory is divided into eight provinces: Almería, Cádiz, Córdoba, Granada, Huelva, Jaén, Málaga, and Seville. Its capital city is Seville. The seat of the High Court of Justice of Andalusia is located in the city of Granada.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Andalusia is immediately south of the autonomous communities of Extremadura and Castilla-La Mancha; west of the autonomous community of Murcia and the Mediterranean Sea; east of Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean; and north of the Mediterranean Sea and the Strait of Gibraltar. Gibraltar shares a 1.2 kilometres (3⁄4 mi) land border with the Andalusian portion of the province of Cádiz at the eastern end of the Strait of Gibraltar.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The main mountain ranges of Andalusia are the Sierra Morena and the Baetic System, consisting of the Subbaetic and Penibaetic Mountains, separated by the Intrabaetic Basin. In the north, the Sierra Morena separates Andalusia from the plains of Extremadura and Castile–La Mancha on Spain's Meseta Central. To the south, the geographic subregion of Upper Andalusia [es] lies mostly within the Baetic System, while Lower Andalusia [es] is in the Baetic Depression of the valley of the Guadalquivir.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The name \"Andalusia\" is derived from the Arabic word Al-Andalus (الأندلس), which in turn may be derived from the Vandals, the Goths or pre-Roman Iberian tribes. The toponym al-Andalus is first attested by inscriptions on coins minted in 716 by the new Muslim government of Iberia. These coins, called dinars, were inscribed in both Latin and Arabic. The region's history and culture have been influenced by the Tartessians, Iberians, Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Greeks, Romans, Vandals, Visigoths, Byzantines, Berbers, Arabs, Jews, Romanis and Castilians. During the Islamic Golden Age, Córdoba surpassed Constantinople to be Europe's biggest city, and became the capital of Al-Andalus and a prominent center of education and learning in the world, producing numerous philosophers and scientists. The Crown of Castile conquered and settled the Guadalquivir Valley in the 13th century. The mountainous eastern part of the region (the Kingdom of Granada) was subdued in the late 15th century. Atlantic-facing harbors prospered upon trade with the New World. Chronic inequalities in the social structure caused by uneven distribution of land property in large estates induced recurring episodes of upheaval and social unrest in the agrarian sector in the 19th and 20th centuries.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Andalusia has historically been an agricultural region, compared to the rest of Spain and the rest of Europe. Still, the growth of the community in the sectors of industry and services was above average in Spain and higher than many communities in the Eurozone. The region has a rich culture and a strong identity. Many cultural phenomena that are seen internationally as distinctively Spanish are largely or entirely Andalusian in origin. These include flamenco and, to a lesser extent, bullfighting and Hispano-Moorish architectural styles, both of which are also prevalent in some other regions of Spain.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Andalusia's hinterland is the hottest area of Europe, with Córdoba and Seville averaging above 36 °C (97 °F) in summer high temperatures. These high temperatures, typical of the Guadalquivir valley (and other valleys in southern Iberia) are usually reached between 5 p.m. and 9 p.m. (local time), tempered by sea and mountain breezes afterwards. However, during heat waves late evening temperatures can locally stay around 35 °C (95 °F) until close to midnight, and daytime highs of over 40 °C (104 °F) are common. Also, Seville is the warmest city in continental Europe with average annual temperature of 19.2 °C (66.6 °F).", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Its present form is derived from the Arabic name for Muslim Iberia, \"Al-Andalus\". The etymology of the name \"Al-Andalus\" is disputed, and the extent of Iberian territory encompassed by the name has changed over the centuries. Traditionally it has been assumed to be derived from the name of the Vandals. Since the 1980s, a number of proposals have challenged this contention. Halm, in 1989, derived the name from a Gothic term, *landahlauts, and in 2002, Bossong suggested its derivation from a pre-Roman substrate.", "title": "Name" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "The Spanish place name Andalucía (immediate source of the English Andalusia) was introduced into the Spanish languages in the 13th century under the form el Andalucía. The name was adopted to refer to those territories still under Moorish rule, and generally south of Castilla Nueva and Valencia, and corresponding with the former Roman province hitherto called Baetica in Latin sources. This was a Castilianization of Al-Andalusiya, the adjectival form of the Arabic language al-Andalus, the name given by the Arabs to all of the Iberian territories under Muslim rule from 711 to 1492. The etymology of al-Andalus is itself somewhat debated (see al-Andalus), but in fact it entered the Arabic language before this area came under Moorish rule.", "title": "Name" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Like the Arabic term al-Andalus, in historical contexts the Spanish term Andalucía or the English term Andalusia do not necessarily refer to the exact territory designated by these terms today. Initially, the term referred exclusively to territories under Muslim control. Later, it was applied to some of the last Iberian territories to be regained from the Muslims, though not always to exactly the same ones. In the Estoria de España (also known as the Primera Crónica General) of Alfonso X of Castile, written in the second half of the 13th century, the term Andalucía is used with three different meanings:", "title": "Name" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "From an administrative point of view, Granada remained separate for many years even after the completion of the Reconquista due, above all, to its emblematic character as the last territory regained, and as the seat of the important Real Chancillería de Granada, a court of last resort. Still, the reconquest and repopulation of Granada was accomplished largely by people from the three preexisting Christian kingdoms of Andalusia, and Granada came to be considered a fourth kingdom of Andalusia. The often-used expression \"Four Kingdoms of Andalusia\" dates back in Spanish at least to the mid-18th century.", "title": "Name" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "The Andalusian emblem shows the figure of Hercules and two lions between the two pillars of Hercules that tradition situates on either side of the Strait of Gibraltar. An inscription below, superimposed on an image of the flag of Andalusia reads Andalucía por sí, para España y la Humanidad (\"Andalusia for herself, Spain and Humanity\"). Over the two columns is a semicircular arch in the colours of the flag of Andalusia, with the Latin words Dominator Hercules Fundator (Lord Hercules is the Founder) superimposed.", "title": "Symbols" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "The official flag of Andalusia consists of three equal horizontal stripes, coloured green, white, and green respectively; the Andalusian coat of arms is superimposed on the central stripe. Its design was overseen by Blas Infante and approved in the Assembly of Ronda (a 1918 gathering of Andalusian nationalists at Ronda). Blas Infante considered these to have been the colours most used in regional symbols throughout the region's history. According to him, the green came in particular from the standard of the Umayyad Caliphate and represented the call for a gathering of the populace. The white symbolised pardon in the Almohad dynasty, interpreted in European heraldry as parliament or peace. Other writers have justified the colours differently, with some Andalusian nationalists referring to them as the Arbonaida, meaning white-and-green in Mozarabic, a Romance language that was spoken in the region in Muslim times. Nowadays, the Andalusian government states that the colours of the flag evoke the Andalusian landscape as well as values of purity and hope for the future.", "title": "Symbols" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "The anthem of Andalusia was composed by José del Castillo Díaz (director of the Municipal Band of Seville, commonly known as Maestro Castillo) with lyrics by Blas Infante. The music was inspired by Santo Dios, a popular religious song sung at harvest time by peasants and day labourers in the provinces of Málaga, Seville, and Huelva. Blas Infante brought the song to Maestro Castillo's attention; Maestro Castillo adapted and harmonized the traditional melody. The lyrics appeal to the Andalusians to mobilise and demand tierra y libertad (\"land and liberty\") by way of agrarian reform and a statute of autonomy within Spain.", "title": "Symbols" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "The Parliament of Andalusia voted unanimously in 1983 that the preamble to the Statute of Autonomy recognise Blas Infante as the Father of the Andalusian Nation (Padre de la Patria Andaluza), which was reaffirmed in the reformed Statute of Autonomy submitted to popular referendum 18 February 2007. The preamble of the present 2007 Statute of Autonomy says that Article 2 of the present Spanish Constitution of 1978 recognises Andalusia as a nationality. Later, in its articulation, it speaks of Andalusia as a \"historic nationality\" (Spanish: nacionalidad histórica). It also cites the 1919 Andalusianist Manifesto of Córdoba describing Andalusia as a \"national reality\" (realidad nacional), but does not endorse that formulation. Article 1 of the earlier 1981 Statute of Autonomy defined it simply as a \"nationality\" (nacionalidad).", "title": "Symbols" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "The national holiday, Andalusia Day, is celebrated on 28 February, commemorating the 1980 autonomy referendum.", "title": "Symbols" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "The honorific title of Hijo Predilecto de Andalucía (\"Favourite Son of Andalusia\") is granted by the Autonomous Government of Andalusia to those whose exceptional merits benefited Andalusia, for work or achievements in natural, social, or political science. It is the highest distinction given by the Autonomous Community of Andalusia.", "title": "Symbols" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "The Sevillian historian Antonio Domínguez Ortiz wrote that:", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "one must seek the essence of Andalusia in its geographic reality on the one hand, and on the other in the awareness of its inhabitants. From the geographic point of view, the whole of the southern lands is too vast and varied to be embraced as a single unit. In reality there are not two, but three Andalusias: the Sierra Morena, the Valley [of the Guadalquivir] and the [Cordillera] Penibética", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "Andalusia has a surface area of 87,597 square kilometres (33,821 sq mi), 17.3% of the territory of Spain. Andalusia alone is comparable in extent and in the variety of its terrain to any of several of the smaller European countries. To the east is the Mediterranean Sea; to the west Portugal and the Gulf of Cádiz (Atlantic Ocean); to the north the Sierra Morena constitutes the border with the Meseta Central; to the south, the self-governing British overseas territory of Gibraltar and the Strait of Gibraltar separate it from Morocco.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "Andalusia is home to the hottest and driest climates in Spain, with yearly average rainfall around 150 millimetres (5.9 in) in Cabo de Gata, as well as some of the wettest ones, with yearly average rainfall above 2,000 millimetres (79 in) in inland Cádiz. In the west, weather systems sweeping in from the Atlantic ensure that it is relatively wet and humid in the winter, with some areas receiving copious amounts. Contrary to what many people think, as a whole, the region enjoys above-average yearly rainfall in the context of Spain.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "Andalusia sits at a latitude between 36° and 38° 44' N, in the warm-temperate region. In general, it experiences a hot-summer Mediterranean climate, with dry summers influenced by the Azores High, but subject to occasional torrential rains and extremely hot temperatures. In the winter, the tropical anticyclones move south, allowing cold polar fronts to penetrate the region. Still, within Andalusia there is considerable climatic variety. From the extensive coastal plains one may pass to the valley of the Guadalquivir, barely above sea level, then to the highest altitudes in the Iberian peninsula in the peaks of the Sierra Nevada. In a mere 50 km (31 mi) one can pass from the subtropical coast of the province of Granada to the snowy peaks of Mulhacén. Andalusia also includes both the dry Tabernas Desert in the province of Almería and the Sierra de Grazalema Natural Park in the province of Cádiz, which experiences Spain's greatest rainfall.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "Annual rainfall in the Sierra de Grazalema has been measured as high as 4,346 millimetres (171.1 in) in 1963, the highest ever recorded for any location in Iberia. Andalusia is also home to the driest place in continental Europe, the Cabo de Gata, with only 117 millimetres (4.6 in) of rain per year.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "In general, as one goes from west to east, away from the Atlantic, there is less precipitation. \"Wet Andalusia\" includes most of the highest points in the region, above all the Sierra de Grazalema but also the Serranía de Ronda in western Málaga. The valley of the Guadalquivir has moderate rainfall. The Tabernas Desert in Almería, Europe's only true desert, has less than 75 days with any measurable precipitation, and some particular places in the desert have as few as 50 such days. Much of \"dry Andalusia\" has more than 300 sunny days a year.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "The average temperature in Andalusia throughout the year is over 16 °C (61 °F). Averages in the cities range from 15.1 °C (59.2 °F) in Baeza to 19.1 °C (66.4 °F) in Almería. Much of the Guadalquivir valley and the Mediterranean coast has an average of about 18 °C (64 °F). The coldest month is January when Granada at the foot of the Sierra Nevada experiences an average temperature of 6.4 °C (43.5 °F). The hottest are July and August, with an average temperature of 28.5 °C (83.3 °F) for Andalusia as a whole. Córdoba is the hottest provincial capital, followed by Seville.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "The Guadalquivir valley has experienced some of the highest temperatures recorded in Europe, with a maximum of 46.9 °C (116.4 °F) recorded at Córdoba (14 August 2021), and Seville. The mountains of Granada and Jaén have the coldest temperatures in southern Iberia, but do not reach continental extremes (and, indeed are surpassed by some mountains in northern Spain). In the cold snap of January 2005, Santiago de la Espada (Jaén) experienced a temperature of −21 °C (−6 °F) and the ski resort at Sierra Nevada National Park—the southernmost ski resort in Europe—dropped to −18 °C (0 °F). Sierra Nevada Natural Park has Iberia's lowest average annual temperature, (3.9 °C or 39.0 °F at Pradollano) and its peaks remain snowy practically year-round.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "Mountain ranges affect climate, the network of rivers, soils and their erosion, bioregions, and even human economies insofar as they rely on natural resources. The Andalusian terrain offers a range of altitudes and slopes. Andalusia has the Iberian peninsula's highest mountains and nearly 15 percent of its terrain over 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). The picture is similar for areas under 100 metres (330 ft) (with the Baetic Depression), and for the variety of slopes.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "The Atlantic coast is overwhelmingly beach and gradually sloping coasts; the Mediterranean coast has many cliffs, above all in the Malagan Axarquía and in Granada and Almería. This asymmetry divides the region naturally into Upper Andalusia [es] (two mountainous areas) and Lower Andalusia [es] (the broad basin of the Guadalquivir).", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "The Sierra Morena separates Andalusia from the plains of Extremadura and Castile–La Mancha on Spain's Meseta Central. Although sparsely populated, this is not a particularly high range, and its highest point, the 1,323-metre (4,341 ft) peak of La Bañuela in the Sierra Madrona, lies outside of Andalusia. Within the Sierra Morena, the gorge of Despeñaperros forms a natural frontier between Castile and Andalusia.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "The Baetic Cordillera consists of the parallel mountain ranges of the Cordillera Penibética near the Mediterranean coast and the Cordillera Subbética inland, separated by the Surco Intrabético. The Cordillera Subbética is quite discontinuous, offering many passes that facilitate transportation, but the Penibético forms a strong barrier between the Mediterranean coast and the interior. The Sierra Nevada, part of the Cordillera Penibética in the Province of Granada, has the highest peaks in Iberia: El Mulhacén at 3,478 metres (11,411 ft) and El Veleta at 3,392 metres (11,129 ft).", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "Lower Andalusia, the Baetic Depression, the basin of the Guadalquivir, lies between these two mountainous areas. It is a nearly flat territory, open to the Gulf of Cádiz in the southeast. Throughout history, this has been the most populous part of Andalusia.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "Andalusia has rivers that flow into both the Atlantic and the Mediterranean. Flowing to the Atlantic are the Guadiana, Odiel-Tinto, Guadalquivir, Guadalete, and Barbate. Flowing to the Mediterranean are the Guadiaro, Guadalhorce, Guadalmedina, Guadalfeo, Andarax (also known as the Almería) and Almanzora. Of these, the Guadalquivir is the longest in Andalusia and fifth longest on the Iberian peninsula, at 657 kilometres (408 mi).", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "The rivers of the Atlantic basin are characteristically long, run through mostly flat terrain, and have broad river valleys. As a result, at their mouths are estuaries and wetlands, such as the marshes of Doñana in the delta of the Guadalquivir, and wetlands of the Odiel. In contrast, the rivers of the Mediterranean Basin are shorter, more seasonal, and make a precipitous descent from the mountains of the Baetic Cordillera. Their estuaries are small, and their valleys are less suitable for agriculture. Also, being in the rain shadow of the Baetic Cordillera means that they receive a lesser volume of water.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "The following hydrographic basins can be distinguished in Andalusia. On the Atlantic side are the Guadalquivir basin; the Andalusian Atlantic Basin with the sub-basins Guadalete-Barbate and Tinto-Odiel; and the Guadiana basin. On the Mediterranean side is the Andalusian Mediterranean Basin and the upper portion of the basin of the Segura.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "The soils of Andalusia can be divided into three large areas: the Sierra Morena, Cordillera Subbética, and the Baetic Depression and the Surco Intrabético.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "The Sierra Morena, due to its morphology and the acidic content of its rocks, developed principally relatively poor, shallow soils, suitable only for forests. In the valleys and in some areas where limestone is present, deeper soils allowed farming of cereals suitable for livestock. The more complicated morphology of the Baetic Cordillera makes it more heterogeneous, with the most heterogeneous soils in Andalusia. Very roughly, in contrast to the Sierra Morena, a predominance of basic (alkaline) materials in the Cordillera Subbética, combined with a hilly landscape, generates deeper soils with greater agricultural capacity, suitable to the cultivation of olives.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "Finally, the Baetic Depression and the Surco Intrabético have deep, rich soils, with great agricultural capacity. In particular, the alluvial soils of the Guadalquivir valley and plain of Granada have a loamy texture and are particularly suitable for intensive irrigated crops. In the hilly areas of the countryside, there is a double dynamic: the depressions have filled with older lime-rich material, developing the deep, rich, dark clay soils the Spanish call bujeo, or tierras negras andaluzas, excellent for dryland farming. In other zones, the whiter albariza provides an excellent soil for vineyards.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 36, "text": "Despite their marginal quality, the poorly consolidated soils of the sandy coastline of Huelva and Almería have been successfully used in recent decades for hothouse cultivation under clear plastic of strawberries, raspberries, blueberries, and other fruits.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 37, "text": "Biogeographically, Andalusia forms part of the Western Mediterranean subregion of the Mediterranean Basin, which falls within the Boreal Kingdom. Five floristic provinces lie, in whole or in part, within Andalusia: along much of the Atlantic coast, the Lusitanian-Andalusian littoral or Andalusian Atlantic littoral; in the north, the southern portion of the Luso-Extremaduran floristic province; covering roughly half of the region, the Baetic floristic province; and in the extreme east, the Almerian portion of the Almerian-Murcian floristic province and (coinciding roughly with the upper Segura basin) a small portion of the Castilian-Maestrazgan-Manchegan floristic province. These names derive primarily from past or present political geography: \"Luso\" and \"Lusitanian\" from Lusitania, one of three Roman provinces in Iberia, most of the others from present-day Spanish provinces, and Maestrazgo being a historical region of northern Valencia.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 38, "text": "In broad terms, the typical vegetation of Andalusia is Mediterranean woodland, characterized by leafy xerophilic perennials, adapted to the long, dry summers. The dominant species of the climax community is the holly oak (Quercus ilex). Also abundant are cork oak (Quercus suber), various pines, and Spanish fir (Abies pinsapo). Due to cultivation, olive (Olea europaea) and almond (Prunus dulcis) trees also abound. The dominant understory is composed of thorny and aromatic woody species, such as rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), thyme (Thymus), and Cistus. In the wettest areas with acidic soils, the most abundant species are the oak and cork oak, and the cultivated Eucalyptus. In the woodlands, leafy hardwoods of genus Populus (poplars, aspens, cottonwoods) and Ulmus (elms) are also abundant; poplars are cultivated in the plains of Granada.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 39, "text": "The Andalusian woodlands have been much altered by human settlement, the use of nearly all of the best land for farming, and frequent wildfires. The degraded forests become shrubby and combustible garrigue. Extensive areas have been planted with non-climax trees such as pines. There is now a clear conservation policy for the remaining forests, which survive almost exclusively in the mountains.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 40, "text": "The biodiversity of Andalusia extends to its fauna as well. More than 400 of the 630 vertebrate species extant in Spain can be found in Andalusia. Spanning the Mediterranean and Atlantic basins, and adjacent to the Strait of Gibraltar, Andalusia is on the migratory route of many of the numerous flocks of birds that travel annually from Europe to Africa and back.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 41, "text": "The Andalusian wetlands host a rich variety of birds. Some are of African origin, such as the red-knobbed coot (Fulica cristata), the purple swamphen (Porphyrio porphyrio), and the greater flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus). Others originate in Northern Europe, such as the greylag goose (Anser anser). Birds of prey (raptors) include the Spanish imperial eagle (Aquila adalberti), the griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus), and both the black and red kite (Milvus migrans and Milvus milvus).", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 42, "text": "Among the herbivores, are several deer (Cervidae) species, notably the fallow deer (Dama dama) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus); the European mouflon (Ovis aries musimon), a feral sheep; and the Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica, which despite its scientific name is no longer found in the Pyrenees). The Spanish ibex has recently been losing ground to the Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia), an invasive species from Africa, introduced for hunting in the 1970s. Among the small herbivores are rabbits—especially the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)—which form the most important part of the diet of the carnivorous species of the Mediterranean woodlands.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 43, "text": "The large carnivores such as the Iberian wolf (Canis lupus signatus) and the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) are quite threatened, and are limited to the Sierra de Andújar, inside of Sierra Morena, Doñana and Despeñaperros. Stocks of the wild boar (Sus scrofa), on the other hand, have been well preserved because they are popular with hunters. More abundant and in varied situations of conservation are such smaller carnivores as otters, dogs, foxes, the European badger (Meles meles), the European polecat (Mustela putorius), the least weasel (Mustela nivalis), the European wildcat (Felis silvestris), the common genet (Genetta genetta), and the Egyptian mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon).", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 44, "text": "Other notable species are Acherontia atropos (a variety of death's-head hawkmoth), Vipera latasti (a venomous snake), and the endemic (and endangered) fish Aphanius baeticus.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 45, "text": "Andalusia has many unique ecosystems. In order to preserve these areas in a manner compatible with both conservation and economic exploitation, many of the most representative ecosystems have been given protected status.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 46, "text": "The various levels of protection are encompassed within the Network of Protected Natural Spaces of Andalusia (Red de Espacios Naturales Protegidos de Andalucía, RENPA) which integrates all protected natural spaces located in Andalusia, whether they are protected at the level of the local community, the autonomous community of Andalusia, the Spanish state, or by international conventions. RENPA consists of 150 protected spaces, consisting of two national parks, 24 natural parks, 21 periurban parks (on the fringes of cities or towns), 32 natural sites, two protected countrysides, 37 natural monuments, 28 nature reserves, and four concerted nature reserves (in which a government agency coordinates with the owner of the property for its management), all part of the European Union's Natura 2000 network. Under the international ambit are the nine Biosphere Reserves, 20 Ramsar wetland sites, four Specially Protected Areas of Mediterranean Importance and two UNESCO Geoparks.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 47, "text": "In total, nearly 20 percent of the territory of Andalusia lies in one of these protected areas, which constitute roughly 30 percent of the protected territory of Spain. Among these many spaces, some of the most notable are the Sierras de Cazorla, Segura y Las Villas Natural Park, Spain's largest natural park and the second largest in Europe, the Sierra Nevada National Park, Doñana National Park and Natural Park, the Tabernas Desert, and the Cabo de Gata-Níjar Natural Park, the largest terrestrial-maritime reserve in the European Western Mediterranean Sea.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 48, "text": "The geostrategic position of Andalusia in the extreme south of Europe, providing (along with Morocco) a gateway between Europe and Africa, added to its position between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, as well as its rich deposits of minerals and its agricultural wealth, have made Andalusia a tempting prize for civilizations since prehistoric times. Add to this its area of 87,268 square kilometres (33,694 sq mi) (larger than many European countries), and it can be no surprise that Andalusia has figured prominently in the history of Europe and the Mediterranean.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 49, "text": "Several theories postulate that the first hominids in Europe were in Andalusia, having passed across the Strait of Gibraltar; the earliest known paintings of humanity have been found in the Caves of Nerja, Málaga. The first settlers, based on artifacts from the archaeological sites at Los Millares, El Argar, and Tartessos, were clearly influenced by cultures of the Eastern Mediterranean who arrived on the Andalusian coast. Andalusia then went through a period of protohistory, when the region did not have a written language of its own, but its existence was known to and documented by literate cultures, principally the Phoenicians and Ancient Greeks, wide historical moment in which Cádiz was founded, regarded by many as the oldest city still standing in Western Europe; another city among the oldest is Málaga. During the second millennium BCE, the kingdom of Tartessos developed in Andalusia.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 50, "text": "With the fall of the original Phoenician cities in the East, Carthage – itself the most significant Phoenician colony – became the dominant sea power of the western Mediterranean and the most important trading partner for the Phoenician towns along the Andalusian coast. Between the First and Second Punic Wars, Carthage extended its control beyond Andalucia to include all of Iberia except the Basque Country. Some of the more prominent Andalusian cities during Carthaginian rule include Gadir (Cadiz), Qart Juba (Córdoba), Ilipa (near modern Seville), Malaka (Málaga) and Sexi or Seksi (near modern Almuñécar). Andalusia was the major staging ground for the war with Rome led by the Carthaginian general Hannibal. The Romans defeated the Carthaginians and conquered Andalusia, the region being renamed Baetica. It was fully incorporated into the Roman Empire, and from this region came many Roman magistrates and senators, as well as the emperors Trajan and (most likely) Hadrian.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 51, "text": "The Vandals moved briefly through the region during the 5th century AD before settling in North Africa, after which the region fell into the hands of the Visigothic Kingdom. The Visigoths in this region were practically independent of the Visigothic Catholic Kingdom of Toledo. This is the era of Saints Isidore of Seville and Hermenegild. During this period, around 555 AD, the Eastern Roman Empire conquered Andalusia under Justinian I, the Eastern Roman emperor. They established Spania, a province of the Byzantine Empire from 552 until 624. Although their holdings were quickly reduced, they continued to have interests in the region until it was lost altogether in 624.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 52, "text": "The Visigothic era came to an abrupt end in 711 with the Umayyad conquest of Hispania by the Muslim Umayyad general Tariq ibn Ziyad. Tariq is known in Umayyad history and legend as a formidable conqueror who burned his fleet of ships when he landed with his troops on the coast of Gibraltar – an acronym of \"Jabel alTariq\" meaning \"the mountain of Tariq\". When the Muslim invaders seized control and consolidated their dominion of the region, they remained tolerant of the local faiths, but they also needed a place for their own faith. In the 750s, they forcibly rented half of Córdoba 's Cathedral of San Vicente (Visigothic) to use as a mosque.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 53, "text": "The mosque's hypostyle plan, consisting of a rectangular prayer hall and an enclosed courtyard, followed a tradition established in the Umayyad and Abbasid mosques of Syria and Iraq while the dramatic articulation of the interior of the prayer hall was unprecedented. The system of columns supporting double arcades of piers and arches with alternating red and white voussoirs is an unusual treatment that, structurally, combined striking visual effect with the practical advantage of providing greater height within the hall. Alternating red and white voussoirs are associated with Umayyad monuments such as the Great Mosque of Damascus and the Dome of the Rock. Their use in the Great Mosque of Córdoba manages to create a stunningly original visual composition even as it emphasises 'Abd al-Rahman's connection to the established Umayyad tradition.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 54, "text": "In this period, the name \"Al-Andalus\" was applied to the Iberian Peninsula, and later it referred to the parts not controlled by the Gothic states in the North. The Muslim rulers in Al-Andalus were economic invaders and interested in collecting taxes; social changes imposed on the native populace were mainly confined to geographical, political and legal conveniences. Al-Andalus remained connected to other states under Muslim rule; also trade routes between it and Constantinople and Alexandria remained open, while many cultural features of the Roman Empire were transmitted throughout Europe and the Near East by its successor state, the Byzantine Empire. Byzantine architecture is an example of such cultural diffusion continuing even after the collapse of the empire.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 55, "text": "Nevertheless, the Guadalquivir River valley became the point of power projection in the peninsula with the Caliphate of Córdoba making Córdoba its capital. The Umayyad Caliphate produced such leaders as Caliph Abd-ar-Rahman III (ruled 912–961) and his son, Caliph Al-Hakam II (ruled 961–976) and built the magnificent Great Mosque of Córdoba. Under these rulers, Córdoba was the center of economic and cultural significance.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 56, "text": "By the 10th century, the northern Kingdoms of Spain and other European Crowns had begun what would eventually become the Reconquista: the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula for Christendom. Caliph Abd-ar-Rahman suffered some minor military defeats, but often managed to manipulate the Gothic northern kingdoms to act against each other's interests. Al-Hakam achieved military successes, but at the expense of uniting the north against him. In the 10th century the Saracen rulers of Andalusia had a Slavic army of 13,750 men.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 57, "text": "After the conquest of Toledo in 1086 by Alfonso VI, the Crown of Castille and the Crown of Aragon dominated large parts of the peninsula. The main Taifas therefore had to resort to assistance from various other powers across the Mediterranean. A number of different Muslim dynasties of North African origin—notably Almoravid dynasty and Almohad dynasty—dominated a slowly diminishing Al-Andalus over the next several centuries.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 58, "text": "After the victory at the Battle of Sagrajas (1086) put a temporary stop to Castilian expansion, the Almoravid dynasty reunified Al-Andalus with its capital in Córdoba, ruling until the mid-12th century. The various Taifa kingdoms were assimilated. the Almohad dynasty expansion in North Africa weakened Al-Andalus, and in 1170 the Almohads transferred their capital from Marrakesh to Seville. The victory at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212) marked the beginning of the end of the Almohad dynasty.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 59, "text": "The weakness caused by the collapse of Almohad power and the subsequent creation of new Taifas, each with its own ruler, led to the rapid Castile reconquest of the valley of the Guadalquivir. Córdoba was regained in 1236 and Seville in 1248. The fall of Granada on 2 January 1492 put an end to the Nasrid rule; an event that marks the beginning of Andalusia, the southern four territories of the Crown of Castile in the Iberian Peninsula.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 60, "text": "Seven months later, on 3 August 1492 Christopher Columbus left the town of Palos de la Frontera, Huelva, with the first expedition that resulted in the Discovery of the Americas, that would end the Middle Ages and signal the beginning of modernity. Many Castilians participated in this and other expeditions that followed, some of them known as the Minor or Andalusian Journeys.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 61, "text": "Contacts between Spain and the Americas, including royal administration and the shipping trade from Asia and America for over three hundred years, came almost exclusively through the south of Spain, specially Seville and Cadiz ports.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 62, "text": "As a result, it became the wealthiest, most influential region in Spain and amongst the most influential in Europe. For example, the Habsburg diverted much of this trade wealth to control its European territories.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 63, "text": "In the first half of the 16th century plague was still prevalent in Spain. According to George C. Kohn, \"One of the worst epidemics of the century, whose miseries were accompanied by severe drought and food shortage, started in 1505; by 1507, about 100,000 people had died in Andalusia alone. Andalusia was struck once again in 1646. For three years, plague haunted the entire region, causing perhaps as many as 200,000 deaths, especially in Málaga and Seville.\"", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 64, "text": "A second insurrection, the Morisco Revolt (1568–1571), ensued in the Kingdom of Granada. It was crushed and the demographics of the kingdom of Granada was hammered, with the Morisco population decreasing in number by more than 100,000 including deaths, flights and deportations, contrasting with the less than 40,000 number of incoming settlers.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 65, "text": "In 1810–12 Spanish troops strongly resisted the French occupation during the Peninsular War (part of the Napoleonic Wars).", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 66, "text": "Andalusia profited from the Spanish overseas empire, although much trade and finance eventually came to be controlled by other parts of Europe to where it was ultimately destined. In the 18th century, commerce from other parts of Spain began to displace Andalusian commerce when the Spanish government ended Andalusia's trading monopoly with the colonies in the Americas. The loss of the empire in the 1820s hurt the economy of the region, particularly the cities that had benefited from the trade and ship building. The construction of railways in the latter part of the 19th century enabled Andalusia to better develop its agricultural potential and it became an exporter of food. While industrialisation was taking off in the northern Spanish regions of Catalonia and the Basque country, Andalusia remained traditional and displayed a deep social division between a small class of wealthy landowners and a population made up largely of poor agricultural labourers and tradesmen.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 67, "text": "Andalusia was one of the worst-affected regions of Spain by Francisco Franco's brutal campaign of mass-murder and political suppression called the White Terror during and after the Spanish Civil War. The Nationalist rebels bombed and seized the working-class districts of the main Andalusian cities in the first days of the war, and afterwards went on to execute thousands of workers and militants of the leftist parties: in the city of Córdoba 4,000; in the city of Granada 5,000; in the city of Seville 3,028; and in the city of Huelva 2,000 killed and 2,500 disappeared. The city of Málaga, occupied by the Nationalists in February 1937 following the Battle of Málaga, experienced one of the harshest repressions following Francoist victory with an estimated total of 17,000 people summarily executed. Carlos Arias Navarro, then a young lawyer who as public prosecutor signed thousands of execution warrants in the trials set up by the triumphant rightists, became known as \"The Butcher of Málaga\" (Carnicero de Málaga).", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 68, "text": "Paul Preston estimates the total number of victims of deliberately killed by the Nationalists in Andalusia at 55,000.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 69, "text": "Andalusia is one of the 17 autonomous communities of Spain. The Regional Government of Andalusia (Spanish: Junta de Andalucía) includes the Parliament of Andalusia, its chosen president, a Consultative Council, and other bodies.", "title": "Government and politics" }, { "paragraph_id": 70, "text": "The Autonomous Community of Andalusia was formed in accord with a referendum of 28 February 1980 and became an autonomous community under the 1981 Statute of Autonomy known as the Estatuto de Carmona. The process followed the Spanish Constitution of 1978, still current as of 2009, which recognizes and guarantees the right of autonomy for the various regions and nationalities of Spain. The process to establish Andalusia as an autonomous region followed Article 151 of the Constitution, making Andalusia the only autonomous community to take that particular course. That article was set out for regions like Andalusia that had been prevented by the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War from adopting a statute of autonomy during the period of the Second Spanish Republic.", "title": "Government and politics" }, { "paragraph_id": 71, "text": "Article 1 of the 1981 Statute of Autonomy justifies autonomy based on the region's \"historical identity, on the self-government that the Constitution permits every nationality, on outright equality to the rest of the nationalities and regions that compose Spain, and with a power that emanates from the Andalusian Constitution and people, reflected in its Statute of Autonomy\".", "title": "Government and politics" }, { "paragraph_id": 72, "text": "In October 2006 the constitutional commission of the Cortes Generales (the national legislature of Spain), with favorable votes from the left-of-center Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE), the leftist United Left (IU) and the right-of-center People's Party (PP), approved a new Statute of Autonomy for Andalusia, whose preamble refers to the community as a \"national reality\" (realidad nacional):", "title": "Government and politics" }, { "paragraph_id": 73, "text": "The Andalusianist Manifesto of Córdoba described Andalusia as a national reality in 1919, whose spirit the Andalusians took up outright through the process of self-government recognized in our Magna Carta. In 1978 the Andalusians broadly backed the constitutional consensus. Today, the Constitution, in its Article 2, recognizes Andalusia as a nationality as part of the indissoluble unity of the Spanish nation.", "title": "Government and politics" }, { "paragraph_id": 74, "text": "On 2 November 2006 the Spanish Chamber Deputies ratified the text of the Constitutional Commission with 306 votes in favor, none opposed, and 2 abstentions. This was the first time a Spanish Organic Law adopting a Statute of Autonomy was approved with no opposing votes. The Senate, in a plenary session of 20 December 2006, ratified the referendum to be voted upon by the Andalusian public 18 February 2007.", "title": "Government and politics" }, { "paragraph_id": 75, "text": "The Statute of Autonomy spells out Andalusia's distinct institutions of government and administration. Chief among these is the Andalusian Autonomous Government (Junta de Andalucía). Other institutions specified in the Statute are the Defensor del Pueblo Andaluz (literally \"Defender of the Andalusian People\", basically an ombudsperson), the Consultative Council, the Chamber of Accounts, the Audiovisual Council of Andalusia, and the Economic and Social Council.", "title": "Government and politics" }, { "paragraph_id": 76, "text": "The Andalusian Statute of Autonomy recognizes Seville as the autonomy's capital. The Andalusian Autonomous Government is located there. The region's highest court, the High Court of Andalusia (Tribunal Superior de Justicia de Andalucía) is not part of the Autonomous Government, and has its seat in Granada.", "title": "Government and politics" }, { "paragraph_id": 77, "text": "The Andalusian Autonomous Government (Junta de Andalucía) is the institution of self-government of the Autonomous Community of Andalusia. Within the government, the President of Andalusia is the supreme representative of the autonomous community, and the ordinary representative of the Spanish state in the autonomous community. The president is formally named to the position by the Monarch of Spain and then confirmed by a majority vote of the Parliament of Andalusia. In practice, the monarch always names a person acceptable to the ruling party or coalition of parties in the autonomous region. In theory, were the candidate to fail to gain the needed majority, the monarch could propose a succession of candidates. After two months, if no proposed candidate could gain the parliament's approval, the parliament would automatically be dissolved and the acting president would call new elections. On 18 January 2019 Juan Manuel Moreno was elected as the sixth president of Andalusia.", "title": "Government and politics" }, { "paragraph_id": 78, "text": "The Council of Government, the highest political and administrative organ of the Community, exercises regulatory and executive power. The President presides over the council, which also includes the heads of various departments (Consejerías). In the current legislature (2008–2012), there are 15 of these departments. In order of precedence, they are Presidency, Governance, Economy and Treasury, Education, Justice and Public Administration, Innovation, Science and Business, Public Works and Transportation, Employment, Health, Agriculture and Fishing, Housing and Territorial Planning, Tourism, Commerce and Sports, Equality and Social Welfare, Culture, and Environment.", "title": "Government and politics" }, { "paragraph_id": 79, "text": "The Parliament of Andalusia, its Autonomic Legislative Assembly, develops and approves laws and elects and removes the President. Elections to the Andalusian Parliament follow a democratic formula through which the citizens elect 109 representatives. After the approval of the Statute of Autonomy through Organic Law 6/1981 on 20 December 1981, the first elections to the autonomic parliament took place 23 May 1982. Further elections have occurred in 1986, 1990, 1994, 1996, 2000, 2004, and 2008.", "title": "Government and politics" }, { "paragraph_id": 80, "text": "The current (2008–2012) legislature includes representatives of the PSOE-A (Andalusian branch of the left-of-center PSOE), PP-A (Andalusian branch of the right-of-center PP) and IULV-CA (Andalusian branch of the leftist IU).", "title": "Government and politics" }, { "paragraph_id": 81, "text": "The High Court of Andalusia (Tribunal Superior de Justicia de Andalucía) in Granada is subject only to the higher jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of Spain. The High Court is not an organ of the Autonomous Community, but rather of the Judiciary of Spain, which is unitary throughout the kingdom and whose powers are not transferred to the autonomous communities. The Andalusian territory is divided into 88 legal/judicial districts (partidos judiciales).", "title": "Government and politics" }, { "paragraph_id": 82, "text": "Andalusia consists of eight provinces. The latter were established by Javier de Burgos in the 1833 territorial division of Spain. Each of the Andalusian provinces bears the same name as its capital:", "title": "Administrative divisions" }, { "paragraph_id": 83, "text": "Andalusia is traditionally divided into two historical subregions: Upper Andalusia [es] or Eastern Andalusia [es] (Andalucía Oriental), consisting of the provinces of Almería, Granada, Jaén, and Málaga, and Lower Andalusia [es] or Western Andalusia [es] (Andalucía Occidental), consisting of the provinces of Cádiz, Córdoba, Huelva and Seville.", "title": "Administrative divisions" }, { "paragraph_id": 84, "text": "Within the various autonomous communities of Spain, comarcas are comparable to shires (or, in some countries, counties) in the English-speaking world. Unlike in some of Spain's other autonomous communities, under the original 1981 Statute of Autonomy, the comarcas of Andalusia had no formal recognition, but, in practice, they still had informal recognition as geographic, cultural, historical, or in some cases administrative entities. The 2007 Statute of Autonomy echoes this practice, and mentions comarcas in Article 97 of Title III, which defines the significance of comarcas and establishes a basis for formal recognition in future legislation.", "title": "Administrative divisions" }, { "paragraph_id": 85, "text": "The current statutory entity that most closely resembles a comarca is the mancomunidad, a freely chosen, bottom-up association of municipalities intended as an instrument of socioeconomic development and coordination between municipal governments in specific areas.", "title": "Administrative divisions" }, { "paragraph_id": 86, "text": "Beyond the level of provinces, Andalusia is further divided into 774 municipalities (municipios). The municipalities of Andalusia are regulated by Title III of the Statute of Autonomy, Articles 91–95, which establishes the municipality as the basic territorial entity of Andalusia, each of which has legal personhood and autonomy in many aspects of its internal affairs. At the municipal level, representation, government and administration is performed by the ayuntamiento (municipal government), which has competency for urban planning, community social services, supply and treatment of water, collection and treatment of waste, and promotion of tourism, culture, and sports, among other matters established by law.", "title": "Administrative divisions" }, { "paragraph_id": 87, "text": "Among the more important Andalusian cities besides the provincial capitals are:", "title": "Administrative divisions" }, { "paragraph_id": 88, "text": "In conformity with the intent to devolve control as locally as possible, in many cases, separate nuclei of population within municipal borders each administer their own interests. These are variously known as pedanías (\"hamlets\"), villas (\"villages\"), aldeas (also usually rendered as \"villages\"), or other similar names.", "title": "Administrative divisions" }, { "paragraph_id": 89, "text": "Andalusia ranks first by population among the 17 autonomous communities of Spain. The estimated population at the beginning of 2009 was 8,285,692. The population is concentrated, above all, in the provincial capitals and along the coasts, so that the level of urbanization is quite high; half the population is concentrated in the 28 cities of more than 50,000 inhabitants. The population is aging, although the process of immigration is countering the inversion of the population pyramid.", "title": "Demographics" }, { "paragraph_id": 90, "text": "At the end of the 20th century, Andalusia was in the last phase of demographic transition. The death rate stagnated at around 8–9 per thousand, and the population came to be influenced mainly by birth and migration. In 1950, Andalusia had 20.04 percent of the national population of Spain. By 1981, this had declined to 17.09 percent. Although the Andalusian population was not declining in absolute terms, these relative losses were due to emigration great enough to nearly counterbalance having the highest birth rate in Spain. Since the 1980s, this process has reversed on all counts, and as of 2009, Andalusia has 17.82 percent of the Spanish population. The birth rate is sharply down, as is typical in developed economies, although it has lagged behind much of the rest of the world in this respect. Furthermore, prior emigrants have been returning to Andalusia. Beginning in the 1990s, others have been immigrating in large numbers as well, as Spain has become a country of net immigration.", "title": "Demographics" }, { "paragraph_id": 91, "text": "At the beginning of the 21st century, statistics show a slight increase in the birth rate, due in large part to the higher birth rate among immigrants. The result is that as of 2009, the trend toward rejuvenation of the population is among the strongest of any autonomous community of Spain, or of any comparable region in Europe.", "title": "Demographics" }, { "paragraph_id": 92, "text": "At the beginning of the 21st century, the population structure of Andalusia shows a clear inversion of the population pyramid, with the largest cohorts falling between ages 25 and 50. Comparison of the population pyramid in 2008 to that in 1986 shows:", "title": "Demographics" }, { "paragraph_id": 93, "text": "As far as composition by sex, two aspects stand out: the higher percentage of women in the elderly population, owing to women's longer life expectancy, and, on the other hand, the higher percentage of men of working age, due in large part to a predominantly male immigrant population.", "title": "Demographics" }, { "paragraph_id": 94, "text": "In 2005, 5.35 percent of the population of Andalusia were born outside of Spain. This is a relatively low number for a Spanish region, the national average being three percentage points higher. The immigrants are not evenly distributed among the Andalusian provinces: Almería, with a 15.20 percent immigrant population, is third among all provinces in Spain, while at the other extreme Jaén is only 2.07 percent immigrants and Córdoba 1.77 percent. The predominant nationalities among the immigrant populations are Moroccan (92,500, constituting 17.79 percent of the foreigners living in Andalusia) and British (15.25 percent across the region). When comparing world regions rather than individual countries, the single largest immigrant block is from the region of Latin America, outnumbering not only all North Africans, but also all non-Spanish Western Europeans. Demographically, this group has provided an important addition to the Andalusian labor force.", "title": "Demographics" }, { "paragraph_id": 95, "text": "Andalusia is traditionally an agricultural area, but the service sector (particularly tourism, retail sales, and transportation) now predominates. The once booming construction sector, hit hard by the 2009 recession, was also important to the region's economy. The industrial sector is less developed than most other regions in Spain.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 96, "text": "Between 2000 and 2006 economic growth per annum was 3.72%, one of the highest in the country. Still, according to the Spanish Instituto Nacional de Estadística (INE), the GDP per capita of Andalusia (€17,401; 2006) remains the second lowest in Spain, with only Extremadura lagging behind. The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the autonomous community was 160.6 billion euros in 2018, accounting for 13.4% of Spanish economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 20,500 euros or 68% of the EU27 average in the same year.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 97, "text": "The primary sector, despite adding the least of the three sectors to the regional GDP remains important, especially when compared to typical developed economies. The primary sector produces 8.26 percent of regional GDP, 6.4 percent of its GVA and employs 8.19 percent of the workforce. In monetary terms it could be considered a rather uncompetitive sector, given its level of productivity compared to other Spanish regions. In addition to its numeric importance relative to other regions, agriculture and other primary sector activities have strong roots in local culture and identity.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 98, "text": "The primary sector is divided into a number of subsectors: agriculture, commercial fishing, animal husbandry, hunting, forestry, mining, and energy.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 99, "text": "For many centuries, agriculture dominated Andalusian society, and, with 44.3 percent of its territory cultivated and 8.4 percent of its workforce in agriculture as of 2016 it remains an integral part of Andalusia's economy. However, its importance is declining, like the primary and secondary sectors generally, as the service sector is increasingly taking over. The primary cultivation is dryland farming of cereals and sunflowers without artificial irrigation, especially in the vast countryside of the Guadalquivir valley and the high plains of Granada and Almería-with a considerably lesser and more geographically focused cultivation of barley and oats. Using irrigation, maize, cotton and rice are also grown on the banks of the Guadalquivir and Genil.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 100, "text": "The most important tree crops are olives, especially in the Subbetic regions of the provinces of Córdoba and Jáen, where irrigated olive orchards constitute a large component of agricultural output. There are extensive vineyards in various zones such as Jerez de la Frontera (sherry), Condado de Huelva, Montilla-Moriles and Málaga. Fruits—mainly citrus fruits—are grown near the banks of the Guadalquivir; almonds, which require far less water, are grown on the high plains of Granada and Almería.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 101, "text": "In monetary terms, by far the most productive and competitive agriculture in Andalusia is the intensive forced cultivation of strawberries, raspberries, blueberries, and other fruits grown under hothouse conditions under clear plastic, often in sandy zones, on the coasts, in Almería and Huelva.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 102, "text": "Organic farming has recently undergone rapid expansion in Andalusia, mainly for export to European markets but with increasing demand developing in Spain.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 103, "text": "Andalusia has a long tradition of animal husbandry and livestock farming, but it is now restricted mainly to mountain meadows, where there is less pressure from other potential uses. Andalusians have a long and colourful history of dog breeding that can be observed throughout the region today. The raising of livestock now plays a semi-marginal role in the Andalusian economy, constituting only 15 percent of the primary sector, half the number for Spain taken as a whole.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 104, "text": "\"Extensive\" raising of livestock grazes the animals on natural or cultivated pastures, whereas \"intensive\" raising of livestock is based in fodder rather than pasture. Although the productivity is higher than with extensive techniques, the economics are quite different. While intensive techniques now dominate in Europe and even in other regions of Spain, most of Andalusia's cattle, virtually all of its sheep and goats, and a good portion of its pigs are raised by extensive farming in mountain pastures. This includes the Black Iberian pigs that are the source of Jamón ibérico. Andalusia's native sheep and goats present a great economic opportunity in a Europe where animal products are generally in strong supply, but the sheep and goat meat, milk, and leather (and the products derived from these) are relatively scarce. Dogs are bred not just as companion animals, but also as herding animals used by goat and sheep herders.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 105, "text": "Hunting remains relatively important in Andalusia, but has largely lost its character as a means of obtaining food. It is now more of a leisure activity linked to the mountain areas and complementary to forestry and the raising of livestock. Dogs are frequently used as hunting companions to retrieve killed game.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 106, "text": "The Andalusian forests are important for their extent—50 percent of the territory of Andalusia—and for other less quantifiable environmental reasons, such as their value in preventing erosion, regulating the flow of water necessary for other flora and fauna. For these reasons, there is legislation in place to protect the Andalusian forests. The value of forest products as such constitutes only 2 percent of agricultural production. This comes mostly from cultivated species—eucalyptus in Huelva and poplar in Granada—as well as naturally occurring cork oak in the Sierra Morena.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 107, "text": "Fishing is a longstanding tradition on the Andalusian coasts. Fish and other seafood have long figured prominently in the local diet and in the local gastronomic culture: fried fish (pescaito frito in local dialect), white prawns, almadraba tuna, among others. The Andalusian fishing fleet is Spain's second largest, after Galicia, and Andalusia's 38 fishing ports are the most of any Spanish autonomous community. Commercial fishing produces only 0.5 percent of the product of the regional primary sector by value, but there are areas where it has far greater importance. In the province of Huelva it constitutes 20 percent of the primary sector, and locally in Punta Umbría 70 percent of the work force is involved in commercial fishing.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 108, "text": "Failure to comply with fisheries laws regarding the use of trawling, urban pollution of the seacoast, destruction of habitats by coastal construction (for example, alteration of the mouths of rivers, construction of ports), and diminution of fisheries by overexploitation have created a permanent crisis in the Andalusian fisheries, justifying attempts to convert the fishing fleet. The decrease in fish stocks has led to the rise of aquaculture, including fish farming both on the coasts and in the interior.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 109, "text": "Despite the general poor returns in recent years, mining retains a certain importance in Andalusia. Andalusia produces half of Spain's mining product by value. Of Andalusia's production, roughly half comes from the province of Huelva. Mining for precious metals at Minas de Riotinto in Huelva (see Rio Tinto Group) dates back to pre-Roman times; the mines were abandoned in the Middle Ages and rediscovered in 1556. Other mining activity is coal mining in the Guadiato valley in the province of Córdoba; various metals at Aznalcóllar in the province of Seville, and iron at Alquife in the province of Granada. In addition, limestone, clay, and other materials used in construction are well distributed throughout Andalusia.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 110, "text": "The Andalusian industrial sector has always been relatively small. Nevertheless, in 2007, Andalusian industry earned 11.979 million euros and employed more than 290,000 workers. This represented 9.15 percent of regional GDP, far below the 15.08 the secondary sector represents in the economy of Spain as a whole. By analyzing the different subsectors of the food industry Andalusian industry accounts for more than 16% of total production. In a comparison with the Spanish economy, this subsector is virtually the only food that has some weight in the national economy with 16.16%. Lies far behind the manufacturing sector of shipping materials just over 10% of the Spanish economy. Companies like Cruzcampo (Heineken Group), Puleva, Domecq, Santana Motors or Renault-Andalusia, are exponents of these two subsectors. Of note is the Andalusian aeronautical sector, which is second nationally only behind Madrid and represents approximately 21% of total turnover in terms of employment, highlighting companies like Airbus, Airbus Military, or the newly formed Aerospace Alestis. On the contrary it is symptomatic of how little weight the regional economy in such important sectors such as textiles or electronics at the national level.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 111, "text": "Andalusian industry is also characterized by a specialization in industrial activities of transforming raw agricultural and mineral materials. This is largely done by small enterprises without the public or foreign investment more typical of a high level of industrialization.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 112, "text": "In recent decades the Andalusian tertiary (service) sector has grown greatly, and has come to constitute the majority of the regional economy, as is typical of contemporary economies in developed nations. In 1975 the service sector produced 51.1 percent of local GDP and employed 40.8 percent of the work force. In 2007, this had risen to 67.9 percent of GDP and 66.42 percent of jobs. This process of \"tertiarization\" of the economy has followed a somewhat unusual course in Andalusia. This growth occurred somewhat earlier than in most developed economies and occurred independently of the local industrial sector. There were two principal reasons that \"tertiarization\" followed a different course in Andalusia than elsewhere:", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 113, "text": "1. Andalusian capital found it impossible to compete in the industrial sector against more developed regions, and was obligated to invest in sectors that were easier to enter.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 114, "text": "2. The absence of an industrial sector that could absorb displaced agricultural workers and artisans led to the proliferation of services with rather low productivity. This unequal development compared to other regions led to a hypertrophied and unproductive service sector, which has tended to reinforce underdevelopment, because it has not led to large accumulations of capital.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 115, "text": "Due in part to the relatively mild winter and spring climate, the south of Spain is attractive to overseas visitors–especially tourists from Northern Europe. While inland areas such as Jaén, Córdoba and the hill villages and towns remain relatively untouched by tourism, the coastal areas of Andalusia have heavy visitor traffic for much of the year.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 116, "text": "Among the autonomous communities, Andalusia is second only to Catalonia in tourism, with nearly 30 million visitors every year. The principal tourist destinations in Andalusia are the Costa del Sol and (secondarily) the Sierra Nevada. As discussed above, Andalusia is one of the sunniest and warmest places in Europe, making it a center of \"sun and sand\" tourism, but not only it. Around 70 percent of the lodging capacity and 75 percent of the nights booked in Andalusian hotels are in coastal municipalities. The largest number of tourists come in August—13.26 percent of the nights booked throughout the year—and the smallest number in December—5.36 percent.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 117, "text": "On the west (Atlantic) coast are the Costa de la Luz (provinces of Huelva and Cádiz), and on the east (Mediterranean) coast, the Costa del Sol (provinces of Cádiz y Málaga), Costa Tropical (Granada and part of Almería) and the Costa de Almería. In 2004, the Blue Flag beach program of the non-profit Foundation for Environmental Education recognized 66 Andalusian beaches and 18 pleasure craft ports as being in a good state of conservation in terms of sustainability, accessibility, and quality. Nonetheless, the level of tourism on the Andalusian coasts has been high enough to have a significant environmental impact, and other organizations—such as the Spanish Ecologists in Action (Ecologistas en Acción) with their description of \"Black Flag beaches\" or Greenpeace—have expressed the opposite sentiment. Still, Hotel chains such as Fuerte Hotels have ensured that sustainability within the tourism industry is one of their highest priorities.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 118, "text": "Together with \"sand and sun\" tourism, there has also been a strong increase in nature tourism in the interior, as well as cultural tourism, sport tourism, and conventions. One example of sport and nature tourism is the ski resort at Sierra Nevada National Park.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 119, "text": "As for cultural tourism, there are hundreds of cultural tourist destinations: cathedrals, castles, forts, monasteries, and historic city centers and a wide variety of museums.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 120, "text": "It can be highlighted that Spain has seven of its 42 cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Andalucia:", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 121, "text": "Further, there are the Lugares colombinos, significant places in the life of Christopher Columbus: Palos de la Frontera, La Rábida Monastery, and Moguer) in the province of Huelva. There are also archeological sites of great interest: the Roman city of Italica, birthplace of Emperor Trajan and (most likely) Hadrian or Baelo Claudia near Tarifa.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 122, "text": "Andalusia was the birthplace of such great painters as Velázquez and Murillo (Seville) and, more recently, Picasso (Málaga); Picasso is memorialized by his native city at the Museo Picasso Málaga and Natal House Foundation; the Casa de Murillo was a house museum 1982–1998, but is now mostly offices for the Andalusian Council of Culture. The CAC Málaga (Museum of Modern Art) Archived 20 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine is the most visited museum of Andalusia and has offered exhibitions of artists such as Louise Bourgeois, Jake and Dinos Chapman, Gerhard Richter, Anish Kapoor, Ron Mueck or Rodney Graham. Malaga is also located part of the private Carmen Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection at Carmen Thyssen Museum.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 123, "text": "There are numerous other significant museums around the region, both of paintings and of archeological artifacts such as gold jewelry, pottery and other ceramics, and other works that demonstrate the region's artisanal traditions.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 124, "text": "The Council of Government has designated the following \"Municipios Turísticos\": in Almería, Roquetas de Mar; in Cádiz, Chiclana de la Frontera, Chipiona, Conil de la Frontera, Grazalema, Rota, and Tarifa; in Granada, Almuñécar; in Huelva, Aracena; in Jaén, Cazorla; in Málaga, Benalmádena, Fuengirola, Nerja, Rincón de la Victoria, Ronda, and Torremolinos; in Seville, Santiponce.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 125, "text": "The unemployment rate stood at 25.5% in 2017 and was one of the highest in Spain and Europe.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 126, "text": "As in any modern society, transport systems are an essential structural element of the functioning of Andalusia. The transportation network facilitates territorial coordination, economic development and distribution, and intercity transportation.", "title": "Infrastructure" }, { "paragraph_id": 127, "text": "In urban transport, underdeveloped public transport systems put pedestrian traffic and other non-motorized traffic are at a disadvantage compared to the use of private vehicles. Several Andalusian capitals—Córdoba, Granada and Seville—have recently been trying to remedy this by strengthening their public transport systems and providing a better infrastructure for the use of bicycles. There are now three rapid transit systems operating in Andalucia – the Seville Metro, Málaga Metro and Granada Metro. Cercanías commuter rail networks operate in Seville, Málaga and Cádiz.", "title": "Infrastructure" }, { "paragraph_id": 128, "text": "For over a century, the conventional rail network has been centralized on the regional capital, Seville, and the national capital, Madrid; in general, there are no direct connections between provincial capitals. High-speed AVE trains run from Madrid via Córdoba to Seville and Málaga, from which a branch from Antequera to Granada opened in 2019. Further AVE routes are under construction. The Madrid-Córdoba-Seville route was the first high-velocity route in Spain (operating since 1992). Other principal routes are the one from Algeciras to Seville and from Almería via Granada to Madrid.", "title": "Infrastructure" }, { "paragraph_id": 129, "text": "Most of the principal roads have been converted into limited access highways known as autovías. The Autovía del Este (Autovía A-4) runs from Madrid through the Despeñaperros Natural Park, then via Bailén, Córdoba, and Seville to Cádiz, and is part of European route E05 in the International E-road network. The other main road in the region is the portion of European route E15, which runs as the Autovia del Mediterráneo along the Spanish Mediterranean coast. Parts of this constitute the superhighway Autopista AP-7, while in other areas it is Autovía A-7. Both of these roads run generally east–west, although the Autovía A-4 turns to the south in western Andalusia.", "title": "Infrastructure" }, { "paragraph_id": 130, "text": "Other first-order roads include the Autovía A-48 roughly along the Atlantic coast from Cádiz to Algeciras, continuing European route E05 to meet up with European route E15; the Autovía del Quinto Centenario (Autovía A-49), which continues west from Seville (where the Autovía A-4 turns toward the south) and goes on to Huelva and into Portugal as European route E01; the Autovía Ruta de la Plata (Autovía A-66), European route E803, which roughly corresponds to the ancient Roman 'Silver Route' from the mines of northern Spain, and runs north from Seville; the Autovía de Málaga (Autovía A-45), which runs south from Córdoba to Málaga; and the Autovía de Sierra Nevada (Autovía A-44), part of European route E902, which runs south from Jaén to the Mediterranean coast at Motril.", "title": "Infrastructure" }, { "paragraph_id": 131, "text": "As of 2008 Andalusia has six public airports, all of which can legally handle international flights. The Málaga Airport is dominant, handling 60.67 percent of passengers and 85 percent of its international traffic. The Seville Airport handles another 20.12 percent of traffic, and the Jerez Airport 7.17 percent, so that these three airports account for 87.96 percent of traffic.", "title": "Infrastructure" }, { "paragraph_id": 132, "text": "Málaga Airport is the international airport that offers a wide variety of international destinations. It has a daily link with twenty cities in Spain and over a hundred cities in Europe (mainly in Great Britain, Central Europe and the Nordic countries but also the main cities of Eastern Europe: Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Sofia, Riga or Bucharest), North Africa, Middle East (Riyadh, Jeddah and Kuwait) and North America (New York, Toronto and Montreal).", "title": "Infrastructure" }, { "paragraph_id": 133, "text": "The main ports are Algeciras (for freight and container traffic) and Málaga for cruise ships. Algeciras is Spain's leading commercial port, with 60,000,000 tonnes (66,000,000 short tons) of cargo in 2004. Seville has Spain's only commercial river port. Other significant commercial ports in Andalusia are the ports of the Bay of Cádiz, Almería and Huelva.", "title": "Infrastructure" }, { "paragraph_id": 134, "text": "The Council of Government has approved a Plan of Infrastructures for the Sustainability of Transport in Andalusia (PISTA) 2007–2013, which plans an investment of 30 billion euros during that period.", "title": "Infrastructure" }, { "paragraph_id": 135, "text": "The lack of high-quality fossil fuels in Andalusia has led to a strong dependency on petroleum imports. Still, Andalusia has a strong potential for the development of renewable energy, above all wind energy. The Andalusian Energy Agency established in 2005 by the autonomous government, is a new governmental organ charged with the development of energy policy and provision of a sufficient supply of energy for the community.", "title": "Infrastructure" }, { "paragraph_id": 136, "text": "The infrastructure for production of electricity consists of eight large thermal power stations, more than 70 hydroelectric power plants, two wind farms, and 14 major cogeneration facilities. Historically, the largest Andalusian business in this sector was the Compañía Sevillana de Electricidad, founded in 1894, absorbed into Endesa in 1996. The Solar power tower PS10 was built by the Andalusian firm Abengoa in Sanlúcar la Mayor in the province of Seville, and began operating in March 2007. It is the largest existing solar power facility in Europe. Smaller solar power stations, also recent, exist at Cúllar and Galera, Granada, inaugurated by Geosol and Caja Granada. Two more large thermosolar facilities, Andasol I y II, planned at Hoya de Guadix in the province of Granada are expected to supply electricity to half a million households. The Plataforma Solar de Almería (PSA) in the Tabernas Desert is an important center for the exploration of the solar energy.", "title": "Infrastructure" }, { "paragraph_id": 137, "text": "The largest wind power firm in the region is the Sociedad Eólica de Andalucía, formed by the merger of Planta Eólica del Sur S.A. and Energía Eólica del Estrecho S.A.", "title": "Infrastructure" }, { "paragraph_id": 138, "text": "The Medgaz gas pipeline directly connects the Algerian town of Béni Saf to Almería.", "title": "Infrastructure" }, { "paragraph_id": 139, "text": "As throughout Spain, basic education in Andalusia is free and compulsory. Students are required to complete ten years of schooling, and may not leave school before the age of 16, after which students may continue on to a baccalaureate, to intermediate vocational education, to intermediate-level schooling in arts and design, to intermediate sports studies, or to the working world.", "title": "Infrastructure" }, { "paragraph_id": 140, "text": "Andalusia has a tradition of higher education dating back to the Modern Age and the University of Granada, University of Baeza, and University of Osuna.", "title": "Infrastructure" }, { "paragraph_id": 141, "text": "As of 2009, there were ten private or public universities in Andalusia. University studies are structured in cycles, awarding degrees based on ECTS credits in accord with the Bologna process, which the Andalusian universities are adopting in accord with the other universities of the European Higher Education Area.", "title": "Infrastructure" }, { "paragraph_id": 142, "text": "Responsibility for healthcare jurisdictions devolved from the Spanish government to Andalusia with the enactment of the Statute of Autonomy. Thus, the Andalusian Health Service (Servicio Andaluz de Salud) currently manages almost all public health resources of the Community, with such exceptions as health resources for prisoners and members of the military, which remain under central administration.", "title": "Infrastructure" }, { "paragraph_id": 143, "text": "According to the Outreach Program for Science in Andalusia, Andalusia contributes 14 percent of Spain's scientific production behind only Madrid and Catalonia among the autonomous communities, even though regional investment in research and development (R&D) as a proportion of GDP is below the national average. The lack of research capacity in business and the low participation of the private sector in research has resulted in R&D taking place largely in the public sector.", "title": "Infrastructure" }, { "paragraph_id": 144, "text": "The Council of Innovation, Science and Business is the organ of the autonomous government responsible for universities, research, technological development, industry, and energy. The council coordinates and initiates scientific and technical innovation through specialized centers an initiatives such as the Andalusian Center for Marine Science and Technology (Centro Andaluz de Ciencia y Tecnología Marina) and Technological Corporation of Andalusia (Corporación Tecnológica de Andalucía).", "title": "Infrastructure" }, { "paragraph_id": 145, "text": "Within the private sphere, although also promoted by public administration, technology parks have been established throughout the Community, such as the Technological Park of Andalucia (Parque Tecnológico de Andalucía) in Campanillas on the outskirts of Málaga, and Cartuja 93 in Seville. Some of these parks specialize in specific sector, such as Aerópolis [es] in aerospace or Geolit [es] in food technology. The Andalusian government deployed 600,000 Ubuntu desktop computers in their schools.", "title": "Infrastructure" }, { "paragraph_id": 146, "text": "Andalusia has international, national, regional, and local media organizations, which are active gathering and disseminating information (as well as creating and disseminating entertainment).", "title": "Media" }, { "paragraph_id": 147, "text": "The most notable is the public Radio y Televisión de Andalucía (RTVA), broadcasting on two regional television channels, Canal Sur and Canal Sur 2, four regional radio stations, Canal Sur Radio, Canal Fiesta Radio, Radio Andalucía Información and Canal Flamenco Radio, as well as various digital signals, most notably Canal Sur Andalucía available on cable TV throughout Spain.", "title": "Media" }, { "paragraph_id": 148, "text": "Different newspapers are published for each Andalusian provincial capital, comarca, or important city. Often, the same newspaper organization publishes different local editions with much shared content, with different mastheads and different local coverage. There are also popular papers distributed without charge, again typically with local editions that share much of their content.", "title": "Media" }, { "paragraph_id": 149, "text": "No single Andalusian newspaper is distributed throughout the region, not even with local editions. In eastern Andalusia the Diario Ideal [es] has editions tailored for the provinces of Almería, Granada, and Jaén. Grupo Joly is based in Andalucia, backed by Andalusian capital, and publishes eight daily newspapers there. Efforts to create a newspaper for the entire autonomous region have not succeeded (the most recent as of 2009 was the Diario de Andalucía). The national press (El País, El Mundo, ABC, etc.) include sections or editions specific to Andalusia.", "title": "Media" }, { "paragraph_id": 150, "text": "Andalusia has two public television stations, both operated by Radio y Televisión de Andalucía (RTVA):", "title": "Media" }, { "paragraph_id": 151, "text": "In addition, RTVA also operates the national and international cable channel Canal Sur Andalucía, which first broadcast in 1996 as Andalucía Televisión.", "title": "Media" }, { "paragraph_id": 152, "text": "There are four public radio stations in the region, all operated by RTVA:", "title": "Media" }, { "paragraph_id": 153, "text": "The patrimony of Andalusia has been shaped by its particular history and geography, as well as its complex flows of population. Andalusia has been home to a succession of peoples and civilizations, many very different from one another, each impacting the settled inhabitants. The ancient Iberians were followed by Celts, Phoenicians and other Eastern Mediterranean traders, Romans, migrating Germanic tribes, Arabs or Berbers. All have shaped the Spanish patrimony in Andalusia, which was already diffused widely in the literary and pictorial genre of the costumbrismo andaluz.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 154, "text": "In the 19th century, Andalusian culture came to be widely viewed as the Spanish culture par excellence, in part thanks to the perceptions of romantic travellers. In the words of Ortega y Gasset:", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 155, "text": "Andalusia, which has never shown the swagger nor petulancy of particularism; that has never pretended to the status of a State apart, is, of all the Spanish regions, the one that possesses a culture most radically its own. Throughout the 19th century, Spain has submitted itself to the hegemonic influence of Andalusia. That century began with the Cortes of Cádiz; it ended with the assassination of Cánovas del Castillo, malagueño [from Málaga], and the exaltation of Silvela, no less malagueño. The dominant ideas have an Andalusian accent. One paints Andalusia: a roof-terrace, some flowerpots, blue sky. One reads southern authors. One speaks at all times of the \"land of the Most Holy Virgin Mary\". The thief from the Sierra Morena and the smuggler are national heroes. All Spain feels its existence justified by the honor of having on its flanks the Andalusian piece of the planet. Around 1900, like so many other things, this changes. The North sits up.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 156, "text": "Andalusia has been the birthplace of many great artists: the classic painters Velázquez, Murillo, and Juan de Valdés Leal; the sculptors Juan Martínez Montañés, Alonso Cano and Pedro de Mena; and such modern painters as Daniel Vázquez Díaz and Pablo Picasso.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 157, "text": "The Spanish composer Manuel de Falla was from Cádiz and incorporated typical Andalusian melodies in his works, as did Joaquín Turina, from Seville. The great singer Camarón de la Isla was born in San Fernando, Cádiz, and Andrés Segovia who helped shape the romantic-modernist approach to classical guitar, was born in Linares, Jaén. The virtuoso Flamenco guitar player Paco de Lucia who helped internationalize Flamenco, was born in Algeciras, Cadiz.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 158, "text": "Since the Neolithic era, Andalusia has preserved important megaliths, such as the dolmens at the Cueva de Menga and the Dolmen de Viera, both at Antequera. Archeologists have found Bronze Age cities at Los Millares and El Argar. Archeological digs at Doña Blanca in El Puerto de Santa María have revealed the oldest Phoenicians city in the Iberian peninsula; major ruins have also been revealed at Roman Italica near Seville.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 159, "text": "Some of the greatest architecture in Andalusia was developed across several centuries and civilizations, and the region is particularly famous for its Islamic and Moorish architecture, which includes the Alhambra complex, Generalife and the Mosque-Cathedral of Córdoba.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 160, "text": "The traditional architecture of Andalusia retains its Roman with Arab influences brought by Muslims, with a marked Mediterranean character strongly conditioned by the climate. Traditional urban houses are constructed with shared walls to minimize exposure to high exterior temperatures. Solid exterior walls are painted with lime to minimize the heating effects of the sun. In accord with the climate and tradition of each area, the roofs may be terraces or tiled in the Roman imbrex and tegula style. One of the most characteristic elements (and one of the most obviously influenced by Roman architecture) is the interior patio or courtyard; the patios of Córdoba are particularly famous. Other characteristic elements are decorative (and functional) wrought iron gratings and the tiles known as azulejos. Landscaping—both for common private homes and homes on a more lavish scale—also carries on older traditions, with plants, flowers, and fountains, pools, and streams of water. Beyond these general elements, there are also specific local architectural styles, such as the flat roofs, roofed chimneys, and radically extended balconies of the Alpujarra, the cave dwellings of Guadix and of Granada's Sacromonte, or the traditional architecture of the Marquisate of Zenete.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 161, "text": "The monumental architecture of the centuries immediately after the Reconquista often displayed an assertion of Christian hegemony through architecture that referenced non-Arab influences. Some of the greatest Renaissance buildings in Andalusia are from the then-kingdom of Jaén: the Jaén Cathedral, designed in part by Andrés de Vandelvira, served as a model for the Cathedral of Malaga and Guadix; the centers of Úbeda and Baeza, dating largely from this era, are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Seville and its kingdom also figured prominently in this era, as is shown by the Casa consistorial de Sevilla, the Hospital de las Cinco Llagas, or the Charterhouse of Jerez de la Frontera. The Palace of Charles V in Granada is uniquely important for its Italianate purism. Andalusia also has such Baroque-era buildings as the Palace of San Telmo in Seville (seat of the current autonomic presidency), the Church of Our Lady of Reposo in Campillos, and the Granada Charterhouse. Academicism gave the region the Royal Tobacco Factory in Seville and Neoclassicism the nucleus of Cádiz, such as its city hall [es], Royal Prison, and the Oratorio de la Santa Cueva.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 162, "text": "Revivalist architecture in the 19th and 20th centuries contributed the buildings of the Ibero-American Exposition of 1929 in Seville, including the Neo-Mudéjar Plaza de España. Andalusia also preserves an important industrial patrimony related to various economic activities.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 163, "text": "Besides the architecture of the cities, there is also much outstanding rural architecture: houses, as well as ranch and farm buildings and dog houses.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 164, "text": "The Iberian reliefs of Osuna, Lady of Baza, and León de Bujalance [ca; es], the Phoenician sarcophagi of Cádiz, and the Roman sculptures of the Baetic cities such as Italica give evidence of traditions of sculpture in Andalusia dating back to antiquity. There are few significant surviving sculptures from the time of al-Andalus; two notable exceptions are the lions of the Alhambra and of the Maristán of Granada (the Nasrid hospital in the Albaicín).", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 165, "text": "The Sevillian school of sculpture dating from the 13th century onward and the Granadan school beginning toward the end of the 16th century both focused primarily on Christian religious subject matter, including many wooden altarpieces. Notable sculptors in these traditions include Lorenzo Mercadante de Bretaña, Pedro Millán [es], Juan Martínez Montañés, Pedro Roldán, José de Arce [es], Jerónimo Balbás, Alonso Cano, and Pedro de Mena.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 166, "text": "Non-religious sculpture has also existed in Andalusia since antiquity. A fine example from the Renaissance era is the decoration of the Casa de Pilatos in Seville. Nonetheless, non-religious sculpture played a relatively minor role until such 19th-century sculptors as Antonio Susillo [es].", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 167, "text": "As in sculpture, there were Sevillian [es] and the Granadan [es] schools of painting. The former has figured prominently in the history of Spanish art since the 15th century and includes such important artists as Zurbarán, Velázquez and Murillo, as well as art theorists such as Francisco Pacheco. The Museum of Fine Arts of Seville and the Prado contain numerous representative works of the Sevillian school of painting.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 168, "text": "A specific romantic genre known as costumbrismo andaluz depicts traditional and folkloric Andalusian subjects, such as bullfighting scenes, dogs, and scenes from Andalusia's history. Important artists in this genre include Manuel Barrón, José García Ramos, Gonzalo Bilbao and Julio Romero de Torres. The genre is well represented in the private Carmen Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection, part of which is on display at Madrid's Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum and Carmen Thyssen Museum in Málaga.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 169, "text": "Málaga also has been and is an important artistic center. Its most illustrious representative was Pablo Picasso, one of the most influential artists of the 20th century. The city has a Museum and Natal House Foundation, dedicated to the painter.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 170, "text": "Andalusia plays a significant role in the history of Spanish-language literature, although not all of the important literature associated with Andalusia was written in Spanish. Before 1492, there was the literature written in Andalusian Arabic. Hispano-Arabic authors native to the region include Ibn Hazm, Ibn Zaydún, Ibn Tufail, Al-Mu'tamid, Ibn al-Khatib, Ibn al-Yayyab, and Ibn Zamrak or Andalusian Hebrew poets as Solomon ibn Gabirol. Ibn Quzman, of the 12th century, crafted poems in the colloquial Andalusian language.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 171, "text": "In 1492 Antonio de Nebrija published his celebrated Gramática de la lengua castellana (\"Grammar of the Castilian language\"), the first such work for a modern European language. In 1528 Francisco Delicado wrote La lozana andaluza, a novel in the orbit of La Celestina, and in 1599 the Sevillian Mateo Alemán wrote the first part of Guzmán de Alfarache, the first picaresque novel with a known author.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 172, "text": "The prominent humanist literary school of Seville included such writers as Juan de Mal Lara, Fernando de Herrera, Gutierre de Cetina, Luis Barahona de Soto, Juan de la Cueva, Gonzalo Argote de Molina, and Rodrigo Caro. The Córdoban Luis de Góngora was the greatest exponent of the culteranismo of Baroque poetry in the Siglo de Oro; indeed, the style is often referred to as Góngorismo.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 173, "text": "Literary Romanticism in Spain had one of its great centers in Andalusia, with such authors as Ángel de Saavedra, 3rd Duke of Rivas, José Cadalso and Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer. Costumbrismo andaluz existed in literature as much as in visual art, with notable examples being the Escenas andaluzas of Serafín Estébanez Calderón and the works of Pedro Antonio de Alarcón.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 174, "text": "Andalusian authors Ángel Ganivet, Manuel Gómez-Moreno, Manuel and Antonio Machado, and Francisco Villaespesa are all generally counted in the Generation of '98. Also of this generation were the Quintero brothers, dramatists who faithfully captured Andalusian dialects and idiosyncrasies. Also of note, 1956 Nobel Prize-winning poet Juan Ramón Jiménez was a native of Moguer, near Huelva.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 175, "text": "A large portion of the avant-garde Generation of '27 who gathered at the Ateneo de Sevilla on the 300th anniversary of Góngora's death were Andalusians: Federico García Lorca, Luis Cernuda, Rafael Alberti, Manuel Altolaguirre, Emilio Prados, and 1977 Nobel laureate Vicente Aleixandre.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 176, "text": "Certain Andalusian fictional characters have become universal archetypes: Prosper Mérimée's gypsy Carmen, P. D. Eastman's Perro, Pierre Beaumarchais's Fígaro, and Tirso de Molina's Don Juan.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 177, "text": "As in most regions of Spain, the principal form of popular verse is the romance, although there are also strophes specific to Andalusia, such as the soleá or the soleariya [es; it]. Ballads, lullabies, street vendor's cries, nursery rhymes, and work songs are plentiful.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 178, "text": "Among the philosophers native to the region can be counted Seneca, Avicebron, Maimonides, Averroes, Fernán Pérez de Oliva, Sebastián Fox Morcillo, Ángel Ganivet, Francisco Giner de los Ríos and María Zambrano.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 179, "text": "The music of Andalusia includes traditional and contemporary music, folk and composed music, and ranges from flamenco to rock. Conversely, certain metric, melodic and harmonic characteristics are considered Andalusian even when written or performed by musicians from elsewhere.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 180, "text": "Flamenco, perhaps the most characteristically Andalusian genre of music and dance, originated in the 18th century, but is based in earlier forms from the region. The influence of the traditional music and dance of the Romani people or Gypsies is particularly clear. The genre embraces distinct vocal (cante flamenco), guitar (toque flamenco), and dance (baile flamenco) styles.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 181, "text": "The Andalusian Statute of Autonomy reflects the cultural importance of flamenco in its Articles 37.1.18 and 68:", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 182, "text": "Guiding principles of public policy: 18th The preservation and enhancement of the cultural, historic and artistic heritage of Andalusia, especially flamenco.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 183, "text": "Also within the Autonomous Community (of Andalucia) is the exclusive competence in knowledge, conservation, research, training, promotion and dissemination of flamenco as a unique element of the Andalusian cultural heritage.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 184, "text": "Fundamental in the history of Andalusian music are the composers Cristóbal de Morales, Francisco Guerrero, Francisco Correa de Arauxo, Manuel García, Manuel de Falla, Joaquín Turina, and Manuel Castillo [da; es], as well as one of the fathers of modern classical guitar, the guitarist Andrés Segovia. Mention should also be made of the great folk artists of the copla (music) and the cante hondo, such as Rocío Jurado, Lola Flores (La Faraona, \"the pharaoh\"), Juanito Valderrama and the revolutionary Camarón de la Isla.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 185, "text": "Prominent Andalusian rock groups include Triana and Medina Azahara. The duo Los del Río from Dos Hermanas had international success with their \"Macarena\", including playing at a Super Bowl half-time show in the United States, where their song has also been used as campaign music by the Democratic Party. Other notables include the singer, songwriter, and poet Joaquín Sabina, Isabel Pantoja, Rosa López, who represented Spain at Eurovision in 2002, and David Bisbal.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 186, "text": "On November 16, 2023, Seville will host the 24th Annual Latin Grammy Awards at the FIBES Conference and Exhibition Centre, making Seville the first city outside of the United States to host the Latin Grammy Awards.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 187, "text": "The portrayal of Andalusia in film is often reduced to archetypes: flamenco, bullfighting, Catholic pageantry, brigands, the property-rich and cash-poor señorito andaluz and emigrants. These images particularly predominated from the 1920s through the 1960s, and helped to consolidate a clichéd image of the region. In a very different vein, the province of Almería was the filming location for many Westerns, especially (but by no means exclusively) the Italian-directed Spaghetti Westerns. During the dictatorship of Francisco Franco, this was the extent of the film industry in Andalusia.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 188, "text": "Nonetheless, Andalusian film has roots as far back as José Val del Omar in the pre-Franco years, and since the Spanish transition to democracy has brought forth numerous nationally and internationally respected directors: Antonio Cuadri [ca; es; ru] (Heart of the Earth), Chus Gutiérrez (Poniente), Chiqui Carabante [ca; es] (Carlos Against the World), Alberto Rodríguez (7 Virgins), Benito Zambrano (Solas), and Antonio Banderas (Summer Rain).", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 189, "text": "Counting together feature films, documentaries, television programs, music videos etc., Andalusia has boomed from 37 projects shooting in 1999 to 1,054 in 2007, with the figure for 2007 including 19 feature films. Although feature films are the most prestigious, commercials and television are currently more economically important to the region.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 190, "text": "The Filmoteca de Andalucía [es; fr], headquartered in Córdoba, is a government-run entity in charge of the investigation, collection and diffusion of Andalusian cinematic heritage. Other important contributors to this last activity are such annual film festivals as the Málaga Spanish Film Festival, the most important festival dedicated exclusively to cinema made in Spain, the Seville European Film Festival (SEFF), the International Festival of Short Films—Almería in Short, the Huelva Festival of Latin American Film, the Atlantic Film Show in Cádiz, the Islantilla Festival of Film and Television and the African Film Festival of Tarifa.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 191, "text": "Each sub-region in Andalusia has its own unique customs that represent a fusion of Catholicism and local folklore. Cities like Almería have been influenced historically by both Granada and Murcia in the use of traditional head coverings. The sombrero de Labrador, a worker's hat made of black velvet, is a signature style of the region.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 192, "text": "In Cádiz, traditional costumes with rural origins are worn at bullfights and at parties on the large estates. The tablao flamenco dance and the accompanying cante jondo vocal style originated in Andalusia and traditionally most often performed by the gypsy (Gitanos). One of the most distinctive cultural events in Andalusia is the Romería de El Rocío in May. It consists of a pilgrimage to the Hermitage of El Rocío in the countryside near Almonte, in honor of the Virgin of El Rocío, an image of the Virgin and Child. In recent times the Romería has attracted roughly a million pilgrims each year.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 193, "text": "In Jaén, the saeta is a revered form of Spanish religious song, whose form and style has evolved over many centuries. Saetas evoke strong emotion and are sung most often during public processions. Verdiales, based upon the fandango, are a flamenco music style and song form originating in Almogia, near Málaga. For this reason, the Verdiales are sometimes known as Fandangos de Málaga. The region also has a rich musical tradition of flamenco songs, or palos called cartageneras. Seville celebrates Semana Santa, one of the better known religious events within Spain. During the festival, religious fraternities dress as penitents and carry large floats of lifelike wooden sculptures representing scenes of the Passion, and images of the Virgin Mary. Sevillanas, a type of old folk music sung and written in Seville and still very popular, are performed in fairs and festivals, along with an associated dance for the music, the Baile por sevillanas. All the different regions of Andalusia have developed their own distinctive customs, but all share a connectedness to Catholicism as developed during baroque Spain society.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 194, "text": "Andalusian Spanish is one of the most widely spoken forms of Spanish in Spain, and because of emigration patterns was very influential on American Spanish. Rather than a single dialect, it is really a range of dialects sharing some common features; among these is the retention of more Arabic words than elsewhere in Spain, as well as some phonological differences compared with Standard Spanish. The isoglosses that mark the borders of Andalusian Spanish overlap to form a network of divergent boundaries, so there is no clear border for the linguistic region. A fringe movement promoting an Andalusian language independent from Spanish exists.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 195, "text": "The territory now known as Andalusia fell within the sphere of influence of ancient Mediterranean mythological beliefs. Phoenician colonization brought the cults of Baal and Melqart; the latter lasted into Roman times as Hercules, mythical founder of both Cádiz and Seville. The Islote de Sancti Petri held the supposed tomb of Hercules, with representations of his Twelve labors; the region was the traditional site of the tenth labor, obtaining the cattle of the monster Geryon. Traditionally, the Pillars of Hercules flank the Strait of Gibraltar. Clearly, the European pillar is the Rock of Gibraltar; the African pillar was presumably either Monte Hacho in Ceuta or Jebel Musa in Morocco. The Roman road that led from Cádiz to Rome was known by several names, one of them being Via Herculea [fr; it; sv], Hercules route returning from his tenth labor. The present coat of arms of Andalusia shows Hercules between two lions, with two pillars behind these figures.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 196, "text": "Roman Catholicism is, by far, the largest religion in Andalusia. In 2012, the proportion of Andalusians that identify themselves as Roman Catholic was 78.8%. Spanish Catholic religion constitute a traditional vehicle of Andalusian cultural cohesion, and the principal characteristic of the local popular form of Catholicism is devotion to the Virgin Mary; Andalusia is sometimes known as la tierra de María Santísima (\"the land of Most Holy Mary\"). Also characteristic are the processions during Holy Week, in which thousands of penitents (known as nazarenos) sing saetas. Andalusia is the site of such pilgrim destinations as the Santuario de Nuestra Señora de la Cabeza [ca; de; es; it] in Andújar and the Hermitage of El Rocío in Almonte.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 197, "text": "While some trace the lineage of the Spanish Fighting Bull back to Roman times, today's fighting bulls in the Iberian peninsula and in the former Spanish Empire trace back to Andalusia in the 15th and 16th centuries. Andalusia remains a center of bull-rearing and bullfighting: its 227 fincas de ganado where fighting bulls are raised cover 146,917 hectares (363,040 acres). In the year 2000, Andalusia's roughly 100 bullrings hosted 1,139 corridas.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 198, "text": "The oldest bullring still in use in Spain is the neoclassical Plaza de toros in Ronda, built in 1784. The Andalusian Autonomous Government sponsors the Rutas de Andalucía taurina, a touristic route through the region centered on bullfighting.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 199, "text": "The Andalusian festivals provide a showcase for popular arts and traditional costume. Among the most famous of these are the Seville Fair or Feria de Abril in Seville, now echoed by smaller fairs in Madrid and Barcelona, both of which have many Andalusian immigrants; the Feria de Agosto in Málaga; the Feria de Jerez or Feria del Caballo in Jerez; the Feast of Corpus Christi [es] in Granada; the Feria de Nuestra Señora de la Salud [es] in Córdoba; the Columbian Festivals (Fiestas Colombinas) in Huelva; the Feria de la Virgen del Mar in Almería; and the Feria de San Lucas [es] in Jaén, among many others.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 200, "text": "Festivals of a religious nature are a deep Andalusian tradition and are met with great popular fervor. There are numerous major festivals during Holy Week. An annual pilgrimage brings a million visitors to the Hermitage of El Rocío in Almonte (population 16,914 in 2008); similarly large crowds visit the Santuario de Nuestra Señora de la Cabeza in Andújar every April.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 201, "text": "Other important festivals are the Carnival of Cádiz and the Fiesta de las Cruces or Cruz de mayo in Granada and Córdoba; in Córdoba this is combined with a competition for among the patios (courtyards) of the city.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 202, "text": "Andalusia hosts an annual festival for the dance of flamenco in the summer-time.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 203, "text": "The Andalusian diet varies, especially between the coast and the interior, but in general is a Mediterranean diet based on olive oil, cereals, legumes, vegetables, fish, dried fruits and nuts, and meat; there is also a great tradition of drinking wine.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 204, "text": "Fried fish—pescaíto frito—and seafood are common on the coast and also eaten well into the interior under coastal influence. Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) from the Almadraba areas of the Gulf of Cádiz, prawns from Sanlúcar de Barrameda (known as langostino de Sanlúcar), and deepwater rose shrimp (Parapenaeus longirostris [es]) from Huelva are all highly prized. Fishing for the transparent goby or chanquete (Aphia minuta), a once-popular small fish from Málaga, is now banned because the techniques used to catch them trap too many immature fish of other species.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 205, "text": "The mountainous regions of the Sierra Morena and Sierra Nevada produce cured hams, notably including jamón serrano and jamón ibérico. These come from two different types of pig, (jamón serrano from white pigs, the more expensive jamón ibérico from the Black Iberian pig). There are several denominaciones de origen, each with its own specifications including in just which microclimate region ham of a particular denomination must be cured. Plato alpujarreño is another mountain specialty, a dish combining ham, sausage, sometimes other pork, egg, potatoes, and olive oil.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 206, "text": "Confectionery is popular in Andalusia. Almonds and honey are common ingredients. Many enclosed convents of nuns make and sell pastries, especially Christmas pastries: mantecados, polvorones, pestiños, alfajores, yemas de San Leandro [es; ru], as well as churros or tejeringos, meringue cookies (merengadas), and amarguillos [es].", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 207, "text": "Cereal-based dishes include migas de harina in eastern Andalusia (a similar dish to couscous rather than the fried breadcrumb based migas elsewhere in Spain) and a sweeter, more aromatic porridge called poleá in western Andalusia. Vegetables form the basis of such dishes as alboronía (similar to ratatouille) and the chopped salad known as pipirrana or piriñaca. Hot and cold soups based in olive oil, garlic, bread, tomato and peppers include gazpacho, salmorejo, porra antequerana, ajo caliente, sopa campera, or—using almonds instead of tomato—ajoblanco.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 208, "text": "Wine has a privileged place at the Andalusian table. Andalusian wines are known worldwide, especially fortified wines such as sherry (jerez), aged in soleras. These are enormously varied; for example, dry sherry may be the very distinct fino, manzanilla, amontillado, oloroso, or Palo Cortado and each of these varieties can each be sweetened with Pedro Ximénez or Moscatel to produce a different variety of sweet sherry. Besides sherry, Andalucía has five other denominaciones de origen for wine: D.O. Condado de Huelva, D.O. Manzanilla-Sanlúcar de Barrameda, D.O. Málaga, D.O. Montilla-Moriles, and D.O. Sierras de Málaga. Most Andalusian wine comes from one of these regions, but there are other historic wines without a Protected Geographical Status, for example Tintilla de Rota, Pajarete, Moscatel de Chipiona and Mosto de Umbrete.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 209, "text": "Andalusia also produces D.O. vinegar and brandy: D.O. Vinagre de Jerez and D.O. Brandy de Jerez.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 210, "text": "The traditional dress of 18th-century Andalusia was strongly influenced by majismo within the context of casticismo (purism, traditionalism, authenticity). The archetype of the majo and maja was that of a bold, pure Spaniard from a lower-class background, somewhat flamboyant in his or her style of dress. This emulation of lower-class dress also extended to imitating the clothes of brigands and Romani (\"Gypsy\") women.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 211, "text": "The Museum of Arts and Traditions of Sevilla has collected representative samples of a great deal of the history of Andalusian dress, including examples of such notable types of hat as the sombrero cordobés, sombrero calañés, sombrero de catite and the pavero [es], as well as the traje corto and traje de flamenca.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 212, "text": "Andalusia has a great artisan tradition in tile, leather (see Shell cordovan), weaving (especially of the heavy jarapa cloth), marquetry, and ceramics (especially in Jaén, Granada, and Almería), lace (especially Granada and Huelva), embroidery (in Andévalo), ironwork, woodworking, and basketry in wicker, many of these traditions a heritage of the long period of Muslim rule.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 213, "text": "Andalusia is also known for its dogs, particularly the Andalusian Hound, which was originally bred in the region. Dogs, not just andalusian hounds, are very popular in the region.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 214, "text": "Andalusian equestrianism, institutionalized in the Royal Andalusian School of Equestrian Art is known well beyond the borders of Spain. The Andalusian horse is strongly built, compact yet elegant, distinguished in the area of dressage and show jumping, and is also an excellent horse for driving. They are known for their elegant \"dancing\" gait.", "title": "Art and culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 215, "text": "In Andalusia, as throughout Spain, football is the predominant sport. Introduced to Spain by British men who worked in mining for Rio Tinto in the province of Huelva, the sport soon became popular with the local population. As Spain's oldest existing football club, Recreativo de Huelva, founded 1889, is known as El Decano (\"the Dean\").", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 216, "text": "For the 2023–24 season, five Andalusian clubs compete in Spain's First Division La Liga: Cádiz CF, Real Betis, Sevilla FC, Granada CF and UD Almería. Betis won La Liga in 1934–35 and Sevilla in the 1945–46 season. The other Andalusian teams, Málaga CF play in the Segunda División, Córdoba CF play in the Primera Federación, whilst Recreativo de Huelva, participate in the Segunda Federación, and Marbella FC and Real Jaén participate in the Tercera División.", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 217, "text": "The Andalusia autonomous football team is not in any league, and plays only friendly matches. In recent years, they have played mostly during the Christmas break of the football leagues. They play mostly against national teams from other countries, but would not be eligible for international league play, where Spain is represented by a single national team.", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 218, "text": "In recent decades, basketball has become increasingly popular, with CB Málaga, also known as Unicaja Málaga who have won the Liga ACB in 2007 and the Korać Cup in 2001 and usually play the Euroleague, CB Sevilla (Banca Cívica) and CB Granada competing at the top level in the Liga ACB.", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 219, "text": "Unlike basketball, handball has never really taken off in Andalusia. There is one Andalusian team in the Liga Asobal, Spain's premier handball league: BM Puente Genil, playing in the province of Córdoba.", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 220, "text": "Andalusia's strongest showing in sports has been in table tennis. There are two professional teams: Cajasur Priego TM and Caja Granada TM, the latter being Spain's leading table tennis team, with more than 20 league championships in nearly consecutive years and 14 consecutive Copas del Rey, dominating the Liga ENEBÉ. Cajasur is also one of the league's leading teams.", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 221, "text": "220 Andalusian athletes have competed in a total of 16 summer or winter Olympic Games. The first was Leopoldo Sainz de la Maza, part of the silver medal-winning polo team at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp, Belgium.", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 222, "text": "In all, Andalusians have won six gold medals, 11 silver, and two bronze. Winners of multiple medals include the Córdoban boxer Rafael Lozano (bronze in the 1996 Summer Olympics at Atlanta, Georgia, US, and silver in the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, Australia); sailor Theresa Zabell, Malagueña by adoption (gold medals at Barcelona in 1992 and Atlanta in 1996). Other notable winners have been Granadan tennis player Manuel Orantes (silver in the men's singles of the demonstration tournament in Mexico City in 1968), Jerezano riders Ignacio Rambla and Rafael Soto (silver in dressage in Athens in 2004) and the racewalker Paquillo Fernández from Guadix (silver in Athens in 2004).", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 223, "text": "The largest number of Olympic appearances were by the Malagueña swimmer María Peláez (five appearances), the Granadan skier María José Rienda (four), the Sevillian rider Luis Astolfi (four), and the Sevillian rower Fernando Climent (four, including a silver at Los Angeles, California, US, in 1984.", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 224, "text": "Seville has been a pre-candidate to host the Summer Olympics in two occasions, 2004 and 2008, and Granada has been a pre-candidate to host the winter Olympics; neither has ever succeeded in its candidature. The ski resort of Sierra Nevada, near Granada, has however hosted the 1996 Alpine World Ski Championships, and Granada hosted the 2015 Winter Universiade.", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 225, "text": "Other sporting events in Andalusia include surfing, kitesurfing and windsurfing competitions at Tarifa, various golf tournaments at courses along the coast, and horse racing and polo at several locations in the interior. Andalusia hosted the 1999 World Championships in Athletics (Seville), the 2005 Mediterranean Games (Almería) and the FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 1996 (Granada), among other major events. There is also the annual Vuelta a Andalucía bicycle road race and the Linares chess tournament. The Circuito de Jerez, located near Jerez de la Frontera, hosts the Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix.", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 226, "text": "Andalusia has had a sister region relationship with Buenos Aires (Argentina), since 2001; and with Córdoba (Argentina). Also Andalusia has a collaboration agreement with Guerrero (Mexico).", "title": "Twinning and covenants" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Abhorrers, the name given in 1679 to the persons who expressed their abhorrence at the action of those who had signed petitions urging King Charles II of England to assemble Parliament.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Feeling against Catholics, and especially against James, Duke of York, was running strongly; the Exclusion Bill had been passed by the House of Commons, and the popularity of James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, was very great.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "To prevent this bill from passing into law, Charles had dissolved the parliament in July 1679, and in the following October had prorogued its successor, which became known as the Exclusion Bill Parliament, without allowing it to meet. He was then deluged with petitions urging him to call it together. This agitation was opposed by Sir George Jeffreys and Francis Wythens, who presented addresses expressing abhorrence of the Petitioners, and thus initiated the movement of the abhorrers, who supported the action of the king. \"The frolic went all over England,\" says Roger North; and the addresses of the Abhorrers which reached the king from all parts of the country formed a counterblast to those of the Petitioners. It is said that the terms Whig and Tory were first applied to English political parties as consequence of this dispute.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "", "title": "References" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Abiathar (Hebrew: אֶבְיָתָר ʾEḇyāṯār, \"father (of) abundance\"/\"abundant father\"), in the Hebrew Bible, is a son of Ahimelech or Ahijah, High Priest at Nob, the fourth in descent from Eli and the last of Eli's House to be a High Priest.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Abiathar was the only one of the priests to escape from Saul's (reigned c. 1020–1000 BCE) massacre in Nob, when his father and the priests of Nob were slain on the command of Saul. He fled to David (reigned c. 1003–970 BCE) at Keilah, taking with him the ephod and other priestly regalia. Rabbinical literature that linked the later extermination of the male descendants of David with the priests of Nob, also link the survival of David's descendant Joash with that of Abiathar.", "title": "Bible account" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Abiathar joined David, who was then in the cave of Adullam. He remained with David, and became priest of the party of which he was the leader. He was of great service to David, especially at the time of the rebellion of Absalom.", "title": "Bible account" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "When David ascended the throne of Judah, Abiathar was appointed High Priest and the \"king's counselor\". Meanwhile, Zadok, of the house of Eleazar, had been made High Priest. Another version says he was Co-Pontiff with Zadok during King David. These appointments continued in force until the end of David's reign. In 1 Kings 4:4, Zadok and Abiathar are found acting together as priests under Solomon.", "title": "Bible account" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Abiathar was deposed (the sole historical instance of the deposition of a high priest) and banished to his home at Anathoth by Solomon, because he took part in the attempt to raise Adonijah to the throne instead of Solomon. The priesthood thus passed from the house of Ithamar to the house of Eleazar.", "title": "Bible account" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The rescue of the chief priest Abiathar, in the massacre of the priests of Nob ordered by Saul, was fortunate for the house of David; for if he had lost his life, David's descendants would through divine retaliation have been entirely wiped out of existence at the hands of Athaliah. It was David's acts that had really brought about the death of the priests, and to make amends he appointed Abiathar high priest. Abiathar retained the office until he was deserted by the Holy Spirit, without which the high priest could not successfully consult the Urim and Thummim. When David, on his flight from Absalom, recognized this loss in Abiathar, he felt compelled to put Zadok in his place. Abiathar's removal from the Priesthood fulfilled that other part of the curse on the House of Eli—that the Priesthood would pass out of the House of Eli.", "title": "In rabbinic literature" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "In 2 Samuel 8:17 Ahimelech, the son of Abiathar is suggested to be read, with the Syriac, for Abiathar, the son of Ahimelech.", "title": "Confusion of the name" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "A similar confusion occurs in Gospel of Mark: in reporting Jesus' words, the evangelist used the name Abiathar when we might expect to see Jesus mention his father Ahimelech. Suggestions made to resolve the difficulty — e.g. that father and son each bore the same double name, or that Abiathar officiated during his father's lifetime and in his father's stead—have been supported by great names, but have not been fully accepted.", "title": "Confusion of the name" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Abigail (Hebrew: אֲבִיגַיִל, Modern: ʾAvīgayīl, Tiberian: ʾAḇīḡayīl) was an Israelite woman in the Hebrew Bible married to Nabal; she married the future King David after Nabal's death (1 Samuel 25). Abigail was David's third wife, after Ahinoam and Saul's daughter, Michal, whom Saul later married to Palti, son of Laish, when David went into hiding.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Abigail became the mother of one of David's sons, who is listed in the Book of Chronicles under the name Daniel, in the Masoretic Text of the Books of Samuel as Chileab, and in the Septuagint text of 2 Samuel 3:3 as Δαλουια, Dalouia. Her name is spelled Abigal in 2 Samuel 17:25 in the American Standard Version.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Derived from the Hebrew word ab, \"father\", and the Hebrew root g-y-l, \"to rejoice,\" the name Abigail has a variety of possible meanings including \"my father's joy\" and \"source of joy\".", "title": "Name" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "In 1 Samuel 25, Nabal demonstrates ingratitude towards David, the son of Jesse (from the tribe of Judah), and Abigail attempts to placate David, in order to stop the future King from taking revenge. She gives him food, and speaks to him, urging him not to \"have on his conscience the staggering burden of needless bloodshed\" (verse 31, NIV) and reminding him that God will make him a \"lasting dynasty\" (verse 28). Jon Levenson calls this an \"undeniable adumbration\" of Nathan's prophecy in 2 Samuel 7. Alice Bach notes that Abigail pronounces a \"crucial prophecy,\" and the Talmud regards her as one of the Tanakh's seven female prophets. Levenson, however, suggests that she \"senses the drift of history\" from intelligence rather than from special revelation.", "title": "Biblical narrative" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "After Abigail reveals to Nabal what she has done, \"God struck Nabal and he died\" (v. 38), after which David married her. Abigail is described as intelligent and beautiful. The Talmud amplifies this idea, mentioning her as being one of the \"four women of surpassing beauty in the world\" (the other three being Rahab, Sarah, and Esther). Being married to the wealthy Nabal, she is also a woman of high socioeconomic status. Whether David married her because he was attracted to her, or as an astute political move, or both is unclear.", "title": "Biblical narrative" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Abigail and David's second wife, Ahinoam the Jezreelite, accompany David and his war band as they seek refuge in Philistine territory. While David and his men are encamped near Jezreel, the women are captured by Amalekites who raided the town of Ziklag and carried off the women and children. David led the pursuit, and they were subsequently rescued. Both wives then settle with David in Hebron, where Abigail gives birth to David's second son, Chileab (also called Daniel).", "title": "Biblical narrative" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Abigail is also listed as one of the seven Jewish women prophets, the other six being Miriam, Deborah, Hannah, Sarah, Huldah, and Esther. In terms of her moral character, Abraham Kuyper argues that Abigail's conduct indicates \"a most appealing character and unwavering faith,\" but Alice Bach regards her as subversive.", "title": "Biblical narrative" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Adele Berlin contrasts the story of Abigail with that of Bathsheba. In one, the wife prevents David from murdering her foolish and greedy husband. In the second, David orders the death of a good man because he desires his wife. \"In the Abigail story, David, the potential king, is seen as increasingly strong and virtuous, whereas in the Bathsheba story, the reigning monarch shows his flaws ever more overtly and begins to lose control of his family.\"", "title": "Biblical narrative" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Levenson and Halpern suggest that Abigail may, in fact, also be the same person as Abigail, mother of Amasa. Richard M. Davidson, however, points out that \"on the basis of the final form of Old Testament canon, references to Abigail in the biblical accounts indicate two different individuals.\"", "title": "Biblical narrative" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Abigail's self-styling as a handmaid led to Abigail being a traditional term for a waiting-woman, for example as the waiting gentlewoman in Beaumont and Fletcher's The Scornful Lady, published in 1616. Jonathan Swift, Tobias Smollett, and Henry Fielding use Abigail in this generic sense, as does Charlotte Brontë. Scott, in The Abbot frequently refers to Lilias, Lady Avenel's maid as an “Abigail.” Anthony Trollope makes two references to the abigail (all lower case) in The Eustace Diamonds, at the beginning of Chapter 42, whilst Thomas Mann makes the same reference at the start of the second chapter of Part 2 in Buddenbrooks (published in 1901). William Rose Benet notes the notoriety of Abigail Hill, better known as \"Mrs Masham\", a lady-in-waiting to Queen Anne. George MacDonald Fraser makes mention of \"an abigail fussing about the room\" in his novel Flashman from The Flashman Papers series.", "title": "Generic use" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Abigail, and especially her meeting with David, was a common subject of European artwork in the Renaissance and post-Renaissance period. Artists depicting her, or them, include Antonio Molinari, Juan Antonio Escalante, and Peter Paul Rubens.", "title": "In art" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "Abigail is a featured figure on Judy Chicago's installation piece The Dinner Party, being represented in one of the 999 tiles of the Heritage Floor.", "title": "In art" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Abigail is venerated in the Catholic Church as \"righteous\". Her feast day is 1 September.", "title": "Veneration" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Abila, also spelled Abyla, may refer to:", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Azad Jammu and Kashmir (/ˌɑːzæd kæʃˈmɪər/; Urdu: آزاد جموں و کشمیر, transl. 'Free Jammu and Kashmir' listen), abbreviated as AJK and colloquially referred to as simply Azad Kashmir, is a region administered by Pakistan as a nominally self-governing entity and constituting the western portion of the larger Kashmir region, which has been the subject of a dispute between India and Pakistan since 1947. Azad Kashmir also shares borders with the Pakistani provinces of Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa to the south and west, respectively. On its eastern side, Azad Kashmir is separated from the Indian union territory of Jammu and Kashmir (part of Indian-administered Kashmir) by the Line of Control (LoC), which serves as the de facto border between the Indian- and Pakistani-controlled parts of Kashmir. Geographically, it covers a total area of 13,297 km (5,134 sq mi) and has a total population of 4,045,366 as per the 2017 national census.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The territory has a parliamentary form of government modelled after the British Westminster system, with the city of Muzaffarabad serving as its capital. The President of AJK is the constitutional head of state, while the Prime Minister, supported by a Council of Ministers, is the chief executive. The unicameral Azad Kashmir Legislative Assembly elects both the Prime Minister and President. The territory has its own Supreme Court and a High Court, while the Government of Pakistan's Ministry of Kashmir Affairs and Gilgit-Baltistan serves as a link between itself and Azad Jammu and Kashmir's government, although the autonomous territory is not represented in the Parliament of Pakistan.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Northern Azad Kashmir lies in a region that experiences strong vibrations of the earth as a result of the Indian plate underthrusting the Eurasian plate. A major earthquake in 2005 killed at least 100,000 people and left another three million people displaced, causing widespread devastation to the region's infrastructure and economy. Since then, with help from the Government of Pakistan and foreign aid, reconstruction of infrastructure is underway. Azad Kashmir's economy largely depends on agriculture, services, tourism, and remittances sent by members of the British Mirpuri community. Nearly 87% of Azad Kashmiri households own farm property, and the region has the highest rate of school enrollment in Pakistan and a literacy rate of approximately 74%.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Azad Kashmir (Free Kashmir) was the title of a pamphlet issued by the Muslim Conference party at its 13th general session held in 1945 at Poonch. It is believed to have been a response to the National Conference's Naya Kashmir (New Kashmir) programme. Sources state that it was no more than a compilation of various resolutions passed by the party. But its intent seems to have been to declare that the Muslims of Jammu and Kashmir were committed to the Muslim League's struggle for a separate homeland (Pakistan), and that the Muslim Conference was the sole representative organisation of the Muslims of Kashmir. However, the following year, the party passed an \"Azad Kashmir resolution\" demanding that the maharaja institute a constituent assembly elected on an extended franchise. According to scholar Chitralekha Zutshi, the organisation's declared goal was to achieve responsible government under the aegis of the maharaja without association with either India or Pakistan. The following year, the party workers assembled at the house of Sardar Ibrahim on 19 July 1947 reversed the decision, demanding that the maharaja accede to Pakistan.", "title": "Name" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Soon afterward, Sardar Ibrahim escaped to Pakistan and led the Poonch rebellion from there, with the assistance of Pakistan's prime minister Liaquat Ali Khan and other officials. Liaquat Ali Khan appointed a committee headed by Mian Iftikharuddin to draft a \"declaration of freedom\". On 4 October an Azad Kashmir provisional government was declared in Lahore with Ghulam Nabi Gilkar as president under the assumed name \"Mr. Anwar\" and Sardar Ibrahim as the prime minister. Gilkar travelled to Srinagar and was arrested by the maharaja's government. Pakistani officials subsequently appointed Sardar Ibrahim as the president of the provisional government.", "title": "Name" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The northern part of Azad Jammu and Kashmir encompasses the lower area of the Himalayas, including Jamgarh Peak (4,734 m or 15,531 ft). However, Sarwali Peak (6326 m) in Neelum Valley is the highest peak in the state.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "The region receives rainfall in both the winter and the summer. Muzaffarabad and Pattan are among the wettest areas of Pakistan. Throughout most of the region, the average rainfall exceeds 1400 mm, with the highest average rainfall occurring near Muzaffarabad (around 1800 mm). During the summer season, monsoon floods of the rivers Jhelum and Leepa are common due to extreme rains and snow melting.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "The southern parts of Azad Kashmir, including the Bhimber, Mirpur, and Kotli districts, have extremely hot weather in the summer and moderate cold weather in the winter. They receive rain mostly in monsoon weather.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "In the central and northern parts of the state, the weather remains moderately hot in the summer and cold and chilly in the winter. Snowfall also occurs there in December and January.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "The region receives rainfall in both the winter and the summer. Muzaffarabad and Pattan are among the wettest areas of the state, but they don't receive snow. Throughout most of the region, the average rainfall exceeds 1400 mm, with the highest average rainfall occurring near Muzaffarabad (around 1800 mm). During summer, monsoon floods of the Jhelum and Leepa rivers are common, due to high rainfall and melting snow.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "At the time of the Partition of India in 1947, the British abandoned their suzerainty over the princely states, which were left with the options of joining India or Pakistan or remaining independent. Hari Singh, the maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, wanted his state to remain independent. Muslims in the western districts of the Jammu province (current day Azad Kashmir) and in the Frontier Districts province (current day Gilgit-Baltistan) had wanted to join Pakistan.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "In Spring 1947, an uprising against the maharaja broke out in Poonch, an area bordering the Rawalpindi division of West Punjab. The maharaja's administration is said to have started levying punitive taxes on the peasantry which provoked a local revolt and the administration resorted to brutal suppression. The area's population, swelled by recently demobilised soldiers following World War II, rebelled against the maharaja's forces and gained control of almost the entire district. Following this victory, the pro-Pakistan chieftains of the western districts of Muzaffarabad, Poonch and Mirpur proclaimed a provisional Azad Jammu and Kashmir government in Rawalpindi on October 3, 1947. Ghulam Nabi Gilkar, under the assumed name \"Mr. Anwar,\" issued a proclamation in the name of the provisional government in Muzaffarabad. However, this government quickly fizzled out with the arrest of Anwar in Srinagar. On October 24, a second provisional government of Azad Kashmir was established at Palandri under the leadership of Sardar Ibrahim Khan.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "On October 21, several thousand Pashtun tribesmen from North-West Frontier Province poured into Jammu and Kashmir to help with the rebellion against the maharaja's rule. They were led by experienced military leaders and were equipped with modern arms. The maharaja's crumbling forces were unable to withstand the onslaught. The tribesmen captured the towns of Muzaffarabad and Baramulla, the latter of which is 32 kilometres (20 mi) northwest of the state capital Srinagar. On October 24, the Maharaja requested military assistance from India, which responded that it was unable to help him unless he acceded to India. Accordingly, on October 26, 1947, Maharaja Hari Singh signed an Instrument of Accession, handing over control of defence, external affairs, and communications to the Government of India in return for military aid. Indian troops were immediately airlifted into Srinagar. Pakistan intervened subsequently. Fighting ensued between the Indian and Pakistani armies, with the two areas of control more or less stabilised around what is now known as the \"Line of Control\".", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "India later approached the United Nations, asking it to resolve the dispute, and resolutions were passed in favour of the holding of a plebiscite with regard to Kashmir's future. However, no such plebiscite has ever been held on either side, since there was a precondition that required the withdrawal of the Pakistani army along with the non-state elements and the subsequent partial withdrawal of the Indian army. from the parts of Kashmir under their respective control – a withdrawal that never took place. In 1949, a formal cease-fire line separating the Indian- and Pakistani-controlled parts of Kashmir came into effect.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "Following the 1949 cease-fire agreement with India, the government of Pakistan divided the northern and western parts of Kashmir that it controlled at the time of the cease-fire into the following two separately controlled political entities:", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "In 1955, the Poonch uprising broke out. It was largely concentrated in areas of Rawalakot as well as the rest of Poonch Division. It ended in 1956.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "At one time under Pakistani control, Kashmir's Shaksgam tract, a small region along the northeastern border of Gilgit–Baltistan, was provisionally ceded by Pakistan to the People's Republic of China in 1963 and now forms part of China's Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "In 1972, the then current border between the Indian and Pakistani controlled parts of Kashmir was designated as the \"Line of Control\". This line has remained unchanged since the 1972 Simla Agreement, which bound the two countries \"to settle their differences by peaceful means through bilateral negotiations\". Some political experts claim that, in view of that pact, the only solution to the issue is mutual negotiation between the two countries without involving a third party such as the United Nation. The 1974 Interim Constitution Act was passed by the 48-member Azad Jammu and Kashmir unicameral assembly.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "In April 1997, the Nawaz Sharif government refused to grant constitutional status to Azad Jammu and Kashmir stating that \"'The grant of constitutional rights to these people will amount to unilateral annexation of these areas.\"", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK) is nominally a self-governing state, but ever since the 1949 ceasefire between Indian and Pakistani forces, Pakistan has exercised control over the state without incorporating it into Pakistan. Azad Kashmir has its own elected president, prime minister, legislative assembly, high court (with Azam Khan as its present chief justice), and official flag.", "title": "Government" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "Azad Kashmir's budget and tax affairs, are dealt with by the Azad Jammu and Kashmir Council rather than by Pakistan's Central Board of Revenue. The Azad Jammu and Kashmir Council is a supreme body consisting of 14 members, 8 from the government of Azad Jammu and Kashmir and 6 from the government of Pakistan. Its chairman/chief executive is the prime minister of Pakistan. Other members of the council are the president and the prime minister of Azad Kashmir (or an individual nominated by her/him) and 6 members of the AJK Legislative Assembly. Azad Kashmir Day is celebrated in Azad Jammu and Kashmir on October 24, which is the day that the Azad Jammu and Kashmir government was created in 1947. Pakistan has celebrated Kashmir Solidarity Day on February 5 of each year since 1990 as a day of protest against India's de facto sovereignty over its State of Jammu and Kashmir. That day is a national holiday in Pakistan. Pakistan observes the Kashmir Accession Day as Black Day on October 27 of each year since 1947 as a day of protest against the accession of Jammu and Kashmir State to India and its military presence in the Indian-controlled parts of Jammu and Kashmir.", "title": "Government" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "Brad Adams, the Asia director at the U.S.-based NGO Human Rights Watch said in 2006: \"Although 'azad' means 'free,' the residents of Azad Kashmir are anything but; the Pakistani authorities govern the Azad Kashmir government with tight controls on basic freedoms.\" Scholar Christopher Snedden has observed that despite tight controls, the people of Azad Kashmir have generally accepted whatever Pakistan has done to them, which in any case has varied little from how most Pakistanis have been treated (by Pakistan). According to Christopher Snedden, one of the reasons for this was that the people of Azad Kashmir had always wanted to be part of Pakistan.", "title": "Government" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "Consequently, having little to fear from a pro-Pakistan population devoid of options, Pakistan imposed its will through the Federal Ministry of Kashmir Affairs and failed to empower the people of Azad Kashmir, allowing genuine self-government for only a short period in the 1970s. According to the interim constitution that was drawn up in the 1970s, the only political parties that are allowed to exist are those that pay allegiance to Pakistan: \"No person or political party in Azad Jammu and Kashmir shall be permitted... activities prejudicial or detrimental to the State's accession to Pakistan.\" The pro-independence Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front has never been allowed to contest elections in Azad Kashmir. While the interim constitution does not give them a choice, the people of Azad Kashmir have not considered any option other than joining Pakistan. Except in a legal sense, Azad Kashmir has been fully integrated into Pakistan.", "title": "Government" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "Azad Kashmir is home to a vibrant civil society. One of the organizations active in the territory and inside Pakistan is YFK-International Kashmir Lobby Group, an NGO that seeks better India-Pakistan relations through conflict resolution in Kashmir.", "title": "Government" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "According to the project report by the Asian Development Bank, the bank has set out development goals for Azad Kashmir in the areas of health, education, nutrition, and social development. The whole project is estimated to cost US$76 million. Germany, between 2006 and 2014, has also donated $38 million towards the AJK Health Infrastructure Programme.", "title": "Development" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "The state is administratively divided into three divisions which, in turn, are divided into ten districts.", "title": "Administrative divisions" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "The population of Azad Kashmir, according to the preliminary results of the 2017 Census, is 4.045 million. The website of the AJK government reports the literacy rate to be 74%, with the enrolment rate in primary school being 98% and 90% for boys and girls respectively.", "title": "Demographics" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "The population of Azad Kashmir is almost entirely Muslim. The people of this region culturally differ from the Kashmiris living in the Kashmir Valley of Jammu and Kashmir and are closer to the culture of Jammu. Mirpur, Kotli, and Bhimber are all old towns of the Jammu region.", "title": "Demographics" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "Azad Jammu and Kashmir has an almost entirely Muslim population. According to data maintained by Christian community organizations, there are around 4,500 Christian residents in the region. Bhimber is home to most of them, followed by Mirpur and Muzaffarabad. A few dozen families also live in Kotli, Poonch, and Bagh. However, the Christian community has been struggling to get residential status and property rights in AJK.", "title": "Demographics" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "There is no official data on the total number of Bahais in AJK. Only six Bahai families are known to be living in Muzaffarabad with others living in rural areas.", "title": "Demographics" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "The followers of the Ahmadi faith are estimated to be somewhere between 20,000 and 25,000, and most of them live in Kotli, Mirpur, Bhimber, and Muzaffarabad.", "title": "Demographics" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "Christopher Snedden writes that most of the native residents of Azad Kashmir are not of Kashmiri ethnicity; rather, they could be called \"Jammuites\" due to their historical and cultural links with that region, which is coterminous with neighbouring Punjab and Hazara. Because their region was formerly a part of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir and is named after it, many Azad Kashmiris have adopted the \"Kashmiri\" identity, whereas in an ethnolinguistic context, the term \"Kashmiri\" would ordinarily refer to natives of the Kashmir Valley region. The population of Azad Kashmir has strong historical, cultural and linguistic affinities with the neighbouring populations of upper Punjab and Potohar region of Pakistan, whereas the Sudhans have the oral tradition of the Pashtuns.", "title": "Demographics" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "The main communities living in this region are:", "title": "Demographics" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "Languages by approximate number of speakers", "title": "Demographics" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "The official language of Azad Kashmir is Urdu, while English is used in higher domains. The majority of the population, however, are native speakers of other languages. The foremost among these is Pahari–Pothwari with its various dialects. There are also sizeable communities speaking Kashmiri (mostly in the north), Gujari (throughout the territory), and Dogri (in the south), as well as pockets of speakers of Kundal Shahi, Shina and Pashto. With the exception of Pashto and English, those languages belong to the Indo-Aryan language family.", "title": "Demographics" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "The dialects of the Pahari-Pothwari language complex cover most of the territory of Azad Kashmir. Those are also spoken across the Line of Control in the neighbouring areas of Indian Jammu and Kashmir and are closely related both to Punjabi to the south and Hinko to the northwest. The language variety in the southern districts of Azad Kashmir is known by a variety of names – including Mirpuri, Pothwari and Pahari – and is closely related to the Pothwari proper spoken to the east in the Pothohar region of Punjab. The dialects of the central districts of Azad Kashmir are occasionally referred to in the literature as Chibhali or Punchi, but the speakers themselves usually call them Pahari, an ambiguous name that is also used for several unrelated languages of the lower Himalayas. Going north, the speech forms gradually change into Hindko. Today, in the Muzaffarabad District the preferred local name for the language is Hindko, although it is still apparently more closely related to the core dialects of Pahari. Further north in the Neelam Valley the dialect, locally also known as Parmi, can more unambiguously be subsumed under Hindko.", "title": "Demographics" }, { "paragraph_id": 36, "text": "Another major language of Azad Kashmir is Gujari. It is spoken by several hundred thousand people among the traditionally nomadic Gujars, many of whom are nowadays settled. Not all ethnic Gujars speak Gujari, the proportion of those who have shifted to other languages is probably higher in southern Azad Kashmir. Gujari is most closely related to the Rajasthani languages (particularly Mewati), although it also shares features with Punjabi. It is dispersed over large areas in northern Pakistan and India. Within Pakistan, the Gujari dialects of Azad Kashmir are more similar, in terms of shared basic vocabulary and mutual intelligibility, to the Gujar varieties of the neighbouring Hazara region than to the dialects spoken further to the northwest in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and north in Gilgit.", "title": "Demographics" }, { "paragraph_id": 37, "text": "There are scattered communities of Kashmiri speakers, notably in the Neelam Valley, where they form the second-largest language group after speakers of Hindko. There have been calls for the teaching of Kashmiri (particularly in order to counter India's claim of promoting the culture of Kashmir), but the limited attempts at introducing the language at the secondary school level have not been successful, and it is Urdu, rather than Kashmiri, that Kashmiri Muslims have seen as their identity symbol. There is an ongoing process of gradual shift to larger local languages, but at least in the Neelam Valley there still exist communities for whom Kashmiri is the sole mother tongue.", "title": "Demographics" }, { "paragraph_id": 38, "text": "There are speakers of Dogri in the southernmost district of Bhimber, where they are estimated to represent almost a third of the district's population. In the northernmost district of Neelam, there are small communities of speakers of several other languages. Shina, which like Kashmiri belongs to the broad Dardic group, is present in two distinct varieties spoken altogether in three villages. Pashto, of the Iranian subgroup and the majority language in the neighbouring province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, is spoken in two villages, both situated on the Line of Control. The endangered Kundal Shahi is native to the eponymous village and it is the only language not found outside Azad Kashmir.", "title": "Demographics" }, { "paragraph_id": 39, "text": "As of 2021, GDP of Azad Jammu and Kashmir was estimated to be 10 billion pounds, giving per capita an income of £5604. Historically the economy of Azad Kashmir has been agricultural which meant that land was the main source or mean of production. This means that all food for immediate and long-term consumption was produced from the land. The produce included various crops, fruits, vegetables, etc. The land was also the source of other livelihood necessities such as wood, fuel, grazing for animals which then turned into dairy products. Because of this land was also the main source of revenue for the governments whose primary purpose for centuries was to accumulate revenue.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 40, "text": "Agriculture is a major part of Azad Kashmir's economy. Low-lying areas that have high populations grow crops like barley, mangoes, millet, corn (maize), and wheat, and also raise cattle. In the elevated areas that are less populated and more spread out, forestry, corn, and livestock are the main sources of income. There are mineral and marble resources in Azad Kashmir close to Mirpur and Muzaffarabad. There are also graphite deposits at Mohriwali. There are also reservoirs of low-grade coal, chalk, bauxite, and zircon. Local household industries produce carved wooden objects, textiles, and dhurrie carpets. There is also an arts and crafts industry that produces such cultural goods as namdas, shawls, pashmina, pherans, Papier-mâché, basketry copper, rugs, wood carving, silk and woolen clothing, patto, carpets, namda gubba, and silverware. Agricultural goods produced in the region include mushrooms, honey, walnuts, apples, cherries, medicinal herbs and plants, resin, deodar, kail, chir, fir, maple, and ash timber.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 41, "text": "The migration to the UK was accelerated and by the completion of Mangla Dam in 1967 the process of 'chain migration' became in full flow. Today, remittances from British Mirpuri community make a critical role in AJK's economy. In the mid-1950s various economic and social development processes were launched in Azad Kashmir. In the 1960s, with the construction of the Mangla Dam in Mirpur District, the Azad Jammu and Kashmir Government began to receive royalties from the Pakistani government for the electricity that the dam provided to Pakistan. During the mid-2000s, a multibillion-dollar reconstruction began in the aftermath of the 2005 Kashmir earthquake.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 42, "text": "In addition to agriculture, textiles, and arts and crafts, remittances have played a major role in the economy of Azad Kashmir. One analyst estimated that the figure for Azad Kashmir was 25.1% in 2001. With regard to annual household income, people living in the higher areas are more dependent on remittances than are those living in the lower areas. In the latter part of 2006, billions of dollars for development were mooted by international aid agencies for the reconstruction and rehabilitation of earthquake-hit zones in Azad Kashmir, though much of that amount was subsequently lost in bureaucratic channels, leading to considerable delays in help getting to the neediest. Hundreds of people continued to live in tents long after the earthquake. A land-use plan for the city of Muzaffarabad was prepared by the Japan International Cooperation Agency.", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 43, "text": "Tourist destinations in the area include the following:", "title": "Economy" }, { "paragraph_id": 44, "text": "The literacy rate in Azad Kashmir was 62% in 2004, higher than in any other region of Pakistan. The current literacy rate of Azad Kashmir is 76.60% in 2018. And it remained at 79.80% in 2019. According to the 2020–2021 census, the literacy rate in Azad Kashmir was 91.34%. However, only 2.2% were graduates, compared to the average of 2.9% for Pakistan.", "title": "Education" }, { "paragraph_id": 45, "text": "The following is a list of universities recognised by Higher Education Commission of Pakistan (HEC):", "title": "Education" }, { "paragraph_id": 46, "text": "* Granted university status.", "title": "Education" }, { "paragraph_id": 47, "text": "The following is a list of undergraduate medical institutions recognised by Pakistan Medical and Dental Council (PMDC) as of 2013.", "title": "Education" }, { "paragraph_id": 48, "text": "Football, cricket, and volleyball are very popular in Azad Kashmir. Many tournaments are also held throughout the year and in the holy month of Ramazan, night-time flood-lit tournaments are also organised.", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 49, "text": "Azad Kashmir has its own T20 tournament called the Kashmir Premier League, which started in 2021.", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 50, "text": "New Mirpur City has a cricket stadium (Quaid-e-Azam Stadium) which has been taken over by the Pakistan Cricket Board for renovation to bring it up to the international standards. There is also a cricket stadium in Muzaffarabad with a capacity of 8,000 people. This stadium has hosted 8 matches of the Inter-District Under 19 Tournament 2013.", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 51, "text": "There are also registered football clubs:", "title": "Sports" }, { "paragraph_id": 52, "text": "The northern part of Azad Jammu and Kashmir encompasses the lower part of the Himalayas, including Jamgarh Peak (15,531 feet, or 4,734 meters). However, Sarwali peak in the Neelum Valley is the highest peak in the state. Fertile, green, mountainous valleys are characteristic of Azad Kashmir's geography, making it one of the most beautiful regions on the subcontinent.", "title": "Tourism" }, { "paragraph_id": 53, "text": "The southern parts of Azad Kashmir including Bhimber, Mirpur and Kotli districts has extremely hot weather in summers and moderate cold weather in winters. It receives rains mostly in monsoon weather.", "title": "Tourism" }, { "paragraph_id": 54, "text": "In the central and northern parts of state weather remains moderate hot in summers and very cold and chilly in winter. Snow fall also occurs there in December and January.", "title": "Tourism" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The Arabian Sea (Arabic: اَلْبَحرْ ٱلْعَرَبِيُّ, romanized: Al-Bahr al-ˁArabī) is a region of sea in the northern Indian Ocean, bounded on the west by the Arabian Peninsula, Gulf of Aden and Guardafui Channel, on the northwest by Gulf of Oman and Iran, on the north by Pakistan, on the east by India, and on the southeast by the Laccadive Sea and the Maldives, on the southwest by Somalia. Its total area is 3,862,000 km (1,491,000 sq mi) and its maximum depth is 4,652 meters (15,262 ft). The Gulf of Aden in the west connects the Arabian Sea to the Red Sea through the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, and the Gulf of Oman is in the northwest, connecting it to the Persian Gulf.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The Arabian Sea's surface area is about 3,862,000 km (1,491,130 sq mi). The maximum width of the sea is approximately 2,400 km (1,490 mi), and its maximum depth is 4,652 metres (15,262 ft). The biggest river flowing into the sea is the Indus River.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The Arabian Sea has two important branches — the Gulf of Aden in the southwest, connecting with the Red Sea through the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb; and the Gulf of Oman to the northwest, connecting with the Persian Gulf. There are also the gulfs of Khambhat and Kutch on the Indian Coast. The Arabian Sea has been crossed by many important marine trade routes since the 3rd or 2nd millennium BCE. Major seaports include Kandla Port, Mundra Port, Pipavav Port, Dahej Port, Hazira Port, Mumbai Port, Nhava Sheva Port (Navi Mumbai), Mormugão Port (Goa), New Mangalore Port and Kochi Port in India, the Port of Karachi, Port Qasim, and the Gwadar Port in Pakistan, Chabahar Port in Iran and the Port of Salalah in Salalah, Oman. The largest islands in the Arabian Sea include Socotra (Yemen), Masirah Island (Oman), Lakshadweep (India) and Astola Island (Pakistan). The countries with coastlines on the Arabian Sea are Yemen, Oman, Pakistan, Iran, India and the Maldives.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Arabian Sea as follows:", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Border and basin countries:", "title": "Border and basin countries" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The Arabian Sea historically and geographically has been referred to with different names by Arabian and European geographers and travelers, including Erythraean Sea, Indian Sea, Oman sea, Erythraean, Persian Sea in para No 34-35 of the Voyage. In Indian folklore, it is referred to as Darya, Sindhu Sagar, and Arab Samudra.", "title": "Alternative names" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Arab geographers, sailors and nomads used to call this sea by different names, including the Akhdar (Green) Sea, Bahre Fars (Persian Sea), the Ocean Sea, the Hindu sea, the Makran Sea, the sea of Oman; among them Zakariya al-Qazwini, Al-Masudi, Ibn Hawqal and Hafiz-i Abru. They wrote: \"The green sea and Indian sea and Persian sea are all one sea and in this sea there are strange creatures.\" in Iran and Turkey people call it Oman sea. In the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, as well as in some ancient maps, Erythraean Sea refers to the whole area of the northwestern Indian Ocean, including the Arabian Sea.", "title": "Alternative names" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "The Arabian Sea has been an important marine trade route since the era of the coastal sailing vessels from possibly as early as the 3rd millennium BCE, certainly the late 2nd millennium BCE through the later days known as the Age of Sail. By the time of Julius Caesar, several well-established combined land-sea trade routes depended upon water transport through the sea around the rough inland terrain features to its north.", "title": "Trade routes" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "These routes usually began in the Far East or down river from Madhya Pradesh, India with transshipment via historic Bharuch (Bharakuccha), traversed past the inhospitable coast of modern-day Iran, then split around Hadhramaut, Yemen into two streams north into the Gulf of Aden and thence into the Levant, or south into Alexandria via Red Sea ports such as Axum. Each major route involved transhipping to pack animal caravan, travel through desert country and risk of bandits and extortionate tolls by local potentates.", "title": "Trade routes" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "This southern coastal route past the rough country in the southern Arabian Peninsula was significant, and the Egyptian Pharaohs built several shallow canals to service the trade, one more or less along the route of today's Suez Canal, and another from the Red Sea to the Nile River, both shallow works that were swallowed up by huge sand storms in antiquity. Later the kingdom of Axum arose in Ethiopia to rule a mercantile empire rooted in the trade with Europe via Alexandria.", "title": "Trade routes" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Jawaharlal Nehru Port in Mumbai is the largest port in the Arabian Sea, and the largest container port in India. Major Indian ports in the Arabian Sea are Mundra Port, Kandla Port, Nava Sheva, Kochi Port, Mumbai Port, and Mormugão.", "title": "Trade routes" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "The Port of Karachi, Pakistan's largest and busiest seaport lies on the coast of the sea. It is located between the Karachi towns of Kiamari and Saddar.", "title": "Trade routes" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "The Gwadar Port of Pakistan is a warm-water, deep-sea port situated at Gwadar in Balochistan at the apex of the Arabian Sea and at the entrance of the Persian Gulf, about 460 km west of Karachi and approximately 75 km (47 mi) east of Pakistan's border with Iran. The port is located on the eastern bay of a natural hammerhead-shaped peninsula jutting out into the Arabian Sea from the coastline.", "title": "Trade routes" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "Port of Salalah in Salalah, Oman is also a major port in the area. The International Task Force often uses the port as a base. There is a significant number of warships of all nations coming in and out of the port, which makes it a very safe bubble. The port handled just under 3.5m teu in 2009.", "title": "Trade routes" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "There are several islands in the Arabian Sea, with the most important ones being Lakshadweep Islands (India), Socotra (Yemen), Masirah (Oman) and Astola Island (Pakistan).", "title": "Islands" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "The Lakshadweep Islands (formerly known as the Laccadive, Minicoy, and Aminidivi Islands) is a group of islands in the Laccadive Sea region of Arabian Sea, 200 to 440 km (120 to 270 mi) off the southwestern coast of India. The archipelago is a union territory and is governed by the Union Government of India. The islands form the smallest union territory of India with their total surface area being just 32 km (12 sq mi). Next to these islands are the Maldives islands. These islands are all part of the Lakshadweep-Maldives-Chagos group of islands.", "title": "Islands" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "Zalzala Koh was an island which was around for only a few years. After the 2013 earthquake in Pakistan, the mud island was formed. By 2016 the island was finished.", "title": "Islands" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "Astola Island, also known as Jezira Haft Talar in Balochi, or 'Island of the Seven Hills', is a small, uninhabited island in the northern tip of the Arabian Sea in Pakistan's territorial waters.", "title": "Islands" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "Socotra, also spelled Soqotra, is the largest island, being part of a small archipelago of four islands. It lies some 240 km (150 mi) east of the Horn of Africa and 380 km (240 mi) south of the Arabian Peninsula.", "title": "Islands" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "Masirah and the five Khuriya Muriya Islands are islands off the southeastern coast of Oman.", "title": "Islands" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "There are many major cities and towns in the coast of Arabian Sea. Some of the major cities are Mumbai, Muscat, Karachi, Aden, Salalah, Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi, Kozhikode, Tirur, Kollam, Mangalore, Bhavnagar, Jamnagar, Mogadishu, Gwadar, Abu Dhabi, Mundra, Dubai, Kannur, Panaji, Karwar, Udupi, Ratnagiri, Murdeshwar, Veraval , Colombo, Takamaka, and Dhiffushi.", "title": "Major Cities" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "The Arabian Sea has one of the world's three largest oceanic oxygen minimum zones (OMZ), or “dead zones,” along with the eastern tropical North Pacific and the eastern tropical South Pacific. OMZs have very low levels of oxygen, sometimes undetectable by standard equipment. The Arabian Sea's OMZ has the lowest levels of oxygen in the world, especially in the Gulf of Oman. Causes of the OMZ may include untreated sewage as well as high temperatures on the Indian subcontinent, which increase winds blowing towards India, bringing up nutrients and reducing oxygen in the Arabian Sea's waters. In winter, phytoplankton suited to low-oxygen conditions turn the OMZ bright green.", "title": "Oxygen minimum zone" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "The wildlife of the Arabian sea is diverse, and entirely unique because of the geographic distribution.", "title": "Environment and wildlife" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "Recent studies by Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology confirmed that the Arabian Sea is warming monotonously; it possibly is due to by global warming.", "title": "Arabian Sea warming" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "Regional endonyms for the Arabian sea in languages of the coastal regions surrounding it.", "title": "Native names" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Arabian Sea\". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.", "title": "Sources" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "Media related to Arabian Sea at Wikimedia Commons", "title": "External links" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Aspartame is an artificial non-saccharide sweetener 200 times sweeter than sucrose and is commonly used as a sugar substitute in foods and beverages. It is a methyl ester of the aspartic acid/phenylalanine dipeptide with brand names NutraSweet, Equal, and Canderel. Aspartame was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1974, and then again in 1981, after approval was revoked in 1980.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Aspartame is one of the most studied food additives in the human food supply. Reviews by over 100 governmental regulatory bodies found the ingredient safe for consumption at the normal acceptable daily intake (ADI) limit.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Aspartame is around 180 to 200 times sweeter than sucrose (table sugar). Due to this property, even though aspartame produces 4 kcal (17 kJ) of energy per gram when metabolized, about the same as sucrose, the quantity of aspartame needed to produce a sweet taste is so small that its caloric contribution is negligible. The sweetness of aspartame lasts longer than that of sucrose, so it is often blended with other artificial sweeteners such as acesulfame potassium to produce an overall taste more like that of sugar.", "title": "Uses" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Like many other peptides, aspartame may hydrolyze (break down) into its constituent amino acids under conditions of elevated temperature or high pH. This makes aspartame undesirable as a baking sweetener and prone to degradation in products hosting a high pH, as required for a long shelf life. The stability of aspartame under heating can be improved to some extent by encasing it in fats or in maltodextrin. The stability when dissolved in water depends markedly on pH. At room temperature, it is most stable at pH 4.3, where its half-life is nearly 300 days. At pH 7, however, its half-life is only a few days. Most soft-drinks have a pH between 3 and 5, where aspartame is reasonably stable. In products that may require a longer shelf life, such as syrups for fountain beverages, aspartame is sometimes blended with a more stable sweetener, such as saccharin.", "title": "Uses" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Descriptive analyses of solutions containing aspartame report a sweet aftertaste as well as bitter and off-flavor aftertastes.", "title": "Uses" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The acceptable daily intake (ADI) value for food additives, including aspartame, is defined as the \"amount of a food additive, expressed on a body weight basis, that can be ingested daily over a lifetime without appreciable health risk\". The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) and the European Commission's Scientific Committee on Food (later becoming EFSA) have determined this value is 40 mg/kg of body weight per day for aspartame, while the FDA has set its ADI for aspartame at 50 mg/kg per day – an amount equated to consuming 75 packets of commercial aspartame sweetener per day to be within a safe upper limit.", "title": "Acceptable levels of consumption" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "The primary source for exposure to aspartame in the US is diet soft drinks, though it can be consumed in other products, such as pharmaceutical preparations, fruit drinks, and chewing gum among others in smaller quantities. A 12-US-fluid-ounce (350 ml; 12 imp fl oz) can of diet soda contains 0.18 grams (0.0063 oz) of aspartame, and, for a 75-kilogram (165 lb) adult, it takes approximately 21 cans of diet soda daily to consume the 3.7 grams (0.13 oz) of aspartame that would surpass the FDA's 50 mg/kg of body weight ADI of aspartame from diet soda alone.", "title": "Acceptable levels of consumption" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Reviews have analyzed studies which have looked at the consumption of aspartame in countries worldwide, including the US, countries in Europe, and Australia, among others. These reviews have found that even the high levels of intake of aspartame, studied across multiple countries and different methods of measuring aspartame consumption, are well below the ADI for safe consumption of aspartame. Reviews have also found that populations that are believed to be especially high consumers of aspartame, such as children and diabetics, are below the ADI for safe consumption, even considering extreme worst-case scenario calculations of consumption.", "title": "Acceptable levels of consumption" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "In a report released on 10 December 2013, the EFSA said that, after an extensive examination of evidence, it ruled out the \"potential risk of aspartame causing damage to genes and inducing cancer\" and deemed the amount found in diet sodas safe to consume.", "title": "Acceptable levels of consumption" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "The safety of aspartame has been studied since its discovery, and it is a rigorously tested food ingredient. Aspartame has been deemed safe for human consumption by over 100 regulatory agencies in their respective countries, including the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), UK Food Standards Agency, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Health Canada, and Food Standards Australia New Zealand.", "title": "Safety and health effects" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "As of 2017, reviews of clinical trials showed that using aspartame (or other non-nutritive sweeteners) in place of sugar reduces calorie intake and body weight in adults and children. A 2017 review of metabolic effects by consuming aspartame found that it did not affect blood glucose, insulin, total cholesterol, triglycerides, calorie intake, or body weight. While high-density lipoprotein levels were higher compared to control, they were lower compared to sucrose.", "title": "Safety and health effects" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "In 2023, the World Health Organization recommended against the use of common non-saccharide sweeteners (NSS), including aspartame, to control body weight or lower the risk of non-communicable diseases, stating: \"The recommendation is based on the findings of a systematic review of the available evidence which suggests that use of NSS does not confer any long-term benefit in reducing body fat in adults or children. Results of the review also suggest that there may be potential undesirable effects from long-term use of NSS, such as an increased risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and mortality in adults.\"", "title": "Safety and health effects" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "High levels of the naturally occurring essential amino acid phenylalanine are a health hazard to those born with phenylketonuria (PKU), a rare inherited disease that prevents phenylalanine from being properly metabolized. Because aspartame contains a small amount of phenylalanine, foods containing aspartame sold in the US must state: \"Phenylketonurics: Contains Phenylalanine\" on product labels.", "title": "Safety and health effects" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "In the UK, foods that contain aspartame are required by the Food Standards Agency to list the substance as an ingredient, with the warning \"Contains a source of phenylalanine\". Manufacturers are also required to print \"with sweetener(s)\" on the label close to the main product name on foods that contain \"sweeteners such as aspartame\" or \"with sugar and sweetener(s)\" on \"foods that contain both sugar and sweetener\".", "title": "Safety and health effects" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "In Canada, foods that contain aspartame are required to list aspartame among the ingredients, include the amount of aspartame per serving, and state that the product contains phenylalanine.", "title": "Safety and health effects" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "Phenylalanine is one of the essential amino acids and is required for normal growth and maintenance of life. Concerns about the safety of phenylalanine from aspartame for those without phenylketonuria center largely on hypothetical changes in neurotransmitter levels as well as ratios of neurotransmitters to each other in the blood and brain that could lead to neurological symptoms. Reviews of the literature have found no consistent findings to support such concerns, and, while high doses of aspartame consumption may have some biochemical effects, these effects are not seen in toxicity studies to suggest aspartame can adversely affect neuronal function. As with methanol and aspartic acid, common foods in the typical diet, such as milk, meat, and fruits, will lead to ingestion of significantly higher amounts of phenylalanine than would be expected from aspartame consumption.", "title": "Safety and health effects" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "As of 2023, regulatory agencies, including the FDA and EFSA, and the US National Cancer Institute, have concluded that consuming aspartame is safe in amounts within acceptable daily intake levels and does not cause cancer. These conclusions are based on various sources of evidence, such as reviews and epidemiological studies finding no association between aspartame and cancer.", "title": "Safety and health effects" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "In July 2023, scientists for the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) concluded that there was \"limited evidence\" for aspartame causing cancer in humans, classifying the sweetener as Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic). The lead investigator of the IARC report stated that the classification \"shouldn't really be taken as a direct statement that indicates that there is a known cancer hazard from consuming aspartame. This is really more of a call to the research community to try to better clarify and understand the carcinogenic hazard that may or may not be posed by aspartame consumption.\"", "title": "Safety and health effects" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) added that the limited cancer assessment indicated no reason to change the recommended acceptable daily intake level of 40 mg per kg of body weight per day, reaffirming the safety of consuming aspartame within this limit.", "title": "Safety and health effects" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "The FDA responded to the report by stating:", "title": "Safety and health effects" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "Aspartame being labeled by IARC as \"possibly carcinogenic to humans\" does not mean that aspartame is actually linked to cancer. The FDA disagrees with IARC's conclusion that these studies support classifying aspartame as a possible carcinogen to humans. FDA scientists reviewed the scientific information included in IARC's review in 2021 when it was first made available and identified significant shortcomings in the studies on which IARC relied.", "title": "Safety and health effects" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "Reviews found no evidence that low doses of aspartame would plausibly lead to neurotoxic effects. A review of studies on children did not show any significant findings for safety concerns with regard to neuropsychiatric conditions such as panic attacks, mood changes, hallucinations, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), or seizures by consuming aspartame.", "title": "Safety and health effects" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "Reviews have found little evidence to indicate that aspartame induces headaches, although certain subsets of consumers may be sensitive to it.", "title": "Safety and health effects" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "Aspartame passes through wastewater treatment plants mainly unchanged.", "title": "Safety and health effects" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "The perceived sweetness of aspartame (and other sweet substances like acesulfame potassium) in humans is due to its binding of the heterodimer G protein-coupled receptor formed by the proteins TAS1R2 and TAS1R3. Aspartame is not recognized by rodents due to differences in the taste receptors.", "title": "Mechanism of action" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "Aspartame is rapidly hydrolyzed in the small intestine by digestive enzymes which break aspartame down into methanol, phenylalanine, aspartic acid, and further metabolites, such as formaldehyde and formic acid. Due to its rapid and complete metabolism, aspartame is not found in circulating blood, even following ingestion of high doses over 200 mg/kg.", "title": "Mechanism of action" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "Aspartic acid (aspartate) is one of the most common amino acids in the typical diet. As with methanol and phenylalanine, intake of aspartic acid from aspartame is less than would be expected from other dietary sources. At the 90th percentile of intake, aspartame provides only between 1% and 2% of the daily intake of aspartic acid.", "title": "Mechanism of action" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "The methanol produced by aspartame metabolism is unlikely to be a safety concern for several reasons. The amount of methanol produced from aspartame-sweetened foods and beverages is likely to be less than that from food sources already in diets. With regard to formaldehyde, it is rapidly converted in the body, and the amounts of formaldehyde from the metabolism of aspartame are trivial when compared to the amounts produced routinely by the human body and from other foods and drugs. At the highest expected human doses of consumption of aspartame, there are no increased blood levels of methanol or formic acid, and ingesting aspartame at the 90th percentile of intake would produce 25 times less methanol than what would be considered toxic.", "title": "Mechanism of action" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "Aspartame is a methyl ester of the dipeptide of the natural amino acids L-aspartic acid and L-phenylalanine. Under strongly acidic or alkaline conditions, aspartame may generate methanol by hydrolysis. Under more severe conditions, the peptide bonds are also hydrolyzed, resulting in free amino acids.", "title": "Chemistry" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "Two approaches to synthesis are used commercially. In the chemical synthesis, the two carboxyl groups of aspartic acid are joined into an anhydride, and the amino group is protected with a formyl group as the formamide, by treatment of aspartic acid with a mixture of formic acid and acetic anhydride. Phenylalanine is converted to its methyl ester and combined with the N-formyl aspartic anhydride; then the protecting group is removed from aspartic nitrogen by acid hydrolysis. The drawback of this technique is that a byproduct, the bitter-tasting β-form, is produced when the wrong carboxyl group from aspartic acid anhydride links to phenylalanine, with desired and undesired isomer forming in a 4:1 ratio. A process using an enzyme from Bacillus thermoproteolyticus to catalyze the condensation of the chemically altered amino acids will produce high yields without the β-form byproduct. A variant of this method, which has not been used commercially, uses unmodified aspartic acid but produces low yields. Methods for directly producing aspartyl-phenylalanine by enzymatic means, followed by chemical methylation, have also been tried but not scaled for industrial production.", "title": "Chemistry" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "Aspartame was discovered in 1965 by James M. Schlatter, a chemist working for G.D. Searle & Company. Schlatter had synthesized aspartame as an intermediate step in generating a tetrapeptide of the hormone gastrin, for use in assessing an anti-ulcer drug candidate. He discovered its sweet taste when he licked his finger, which had become contaminated with aspartame, to lift up a piece of paper. Torunn Atteraas Garin participated in the development of aspartame as an artificial sweetener.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "In 1975, prompted by issues regarding Flagyl and Aldactone, an FDA task force team reviewed 25 studies submitted by the manufacturer, including 11 on aspartame. The team reported \"serious deficiencies in Searle's operations and practices\". The FDA sought to authenticate 15 of the submitted studies against the supporting data. In 1979, the Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN) concluded, since many problems with the aspartame studies were minor and did not affect the conclusions, the studies could be used to assess aspartame's safety.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "In 1980, the FDA convened a Public Board of Inquiry (PBOI) consisting of independent advisors charged with examining the purported relationship between aspartame and brain cancer. The PBOI concluded aspartame does not cause brain damage, but it recommended against approving aspartame at that time, citing unanswered questions about cancer in laboratory rats.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "In 1983, the FDA approved aspartame for use in carbonated beverages and for use in other beverages, baked goods, and confections in 1993. In 1996, the FDA removed all restrictions from aspartame, allowing it to be used in all foods. As of May 2023, the FDA stated that it regards aspartame as a safe food ingredient when consumed within the acceptable daily intake level of 50 mg per kg of body weight per day.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "Several European Union countries approved aspartame in the 1980s, with EU-wide approval in 1994. The Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) reviewed subsequent safety studies and reaffirmed the approval in 2002. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) reported in 2006 that the previously established Acceptable daily intake (ADI) was appropriate, after reviewing yet another set of studies.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "Under the brand names Equal, NutraSweet, and Canderel, aspartame is an ingredient in approximately 6,000 consumer foods and beverages sold worldwide, including (but not limited to) diet sodas and other soft drinks, instant breakfasts, breath mints, cereals, sugar-free chewing gum, cocoa mixes, frozen desserts, gelatin desserts, juices, laxatives, chewable vitamin supplements, milk drinks, pharmaceutical drugs and supplements, shake mixes, tabletop sweeteners, teas, instant coffees, topping mixes, wine coolers, and yogurt. It is provided as a table condiment in some countries. Aspartame is less suitable for baking than other sweeteners because it breaks down when heated and loses much of its sweetness.", "title": "Commercial uses" }, { "paragraph_id": 36, "text": "In 1985, Monsanto bought G.D. Searle, and the aspartame business became a separate Monsanto subsidiary, NutraSweet. In March 2000, Monsanto sold it to J.W. Childs Associates Equity Partners II L.P. European use patents on aspartame expired starting in 1987, and the US patent expired in 1992.", "title": "Commercial uses" }, { "paragraph_id": 37, "text": "Many aspects of industrial synthesis of aspartame were established by Ajinomoto. In 2004, the market for aspartame, in which Ajinomoto, the world's largest aspartame manufacturer, had a 40% share, was 14,000 metric tons (15,000 short tons; 14,000 long tons) a year, and consumption of the product was rising by 2% a year. Ajinomoto acquired its aspartame business in 2000 from Monsanto for $67 million (equivalent to $109 million in 2022).", "title": "Commercial uses" }, { "paragraph_id": 38, "text": "In 2007, Asda was the first British supermarket chain to remove all artificial flavourings and colours in its store brand foods. In 2008, Ajinomoto sued Asda, part of Walmart, for a malicious falsehood action concerning its aspartame product when the substance was listed as excluded from the chain's product line, along with other \"nasties\". In July 2009, a British court ruled in favor of Asda. In June 2010, an appeals court reversed the decision, allowing Ajinomoto to pursue a case against Asda to protect aspartame's reputation. Asda said that it would continue to use the term \"no nasties\" on its own-label products, but the suit was settled in 2011 with Asda choosing to remove references to aspartame from its packaging.", "title": "Commercial uses" }, { "paragraph_id": 39, "text": "In November 2009, Ajinomoto announced a new brand name for its aspartame sweetener—AminoSweet.", "title": "Commercial uses" }, { "paragraph_id": 40, "text": "A joint venture of DSM and Tosoh, the Holland Sweetener Company manufactured aspartame using the enzymatic process developed by Toyo Soda (Tosoh) and sold as the brand Sanecta. Additionally, they developed a combination aspartame-acesulfame salt under the brand name Twinsweet. They left the sweetener industry in 2006, because \"global aspartame markets are facing structural oversupply, which has caused worldwide strong price erosion over the last five years\", making the business \"persistently unprofitable\".", "title": "Commercial uses" }, { "paragraph_id": 41, "text": "Because sucralose, unlike aspartame, retains its sweetness after being heated, and has at least twice the shelf life of aspartame, it has become more popular as an ingredient. This, along with differences in marketing and changing consumer preferences, caused aspartame to lose market share to sucralose. In 2004, aspartame traded at about $30 per kilogram ($14/lb) and sucralose, which is roughly three times sweeter by weight, at around $300 per kilogram ($140/lb).", "title": "Commercial uses" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "AutoCAD is a 2D and 3D computer-aided design (CAD) software application for desktop, web, and mobile developed by Autodesk. It was first released in December 1982 for the CP/M and IBM PC platforms as a desktop app running on microcomputers with internal graphics controllers. Initially a DOS application, subsequent versions were later released for other platforms including Classic Mac OS (1992), Microsoft Windows (1992), web browsers (2010), iOS (2010), macOS (2010), and Android (2011).", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "AutoCAD is a general drafting and design application used in industry by architects, project managers, engineers, graphic designers, city planners and other professionals to prepare technical drawings. After discontinuing the sale of perpetual licenses in January 2016, commercial versions of AutoCAD are licensed through a term-based subscription.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Before AutoCAD was introduced, most commercial CAD programs ran on mainframe computers or minicomputers, with each CAD operator (user) working at a separate graphics terminal.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "AutoCAD was derived from a program that began in 1977, and then released in 1979 called Interact CAD, also referred to in early Autodesk documents as MicroCAD, which was written prior to Autodesk's (then Marinchip Software Partners) formation by Autodesk cofounder Michael Riddle.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The first version by Autodesk was demonstrated at the 1982 Comdex and released that December. AutoCAD supported CP/M-80 computers. As Autodesk's flagship product, by March 1986 AutoCAD had become the most ubiquitous CAD program worldwide. The 2022 release marked the 36th major release of AutoCAD for Windows and the 12th consecutive year of AutoCAD for Mac. The native file format of AutoCAD is .dwg. This and, to a lesser extent, its interchange file format DXF, have become de facto, if proprietary, standards for CAD data interoperability, particularly for 2D drawing exchange. AutoCAD has included support for .dwf, a format developed and promoted by Autodesk, for publishing CAD data.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "ESRI ArcMap 10 permits export as AutoCAD drawing files. Civil 3D permits export as AutoCAD objects and as LandXML. Third-party file converters exist for specific formats such as Bentley MX GENIO Extension, PISTE Extension (France), ISYBAU (Germany), OKSTRA and Microdrainage (UK); also, conversion of .pdf files is feasible, however, the accuracy of the results may be unpredictable or distorted. For example, jagged edges may appear. Several vendors provide online conversions for free such as Cometdocs.", "title": "Features" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "AutoCAD and AutoCAD LT are available for English, German, French, Italian, Spanish, Japanese, Korean, Chinese Simplified, Chinese Traditional, Brazilian Portuguese, Russian, Czech, Polish and Hungarian (also through additional language packs). The extent of localization varies from full translation of the product to documentation only. The AutoCAD command set is localized as a part of the software localization.", "title": "Features" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "AutoCAD supports a number of APIs for customization and automation. These include AutoLISP, Visual LISP, VBA, .NET and ObjectARX. ObjectARX is a C++ class library, which was also the base for:", "title": "Features" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "There are a large number of AutoCAD plugins (add-on applications) available on the application store Autodesk Exchange Apps. AutoCAD's DXF, drawing exchange format, allows importing and exporting drawing information.", "title": "Features" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Autodesk has also developed a few vertical programs for discipline-specific enhancements such as:", "title": "Features" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Since AutoCAD 2019 several verticals are included with AutoCAD subscription as Industry-Specific Toolset.", "title": "Features" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "For example, AutoCAD Architecture (formerly Architectural Desktop) permits architectural designers to draw 3D objects, such as walls, doors, and windows, with more intelligent data associated with them rather than simple objects, such as lines and circles. The data can be programmed to represent specific architectural products sold in the construction industry, or extracted into a data file for pricing, materials estimation, and other values related to the objects represented.", "title": "Features" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Additional tools generate standard 2D drawings, such as elevations and sections, from a 3D architectural model. Similarly, Civil Design, Civil Design 3D, and Civil Design Professional support data-specific objects facilitating easy standard civil engineering calculations and representations.", "title": "Features" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "Softdesk Civil was developed as an AutoCAD add-on by a company in New Hampshire called Softdesk (originally DCA). Softdesk was acquired by Autodesk, and Civil became Land Development Desktop (LDD), later renamed Land Desktop. Civil 3D was later developed and Land Desktop was retired.", "title": "Features" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "AutoCAD's native file formats are denoted either by a .dwg, .dwt, .dws, or .dxf filename extension.", "title": "File formats" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "The primary file format for 2D and 3D drawing files created with AutoCAD is .dwg. While other third-party CAD software applications can create .dwg files, AutoCAD uniquely creates RealDWG files.", "title": "File formats" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "Using AutoCAD, any .dwg file may be saved to a derivative format. These derivative formats include:", "title": "File formats" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "AutoCAD LT is the lower-cost version of AutoCAD, with reduced capabilities, first released in November 1993. Autodesk developed AutoCAD LT to have an entry-level CAD package to compete in the lower price level. Priced at $495, it became the first AutoCAD product priced below $1000. It was sold directly by Autodesk and in computer stores unlike the full version of AutoCAD, which must be purchased from official Autodesk dealers. AutoCAD LT 2015 introduced Desktop Subscription service from $360 per year; as of 2018, three subscription plans were available, from $50 a month to a 3-year, $1170 license.", "title": "Variants" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "While there are hundreds of small differences between the full AutoCAD package and AutoCAD LT, there are a few recognized major differences in the software's features:", "title": "Variants" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "AutoCAD Mobile and AutoCAD Web (formerly AutoCAD WS and AutoCAD 360) is an account-based mobile and web application enabling registered users to view, edit, and share AutoCAD files via mobile device and web using a limited AutoCAD feature set — and using cloud-stored drawing files. The program, which is an evolution and combination of previous products, uses a freemium business model with a free plan and two paid levels, including various amounts of storage, tools, and online access to drawings. 360 includes new features such as a \"Smart Pen\" mode and linking to third-party cloud-based storage such as Dropbox. Having evolved from Flash-based software, AutoCAD Web uses HTML5 browser technology available in newer browsers including Firefox and Google Chrome.", "title": "Variants" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "AutoCAD WS began with a version for the iPhone and subsequently expanded to include versions for the iPod Touch, iPad, Android phones, and Android tablets. Autodesk released the iOS version in September 2010, following with the Android version on April 20, 2011. The program is available via download at no cost from the App Store (iOS), Google Play (Android) and Amazon Appstore (Android).", "title": "Variants" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "In its initial iOS version, AutoCAD WS supported drawing of lines, circles, and other shapes; creation of text and comment boxes; and management of color, layer, and measurements — in both landscape and portrait modes. Version 1.3, released August 17, 2011, added support for unit typing, layer visibility, area measurement and file management. The Android variant includes the iOS feature set along with such unique features as the ability to insert text or captions by voice command as well as manually. Both Android and iOS versions allow the user to save files on-line — or off-line in the absence of an Internet connection.", "title": "Variants" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "In 2011, Autodesk announced plans to migrate the majority of its software to \"the cloud\", starting with the AutoCAD WS mobile application.", "title": "Variants" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "According to a 2013 interview with Ilai Rotbaein, an AutoCAD WS product manager for Autodesk, the name AutoCAD WS had no definitive meaning, and was interpreted variously as Autodesk Web Service, White Sheet or Work Space. In 2013, AutoCAD WS was renamed to AutoCAD 360. Later, it was renamed to AutoCAD Web App.", "title": "Variants" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "AutoCAD is licensed, for free, to students, educators, and educational institutions, with a 12-month renewable license available. Licenses acquired before March 25, 2020 were a 36-month license, with its last renovation on March 24, 2020. The student version of AutoCAD is functionally identical to the full commercial version, with one exception: DWG files created or edited by a student version have an internal bit-flag set (the \"educational flag\"). When such a DWG file is printed by any version of AutoCAD (commercial or student) older than AutoCAD 2014 SP1 or AutoCAD 2019 and newer, the output includes a plot stamp/banner on all four sides. Objects created in the Student Version cannot be used for commercial use. Student Version objects \"infect\" a commercial version DWG file if they are imported in versions older than AutoCAD 2015 or newer than AutoCAD 2018.", "title": "Variants" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "AutoCAD Release 12 in 1992 was the first version of the software to support the Windows platform - in that case Windows 3.1. After Release 14 in 1997, support for MS-DOS, Unix and Macintosh were dropped, and AutoCAD was exclusively Windows supported. In general any new AutoCAD version supports the current Windows version and some older ones. AutoCAD 2016 to 2020 support Windows 7 up to Windows 10.", "title": "Ports" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "Autodesk stopped supporting Apple's Macintosh computers in 1994. Over the next several years, no compatible versions for the Mac were released. In 2010 Autodesk announced that it would once again support Apple's Mac OS X software in the future. Most of the features found in the 2012 Windows version can be found in the 2012 Mac version. The main difference is the user interface and layout of the program. The interface is designed so that users who are already familiar with Apple's macOS software will find it similar to other Mac applications. Autodesk has also built-in various features in order to take full advantage of Apple's Trackpad capabilities as well as the full-screen mode in Apple's OS X Lion. AutoCAD 2012 for Mac supports both the editing and saving of files in DWG formatting that will allow the file to be compatible with other platforms besides macOS. AutoCAD 2019 for Mac requires OS X El Capitan or later.", "title": "Ports" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "AutoCAD LT 2013 was available through the Mac App Store for $899.99. The full-featured version of AutoCAD 2013 for Mac, however, wasn't available through the Mac App Store due to the price limit of $999 set by Apple. AutoCAD 2014 for Mac was available for purchase from Autodesk's web site for $4,195 and AutoCAD LT 2014 for Mac for $1,200, or from an Autodesk authorized reseller. The latest version available for Mac is AutoCAD 2022 as of January 2022.", "title": "Ports" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "Open source CAD software:", "title": "See also" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "AutoCAD DXF (Drawing Interchange Format, or Drawing Exchange Format) is a CAD data file format developed by Autodesk for enabling data interoperability between AutoCAD and other programs.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "DXF was introduced in December 1982 as part of AutoCAD 1.0, and was intended to provide an exact representation of the data in the AutoCAD native file format, DWG (Drawing). For many years, Autodesk did not publish specifications, making correct creation of DXF files difficult. Autodesk now publishes the incomplete DXF specifications online.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Versions of AutoCAD from Release 10 (October 1988) and up support both ASCII and binary forms of DXF. Earlier versions support only ASCII.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "As AutoCAD has become more powerful, supporting more complex object types, DXF has become less useful. Certain object types, including ACIS solids and regions, are not documented. Other object types, including AutoCAD 2006's dynamic blocks, and all of the objects specific to the vertical market versions of AutoCAD, are partially documented, but not well enough to allow other developers to support them. For these reasons many CAD applications use the DWG format which can be licensed from Autodesk or non-natively from the Open Design Alliance. DXF files do not specify the units of measurement used for its coordinates and dimensions.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Most CAD systems and many vector graphics packages support the import and export of DXF files, notably Adobe products, Inkscape & Blender. Some CAD systems use DXF as their native format, notably QCAD and LibreCAD.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "ASCII versions of DXF can be read with any text editor. The basic organization of a DXF file is as follows:", "title": "File structure" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "The data format of a DXF is called a \"tagged data\" format, which \"means that each data element in the file is preceded by an integer number that is called a group code. A group code's value indicates what type of data element follows. This value also indicates the meaning of a data element for a given object (or record) type. Virtually all user-specified information in a drawing file can be represented in DXF format.\"", "title": "File structure" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Because DXF is only partially and poorly documented, missing documentation of key functionality like blocks & layouts, consideration is often given to alternative open formats like SVG (an open format defined by the W3C), DWF (an open format defined by Autodesk) or even EPS (ISO/IEC standard 29112:2018). DXF (as well as DWG) is however still a preferred format for CAD files for use by the ISO.", "title": "Criticism" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that does not involve the fusion of gametes or change in the number of chromosomes. The offspring that arise by asexual reproduction from either unicellular or multicellular organisms inherit the full set of genes of their single parent and thus the newly created individual is genetically and physically similar to the parent or an exact clone of the parent. Asexual reproduction is the primary form of reproduction for single-celled organisms such as archaea and bacteria. Many eukaryotic organisms including plants, animals, and fungi can also reproduce asexually. In vertebrates, the most common form of asexual reproduction is parthenogenesis, which is typically used as an alternative to sexual reproduction in times when reproductive opportunities are limited. Komodo dragons and some monitor lizards can reproduce asexually.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "While all prokaryotes reproduce without the formation and fusion of gametes, mechanisms for lateral gene transfer such as conjugation, transformation and transduction can be likened to sexual reproduction in the sense of genetic recombination in meiosis.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Prokaryotes (Archaea and Bacteria) reproduce asexually through binary fission, in which the parent organism divides in two to produce two genetically identical daughter organisms. Eukaryotes (such as protists and unicellular fungi) may reproduce in a functionally similar manner by mitosis; most of these are also capable of sexual reproduction.", "title": "Types of asexual reproduction" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Multiple fission at the cellular level occurs in many protists, e.g. sporozoans and algae. The nucleus of the parent cell divides several times by mitosis, producing several nuclei. The cytoplasm then separates, creating multiple daughter cells.", "title": "Types of asexual reproduction" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "In apicomplexans, multiple fission, or schizogony appears either as merogony, sporogony or gametogony. Merogony results in merozoites, which are multiple daughter cells, that originate within the same cell membrane, sporogony results in sporozoites, and gametogony results in microgametes.", "title": "Types of asexual reproduction" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Some cells divide by budding (for example baker's yeast), resulting in a \"mother\" and a \"daughter\" cell that is initially smaller than the parent. Budding is also known on a multicellular level; an animal example is the hydra, which reproduces by budding. The buds grow into fully matured individuals which eventually break away from the parent organism.", "title": "Types of asexual reproduction" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Internal budding is a process of asexual reproduction, favoured by parasites such as Toxoplasma gondii. It involves an unusual process in which two (endodyogeny) or more (endopolygeny) daughter cells are produced inside a mother cell, which is then consumed by the offspring prior to their separation.", "title": "Types of asexual reproduction" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Also, budding (external or internal) occurs in some worms like Taenia or Echinococcus; these worms produce cysts and then produce (invaginated or evaginated) protoscolex with budding.", "title": "Types of asexual reproduction" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Vegetative propagation is a type of asexual reproduction found in plants where new individuals are formed without the production of seeds or spores and thus without syngamy or meiosis. Examples of vegetative reproduction include the formation of miniaturized plants called plantlets on specialized leaves, for example in kalanchoe (Bryophyllum daigremontianum) and many produce new plants from rhizomes or stolon (for example in strawberry). Some plants reproduce by forming bulbs or tubers, for example tulip bulbs and Dahlia tubers. In these examples, all the individuals are clones, and the clonal population may cover a large area.", "title": "Types of asexual reproduction" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Many multicellular organisms produce spores during their biological life cycle in a process called sporogenesis. Exceptions are animals and some protists, which undergo meiosis immediately followed by fertilization. Plants and many algae on the other hand undergo sporic meiosis where meiosis leads to the formation of haploid spores rather than gametes. These spores grow into multicellular individuals called gametophytes, without a fertilization event. These haploid individuals produce gametes through mitosis. Meiosis and gamete formation therefore occur in separate multicellular generations or \"phases\" of the life cycle, referred to as alternation of generations. Since sexual reproduction is often more narrowly defined as the fusion of gametes (fertilization), spore formation in plant sporophytes and algae might be considered a form of asexual reproduction (agamogenesis) despite being the result of meiosis and undergoing a reduction in ploidy. However, both events (spore formation and fertilization) are necessary to complete sexual reproduction in the plant life cycle.", "title": "Types of asexual reproduction" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Fungi and some algae can also utilize true asexual spore formation, which involves mitosis giving rise to reproductive cells called mitospores that develop into a new organism after dispersal. This method of reproduction is found for example in conidial fungi and the red algae Polysiphonia, and involves sporogenesis without meiosis. Thus the chromosome number of the spore cell is the same as that of the parent producing the spores. However, mitotic sporogenesis is an exception and most spores, such as those of plants and many algae, are produced by meiosis.", "title": "Types of asexual reproduction" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "Fragmentation is a form of asexual reproduction where a new organism grows from a fragment of the parent. Each fragment develops into a mature, fully grown individual. Fragmentation is seen in many organisms. Animals that reproduce asexually include planarians, many annelid worms including polychaetes and some oligochaetes, turbellarians and sea stars. Many fungi and plants reproduce asexually. Some plants have specialized structures for reproduction via fragmentation, such as gemmae in mosses and liverworts. Most lichens, which are a symbiotic union of a fungus and photosynthetic algae or cyanobacteria, reproduce through fragmentation to ensure that new individuals contain both symbionts. These fragments can take the form of soredia, dust-like particles consisting of fungal hyphae wrapped around photobiont cells.", "title": "Types of asexual reproduction" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Clonal Fragmentation in multicellular or colonial organisms is a form of asexual reproduction or cloning where an organism is split into fragments. Each of these fragments develop into mature, fully grown individuals that are clones of the original organism. In echinoderms, this method of reproduction is usually known as fissiparity. Due to many environmental and epigenetic differences, clones originating from the same ancestor might actually be genetically and epigenetically different.", "title": "Types of asexual reproduction" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "Agamogenesis is any form of reproduction that does not involve a male gamete. Examples are parthenogenesis and apomixis.", "title": "Types of asexual reproduction" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "Parthenogenesis is a form of agamogenesis in which an unfertilized egg develops into a new individual. It has been documented in over 2,000 species. Parthenogenesis occurs in the wild in many invertebrates (e.g. water fleas, rotifers, aphids, stick insects, some ants, bees and parasitic wasps) and vertebrates (mostly reptiles, amphibians, and fish). It has also been documented in domestic birds and in genetically altered lab mice. Plants can engage in parthenogenesis as well through a process called apomixis. However this process is considered by many to not be an independent reproduction method, but instead a breakdown of the mechanisms behind sexual reproduction. Parthenogenetic organisms can be split into two main categories: facultative and obligate.", "title": "Types of asexual reproduction" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "In facultative parthenogenesis, females can reproduce both sexually and asexually. Because of the many advantages of sexual reproduction, most facultative parthenotes only reproduce asexually when forced to. This typically occurs in instances when finding a mate becomes difficult. For example, female zebra sharks will reproduce asexually if they are unable to find a mate in their ocean habitats.", "title": "Types of asexual reproduction" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "Parthenogenesis was previously believed to rarely occur in vertebrates, and only be possible in very small animals. However, it has been discovered in many more species in recent years. Today, the largest species that has been documented reproducing parthenogenically is the Komodo dragon at 10 feet long and over 300 pounds.", "title": "Types of asexual reproduction" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "Heterogony is a form of facultative parthenogenesis where females alternate between sexual and asexual reproduction at regular intervals (see Alternation between sexual and asexual reproduction). Aphids are one group of organism that engages in this type of reproduction. They use asexual reproduction to reproduce quickly and create winged offspring that can colonize new plants and reproduce sexually in the fall to lay eggs for the next season. However, some aphid species are obligate parthenotes.", "title": "Types of asexual reproduction" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "In obligate parthenogenesis, females only reproduce asexually. One example of this is the desert grassland whiptail lizard, a hybrid of two other species. Typically hybrids are infertile but through parthenogenesis this species has been able to develop stable populations.", "title": "Types of asexual reproduction" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "Gynogenesis is a form of obligate parthenogenesis where a sperm cell is used to initiate reproduction. However, the sperm's genes never get incorporated into the egg cell. The best known example of this is the Amazon molly. Because they are obligate parthenotes, there are no males in their species so they depend on males from a closely related species (the Sailfin molly) for sperm.", "title": "Types of asexual reproduction" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "Apomixis in plants is the formation of a new sporophyte without fertilization. It is important in ferns and in flowering plants, but is very rare in other seed plants. In flowering plants, the term \"apomixis\" is now most often used for agamospermy, the formation of seeds without fertilization, but was once used to include vegetative reproduction. An example of an apomictic plant would be the triploid European dandelion. Apomixis mainly occurs in two forms: In gametophytic apomixis, the embryo arises from an unfertilized egg within a diploid embryo sac that was formed without completing meiosis. In nucellar embryony, the embryo is formed from the diploid nucellus tissue surrounding the embryo sac. Nucellar embryony occurs in some citrus seeds. Male apomixis can occur in rare cases, such as in the Saharan Cypress Cupressus dupreziana, where the genetic material of the embryo is derived entirely from pollen.", "title": "Types of asexual reproduction" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "Some species can alternate between sexual and asexual strategies, an ability known as heterogamy, depending on many conditions. Alternation is observed in several rotifer species (cyclical parthenogenesis e.g. in Brachionus species) and a few types of insects.", "title": "Alternation between sexual and asexual reproduction" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "One example of this is aphids which can engage in heterogony. In this system, females are born pregnant and produce only female offspring. This cycle allows them to reproduce very quickly. However, most species reproduce sexually once a year. This switch is triggered by environmental changes in the fall and causes females to develop eggs instead of embryos. This dynamic reproductive cycle allows them to produce specialized offspring with polyphenism, a type of polymorphism where different phenotypes have evolved to carry out specific tasks.", "title": "Alternation between sexual and asexual reproduction" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "The cape bee Apis mellifera subsp. capensis can reproduce asexually through a process called thelytoky. The freshwater crustacean Daphnia reproduces by parthenogenesis in the spring to rapidly populate ponds, then switches to sexual reproduction as the intensity of competition and predation increases. Monogonont rotifers of the genus Brachionus reproduce via cyclical parthenogenesis: at low population densities females produce asexually and at higher densities a chemical cue accumulates and induces the transition to sexual reproduction. Many protists and fungi alternate between sexual and asexual reproduction. A few species of amphibians, reptiles, and birds have a similar ability.", "title": "Alternation between sexual and asexual reproduction" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "The slime mold Dictyostelium undergoes binary fission (mitosis) as single-celled amoebae under favorable conditions. However, when conditions turn unfavorable, the cells aggregate and follow one of two different developmental pathways, depending on conditions. In the social pathway, they form a multi-cellular slug which then forms a fruiting body with asexually generated spores. In the sexual pathway, two cells fuse to form a giant cell that develops into a large cyst. When this macrocyst germinates, it releases hundreds of amoebic cells that are the product of meiotic recombination between the original two cells.", "title": "Alternation between sexual and asexual reproduction" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "The hyphae of the common mold (Rhizopus) are capable of producing both mitotic as well as meiotic spores. Many algae similarly switch between sexual and asexual reproduction. A number of plants use both sexual and asexual means to produce new plants, some species alter their primary modes of reproduction from sexual to asexual under varying environmental conditions.", "title": "Alternation between sexual and asexual reproduction" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "In the rotifer Brachionus calyciflorus asexual reproduction (obligate parthenogenesis) can be inherited by a recessive allele, which leads to loss of sexual reproduction in homozygous offspring. Inheritance of asexual reproduction by a single recessive locus has also been found in the parasitoid wasp Lysiphlebus fabarum.", "title": "Inheritance in asexual species" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "Asexual reproduction is found in nearly half of the animal phyla. Parthenogenesis occurs in the hammerhead shark and the blacktip shark. In both cases, the sharks had reached sexual maturity in captivity in the absence of males, and in both cases the offspring were shown to be genetically identical to the mothers. The New Mexico whiptail is another example.", "title": "Examples in animals" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "Some reptiles use the ZW sex-determination system, which produces either males (with ZZ sex chromosomes) or females (with ZW or WW sex chromosomes). Until 2010, it was thought that the ZW chromosome system used by reptiles was incapable of producing viable WW offspring, but a (ZW) female boa constrictor was discovered to have produced viable female offspring with WW chromosomes. The female boa could have chosen any number of male partners (and had successfully in the past) but on this occasion she reproduced asexually, creating 22 female babies with WW sex-chromosomes.", "title": "Examples in animals" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "Polyembryony is a widespread form of asexual reproduction in animals, whereby the fertilized egg or a later stage of embryonic development splits to form genetically identical clones. Within animals, this phenomenon has been best studied in the parasitic Hymenoptera. In the nine-banded armadillos, this process is obligatory and usually gives rise to genetically identical quadruplets. In other mammals, monozygotic twinning has no apparent genetic basis, though its occurrence is common. There are at least 10 million identical human twins and triplets in the world today.", "title": "Examples in animals" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "Bdelloid rotifers reproduce exclusively asexually, and all individuals in the class Bdelloidea are females. Asexuality evolved in these animals millions of years ago and has persisted since. There is evidence to suggest that asexual reproduction has allowed the animals to evolve new proteins through the Meselson effect that have allowed them to survive better in periods of dehydration. Bdelloid rotifers are extraordinarily resistant to damage from ionizing radiation due to the same DNA-preserving adaptations used to survive dormancy. These adaptations include an extremely efficient mechanism for repairing DNA double-strand breaks. This repair mechanism was studied in two Bdelloidea species, Adineta vaga, and Philodina roseola. and appears to involve mitotic recombination between homologous DNA regions within each species.", "title": "Examples in animals" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "Molecular evidence strongly suggests that several species of the stick insect genus Timema have used only asexual (parthenogenetic) reproduction for millions of years, the longest period known for any insect. Similar findings suggest that the mite species Oppiella nova may have reproduced entirely asexually for millions of years.", "title": "Examples in animals" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "In the grass thrips genus Aptinothrips there have been several transitions to asexuality, likely due to different causes.", "title": "Examples in animals" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "A complete lack of sexual reproduction is relatively rare among multicellular organisms, particularly animals. It is not entirely understood why the ability to reproduce sexually is so common among them. Current hypotheses suggest that asexual reproduction may have short term benefits when rapid population growth is important or in stable environments, while sexual reproduction offers a net advantage by allowing more rapid generation of genetic diversity, allowing adaptation to changing environments. Developmental constraints may underlie why few animals have relinquished sexual reproduction completely in their life-cycles. Almost all asexual modes of reproduction maintain meiosis either in a modified form or as an alternative pathway. Facultatively apomictic plants increase frequencies of sexuality relative to apomixis after abiotic stress. Another constraint on switching from sexual to asexual reproduction would be the concomitant loss of meiosis and the protective recombinational repair of DNA damage afforded as one function of meiosis.", "title": "Adaptive significance of asexual reproduction" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Aelbert Jacobszoon Cuyp or Cuijp (Dutch pronunciation: [ˈaːlbər ˈcaːkɔbzoːŋ ˈkœyp]; 20 October 1620 – 15 November 1691) was one of the leading Dutch Golden Age painters, producing mainly landscapes. The most famous of a family of painters, the pupil of his father, Jacob Gerritszoon Cuyp (1594–1651/52), he is especially known for his large views of Dutch riverside scenes in a golden early morning or late afternoon light. He was born and died in Dordrecht.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Known as the Dutch equivalent of Claude Lorrain, he inherited a considerable fortune. His family were all artists, with his uncle Benjamin and grandfather Gerrit being stained glass cartoon designers. Jacob Gerritszoon Cuyp, his father, was a portraitist. Cuyp's father was his first teacher and they collaborated on many paintings throughout his lifetime.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Little is known about Aelbert Cuyp's life. Even Arnold Houbraken, a noted historian of Dutch Golden Age paintings and the sole authority on Cuyp for the hundred years following his death, paints a very thin biographical picture.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "His period of activity as a painter is traditionally limited to the two decades between 1639 and 1660, fitting within the generally accepted limits of the Dutch Golden Age's most significant period, 1640–1665. He is known to have been married to Cornelia Bosman in 1658, a date coinciding so directly with the end of his productivity as a painter that it has been accepted that his marriage played a role in the end of his artistic career.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The year after his marriage, Cuyp became the deacon of the reformed church. Houbraken recalled that Cuyp was a devout Calvinist and the fact that when he died, there were no paintings of other artists found in his home.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The development of Cuyp, who was trained as a landscape painter, may be roughly sketched in three phases based on the painters who most influenced him during that time and the subsequent artistic characteristics that are apparent in his paintings. Generally, Cuyp learned tone from the exceptionally prolific Jan van Goyen, light from Jan Both and form from his father, Jacob Gerritsz Cuyp.", "title": "Style" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Cuyp's \"van Goyen phase\" can be placed approximately in the early 1640s. Cuyp probably first encountered a painting by van Goyen in 1640 when van Goyen was, as Stephen Reiss points, out \"at the height of [his] powers\". This is noticeable in the comparison between two of Cuyp's landscape paintings inscribed 1639 where no properly formed style is apparent and the landscape backgrounds he painted two years later for two of his father's group portraits that are distinctly van Goyenesque. Cuyp took from van Goyen the straw yellow and light brown tones that are so apparent in his Dunes (1629) and the broken brush technique also very noticeable in that same work. This technique, a precursor to impressionism, is noted for the short brush strokes where the colors are not necessarily blended smoothly. In Cuyp's River Scene, Two Men Conversing (1641) both of these van Goyen-influenced stylistic elements are noticeable.", "title": "Style" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "The next phase in the development of Cuyp's increasingly amalgamated style is due to the influence of Jan Both. In the mid-1640s Both, a native and resident of Utrecht, had just returned to his hometown from a trip to Rome. It is around this same time that Cuyp's style changed fundamentally. In Rome, Both had developed a new style of composition due, at least in part, to his interaction with Claude Lorrain. This new style was focused on changing the direction of light in the painting. Instead of the light being placed at right angles in relation to the line of vision, Both started moving it to a diagonal position from the back of the picture.", "title": "Style" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "In this new form of lighting, the artist (and viewer of the painting) faced the sun more or less contre-jour. Both, and subsequently Cuyp, used the advantages of this new lighting style to alter the sense of depth and luminosity possible in a painting. To make notice of these new capabilities, much use was made of elongated shadows. Cuyp was one of the first Dutch painters to appreciate this new leap forward in style and while his own Both-inspired phase was quite short (limited to the mid-1640s) he did, more than any other contemporary Dutch artist, maximize the full chromatic scale for sunsets and sunrises.", "title": "Style" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Cuyp's third stylistic phase (which occurred throughout his career) is based on the influence of his father. While it is assumed that the younger Cuyp did work with his father initially to develop rudimentary talents, Aelbert became more focused on landscape paintings while Jacob was a portrait painter by profession. As has been mentioned and as will be explained in depth below, there are pieces where Aelbert provided the landscape background for his father's portraits. What is meant by stating that Aelbert learned from his father is that his eventual transition from a specifically landscape painter to the involvement of foreground figures is attributed to his interaction with his father Jacob. The evidence for Aelbert's evolution to foreground figure painter is in the production of some paintings from 1645 to 1650 featuring foreground animals that do not fit with Jacob's style. Adding to the confusion regarding Aelbert's stylistic development and the problem of attribution is of course the fact that Jacob's style was not stagnant either. Their converging styles make it difficult to exactly understand the influences each had on the other, although it is clear enough to say that Aelbert started representing large scale forms (something he had not done previously) and placing animals as the focus of his paintings (something that was specific to him).", "title": "Style" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Sunlight in his paintings rakes across the panel, accentuating small bits of detail in the golden light. In large, atmospheric panoramas of the countryside, the highlights on a blade of meadow grass, the mane of a tranquil horse, the horn of a dairy cow reclining by a stream, or the tip of a peasant's hat are all caught in a bath of yellow ocher light. The richly varnished medium refracts the rays of light like a jewel as it dissolves into numerous glazed layers. Cuyp's landscapes were based on reality and on his own invention of what an enchanting landscape should be.", "title": "Paintings" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "Cuyp's drawings reveal him to be a draftsman of superior quality. Light-drenched washes of golden brown ink depict a distant view of the city of Dordrecht or Utrecht.", "title": "Paintings" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "A Cuyp drawing may look like he intended it to be a finished work of art, but it was most likely taken back to the studio and used as a reference for his paintings. Often the same section of a sketch can be found in several different pictures.", "title": "Paintings" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "Cuyp signed many of his works but rarely dated them, so that a chronology of his career has not been satisfactorily reassembled. A phenomenal number of paintings are ascribed to him, some of which are likely to be by other masters of the golden landscape, such as Abraham Calraet (1642–1722), whose initials A.C. may be mistaken for Cuyp's.", "title": "Paintings" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "However, not everyone appreciates his work and River Landscape (1660), despite being widely regarded as amongst his best work, has been described as having \"chocolate box blandness\".", "title": "Paintings" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "At the Madrid's Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum most likely, the sole Cuyp's painting in Spanish public collections can be seen, a Landscape with a sunset ca. 1655 with animals.", "title": "Paintings" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "In addition to the scarcely documented and confirmed biography of Cuyp's life, and even more so than his amalgamated style from his three main influences, there are yet other factors that have led to the misattribution and confusion over Aelbert Cuyp's works for hundreds of years. His highly influenced style which incorporated Italianate lighting from Jan Both, broken brush technique and atonality from Jan van Goyen, and his ever-developing style from his father Jacob Gerritsz Cuyp was studied acutely by his most prominent follower, Abraham van Calraet. Calraet mimicked Cuyp's style, incorporating the same aspects, and produced similar landscapes to that of the latter. This made it quite difficult to tell whose paintings were whose. Adding to the confusion is the similar initials between the two and the inconsistent signing of paintings which were produced by Cuyp's studio.", "title": "Misattribution of paintings" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "Although Aelbert Cuyp signed many of his paintings with a script \"A. Cuyp\" insignia, many paintings were left unsigned (not to mention undated) after being painted, and so a similar signature was added later on, presumably by collectors who inherited or discovered the works. Furthermore, many possible Cuyp paintings were not signed but rather initialed \"A. C.\" referring to his name. However, Abraham van Calraet could also have used the same initials to denote a painting. Although this is unlikely (as Calraet would likely have signed his paintings \"A. v.C.\"), this brings up the question of how paintings were signed to show ownership. Most original Cuyp paintings were signed by him, and in the script manner in which his name was inscribed. This would denote that the painting was done almost entirely by him. Conversely, paintings which came out of his workshop that were not necessarily physically worked on by Cuyp but merely overseen by him technically, were marked with A.C. to show that it was his instruction which saw the paintings' completion. Cuyp's pupils and assistants often worked on paintings in his studio, and so most of the work of a painting could be done without Cuyp ever touching the canvas, but merely approving its finality. Hence, the initialed inscription rather than a signature.", "title": "Misattribution of paintings" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "Common among the mislabeled works are all of the reasons identified for misattributing Cuyp's works: the lack of biography and chronology of his works made it difficult to discern when paintings were created (making it difficult to pinpoint an artist); contentious signatures added to historians' confusion as to who actually painted the works; and the collaborations and influences by different painters makes it hard to justify that a painting is genuinely that of Aelbert Cuyp; and finally, accurate identification is made extremely difficult by the fact that this same style was copied (rather accurately) by his predecessor. As it turns out, even the historians and expert researchers have been fooled and forced to reassess their conclusions over \"Cuyp's\" paintings over the years.", "title": "Misattribution of paintings" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "After he married Cornelia Boschman in 1658, the number of works produced by him declined almost to nothing. This may have been because his wife was a very religious woman and a not very big patron of the arts. It could also be that he became more active in the church under his wife's guidance. He was also active as deacon and elder of the Reformed Church.", "title": "Later life" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "Though long lacking a modern biography, and with the chronology of his works rather unclear, his style emerged from various influences and makes his works distinctive, although his collaborations with his father and works by his imitators often make attributions uncertain. His follower Abraham van Calraet represents a particular problem, and the signatures on paintings are not to be relied on. The Rijksmuseum has reattributed many works to other painters; Abraham van Calraet does not even appear in a Museum catalogue until 1926, and even then he was not given his own entry.", "title": "Legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "Media related to Aelbert Cuyp at Wikimedia Commons", "title": "External links" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "In organic chemistry, an alkene is a hydrocarbon containing a carbon–carbon double bond. The double bond may be internal or in the terminal position. Terminal alkenes are also known as α-olefins.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) recommends using the name \"alkene\" only for acyclic hydrocarbons with just one double bond; alkadiene, alkatriene, etc., or polyene for acyclic hydrocarbons with two or more double bonds; cycloalkene, cycloalkadiene, etc. for cyclic ones; and \"olefin\" for the general class – cyclic or acyclic, with one or more double bonds.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Acyclic alkenes, with only one double bond and no other functional groups (also known as mono-enes) form a homologous series of hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n with n being a >1 natural number (which is two hydrogens less than the corresponding alkane). When n is four or more, isomers are possible, distinguished by the position and conformation of the double bond.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Alkenes are generally colorless non-polar compounds, somewhat similar to alkanes but more reactive. The first few members of the series are gases or liquids at room temperature. The simplest alkene, ethylene (C2H4) (or \"ethene\" in the IUPAC nomenclature) is the organic compound produced on the largest scale industrially.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Aromatic compounds are often drawn as cyclic alkenes, however their structure and properties are sufficiently distinct that they are not classified as alkenes or olefins. Hydrocarbons with two overlapping double bonds (C=C=C) are called allenes—the simplest such compound is itself called allene—and those with three or more overlapping bonds (C=C=C=C, C=C=C=C=C, etc.) are called cumulenes.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Alkenes having four or more carbon atoms can form diverse structural isomers. Most alkenes are also isomers of cycloalkanes. Acyclic alkene structural isomers with only one double bond follow:", "title": "Structural isomerism" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Many of these molecules exhibit cis–trans isomerism. There may also be chiral carbon atoms particularly within the larger molecules (from C5). The number of potential isomers increases rapidly with additional carbon atoms.", "title": "Structural isomerism" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "A carbon–carbon double bond consists of a sigma bond and a pi bond. This double bond is stronger than a single covalent bond (611 kJ/mol for C=C vs. 347 kJ/mol for C–C), but not twice as strong. Double bonds are shorter than single bonds with an average bond length of 1.33 Å (133 pm) vs 1.53 Å for a typical C-C single bond.", "title": "Structure and bonding" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Each carbon atom of the double bond uses its three sp hybrid orbitals to form sigma bonds to three atoms (the other carbon atom and two hydrogen atoms). The unhybridized 2p atomic orbitals, which lie perpendicular to the plane created by the axes of the three sp hybrid orbitals, combine to form the pi bond. This bond lies outside the main C–C axis, with half of the bond on one side of the molecule and a half on the other. With a strength of 65 kcal/mol, the pi bond is significantly weaker than the sigma bond.", "title": "Structure and bonding" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Rotation about the carbon–carbon double bond is restricted because it incurs an energetic cost to break the alignment of the p orbitals on the two carbon atoms. Consequently cis or trans isomers interconvert so slowly that they can be freely handled at ambient conditions without isomerization. More complex alkenes may be named with the E–Z notation for molecules with three or four different substituents (side groups). For example, of the isomers of butene, the two methyl groups of (Z)-but-2-ene (a.k.a. cis-2-butene) appear on the same side of the double bond, and in (E)-but-2-ene (a.k.a. trans-2-butene) the methyl groups appear on opposite sides. These two isomers of butene have distinct properties.", "title": "Structure and bonding" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "As predicted by the VSEPR model of electron pair repulsion, the molecular geometry of alkenes includes bond angles about each carbon atom in a double bond of about 120°. The angle may vary because of steric strain introduced by nonbonded interactions between functional groups attached to the carbon atoms of the double bond. For example, the C–C–C bond angle in propylene is 123.9°.", "title": "Structure and bonding" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "For bridged alkenes, Bredt's rule states that a double bond cannot occur at the bridgehead of a bridged ring system unless the rings are large enough. Following Fawcett and defining S as the total number of non-bridgehead atoms in the rings, bicyclic systems require S ≥ 7 for stability and tricyclic systems require S ≥ 11.", "title": "Structure and bonding" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "In organic chemistry,the prefixes cis- and trans- are used to describe the positions of functional groups attached to carbon atoms joined by a double bond. In Latin, cis and trans mean \"on this side of\" and \"on the other side of\" respectively. Therefore, if the functional groups are both on the same side of the carbon chain, the bond is said to have cis- configuration, otherwise (i.e. the functional groups are on the opposite side of the carbon chain), the bond is said to have trans- configuration.", "title": "Structure and bonding" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "For there to be cis- and trans- configurations, there must be a carbon chain, or at least one functional group attached to each carbon is the same for both. E- and Z- configuration can be used instead in a more general case where all four functional groups attached to carbon atoms in a double bond are different. E- and Z- are abbreviations of German words zusammen (together) and entgegen (opposite). In E- and Z-isomerism, each functional group is assigned a priority based on the Cahn–Ingold–Prelog priority rules. If the two groups with higher priority are on the same side of the double bond, the bond is assigned Z- configuration, otherwise (i.e. the two groups with higher priority are on the opposite side of the double bond), the bond is assigned E- configuration. Cis- and trans- configurations do not have a fixed relationship with E- and Z-configurations.", "title": "Structure and bonding" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "Many of the physical properties of alkenes and alkanes are similar: they are colorless, nonpolar, and combustible. The physical state depends on molecular mass: like the corresponding saturated hydrocarbons, the simplest alkenes (ethylene, propylene, and butene) are gases at room temperature. Linear alkenes of approximately five to sixteen carbon atoms are liquids, and higher alkenes are waxy solids. The melting point of the solids also increases with increase in molecular mass.", "title": "Physical properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "Alkenes generally have stronger smells than their corresponding alkanes. Ethylene has a sweet and musty odor. Strained alkenes, in particular, like norbornene and trans-cyclooctene are known to have strong, unpleasant odors, a fact consistent with the stronger π complexes they form with metal ions including copper.", "title": "Physical properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "Below is a list of the boiling and melting points of various alkenes with the corresponding alkane and alkyne analogues.", "title": "Physical properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "The stretching of C=C bond will give an IR absorption peak at 1670–1600 cm, while the bending of C=C bond absorbs between 1000 and 650 cm wavelength.", "title": "Physical properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "In H NMR spectroscopy, the hydrogen bonded to the carbon adjacent to double bonds will give a δH of 4.5–6.5 ppm. The double bond will also deshield the hydrogen attached to the carbons adjacent to sp carbons, and this generates δH=1.6–2. ppm peaks. Cis/trans isomers are distinguishable due to different J-coupling effect. Cis vicinal hydrogens will have coupling constants in the range of 6–14 Hz, whereas the trans will have coupling constants of 11–18 Hz.", "title": "Physical properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "In their C NMR spectra of alkenes, double bonds also deshield the carbons, making them have low field shift. C=C double bonds usually have chemical shift of about 100–170 ppm.", "title": "Physical properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "Like most other hydrocarbons, alkenes combust to give carbon dioxide and water.", "title": "Physical properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "The combustion of alkenes release less energy than burning same molarity of saturated ones with same number of carbons. This trend can be clearly seen in the list of standard enthalpy of combustion of hydrocarbons.", "title": "Physical properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "Alkenes are relatively stable compounds, but are more reactive than alkanes. Most reactions of alkenes involve additions to this pi bond, forming new single bonds. Alkenes serve as a feedstock for the petrochemical industry because they can participate in a wide variety of reactions, prominently polymerization and alkylation. Except for ethylene, alkenes have two sites of reactivity: the carbon–carbon pi-bond and the presence of allylic CH centers. The former dominates but the allylic sites are important too.", "title": "Reactions" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "Hydrogenation involves the addition of H2 resulting in an alkane. The equation of hydrogenation of ethylene to form ethane is:", "title": "Reactions" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "Hydrogenation reactions usually require catalysts to increase their reaction rate. The total number of hydrogens that can be added to an unsaturated hydrocarbon depends on its degree of unsaturation.", "title": "Reactions" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "Similar to hydrogen, halogens added to double bonds.", "title": "Reactions" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "Halonium ions are intermediates. These reactions do not require catalysts.", "title": "Reactions" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "Bromine test is used to test the saturation of hydrocarbons. The bromine test can also be used as an indication of the degree of unsaturation for unsaturated hydrocarbons. Bromine number is defined as gram of bromine able to react with 100g of product. Similar as hydrogenation, the halogenation of bromine is also depend on the number of π bond. A higher bromine number indicates higher degree of unsaturation.", "title": "Reactions" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "The π bonds of alkenes hydrocarbons are also susceptible to hydration. The reaction usually involves strong acid as catalyst. The first step in hydration often involves formation of a carbocation. The net result of the reaction will be an alcohol. The reaction equation for hydration of ethylene is:", "title": "Reactions" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "Hydrohalogenation involves addition of H−X to unsaturated hydrocarbons. This reaction results in new C−H and C−X σ bonds. The formation of the intermediate carbocation is selective and follows Markovnikov's rule. The hydrohalogenation of alkene will result in haloalkane. The reaction equation of HBr addition to ethylene is:", "title": "Reactions" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "Alkenes add to dienes to give cyclohexenes. This conversion is an example of a Diels-Alder reaction. Such reaction proceed with retention of stereochemistry. The rates are sensitive to electron-withdrawing or electron-donating substituents. When irradiated by UV-light, alkenes dimerize to give cyclobutanes. Another example is the Schenck ene reaction, in which singlet oxygen reacts with an allylic structure to give a transposed allyl peroxide:", "title": "Reactions" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "Alkenes react with percarboxylic acids and even hydrogen peroxide to yield epoxides:", "title": "Reactions" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "For ethylene, the epoxidation is conducted on a very large scale industrially using oxygen in the presence of silver-based catalysts:", "title": "Reactions" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "Alkenes react with ozone, leading to the scission of the double bond. The process is called ozonolysis. Often the reaction procedure includes a mild reductant, such as dimethylsulfide (SMe2):", "title": "Reactions" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "When treated with a hot concentrated, acidified solution of KMnO4, alkenes are cleaved to form ketones and/or carboxylic acids. The stoichiometry of the reaction is sensitive to conditions. This reaction and the ozonolysis can be used to determine the position of a double bond in an unknown alkene.", "title": "Reactions" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "The oxidation can be stopped at the vicinal diol rather than full cleavage of the alkene by using osmium tetroxide or other oxidants:", "title": "Reactions" }, { "paragraph_id": 36, "text": "This reaction is called dihydroxylation.", "title": "Reactions" }, { "paragraph_id": 37, "text": "In the presence of an appropriate photosensitiser, such as methylene blue and light, alkenes can undergo reaction with reactive oxygen species generated by the photosensitiser, such as hydroxyl radicals, singlet oxygen or superoxide ion. Reactions of the excited sensitizer can involve electron or hydrogen transfer, usually with a reducing substrate (Type I reaction) or interaction with oxygen (Type II reaction). These various alternative processes and reactions can be controlled by choice of specific reaction conditions, leading to a wide range of products. A common example is the [4+2]-cycloaddition of singlet oxygen with a diene such as cyclopentadiene to yield an endoperoxide:", "title": "Reactions" }, { "paragraph_id": 38, "text": "Terminal alkenes are precursors to polymers via processes termed polymerization. Some polymerizations are of great economic significance, as they generate the plastics polyethylene and polypropylene. Polymers from alkene are usually referred to as polyolefins although they contain no olefins. Polymerization can proceed via diverse mechanisms. Conjugated dienes such as buta-1,3-diene and isoprene (2-methylbuta-1,3-diene) also produce polymers, one example being natural rubber.", "title": "Reactions" }, { "paragraph_id": 39, "text": "The presence of a C=C π bond in unsaturated hydrocarbons weakens the dissociation energy of the allylic C−H bonds. Thus, these groupings are susceptible to free radical substitution at these C-H sites as well as addition reactions at the C=C site. In the presence of radical initiators, allylic C-H bonds can be halogenated. The presence of two C=C bonds flanking one methylene, i.e., doubly allylic, results in particularly weak HC-H bonds. The high reactivity of these situations is the basis for certain free radical reactions, manifested in the chemistry of drying oils.", "title": "Reactions" }, { "paragraph_id": 40, "text": "Alkenes undergo olefin metathesis, which cleaves and interchanges the substituents of the alkene. A related reaction is ethenolysis:", "title": "Reactions" }, { "paragraph_id": 41, "text": "In transition metal alkene complexes, alkenes serve as ligands for metals. In this case, the π electron density is donated to the metal d orbitals. The stronger the donation is, the stronger the back bonding from the metal d orbital to π* anti-bonding orbital of the alkene. This effect lowers the bond order of the alkene and increases the C-C bond length. One example is the complex PtCl3(C2H4)]. These complexes are related to the mechanisms of metal-catalyzed reactions of unsaturated hydrocarbons.", "title": "Reactions" }, { "paragraph_id": 42, "text": "Alkenes are produced by hydrocarbon cracking. Raw materials are mostly natural gas condensate components (principally ethane and propane) in the US and Mideast and naphtha in Europe and Asia. Alkanes are broken apart at high temperatures, often in the presence of a zeolite catalyst, to produce a mixture of primarily aliphatic alkenes and lower molecular weight alkanes. The mixture is feedstock and temperature dependent, and separated by fractional distillation. This is mainly used for the manufacture of small alkenes (up to six carbons).", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 43, "text": "Related to this is catalytic dehydrogenation, where an alkane loses hydrogen at high temperatures to produce a corresponding alkene. This is the reverse of the catalytic hydrogenation of alkenes.", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 44, "text": "This process is also known as reforming. Both processes are endothermic and are driven towards the alkene at high temperatures by entropy.", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 45, "text": "Catalytic synthesis of higher α-alkenes (of the type RCH=CH2) can also be achieved by a reaction of ethylene with the organometallic compound triethylaluminium in the presence of nickel, cobalt, or platinum.", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 46, "text": "One of the principal methods for alkene synthesis in the laboratory is the elimination reaction of alkyl halides, alcohols, and similar compounds. Most common is the β-elimination via the E2 or E1 mechanism. A commercially significant example is the production of vinyl chloride.", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 47, "text": "The E2 mechanism provides a more reliable β-elimination method than E1 for most alkene syntheses. Most E2 eliminations start with an alkyl halide or alkyl sulfonate ester (such as a tosylate or triflate). When an alkyl halide is used, the reaction is called a dehydrohalogenation. For unsymmetrical products, the more substituted alkenes (those with fewer hydrogens attached to the C=C) tend to predominate (see Zaitsev's rule). Two common methods of elimination reactions are dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halides and dehydration of alcohols. A typical example is shown below; note that if possible, the H is anti to the leaving group, even though this leads to the less stable Z-isomer.", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 48, "text": "Alkenes can be synthesized from alcohols via dehydration, in which case water is lost via the E1 mechanism. For example, the dehydration of ethanol produces ethylene:", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 49, "text": "An alcohol may also be converted to a better leaving group (e.g., xanthate), so as to allow a milder syn-elimination such as the Chugaev elimination and the Grieco elimination. Related reactions include eliminations by β-haloethers (the Boord olefin synthesis) and esters (ester pyrolysis). Diphosphorus tetraiodide will deoxygenate glycols to alkenes.", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 50, "text": "Alkenes can be prepared indirectly from alkyl amines. The amine or ammonia is not a suitable leaving group, so the amine is first either alkylated (as in the Hofmann elimination) or oxidized to an amine oxide (the Cope reaction) to render a smooth elimination possible. The Cope reaction is a syn-elimination that occurs at or below 150 °C, for example:", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 51, "text": "The Hofmann elimination is unusual in that the less substituted (non-Zaitsev) alkene is usually the major product.", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 52, "text": "Alkenes are generated from α-halosulfones in the Ramberg–Bäcklund reaction, via a three-membered ring sulfone intermediate.", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 53, "text": "Another important class of methods for alkene synthesis involves construction of a new carbon–carbon double bond by coupling or condensation of a carbonyl compound (such as an aldehyde or ketone) to a carbanion or its equivalent. Pre-eminent is the aldol condensation. Knoevenagel condensations are a related class of reactions that convert carbonyls into alkenes.Well-known methods are called olefinations. The Wittig reaction is illustrative, but other related methods are known, including the Horner–Wadsworth–Emmons reaction.", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 54, "text": "The Wittig reaction involves reaction of an aldehyde or ketone with a Wittig reagent (or phosphorane) of the type Ph3P=CHR to produce an alkene and Ph3P=O. The Wittig reagent is itself prepared easily from triphenylphosphine and an alkyl halide.", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 55, "text": "Related to the Wittig reaction is the Peterson olefination, which uses silicon-based reagents in place of the phosphorane. This reaction allows for the selection of E- or Z-products. If an E-product is desired, another alternative is the Julia olefination, which uses the carbanion generated from a phenyl sulfone. The Takai olefination based on an organochromium intermediate also delivers E-products. A titanium compound, Tebbe's reagent, is useful for the synthesis of methylene compounds; in this case, even esters and amides react.", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 56, "text": "A pair of ketones or aldehydes can be deoxygenated to generate an alkene. Symmetrical alkenes can be prepared from a single aldehyde or ketone coupling with itself, using titanium metal reduction (the McMurry reaction). If different ketones are to be coupled, a more complicated method is required, such as the Barton–Kellogg reaction.", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 57, "text": "A single ketone can also be converted to the corresponding alkene via its tosylhydrazone, using sodium methoxide (the Bamford–Stevens reaction) or an alkyllithium (the Shapiro reaction).", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 58, "text": "The formation of longer alkenes via the step-wise polymerisation of smaller ones is appealing, as ethylene (the smallest alkene) is both inexpensive and readily available, with hundreds of millions of tonnes produced annually. The Ziegler–Natta process allows for the formation of very long chains, for instance those used for polyethylene. Where shorter chains are wanted, as they for the production of surfactants, then processes incorporating a olefin metathesis step, such as the Shell higher olefin process are important.", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 59, "text": "Olefin metathesis is also used commercially for the interconversion of ethylene and 2-butene to propylene. Rhenium- and molybdenum-containing heterogeneous catalysis are used in this process:", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 60, "text": "Transition metal catalyzed hydrovinylation is another important alkene synthesis process starting from alkene itself. It involves the addition of a hydrogen and a vinyl group (or an alkenyl group) across a double bond.", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 61, "text": "Reduction of alkynes is a useful method for the stereoselective synthesis of disubstituted alkenes. If the cis-alkene is desired, hydrogenation in the presence of Lindlar's catalyst (a heterogeneous catalyst that consists of palladium deposited on calcium carbonate and treated with various forms of lead) is commonly used, though hydroboration followed by hydrolysis provides an alternative approach. Reduction of the alkyne by sodium metal in liquid ammonia gives the trans-alkene.", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 62, "text": "For the preparation multisubstituted alkenes, carbometalation of alkynes can give rise to a large variety of alkene derivatives.", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 63, "text": "Alkenes can be synthesized from other alkenes via rearrangement reactions. Besides olefin metathesis (described above), many pericyclic reactions can be used such as the ene reaction and the Cope rearrangement.", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 64, "text": "In the Diels–Alder reaction, a cyclohexene derivative is prepared from a diene and a reactive or electron-deficient alkene.", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 65, "text": "", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 66, "text": "Unsaturated hydrocarbons are widely used to produce plastics, medicines, and other useful materials.", "title": "Application" }, { "paragraph_id": 67, "text": "Alkenes are pervasive in nature. Plants are the main natural source of alkenes in the form of terpenes. Many of the most vivid natural pigments are terpenes; e.g. lycopene (red in tomatoes), carotene (orange in carrots), and xanthophylls (yellow in egg yolk). The simplest of all alkenes, ethylene is a signaling molecule that influences the ripening of plants.", "title": "Natural occurrence" }, { "paragraph_id": 68, "text": "Although the nomenclature is not followed widely, according to IUPAC, an alkene is an acyclic hydrocarbon with just one double bond between carbon atoms. Olefins comprise a larger collection of cyclic and acyclic alkenes as well as dienes and polyenes.", "title": "IUPAC Nomenclature" }, { "paragraph_id": 69, "text": "To form the root of the IUPAC names for straight-chain alkenes, change the -an- infix of the parent to -en-. For example, CH3-CH3 is the alkane ethANe. The name of CH2=CH2 is therefore ethENe.", "title": "IUPAC Nomenclature" }, { "paragraph_id": 70, "text": "For straight-chain alkenes with 4 or more carbon atoms, that name does not completely identify the compound. For those cases, and for branched acyclic alkenes, the following rules apply:", "title": "IUPAC Nomenclature" }, { "paragraph_id": 71, "text": "The position of the double bond is often inserted before the name of the chain (e.g. \"2-pentene\"), rather than before the suffix (\"pent-2-ene\").", "title": "IUPAC Nomenclature" }, { "paragraph_id": 72, "text": "The positions need not be indicated if they are unique. Note that the double bond may imply a different chain numbering than that used for the corresponding alkane: (H3C)3C–CH2–CH3 is \"2,2-dimethyl pentane\", whereas (H3C)3C–CH=CH2 is \"3,3-dimethyl 1-pentene\".", "title": "IUPAC Nomenclature" }, { "paragraph_id": 73, "text": "More complex rules apply for polyenes and cycloalkenes.", "title": "IUPAC Nomenclature" }, { "paragraph_id": 74, "text": "If the double bond of an acyclic mono-ene is not the first bond of the chain, the name as constructed above still does not completely identify the compound, because of cis–trans isomerism. Then one must specify whether the two single C–C bonds adjacent to the double bond are on the same side of its plane, or on opposite sides. For monoalkenes, the configuration is often indicated by the prefixes cis- (from Latin \"on this side of\") or trans- (\"across\", \"on the other side of\") before the name, respectively; as in cis-2-pentene or trans-2-butene.", "title": "IUPAC Nomenclature" }, { "paragraph_id": 75, "text": "More generally, cis–trans isomerism will exist if each of the two carbons of in the double bond has two different atoms or groups attached to it. Accounting for these cases, the IUPAC recommends the more general E–Z notation, instead of the cis and trans prefixes. This notation considers the group with highest CIP priority in each of the two carbons. If these two groups are on opposite sides of the double bond's plane, the configuration is labeled E (from the German entgegen meaning \"opposite\"); if they are on the same side, it is labeled Z (from German zusammen, \"together\"). This labeling may be taught with mnemonic \"Z means 'on ze zame zide'\".", "title": "IUPAC Nomenclature" }, { "paragraph_id": 76, "text": "IUPAC recognizes two names for hydrocarbon groups containing carbon–carbon double bonds, the vinyl group and the allyl group.", "title": "IUPAC Nomenclature" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "In organic chemistry, allenes are organic compounds in which one carbon atom has double bonds with each of its two adjacent carbon atoms (R2C=C=CR2, where R is H or some organyl group). Allenes are classified as cumulated dienes. The parent compound of this class is propadiene (H2C=C=CH2), which is itself also called allene. An group of the structure R2C=C=CR− is called allenyl, where R is H or some alkyl group. Compounds with an allene-type structure but with more than three carbon atoms are members of a larger class of compounds called cumulenes with X=C=Y bonding.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "For many years, allenes were viewed as curiosities but thought to be synthetically useless and difficult to prepare and to work with. Reportedly, the first synthesis of an allene, glutinic acid, was performed in an attempt to prove the non-existence of this class of compounds. The situation began to change in the 1950s, and more than 300 papers on allenes have been published in 2012 alone. These compounds are not just interesting intermediates but synthetically valuable targets themselves; for example, over 150 natural products are known with an allene or cumulene fragment.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The central carbon atom of allenes forms two sigma bonds and two pi bonds. The central carbon atom is sp-hybridized, and the two terminal carbon atoms are sp-hybridized. The bond angle formed by the three carbon atoms is 180°, indicating linear geometry for the central carbon atom. The two terminal carbon atoms are planar, and these planes are twisted 90° from each other. The structure can also be viewed as an \"extended tetrahedral\" with a similar shape to methane, an analogy that is continued into the stereochemical analysis of certain derivative molecules.", "title": "Structure and properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The symmetry and isomerism of allenes has long fascinated organic chemists. For allenes with four identical substituents, there exist two twofold axes of rotation through the central carbon atom, inclined at 45° to the CH2 planes at either end of the molecule. The molecule can thus be thought of as a two-bladed propeller. A third twofold axis of rotation passes through the C=C=C bonds, and there is a mirror plane passing through both CH2 planes. Thus this class of molecules belong to the D2d point group. Because of the symmetry, an unsubstituted allene has no net dipole moment, that is, it is a non-polar molecule.", "title": "Structure and properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "An allene with two different substituents on each of the two carbon atoms will be chiral because there will no longer be any mirror planes. The chirality of these types of allenes was first predicted in 1875 by Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff, but not proven experimentally until 1935. Where A has a greater priority than B according to the Cahn–Ingold–Prelog priority rules, the configuration of the axial chirality can be determined by considering the substituents on the front atom followed by the back atom when viewed along the allene axis. For the back atom, only the group of higher priority need be considered.", "title": "Structure and properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Chiral allenes have been recently used as building blocks in the construction of organic materials with exceptional chiroptical properties. There are a few examples of drug molecule having an allene system in their structure. Mycomycin, an antibiotic with tuberculostatic properties, is a typical example. This drug exhibits enantiomerism due to the presence of a suitably substituted allene system.", "title": "Structure and properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Although the semi-localized textbook σ-π separation model describes the bonding of allene using a pair of localized orthogonal π orbitals, the full molecular orbital description of the bonding is more subtle. The symmetry-correct doubly-degenerate HOMOs of allene (adapted to the D2d point group) can either be represented by a pair of orthogonal MOs or as twisted helical linear combinations of these orthogonal MOs. The symmetry of the system and the degeneracy of these orbitals imply that both descriptions are correct (in the same way that there are infinitely many ways to depict the doubly-degenerate HOMOs and LUMOs of benzene that correspond to different choices of eigenfunctions in a two-dimensional eigenspace). However, this degeneracy is lifted in substituted allenes, and the helical picture becomes the only symmetry-correct description for the HOMO and HOMO–1 of the C2-symmetric 1,3-dimethylallene. This qualitative MO description extends to higher odd-carbon cumulenes (e.g., 1,2,3,4-pentatetraene).", "title": "Structure and properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Allenes differ considerably from other alkenes in terms of their chemical properties. Compared to isolated and conjugated dienes, they are considerably less stable: comparing the isomeric pentadienes, the allenic 1,2-pentadiene has a heat of formation of 33.6 kcal/mol, compared to 18.1 kcal/mol for (E)-1,3-pentadiene and 25.4 kcal/mol for the isolated 1,4-pentadiene.", "title": "Structure and properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "The C–H bonds of allenes are considerably weaker and more acidic compared to typical vinylic C–H bonds: the bond dissociation energy is 87.7 kcal/mol (compared to 111 kcal/mol in ethylene), while the gas-phase acidity is 381 kcal/mol (compared to 409 kcal/mol for ethylene), making it slightly more acidic than the propargylic C–H bond of propyne (382 kcal/mol).", "title": "Structure and properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "The C NMR spectrum of allenes is characterized by the signal of the sp-hybridized carbon atom, resonating at a characteristic 200-220 ppm. In contrast, the sp-hybridized carbon atoms resonate around 80 ppm in a region typical for alkyne and nitrile carbon atoms, while the protons of a CH2 group of a terminal allene resonate at around 4.5 ppm — somewhat upfield of a typical vinylic proton.", "title": "Structure and properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Allenes possess a rich cycloaddition chemistry, including both [4+2] and [2+2] modes of addition, as well as undergoing formal cycloaddition processes catalyzed by transition metals. Allenes also serve as substrates for transition metal catalyzed hydrofunctionalization reactions.", "title": "Structure and properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "Although allenes often require specialized syntheses, the parent allene, propadiene is produced industrially on a large scale as an equilibrium mixture with methylacetylene:", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "This mixture, known as MAPP gas, is commercially available. At 298 K, the ΔG° of this reaction is –1.9 kcal/mol, corresponding to Keq = 24.7.", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "The first allene to be synthesized was penta-2,3-dienedioic acid, which was prepared by Burton and Pechmann in 1887. However, the structure was only correctly identified in 1954.", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "Laboratory methods for the formation of allenes include:", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "The chemistry of allenes has been reviewed in a number of books and journal articles. Some key approaches towards allenes are outlined in the following scheme:", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "One of the older methods is the Skattebøl rearrangement (also called the Doering–Moore–Skattebøl or Doering–LaFlamme rearrangement), in which a gem-dihalocyclopropane 3 is treated with an organolithium compound (or dissolving metal) and the presumed intermediate rearranges into an allene either directly or via carbene-like species. Notably, even strained allenes can be generated by this procedure. Modifications involving leaving groups of different nature are also known. Arguably, the most convenient modern method of allene synthesis is by sigmatropic rearrangement of propargylic substrates. Johnson–Claisen and Ireland–Claisen rearrangements of ketene acetals 4 have been used a number of times to prepare allenic esters and acids. Reactions of vinyl ethers 5 (the Saucy–Marbet rearrangement) give allene aldehydes, while propargylic sulfenates 6 give allene sulfoxides. Allenes can also be prepared by nucleophilic substitution in 9 and 10 (nucleophile Nu can be a hydride anion), 1,2-elimination from 8, proton transfer in 7, and other, less general, methods.", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "The dominant use of allenes is allene itself, which, in equilibrium with propyne is a component of MAP gas.", "title": "Use and occurrence" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "The reactivity of substituted allenes has been well explored.", "title": "Use and occurrence" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "The two π-bonds are located at the 90° angle to each other, and thus require a reagent to approach from somewhat different directions. With an appropriate substitution pattern, allenes exhibit axial chirality as predicted by van’t Hoff as early as 1875. Protonation of allenes gives cations 11 that undergo further transformations. Reactions with soft electrophiles (e.g. Br) deliver positively charged onium ions 13. Transition-metal-catalysed reactions proceed via allylic intermediates 15 and have attracted significant interest in recent years. Numerous cycloadditions are also known, including [4+2]-, (2+1)-, and [2+2]-variants, which deliver, e.g., 12, 14, and 16, respectively.", "title": "Use and occurrence" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "", "title": "Use and occurrence" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "Numerous natural products contain the allene functional group. Noteworthy are the pigments fucoxanthin and peridinin. Little is known about the biosynthesis, although it is conjectured that they are often generated from alkyne precursors.", "title": "Use and occurrence" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "Allenes serve as ligands in organometallic chemistry. A typical complex is Pt(η-allene)(PPh3)2. Ni(0) reagents catalyze the cyclooligomerization of allene. Using a suitable catalyst (e.g. Wilkinson's catalyst), it is possible to reduce just one of the double bonds of an allene.", "title": "Use and occurrence" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "Many rings or ring systems are known by semisystematic names that assume a maximum number of noncumulative bonds. To unambiguously specify derivatives that include cumulated bonds (and hence fewer hydrogen atoms than would be expected from the skeleton), a lowercase delta may be used with a subscript indicating the number of cumulated double bonds from that atom, e.g. 8δ-benzocyclononene. This may be combined with the λ-convention for specifying nonstandard valency states, e.g. 2λδ,5λδ-thieno[3,4-c]thiophene.", "title": "Delta convention" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "This article incorporates text by Oleksandr Zhurakovskyi available under the CC BY 2.5 license.", "title": "References" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "H − C ≡ C − H {\\displaystyle {\\ce {H-C#C}}{\\ce {-H}}}", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "H − C ≡ C − C | H H | − H {\\displaystyle {\\ce {H-C#C}}{-}{\\ce {\\overset {\\displaystyle {H} \\atop |}{\\underset {| \\atop \\displaystyle {H}}{C}}}}{\\ce {-H}}}", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "H − C ≡ C − C | H H | − C | H H | − H {\\displaystyle {\\ce {H-C#C}}{-}{\\ce {\\overset {\\displaystyle {H} \\atop |}{\\underset {| \\atop \\displaystyle {H}}{C}}}}{-}{\\ce {\\overset {\\displaystyle {H} \\atop |}{\\underset {| \\atop \\displaystyle {H}}{C}}}}{\\ce {-H}}}", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "In organic chemistry, an alkyne is an unsaturated hydrocarbon containing at least one carbon—carbon triple bond. The simplest acyclic alkynes with only one triple bond and no other functional groups form a homologous series with the general chemical formula CnH2n−2. Alkynes are traditionally known as acetylenes, although the name acetylene also refers specifically to C2H2, known formally as ethyne using IUPAC nomenclature. Like other hydrocarbons, alkynes are generally hydrophobic.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "In acetylene, the H–C≡C bond angles are 180°. By virtue of this bond angle, alkynes are rod-like. Correspondingly, cyclic alkynes are rare. Benzyne cannot be isolated. The C≡C bond distance of 118 picometers (for C2H2) is much shorter than the C=C distance in alkenes (132 pm, for C2H4) or the C–C bond in alkanes (153 pm).", "title": "Structure and bonding" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The triple bond is very strong with a bond strength of 839 kJ/mol. The sigma bond contributes 369 kJ/mol, the first pi bond contributes 268 kJ/mol and the second pi-bond of 202 kJ/mol bond strength. Bonding usually discussed in the context of molecular orbital theory, which recognizes the triple bond as arising from overlap of s and p orbitals. In the language of valence bond theory, the carbon atoms in an alkyne bond are sp hybridized: they each have two unhybridized p orbitals and two sp hybrid orbitals. Overlap of an sp orbital from each atom forms one sp–sp sigma bond. Each p orbital on one atom overlaps one on the other atom, forming two pi bonds, giving a total of three bonds. The remaining sp orbital on each atom can form a sigma bond to another atom, for example to hydrogen atoms in the parent acetylene. The two sp orbitals project on opposite sides of the carbon atom.", "title": "Structure and bonding" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Internal alkynes feature carbon substituents on each acetylenic carbon. Symmetrical examples include diphenylacetylene and 3-hexyne.", "title": "Structure and bonding" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Terminal alkynes have the formula RC2H. An example is methylacetylene (propyne using IUPAC nomenclature). They are often prepared by alkylation of monosodium acetylide. This compound, a white solid, has been characterized by Terminal alkynes, like acetylene itself, are mildly acidic, with pKa values of around 25. They are far more acidic than alkenes and alkanes, which have pKa values of around 40 and 50, respectively. The acidic hydrogen on terminal alkynes can be replaced by a variety of groups resulting in halo-, silyl-, and alkoxoalkynes. The carbanions generated by deprotonation of terminal alkynes are called acetylides.", "title": "Structure and bonding" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "In systematic chemical nomenclature, alkynes are named with the Greek prefix system without any additional letters. Examples include ethyne or octyne. In parent chains with four or more carbons, it is necessary to say where the triple bond is located. For octyne, one can either write 3-octyne or oct-3-yne when the bond starts at the third carbon. The lowest number possible is given to the triple bond. When no superior functional groups are present, the parent chain must include the triple bond even if it is not the longest possible carbon chain in the molecule. Ethyne is commonly called by its trivial name acetylene.", "title": "Naming alkynes" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "In chemistry, the suffix -yne is used to denote the presence of a triple bond. In organic chemistry, the suffix often follows IUPAC nomenclature. However, inorganic compounds featuring unsaturation in the form of triple bonds may be denoted by substitutive nomenclature with the same methods used with alkynes (i.e. the name of the corresponding saturated compound is modified by replacing the \"-ane\" ending with \"-yne\"). \"-diyne\" is used when there are two triple bonds, and so on. The position of unsaturation is indicated by a numerical locant immediately preceding the \"-yne\" suffix, or 'locants' in the case of multiple triple bonds. Locants are chosen so that the numbers are low as possible. \"-yne\" is also used as a suffix to name substituent groups that are triply bound to the parent compound.", "title": "Naming alkynes" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Sometimes a number between hyphens is inserted before it to state which atoms the triple bond is between. This suffix arose as a collapsed form of the end of the word \"acetylene\". The final \"-e\" disappears if it is followed by another suffix that starts with a vowel.", "title": "Naming alkynes" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "Alkynes having four or more carbon atoms can form different structural isomers by having the triple bond in different positions or having some of the carbon atoms be substituents rather than part of the parent chain. Other non-alkyne structural isomers are also possible.", "title": "Structural isomerism" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Commercially, the dominant alkyne is acetylene itself, which is used as a fuel and a precursor to other compounds, e.g., acrylates. Hundreds of millions of kilograms are produced annually by partial oxidation of natural gas:", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "Propyne, also industrially useful, is also prepared by thermal cracking of hydrocarbons.", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "Alkynes are prepared from 1,2- and 1,1-alkyl dihalides by double dehydrohalogenation. The reaction provides a means to generate alkynes from alkenes, which are first halogenated and then dehydrohalogenated. For example, phenylacetylene can be generated from styrene by bromination followed by treatment of the resulting of styrene dibromide with sodium amide in ammonia:", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "Via the Fritsch–Buttenberg–Wiechell rearrangement, alkynes are prepared from vinyl bromides. Alkynes can be prepared from aldehydes using the Corey–Fuchs reaction and from aldehydes or ketones by the Seyferth–Gilbert homologation.", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "Vinyl chlorides are susceptible to dehydrochlorination. Vinyl chlorides are available from aldehydes using the reagent (chloromethylene)triphenylphosphorane.", "title": "Synthesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "Featuring a reactive functional group, alkynes participate in many organic reactions. Such use was pioneered by Ralph Raphael, who in 1955 wrote the first book describing their versatility as intermediates in synthesis.", "title": "Reactions, including applications" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "Being more unsaturated than alkenes, alkynes characteristically undergo reactions that show that they are \"doubly unsaturated\". Alkynes are capable of adding two equivalents of H2, whereas an alkene adds only one equivalent. Depending on catalysts and conditions, alkynes add one or two equivalents of hydrogen. Partial hydrogenation, stopping after the addition of only one equivalent to give the alkene, is usually more desirable since alkanes are less useful:", "title": "Reactions, including applications" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "The largest scale application of this technology is the conversion of acetylene to ethylene in refineries (the steam cracking of alkanes yields a few percent acetylene, which is selectively hydrogenated in the presence of a palladium/silver catalyst). For more complex alkynes, the Lindlar catalyst is widely recommended to avoid formation of the alkane, for example in the conversion of phenylacetylene to styrene. Similarly, halogenation of alkynes gives the alkene dihalides or alkyl tetrahalides:", "title": "Reactions, including applications" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "The addition of one equivalent of H2 to internal alkynes gives cis-alkenes.", "title": "Reactions, including applications" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "Alkynes characteristically are capable of adding two equivalents of halogens and hydrogen halides.", "title": "Reactions, including applications" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "The addition of nonpolar E−H bonds across C≡C is general for silanes, boranes, and related hydrides. The hydroboration of alkynes gives vinylic boranes which oxidize to the corresponding aldehyde or ketone. In the thiol-yne reaction the substrate is a thiol.", "title": "Reactions, including applications" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "Addition of hydrogen halides has long been of interest. In the presence of mercuric chloride as a catalyst, acetylene and hydrogen chloride react to give vinyl chloride. While this method has been abandoned in the West, it remains the main production method in China.", "title": "Reactions, including applications" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "The hydration reaction of acetylene gives acetaldehyde. The reaction proceeds by formation of vinyl alcohol, which undergoes tautomerizes to form the aldehyde. This reaction was once a major industrial process but it has been displaced by the Wacker process. This reaction occurs in nature, the catalyst being acetylene hydratase.", "title": "Reactions, including applications" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "The hydration of phenylacetylene gives acetophenone, and the (Ph3P)AuCH3- catalyzed hydration of 1,8-nonadiyne to 2,8-nonanedione:", "title": "Reactions, including applications" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "Terminal alkyl alkynes exhibit tautomerism. Propyne exists in equilibrium with propadiene:", "title": "Reactions, including applications" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "Alkynes undergo diverse cycloaddition reactions. The Diels–Alder reaction with 1,3-dienes give 1,4-cyclohexadienes. This general reaction has been extensively developed. Electrophilic alkynes are especially effective dienophiles. The \"cycloadduct\" derived from the addition of alkynes to 2-pyrone eliminates carbon dioxide to give the aromatic compound. Other specialized cycloadditions include multicomponent reactions such as alkyne trimerisation to give aromatic compounds and the [2+2+1]-cycloaddition of an alkyne, alkene and carbon monoxide in the Pauson–Khand reaction. Non-carbon reagents also undergo cyclization, e.g. Azide alkyne Huisgen cycloaddition to give triazoles. Cycloaddition processes involving alkynes are often catalyzed by metals, e.g. enyne metathesis and alkyne metathesis, which allows the scrambling of carbyne (RC) centers:", "title": "Reactions, including applications" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "Oxidative cleavage of alkynes proceeds via cycloaddition to metal oxides. Most famously, potassium permanganate converts alkynes to a pair of carboxylic acids.", "title": "Reactions, including applications" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "Terminal alkynes are readily converted to many derivatives, e.g. by coupling reactions and condensations. Via the condensation with formaldehyde and acetylene is produced butynediol:", "title": "Reactions, including applications" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "In the Sonogashira reaction, terminal alkynes are coupled with aryl or vinyl halides:", "title": "Reactions, including applications" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "This reactivity exploits the fact that terminal alkynes are weak acids, whose typical pKa values around 25 place them between that of ammonia (35) and ethanol (16):", "title": "Reactions, including applications" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "where MX = NaNH2, LiBu, or RMgX.", "title": "Reactions, including applications" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "The reactions of alkynes with certain metal cations, e.g. Ag and Cu also gives acetylides. Thus, few drops of diamminesilver(I) hydroxide (Ag(NH3)2OH) reacts with terminal alkynes signaled by formation of a white precipitate of the silver acetylide. This reactivity is the basis of alkyne coupling reactions, including the Cadiot–Chodkiewicz coupling, Glaser coupling, and the Eglinton coupling:", "title": "Reactions, including applications" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "In the Favorskii reaction and in alkynylations in general, terminal alkynes add to carbonyl compounds to give the hydroxyalkyne.", "title": "Reactions, including applications" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "Alkynes form complexes with transition metals. Such complexes occur also in metal catalyzed reactions of alkynes such as alkyne trimerization. Terminal alkynes, including acetylene itself, react with water to give aldehydes. The transformation typically requires metal catalysts to give this anti-Markovnikov addition result.", "title": "Reactions, including applications" }, { "paragraph_id": 36, "text": "According to Ferdinand Bohlmann, the first naturally occurring acetylenic compound, dehydromatricaria ester, was isolated from an Artemisia species in 1826. In the nearly two centuries that have followed, well over a thousand naturally occurring acetylenes have been discovered and reported. Polyynes, a subset of this class of natural products, have been isolated from a wide variety of plant species, cultures of higher fungi, bacteria, marine sponges, and corals. Some acids like tariric acid contain an alkyne group. Diynes and triynes, species with the linkage RC≡C–C≡CR′ and RC≡C–C≡C–C≡CR′ respectively, occur in certain plants (Ichthyothere, Chrysanthemum, Cicuta, Oenanthe and other members of the Asteraceae and Apiaceae families). Some examples are cicutoxin, oenanthotoxin, and falcarinol . These compounds are highly bioactive, e.g. as nematocides. 1-Phenylhepta-1,3,5-triyne is illustrative of a naturally occurring triyne.", "title": "Alkynes in nature and medicine" }, { "paragraph_id": 37, "text": "Alkynes occur in some pharmaceuticals, including the contraceptive noretynodrel. A carbon–carbon triple bond is also present in marketed drugs such as the antiretroviral Efavirenz and the antifungal Terbinafine. Molecules called ene-diynes feature a ring containing an alkene (\"ene\") between two alkyne groups (\"diyne\"). These compounds, e.g. calicheamicin, are some of the most aggressive antitumor drugs known, so much so that the ene-diyne subunit is sometimes referred to as a \"warhead\". Ene-diynes undergo rearrangement via the Bergman cyclization, generating highly reactive radical intermediates that attack DNA within the tumor.", "title": "Alkynes in nature and medicine" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "AbiWord (/ˈæbiwɜːrd/) is a word processor released under a free and open-source software license. It is written in C++ and since version 3 it is based on GTK+ 3. The name \"AbiWord\" is derived from the root of the Spanish word \"abierto\", meaning \"open\".", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "AbiWord was originally started by SourceGear Corporation as the first part of a proposed AbiSuite but was adopted by open source developers after SourceGear changed its business focus and ceased development. It now runs on Linux, ReactOS, Solaris, AmigaOS 4.0 (through its Cygwin X11 engine), MeeGo (on the Nokia N9 smartphone), Maemo (on the Nokia N810), QNX and other operating systems. Development of a version for Microsoft Windows has temporarily ended due to lack of maintainers (the latest released versions are 2.8.6 and 2.9.4 beta).", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The macOS port has remained on version 2.4 since 2005, although the current version does run non-natively on macOS through XQuartz.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "AbiWord is part of the AbiSource project which develops a number of office-related technologies. Abiword is one of the rare text processing software which allows local users to edit simultaneously the same shared document in a local network, without the requirement of an Internet connection, since 2009.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "AbiWord supports both basic word processing features such as lists, indents and character formats, and more sophisticated features including tables, styles, page headers and footers, footnotes, templates, multiple views, page columns, spell checking, and grammar checking. Starting with version 2.8.0, AbiWord includes a collaboration plugin that allows integration with AbiCollab.net, a Web-based service that permits multiple users to work on the same document in real time, in full synchronization. The Presentation view of AbiWord, which permits easy display of presentations created in AbiWord on \"screen-sized\" pages, is another feature not often found in word processors.", "title": "Features" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "AbiWord generally works similarly to classic versions (pre-Office 2007) of Microsoft Word, as direct ease of migration was a high priority early goal. While many interface similarities remain, cloning the Word interface is no longer a top priority. The interface is intended to follow user interface guidelines for each respective platform.", "title": "Features" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "AbiWord comes with several import and export filters providing partial support for such formats as HTML, Microsoft Word (.doc), Office Open XML (.docx), OpenDocument Text (.odt), Rich Text Format (.rtf), and text documents (.txt). LaTeX is supported for export only. Plug-in filters are available to deal with many other formats, notably WordPerfect documents. The native file format, .abw, uses XML, so as to mitigate vendor lock-in concerns with respect to interoperability and digital archiving.", "title": "Features" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "The AbiWord project includes a US English-only grammar checking plugin using Link Grammar. AbiWord had grammar checking before any other open source word processor, although a grammar checker was later added to OpenOffice.org. Link Grammar is both a theory of syntax and an open source parser which is now developed by the AbiWord project.", "title": "Features" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The Ames test is a widely employed method that uses bacteria to test whether a given chemical can cause mutations in the DNA of the test organism. More formally, it is a biological assay to assess the mutagenic potential of chemical compounds. A positive test indicates that the chemical is mutagenic and therefore may act as a carcinogen, because cancer is often linked to mutation. The test serves as a quick and convenient assay to estimate the carcinogenic potential of a compound because standard carcinogen assays on mice and rats are time-consuming (taking two to three years to complete) and expensive. However, false-positives and false-negatives are known.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The procedure was described in a series of papers in the early 1970s by Bruce Ames and his group at the University of California, Berkeley.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The Ames test uses several strains of the bacterium Salmonella typhimurium that carry mutations in genes involved in histidine synthesis. These strains are auxotrophic mutants, i.e. they require histidine for growth, but cannot produce it. The method tests the capability of the tested substance in creating mutations that result in a return to a \"prototrophic\" state, so that the cells can grow on a histidine-free medium.", "title": "General procedure" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The tester strains are specially constructed to detect either frameshift (e.g. strains TA-1537 and TA-1538) or point (e.g. strain TA-1531) mutations in the genes required to synthesize histidine, so that mutagens acting via different mechanisms may be identified. Some compounds are quite specific, causing reversions in just one or two strains. The tester strains also carry mutations in the genes responsible for lipopolysaccharide synthesis, making the cell wall of the bacteria more permeable, and in the excision repair system to make the test more sensitive.", "title": "General procedure" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Larger organisms like mammals have metabolic processes that could potentially turn a chemical considered not mutagenic into one that is or one that is considered mutagenic into one that is not. Therefore, to more effectively test a chemical compound's mutagenicity in relation to larger organisms, rat liver enzymes can be added in an attempt to replicate the metabolic processes' effect on the compound being tested in the Ames Test. Rat liver extract is optionally added to simulate the effect of metabolism, as some compounds, like benzo[a]pyrene, are not mutagenic themselves but their metabolic products are.", "title": "General procedure" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The bacteria are spread on an agar plate with small amount of histidine. This small amount of histidine in the growth medium allows the bacteria to grow for an initial time and have the opportunity to mutate. When the histidine is depleted only bacteria that have mutated to gain the ability to produce its own histidine will survive. The plate is incubated for 48 hours. The mutagenicity of a substance is proportional to the number of colonies observed.", "title": "General procedure" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Mutagens identified via Ames test are also possible carcinogens, and early studies by Ames showed that 90% of known carcinogens may be identified via this test. Later studies however showed identification of 50–70% of known carcinogens. The test was used to identify a number of compounds previously used in commercial products as potential carcinogens. Examples include tris(2,3-dibromopropyl)phosphate, which was used as a flame retardant in plastic and textiles such as children's sleepwear, and furylfuramide which was used as an antibacterial additive in food in Japan in the 1960s and 1970s. Furylfuramide in fact had previously passed animal tests, but more vigorous tests after its identification in the Ames test showed it to be carcinogenic. Their positive tests resulted in those chemicals being withdrawn from use in consumer products.", "title": "Ames test and carcinogens" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "One interesting result from the Ames test is that the dose response curve using varying concentrations of the chemical is almost always linear, indicating that there is no threshold concentration for mutagenesis. It therefore suggests that, as with radiation, there may be no safe threshold for chemical mutagens or carcinogens. However, some have proposed that organisms could tolerate low levels of mutagens due to protective mechanisms such as DNA repair, and thus a threshold may exist for certain chemical mutagens. Bruce Ames himself argued against linear dose-response extrapolation from the high dose used in carcinogenesis tests in animal systems to the lower dose of chemicals normally encountered in human exposure, as the results may be false positives due to mitogenic response caused by the artificially high dose of chemicals used in such tests. He also cautioned against the \"hysteria over tiny traces of chemicals that may or may not cause cancer\", that \"completely drives out the major risks you should be aware of\".", "title": "Ames test and carcinogens" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "The Ames test is often used as one of the initial screens for potential drugs to weed out possible carcinogens, and it is one of the eight tests required under the Pesticide Act (USA) and one of the six tests required under the Toxic Substances Control Act (USA).", "title": "Ames test and carcinogens" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Salmonella typhimurium is a prokaryote, therefore it is not a perfect model for humans. Rat liver S9 fraction is used to mimic the mammalian metabolic conditions so that the mutagenic potential of metabolites formed by a parent molecule in the hepatic system can be assessed; however, there are differences in metabolism between humans and rats that can affect the mutagenicity of the chemicals being tested. The test may therefore be improved by the use of human liver S9 fraction; its use was previously limited by its availability, but it is now available commercially and therefore may be more feasible. An adapted in vitro model has been made for eukaryotic cells, for example yeast.", "title": "Limitations" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Mutagens identified in the Ames test need not necessarily be carcinogenic, and further tests are required for any potential carcinogen identified in the test. Drugs that contain the nitrate moiety sometimes come back positive for Ames when they are indeed safe. The nitrate compounds may generate nitric oxide, an important signal molecule that can give a false positive. Nitroglycerin is an example that gives a positive Ames yet is still used in treatment today. Nitrates in food however may be reduced by bacterial action to nitrites which are known to generate carcinogens by reacting with amines and amides. Long toxicology and outcome studies are needed with such compounds to disprove a positive Ames test.", "title": "Limitations" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "The Ames test was initially developed using agar plates (the plate incorporation technique), as described above. Since that time, an alternative to performing the Ames test has been developed, which is known as the \"fluctuation method\". This technique is the same in concept as the agar-based method, with bacteria being added to a reaction mixture with a small amount of histidine, which allows the bacteria to grow and mutate, returning to synthesize their own histidine. By including a pH indicator, the frequency of mutation is counted in microplates as the number of wells which have changed color (caused by a drop in pH due to metabolic processes of reproducing bacteria). As with the traditional Ames test, the sample is compared to the natural background rate of reverse mutation in order to establish the genotoxicity of a substance. The fluctuation method is performed entirely in liquid culture and is scored by counting the number of wells that turn yellow from purple in 96-well or 384-well microplates.", "title": "Fluctuation method" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "In the 96-well plate method the frequency of mutation is counted as the number of wells out of 96 which have changed color. The plates are incubated for up to five days, with mutated (yellow) colonies being counted each day and compared to the background rate of reverse mutation using established tables of significance to determine the significant differences between the background rate of mutation and that for the tested samples.", "title": "Fluctuation method" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "In the more scaled-down 384-well plate microfluctuation method the frequency of mutation is counted as the number of wells out of 48 which have changed color after 2 days of incubation. A test sample is assayed across 6 dose levels with concurrent zero-dose (background) and positive controls which all fit into one 384-well plate. The assay is performed in triplicates to provide statistical robustness. It uses the recommended OECD Guideline 471 tester strains (histidine auxotrophs and tryptophan auxotrophs).", "title": "Fluctuation method" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "The fluctuation method is comparable to the traditional pour plate method in terms of sensitivity and accuracy, however, it does have a number of advantages: it needs less test sample, it has a simple colorimetric endpoint, counting the number of positive wells out of possible 96 or 48 wells is much less time-consuming than counting individual colonies on an agar plate. Several commercial kits are available. Most kits have consumable components in a ready-to-use state, including lyophilized bacteria, and tests can be performed using multichannel pipettes. The fluctuation method also allows for testing higher volumes of aqueous samples (up to 75% v/v), increasing the sensitivity and extending its application to low-level environmental mutagens.", "title": "Fluctuation method" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitors (ACE inhibitors) are a class of medication used primarily for the treatment of high blood pressure and heart failure. This class of medicine works by causing relaxation of blood vessels as well as a decrease in blood volume, which leads to lower blood pressure and decreased oxygen demand from the heart.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "ACE inhibitors inhibit the activity of angiotensin-converting enzyme, an important component of the renin–angiotensin system which converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II, and hydrolyses bradykinin. Therefore, ACE inhibitors decrease the formation of angiotensin II, a vasoconstrictor, and increase the level of bradykinin, a peptide vasodilator. This combination is synergistic in lowering blood pressure. As a result of inhibiting the ACE enzyme in the bradykinin system, the ACE inhibitor drugs allow for increased levels of bradykinin which would normally be degraded. Bradykinin produces prostaglandin. This mechanism can explain the two most common side effects seen with ACE Inhibitors: angioedema and cough.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Frequently prescribed ACE inhibitors include benazepril, zofenopril, perindopril, trandolapril, captopril, enalapril, lisinopril, and ramipril.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "ACE inhibitors were initially approved for the treatment of hypertension and can be used alone or in combination with other anti-hypertensive medications. Later, they were found useful for other cardiovascular and kidney diseases including:", "title": "Medical use" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "In treating high blood pressure, ACE inhibitors are often the first drug choice, particularly when diabetes is present, but age can lead to different choices and it is common to need more than one drug to obtain the desired improvement. There are fixed-dose combination drugs, such as ACE inhibitor and thiazide combinations. ACE inhibitors have also been used in chronic kidney failure and kidney involvement in systemic sclerosis (hardening of tissues, as scleroderma renal crisis). In those with stable coronary artery disease, but no heart failure, benefits are similar to other usual treatments.", "title": "Medical use" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "In 2012, there was a meta-analysis published in the BMJ that described the protective role of ACE inhibitors in reducing the risk of pneumonia when compared to angiotensin II receptor blocker (ARBs). The authors found a decreased risk in patients with previous stroke (54% risk reduction), with heart failure (37% risk reduction), and of Asian descent (43% risk reduction vs 54% risk reduction in non-Asian population). However, no reduced pneumonia related mortality was observed.", "title": "Medical use" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "ACE inhibitors may also be used to help decrease excessive water consumption in people with schizophrenia resulting in psychogenic polydipsia. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial showed that when used for this purpose, enalapril led to decreased consumption (determined by urine output and osmolality) in 60% of people; the same effect has been demonstrated in other ACE inhibitors.", "title": "Medical use" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Additionally ACE-I are commonly used after renal transplant to manage post-transplant erythrocytosis, a condition characterised by a persistently high hematocrit greater than 51% which often develops 8–24 months after successful transplantation, as ACE-I have been shown to decrease erythropoietin production.", "title": "Medical use" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Common side effects include: low blood pressure, cough, hyperkalemia, headache, dizziness, fatigue, nausea, and kidney impairment.", "title": "Adverse effects" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "The main adverse effects of ACE inhibition can be understood from their pharmacological action. The other reported adverse effects are liver problems and effects on the fetus. Kidney problems may occur with all ACE inhibitors that directly follows from their mechanism of action. Patients starting on an ACE inhibitor usually have a modest reduction in glomerular filtration rate (GFR). However, the decrease may be significant in conditions of pre-existing decreased renal perfusions, such as renal artery stenosis, heart failure, polycystic kidney disease, or volume depletion. In these patients, the maintenance of GFR depends on angiotensin-II-dependent efferent vasomotor tone. Therefore, renal function should be closely monitored over the first few days after initiation of treatment with ACE inhibitor in patients with decreased renal perfusion. A moderate reduction in renal function, no greater than 30% rise in serum creatinine, that is stabilized after a week of treatment is deemed acceptable as part of the therapeutic effect, providing the residual renal function is sufficient.", "title": "Adverse effects" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Reduced GFR is especially a problem if the patient is concomitantly taking an NSAID and a diuretic. When the three drugs are taken together, the risk of developing renal failure is significantly increased.", "title": "Adverse effects" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "High blood potassium is another possible complication of treatment with an ACE inhibitor due to its effect on aldosterone. Suppression of angiotensin II leads to a decrease in aldosterone levels. Since aldosterone is responsible for increasing the excretion of potassium, ACE inhibitors can cause retention of potassium. Some people, however, can continue to lose potassium while on an ACE inhibitor. Hyperkalemia may decrease the velocity of impulse conduction in the nerves and muscles, including cardiac tissues. This leads to cardiac dysfunction and neuromuscular consequences, such as muscle weakness, paresthesia, nausea, diarrhea, and others. Close monitoring of potassium levels is required in patients receiving treatment with ACE inhibitors who are at risk of hyperkalemia.", "title": "Adverse effects" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Another possible adverse effect specific for ACE inhibitors, but not for other RAAS blockers, is an increase in bradykinin level.", "title": "Adverse effects" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "A persistent dry cough is a relatively common adverse effect believed to be associated with the increases in bradykinin levels produced by ACE inhibitors, although the role of bradykinin in producing these symptoms has been disputed. Many cases of cough in people on ACE inhibitors may not be from the medication itself, however. People who experience this cough are often switched to angiotensin II receptor antagonists.", "title": "Adverse effects" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "Some (0.7%) develop angioedema due to increased bradykinin levels. A genetic predisposition may exist.", "title": "Adverse effects" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "A severe rare allergic reaction can affect the bowel wall and secondarily cause abdominal pain.", "title": "Adverse effects" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "Hematologic effects, such as neutropenia, agranulocytosis and other blood dyscrasias, have occurred during therapy with ACE inhibitors, especially in people with additional risk factors.", "title": "Adverse effects" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "In pregnant women, ACE inhibitors taken during all the trimesters have been reported to cause congenital malformations, stillbirths, and neonatal deaths. Commonly reported fetal abnormalities include hypotension, renal dysplasia, anuria/oliguria, oligohydramnios, intrauterine growth retardation, pulmonary hypoplasia, patent ductus arteriosus, and incomplete ossification of the skull. Overall, about half of newborns exposed to ACE inhibitors are adversely affected, leading to birth defects.", "title": "Adverse effects" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "ACE inhibitors are ADEC pregnancy category D and should be avoided in women who are likely to become pregnant. In the U.S., ACE inhibitors must be labeled with a boxed warning concerning the risk of birth defects when taken during the second and third trimester. Their use in the first trimester is also associated with a risk of major congenital malformations, particularly affecting the cardiovascular and central nervous systems.", "title": "Adverse effects" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "Symptoms and Treatment: There are few reports of ACE inhibitor overdose in the literature. The most likely manifestations are hypotension, which may be severe, hyperkalemia, hyponatremia and renal impairment with metabolic acidosis. Treatment should be mainly symptomatic and supportive, with volume expansion using normal saline to correct hypotension and improve renal function, and gastric lavage followed by activated charcoal and a cathartic to prevent further absorption of the drug. Captopril, enalapril, lisinopril and perindopril are known to be removable by hemodialysis.", "title": "Overdose" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "The ACE inhibitors are contraindicated in people with:", "title": "Contraindications and precautions" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "ACE inhibitors should be used with caution in people with:", "title": "Contraindications and precautions" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "A combination of ACE inhibitor with other drugs may increase effects of these drugs, but also the risk of adverse effects. The commonly reported adverse effects of drug combination with ACE inhibitor are acute renal failure, hypotension, and hyperkalemia. The drugs interacting with ACE inhibitor should be prescribed with caution. Special attention should be given to combinations of ACE inhibitor with other RAAS blockers, diuretics (especially potassium-sparing diuretics), NSAIDs, anticoagulants, cyclosporine, DPP-4 inhibitors, and potassium supplements.", "title": "Contraindications and precautions" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "Potassium supplementation should be used with caution and under medical supervision owing to the hyperkalemic effect of ACE inhibitors.", "title": "Contraindications and precautions" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "Concomitant use with cyclooxygenase inhibitors tends to decrease ACE inhibitor's hypotensive effect.", "title": "Contraindications and precautions" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "ACE inhibitors reduce the activity of the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS) as the primary etiologic (causal) event in the development of hypertension in people with diabetes mellitus, as part of the insulin-resistance syndrome or as a manifestation of renal disease.", "title": "Mechanism of action" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "The renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system is a major blood pressure regulating mechanism. Markers of electrolyte and water imbalance in the body such as hypotension, low distal tubule sodium concentration, decreased blood volume and high sympathetic tone trigger the release of the enzyme renin from the cells of juxtaglomerular apparatus in the kidney.", "title": "Mechanism of action" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "Renin activates a circulating liver derived prohormone angiotensinogen by proteolytic cleavage of all but its first ten amino acid residues known as angiotensin I. ACE (angiotensin converting enzyme) then removes a further two residues, converting angiotensin I into angiotensin II. ACE is found in the pulmonary circulation and in the endothelium of many blood vessels. The system increases blood pressure by increasing the amount of salt and water the body retains, although angiotensin is also very good at causing the blood vessels to tighten (a potent vasoconstrictor).", "title": "Mechanism of action" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "ACE inhibitors block the conversion of angiotensin I (ATI) to angiotensin II (ATII). They thereby lower arteriolar resistance and increase venous capacity; decrease cardiac output, cardiac index, stroke work, and volume; lower resistance in blood vessels in the kidneys; and lead to increased natriuresis (excretion of sodium in the urine). Renin increases in concentration in the blood as a result of negative feedback of conversion of ATI to ATII. ATI increases for the same reason; ATII and aldosterone decrease. Bradykinin increases because of less inactivation by ACE.", "title": "Mechanism of action" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "Under normal conditions, angiotensin II has these effects:", "title": "Mechanism of action" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "During the course of ACE inhibitor use, the production of ATII is decreased, which prevents aldosterone release from the adrenal cortex. This allows the kidney to excrete sodium ions along with obligate water, and retain potassium ions. This decreases blood volume, leading to decreased blood pressure.", "title": "Mechanism of action" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "Epidemiological and clinical studies have shown ACE inhibitors reduce the progress of diabetic nephropathy independently from their blood pressure-lowering effect. This action of ACE inhibitors is used in the prevention of diabetic renal failure.", "title": "Mechanism of action" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "ACE inhibitors have been shown to be effective for indications other than hypertension even in patients with normal blood pressure. The use of a maximum dose of ACE inhibitors in such patients (including for prevention of diabetic nephropathy, congestive heart failure, and prophylaxis of cardiovascular events) is justified, because it improves clinical outcomes independently of the blood pressure-lowering effect of ACE inhibitors. Such therapy, of course, requires careful and gradual titration of the dose to prevent the effects of rapidly decreasing blood pressure (dizziness, fainting, etc.).", "title": "Mechanism of action" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "ACE inhibitors have also been shown to cause a central enhancement of parasympathetic nervous system activity in healthy volunteers and patients with heart failure. This action may reduce the prevalence of malignant cardiac arrhythmias, and the reduction in sudden death reported in large clinical trials. ACE Inhibitors also reduce plasma norepinephrine levels, and its resulting vasoconstriction effects, in heart failure patients, thus breaking the vicious circles of sympathetic and renin angiotensin system activation, which sustains the downward spiral in cardiac function in congestive heart failure", "title": "Mechanism of action" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "The ACE inhibitor enalapril has also been shown to reduce cardiac cachexia in patients with chronic heart failure. Cachexia is a poor prognostic sign in patients with chronic heart failure. ACE inhibitors are under early investigation for the treatment of frailty and muscle wasting (sarcopenia) in elderly patients without heart failure.", "title": "Mechanism of action" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "Currently, there are 10 ACE inhibitors approved for use in the United States by the FDA: captopril (1981), enalapril (1985), lisinopril (1987), benazepril (1991), fosinopril (1991), quinapril (1991), ramipril (1991), perindopril (1993), moexipril (1995) and trandolapril (1996).", "title": "Examples" }, { "paragraph_id": 36, "text": "ACE inhibitors are easily identifiable by their common suffix, '-pril'. ACE inhibitors can be divided into three groups based on their molecular structure of the enzyme binding sites (sulfhydryl, phosphinyl, carboxyl) to the active center of ACE:", "title": "Examples" }, { "paragraph_id": 37, "text": "These agents appear to show antioxidative properties but may be involved in adverse events such as skin eruptions.", "title": "Examples" }, { "paragraph_id": 38, "text": "This is the largest group, including:", "title": "Examples" }, { "paragraph_id": 39, "text": "All ACE inhibitors have similar antihypertensive efficacy when equivalent doses are administered. The main differences lie with captopril, the first ACE inhibitor. Captopril has a shorter duration of action and an increased incidence of adverse effects. It is also the only ACE inhibitor capable of passing through the blood–brain barrier, although the significance of this characteristic has not been shown to have any positive clinical effects.", "title": "Comparative information" }, { "paragraph_id": 40, "text": "In a large clinical study, one of the agents in the ACE inhibitor class, ramipril (Altace), demonstrated an ability to reduce the mortality rates of patients with a myocardial infarction and to slow the subsequent development of heart failure. This finding was made after it was discovered that regular use of ramipril reduced mortality rates even in test subjects who didn't have hypertension.", "title": "Comparative information" }, { "paragraph_id": 41, "text": "Some believe ramipril's additional benefits may be shared by some or all drugs in the ACE-inhibitor class. However, ramipril currently remains the only ACE inhibitor for which such effects are actually evidence-based.", "title": "Comparative information" }, { "paragraph_id": 42, "text": "A meta-analysis confirmed that ACE inhibitors are effective and certainly the first-line choice in hypertension treatment. This meta-analysis was based on 20 trials and a cohort of 158,998 patients, of whom 91% were hypertensive. ACE inhibitors were used as the active treatment in seven trials (n=76,615) and angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB) in 13 trials (n=82,383). ACE inhibitors were associated with a statistically significant 10% mortality reduction: (HR 0.90; 95% CI, 0.84–0.97; P=0.004). In contrast, no significant mortality reduction was observed with ARB treatment (HR 0.99; 95% CI, 0.94–1.04; P=0.683). Analysis of mortality reduction by different ACE inhibitors showed that perindopril-based regimens are associated with a statistically significant 13% all-cause mortality reduction. Taking into account the broad spectrum of the hypertensive population, one might expect that an effective treatment with ACE inhibitors, in particular with perindopril, would result in an important gain of lives saved.", "title": "Comparative information" }, { "paragraph_id": 43, "text": "The ACE inhibitors have different strengths with different starting dosages. Dosage should be adjusted according to the clinical response.", "title": "Comparative information" }, { "paragraph_id": 44, "text": "ACE inhibitors possess many common characteristics with another class of cardiovascular drugs, angiotensin II receptor antagonists, which are often used when patients are intolerant of the adverse effects produced by ACE inhibitors. ACE inhibitors do not completely prevent the formation of angiotensin II, as blockage is dose-dependent, so angiotensin II receptor antagonists may be useful because they act to prevent the action of angiotensin II at the AT1 receptor, leaving AT2 receptor unblocked; the latter may have consequences needing further study.", "title": "Combination with angiotensin II receptor antagonists" }, { "paragraph_id": 45, "text": "The combination therapy of angiotensin II receptor antagonists with ACE inhibitors may be superior to either agent alone. This combination may increase levels of bradykinin while blocking the generation of angiotensin II and its activity at the AT1 receptor. This 'dual blockade' may be more effective than using an ACE inhibitor alone, because angiotensin II can be generated via non-ACE-dependent pathways. Preliminary studies suggest this combination of pharmacologic agents may be advantageous in the treatment of essential hypertension, chronic heart failure, and nephropathy. However, the more recent ONTARGET study showed no benefit of combining the agents and more adverse events. While statistically significant results have been obtained for its role in treating hypertension, clinical significance may be lacking. There are warnings about the combination of ACE inhibitors with ARBs.", "title": "Combination with angiotensin II receptor antagonists" }, { "paragraph_id": 46, "text": "Patients with heart failure may benefit from the combination in terms of reducing morbidity and ventricular remodeling.", "title": "Combination with angiotensin II receptor antagonists" }, { "paragraph_id": 47, "text": "The most compelling evidence for the treatment of nephropathy has been found: This combination therapy partially reversed the proteinuria and also exhibited a renoprotective effect in patients with diabetic nephropathy, and pediatric IgA nephropathy.", "title": "Combination with angiotensin II receptor antagonists" }, { "paragraph_id": 48, "text": "Leonard T. Skeggs and his colleagues (including Norman Shumway) discovered ACE in plasma in 1956. It was also noted that those who worked in banana plantations in South-western Brazil collapsed after being bitten by a pit viper, leading to a search for a blood pressure lowering component in its venom. Brazilian scientist Sérgio Henrique Ferreira reported a bradykinin-potentiating factor (BPF) present in the venom of Bothrops jararaca, a South American pit viper, in 1965. Ferreira then went to John Vane's laboratory as a postdoctoral fellow with his already-isolated BPF. The conversion of the inactive angiotensin I to the potent angiotensin II was thought to take place in the plasma. However, in 1967, Kevin K. F. Ng and John R. Vane showed plasma ACE is too slow to account for the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II in vivo. Subsequent investigation showed rapid conversion occurs during its passage through the pulmonary circulation.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 49, "text": "Bradykinin is rapidly inactivated in the circulating blood, and it disappears completely in a single pass through the pulmonary circulation. Angiotensin I also disappears in the pulmonary circulation because of its conversion to angiotensin II. Furthermore, angiotensin II passes through the lungs without any loss. The inactivation of bradykinin and the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II in the lungs was thought to be caused by the same enzyme. In 1970, Ng and Vane, using BPF provided by Ferreira, showed the conversion is inhibited during its passage through the pulmonary circulation.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 50, "text": "BPFs are members of a family of peptides whose potentiating action is linked to inhibition of bradykinin by ACE. Molecular analysis of BPF yielded a nonapeptide BPF teprotide (SQ 20,881), which showed the greatest ACE inhibition potency and hypotensive effect in vivo. Teprotide had limited clinical value as a result of its peptide nature and lack of activity when given orally. In the early 1970s, knowledge of the structure-activity relationship required for inhibition of ACE was growing. David Cushman, Miguel Ondetti and colleagues used peptide analogues to study the structure of ACE, using carboxypeptidase A as a model. Their discoveries led to the development of captopril, the first orally-active ACE inhibitor, in 1975.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 51, "text": "Captopril was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration in 1981. The first nonsulfhydryl-containing ACE inhibitor, enalapril, was approved four years later. At least 8 other ACE inhibitors have since been marketed.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 52, "text": "In 1991, Japanese scientists created the first milk-based ACE inhibitor, in the form of a fermented milk drink, using specific cultures to liberate the tripeptide isoleucine-proline-proline (IPP) from the dairy protein. Valine-proline-proline (VPP) is also liberated in this process—another milk tripeptide with a very similar chemical structure to IPP. Together, these peptides are now often referred to as lactotripeptides. In 1996, the first human study confirmed the blood pressure-lowering effect of IPP in fermented milk. Although twice the amount of VPP is needed to achieve the same ACE-inhibiting activity as the originally discovered IPP, VPP also is assumed to add to the total blood pressure lowering effect. Since the first lactotripeptides discovery, more than 20 human clinical trials have been conducted in many different countries.", "title": "History" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "An antianginal is a drug used in the treatment of angina pectoris, a symptom of ischaemic heart disease.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Drugs used are nitrates, beta blockers, or calcium channel blockers.", "title": "Examples" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Nitrates cause vasodilation of the venous capacitance vessels by stimulating the endothelium-derived relaxing factor (EDRF). Used to relieve both exertional and vasospastic angina by allowing venous pooling, reducing the pressure in the ventricles and so reducing wall tension and oxygen requirements in, the heart. Short-acting nitrates are used to abort angina attacks that have occurred, while longer-acting nitrates are used in the prophylactic management of the condition.", "title": "Examples" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Agents include glyceryl trinitrate (GTN), pentaerythritol tetranitrate, isosorbide dinitrate and isosorbide mononitrate.", "title": "Examples" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Beta blockers are used in the prophylaxis of exertional angina by reducing the myocardial oxygen demand below the level that would provoke an angina attack.", "title": "Examples" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "They are contraindicated in variant angina and can precipitate heart failure. They are also contraindicated in severe asthmatics due to bronchoconstriction, and should be used cautiously in diabetics as they can mask symptoms of hypoglycemia.", "title": "Examples" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Agents include either cardioselectives such as acebutolol or metoprolol, or non-cardioselectives such as oxprenolol or sotalol.", "title": "Examples" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Calcium ion (Ca) antagonists (Calcium channel blockers) are used in the treatment of chronic stable angina, and most effectively in the treatment of variant angina (directly preventing coronary artery vasospasm). They are not used in the treatment of unstable angina .", "title": "Examples" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "In vitro, they dilate the coronary and peripheral arteries and have negative inotropic and chronotropic effects - decreasing afterload, improving myocardial efficiency, reducing heart rate and improving coronary blood flow. In vivo, the vasodilation and hypotension trigger the baroreceptor reflex. Therefore, the net effect is the interplay of direct and reflex actions.", "title": "Examples" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Examples include Class I agents (e.g., verapamil), Class II agents (e.g., amlodipine, nifedipine), or the Class III agent diltiazem.", "title": "Examples" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Nifedipine is more a potent vasodilator and more effective in angina. It is in the class of dihydropyridines and does not affect refractory period on SA node conduction.", "title": "Examples" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical (ATC) Classification System is a drug classification system that classifies the active ingredients of drugs according to the organ or system on which they act and their therapeutic, pharmacological and chemical properties. Its purpose is an aid to monitor drug use and for research to improve quality medication use. It does not imply drug recommendation or efficacy. It is controlled by the World Health Organization Collaborating Centre for Drug Statistics Methodology (WHOCC), and was first published in 1976.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "This pharmaceutical coding system divides drugs into different groups according to the organ or system on which they act, their therapeutic intent or nature, and the drug's chemical characteristics. Different brands share the same code if they have the same active substance and indications. Each bottom-level ATC code stands for a pharmaceutically used substance, or a combination of substances, in a single indication (or use). This means that one drug can have more than one code, for example acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) has A01AD05 (WHO) as a drug for local oral treatment, B01AC06 (WHO) as a platelet inhibitor, and N02BA01 (WHO) as an analgesic and antipyretic; as well as one code can represent more than one active ingredient, for example C09BB04 (WHO) is the combination of perindopril with amlodipine, two active ingredients that have their own codes (C09AA04 (WHO) and C08CA01 (WHO) respectively) when prescribed alone.", "title": "Coding system" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The ATC classification system is a strict hierarchy, meaning that each code necessarily has one and only one parent code, except for the 14 codes at the topmost level which have no parents. The codes are semantic identifiers, meaning they depict information by themselves beyond serving as identifiers (namely, the codes depict themselves the complete lineage of parenthood). As of 7 May 2020, there are 6,331 codes in ATC; the table below gives the count per level.", "title": "Coding system" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The ATC system is based on the earlier Anatomical Classification System, which is intended as a tool for the pharmaceutical industry to classify pharmaceutical products (as opposed to their active ingredients). This system, confusingly also called ATC, was initiated in 1971 by the European Pharmaceutical Market Research Association (EphMRA) and is being maintained by the EphMRA and Intellus. Its codes are organised into four levels. The WHO's system, having five levels, is an extension and modification of the EphMRA's. It was first published in 1976.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "In this system, drugs are classified into groups at five different levels:", "title": "Classification" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The first level of the code indicates the anatomical main group and consists of one letter. There are 14 main groups:", "title": "Classification" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Example: C Cardiovascular system", "title": "Classification" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "The second level of the code indicates the therapeutic subgroup and consists of two digits.", "title": "Classification" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Example: C03 Diuretics", "title": "Classification" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "The third level of the code indicates the therapeutic/pharmacological subgroup and consists of one letter.", "title": "Classification" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Example: C03C High-ceiling diuretics", "title": "Classification" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "The fourth level of the code indicates the chemical/therapeutic/pharmacological subgroup and consists of one letter.", "title": "Classification" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Example: C03CA Sulfonamides", "title": "Classification" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "The fifth level of the code indicates the chemical substance and consists of two digits.", "title": "Classification" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "Example: C03CA01 furosemide", "title": "Classification" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "The Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System for veterinary medicinal products (ATCvet) is used to classify veterinary drugs. ATCvet codes can be created by placing the letter Q in front of the ATC code of most human medications. For example, furosemide for veterinary use has the code QC03CA01.", "title": "Other ATC classification systems" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "Some codes are used exclusively for veterinary drugs, such as QI Immunologicals, QJ51 Antibacterials for intramammary use or QN05AX90 amperozide.", "title": "Other ATC classification systems" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "The Herbal ATC system (HATC) is an ATC classification of herbal substances; it differs from the regular ATC system by using 4 digits instead of 2 at the 5th level group.", "title": "Other ATC classification systems" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "The herbal classification is not adopted by WHO. The Uppsala Monitoring Centre is responsible for the Herbal ATC classification, and it is part of the WHODrug Global portfolio available by subscription.", "title": "Other ATC classification systems" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "The ATC system also includes defined daily doses (DDDs) for many drugs. This is a measurement of drug consumption based on the usual daily dose for a given drug. According to the definition, \"[t]he DDD is the assumed average maintenance dose per day for a drug used for its main indication in adults.\"", "title": "Defined daily dose" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "National issues of the ATC classification, such as the German Anatomisch-therapeutisch-chemische Klassifikation mit Tagesdosen, may include additional codes and DDDs not present in the WHO version.", "title": "Adaptations and updates" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "ATC follows guidelines in creating new codes for newly approved drugs. An application is submitted to WHO for ATC classification and DDD assignment. A preliminary or temporary code is assigned and published on the website and in the WHO Drug Information for comment or objection. New ATC/DDD codes are discussed at the semi-annual Working Group meeting. If accepted it becomes a final decision and published semi-annually on the website and WHO Drug Information and implemented in the annual print/on-line ACT/DDD Index on January 1.", "title": "Adaptations and updates" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "Changes to existing ATC/DDD follow a similar process to become temporary codes and if accepted become a final decision as ATC/DDD alterations. ATC and DDD alterations are only valid and implemented in the coming annual updates; the original codes must continue until the end of the year.", "title": "Adaptations and updates" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "An updated version of the complete on-line/print ATC index with DDDs is published annually on January 1.", "title": "Adaptations and updates" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Parallel ATA (PATA), originally AT Attachment, also known as IDE, is a standard interface designed for IBM PC-compatible computers. It was first developed by Western Digital and Compaq in 1986 for compatible hard drives and CD or DVD drives. The connection is used for storage devices such as hard disk drives, floppy disk drives, optical disc drives, and tape drives in computers.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The standard is maintained by the X3/INCITS committee. It uses the underlying AT Attachment (ATA) and AT Attachment Packet Interface (ATAPI) standards.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The Parallel ATA standard is the result of a long history of incremental technical development, which began with the original AT Attachment interface, developed for use in early PC AT equipment. The ATA interface itself evolved in several stages from Western Digital's original Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) interface. As a result, many near-synonyms for ATA/ATAPI and its previous incarnations are still in common informal use, in particular Extended IDE (EIDE) and Ultra ATA (UATA). After the introduction of SATA in 2003, the original ATA was renamed to Parallel ATA, or PATA for short.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Parallel ATA cables have a maximum allowable length of 18 in (457 mm). Because of this limit, the technology normally appears as an internal computer storage interface. For many years, ATA provided the most common and the least expensive interface for this application. It has largely been replaced by SATA in newer systems.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The standard was originally conceived as the \"AT Bus Attachment,\" officially called \"AT Attachment\" and abbreviated \"ATA\" because its primary feature was a direct connection to the 16-bit ISA bus introduced with the IBM PC/AT. The original ATA specifications published by the standards committees use the name \"AT Attachment\". The \"AT\" in the IBM PC/AT referred to \"Advanced Technology\" so ATA has also been referred to as \"Advanced Technology Attachment\". When a newer Serial ATA (SATA) was introduced in 2003, the original ATA was renamed to Parallel ATA, or PATA for short.", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Physical ATA interfaces became a standard component in all PCs, initially on host bus adapters, sometimes on a sound card but ultimately as two physical interfaces embedded in a Southbridge chip on a motherboard. Called the \"primary\" and \"secondary\" ATA interfaces, they were assigned to base addresses 0x1F0 and 0x170 on ISA bus systems. They were replaced by SATA interfaces.", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "The first version of what is now called the ATA/ATAPI interface was developed by Western Digital under the name Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE). Together with Compaq Computer (the initial customer), they worked with various disk drive manufacturers to develop and ship early products with the goal of remaining software compatible with the existing IBM PC hard drive interface. The first such drives appeared internally in Compaq PCs in 1986 and were first separately offered by Conner Peripherals as the CP342 in June 1987.", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "The term Integrated Drive Electronics refers to the fact that the drive controller is integrated into the drive, as opposed to a separate controller situated at the other side of the connection cable to the drive. On an IBM PC compatible, CP/M machine, or similar, this was typically a card installed on a motherboard. The interface cards used to connect a parallel ATA drive to, for example, an ISA Slot, are not drive controllers: they are merely bridges between the host bus and the ATA interface. Since the original ATA interface is essentially just a 16-bit ISA bus in disguise, the bridge was especially simple in case of an ATA connector being located on an ISA interface card. The integrated controller presented the drive to the host computer as an array of 512-byte blocks with a relatively simple command interface. This relieved the mainboard and interface cards in the host computer of the chores of stepping the disk head arm, moving the head arm in and out, and so on, as had to be done with earlier ST-506 and ESDI hard drives. All of these low-level details of the mechanical operation of the drive were now handled by the controller on the drive itself. This also eliminated the need to design a single controller that could handle many different types of drives, since the controller could be unique for the drive. The host need only to ask for a particular sector, or block, to be read or written, and either accept the data from the drive or send the data to it.", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "The interface used by these drives was standardized in 1994 as ANSI standard X3.221-1994, AT Attachment Interface for Disk Drives. After later versions of the standard were developed, this became known as \"ATA-1\".", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "A short-lived, seldom-used implementation of ATA was created for the IBM XT and similar machines that used the 8-bit version of the ISA bus. It has been referred to as \"XT-IDE\", \"XTA\" or \"XT Attachment\".", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "In 1994, about the same time that the ATA-1 standard was adopted, Western Digital introduced drives under a newer name, Enhanced IDE (EIDE). These included most of the features of the forthcoming ATA-2 specification and several additional enhancements. Other manufacturers introduced their own variations of ATA-1 such as \"Fast ATA\" and \"Fast ATA-2\".", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "The new version of the ANSI standard, AT Attachment Interface with Extensions ATA-2 (X3.279-1996), was approved in 1996. It included most of the features of the manufacturer-specific variants.", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "ATA-2 also was the first to note that devices other than hard drives could be attached to the interface:", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "3.1.7 Device: Device is a storage peripheral. Traditionally, a device on the ATA interface has been a hard disk drive, but any form of storage device may be placed on the ATA interface provided it adheres to this standard.", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "As mentioned in the previous sections, ATA was originally designed for, and worked only with hard disk drives and devices that could emulate them. The introduction of ATAPI (ATA Packet Interface) by a group called the Small Form Factor committee (SFF) allowed ATA to be used for a variety of other devices that require functions beyond those necessary for hard disk drives. For example, any removable media device needs a \"media eject\" command, and a way for the host to determine whether the media is present, and these were not provided in the ATA protocol.", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "The Small Form Factor committee approached this problem by defining ATAPI, the \"ATA Packet Interface\". ATAPI is actually a protocol allowing the ATA interface to carry SCSI commands and responses; therefore, all ATAPI devices are actually \"speaking SCSI\" other than at the electrical interface. In fact, some early ATAPI devices were simply SCSI devices with an ATA/ATAPI to SCSI protocol converter added on. The SCSI commands and responses are embedded in \"packets\" (hence \"ATA Packet Interface\") for transmission on the ATA cable. This allows any device class for which a SCSI command set has been defined to be interfaced via ATA/ATAPI.", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "ATAPI devices are also \"speaking ATA\", as the ATA physical interface and protocol are still being used to send the packets. On the other hand, ATA hard drives and solid state drives do not use ATAPI.", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "ATAPI devices include CD-ROM and DVD-ROM drives, tape drives, and large-capacity floppy drives such as the Zip drive and SuperDisk drive.", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "The SCSI commands and responses used by each class of ATAPI device (CD-ROM, tape, etc.) are described in other documents or specifications specific to those device classes and are not within ATA/ATAPI or the T13 committee's purview. One commonly used set is defined in the MMC SCSI command set.", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "ATAPI was adopted as part of ATA in INCITS 317-1998, AT Attachment with Packet Interface Extension (ATA/ATAPI-4).", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "The ATA/ATAPI-4 standard also introduced several \"Ultra DMA\" transfer modes. These initially supported speeds from 16 MByte/s to 33 MByte/second. In later versions, faster Ultra DMA modes were added, requiring new 80-wire cables to reduce crosstalk. The latest versions of Parallel ATA support up to 133 MByte/s.", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "Ultra ATA, abbreviated UATA, is a designation that has been primarily used by Western Digital for different speed enhancements to the ATA/ATAPI standards. For example, in 2000 Western Digital published a document describing \"Ultra ATA/100\", which brought performance improvements for the then-current ATA/ATAPI-5 standard by improving maximum speed of the Parallel ATA interface from 66 to 100 MB/s. Most of Western Digital's changes, along with others, were included in the ATA/ATAPI-6 standard (2002).", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "The terms \"integrated drive electronics\" (IDE), \"enhanced IDE\" and \"EIDE\" have come to be used interchangeably with ATA (now Parallel ATA, or PATA).", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "In addition, there have been several generations of \"EIDE\" drives marketed, compliant with various versions of the ATA specification. An early \"EIDE\" drive might be compatible with ATA-2, while a later one with ATA-6.", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "Nevertheless, a request for an \"IDE\" or \"EIDE\" drive from a computer parts vendor will almost always yield a drive that will work with most Parallel ATA interfaces.", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "Another common usage is to refer to the specification version by the fastest mode supported. For example, ATA-4 supported Ultra DMA modes 0 through 2, the latter providing a maximum transfer rate of 33 megabytes per second. ATA-4 drives are thus sometimes called \"UDMA-33\" drives, and sometimes \"ATA-33\" drives. Similarly, ATA-6 introduced a maximum transfer speed of 100 megabytes per second, and some drives complying with this version of the standard are marketed as \"PATA/100\" drives.", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "Initially, the size of an ATA drive was stored in the system x86 BIOS using a type number (1 through 45) that predefined the C/H/S parameters and also often the landing zone, in which the drive heads are parked while not in use. Later, a \"user definable\" format called C/H/S or cylinders, heads, sectors was made available. These numbers were important for the earlier ST-506 interface, but were generally meaningless for ATA—the CHS parameters for later ATA large drives often specified impossibly high numbers of heads or sectors that did not actually define the internal physical layout of the drive at all. From the start, and up to ATA-2, every user had to specify explicitly how large every attached drive was. From ATA-2 on, an \"identify drive\" command was implemented that can be sent and which will return all drive parameters.", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "Owing to a lack of foresight by motherboard manufacturers, the system BIOS was often hobbled by artificial C/H/S size limitations due to the manufacturer assuming certain values would never exceed a particular numerical maximum.", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "The first of these BIOS limits occurred when ATA drives reached sizes in excess of 504 MiB, because some motherboard BIOSes would not allow C/H/S values above 1024 cylinders, 16 heads, and 63 sectors. Multiplied by 512 bytes per sector, this totals 528482304 bytes which, divided by 1048576 bytes per MiB, equals 504 MiB (528 MB).", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "The second of these BIOS limitations occurred at 1024 cylinders, 256 heads, and 63 sectors, and a problem in MS-DOS limited the number of heads to 255. This totals to 8422686720 bytes (8032.5 MiB), commonly referred to as the 8.4 gigabyte barrier. This is again a limit imposed by x86 BIOSes, and not a limit imposed by the ATA interface.", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "It was eventually determined that these size limitations could be overridden with a small program loaded at startup from a hard drive's boot sector. Some hard drive manufacturers, such as Western Digital, started including these override utilities with large hard drives to help overcome these problems. However, if the computer was booted in some other manner without loading the special utility, the invalid BIOS settings would be used and the drive could either be inaccessible or appear to the operating system to be damaged.", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "Later, an extension to the x86 BIOS disk services called the \"Enhanced Disk Drive\" (EDD) was made available, which makes it possible to address drives as large as 2 sectors.", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "The first drive interface used 22-bit addressing mode which resulted in a maximum drive capacity of two gigabytes. Later, the first formalized ATA specification used a 28-bit addressing mode through LBA28, allowing for the addressing of 2 (268435456) sectors (blocks) of 512 bytes each, resulting in a maximum capacity of 128 GiB (137 GB).", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "ATA-6 introduced 48-bit addressing, increasing the limit to 128 PiB (144 PB). As a consequence, any ATA drive of capacity larger than about 137 GB must be an ATA-6 or later drive. Connecting such a drive to a host with an ATA-5 or earlier interface will limit the usable capacity to the maximum of the interface.", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "Some operating systems, including Windows XP pre-SP1, and Windows 2000 pre-SP3, disable LBA48 by default, requiring the user to take extra steps to use the entire capacity of an ATA drive larger than about 137 gigabytes.", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "Older operating systems, such as Windows 98, do not support 48-bit LBA at all. However, members of the third-party group MSFN have modified the Windows 98 disk drivers to add unofficial support for 48-bit LBA to Windows 95 OSR2, Windows 98, Windows 98 SE and Windows ME.", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 36, "text": "Some 16-bit and 32-bit operating systems supporting LBA48 may still not support disks larger than 2 TiB due to using 32-bit arithmetic only; a limitation also applying to many boot sectors.", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 37, "text": "Parallel ATA (then simply called ATA or IDE) became the primary storage device interface for PCs soon after its introduction. In some systems, a third and fourth motherboard interface was provided, allowing up to eight ATA devices to be attached to the motherboard. Often, these additional connectors were implemented by inexpensive RAID controllers.", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 38, "text": "Soon after the introduction of Serial ATA (SATA) in 2003, use of Parallel ATA declined. The first motherboards with built-in SATA interfaces usually had only a single PATA connector (for up to two PATA devices), along with multiple SATA connectors. Some PCs and laptops of the era have a SATA hard disk and an optical drive connected to PATA.", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 39, "text": "As of 2007, some PC chipsets, for example the Intel ICH10, had removed support for PATA. Motherboard vendors still wishing to offer Parallel ATA with those chipsets must include an additional interface chip. In more recent computers, the Parallel ATA interface is rarely used even if present, as four or more Serial ATA connectors are usually provided on the motherboard and SATA devices of all types are common.", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 40, "text": "With Western Digital's withdrawal from the PATA market, hard disk drives with the PATA interface were no longer in production after December 2013 for other than specialty applications.", "title": "History and terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 41, "text": "Parallel ATA cables transfer data 16 bits at a time. The traditional cable uses 40-pin female connectors attached to a 40- or 80-conductor ribbon cable. Each cable has two or three connectors, one of which plugs into a host adapter interfacing with the rest of the computer system. The remaining connector(s) plug into storage devices, most commonly hard disk drives or optical drives. Each connector has 39 physical pins arranged into two rows (2.54 mm, 1⁄10-inch pitch), with a gap or key at pin 20. Earlier connectors may not have that gap, with all 40 pins available. Thus, later cables with the gap filled in are incompatible with earlier connectors, although earlier cables are compatible with later connectors.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 42, "text": "Round parallel ATA cables (as opposed to ribbon cables) were eventually made available for 'case modders' for cosmetic reasons, as well as claims of improved computer cooling and were easier to handle; however, only ribbon cables are supported by the ATA specifications.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 43, "text": "In the ATA standard, pin 20 is defined as a mechanical key and is not used. This pin's socket on the female connector is often obstructed, requiring pin 20 to be omitted from the male cable or drive connector; it is thus impossible to plug it in the wrong way round.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 44, "text": "However, some flash memory drives can use pin 20 as VCC_in to power the drive without requiring a special power cable; this feature can only be used if the equipment supports this use of pin 20.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 45, "text": "Pin 28 of the gray (slave/middle) connector of an 80-conductor cable is not attached to any conductor of the cable. It is attached normally on the black (master drive end) and blue (motherboard end) connectors. This enables cable select functionality.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 46, "text": "Pin 34 is connected to ground inside the blue connector of an 80-conductor cable but not attached to any conductor of the cable, allowing for detection of such a cable. It is attached normally on the gray and black connectors.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 47, "text": "A 44-pin variant PATA connector is used for 2.5 inch drives inside laptops. The pins are closer together (2.0 mm pitch) and the connector is physically smaller than the 40-pin connector. The extra pins carry power.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 48, "text": "ATA's cables have had 40 conductors for most of its history (44 conductors for the smaller form-factor version used for 2.5\" drives—the extra four for power), but an 80-conductor version appeared with the introduction of the UDMA/66 mode. All of the additional conductors in the new cable are grounds, interleaved with the signal conductors to reduce the effects of capacitive coupling between neighboring signal conductors, reducing crosstalk. Capacitive coupling is more of a problem at higher transfer rates, and this change was necessary to enable the 66 megabytes per second (MB/s) transfer rate of UDMA4 to work reliably. The faster UDMA5 and UDMA6 modes also require 80-conductor cables.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 49, "text": "Though the number of conductors doubled, the number of connector pins and the pinout remain the same as 40-conductor cables, and the external appearance of the connectors is identical. Internally, the connectors are different; the connectors for the 80-conductor cable connect a larger number of ground conductors to the ground pins, while the connectors for the 40-conductor cable connect ground conductors to ground pins one-to-one. 80-conductor cables usually come with three differently colored connectors (blue, black, and gray for controller, master drive, and slave drive respectively) as opposed to uniformly colored 40-conductor cable's connectors (commonly all gray). The gray connector on 80-conductor cables has pin 28 CSEL not connected, making it the slave position for drives configured cable select.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 50, "text": "The image on the right shows PATA connectors after removal of strain relief, cover, and cable. Pin one is at bottom left of the connectors, pin 2 is top left, etc., except that the lower image of the blue connector shows the view from the opposite side, and pin one is at top right.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 51, "text": "The connector is an insulation-displacement connector: each contact comprises a pair of points which together pierce the insulation of the ribbon cable with such precision that they make a connection to the desired conductor without harming the insulation on the neighboring conductors. The center row of contacts are all connected to the common ground bus and attach to the odd numbered conductors of the cable. The top row of contacts are the even-numbered sockets of the connector (mating with the even-numbered pins of the receptacle) and attach to every other even-numbered conductor of the cable. The bottom row of contacts are the odd-numbered sockets of the connector (mating with the odd-numbered pins of the receptacle) and attach to the remaining even-numbered conductors of the cable.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 52, "text": "Note the connections to the common ground bus from sockets 2 (top left), 19 (center bottom row), 22, 24, 26, 30, and 40 on all connectors. Also note (enlarged detail, bottom, looking from the opposite side of the connector) that socket 34 of the blue connector does not contact any conductor but unlike socket 34 of the other two connectors, it does connect to the common ground bus. On the gray connector, note that socket 28 is completely missing, so that pin 28 of the drive attached to the gray connector will be open. On the black connector, sockets 28 and 34 are completely normal, so that pins 28 and 34 of the drive attached to the black connector will be connected to the cable. Pin 28 of the black drive reaches pin 28 of the host receptacle but not pin 28 of the gray drive, while pin 34 of the black drive reaches pin 34 of the gray drive but not pin 34 of the host. Instead, pin 34 of the host is grounded.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 53, "text": "The standard dictates color-coded connectors for easy identification by both installer and cable maker. All three connectors are different from one another. The blue (host) connector has the socket for pin 34 connected to ground inside the connector but not attached to any conductor of the cable. Since the old 40 conductor cables do not ground pin 34, the presence of a ground connection indicates that an 80 conductor cable is installed. The conductor for pin 34 is attached normally on the other types and is not grounded. Installing the cable backwards (with the black connector on the system board, the blue connector on the remote device and the gray connector on the center device) will ground pin 34 of the remote device and connect host pin 34 through to pin 34 of the center device. The gray center connector omits the connection to pin 28 but connects pin 34 normally, while the black end connector connects both pins 28 and 34 normally.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 54, "text": "If two devices are attached to a single cable, one must be designated as Device 0 (in the past, commonly designated master) and the other as Device 1 (in the past, commonly designated as slave). This distinction is necessary to allow both drives to share the cable without conflict. The Device 0 drive is the drive that usually appears \"first\" to the computer's BIOS and/or operating system. In most personal computers the drives are often designated as \"C:\" for the Device 0 and \"D:\" for the Device 1 referring to one active primary partitions on each.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 55, "text": "The mode that a device must use is often set by a jumper setting on the device itself, which must be manually set to Device 0 (Master) or Device 1 (Slave). If there is a single device on a cable, it should be configured as Device 0. However, some certain era drives have a special setting called Single for this configuration (Western Digital, in particular). Also, depending on the hardware and software available, a Single drive on a cable will often work reliably even though configured as the Device 1 drive (most often seen where an optical drive is the only device on the secondary ATA interface).", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 56, "text": "The words primary and secondary typically refers to the two IDE cables, which can have two drives each (primary master, primary slave, secondary master, secondary slave).", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 57, "text": "A drive mode called cable select was described as optional in ATA-1 and has come into fairly widespread use with ATA-5 and later. A drive set to \"cable select\" automatically configures itself as Device 0 or Device 1, according to its position on the cable. Cable select is controlled by pin 28. The host adapter grounds this pin; if a device sees that the pin is grounded, it becomes the Device 0 (master) device; if it sees that pin 28 is open, the device becomes the Device 1 (slave) device.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 58, "text": "This setting is usually chosen by a jumper setting on the drive called \"cable select\", usually marked CS, which is separate from the Device 0/1 setting.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 59, "text": "Note that if two drives are configured as Device 0 and Device 1 manually, this configuration does not need to correspond to their position on the cable. Pin 28 is only used to let the drives know their position on the cable; it is not used by the host when communicating with the drives. In other words, the manual master/slave setting using jumpers on the drives takes precedence and allows them to be freely placed on either connector of the ribbon cable.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 60, "text": "With the 40-conductor cable, it was very common to implement cable select by simply cutting the pin 28 wire between the two device connectors; putting the slave Device 1 device at the end of the cable, and the master Device 0 on the middle connector. This arrangement eventually was standardized in later versions. However, it had one drawback: if there is just one master device on a 2-drive cable, using the middle connector, this results in an unused stub of cable, which is undesirable for physical convenience and electrical reasons. The stub causes signal reflections, particularly at higher transfer rates.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 61, "text": "Starting with the 80-conductor cable defined for use in ATAPI5/UDMA4, the master Device 0 device goes at the far-from-the-host end of the 18-inch (460 mm) cable on the black connector, the slave Device 1 goes on the grey middle connector, and the blue connector goes to the host (e.g. motherboard IDE connector, or IDE card). So, if there is only one (Device 0) device on a two-drive cable, using the black connector, there is no cable stub to cause reflections (the unused connector is now in the middle of the ribbon). Also, cable select is now implemented in the grey middle device connector, usually simply by omitting the pin 28 contact from the connector body.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 62, "text": "The parallel ATA protocols up through ATA-3 require that once a command has been given on an ATA interface, it must complete before any subsequent command may be given. Operations on the devices must be serialized—with only one operation in progress at a time—with respect to the ATA host interface. A useful mental model is that the host ATA interface is busy with the first request for its entire duration, and therefore can not be told about another request until the first one is complete. The function of serializing requests to the interface is usually performed by a device driver in the host operating system.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 63, "text": "The ATA-4 and subsequent versions of the specification have included an \"overlapped feature set\" and a \"queued feature set\" as optional features, both being given the name \"Tagged Command Queuing\" (TCQ), a reference to a set of features from SCSI which the ATA version attempts to emulate. However, support for these is extremely rare in actual parallel ATA products and device drivers because these feature sets were implemented in such a way as to maintain software compatibility with its heritage as originally an extension of the ISA bus. This implementation resulted in excessive CPU utilization which largely negated the advantages of command queuing. By contrast, overlapped and queued operations have been common in other storage buses; in particular, SCSI's version of tagged command queuing had no need to be compatible with APIs designed for ISA, allowing it to attain high performance with low overhead on buses which supported first party DMA like PCI. This has long been seen as a major advantage of SCSI.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 64, "text": "The Serial ATA standard has supported native command queueing (NCQ) since its first release, but it is an optional feature for both host adapters and target devices. Many obsolete PC motherboards do not support NCQ, but modern SATA hard disk drives and SATA solid-state drives usually support NCQ, which is not the case for removable (CD/DVD) drives because the ATAPI command set used to control them prohibits queued operations.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 65, "text": "There are many debates about how much a slow device can impact the performance of a faster device on the same cable. There is an effect, but the debate is confused by the blurring of two quite different causes, called here \"Lowest speed\" and \"One operation at a time\".", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 66, "text": "On early ATA host adapters, both devices' data transfers can be constrained to the speed of the slower device, if two devices of different speed capabilities are on the same cable.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 67, "text": "For all modern ATA host adapters, this is not true, as modern ATA host adapters support independent device timing. This allows each device on the cable to transfer data at its own best speed. Even with earlier adapters without independent timing, this effect applies only to the data transfer phase of a read or write operation.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 68, "text": "This is caused by the omission of both overlapped and queued feature sets from most parallel ATA products. Only one device on a cable can perform a read or write operation at one time; therefore, a fast device on the same cable as a slow device under heavy use will find it has to wait for the slow device to complete its task first.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 69, "text": "However, most modern devices will report write operations as complete once the data is stored in their onboard cache memory, before the data is written to the (slow) magnetic storage. This allows commands to be sent to the other device on the cable, reducing the impact of the \"one operation at a time\" limit.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 70, "text": "The impact of this on a system's performance depends on the application. For example, when copying data from an optical drive to a hard drive (such as during software installation), this effect probably will not matter. Such jobs are necessarily limited by the speed of the optical drive no matter where it is. But if the hard drive in question is also expected to provide good throughput for other tasks at the same time, it probably should not be on the same cable as the optical drive.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 71, "text": "ATA devices may support an optional security feature which is defined in an ATA specification, and thus not specific to any brand or device. The security feature can be enabled and disabled by sending special ATA commands to the drive. If a device is locked, it will refuse all access until it is unlocked.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 72, "text": "A device can have two passwords: A User Password and a Master Password; either or both may be set. There is a Master Password identifier feature which, if supported and used, can identify the current Master Password (without disclosing it).", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 73, "text": "A device can be locked in two modes: High security mode or Maximum security mode. Bit 8 in word 128 of the IDENTIFY response shows which mode the disk is in: 0 = High, 1 = Maximum.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 74, "text": "In High security mode, the device can be unlocked with either the User or Master password, using the \"SECURITY UNLOCK DEVICE\" ATA command. There is an attempt limit, normally set to 5, after which the disk must be power cycled or hard-reset before unlocking can be attempted again. Also in High security mode, the SECURITY ERASE UNIT command can be used with either the User or Master password.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 75, "text": "In Maximum security mode, the device can be unlocked only with the User password. If the User password is not available, the only remaining way to get at least the bare hardware back to a usable state is to issue the SECURITY ERASE PREPARE command, immediately followed by SECURITY ERASE UNIT. In Maximum security mode, the SECURITY ERASE UNIT command requires the Master password and will completely erase all data on the disk. Word 89 in the IDENTIFY response indicates how long the operation will take.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 76, "text": "While the ATA lock is intended to be impossible to defeat without a valid password, there are purported workarounds to unlock a device.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 77, "text": "For sanitizing entire disks the built-in Secure Erase command is effective when implemented correctly. There have been a few reported instances of failures to erase some or all data.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 78, "text": "Due to a short cable length specification and shielding issues it is extremely uncommon to find external PATA devices that directly use PATA for connection to a computer. A device connected externally needs additional cable length to form a U-shaped bend so that the external device may be placed alongside, or on top of the computer case, and the standard cable length is too short to permit this. For ease of reach from motherboard to device, the connectors tend to be positioned towards the front edge of motherboards, for connection to devices protruding from the front of the computer case. This front-edge position makes extension out the back to an external device even more difficult. Ribbon cables are poorly shielded, and the standard relies upon the cabling to be installed inside a shielded computer case to meet RF emissions limits.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 79, "text": "External hard disk drives or optical disk drives that have an internal PATA interface, use some other interface technology to bridge the distance between the external device and the computer. USB is the most common external interface, followed by Firewire. A bridge chip inside the external devices converts from the USB interface to PATA, and typically only supports a single external device without cable select or master/slave.", "title": "Parallel ATA interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 80, "text": "Compact Flash in its IDE mode is essentially a miniaturized ATA interface, intended for use on devices that use flash memory storage. No interfacing chips or circuitry are required, other than to directly adapt the smaller CF socket onto the larger ATA connector. (Although most CF cards only support IDE mode up to PIO4, making them much slower in IDE mode than their CF capable speed)", "title": "Compact Flash interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 81, "text": "The ATA connector specification does not include pins for supplying power to a CF device, so power is inserted into the connector from a separate source. The exception to this is when the CF device is connected to a 44-pin ATA bus designed for 2.5-inch hard disk drives, commonly found in notebook computers, as this bus implementation must provide power to a standard hard disk drive.", "title": "Compact Flash interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 82, "text": "CF devices can be designated as devices 0 or 1 on an ATA interface, though since most CF devices offer only a single socket, it is not necessary to offer this selection to end users. Although CF can be hot-pluggable with additional design methods, by default when wired directly to an ATA interface, it is not intended to be hot-pluggable.", "title": "Compact Flash interface" }, { "paragraph_id": 83, "text": "The following table shows the names of the versions of the ATA standards and the transfer modes and rates supported by each. Note that the transfer rate for each mode (for example, 66.7 MB/s for UDMA4, commonly called \"Ultra-DMA 66\", defined by ATA-5) gives its maximum theoretical transfer rate on the cable. This is simply two bytes multiplied by the effective clock rate, and presumes that every clock cycle is used to transfer end-user data. In practice, of course, protocol overhead reduces this value.", "title": "ATA standards versions, transfer rates, and features" }, { "paragraph_id": 84, "text": "Congestion on the host bus to which the ATA adapter is attached may also limit the maximum burst transfer rate. For example, the maximum data transfer rate for conventional PCI bus is 133 MB/s, and this is shared among all active devices on the bus.", "title": "ATA standards versions, transfer rates, and features" }, { "paragraph_id": 85, "text": "In addition, no ATA hard drives existed in 2005 that were capable of measured sustained transfer rates of above 80 MB/s. Furthermore, sustained transfer rate tests do not give realistic throughput expectations for most workloads: They use I/O loads specifically designed to encounter almost no delays from seek time or rotational latency. Hard drive performance under most workloads is limited first and second by those two factors; the transfer rate on the bus is a distant third in importance. Therefore, transfer speed limits above 66 MB/s really affect performance only when the hard drive can satisfy all I/O requests by reading from its internal cache—a very unusual situation, especially considering that such data is usually already buffered by the operating system.", "title": "ATA standards versions, transfer rates, and features" }, { "paragraph_id": 86, "text": "As of July 2021, mechanical hard disk drives can transfer data at up to 524 MB/s, which is far beyond the capabilities of the PATA/133 specification. High-performance solid state drives can transfer data at up to 7000–7500 MB/s.", "title": "ATA standards versions, transfer rates, and features" }, { "paragraph_id": 87, "text": "Only the Ultra DMA modes use CRC to detect errors in data transfer between the controller and drive. This is a 16-bit CRC, and it is used for data blocks only. Transmission of command and status blocks do not use the fast signaling methods that would necessitate CRC. For comparison, in Serial ATA, 32-bit CRC is used for both commands and data.", "title": "ATA standards versions, transfer rates, and features" }, { "paragraph_id": 88, "text": "ATAPI devices with removable media, other than CD and DVD drives, are classified as ARMD (ATAPI Removable Media Device) and can appear as either a super-floppy (non-partitioned media) or a hard drive (partitioned media) to the operating system. These can be supported as bootable devices by a BIOS complying with the ATAPI Removable Media Device BIOS Specification, originally developed by Compaq Computer Corporation and Phoenix Technologies. It specifies provisions in the BIOS of a personal computer to allow the computer to be bootstrapped from devices such as Zip drives, Jaz drives, SuperDisk (LS-120) drives, and similar devices.", "title": "Related standards, features, and proposals" }, { "paragraph_id": 89, "text": "These devices have removable media like floppy disk drives, but capacities more commensurate with hard drives, and programming requirements unlike either. Due to limitations in the floppy controller interface most of these devices were ATAPI devices, connected to one of the host computer's ATA interfaces, similarly to a hard drive or CD-ROM device. However, existing BIOS standards did not support these devices. An ARMD-compliant BIOS allows these devices to be booted from and used under the operating system without requiring device-specific code in the OS.", "title": "Related standards, features, and proposals" }, { "paragraph_id": 90, "text": "A BIOS implementing ARMD allows the user to include ARMD devices in the boot search order. Usually an ARMD device is configured earlier in the boot order than the hard drive. Similarly to a floppy drive, if bootable media is present in the ARMD drive, the BIOS will boot from it; if not, the BIOS will continue in the search order, usually with the hard drive last.", "title": "Related standards, features, and proposals" }, { "paragraph_id": 91, "text": "There are two variants of ARMD, ARMD-FDD and ARMD-HDD. Originally ARMD caused the devices to appear as a sort of very large floppy drive, either the primary floppy drive device 00h or the secondary device 01h. Some operating systems required code changes to support floppy disks with capacities far larger than any standard floppy disk drive. Also, standard-floppy disk drive emulation proved to be unsuitable for certain high-capacity floppy disk drives such as Iomega Zip drives. Later the ARMD-HDD, ARMD-\"Hard disk device\", variant was developed to address these issues. Under ARMD-HDD, an ARMD device appears to the BIOS and the operating system as a hard drive.", "title": "Related standards, features, and proposals" }, { "paragraph_id": 92, "text": "In August 2004, Sam Hopkins and Brantley Coile of Coraid specified a lightweight ATA over Ethernet protocol to carry ATA commands over Ethernet instead of directly connecting them to a PATA host adapter. This permitted the established block protocol to be reused in storage area network (SAN) applications.", "title": "Related standards, features, and proposals" }, { "paragraph_id": 93, "text": "", "title": "Notes" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The Atari 2600 is a home video game console developed and produced by Atari, Inc. Released in September 1977 as the Atari Video Computer System (Atari VCS), it popularized microprocessor-based hardware and games stored on swappable ROM cartridges, a format first used with the Fairchild Channel F in 1976. The VCS was bundled with two joystick controllers, a conjoined pair of paddle controllers, and a game cartridge—initially Combat and later Pac-Man. Sears sold the system as the Tele-Games Video Arcade. Atari rebranded the VCS as the Atari 2600 in November 1982 alongside the release of the Atari 5200.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Atari was successful at creating arcade video games, but their development cost and limited lifespan drove CEO Nolan Bushnell to seek a programmable home system. The first inexpensive microprocessors from MOS Technology in late 1975 made this feasible. The console was prototyped as codename Stella by Atari subsidiary Cyan Engineering. Lacking funding to complete the project, Bushnell sold Atari to Warner Communications in 1976.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The Atari VCS launched in 1977 with nine simple, low-resolution games in 2 KB cartridges. The system's first killer app was the home conversion of Taito's arcade game Space Invaders in 1980. The VCS became widely successful, leading to the founding of Activision and other third-party game developers and to competition from console manufacturers Mattel and Coleco. Games grew to use four or more times the storage size of the launch games with significantly more advanced visuals and gameplay than the system was designed for, such as Activision's Pitfall!", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "By 1982, the Atari 2600 was the dominant game system in North America. However, it saw competition from other consoles such as the Intellivision and ColecoVision, and poor decisions by Atari management damaged both the system and company's reputation, most notably the release of two highly anticipated games for the 2600: a port of the arcade game Pac-Man and E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial. Pac-Man became the 2600's highest-selling game, but was panned for being inferior to the arcade version. E.T. was rushed to market for the holiday shopping season and was similarly panned and became a commercial failure. Both games, and a glut of third-party shovelware, were factors in ending Atari's relevance in the console market, contributing to the video game crash of 1983.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Warner sold Atari's home division to former Commodore CEO Jack Tramiel in 1984. In 1986, the new Atari Corporation under Tramiel released a lower-cost version of the 2600 and the backward-compatible Atari 7800, but it was Nintendo that led the recovery of the industry with its 1985 launch of the Nintendo Entertainment System. Production of the Atari 2600 ended on January 1, 1992, with an estimated 30 million units sold across its lifetime.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Atari, Inc. was founded by Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney in 1972. Its first major product was Pong, released in 1972, the first successful coin-operated video game. While Atari continued to develop new arcade games in following years, Pong gave rise to a number of competitors to the growing arcade game market. The competition along with other missteps by Atari led to financial problems in 1974, though recovering by the end of the year. By 1975, Atari had released a Pong home console, competing against Magnavox, the only other major producer of home consoles at the time. Atari engineers recognized, however, the limitation of custom logic integrated onto the circuit board, permanently confining the whole console to only one game. The increasing competition increased the risk, as Atari had found with past arcade games and again with dedicated home consoles. Both platforms are built from integrating discrete electro-mechanical components into circuits, rather than programmed as on a mainframe computer. Therefore, development of a console had cost at least $100,000 (equivalent to about $544,000 in 2022) plus time to complete, but the final product only had about a three-month shelf life until becoming outdated by competition.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "By 1974, Atari had acquired Cyan Engineering, a Grass Valley electronics company founded by Steve Mayer and Larry Emmons, both former colleagues of Bushnell and Dabney from Ampex, who helped to develop new ideas for Atari's arcade games. Even prior to the release of the home version of Pong, Cyan's engineers, led by Mayer and Ron Milner, had envisioned a home console powered by new programmable microprocessors capable of playing Atari's current arcade offerings. The programmable microprocessors would make a console's design significantly simpler and more powerful than any dedicated single-game unit. However, the cost $100–300 of such chips was far outside the range that their market would tolerate. Atari had opened negotiations to use Motorola's new 6800 in future systems.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "In September 1975, MOS Technology debuted the 6502 microprocessor for $25 at the Wescon trade show in San Francisco. Mayer and Milner attended, and met with the leader of the team that created the chip, Chuck Peddle. They proposed using the 6502 in a game console, and offered to discuss it further at Cyan's facilities after the show.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Over two days, MOS and Cyan engineers sketched out a 6502-based console design by Meyer and Milner's specifications. Financial models showed that even at $25, the 6502 would be too expensive, and Peddle offered them a planned 6507 microprocessor, a cost-reduced version of the 6502, and MOS's RIOT chip for input/output. Cyan and MOS negotiated the 6507 and RIOT chips at $12 a pair. MOS also introduced Cyan to Microcomputer Associates, who had separately developed debugging software and hardware for MOS, and had developed the JOLT Computer for testing the 6502, which Peddle suggested would be useful for Atari and Cyan to use while developing their system. Milner was able to demonstrate a proof-of-concept for a programmable console by implementing Tank, an arcade game by Atari's subsidiary Kee Games, on the JOLT.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "As part of the deal, Atari wanted a second source of the chipset. Peddle and Paivinen suggested Synertek whose co-founder, Bob Schreiner, was a friend of Peddle. In October 1975, Atari informed the market that it was moving forward with MOS. The Motorola sales team had already told its management that the Atari deal was finalized, and Motorola management was livid. They announced a lawsuit against MOS the next week.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "By December 1975, Atari hired Joe Decuir, a recent graduate from University of California, Berkeley who had been doing his own testing on the 6502. Decuir began debugging the first prototype designed by Mayer and Milner, which gained the codename \"Stella\" after the brand of Decuir's bicycle. This prototype included a breadboard-level design of the graphics interface to build upon. A second prototype was completed by March 1976 with the help of Jay Miner, who created a chip called the Television Interface Adaptor (TIA) to send graphics and audio to a television. The second prototype included a TIA, a 6507, and a ROM cartridge slot and adapter.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "As the TIA's design was refined, Al Alcorn brought in Atari's game developers to provide input on features. There are significant limitations in the 6507, the TIA, and other components, so the programmers creatively optimized their games to maximize the console. The console lacks a framebuffer and requires games to instruct the system to generate graphics in synchronization with the electron gun in the cathode-ray tube (CRT) as it scans across rows on the screen. The programmers found ways to \"race the beam\" to perform other functions while the electron gun scans outside of the visible screen.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Alongside the electronics development, Bushnell brought in Gene Landrum, a consultant who had just prior consulted for Fairchild Camera and Instrument for its upcoming Channel F, to determine the consumer requirements for the console. In his final report, Landrum suggested a living room aesthetic, with a wood grain finish, and the cartridges must be \"idiot proof, child proof and effective in resisting potential static [electricity] problems in a living room environment\". Landrum recommended it include four to five dedicated games in addition to the cartridges, but this was dropped in the final designs. The cartridge design was done by James Asher and Douglas Hardy. Hardy had been an engineer for Fairchild and helped in the initial design of the Channel F cartridges, but he quit to join Atari in 1976. The interior of the cartridge that Asher and Hardy designed was sufficiently different to avoid patent conflicts, but the exterior components were directly influenced by the Channel F to help work around the static electricity concerns.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "Atari was still recovering from its 1974 financial woes and needed additional capital to fully enter the home console market, though Bushnell was wary of being beholden to outside financial sources. Atari obtained smaller investments through 1975, but not at the scale it needed, and began considering a sale to a larger firm by early 1976. Atari was introduced to Warner Communications, which saw the potential for the growing video game industry to help offset declining profits from its film and music divisions. Negotiations took place during 1976, during which Atari cleared itself of liabilities, including settling a patent infringement lawsuit with Magnavox over Ralph H. Baer's patents that were the basis for the Magnavox Odyssey. In mid-1976, Fairchild announced the Channel F, planned for release later that year, beating Atari to the market.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "By October 1976, Warner and Atari agreed to the purchase of Atari for $28 million. Warner provided an estimated $120 million which was enough to fast-track Stella. By 1977, development had advanced enough to brand it the \"Atari Video Computer System\" (VCS) and start developing games.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "The unit was showcased on June 4, 1977, at the Summer Consumer Electronics Show with plans for retail release in October. The announcement was purportedly delayed to wait out the terms of the Magnavox patent lawsuit settlement, which would have given Magnavox all technical information on any of Atari's products announced between June 1, 1976, and June 1, 1977. However, Atari encountered production problems during its first batch, and its testing was complicated by the use of cartridges.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "The Atari VCS was launched in September 1977 at $199 (equivalent to about $960 in 2022), with two joysticks and a Combat cartridge; eight additional games were sold separately. Most of the launch games were based on arcade games developed by Atari or its subsidiary Kee Games: for example, Combat was based on Kee's Tank (1974) and Atari's Jet Fighter (1975). Atari sold between 350,000 and 400,000 Atari VCS units during 1977, attributed to the delay in shipping the units and consumers' unfamiliarity with a swappable-cartridge console that is not dedicated to only one game.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "In 1978, Atari sold only 550,000 of the 800,000 systems manufactured. This required further financial support from Warner to cover losses. Atari sold 1 million consoles in 1979, particularly during the holiday season, but there was new competition from the Mattel Electronics Intellivision and Magnavox Odyssey², which also use swappable ROM cartridges. The 2019 book They Create Worlds has Atari selling about 600,000 VCS systems in 1979, bringing the installed base to a little over 1.3 million.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "Atari obtained a license from Taito to develop a VCS conversion of its 1978 arcade hit Space Invaders. This is the first officially licensed arcade conversion for a home console. Its release in March 1980 doubled the console's sales for the year to more than 2 million units, and it was considered the Atari VCS's killer application. Sales then doubled again for the next two years. According to They Create Worlds, Atari sold 1.25 million Space Invaders cartridges and over 1 million VCS systems in 1980, nearly doubling the install base to over 2 million, and then an estimated 3.1 million VCS systems in 1981. By 1982, 10 million consoles had been sold in the United States, while its best-selling game was Pac-Man at over 8 million copies sold by 1990. Pac-Man propelled worldwide Atari VCS sales to 12 million units during 1982, according to a November 1983 article in InfoWorld magazine. An August 1984 InfoWorld magazine article says more than 15 million Atari 2600 machines were sold by 1982. A March 1983 article in IEEE Spectrum magazine has about 3 million VCS sales in 1981, about 5.5 million in 1982, as well as a total of over 12 million VCS systems and an estimated 120 million cartridges sold.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "In Europe, the Atari VCS sold 125,000 units in the United Kingdom during 1980, and 450,000 in West Germany by 1984. In France, where the VCS released in 1982, the system sold 600,000 units by 1989. The console was distributed by Epoch Co. in Japan in 1979 under the name \"Cassette TV Game\", but not sell as well as Epoch's own Cassette Vision system in 1981.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "In 1982, Atari launched its second programmable console, the Atari 5200. To standardize naming, the VCS was renamed to the \"Atari 2600 Video Computer System\", or \"Atari 2600\", derived from the manufacture part number CX2600. By 1982, the 2600 cost Atari about $40 to make and was sold for an average of $125 (equivalent to $380 in 2022). The company spent $4.50 to $6 to manufacture each cartridge, plus $1 to $2 for advertising, wholesaling for $18.95 (equivalent to $60 in 2022).", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "Activision, formed by Crane, Whitehead, and Miller in 1979, started developing third-party VCS games using their knowledge of VCS design and programming tricks, and began releasing games in 1980. Kaboom! (1981) and Pitfall! (1982) are among the most successful with at least one and four million copies sold, respectively. In 1980, Atari attempted to block the sale of the Activision cartridges, accusing the four of intellectual property infringement. The two companies settled out of court, with Activision agreeing to pay Atari a licensing fee for their games. This made Activision the first third-party video game developer and established the licensing model that continues to be used by console manufacturers for game development.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "Activision's success led to the establishment of other third-party VCS game developers following Activision's model in the early 1980s, including U.S. Games, Telesys, Games by Apollo, Data Age, Zimag, Mystique, and CommaVid. The founding of Imagic included ex-Atari programmers. Mattel and Coleco, each already producing its own more advanced console, created simplified versions of their existing games for the 2600. Mattel used the M Network brand name for its cartridges. Third-party games accounted for half of VCS game sales by 1982.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "In addition to third-party game development, Atari also received the first major threat to its hardware dominance from the Colecovision. Coleco had a license from Nintendo to develop a version of the arcade game Donkey Kong (1981), which was bundled with every Colecovision console. Coleco gained about 17% of the hardware market in 1982 compared to Atari's 58%. With third parties competing for market share, Atari worked to maintain dominance in the market by acquiring licenses for popular arcade games and other properties to make games from. Pac-Man has numerous technical and aesthetic flaws, but nevertheless more than 7 million copies were sold. Heading into the 1982 holiday shopping season, Atari had placed high sales expectations on E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, a game programmed in about six weeks. Atari produced an estimated four million cartridges, but the game was poorly reviewed, and only about 1.5 million units were sold.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "Warner Communications reported weaker results than expected in December 1982 to its shareholders, having expected a 50% year-to-year growth but only obtaining 10–15% due to declining sales at Atari. Coupled with the oversaturated home game market, Atari's weakened position led investors to start pulling funds out of video games, beginning a cascade of disastrous effects known as the video game crash of 1983. Many of the third-party developers formed prior to 1983 were closed, and Mattel and Coleco left the video game market by 1985.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "In September 1983, Atari sent 14 truckloads of unsold Atari 2600 cartridges and other equipment to a landfill in the New Mexico desert, later labeled the Atari video game burial. Long considered an urban legend that claimed the burial contained millions of unsold cartridges, the site was excavated in 2014, confirming reports from former Atari executives that only about 700,000 cartridges had actually been buried. Atari reported a $536 million loss for 1983 as a whole, and continued to lose money into 1984, with a $425 million loss reported in the second quarter. By mid-1984, software development for the 2600 had essentially stopped except that of Atari and Activision.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "Warner, wary of supporting its failing Atari division, started looking for buyers in 1984. Warner sold most of Atari to Jack Tramiel, the founder of Commodore International, in July 1984 for about $240 million, though Warner retained Atari's arcade business. Tramiel was a proponent of personal computers, and halted all new 2600 game development soon after the sale.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "The North American video game market did not recover until about 1986, after Nintendo's 1985 launch of the Nintendo Entertainment System in North America. Atari Corporation released a redesigned model of the 2600 in 1986, supported by an ad campaign touting a price of \"under 50 bucks\". With a large library of cartridges and a low price point, the 2600 continued to sell into the late 1980s. Atari released the last batch of games in 1989–90 including Secret Quest and Fatal Run. By 1986, over 20 million Atari VCS units had been sold worldwide. The final Atari-licensed release is the PAL-only version of the arcade game KLAX in 1990.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "After more than 14 years on the market, the 2600 line was formally discontinued on January 1, 1992, along with the Atari 7800 and Atari 8-bit family of home computers. In Europe, last stocks of the 2600 were sold until Summer/Fall of 1995.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "The Atari 2600's CPU is the MOS Technology 6507, a version of the 6502, running at 1.19 MHz in the 2600. Though their internal silicon was identical, the 6507 was cheaper than the 6502 because its package included fewer memory-address pins—13 instead of 16. The designers of the Atari 2600 selected an inexpensive cartridge interface that has one fewer address pins than the 13 allowed by the 6507, further reducing the already limited addressable memory from 8 KB (2 = 8,192) to 4 KB (2 = 4,096). This was believed to be sufficient as Combat is itself only 2 KB. Later games circumvented this limitation with bank switching.", "title": "Hardware" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "The console has 128 bytes of RAM for scratch space, the call stack, and the state of the game environment.", "title": "Hardware" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "The top bezel of the console originally had six switches: power, TV type selection (color or black-and-white), game selection, player difficulty, and game reset. The difficulty switches were moved to the back of the bezel in later versions of the console. The back bezel also included the controller ports, TV output, and power input.", "title": "Hardware" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "", "title": "Hardware" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "The Atari 2600 was designed to be compatible with the cathode-ray tube television sets produced in the late 1970s and early 1980s, which commonly lack auxiliary video inputs to receive audio and video from another device. Therefore, to connect to a TV, the console generates a radio frequency signal compatible with the regional television standards (NTSC, PAL, or SECAM), using a special switch box to act as the television's antenna.", "title": "Hardware" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "Atari developed the Television Interface Adaptor (TIA) chip in the VCS to handle the graphics and conversion to a television signal. It provides a single-color, 20-bit background register that covers the left half of the screen (each bit represents 4 adjacent pixels) and is either repeated or reflected on the right side. There are 5 single-color sprites: two 8-pixel wide players; two 1 bit missiles, which share the same colors as the players; and a 1-pixel ball, which shares the background color. The 1-bit sprites all can be controlled to stretch to 1, 2, 4, or 8 pixels.", "title": "Hardware" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "The system was designed without a frame buffer to avoid the cost of the associated RAM. The background and sprites apply to a single scan line, and as the display is output to the television, the program can change colors, sprite positions, and background settings. The careful timing required to sync the code to the screen on the part of the programmer was labeled \"racing the beam\"; the actual game logic runs when the television beam is outside of the visible area of the screen. Early games for the system use the same visuals for pairs of scan lines, giving a lower vertical resolution, to allow more time for the next row of graphics to be prepared. Later games, such as Pitfall!, change the visuals for each scan line or extend the black areas around the screen to extend the game code's processing time.", "title": "Hardware" }, { "paragraph_id": 36, "text": "Regional releases of the Atari 2600 use modified TIA chips for each region's television formats, which require games to be developed and published separately for each region. All modes are 160 pixels wide. NTSC mode provides 192 visible lines per screen, drawn at 60 Hz, with 16 colors, each at 8 levels of brightness. PAL mode provides more vertical scanlines, with 228 visible lines per screen, but drawn at 50 Hz and only 13 colors. SECAM mode, also a 50 Hz format, is limited to 8 colors, each with only a single brightness level.", "title": "Hardware" }, { "paragraph_id": 37, "text": "The first VCS bundle has two types of controllers: a joystick (part number CX10) and pair of rotary paddle controllers (CX30). Driving controllers, which are similar to paddle controllers but can be continuously rotated, shipped with the Indy 500 launch game. After less than a year, the CX10 joystick was replaced with the CX40 model designed by James C. Asher. Because the Atari joystick port and CX40 joystick became industry standards, 2600 joysticks and some other peripherals work with later systems, including the MSX, Commodore 64, Amiga, Atari 8-bit family, and Atari ST. The CX40 joystick can be used with the Master System and Sega Genesis, but does not provide all the buttons of a native controller. Third-party controllers include Wico's Command Control joystick. Later, the CX42 Remote Control Joysticks, similar in appearance but using wireless technology, were released, together with a receiver whose wires could be inserted in the controller jacks.", "title": "Hardware" }, { "paragraph_id": 38, "text": "Atari introduced the CX50 Keyboard Controller in June 1978 along with two games that require it: Codebreaker and Hunt & Score. The similar, but simpler, CX23 Kid's Controller was released later for a series of games aimed at a younger audience. The CX22 Trak-Ball controller was announced in January 1983 and is compatible with the Atari 8-bit family.", "title": "Hardware" }, { "paragraph_id": 39, "text": "There were two attempts to turn the Atari 2600 into a keyboard-equipped home computer: Atari's never-released CX3000 \"Graduate\" keyboard, and the CompuMate keyboard by Spectravideo which was released in 1983.", "title": "Hardware" }, { "paragraph_id": 40, "text": "The initial production of the VCS was made in Sunnyvale during 1977, using thick polystyrene plastic for the casing as to give the impression of weight from what was mostly an empty shell inside. The initial Sunnyvale batch had also included potential mounts for an internal speaker system on the casing, though the speakers were found to be too expensive to include and instead sound was routed through the TIA to the connected television. All six console switches on the front panel. Production of the unit was moved to Taiwan in 1978, where a less thick internal metal shielding was used and thinner plastic was used for the casing, reducing the system's weight. These two versions are commonly referred to as \"Heavy Sixers\" and \"Light Sixers\" respectively, referencing the six front switches.", "title": "Console models" }, { "paragraph_id": 41, "text": "In 1980, the difficulty switches were moved to the back of the console, leaving four switches on the front. Otherwise, these four-switch consoles look nearly identical to the earlier six-switch models. In 1982 Atari rebranded the console as the \"Atari 2600\", a name first used on a version of the four-switch model without woodgrain, giving it an all-black appearance.", "title": "Console models" }, { "paragraph_id": 42, "text": "Atari continued its OEM relationship with Sears under the latter's Tele-Games brand, which started in 1975 with the original Pong. This is unrelated to the company Telegames, which later produced 2600 cartridges. Sears released several models of the VCS as the Sears Video Arcade series starting in 1977. The final Sears-specific model was the Video Arcade II, released during the fall of 1982.", "title": "Console models" }, { "paragraph_id": 43, "text": "Sears released versions of Atari's games with Tele-Games branding, usually with different titles. Three games were produced by Atari for Sears as exclusive releases: Steeplechase, Stellar Track, and Submarine Commander.", "title": "Console models" }, { "paragraph_id": 44, "text": "The Atari 2800 is the Japanese version of the 2600 released in October 1983. It is the first Japan-specific release of a 2600, though companies like Epoch had distributed the 2600 in Japan previously. The 2800 was released a short time after Nintendo's Family Computer (which became the dominant console in Japan), and it did not gain a significant share of the market. Sears previously released the 2800 in the US during late 1982 as the Sears Video Arcade II, which came packaged with two controllers and Space Invaders. Around 30 specially branded games were released for the 2800.", "title": "Console models" }, { "paragraph_id": 45, "text": "Designed by engineer Joe Tilly, the 2800 has four controller ports instead of the two of the 2600. The controllers are an all-in one design using a combination of an 8-direction digital joystick and a 270-degree paddle, designed by John Amber. The 2800's case design departed from the 2600, using a wedge shape with non-protruding switches. The case style is the basis for the Atari 7800, which was redesigned for the 7800 by Barney Huang.", "title": "Console models" }, { "paragraph_id": 46, "text": "The cost-reduced 1986 model, sometimes referred to as the \"2600 Jr.\", has a smaller form factor with an Atari 7800-like appearance. It was advertised as a budget gaming system (under $50) with the ability to run a large collection of games. Released after the video game crash of 1983, and after the North American launch of the Nintendo Entertainment System, the 2600 was supported with new games and television commercials promoting \"The fun is back!\". Atari released several minor stylistic variations: the \"large rainbow\" (shown), \"short rainbow\", and an all-black version sold only in Ireland. Later European versions include a joypad.", "title": "Console models" }, { "paragraph_id": 47, "text": "The Atari 2700 was a version of the 2600 with wireless controllers.", "title": "Console models" }, { "paragraph_id": 48, "text": "The CX2000, with integrated joystick controllers, was a redesign based on human factor analysis by Henry Dreyfuss Associates.", "title": "Console models" }, { "paragraph_id": 49, "text": "The circa-1982 Atari 3200 was a backwards compatible 2600 successor with \"more memory, higher resolution graphics and improved sound\".", "title": "Console models" }, { "paragraph_id": 50, "text": "The Atari 7800, announced in 1984 and released in 1986, is the official successor to the Atari 2600 and is backward compatible with 2600 cartridges.", "title": "Console models" }, { "paragraph_id": 51, "text": "Multiple microconsoles are based on the Atari 2600:", "title": "Console models" }, { "paragraph_id": 52, "text": "In 1977, nine games were released on cartridge to accompany the launch of the console: Air-Sea Battle, Basic Math, Blackjack, Combat, Indy 500, Star Ship, Street Racer, Surround, and Video Olympics. Indy 500 shipped with special \"driving controllers\", which are like paddles but rotate freely. Street Racer and Video Olympics use the standard paddle controllers. Atari, Inc. was the only developer for the first few years, releasing dozens of games.", "title": "Games" }, { "paragraph_id": 53, "text": "Atari determined that box art featuring only descriptions of the game and screenshots would not be sufficient to sell games in retail stores, since most games were based on abstract principles and screenshots give little information. Atari outsourced box art to Cliff Spohn, who created visually interesting artwork with implications of dynamic movement intended to engage the player's imagination while staying true to the gameplay. Spohn's style became a standard for Atari when bringing in assistant artists, including Susan Jaekel, Rick Guidice, John Enright, and Steve Hendricks. Spohn and Hendricks were the largest contributors to the covers in the Atari 2600 library. Ralph McQuarrie, a concept artist on the Star Wars series, was commissioned for one cover, the arcade conversion of Vanguard. These artists generally conferred with the programmer to learn about the game before drawing the art.", "title": "Games" }, { "paragraph_id": 54, "text": "An Atari VCS port of the Breakout arcade game appeared in 1978. The original is in black and white with a colored overlay, and the home version is in color. In 1980, Atari released Adventure, the first action-adventure game, and the first home game with a hidden Easter egg.", "title": "Games" }, { "paragraph_id": 55, "text": "Rick Maurer's port of Taito's Space Invaders, released in 1980, is the first VCS game to have more than one million copies sold—eventually doubling that within a year and totaling more than 6 million cartridges by 1983. It became the killer app to drive console sales. Versions of Atari's own Asteroids and Missile Command arcade games, released in 1981, were also major hits.", "title": "Games" }, { "paragraph_id": 56, "text": "Each early VCS game is in a 2K ROM. Later games, like Space Invaders, have 4K. The VCS port of Asteroids (1981) is the first game for the system to use 8K via a bank switching technique between two 4K segments. Some later releases, including Atari's ports of Dig Dug and Crystal Castles, are 16K cartridges. One of the final games, Fatal Run (1990), doubled this to 32K.", "title": "Games" }, { "paragraph_id": 57, "text": "Two Atari-published games, both from the system's peak in 1982, E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial and Pac-Man, are cited as factors in the video game crash of 1983.", "title": "Games" }, { "paragraph_id": 58, "text": "A company named American Multiple Industries produced a number of pornographic games for the 2600 under the Mystique Presents Swedish Erotica label. The most notorious, Custer's Revenge, was protested by women's and Native American groups because it depicted General George Armstrong Custer raping a bound Native American woman. Atari sued American Multiple Industries in court over the release of the game.", "title": "Games" }, { "paragraph_id": 59, "text": "The 2600 was so successful in the late 1970s and early 1980s that \"Atari\" was a synonym for the console in mainstream media and for video games in general. Jay Miner directed the creation of the successors to the 2600's TIA chip—CTIA and ANTIC—which are central to the Atari 8-bit computers released in 1979 and later the Atari 5200 console.", "title": "Legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 60, "text": "The Atari 2600 was inducted into the National Toy Hall of Fame at The Strong in Rochester, New York, in 2007. In 2009, the Atari 2600 was named the number two console of all time by IGN, which cited its remarkable role behind both the first video game boom and the video game crash of 1983, and called it \"the console that our entire industry is built upon\".", "title": "Legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 61, "text": "In November 2021, the current incarnation of Atari announced three 2600 games to be published under \"Atari XP\" label: Yars' Return, Aquaventure, and Saboteur. These were previously included in Atari Flashback consoles.", "title": "Legacy" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The Atari 5200 SuperSystem or simply Atari 5200 is a home video game console introduced in 1982 by Atari, Inc. as a higher-end complement for the popular Atari Video Computer System. The VCS was renamed to the Atari 2600 at the time of the 5200's launch. Created to compete with Mattel's Intellivision, the 5200 wound up a direct competitor of ColecoVision shortly after its release. While the Coleco system shipped with the first home version of Nintendo's Donkey Kong, the 5200 included the 1978 arcade game Super Breakout which had already appeared on the Atari 8-bit family and Atari VCS in 1979 and 1981 respectively.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The CPU and the graphics and sound hardware are almost identical to that of the Atari 8-bit computers, although software is not directly compatible between the two systems. The 5200's controllers have an analog joystick and a numeric keypad along with start, pause, and reset buttons. The 360-degree non-centering joystick was touted as offering more control than the eight-way Atari CX40 joystick of the 2600, but was a focal point for criticism.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "On May 21, 1984, during a press conference at which the Atari 7800 was introduced, company executives revealed that the 5200 had been discontinued after less than two years on the market. Total sales of the 5200 were reportedly in excess of 1 million units, far short of its predecessor's sales of over 30 million.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Much of the technology in the Atari 8-bit family of home computer was originally developed as a second-generation games console intended to replace the Atari Video Computer System console. However, as the system was reaching completion, the personal computer revolution was starting with the release of machines like the Commodore PET, TRS-80, and Apple II. These machines had less advanced hardware than the new Atari technology, but sold for much higher prices with associated higher profit margins. Atari's management decided to enter this market, and the technology was repackaged into the Atari 400 and 800. The chipset used in these machines was created with the mindset that the VCS would likely be obsolete by 1980.", "title": "Hardware" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Atari later decided to re-enter the games market with a design that closely matched their original 1978 specifications. In its prototype stage, the Atari 5200 was originally called the \"Atari Video System X – Advanced Video Computer System\", and was codenamed \"Pam\" after a female employee at Atari, Inc. It is also rumored that PAM actually stood for \"Personal Arcade Machine\", as the majority of games for the system ended up being arcade conversions. Actual working Atari Video System X machines, whose hardware is 100% identical to the Atari 5200 do exist, but are extremely rare.", "title": "Hardware" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The initial 1982 release of the system featured four controller ports, where nearly all other systems of the day had only one or two ports. The 5200 also featured a new style of controller with an analog joystick, numeric keypad, two fire buttons on each side of the controller and game function keys for Start, Pause, and Reset. The 5200 also featured the innovation of the first automatic TV switchbox, allowing it to automatically switch from regular TV viewing to the game system signal when the system was activated. Previous RF adapters required the user to slide a switch on the adapter by hand. The RF box was also where the power supply connected in a unique dual power/television signal setup similar to the RCA Studio II's. A single cable coming out of the 5200 plugged into the switch box and carried both electricity and the television signal.", "title": "Hardware" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "The 1983 revision of the Atari 5200 has two controller ports instead of four, and a change back to the more conventional separate power supply and standard non-autoswitching RF switch. It also has changes in the cartridge port address lines to allow for the Atari 2600 adapter released that year. While the adapter was only made to work on the two-port version, modifications can be made to the four-port to make it line-compatible. In fact, towards the end of the four-port model's production run, there were a limited number of consoles produced which included these modifications. These consoles can be identified by an asterisk in their serial numbers.", "title": "Hardware" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "At one point following the 5200's release, Atari planned a smaller, cost-reduced version of the Atari 5200, which removed the controller storage bin. Code-named the \"Atari 5100\" (a.k.a. \"Atari 5200 Jr.\"), only a few fully working prototype 5100s were made before the project was canceled.", "title": "Hardware" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "The controller prototypes used in the electrical development lab employed a yoke-and-gimbal mechanism that came from an RC airplane controller kit. The design of the analog joystick, which used a weak rubber boot rather than springs to provide centering, proved to be ungainly and unreliable. They quickly became the Achilles' heel of the system due to the combination of an overly complex mechanical design and a very low-cost internal flex circuit system. Another major flaw of the controllers was that the design did not translate into a linear acceleration from the center through the arc of the stick travel. The controllers did, however, include a pause button, a unique feature at the time. Various third-party replacement joysticks were also released, including those made by Wico.", "title": "Hardware" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Atari Inc. released the Pro-Line Trak-Ball controller for the system, which was used primarily for gaming titles such as Centipede and Missile Command. A paddle controller and an updated self-centering version of the original controller were also in development, but never made it to market.", "title": "Hardware" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Games were shipped with plastic card overlays that snapped in over the keypad. The card would indicate which game functions, such as changing the view or vehicle speed, were assigned to each key.", "title": "Hardware" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "The primary controller was ranked the 10th worst video game controller by IGN editor Craig Harris. An editor for Next Generation said that their non-centering joysticks \"rendered many games nearly unplayable\".", "title": "Hardware" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "David H. Ahl in 1983 described the Atari 5200 as \"a 400 computer in disguise\". Its internal design is a tweaked version of the Atari 8-bit family using the ANTIC, POKEY, and GTIA coprocessors. Software designed for one does not run on the other, but source code can be mechanically converted unless it uses computer-specific features. Antic magazine reported in 1984 that \"the similarities grossly outweigh the differences, so that a 5200 program can be developed and almost entirely debugged [on an Atari 8-bit computer] before testing on a 5200\". John J. Anderson of Creative Computing alluded to the incompatibility being intentional, caused by Atari's console division removing 8-bit compatibility to not lose control to the rival computer division.", "title": "Hardware" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "Besides the 5200's lack of a keyboard, the differences are:", "title": "Hardware" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "In 1987, Atari Corporation released the XE Game System console, which is a repackaged 65XE (from 1985) with a detachable keyboard that can run home computer titles directly, unlike the 5200. Anderson wrote in 1984 that Atari could have released a console compatible with computer software in 1981.", "title": "Hardware" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "The Atari 5200 did not fare well commercially compared to its predecessor, the Atari 2600. While it touted superior graphics to the 2600 and Mattel's Intellivision, the system was initially incompatible with the 2600's expansive library of games, and some market analysts have speculated that this hurt its sales, especially since an Atari 2600 cartridge adapter had been released for the Intellivision II. (A revised two-port model was released in 1983, along with a game adapter that allowed gamers to play all 2600 games.) This lack of new games was due in part to a lack of funding, with Atari continuing to develop most of its games for the saturated 2600 market.", "title": "Reception" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "Many of the 5200's games appeared simply as updated versions of 2600 titles, which failed to excite consumers. Its pack-in game, Super Breakout, was criticized for not doing enough to demonstrate the system's capabilities. This gave the ColecoVision a significant advantage as its pack-in, Donkey Kong, delivered a more authentic arcade experience than any previous game cartridge. In its list of the top 25 game consoles of all time, IGN claimed that the main reason for the 5200's market failure was the technological superiority of its competitor, while other sources maintain that the two consoles are roughly equivalent in power.", "title": "Reception" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "The 5200 received much criticism for the \"sloppy\" design of its non-centering analog controllers. Anderson described the controllers as \"absolutely atrocious\".", "title": "Reception" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "David H. Ahl of Creative Computing Video & Arcade Games said in 1983 that the \"Atari 5200 is, dare I say it, Atari's answer to Intellivision, Colecovision, and the Astrocade\", describing the console as a \"true mass market\" version of the Atari 8-bit computers despite the software incompatibility. He criticized the joystick's imprecise control but said that \"it is at least as good as many other controllers\", and wondered why Super Breakout was the pack-in game when it did not use the 5200's improved graphics.", "title": "Reception" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "Critical to the plot of the 1984 film Cloak & Dagger is an Atari 5200 game cartridge called Cloak & Dagger. The arcade version appears in the movie; in actuality the Atari 5200 version was started but never completed. The game was under development with the title Agent X when the movie producers and Atari learned of each other's projects and decided to cooperate. This collaboration was part of a larger phenomenon, of films featuring video games as critical plot elements (as with Tron and The Last Starfighter) and of video game tie-ins to the same films (as with the Tron games for the Intellivision and other platforms).", "title": "Popular culture" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The Atari 7800 ProSystem, or simply the Atari 7800, is a home video game console officially released by Atari Corporation in 1986 as the successor to both the Atari 2600 and Atari 5200. It can run almost all Atari 2600 cartridges, making it one of the first consoles with backward compatibility. It shipped with a different model of joystick from the 2600-standard CX40 and Pole Position II as the pack-in game. Most of the announced titles at launch were ports of 1981–1983 arcade video games.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Designed by General Computer Corporation, the 7800 has significantly improved graphics hardware over Atari's previous consoles, but the same Television Interface Adaptor chip that launched with the 2600 in 1977 is used to generate audio. In an effort to prevent the flood of poor quality games that contributed to the video game crash of 1983, cartridges had to be digitally signed by Atari.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The Atari 7800 was first announced by Atari, Inc. on May 21, 1984, but a general release was shelved until May 1986 due to the sale of the company. Atari Corporation dropped support for the 7800, along with the 2600 and the Atari 8-bit family, on January 1, 1992.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Atari had been facing pressure from Mattel and Coleco with their Intellivision and ColecoVision consoles respectively, which supported graphics that more closely mirrored arcade games of the time than either the Atari 2600 or 5200. The Atari 5200 (released as a successor to the Atari 2600) aimed to address this issue, but was ultimately criticized for lack of backwards compatibility with 2600 games, flawed controllers, and initially high price. Released just prior to the video game crash of 1983, the 5200 failed to meet sales expectations.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The Atari 7800 ProSystem was the first console from Atari, Inc. designed by an outside company, General Computer Corporation. It was designed in 1983–84 with an intended mass market rollout in June 1984, but was canceled after the sale of the company to Tramel Technology Ltd on July 2, 1984. The project was originally called the Atari 3600.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "With a background in creating arcade games such as Food Fight, GCC designed the new system with a graphics architecture similar to arcade machines of the time. The CPU is a slightly customized 6502 processor, the Atari SALLY, running at 1.79 MHz. By some measures the 7800 is more powerful, and by others less, than the 1983 Nintendo Entertainment System. It uses the 2600's Television Interface Adaptor chip, with the same restrictions, for generating two-channels of audio.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "The 7800 was announced on May 21, 1984. Thirteen games were announced for the system's launch: Ms. Pac-Man, Pole Position II, Centipede, Joust, Dig Dug, Nile Flyer (eventually released as Desert Falcon), Robotron: 2084, Galaga, Food Fight, Ballblazer, Rescue on Fractalus! (later canceled), Track & Field, and Xevious.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "On July 2, 1984, Warner Communications sold Atari's Consumer Division to Jack Tramiel. All projects were halted during an initial evaluation period. GCC had not been paid for their development of the 7800, and Warner and Tramiel fought over who was accountable. In May 1985, Tramiel relented and paid GCC. This led to additional negotiations regarding the launch titles GCC had developed, then an effort to find someone to lead their new video game division, which was completed in November 1985. The original production run of the Atari 7800 languished in warehouses until it was introduced in January 1986.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "The console was released nationwide in May 1986 for $79.95. It launched with titles intended for the 7800's debut in 1984 and was aided by a marketing campaign with a budget in the \"low millions\" according to Atari Corporation officials. This was substantially less than the $9 million spent by Sega and the $16 million spent by Nintendo. The keyboard and high score cartridge planned by Warner were cancelled. The 7800 addressed many of the most common complaints with the preceding 5200, including a smaller size, built-in backwards compatibility, and an improved controller design.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "In February 1987, Computer Entertainer reported that 100,000 Atari 7800 consoles had been sold in the United States, including those which had been warehoused since 1984. This was less than the Master System's 125,000 and the NES's 1.1 million. A complaint from owners in 1986 was the slow release of games. Galaga in August was followed by Xevious in November. By the end of 1986, the 7800 had 10 games, compared to Sega's 20 and Nintendo's 36. Atari would sell over 1 million 7800 consoles by June 1988.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "On January 1, 1992, Atari Corporation announced the end of production and support for the 7800, 2600, and the 8-bit computer family including the Atari XEGS. At least one game, an unreleased port of Toki, was worked on past this date. By the time of the discontinuation, the Nintendo Entertainment System controlled 80% of the North American market while Atari had 12%. In Europe, last stocks of the 7800 were sold until summer/fall of 1995.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "Retro Gamer magazine issue 132 reported that according to Atari UK Marketing Manager Darryl Still, \"it was very well stocked by European retail; although it never got the consumer traction that the 2600 did, I remember we used to sell a lot of units through mail order catalogues and in the less affluent areas\".", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Graphics are generated by the custom MARIA chip, which uses an approach common in contemporary arcade system boards and is different from other second and third generation consoles. Instead of a limited number of hardware sprites, MARIA treats everything as a sprite described in a series of display lists. Each display list contains pointers to graphics data and color and positioning information.", "title": "Technical specifications" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "MARIA supports a palette of 256 colors and graphics modes which are either 160 pixels wide or 320 pixels wide. While the 320 pixel modes theoretically enable the 7800 to create games at higher resolution than the 256 pixel wide graphics found in the Nintendo Entertainment System and Master System, the processing demands of MARIA result in most games using the 160 pixel mode.", "title": "Technical specifications" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "Each sprite can have from 1 to 12 colors, with 3 colors plus transparency being the most common. In this format, the sprite references one of 8 palettes, where each palette holds 3 colors. The background–visible when not covered by other objects–can also be assigned a color. In total, 25 colors can appear on a scan line.", "title": "Technical specifications" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "The graphics resolution, color palettes, and background color can be adjusted between scan lines. This can be used to render high resolution text in one area of the screen, while displaying more colorful graphics at lower resolution in the gameplay area.", "title": "Technical specifications" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "The 7800 uses the TIA chip for two channel audio, the same chip used in the 1977 Atari VCS, and the sound is of the same quality as that system. To compensate, GCC's engineers allowed games to include a POKEY audio chip in the cartridge. Only Ballblazer and Commando do this.", "title": "Technical specifications" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "GCC planned to make a low-cost, high performance sound chip, GUMBY, which could also be placed in 7800 cartridges to enhance its sound capabilities further. This project was cancelled when Atari was sold to Jack Tramiel.", "title": "Technical specifications" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "Following the large number of low quality, third party games for the Atari 2600, Atari required that cartridges for the 7800 be digitally signed. When a cartridge is inserted into the system, the BIOS generates a signature of the cartridge ROM and compares it to the one stored on the cartridge. If they match, the console operates in 7800 mode, granting the game access to MARIA and other features, otherwise the console operates as a 2600. This digital signature code is not present in PAL 7800s, which use various heuristics to detect 2600 cartridges, due to export restrictions.", "title": "Technical specifications" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "The 7800's compatibility with the Atari 2600 is made possible by including many of the same chips used in the 2600. When playing an Atari 2600 game, the 7800 uses a Television Interface Adaptor chip to generate graphics and sound. The processor is slowed to 1.19 MHz, to mirror the performance of the 2600's 6507 chip. RAM is limited to 128 bytes and cartridge data is accessed in 4K blocks.", "title": "Technical specifications" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "When in 7800 mode (signified by the appearance of the full-screen Atari logo), the graphics are generated entirely by the MARIA graphics processing unit. All system RAM is available and cartridge data is accessed in larger 48K blocks. The system's SALLY 6502 runs at its normal 1.79 MHz. The 2600 chips are used to generate sound and to provide the interfaces to the controllers and console switches.", "title": "Technical specifications" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "The Atari 7800 came bundled with the Atari Pro-Line Joystick, a two-button controller with a joystick for movement. The Pro-Line was developed for the 2600 and advertised in 1983, but delayed until Atari proceeded with the 7800. The right fire button only works as a separate fire button for certain 7800 games; otherwise, it duplicates the left fire button, allowing either button to be used for 2600 games. While physically compatible, the 7800's controllers do not work with the Sega Master System, and Sega's controllers are unable to use the 7800's two-button mode.", "title": "Peripherals" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "In response to criticism over ergonomic issues with the Pro-Line controllers, Atari later released a joypad controller with the European 7800. Similar in style to controllers found on Nintendo and Sega systems, it was not available in the United States.", "title": "Peripherals" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "The Atari XG-1 light gun, bundled with the Atari XEGS and also sold separately, is compatible with the 7800. Atari released five 7800 light gun games: Alien Brigade, Barnyard Blaster, Crossbow, Meltdown, and Sentinel.", "title": "Peripherals" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "After the acquisition of the Atari Consumer Division by Jack Tramiel in 1984, several expansion options for the system were cancelled:", "title": "Peripherals" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "While the system can play the over 400 games for the Atari 2600, there were only 59 official releases for the 7800. The lineup emphasized high-quality versions of games from the golden age of arcade video games. Pole Position II, Dig Dug, and Galaga, by the time of the 1986 launch, were three, four, and five years old, respectively. A raster graphics version of 1979's Asteroids was released in 1987. In 1988, Atari published a conversion of Nintendo's Donkey Kong, seven years after the original arcade game and five years after the Atari 8-bit family cartridge. Atari also marketed a line of games called \"Super Games\" which were arcade and computer games previously not playable on a home console such as One-On-One Basketball and Impossible Mission.", "title": "Games" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "Eleven games were developed and sold by three third-party companies under their own labels (Absolute Entertainment, Activision, and Froggo) with the rest published by Atari Corporation. Most of the games from Atari were developed by outside companies under contract.", "title": "Games" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "Some NES games were developed by companies who had licensed their title from a different arcade manufacturer. While the creator of the NES version would be restricted from making a competitive version of an NES game, the original arcade copyright holder was not precluded from licensing out rights for a home version of an arcade game to multiple systems. Through this loophole, Atari 7800 conversions of Mario Bros., Double Dragon, Commando, Rampage, Xenophobe, Ikari Warriors, and Kung-Fu Master were licensed and developed.", "title": "Games" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "A final batch of games was released by Atari in 1990: Alien Brigade, Basketbrawl, Fatal Run, Meltdown, Midnight Mutants, MotorPsycho, Ninja Golf, Planet Smashers, and Scrapyard Dog. Scrapyard Dog was later released for the Atari Lynx.", "title": "Games" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "In 2004, the Infogrames-owned version of Atari released the Atari Flashback console. It resembles a miniature Atari 7800 and has five 7800 and fifteen 2600 games built-in. Built using the NES-On-A-Chip hardware instead of recreating the Atari 7800 hardware, it was criticized for failing to properly replicate the actual gaming experience. A subsequent 7800 project was cancelled after prototypes were made.", "title": "Legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "The digital signature long prevented aftermarket games from being developed. The signing software was eventually found and released at Classic Gaming Expo in 2001. Several new Atari 7800 games such as Beef Drop, B*nQ, Combat 1990, CrazyBrix, Failsafe, and Santa Simon have been released..", "title": "Legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "The source code for 13 games, the operating system, and the development tools which run on the Atari ST were discovered in a dumpster behind the Atari building in Sunnyvale, California. Commented assembly language source code was made available for Centipede, Commando, Crossbow, Desert Falcon, Dig Dug, Food Fight, Galaga, Hat Trick, Joust, Ms. Pac-Man, Super Stunt Cycle, Robotron: 2084, and Xevious.", "title": "Legacy" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The Atari Jaguar is a home video game console developed by Atari Corporation and released in North America in November 1993. Part of the fifth generation of video game consoles, it competed with the 16-bit Sega Genesis, the Super NES and the 32-bit 3DO Interactive Multiplayer that launched the same year. Powered by two custom 32-bit processors – Tom and Jerry – in addition to a Motorola 68000, Atari marketed it as the world's first 64-bit game system, emphasizing its 64-bit bus used by the blitter. The Jaguar launched with Cybermorph as the pack-in game, which received divisive reviews. The system's library ultimately comprised only 50 licensed games.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Development of the Atari Jaguar started in the early 1990s by Flare Technology, which focused on the system after cancellation of the Atari Panther console. The Jaguar was an important system for Atari after the company shifted its focus from computers - having ceased development of its Atari ST - back to consoles. However, the multi-chip architecture, hardware bugs, and poor tools made writing games for the Jaguar difficult. Underwhelming sales further eroded the console's third-party support.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Atari attempted to extend the lifespan of the system with the Atari Jaguar CD add-on, with an additional 13 games, and emphasizing the Jaguar's price of over US$100 less than its competitors. With the release of the Sega Saturn and PlayStation in 1995, sales of the Jaguar continued to fall. It sold no more than 150,000 units before it was discontinued in 1996. The commercial failure of the Jaguar prompted Atari to leave the console market.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "After Hasbro Interactive acquired all Atari Corporation properties, the patents of the Jaguar were released into the public domain, with the console declared an open platform. Since its discontinuation, hobbyists have produced games for the system.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Atari Corporation's previous home video game console, the Atari 7800, was released in 1986. While it sold 3.77 million units in the U.S. in the period to 1990, it was considered an 'also-ran' and far behind rival Nintendo. Around 1989 work began on a new console leveraging technology from their Atari ST computers. Originally named the Super XE - following the Atari XE Game System - it eventually became the Atari Panther using either 16 or 32-bit architecture. A more advanced system codenamed Jaguar also began work.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Both the Jaguar and Panther were developed by the members of Flare Technology, a company formed by Martin Brennan and John Mathieson. The team had claimed that they could not only make a console superior to the Genesis or the Super NES, but they could also be cost-effective. Impressed by their work on the Konix Multisystem, Atari persuaded them to close Flare and form a new company called Flare II, with Atari providing the funding.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Work on the Jaguar design progressed faster than expected, so Atari canceled the Panther project in 1991 to focus on the more promising Jaguar, and rumors were already circulating of a 1992 launch and its 32-bit or even 64-bit architecture. By this time the Atari ST had long been surpassed in popularity by the Amiga, while both Atari and Commodore became victims of 'Wintel', which would become the dominant computer platform. Support for Atari's legacy 8-bit products were dropped to fully focus on developing the Jaguar console, while their line of ST computers were dropped during the Jaguar's release in 1993.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "The Atari Jaguar was unveiled in at the Summer Consumer Electronics Show in June 1993, calling it a \"multi-media entertainment system\".", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "The Jaguar was launched on November 23, 1993, at a price of $249.99, under a $500 million manufacturing deal with IBM. The system was initially available only in the test markets of New York City and San Francisco, with the slogan \"Get bit by Jaguar\", claiming superiority over competing 16-bit and 32-bit systems. During this test launch Atari sold all units hoping it would rally support for the system. A nationwide release followed six months later, in early 1994. The Jaguar struggled to attain a substantial user base. Atari reported that it had shipped 17,000 units as part of the system's initial test market in 1993. By the end of 1994, it reported that it had sold approximately 100,000 units.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Computer Gaming World wrote in January 1994 that the Jaguar was \"a great machine in search of a developer/customer base\", as Atari had to \"overcome the stigma of its name (lack of marketing and customer support, as well as poor developer relations in the past)\". Atari had \"ventured late into third party software support\" for the Jaguar while competing console 3DO's \"18 month public relations blitz\" would result in \"an avalanche of software support\", the magazine reported. The small size and poor quality of the Jaguar's game library became the most commonly cited reason for the Jaguar's tepid adoption, as early releases like Trevor McFur in the Crescent Galaxy, Raiden, and Evolution: Dino Dudes also received poor reviews, the latter two for failing to take full advantage of the Jaguar's hardware. Jaguar did eventually earn praise with games such as Tempest 2000, Doom, and Wolfenstein 3D. The most successful title during the Jaguar's first year was Alien vs. Predator. However, these occasional successes were seen as insufficient while the Jaguar's competitors were receiving a continual stream of critically acclaimed software; GamePro concluded their rave review of Alien vs. Predator by remarking \"If Atari can turn out a dozen more games like AvP, Jaguar owners could truly rest easy and enjoy their purchase.\" Next Generation commented that \"thus far, Atari has spectacularly failed to deliver on the software side, leaving many to question the actual quality and capability of the hardware. With only one or two exceptions – Tempest 2000 is cited most frequently – there have just been no truly great games for the Jaguar up to now.\" They further noted that while Atari is well known by older gamers, the company had much less overall brand recognition than Sega, Sony, Nintendo, or even The 3DO Company. However, they argued that with its low price point, the Jaguar might still compete if Atari could improve the software situation.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Atari tried to downplay competing consoles by proclaiming the Jaguar was the only \"64-bit\" system; in its marketing in the American market the company used the tagline do the math!, in reference to the 64 number. This claim is questioned by some, because the Motorola 68000 CPU and the Tom and Jerry coprocessors execute 32-bit instruction sets. Atari's reasoning that the 32-bit Tom and Jerry chips work in tandem to add up to a 64-bit system was ridiculed in a mini-editorial by Electronic Gaming Monthly, which commented that \"If Sega did the math for the Sega Saturn the way Atari did the math for their 64-bit Jaguar system, the Sega Saturn would be a 112-bit monster of a machine.\" Next Generation, while giving a mostly negative review of the Jaguar, maintained that it is a true 64-bit system, since the data path from the DRAM to the CPU and Tom and Jerry chips is 64 bits wide.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "In early 1995, Atari announced that they had dropped the price of the Jaguar to $149.99, in order to be more competitive. Atari ran infomercials with enthusiastic salesmen touting the game system. These aired for most of 1995, but did not sell the remaining stock of Jaguar systems.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "In a 1995 interview with Next Generation, then-CEO Sam Tramiel declared that the Jaguar was as powerful, if not more powerful, than the newly launched Sega Saturn, and slightly weaker than the upcoming PlayStation. Next Generation received a deluge of letters in response to Tramiel's comments, particularly his threat to bring Sony to court for price dumping if the PlayStation entered the U.S. market at a retail price below $300. Many readers found this threat hollow and hypocritical, since Tramiel noted in the same interview that Atari was selling the Jaguar at a loss. The editor responded that price dumping does not have to do with a product being priced below cost, but its being priced much lower in one country than another—which, as Tramiel said, is illegal. Tramiel and Next Generation agreed that the PlayStation's Japanese price converts to approximately $500. His remark, that the small number of third party Jaguar games was good for Atari's profitability, angered Jaguar owners who were already frustrated at how few games were coming out for the system.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "In Atari's 1995 annual report, it noted:", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "Jaguar sales were substantially below Atari's expectations, and Atari's business and financial results were materially adversely affected in 1995 as Atari continued to invest heavily in Jaguar game development, entered into arrangements to publish certain licensed titles and reduced the retail price for its Jaguar console unit. Atari attributes the poor performance of Jaguar to a number of factors including (i) extensive delays in development of software for the Jaguar which resulted in reduced orders due to consumer concern as to when titles for the platform would be released and how many titles would ultimately be available, and (ii) the introduction of competing products by Sega and Sony in May 1995 and September 1995, respectively.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "In addition, Atari had severely limited financial resources, and so could not create the level of marketing which has historically backed successful gaming consoles.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "By November 1995, mass layoffs and insider statements were fueling journalistic speculation that Atari had ceased both development and manufacturing for the Jaguar and was simply trying to sell off existing stock before exiting the video game industry. Although Atari continued to deny these theories going into 1996, core Jaguar developers such as High Voltage Software and Beyond Games stated that they were no longer receiving communications from Atari regarding future Jaguar projects.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "In its 10-K405 SEC Filing, filed April 12, 1996, Atari informed stockholders that its revenues had declined by more than half, from $38.7 million in 1994 to $14.6 million in 1995, then gave them the news on the truly dire nature of the Jaguar:", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "From the introduction of Jaguar in late 1993 through the end of 1995, Atari sold approximately 125,000 units of Jaguar. As of December 31, 1995, Atari had approximately 100,000 units of Jaguar in inventory.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "The filing confirmed that Atari had abandoned the Jaguar in November 1995 and in the subsequent months were concerned chiefly with liquidating its inventory of Jaguar products. On April 8, 1996, Atari Corporation agreed to merge with JTS, Inc. in a reverse takeover, thus forming JTS Corporation. The merger was finalized on July 30.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "After the merger, the bulk of Jaguar inventory remained unsold and would be finally moved out to Tiger Software, a private liquidator, on December 23, 1996. On March 13, 1998, JTS sold the Atari name and all of the Atari properties to Hasbro Interactive.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "From the Jaguar Software Reference manual, page 1:", "title": "Technical specifications" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "Jaguar is a custom chip set primarily intended to be the heart of a very high-performance games/leisure computer. It may also be used as a graphics accelerator in more complex systems, and applied to workstation and business uses. As well as a general purpose CPU, Jaguar contains four processing units. These are the Object Processor, Graphics Processor, Blitter, and Digital Sound Processor. Jaguar provides these blocks with a 64-bit data path to external memory devices, and is capable of a very high data transfer rate into external dynamic RAM.", "title": "Technical specifications" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "Design specs for the console allude to the GPU or DSP being capable of acting as a CPU, leaving the Motorola 68000 to read controller inputs. Atari's Leonard Tramiel also specifically suggested that the 68000 not be used by developers. In practice, however, many developers use the Motorola 68000 to drive gameplay logic due to the greater developer familiarity of the 68000 and the adequacy of the 68000 for certain types of games. Most critically, a flaw in the memory controller means that certain obscure conventions must be followed for the RISC chips to be able to execute code from RAM.", "title": "Technical specifications" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "The system was notoriously difficult to program for, not only because of its two-processor design but development tools were released in an unfinished state and the hardware had crippling bugs.", "title": "Technical specifications" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "Atari Games licensed the Atari Jaguar's chipset for use in its arcade games. The system, named COJAG (for \"Coin-Op Jaguar\"), replaced the 68000 with a 68020 or MIPS R3000-based CPU (depending on the board version), added more RAM, a full 64-bit wide ROM bus (Jaguar ROM bus being 32-bit), and optionally a hard drive (some games such as Freeze are ROM only). It runs the lightgun games Area 51 and Maximum Force, which were released by Atari as dedicated cabinets or as the Area 51 and Maximum Force combo machine. Other games were developed but never released: 3 On 3 Basketball, Fishin' Frenzy, Freeze, and Vicious Circle.", "title": "Technical specifications" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "Prior to the launch of the console in November 1993, Atari had announced a variety of peripherals to be released over the console's lifespan. This included a CD-ROM-based console, a dial-up Internet link with support for online gaming, a virtual reality headset, and an MPEG-2 video card. However, due to the poor sales and eventual commercial failure of the Jaguar, most of the peripherals in development were canceled. The only peripherals and add-ons released by Atari for the Jaguar are a redesigned controller, an adapter for four players, a CD console add-on, and a link cable for local area network (LAN) gaming.", "title": "Peripherals" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "The redesigned second controller, the ProController by Atari, added three more face buttons and two triggers. It was created in response to the criticism of the original controller, said to lack enough buttons for fighting games in particular. Sold independently, however, it was never bundled with the system. The Team Tap multitap adds 4-controller support, compatible only with the optionally bundled White Men Can't Jump and NBA Jam Tournament Edition. Eight player gameplay with two Team Taps is possible but unsupported by those games. For LAN multiplayer support, the Jaglink Interface links two Jaguar consoles through a modular extension and a UTP phone cable. It is compatible with three games: AirCars, BattleSphere, and Doom.", "title": "Peripherals" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "In 1994 at the CES, Atari announced that it had partnered with Phylon, Inc. to create the Jaguar Voice/Data Communicator. The unit was delayed and an estimated 100 units were produced, but eventually in 1995 was canceled. The Jaguar Voice Modem or JVM utilizes a 19.9 kbit/s dial up modem to answer incoming phone calls and store up to 18 phone numbers. Players directly dial each other for online play, only compatible with Ultra Vortek which initializes the modem by entering 911 on the key pad at startup.", "title": "Peripherals" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "The Jaguar CD is a CD-ROM peripheral for games. It was released in September 1995, two years after the Jaguar's launch. Thirteen CD games were released during its manufacturing lifetime, with more being made later by homebrew developers. Each Jaguar CD unit has a Virtual Light Machine, which displays light patterns corresponding to music, if the user inserts an audio CD into the console. It was developed by Jeff Minter, after experimenting with graphics during the development of Tempest 2000. The program was deemed a spiritual successor to the Atari Video Music, a visualizer released in 1976.", "title": "Peripherals" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "The Memory Track is a cartridge accessory for the Jaguar CD, providing Jaguar CD games with 128 K EEPROM for persistent storage of data such as preferences and saved games. The Atari Jaguar Duo (codenamed Jaguar III) was a proposal to integrate the Jaguar CD to make a new console, a concept similar to the TurboDuo and Genesis CDX. A prototype, described by journalists as resembling a bathroom scale, was unveiled at the 1995 Winter Consumer Electronics Show, but the console was canceled before production.", "title": "Peripherals" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "A virtual reality headset compatible with the console, tentatively titled the Jaguar VR, was unveiled by Atari at the 1995 Winter Consumer Electronics Show. The development of the peripheral was a response to Nintendo's virtual reality console, the Virtual Boy, which had been announced the previous year. The headset was developed in cooperation with Virtuality, which had previously created many virtual reality arcade systems, and was already developing a similar headset for practical purposes, named Project Elysium, for IBM. The peripheral was targeted for a commercial release before Christmas 1995. However, the deal with Virtuality was abandoned in October 1995. After Atari's merger with JTS in 1996, all prototypes of the headset were allegedly destroyed. However, two working units, one low-resolution prototype with red and grey-colored graphics and one high-resolution prototype with blue and grey-colored graphics, have since been recovered, and are regularly showcased at retrogaming-themed conventions and festivals. Only one game was developed for the Jaguar VR prototype: a 3D-rendered version of the 1980 arcade game Missile Command, titled Missile Command 3D, and a demo of Virtuality's Zone Hunter was created.", "title": "Peripherals" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "An unofficial expansion peripheral for the Atari Jaguar dubbed the \"Catbox\" was released by the Rockford, Illinois company ICD. It was originally slated to be released early in the Jaguar's life, in the second quarter of 1994, but was not actually released until mid-1995. The ICD CatBox plugs directly into the AV/DSP connectors located in the rear of the Jaguar console and provides three main functions. These are audio, video, and communications. It features six output formats, three for audio (line level stereo, RGB monitor, headphone jack with volume control) and three for video (composite, S-Video, and RGB analog component video) making the Jaguar compatible with multiple high quality monitor systems and multiple monitors at the same time. It is capable of communications methods known as CatNet and RS-232 as well as DSP pass through, allowing the user to connect two or more Jaguars together for multiplayer games either directly or with modems. The ICD CatBox features a polished stainless steel casing and red LEDs in the jaguar's eyes on the logo that indicate communications activity. An IBM AT-type null modem cable may be used to connect two Jaguars together. The CatBox is also compatible with Atari's Jaglink Interface peripheral.", "title": "Peripherals" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "An adaptor for the Jaguar that allows for WebTV access was revealed in 1998; one prototype is known to exist.", "title": "Peripherals" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "Reviewing the Jaguar just a few weeks prior to its launch, GamePro gave it a \"thumbs sideways\". They praised the power of the hardware but criticized the controller, and were dubious of how the software lineup would turn out, commenting that Atari's failure to secure support from key third party publishers such as Capcom was a bad sign. They concluded that \"Like the 3DO, the Jaguar is a risky investment – just not quite as expensive.\"", "title": "Reception" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "The Jaguar won GameFan's \"Best New System\" award for 1993.", "title": "Reception" }, { "paragraph_id": 36, "text": "The small size and poor quality of the Jaguar's game library became the most commonly cited reason for its failure in the marketplace. The pack-in game Cybermorph was one of the first polygon-based games for consoles, but was criticized for design flaws and a weak color palette, and compared unfavorably with the SNES's Star Fox. Other early releases like Trevor McFur in the Crescent Galaxy, Raiden, and Evolution: Dino Dudes also received poor reviews, the latter two for failing to take full advantage of the Jaguar's hardware. Jaguar did eventually earn praise with games such as Tempest 2000, Doom, and Wolfenstein 3D. The most successful title during the Jaguar's first year was Alien vs. Predator. However, these occasional successes were seen as insufficient while the Jaguar's competitors were receiving a continual stream of critically acclaimed software; GamePro concluded their rave review of Alien vs. Predator by remarking \"If Atari can turn out a dozen more games like AvP, Jaguar owners could truly rest easy and enjoy their purchase.\" In late 1995 reviews of the Jaguar, Game Players remarked, \"The Jaguar suffers from several problems, most importantly the lack of good software.\" and Next Generation likewise commented that \"thus far, Atari has spectacularly failed to deliver on the software side, leaving many to question the actual quality and capability of the hardware. With only one or two exceptions – Tempest 2000 is cited most frequently – there have just been no truly great games for the Jaguar up to now.\" They further noted that while Atari is well known by older gamers, the company had much less overall brand recognition than Sega, Sony, Nintendo, or even The 3DO Company. However, they argued that with its low price point, the Jaguar might still compete if Atari could improve the software situation. They gave the system two out of five stars. Game Players also stated the despite being 64-bit, the Jaguar is much less powerful than the 3DO, Saturn, and PlayStation, even when supplemented with the Jaguar CD. With such a small library of games to challenge the incumbent 16-bit game consoles, Jaguar's appeal never grew beyond a small gaming audience. Digital Spy commented: \"Like many failed hardware ventures, it still maintains something of a cult following but can only be considered a misstep for Atari.\"", "title": "Reception" }, { "paragraph_id": 37, "text": "In 2006 IGN editor Craig Harris rated the original Jaguar controller as the worst game controller ever, criticizing the unwarranted recycling of the 1980s \"phone keypad\" format and the small number of action buttons, which he found particularly unwise given that Atari was actively trying to court fighting game fans to the system. Ed Semrad of Electronic Gaming Monthly commented that many Jaguar games gratuitously used all of the controller's phone keypad buttons, making the controls much more difficult than they needed to be. GamePro's The Watch Dog remarked, \"The controller usually doesn't use the keypad, and for games that use the keypad extensively (Alien vs. Predator, Doom), a keypad overlay is used to minimize confusion. But yes, it is a lot of buttons for nuttin'.\" Atari added more action buttons for its Pro Controller, to improve performance in fighting games in particular.", "title": "Reception" }, { "paragraph_id": 38, "text": "Telegames continued to publish games for the Jaguar after it was discontinued, and for a time was the only company to do so. On May 14, 1999, Hasbro Interactive announced that it had released all patents to the Jaguar, declaring it an open platform; this opened the doors for extensive homebrew development. Following the announcement, Songbird Productions joined Telegames in releasing unfinished Jaguar games alongside new games to satisfy the cult following. Hasbro Interactive, along with all the Atari properties, was sold to Infogrames on January 29, 2001.", "title": "Legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 39, "text": "In the United Kingdom in 2001, Telegames and retailer Game made a deal to bring the Jaguar to Game's retail outlets. It was initially sold for £29.99 new and software ranged between £9.99 for more common games such as Doom and Ruiner Pinball and £39.99 for rarer releases such as Defender 2000 and Checkered Flag. The machine had a presence in the stores until 2007, when remaining consoles were sold off for £9.99 and games were sold for as low as 97p.", "title": "Legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 40, "text": "In 1997, Imagin Systems, a manufacturer of dental imaging equipment, purchased the Jaguar cartridge and console molds, including the molds for the CD add-on, from JTS. The console molds could, with minor modification, fit their HotRod camera, and the cartridge molds were reused to create an optional memory expansion card. In a retrospective, Imagin founder Steve Mortenson praised the design, but admitted that their device came at the time of the dental industry's transition to USB, and apart from a few prototypes, the molds went unused.", "title": "Legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 41, "text": "In December 2014, the molds were purchased from Imagin Systems by Mike Kennedy, owner of the Kickstarter funded Retro Videogame Magazine, to propose a new crowdfunded video game console, the Retro VGS, later rebranded the Coleco Chameleon after entering a licensing agreement with Coleco. The purchase of the molds was far cheaper than designing and manufacturing entirely new molds, and Kennedy described their acquisition as \"the entire reason [the Retro VGS] is possible\". However, the project was terminated in March 2016 following criticism of Kennedy and doubts regarding demand for the proposed console. Two \"prototypes\" were discovered to be fakes and Coleco withdrew from the project. After the project's termination, the molds were sold to Albert Yarusso, the founder of the AtariAge website.", "title": "Legacy" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The Atari Lynx is a hybrid 8/16-bit fourth-generation hand-held game console released by Atari Corporation in September 1989 in North America and 1990 in Europe and Japan. It was the first handheld game console with a color liquid-crystal display. Powered by a 16 MHz 65C02 8-bit CPU and a custom 16-bit blitter, the Lynx was more advanced than Nintendo's monochrome Game Boy, released two months earlier. It also competed with Sega's Game Gear and NEC's TurboExpress, released the following year.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The system was developed at Epyx by two former designers of the Amiga personal computers. The project was called the Handy Game or simply Handy. In 1991, Atari replaced the Lynx with a smaller model internally referred to as the Lynx II. Atari published a total of 73 games for the Lynx before it was discontinued in 1995.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The Lynx system was originally developed by Epyx as the Handy Game. In 1986, two former Amiga designers, RJ Mical and Dave Needle, had been asked by a former manager at Amiga, Dave Morse, to design a portable gaming system. Morse now worked at Epyx, a game software company with a recent string of hit games. Morse's son had asked him if he could make a portable gaming system, prompting a meeting with Mical and Needle to discuss the idea. Morse convinced Mical and Needle and they were hired by Epyx to be a part of the design team. Planning and design of the console began in 1986 and was completed in 1987. Epyx first showed the Handy system at the Winter Consumer Electronics Show (CES) in January 1989. Facing financial difficulties, Epyx sought partners. Nintendo, Sega, and other companies declined, but Atari and Epyx eventually agreed that Atari would handle production and marketing, and Epyx would handle software development. Epyx declared bankruptcy by the end of the year, so Atari essentially owned the entire project. Both Atari and others had to purchase Amigas from Atari arch-rival Commodore in order to develop Lynx software.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The Handy was designed to run games from the cartridge format, and the game data must be copied from ROM to RAM before it can be used. Thus, less RAM is then available and each game's initial loading is slow. There are trace remnants of a cassette tape interface physically capable of being programmed to read a tape. Lynx developers have noted that \"there is still reference of the tape and some hardware addresses\" and an updated vintage Epyx manual describes the bare existence of what could be utilized for tape support. A 2009 retrospective interview with Mical clarifies that there is no truth to some early reports claiming that games were loaded from tape, and elaborates, \"We did think about hard disk a little.\"", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The networking system was originally developed to run over infrared links and codenamed RedEye. This was changed to a cable-based networking system before the final release as the infrared beam was too easily interrupted when players walked through the beam, according to Peter Engelbrite. Engelbrite developed the first recordable eight-player co-op game, and the only eight-player game for the Lynx, Todd's Adventures in Slime World.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Atari changed the internal speaker and removed the thumb stick on the control pad. At Summer 1989 CES, Atari's press demonstration included the \"Portable Color Entertainment System\", which was changed to \"Lynx\" when distributed to resellers, initially retailing in the US at US$179.95 (equivalent to about $420 in 2022).", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Its launch was successful. Atari reported that it had sold 90% of the 50,000 units shipped in the launch month in the U.S. with a limited launch in New York. US sales in 1990 were approximately 500,000 units according to the Associated Press. In late 1991, it was reported that Atari sales estimates were about 800,000, which Atari claimed was within its expected projections. Lifetime sales by 1995 amount to fewer than 7 million units when combined with the Game Gear. In comparison, 16 million Game Boy units were sold by 1995 because of its ruggedness, half price, much longer battery life, bundling with the smash hit Tetris, and superior game library.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "As with the console units, the game cartridge design evolved over the first year of the console's release. The first generation of cartridges are flat, and designed to be stackable for ease of storage. However, this design proved to be very difficult to remove from the console and was replaced by a second design. This style, called \"tabbed\" or \"ridged\", adds two small tabs on the underside to aid in removal. The original flat style cartridges can be stacked on top of the newer cartridges, but the newer cartridges can not be easily stacked on each other, nor were they stored easily. Thus a third style, the \"curved lip\" style was produced, and all official and third-party cartridges during the console's lifespan were released (or re-released) using this style.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "In May 1991, Sega launched its Game Gear portable gaming handheld with a color screen. In comparison to the Lynx it had shorter battery life (3–4 hours as opposed to 4-5 for the Lynx), but it is slightly smaller, has significantly more games, and cost $30 less than the Lynx at launch.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Retailers such as Game and Toys \"R\" Us continued to sell the Lynx well into the mid-1990s on the back of the Atari Jaguar launch, helped by magazines such as Ultimate Future Games which continued to cover the Lynx alongside the new generation of 32-bit and 64-bit consoles.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "In July 1991, Atari introduced a new version of the Lynx, internally called the \"Lynx II\", with a new marketing campaign, new packaging, slightly improved hardware, better battery life, and a sleeker look. It has rubber hand grips and a clearer backlit color screen with a power save option (which turns off the backlighting). The monaural headphone jack of the original Lynx was replaced with one wired for stereo. The Lynx II was available without any accessories, dropping the price to $99 (equivalent to $220 in 2022).", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "In 1993, Atari started shifting its focus away from the Lynx in order to prepare for the launch of the Jaguar; a few games were released during that time, including Battlezone 2000. Support for the Lynx was formally discontinued in 1995.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "After the respective launches of the Sega Saturn and Sony PlayStation caused the commercial failure of the Jaguar, Atari ceased all game development and hardware manufacturing by early 1996 and would later merge with JTS, Inc. on July 30 of that year.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "The Atari Lynx has a backlit color LCD display, switchable right- and left-handed (upside down) configuration, and the ability to network with other units via Comlynx cable. The maximum stable connection allowed is eight players. Each Lynx needs a copy of the game, and one cable can connect two machines. The cables can be connected into a chain.", "title": "Features" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "The leading-edge display was the most expensive component, so the color choice was one of economy. If the low-cost glass and drivers would have supported a million colors, I would have done it.", "title": "Features" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "Dave Needle, Lynx co-designer", "title": "Features" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "The Lynx was cited as the \"first gaming console with hardware support for zooming and distortion of sprites\". With a 4096 color palette and integrated math and graphics co-processors (including a sprite engine unit), its color graphics display was said to be the key defining feature in the system's competition against Nintendo's monochromatic Game Boy. The fast pseudo-3D graphics features were made possible on a minimal hardware system by co-designer Dave Needle having \"invented the technique for planar expansion/shrinking capability\" and using stretched, textured, triangles instead of full polygons.", "title": "Features" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "Lynx was reviewed in 1990 in Dragon, which gave it 5 out of 5 stars. The review states that the Lynx \"throws the Game Boy into the prehistoric age\", and praises the built-in object scaling capabilities, the multiplayer feature of the ComLynx cable, and the strong set of launch games.", "title": "Reception" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "Telegames released several games in the late 1990s, including a port of Raiden and a platformer called Fat Bobby in 1997, and an action sports game called Hyperdrome in 1999.", "title": "Legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "On March 13, 1998, nearly three years after the Lynx's discontinuation, JTS Corporation sold all of the Atari assets to Hasbro Interactive for $5 million. On May 14, 1999, Hasbro, which held on to those properties until selling Hasbro Interactive to Infogrames in 2001, released into the public domain all rights to the Jaguar, opening up the platform for anyone to publish software on without Hasbro's interference. Internet theories say that the Lynx's rights may have been released to the public at the same time as the Jaguar, but this is clearly disputed. Nevertheless, since discontinuation, the Lynx, like the Jaguar, has continued to receive support from a grassroots community which would go on to produce many successful homebrew games such as T-Tris (the first Lynx game with a save-game feature), Alpine Games, and Zaku.", "title": "Legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "In 2008, Atari was honored at the 59th Annual Technology & Engineering Emmy Awards for pioneering the development of handheld games with the Lynx.", "title": "Legacy" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Ahimsa (Sanskrit: अहिंसा, IAST: ahiṃsā, lit. 'nonviolence') is the ancient Indian principle of nonviolence which applies to actions towards all living beings. It is a key virtue in Indian religions like Jainism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Sikhism.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Ahimsa is one of the cardinal virtues of Jainism, where it is the first of the Pancha Mahavrata. It is also one of the central precepts of Hinduism and is the first of the five precepts of Buddhism. Ahimsa is inspired by the premise that all living beings have the spark of the divine spiritual energy; therefore, to hurt another being is to hurt oneself. Ahimsa is also related to the notion that all acts of violence have karmic consequences. While ancient scholars of Brahmanism had already investigated and refined the principles of ahimsa, the concept reached an extraordinary development in the ethical philosophy of Jainism. Mahavira, the twenty-fourth and the last tirthankara of Jainism, further strengthened the idea in the 5th century BCE. About the 5th century CE, Thiruvalluvar emphasized ahimsa and moral vegetarianism as virtues for an individual, which formed the core of his teachings in the Kural. Perhaps the most popular advocate of the principle of ahimsa in modern times was Mahatma Gandhi.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Ahimsa's precept that humans should 'cause no injury' to another living being includes one's deeds, words, and thoughts. Classical Hindu texts like the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, as well as modern scholars, disagree about what the principle of Ahimsa dictates when one is faced with war and other situations that require self-defence. In this way, historical Indian literature has contributed to modern theories of just war and self-defence.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The word Ahimsa—sometimes spelled Ahinsa—is derived from the Sanskrit root hiṃs, meaning to strike; hiṃsā is injury or harm, while a-hiṃsā (prefixed with the alpha privative), its opposite, is non-harming or nonviolence.", "title": "Etymology" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Reverence for ahimsa can be found in Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist canonical texts. Parshvanatha is said to have preached ahimsa as one of the four vows. No other Indian religion has developed the non-violence doctrine and its implications on everyday life as much as has Jainism.", "title": "Origins" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Ahimsa as an ethical concept evolved in the Vedic texts. The oldest scriptures indirectly mention Ahimsa. Over time, the Hindu scripts revised ritual practices, and the concept of Ahimsa was increasingly refined and emphasized until Ahimsa became the highest virtue by the late Vedic era (about 1000-600 BCE). For example, hymn 10.22.25 in the Rig Veda uses the words Satya (truthfulness) and Ahimsa in a prayer to deity Indra; later, the Yajur Veda dated to be between 2500 BCE and 1500 BCE, states, \"may all beings look at me with a friendly eye, may I do likewise, and may we look at each other with the eyes of a friend\".", "title": "Hinduism" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "The term Ahimsa appears in the text Taittiriya Shakha of the Yajurveda (TS 5.2.8.7), where it refers to non-injury to the sacrificer himself. It occurs several times in the Shatapatha Brahmana in the sense of \"non-injury\". The Ahimsa doctrine is a late Vedic era development in Brahmanical culture. The earliest reference to the idea of non-violence to animals (pashu-Ahimsa), apparently in a moral sense, is in the Kapisthala Katha Samhita of the Yajurveda (KapS 31.11), which may have been written in about 1500-1200 BCE.", "title": "Hinduism" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "John Bowker states the word appears but is uncommon in the principal Upanishads. Kaneda gives examples of the word pashu-Ahimsa in these Upanishads. Other scholars suggest Ahimsa as an ethical concept started evolving in the Vedas, becoming an increasingly central concept in Upanishads.", "title": "Hinduism" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "The Chāndogya Upaniṣad, dated to 1800 to 1600 BCE, one of the oldest Upanishads, has the earliest evidence for the Vedic era use of the word Ahimsa in the sense familiar in Hinduism (a code of conduct). It bars violence against \"all creatures\" (sarvabhuta), and the practitioner of Ahimsa is said to escape from the cycle of rebirths (CU 8.15.1). Some scholars state that this mention may have been an influence of Jainism on Vedic Hinduism. Others scholar state that this relationship is speculative, and though Jainism is an ancient tradition the oldest traceable texts of Jainism tradition are from many centuries after the Vedic era ended.", "title": "Hinduism" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Chāndogya Upaniṣad also names Ahimsa, along with Satyavacanam (truthfulness), Ārjavam (sincerity), Dānam (charity), and Tapo (penance/meditation), as one of five essential virtues (CU 3.17.4).", "title": "Hinduism" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "The Sandilya Upanishad lists ten forbearances: Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Brahmacharya, Daya, Arjava, Kshama, Dhriti, Mitahara, and Saucha. According to Kaneda, the term Ahimsa is an important spiritual doctrine shared by Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. It means 'non-injury' and 'non-killing'. It implies the total avoidance of harming any living creature by deeds, words, and thoughts.", "title": "Hinduism" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "The Mahabharata, one of the epics of Hinduism, has multiple mentions of the phrase Ahimsa Paramo Dharma (अहिंसा परमॊ धर्मः), which literally means: non-violence is the highest moral virtue. For example, Anushasana Parva has the verse:", "title": "Hinduism" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "अहिंसा परमॊ धर्मः तथाहिंसा परॊ दमः। अहिंसा परमं दानम् अहिंसा परमस तपः। अहिंसा परमॊ यज्ञः तथाहिस्मा परं बलम्। अहिंसा परमं मित्रम् अहिंसा परमं सुखम्। अहिंसा परमं सत्यम् अहिंसा परमं श्रुतम्॥", "title": "Hinduism" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "The above passage from Mahabharata emphasises the cardinal importance of Ahimsa in Hinduism, and literally means:", "title": "Hinduism" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "Ahimsa is the highest Dharma, Ahimsa is the highest self-control, Ahimsa is the greatest gift, Ahimsa is the best practice, Ahimsa is the highest sacrifice, Ahimsa is the finest strength, Ahimsa is the greatest friend, Ahimsa is the greatest happiness, Ahimsa is the highest truth, and Ahimsa is the greatest teaching.", "title": "Hinduism" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "Some other examples where the phrase Ahimsa Paramo Dharma are discussed include Adi Parva, Vana Parva, and Anushasana Parva. The Bhagavad Gita, among other things, discusses the doubts and questions about appropriate response when one faces systematic violence or war. These verses develop the concepts of lawful violence in self-defence and the theories of just war. However, there is no consensus on this interpretation. Gandhi, for example, considers this debate about non-violence and lawful violence as a mere metaphor for the internal war within each human being, when he or she faces moral questions.", "title": "Hinduism" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "The classical texts of Hinduism devote numerous chapters to discussing what people who practice the virtue of ahimsa can and must do when faced with war, violent threat, or the need to sentence someone convicted of a crime. These discussions have led to theories of just war, ideas of reasonable self-defense, and views of proportionate punishment. Arthashastra discusses, among other things, what constitutes proportionate response and punishment.", "title": "Hinduism" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "The precepts of ahimsa in Hinduism require that war must be avoided, with sincere and truthful dialogue. Force must be the last resort. If war becomes necessary, its cause must be just, its purpose virtuous, its objective to restrain the wicked, its aim peace, and its method lawful. War can only be started and stopped by a legitimate authority. Weapons must be proportionate to the opponent and the aim of war, not indiscriminate tools of destruction. All strategies and weapons used in the war must be to defeat the opponent, not to cause misery to the opponent; for example, the use of arrows is allowed, but the use of arrows smeared with painful poison is not allowed. Warriors must use judgment in the battlefield. Cruelty to the opponent during war is forbidden. Wounded, unarmed opponent warriors must not be attacked or killed; they must be brought to your realm and given medical treatment. Children, women, and civilians must not be injured. While the war is in progress, sincere dialogue for peace must continue.", "title": "Hinduism" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "Different interpretations of ancient Hindu texts have been offered in matters of self-defense. For example, Tähtinen suggests self-defense is appropriate, criminals are not protected by the rule of ahimsa, and Hindu scriptures support violence against an armed attacker. ahimsa is not meant to imply pacifism.", "title": "Hinduism" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "Alternative theories of self-defense, inspired by ahimsa, build principles similar to ideas of just war. Aikido, pioneered in Japan, illustrates one such set of principles for self-defense. Morihei Ueshiba, the founder of Aikido, described his inspiration as Ahimsa. According to this interpretation of ahimsa in self-defense, one must not assume that the world is free of aggression. One must presume that some people will, out of ignorance, error, or fear, attack others or intrude into their space, physically or verbally. The aim of self-defense, suggested Ueshiba, must be to neutralize the attacker's aggression and avoid conflict. The best defense is one with which the victim is protected and the attacker is respected and not injured if possible. Under ahimsa and Aikido, there are no enemies, and appropriate self-defense focuses on neutralizing the immaturity, assumptions, and aggressive strivings of the attacker.", "title": "Hinduism" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "Tähtinen concludes that Hindus have no misgivings about the death penalty; their position is that evil-doers who deserve death should be killed and that a king, in particular, is obliged to punish criminals and should not hesitate to kill them, even if they happen to be his brothers and sons.", "title": "Hinduism" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "Other scholars conclude that Hindu scriptures suggest that sentences for any crime must be fair, proportional, and not cruel.", "title": "Hinduism" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "The Hindu precept of \"cause no injury\" applies to animals and all life forms. This precept is not found in the oldest verses of Vedas (1500–1000 BCE), but increasingly becomes one of the central ideas in post-Vedic period. In the oldest layer of the Vedas, such as the Rigveda, ritual sacrifices of animals and cooking of meat to feed guests are mentioned. This included goat, ox, horse, and others. However, the text is not uniform in its prescriptions. Some verses praise meat as food, while other verses in the Vedas recommend \"abstention from meat\", in particular, \"beef\". According to Marvin Harris, the Vedic literature is inconsistent, with some verses suggesting ritual slaughter and meat consumption, while others suggesting a taboo on meat-eating.", "title": "Hinduism" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "Hindu texts dated to 1st millennium BCE initially mention meat as food, then evolve to suggest that only meat obtained through ritual sacrifice can be eaten, thereafter evolving to the stance that one should eat no meat because it hurts animals, with verses describing the noble life as one that lives on flowers, roots, and fruits alone. The late Vedic-era literature (pre-500 BCE) condemns all killings of men, cattle, birds, and horses, and prays to god Agni to punish those who kill.", "title": "Hinduism" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "Later texts of Hinduism declare ahimsa one of the primary virtues, declare any killing or harming any life as against dharma (moral life). Finally, the discussion in Upanishads and Hindu Epics shifts to whether a human being can ever live his or her life without harming animal and plant life in some way, which and when plants or animal meat may be eaten, whether violence against animals causes human beings to become less compassionate, and if and how one may exert least harm to non-human life consistent with ahimsa, given the constraints of life and human needs. The Mahabharata permits hunting by warriors, but opposes it in the case of hermits who must be strictly non-violent. Sushruta Samhita, a Hindu text written in the 3rd or 4th century BCE, in Chapter XLVI suggests proper diet as a means of treating certain illnesses, and recommends various fishes and meats for different ailments and for pregnant women, and the Charaka Samhita describes meat as superior to all other kinds of food for convalescents.", "title": "Hinduism" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "Across the texts of Hinduism, there is a profusion of ideas about the virtue of ahimsa when applied to non-human life, but without a universal consensus. Alsdorf claims the debate and disagreements between supporters of vegetarian lifestyle and meat eaters was significant. Even suggested exceptions – ritual slaughter and hunting – were challenged by advocates of ahimsa. In the Mahabharata both sides present various arguments to substantiate their viewpoints. Moreover, a hunter defends his profession in a long discourse.", "title": "Hinduism" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "Many of the arguments proposed in favor of non-violence to animals refer to the bliss one feels, the rewards it entails before or after death, the danger and harm it prevents, as well as to the karmic consequences of violence.", "title": "Hinduism" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "The ancient Hindu texts discuss ahimsa and non-animal life. They discourage wanton destruction of nature including of wild and cultivated plants. Hermits (sannyasins) were urged to live on a fruitarian diet so as to avoid the destruction of plants. Scholars claim the principles of ecological nonviolence are innate in the Hindu tradition, and its conceptual fountain has been ahimsa as its cardinal virtue.", "title": "Hinduism" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "The classical literature of the Indian religions, such as Hinduism and Jainism, exists in many Indian languages. For example, the Tirukkural, written in three volumes, likely between 450 and 500 CE, dedicates verses 251–260 and 321–333 of its first volume to the virtue of ahimsa, emphasizing on moral vegetarianism and non-killing (kollamai). However, the Tirukkural also glorifies soldiers and their valour during war, and states that it is king's duty to punish criminals and implement \"death sentence for the wicked\".", "title": "Hinduism" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "In 1960, H. Jay Dinshah founded the American Vegan Society (AVS), linking veganism to the concept of ahimsa.", "title": "Hinduism" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "In the 19th and 20th centuries, prominent figures of Indian spirituality such as Shrimad Rajchandra and Swami Vivekananda emphasised the importance of Ahimsa.", "title": "Hinduism" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi successfully promoted the principle of ahimsa to all spheres of life, in particular to politics (Swaraj). His non-violent resistance movement satyagraha had an immense impact on India, impressed public opinion in Western countries, and influenced the leaders of various civil and political rights movements such as the American civil rights movement's Martin Luther King Jr. and James Bevel. In Gandhi's thought, ahimsa precludes not only the act of inflicting a physical injury but also mental states like evil thoughts and hatred, and unkind behavior such as harsh words, dishonesty, and lying, all of which he saw as manifestations of violence incompatible with ahimsa. Gandhi believed ahimsa to be a creative energy force, encompassing all interactions leading one's self to find satya, \"Divine Truth\". Sri Aurobindo criticized the Gandhian concept of ahimsa as unrealistic and not universally applicable; he adopted a pragmatic non-pacifist position, saying that the justification of violence depends on the specific circumstances of the given situation.", "title": "Hinduism" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "Gandhi stated his belief that \"[a]himsa is in Hinduism, it is in Christianity as well as in Islam.\" He added, \"Nonviolence is common to all religions, but it has found the highest expression and application in Hinduism (I do not regard Jainism or Buddhism as separate from Hinduism).\" When questioned whether violence and nonviolence are taught in Quran, he stated, \"I have heard from many Muslim friends that the Koran teaches the use of nonviolence. (... The) the argument about nonviolence in the Holy Koran is an interpolation, not necessary for my thesis.\"", "title": "Hinduism" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "Studying ahimsa's history and philosophy influenced Albert Schweitzer's principle of \"reverence for life.\" He commended Indian traditions for their ethics of ahimsa, considering the prohibition against killing and harming \"one of the greatest events in the spiritual history of humankind\". However, he noted that \"not-killing\" and \"not-harming\" might be unfeasible in certain situations, like self-defense, or ethically complex, as in cases of prolonged famine.", "title": "Hinduism" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "Ahimsa is imperative for practitioners of Patañjali's eight limb Raja yoga system. It is included in the first limb and is the first of five Yamas (self restraints) which, together with the second limb, make up the code of ethical conduct in Yoga philosophy. Ahimsa is also one of the ten Yamas in Hatha Yoga according to verse 1.1.17 of its classic manual Hatha Yoga Pradipika. The significance of ahimsa as the first restraint in the first limb of Yoga (Yamas), is that it defines the necessary foundation for progress through Yoga. It is a precursor to Asana, implying that success in Yogasana can be had only if the self is purified in thought, word, and deed through the self-restraint of ahimsa.", "title": "Hinduism" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "In Jainism, the understanding and implementation of ahimsa is more radical, scrupulous, and comprehensive than in any other religion. Killing any living being out of passions is considered hiṃsā (to injure) and abstaining from such an act is ahimsā (noninjury). The vow of ahimsā is considered the foremost among the \"five vows of Jainism\". Other vows like truth (satya) are meant for safeguarding the vow of ahimsā.", "title": "Jainism" }, { "paragraph_id": 36, "text": "In the practice of ahimsa, the requirements are less strict for the lay persons (sravakas) who have undertaken anuvrata (Smaller Vows) than for the Jain monastics who are bound by the Mahavrata \"Great Vows\".", "title": "Jainism" }, { "paragraph_id": 37, "text": "The statement ahimsā paramo dharmaḥ (or, \"Non-injury/nonviolence/harmlessness is the supreme/ultimate/paramount/highest/absolute duty/virtue/attribute/religion\") is often found inscribed on the walls of the Jain temples. As in Hinduism, the aim is to prevent the accumulation of harmful karma.", "title": "Jainism" }, { "paragraph_id": 38, "text": "When Mahavira revived and reorganised the Jain faith in the 6th or 5th century BCE, ahimsa was already an established, strictly observed rule. Rishabhanatha (Ādinātha), the first Jain Tirthankara, whom modern Western historians consider to be a historical figure, followed by Parshvanatha (Pārśvanātha) the twenty-third Tirthankara lived in about the 9th century BCE. He founded the community to which Mahavira's parents belonged. Ahimsa was already part of the \"Fourfold Restraint\" (Caujjama), the vows taken by Parshva's followers. In the times of Mahavira and in the following centuries, Jains were at odds with both Buddhists and followers of the Vedic religion or Hindus, whom they accused of negligence and inconsistency in the implementation of ahimsa. According to the Jain tradition either lacto vegetarianism or veganism is prescribed.", "title": "Jainism" }, { "paragraph_id": 39, "text": "The Jain concept of ahimsa is characterised by several aspects. Killing of animals for food is absolutely ruled out. Jains also make considerable efforts not to injure plants in everyday life as far as possible. Though they admit that plants must be destroyed for the sake of food, they accept such violence only inasmuch as it is indispensable for human survival, and there are special instructions for preventing unnecessary violence against plants. Jain monks and nuns go out of their way so as not to hurt even small insects and other minuscule animals. Both the renouncers and the laypeople of Jain faith reject meat, fish, alcohol, and honey as these are believed to harm large or minuscule life forms.", "title": "Jainism" }, { "paragraph_id": 40, "text": "Jain scholars have debated the potential injury to other life forms during one's occupation. Certain Jain texts (according to Padmannabh Jaini, a Jainism scholar) forbid people of its faith from husbandry, agriculture, and trade in animal-derived products. Some Jains abstain from farming because it inevitably entails unintentional killing or injuring of many small animals, such as worms and insects. These teachings, in part, have led the Jain community to focus on trade, merchant, clerical, and administrative occupations to minimize arambhaja-himsa (occupational violence against all life forms). For the layperson, the teaching has been of ahimsa with pramada – that is, reducing violence through proper intention and being careful in every action on a daily basis to minimize violence to all life forms.", "title": "Jainism" }, { "paragraph_id": 41, "text": "The Jain texts, unlike most Hindu and Buddhist texts on just war, have been inconsistent. For its monastic community – sadhu and sadhvi – the historically accepted practice has been to \"willingly sacrifice one's own life\" to the attacker, to not retaliate, so that the mendicant may keep the First Great Vow of \"total nonviolence\". Jain literature of the 10th century CE, for example, describes a king ready for war and being given lessons about non-violence by the Jain acharya (spiritual teacher). In the 12th century CE and thereafter, in an era of violent raids, destruction of temples, the slaughter of agrarian communities and ascetics by Islamic armies, Jain scholars reconsidered the First Great Vow of mendicants and its parallel for the laypeople. The medieval texts of this era, such as by Jinadatta Suri, recommended both the mendicants and the laypeople to fight and kill if that would prevent greater and continued violence on humans and other life forms (virodhi-himsa). Such exemptions to ahimsa is a relatively rare teaching in Jain texts, states Dundas.", "title": "Jainism" }, { "paragraph_id": 42, "text": "Mahatma Gandhi stated, \"No religion in the World has explained the principle of Ahiṃsā so deeply and systematically as is discussed with its applicability in every human life in Jainism. As and when the benevolent principle of Ahiṃsā or non-violence will be ascribed for practice by the people of the world to achieve their end of life in this world and beyond, Jainism is sure to have the uppermost status and Mahāvīra is sure to be respected as the greatest authority on Ahiṃsā\".", "title": "Jainism" }, { "paragraph_id": 43, "text": "In Buddhist texts ahimsa (or its Pāli cognate avihiṃsā) is part of the Five Precepts (Pañcasīla), the first of which has been to abstain from killing. This precept of ahimsa is applicable to both the Buddhist layperson and the monk community.", "title": "Buddhism" }, { "paragraph_id": 44, "text": "The ahimsa precept is not a commandment, and transgressions did not invite religious sanctions for laypersons, but their power has been in the Buddhist belief in karmic consequences and their impact in afterlife during rebirth. Killing, in Buddhist belief, could lead to rebirth in the hellish realm, and for a longer time in more severe conditions if the murder victim was a monk. Saving animals from slaughter for meat is believed to be a way to acquire merit for better rebirth. These moral precepts have been voluntarily self-enforced in lay Buddhist culture through the associated belief in karma and rebirth. Buddhist texts not only recommend ahimsa, but suggest avoiding trading goods that contribute to or are a result of violence:", "title": "Buddhism" }, { "paragraph_id": 45, "text": "These five trades, O monks, should not be taken up by a lay follower: trading with weapons, trading in living beings, trading in meat, trading in intoxicants, trading in poison.", "title": "Buddhism" }, { "paragraph_id": 46, "text": "Unlike with lay Buddhists, transgressions by monks do invite sanctions. Full expulsion of a monk from sangha follows instances of killing, just like any other serious offense against the monastic nikaya code of conduct.", "title": "Buddhism" }, { "paragraph_id": 47, "text": "Violent ways of punishing criminals and prisoners of war were not explicitly condemned in Buddhism, but peaceful ways of conflict resolution and punishment with the least amount of injury were encouraged. The early texts condemn the mental states that lead to violent behavior.", "title": "Buddhism" }, { "paragraph_id": 48, "text": "Nonviolence is an overriding theme within the Pāli Canon. While the early texts condemn killing in the strongest terms, and portray the ideal queen/king as a pacifist, such a queen/king is nonetheless flanked by an army. It seems that the Buddha's teaching on nonviolence was not interpreted or put into practice in an uncompromisingly pacifist or anti-military-service way by early Buddhists. The early texts assume war to be a fact of life, and well-skilled warriors are viewed as necessary for defensive warfare. In Pali texts, injunctions to abstain from violence and involvement with military affairs are directed at members of the sangha; later Mahayana texts, which often generalise monastic norms to laity, require this of lay people as well.", "title": "Buddhism" }, { "paragraph_id": 49, "text": "The early texts do not contain just-war ideology as such. Some argue that a sutta in the Gamani Samyuttam rules out all military service. In this passage, a soldier asks the Buddha if it is true that, as he has been told, soldiers slain in battle are reborn in a heavenly realm. The Buddha reluctantly replies that if he is killed in battle while his mind is seized with the intention to kill, he will undergo an unpleasant rebirth. In the early texts, a person's mental state at the time of death is generally viewed as having a great impact on the next birth.", "title": "Buddhism" }, { "paragraph_id": 50, "text": "Some Buddhists point to other early texts as justifying defensive war. One example is the Kosala Samyutta, in which King Pasenadi, a righteous king favored by the Buddha, learns of an impending attack on his kingdom. He arms himself in defence, and leads his army into battle to protect his kingdom from attack. He lost this battle but won the war. King Pasenadi eventually defeated King Ajātasattu and captured him alive. He thought that, although this King of Magadha has transgressed against his kingdom, he had not transgressed against him personally, and Ajātasattu was still his nephew. He released Ajātasattu and did not harm him. Upon his return, the Buddha said (among other things) that Pasenadi \"is a friend of virtue, acquainted with virtue, intimate with virtue\", while the opposite is said of the aggressor, King Ajātasattu.", "title": "Buddhism" }, { "paragraph_id": 51, "text": "According to Theravada commentaries, there are five requisite factors that must all be fulfilled for an act to be both an act of killing and to be karmically negative. These are: (1) the presence of a living being, human or animal; (2) the knowledge that the being is a living being; (3) the intent to kill; (4) the act of killing by some means; and (5) the resulting death. Some Buddhists have argued on this basis that the act of killing is complicated, and its ethicality is predicated upon intent. Some have argued that in defensive postures, for example, the primary intention of a soldier is not to kill, but to defend against aggression, and the act of killing in that situation would have minimal negative karmic repercussions.", "title": "Buddhism" }, { "paragraph_id": 52, "text": "According to Babasaheb Ambedkar, there is circumstantial evidence encouraging ahimsa from the Buddha's doctrine, \"Love all, so that you may not wish to kill any.\" Gautama Buddha distinguished between a principle and a rule. He did not make ahimsa a matter of rule, but suggested it as a matter of principle. This gives Buddhists freedom to act.", "title": "Buddhism" }, { "paragraph_id": 53, "text": "The emperors of the Sui dynasty, Tang dynasty, and early Song dynasty banned killing in the Lunar calendar's 1st, 5th, and 9th months. Empress Wu Tse-Tien banned killing for more than half a year in 692. Some rulers banned fishing for a period of time each year.", "title": "Buddhism" }, { "paragraph_id": 54, "text": "There were also bans after the death of emperors, after Buddhist and Taoist prayers, and after natural disasters such as Shanghai's 1926 summer drought, as well as an eight-day ban beginning August 12, 1959, after the August 7 flood (八七水災), the last big flood before the 88 Taiwan Flood.", "title": "Buddhism" }, { "paragraph_id": 55, "text": "People avoid killing during some festivals, like the Taoist Ghost Festival, the Nine Emperor Gods Festival, and the Vegetarian Festival, as well as during others.", "title": "Buddhism" }, { "paragraph_id": 56, "text": "Attribution:", "title": "References" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The Annals of Mathematics is a mathematical journal published every two months by Princeton University and the Institute for Advanced Study.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The journal was established as The Analyst in 1874 and with Joel E. Hendricks as the founding editor-in-chief. It was \"intended to afford a medium for the presentation and analysis of any and all questions of interest or importance in pure and applied Mathematics, embracing especially all new and interesting discoveries in theoretical and practical astronomy, mechanical philosophy, and engineering\". It was published in Des Moines, Iowa, and was the earliest American mathematics journal to be published continuously for more than a year or two. This incarnation of the journal ceased publication after its tenth year, in 1883, giving as an explanation Hendricks' declining health, but Hendricks made arrangements to have it taken over by new management, and it was continued from March 1884 as the Annals of Mathematics. The new incarnation of the journal was edited by Ormond Stone (University of Virginia). It moved to Harvard in 1899 before reaching its current home in Princeton in 1911.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "An important period for the journal was 1928–1958 with Solomon Lefschetz as editor. During this time, it became an increasingly well-known and respected journal. Its rise, in turn, stimulated American mathematics. Norman Steenrod characterized Lefschetz' impact as editor as follows: \"The importance to American mathematicians of a first-class journal is that it sets high standards for them to aim at. In this somewhat indirect manner, Lefschetz profoundly affected the development of mathematics in the United States.\"", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Princeton University continued to publish the Annals on its own until 1933, when the Institute for Advanced Study took joint editorial control. Since 1998 it has been available in an electronic edition, alongside its regular print edition. The electronic edition was available without charge, as an open access journal, but since 2008 this is no longer the case. Issues from before 2003 were transferred to the non-free JSTOR archive, and articles are not freely available until 5 years after publication.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The current (as of October 2022) editors of the Annals of Mathematics are Helmut Hofer, Nick Katz, Sergiu Klainerman, Fernando Codá Marques, Assaf Naor, Peter Sarnak and Zoltán Szabó (all but Helmut Hofer from Princeton University, with Hofer being a professor at the Institute for Advanced Study and Peter Sarnak also being a professor there as a second affiliation).", "title": "Editors" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The journal is abstracted and indexed in the Science Citation Index, Current Contents/Physical, Chemical & Earth Sciences, and Scopus. According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2020 impact factor of 5.246, ranking it third out of 330 journals in the category \"Mathematics\".", "title": "Abstracting and indexing" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov (Russian: Андрей Дмитриевич Сахаров, IPA: [ɐnˈdrʲej ˈdmʲitrʲɪjevʲɪtɕ ˈsaxərəf]; 21 May 1921 – 14 December 1989) was a Soviet physicist and a Nobel Peace Prize laureate, which he was awarded in 1975 for emphasizing human rights around the world.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Although he spent his career in physics in the Soviet program of nuclear weapons, overseeing the development of thermonuclear weapons, Sakharov also did fundamental work in understanding particle physics, magnetism, and physical cosmology. Sakharov is mostly known for his political activism for individual freedom, human rights, civil liberties and reforms in Russia, for which he was deemed a dissident and faced persecution from the Soviet establishment.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "In his memory, the Sakharov Prize was established and is awarded annually by the European Parliament for people and organizations dedicated to human rights and freedoms.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov was born in Moscow on 21 May 1921, to a Russian family. His father, Dmitri Ivanovich Sakharov, was a physics professor at the Second Moscow State University and an amateur pianist. His grandfather, Ivan, was a lawyer in the former Russian Empire who had displayed respect for social awareness and humanitarian principles (including advocating the abolition of capital punishment). Sakharov's mother, Yekaterina Alekseevna Sofiano, was a daughter of Aleksey Semenovich Sofiano, a general in the Tsarist Russian Army.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Sakharov's parents and paternal grandmother, Maria Petrovna, largely shaped his personality; his mother and grandmother were members of the Russian Orthodox Church, although his father was a non-believer. When Andrei was about thirteen, he realized that he did not believe in God. However, despite being an atheist, he did believe in a \"guiding principle\" that transcends the physical laws.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "After schooling, Sakharov studied physics at the Moscow State University in 1938 and, following evacuation in 1941 during the Eastern Front with Germany, he graduated in Aşgabat in Turkmenistan. In 1943, he married Klavdia Alekseyevna Vikhireva, with whom he raised two daughters and a son. Klavdia would later die in 1969. In 1945, he joined the Theoretical Department of Physical Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences under Igor Tamm in Moscow. In 1947, Sakharov was successful in defending this thesis for the Doctor of Sciences (lit. Doktor Nauk), which covered the topic of nuclear transmutation.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "After World War II, he researched cosmic rays. In mid-1948 he participated in the Soviet atomic bomb project under Igor Kurchatov and Igor Tamm. Sakharov's study group at FIAN in 1948 came up with a second concept in August–September 1948. Adding a shell of natural, unenriched uranium around the deuterium would increase the deuterium concentration at the uranium-deuterium boundary and the overall yield of the device, because the natural uranium would capture neutrons and itself fission as part of the thermonuclear reaction. This idea of a layered fission-fusion-fission bomb led Sakharov to call it the sloika, or layered cake. The first Soviet atomic device was tested on August 29, 1949. After moving to Sarov in 1950, Sakharov played a key role in the development of the first megaton-range Soviet hydrogen bomb using a design known as Sakharov's Third Idea in Russia and the Teller–Ulam design in the United States. Before his Third Idea, Sakharov tried a \"layer cake\" of alternating layers of fission and fusion fuel. The results were disappointing, yielding no more than a typical fission bomb. However the design was seen to be worth pursuing because deuterium is abundant and uranium is scarce, and he had no idea how powerful the US design was. Sakharov realised that in order to cause the explosion of one side of the fuel to symmetrically compress the fusion fuel, a mirror could be used to reflect the radiation. The details had not been officially declassified in Russia when Sakharov was writing his memoirs, but in the Teller–Ulam design, soft X-rays emitted by the fission bomb were focused onto a cylinder of lithium deuteride to compress it symmetrically. This is called radiation implosion. The Teller–Ulam design also had a secondary fission device inside the fusion cylinder to assist with the compression of the fusion fuel and generate neutrons to convert some of the lithium to tritium, producing a mixture of deuterium and tritium. Sakharov's idea was first tested as RDS-37 in 1955. A larger variation of the same design which Sakharov worked on was the 50 Mt Tsar Bomba of October 1961, which was the most powerful nuclear device ever detonated.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Sakharov saw \"striking parallels\" between his fate and those of J. Robert Oppenheimer and Edward Teller in the US. Sakharov believed that in this \"tragic confrontation of two outstanding people\", both deserved respect, because \"each of them was certain he had right on his side and was morally obligated to go to the end in the name of truth.\" While Sakharov strongly disagreed with Teller over nuclear testing in the atmosphere and the Strategic Defense Initiative, he believed that American academics had been unfair to Teller's resolve to get the H-bomb for the United States since \"all steps by the Americans of a temporary or permanent rejection of developing thermonuclear weapons would have been seen either as a clever feint, or as the manifestation of stupidity. In both cases, the reaction would have been the same – avoid the trap and immediately take advantage of the enemy's stupidity.\"", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Sakharov never felt that by creating nuclear weapons he had \"known sin\", in Oppenheimer's expression. He later wrote:", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "After more than forty years, we have had no third world war, and the balance of nuclear terror ... may have helped to prevent one. But I am not at all sure of this; back then, in those long-gone years, the question didn't even arise. What most troubles me now is the instability of the balance, the extreme peril of the current situation, the appalling waste of the arms race ... Each of us has a responsibility to think about this in global terms, with tolerance, trust, and candor, free from ideological dogmatism, parochial interests, or national egotism.\"", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "In 1950 he proposed an idea for a controlled nuclear fusion reactor, the tokamak, which is still the basis for the majority of work in the area. Sakharov, in association with Tamm, proposed confining extremely hot ionized plasma by torus shaped magnetic fields for controlling thermonuclear fusion that led to the development of the tokamak device.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "In 1951 he invented and tested the first explosively pumped flux compression generators, compressing magnetic fields by explosives. He called these devices MK (for MagnetoKumulative) generators. The radial MK-1 produced a pulsed magnetic field of 25 megagauss (2500 teslas). The resulting helical MK-2 generated 1000 million amperes in 1953.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Sakharov then tested a MK-driven \"plasma cannon\" where a small aluminum ring was vaporized by huge eddy currents into a stable, self-confined toroidal plasmoid and was accelerated to 100 km/s. Sakharov later suggested replacing the copper coil in MK generators with a large superconductor solenoid to magnetically compress and focus underground nuclear explosions into a shaped charge effect. He theorized this could focus 10 protons per second on a 1 mm surface.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "After 1965 Sakharov returned to fundamental science and began working on particle physics and physical cosmology.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "He tried to explain the baryon asymmetry of the universe; in that regard, he was the first to give a theoretical motivation for proton decay. Proton decay was suggested by Wigner in 1949 and 1952.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "Proton decay experiments had been performed since 1954 already. Sakharov was the first to consider CPT-symmetric events occurring before the Big Bang:", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "We can visualize that neutral spinless maximons (or photons) are produced at ''t'' < 0 from contracting matter having an excess of antiquarks, that they pass \"one through the other\" at the instant ''t'' = 0 when the density is infinite, and decay with an excess of quarks when ''t'' > 0, realizing total CPT symmetry of the universe. All the phenomena at t < 0 are assumed in this hypothesis to be CPT reflections of the phenomena at t > 0.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "His legacy in this domain are the famous conditions named after him: Baryon number violation, C-symmetry and CP-symmetry violation, and interactions out of thermal equilibrium.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "Sakharov was also interested in explaining why the curvature of the universe is so small. This lead him to consider cyclic models, where the universe oscillates between contraction and expansion phases. In those models, after a certain number of cycles the curvature naturally becomes infinite even if it had not started this way: Sakharov considered three starting points, a flat universe with a slightly negative cosmological constant, a universe with a positive curvature and a zero cosmological constant, and a universe with a negative curvature and a slightly negative cosmological constant. Those last two models feature what Sakharov calls a reversal of the time arrow, which can be summarized as follows: He considers times t > 0 after the initial Big Bang singularity at t = 0 (which he calls \"Friedman singularity\" and denotes Φ) as well as times t < 0 before that singularity. He then assumes that entropy increases when time increases for t > 0 as well as when time decreases for t < 0, which constitutes his reversal of time. Then he considers the case when the universe at t < 0 is the image of the universe at t > 0 under CPT symmetry but also the case when it is not so: the universe has a non-zero CPT charge at t = 0 in this case. Sakharov considers a variant of this model where the reversal of the time arrow occurs at a point of maximum entropy instead of happening at the singularity. In those models there is no dynamic interaction between the universe at t < 0 and t > 0.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "In his first model the two universes did not interact, except via local matter accumulation whose density and pressure become high enough to connect the two sheets through a bridge without spacetime between them, but with a continuity of geodesics beyond the Schwarzschild radius with no singularity, allowing an exchange of matter between the two conjugated sheets, based on an idea after Igor Dmitriyevich Novikov. Novikov called such singularities a collapse and an anticollapse, which are an alternative to the couple black hole and white hole in the wormhole model. Sakharov also proposed the idea of induced gravity as an alternative theory of quantum gravity.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "Since the late 1950s Sakharov had become concerned about the moral and political implications of his work. Politically active during the 1960s, Sakharov was against nuclear proliferation. Pushing for the end of atmospheric tests, he played a role in the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty, signed in Moscow.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "Sakharov was also involved in an event with political consequences in 1964, when the Soviet Academy of Sciences nominated for full membership Nikolai Nuzhdin, a follower of Trofim Lysenko (initiator of the Stalin-supported anti-genetics campaign Lysenkoism). Contrary to normal practice, Sakharov, a member of the academy, publicly spoke out against full membership for Nuzhdin and held him responsible for \"the defamation, firing, arrest, even death, of many genuine scientists.\" In the end, Nuzhdin was not elected, but the episode prompted Nikita Khrushchev to order the KGB to gather compromising material on Sakharov.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "The major turn in Sakharov's political evolution came in 1967, when anti-ballistic missile defense became a key issue in US–Soviet relations. In a secret detailed letter to the Soviet leadership of July 21, 1967, Sakharov explained the need to \"take the Americans at their word\" and accept their proposal for a \"bilateral rejection by the USA and the Soviet Union of the development of antiballistic missile defense\" because an arms race in the new technology would otherwise increase the likelihood of nuclear war. He also asked permission to publish his manuscript, which accompanied the letter, in a newspaper to explain the dangers posed by that kind of defense. The government ignored his letter and refused to let him initiate a public discussion of ABMs in the Soviet press.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "Since 1967, after the Six Day War and the beginning of the Arab-Israeli conflict, he actively supported Israel, as he reported more than once in the press, and also maintained friendly relations with refuseniks who later made aliyah.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "In May 1968, Sakharov completed an essay, \"Reflections on Progress, Peaceful Coexistence, and Intellectual Freedom\". He described the anti-ballistic missile defense as a major threat of world nuclear war. After the essay was circulated in samizdat and then published outside the Soviet Union, Sakharov was banned from conducting any military-related research and returned to FIAN to study fundamental theoretical physics.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "For 12 years, until his exile to Gorky (Nizhny Novgorod) in January 1980, Sakharov assumed the role of a widely recognized and open dissident in Moscow. He stood vigil outside closed courtrooms, wrote appeals on behalf of more than 200 individual prisoners, and continued to write essays about the need for democratization.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "In 1970, Sakharov was among the three founding members of the Committee on Human Rights in the USSR, along with Valery Chalidze and Andrei Tverdokhlebov. The Committee wrote appeals, collected signatures for petitions and succeeded in affiliating with several international human rights organizations. Its work was the subject of many KGB reports and brought Sakharov under increasing pressure from the government.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "Sakharov married a fellow human rights activist, Yelena Bonner, in 1972.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "By 1973, Sakharov was meeting regularly with Western correspondents and holding press conferences in his apartment. He appealed to the US Congress to approve the 1974 Jackson-Vanik Amendment to a trade bill, which coupled trade tariffs to the Kremlin's willingness to allow freer emigration.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "In 1972, Sakharov became the target of sustained pressure from his fellow scientists in the Soviet Academy of Sciences and the Soviet press. The writer Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn came to his defence.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "In 1973 and 1974, the Soviet media campaign continued, targeting both Sakharov and Solzhenitsyn for their pro-Western, anti-socialist positions.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "Sakharov later described that it took \"years\" for him to \"understand how much substitution, deceit, and lack of correspondence with reality there was\" in the Soviet ideals. \"At first I thought, despite everything that I saw with my own eyes, that the Soviet State was a breakthrough into the future, a kind of prototype for all countries\". Then he came, in his words, to \"the theory of symmetry: all governments and regimes to a first approximation are bad, all peoples are oppressed, and all are threatened by common dangers.\":", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "...symmetry between a cancer cell and a normal one. Yet our state is similar to a cancer cell – with its messianism and expansionism, its totalitarian suppression of dissent, the authoritarian structure of power, with a total absence of public control in the most important decisions in domestic and foreign policy, a closed society that does not inform its citizens of anything substantial, closed to the outside world, without freedom of travel or the exchange of information.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "Sakharov's ideas on social development led him to put forward the principle of human rights as a new basis of all politics. In his works, he declared that \"the principle 'what is not prohibited is allowed' should be understood literally\", and defied what he saw as unwritten ideological rules imposed by the Communist Party on the society in spite of a democratic Soviet Constitution (1936):", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "I am no volunteer priest of the idea, but simply a man with an unusual fate. I am against all kinds of self-immolation (for myself and for others, including the people closest to me).", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "In a letter written from exile, he cheered up a fellow physicist and free market advocate with the words: \"Fortunately, the future is unpredictable and also – because of quantum effects – uncertain.\" For Sakharov, the indeterminacy of the future supported his belief that he could and should take personal responsibility for it.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 36, "text": "In 1973, Sakharov was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize, and in 1974, he was awarded the Prix mondial Cino Del Duca.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 37, "text": "Sakharov was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1975. The Norwegian Nobel Committee called him \"a spokesman for the conscience of mankind\". In the words of the Nobel Committee's citation: \"In a convincing manner Sakharov has emphasised that Man's inviolable rights provide the only safe foundation for genuine and enduring international cooperation.\"", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 38, "text": "Sakharov was not allowed to leave the Soviet Union to collect the prize. His wife, Yelena Bonner, read his speech at the ceremony in Oslo, Norway. On the day the prize was awarded, Sakharov was in Vilnius, where the human rights activist Sergei Kovalev was being tried. In his Nobel lecture, \"Peace, Progress, Human Rights\", Sakharov called for an end to the arms race, greater respect for the environment, international cooperation, and universal respect for human rights. He included a list of prisoners of conscience and political prisoners in the Soviet Union and stated that he shared the prize with them.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 39, "text": "By 1976, the head of the KGB, Yuri Andropov, was prepared to call Sakharov \"Domestic Enemy Number One\" before a group of KGB officers.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 40, "text": "Sakharov was arrested on 22 January 1980, following his public protests against the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan in 1979, and was sent to the city of Gorky, now Nizhny Novgorod, a city that was off limits to foreigners.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 41, "text": "Between 1980 and 1986, Sakharov was kept under Soviet police surveillance. In his memoirs, he mentioned that their apartment in Gorky was repeatedly subjected to searches and heists. Sakharov was named the 1980 Humanist of the Year by the American Humanist Association.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 42, "text": "In May 1984, Sakharov's wife, Yelena Bonner, was detained, and Sakharov began a hunger strike, demanding permission for his wife to travel to the United States for heart surgery. He was forcibly hospitalized and force-fed. He was held in isolation for four months. In August 1984, Bonner was sentenced by a court to five years of exile in Gorky.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 43, "text": "In April 1985, Sakharov started a new hunger strike for his wife to travel abroad for medical treatment. He again was taken to a hospital and force-fed. In August, the Politburo discussed what to do about Sakharov. He remained in the hospital until October 1985, when his wife was allowed to travel to the United States. She had heart surgery in the United States and returned to Gorky in June 1986.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 44, "text": "In December 1985, the European Parliament established the Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought, to be given annually for outstanding contributions to human rights.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 45, "text": "On 19 December 1986, Mikhail Gorbachev, who had initiated the policies of perestroika and glasnost, called Sakharov to tell him that he and his wife could return to Moscow.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 46, "text": "In 1988, Sakharov was given the International Humanist Award by the International Humanist and Ethical Union. He helped to initiate the first independent legal political organizations and became prominent in the Soviet Union's growing political opposition. In March 1989, Sakharov was elected to the new parliament, the All-Union Congress of People's Deputies and co-led the democratic opposition, the Inter-Regional Deputies Group. In November the head of the KGB reported to Gorbachev on Sakharov's encouragement and support for the coal miners' strike in Vorkuta.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 47, "text": "In December 1988, Sakharov visited Armenia and Azerbaijan on a fact-finding mission. He concluded, \"For Azerbaijan the issue of Karabakh is a matter of ambition, for the Armenians of Karabakh, it is a matter of life and death\".", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 48, "text": "Soon after 9 p.m. on 14 December 1989, Sakharov went to his study to take a nap before preparing an important speech he was to deliver the next day in the Congress. His wife went to wake him at 11pm as he had requested but she found Sakharov dead on the floor. According to the notes of Yakov Rapoport, a senior pathologist present at the autopsy, it is most likely that Sakharov died of an arrhythmia consequent to dilated cardiomyopathy at the age of 68. He was interred in the Vostryakovskoye Cemetery in Moscow.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 49, "text": "The Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought was established in 1988 by the European Parliament in his honour, and is the highest tribute to human rights endeavours awarded by the European Union. It is awarded annually by the parliament to \"those who carry the spirit of Soviet dissident Andrei Sakharov\"; to \"Laureates who, like Sakharov, dedicate their lives to peaceful struggle for human rights.\"", "title": "Influence" }, { "paragraph_id": 50, "text": "An Andrei Sakharov prize has also been awarded by the American Physical Society every second year since 2006 \"to recognize outstanding leadership and/or achievements of scientists in upholding human rights\".", "title": "Influence" }, { "paragraph_id": 51, "text": "The Andrei Sakharov Prize for Writer's Civic Courage was established in October 1990.", "title": "Influence" }, { "paragraph_id": 52, "text": "In 2004, with the approval of Yelena Bonner, an annual Sakharov Prize for journalism was established for reporters and commentators in Russia. Funded by former Soviet dissident Pyotr Vins, now a businessman in the US, the prize is administered by the Glasnost Defence Foundation in Moscow. The prize \"for journalism as an act of conscience\" has been won over the years by famous journalists such as Anna Politkovskaya and young reporters and editors working far from Russia's media capital, Moscow. The 2015 winner was Yelena Kostyuchenko.", "title": "Influence" }, { "paragraph_id": 53, "text": "The Andrei Sakharov Archives Archived May 25, 2011, at the Wayback Machine and Human Rights Center, established at Brandeis University in 1993, are now housed at Harvard University. The documents from that archive were published by the Yale University Press in 2005. These documents are available online. Most of documents of the archive are letters from the head of the KGB to the Central Committee about activities of Soviet dissidents and recommendations about the interpretation in newspapers. The letters cover the period from 1968 to 1991 (Brezhnev stagnation). The documents characterize not only Sakharov's activity, but that of other dissidents, as well as that of highest-position apparatchiks and the KGB. No Russian equivalent of the KGB archive is available.", "title": "Influence" }, { "paragraph_id": 54, "text": "In 1980, Sakharov was stripped of all Soviet awards for \"anti-Soviet activities\". Later, during glasnost, he declined the return of his awards and, consequently, Mikhail Gorbachev did not sign the necessary decree.", "title": "Honours and awards" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Astrobiology is a scientific field within the life and environmental sciences that studies the origins, early evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe by investigating its deterministic conditions and contingent events. As a discipline, astrobiology is founded on the premise that life may exist beyond Earth.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Research in astrobiology comprises three main areas: the study of habitable environments in the Solar System and beyond, the search for planetary biosignatures of past or present extraterrestrial life, and the study of the origin and early evolution of life on Earth.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The field of astrobiology has its origins in the 20th century with the advent of space exploration and the discovery of exoplanets. Early astrobiology research focused on the search for extraterrestrial life and the study of the potential for life to exist on other planets. In the 1960s and 1970s, NASA began its astrobiology pursuits within the Viking program, which was the first US mission to land on Mars and search for signs of life. This mission, along with other early space exploration missions, laid the foundation for the development of astrobiology as a discipline.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Regarding habitable environments, astrobiology investigates potential locations beyond Earth that could support life, such as Mars, Europa, and exoplanets, through research into the extremophiles populating austere environments on Earth, like volcanic and deep sea environments. Research within this topic is conducted utilising the methodology of the geosciences, especially geobiology, for astrobiological applications.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The search for biosignatures involves the identification of signs of past or present life in the form of organic compounds, isotopic ratios, or microbial fossils. Research within this topic is conducted utilising the methodology of planetary and environmental science, especially atmospheric science, for astrobiological applications, and is often conducted through remote sensing and in situ missions.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Astrobiology also concerns the study of the origin and early evolution of life on Earth to try to understand the conditions that are necessary for life to form on other planets. This research seeks to understand how life emerged from non-living matter and how it evolved to become the diverse array of organisms we see today. Research within this topic is conducted utilising the methodology of paleosciences, especially paleobiology, for astrobiological applications.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Astrobiology is a rapidly developing field with a strong interdisciplinary aspect that holds many challenges and opportunities for scientists. Astrobiology programs and research centres are present in many universities and research institutions around the world, and space agencies like NASA and ESA have dedicated departments and programs for astrobiology research.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "The term astrobiology was first proposed by the Russian astronomer Gavriil Tikhov in 1953. It is etymologically derived from the Greek ἄστρον, \"star\"; βίος, \"life\"; and -λογία, -logia, \"study\". A close synonym is exobiology from the Greek Έξω, \"external\"; βίος, \"life\"; and -λογία, -logia, \"study\", coined by American molecular biologist Joshua Lederberg; exobiology is considered to have a narrow scope limited to search of life external to Earth. Another associated term is xenobiology, from the Greek ξένος, \"foreign\"; βίος, \"life\"; and -λογία, \"study\", coined by American science fiction writer Robert Heinlein in his work The Star Beast; xenobiology is now used in a more specialised sense, referring to 'biology based on foreign chemistry', whether of extraterrestrial or terrestrial (typically synthetic) origin.", "title": "Overview" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "While the potential for extraterrestrial life, especially intelligent life, has been explored throughout human history within philosophy and narrative, the question is a verifiable hypothesis and thus a valid line of scientific inquiry; planetary scientist David Grinspoon calls it a field of natural philosophy, grounding speculation on the unknown in known scientific theory.", "title": "Overview" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "The modern field of astrobiology can be traced back to the 1950s and 1960s with the advent of space exploration, when scientists began to seriously consider the possibility of life on other planets. In 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite, which marked the beginning of the Space Age. This event led to an increase in the study of the potential for life on other planets, as scientists began to consider the possibilities opened up by the new technology of space exploration. In 1959, NASA funded its first exobiology project, and in 1960, NASA founded the Exobiology Program, now one of four main elements of NASA's current Astrobiology Program. In 1971, NASA funded Project Cyclops, part of the search for extraterrestrial intelligence, to search radio frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum for interstellar communications transmitted by extraterrestrial life outside the Solar System. In the 1960s-1970s, NASA established the Viking program, which was the first US mission to land on Mars and search for metabolic signs of present life; the results were inconclusive.", "title": "Overview" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "In the 1980s and 1990s, the field began to expand and diversify as new discoveries and technologies emerged. The discovery of microbial life in extreme environments on Earth, such as deep-sea hydrothermal vents, helped to clarify the feasibility of potential life existing in harsh conditions. The development of new techniques for the detection of biosignatures, such as the use of stable isotopes, also played a significant role in the evolution of the field.", "title": "Overview" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "The contemporary landscape of astrobiology emerged in the early 21st century, focused on utilising Earth and environmental science for applications within comparate space environments. Missions included the ESA's Beagle 2, which failed minutes after landing on Mars, NASA's Phoenix lander, which probed the environment for past and present planetary habitability of microbial life on Mars and researched the history of water, and NASA's Curiosity rover, currently probing the environment for past and present planetary habitability of microbial life on Mars.", "title": "Overview" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Astrobiological research makes a number of simplifying assumptions when studying the necessary components for planetary habitability.", "title": "Theoretical foundations" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "Carbon and Organic Compounds: Carbon is the fourth most abundant element in the universe and the energy required to make or break a bond is at just the appropriate level for building molecules which are not only stable, but also reactive. The fact that carbon atoms bond readily to other carbon atoms allows for the building of extremely long and complex molecules. As such, astrobiological research presumes that the vast majority of life forms in the Milky Way galaxy are based on carbon chemistries, as are all life forms on Earth. However, theoretical astrobiology entertains the potential for other organic molecular bases for life, thus astrobiological research often focuses on identifying environments that have the potential to support life based on the presence of organic compounds.", "title": "Theoretical foundations" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "Liquid water: Liquid water is a common molecule that provides an excellent environment for the formation of complicated carbon-based molecules, and is generally considered necessary for life as we know it to exist. Thus, astrobiological research presumes that extraterrestrial life similarly depends upon access to liquid water, and often focuses on identifying environments that have the potential to support liquid water. Some researchers posit environments of water-ammonia mixtures as possible solvents for hypothetical types of biochemistry.", "title": "Theoretical foundations" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "Environmental Stability: Where organisms adaptively evolve to the conditions of the environments in which they reside, environmental stability is considered necessary for life to exist. This presupposes the necessity of a stable temperature, pressure, and radiation levels; resultantly, astrobiological research focuses on planets orbiting Sun-like red dwarf stars. This is because very large stars have relatively short lifetimes, meaning that life might not have time to emerge on planets orbiting them; very small stars provide so little heat and warmth that only planets in very close orbits around them would not be frozen solid, and in such close orbits these planets would be tidally locked to the star; whereas the long lifetimes of red dwarfs could allow the development of habitable environments on planets with thick atmospheres. This is significant as red dwarfs are extremely common. (See also: Habitability of red dwarf systems).", "title": "Theoretical foundations" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "Energy source: It is assumed that any life elsewhere in the universe would also require an energy source. Previously, it was assumed that this would necessarily be from a sun-like star, however with developments within extremophile research contemporary astrobiological research often focuses on identifying environments that have the potential to support life based on the availability of an energy source, such as the presence of volcanic activity on a planet or moon that could provide a source of heat and energy.", "title": "Theoretical foundations" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "It is important to note that these assumptions are based on our current understanding of life on Earth and the conditions under which it can exist. As our understanding of life and the potential for it to exist in different environments evolves, these assumptions may change.", "title": "Theoretical foundations" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "Astrobiological research concerning the study of habitable environments in our solar system and beyond utilises methodologies within the geosciences. Research within this branch primarily concerns the geobiology of organisms that can survive in extreme environments on Earth, such as in volcanic or deep sea environments, to understand the limits of life, and the conditions under which life might be able to survive on other planets. This includes, but is not limited to;", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "Deep-sea extremophiles: Researchers are studying organisms that live in the extreme environments of deep-sea hydrothermal vents and cold seeps. These organisms survive in the absence of sunlight, and some are able to survive in high temperatures and pressures, and use chemical energy instead of sunlight to produce food.", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "Desert extremophiles: Researchers are studying organisms that can survive in extreme dry, high temperature conditions, such as in deserts.", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "Microbes in extreme environments: Researchers are investigating the diversity and activity of microorganisms in environments such as deep mines, subsurface soil, cold glaciers and polar ice, and high-altitude environments.", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "Research also regards the long-term survival of life on Earth, and the possibilities and hazards of life on other planets, including;", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "Biodiversity and ecosystem resilience: Scientists are studying how the diversity of life and the interactions between different species contribute to the resilience of ecosystems and their ability to recover from disturbances.", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "Climate change and extinction: Researchers are investigating the impacts of climate change on different species and ecosystems, and how they may lead to extinction or adaptation. This includes the evolution of Earth's climate and geology, and their potential impact on the habitability of the planet in the future, especially for humans.", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "Human impact on the biosphere: Scientists are studying the ways in which human activities, such as deforestation, pollution, and the introduction of invasive species, are affecting the biosphere and the long-term survival of life on Earth.", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "Long-term preservation of life: Researchers are exploring ways to preserve samples of life on Earth for long periods of time, such as cryopreservation and genomic preservation, in the event of a catastrophic event that could wipe out most of life on Earth.", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "Emerging astrobiological research concerning the search for planetary biosignatures of past or present extraterrestrial life utilise methodologies within planetary sciences. These include;", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "The study of microbial life in the subsurface of Mars:", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "Scientists are using data from Mars rover missions to study the composition of the subsurface of Mars, searching for biosignatures of past or present microbial life. The study of subsurface oceans on icy moons:", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "Recent discoveries of subsurface oceans on moons such as Europa and Enceladus have opened up new habitability zones thus targets for the search for extraterrestrial life. Currently, missions like the Europa Clipper are being planned to search for biosignatures within these environments.", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "The study of the atmospheres of planets:", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "Scientists are studying the potential for life to exist in the atmospheres of planets, with a focus on the study of the physical and chemical conditions necessary for such life to exist, namely the detection of organic molecules and biosignature gases; for example, the study of the possibility of life in the atmospheres of exoplanets that orbit red dwarfs and the study of the potential for microbial life in the upper atmosphere of Venus.", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "Telescopes and remote sensing of exoplanets: The discovery of thousands of exoplanets has opened up new opportunities for the search for biosignatures. Scientists are using telescopes such as the James Webb Space Telescope and the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite to search for biosignatures on exoplanets. They are also developing new techniques for the detection of biosignatures, such as the use of remote sensing to search for biosignatures in the atmosphere of exoplanets.", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "SETI and CETI:", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "Scientists search for signals from intelligent extraterrestrial civilizations using radio and optical telescopes within the discipline of extraterrestrial intelligence communications (CETI). CETI focuses on composing and deciphering messages that could theoretically be understood by another technological civilization. Communication attempts by humans have included broadcasting mathematical languages, pictorial systems such as the Arecibo message, and computational approaches to detecting and deciphering 'natural' language communication. While some high-profile scientists, such as Carl Sagan, have advocated the transmission of messages, theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking warned against it, suggesting that aliens may raid Earth for its resources.", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 36, "text": "Emerging astrobiological research concerning the study of the origin and early evolution of life on Earth utilises methodologies within the palaeosciences. These include;", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 37, "text": "The study of the early atmosphere: Researchers are investigating the role of the early atmosphere in providing the right conditions for the emergence of life, such as the presence of gases that could have helped to stabilise the climate and the formation of organic molecules.", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 38, "text": "The study of the early magnetic field: Researchers are investigating the role of the early magnetic field in protecting the Earth from harmful radiation and helping to stabilise the climate. This research has immense astrobiological implications where the subjects of current astrobiological research like Mars lack such a field.", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 39, "text": "The study of prebiotic chemistry: Scientists are studying the chemical reactions that could have occurred on the early Earth that led to the formation of the building blocks of life- amino acids, nucleotides, and lipids- and how these molecules could have formed spontaneously under early Earth conditions.", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 40, "text": "The study of impact events: Scientists are investigating the potential role of impact events- especially meteorites- in the delivery of water and organic molecules to early Earth.", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 41, "text": "The study of the primordial soup:", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 42, "text": "Researchers are investigating the conditions and ingredients that were present on the early Earth that could have led to the formation of the first living organisms, such as the presence of water and organic molecules, and how these ingredients could have led to the formation of the first living organisms. This includes the role of water in the formation of the first cells and in catalysing chemical reactions.", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 43, "text": "The study of the role of minerals: Scientists are investigating the role of minerals like clay in catalysing the formation of organic molecules, thus playing a role in the emergence of life on Earth.", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 44, "text": "The study of the role of energy and electricity: Scientists are investigating the potential sources of energy and electricity that could have been available on the early Earth, and their role in the formation of organic molecules, thus the emergence of life.", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 45, "text": "The study of the early oceans: Scientists are investigating the composition and chemistry of the early oceans and how it may have played a role in the emergence of life, such as the presence of dissolved minerals that could have helped to catalyse the formation of organic molecules.", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 46, "text": "The study of hydrothermal vents: Scientists are investigating the potential role of hydrothermal vents in the origin of life, as these environments may have provided the energy and chemical building blocks needed for its emergence.", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 47, "text": "The study of plate tectonics: Scientists are investigating the role of plate tectonics in creating a diverse range of environments on the early Earth.", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 48, "text": "The study of the early biosphere: Researchers are investigating the diversity and activity of microorganisms in the early Earth, and how these organisms may have played a role in the emergence of life.", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 49, "text": "The study of microbial fossils: Scientists are investigating the presence of microbial fossils in ancient rocks, which can provide clues about the early evolution of life on Earth and the emergence of the first organisms.", "title": "Methodology" }, { "paragraph_id": 50, "text": "The systematic search for possible life outside Earth is a valid multidisciplinary scientific endeavor. However, hypotheses and predictions as to its existence and origin vary widely, and at the present, the development of hypotheses firmly grounded on science may be considered astrobiology's most concrete practical application. It has been proposed that viruses are likely to be encountered on other life-bearing planets, and may be present even if there are no biological cells.", "title": "Research" }, { "paragraph_id": 51, "text": "As of 2019, no evidence of extraterrestrial life has been identified. Examination of the Allan Hills 84001 meteorite, which was recovered in Antarctica in 1984 and originated from Mars, is thought by David McKay, as well as few other scientists, to contain microfossils of extraterrestrial origin; this interpretation is controversial.", "title": "Research" }, { "paragraph_id": 52, "text": "Yamato 000593, the second largest meteorite from Mars, was found on Earth in 2000. At a microscopic level, spheres are found in the meteorite that are rich in carbon compared to surrounding areas that lack such spheres. The carbon-rich spheres may have been formed by biotic activity according to some NASA scientists.", "title": "Research" }, { "paragraph_id": 53, "text": "On 5 March 2011, Richard B. Hoover, a scientist with the Marshall Space Flight Center, speculated on the finding of alleged microfossils similar to cyanobacteria in CI1 carbonaceous meteorites in the fringe Journal of Cosmology, a story widely reported on by mainstream media. However, NASA formally distanced itself from Hoover's claim. According to American astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson: \"At the moment, life on Earth is the only known life in the universe, but there are compelling arguments to suggest we are not alone.\"", "title": "Research" }, { "paragraph_id": 54, "text": "Most astronomy-related astrobiology research falls into the category of extrasolar planet (exoplanet) detection, the hypothesis being that if life arose on Earth, then it could also arise on other planets with similar characteristics. To that end, a number of instruments designed to detect Earth-sized exoplanets have been considered, most notably NASA's Terrestrial Planet Finder (TPF) and ESA's Darwin programs, both of which have been cancelled. NASA launched the Kepler mission in March 2009, and the French Space Agency launched the COROT space mission in 2006. There are also several less ambitious ground-based efforts underway.", "title": "Research" }, { "paragraph_id": 55, "text": "The goal of these missions is not only to detect Earth-sized planets but also to directly detect light from the planet so that it may be studied spectroscopically. By examining planetary spectra, it would be possible to determine the basic composition of an extrasolar planet's atmosphere and/or surface. Given this knowledge, it may be possible to assess the likelihood of life being found on that planet. A NASA research group, the Virtual Planet Laboratory, is using computer modeling to generate a wide variety of virtual planets to see what they would look like if viewed by TPF or Darwin. It is hoped that once these missions come online, their spectra can be cross-checked with these virtual planetary spectra for features that might indicate the presence of life.", "title": "Research" }, { "paragraph_id": 56, "text": "An estimate for the number of planets with intelligent communicative extraterrestrial life can be gleaned from the Drake equation, essentially an equation expressing the probability of intelligent life as the product of factors such as the fraction of planets that might be habitable and the fraction of planets on which life might arise:", "title": "Research" }, { "paragraph_id": 57, "text": "where:", "title": "Research" }, { "paragraph_id": 58, "text": "However, whilst the rationale behind the equation is sound, it is unlikely that the equation will be constrained to reasonable limits of error any time soon. The problem with the formula is that it is not used to generate or support hypotheses because it contains factors that can never be verified. The first term, R*, number of stars, is generally constrained within a few orders of magnitude. The second and third terms, fp, stars with planets and fe, planets with habitable conditions, are being evaluated for the star's neighborhood. Drake originally formulated the equation merely as an agenda for discussion at the Green Bank conference, but some applications of the formula had been taken literally and related to simplistic or pseudoscientific arguments. Another associated topic is the Fermi paradox, which suggests that if intelligent life is common in the universe, then there should be obvious signs of it.", "title": "Research" }, { "paragraph_id": 59, "text": "Another active research area in astrobiology is planetary system formation. It has been suggested that the peculiarities of the Solar System (for example, the presence of Jupiter as a protective shield) may have greatly increased the probability of intelligent life arising on Earth.", "title": "Research" }, { "paragraph_id": 60, "text": "Biology cannot state that a process or phenomenon, by being mathematically possible, has to exist forcibly in an extraterrestrial body. Biologists specify what is speculative and what is not. The discovery of extremophiles, organisms able to survive in extreme environments, became a core research element for astrobiologists, as they are important to understand four areas in the limits of life in planetary context: the potential for panspermia, forward contamination due to human exploration ventures, planetary colonization by humans, and the exploration of extinct and extant extraterrestrial life.", "title": "Research" }, { "paragraph_id": 61, "text": "Until the 1970s, life was thought to be entirely dependent on energy from the Sun. Plants on Earth's surface capture energy from sunlight to photosynthesize sugars from carbon dioxide and water, releasing oxygen in the process that is then consumed by oxygen-respiring organisms, passing their energy up the food chain. Even life in the ocean depths, where sunlight cannot reach, was thought to obtain its nourishment either from consuming organic detritus rained down from the surface waters or from eating animals that did. The world's ability to support life was thought to depend on its access to sunlight. However, in 1977, during an exploratory dive to the Galapagos Rift in the deep-sea exploration submersible Alvin, scientists discovered colonies of giant tube worms, clams, crustaceans, mussels, and other assorted creatures clustered around undersea volcanic features known as black smokers. These creatures thrive despite having no access to sunlight, and it was soon discovered that they comprise an entirely independent ecosystem. Although most of these multicellular lifeforms need dissolved oxygen (produced by oxygenic photosynthesis) for their aerobic cellular respiration and thus are not completely independent from sunlight by themselves, the basis for their food chain is a form of bacterium that derives its energy from oxidization of reactive chemicals, such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide, that bubble up from the Earth's interior. Other lifeforms entirely decoupled from the energy from sunlight are green sulfur bacteria which are capturing geothermal light for anoxygenic photosynthesis or bacteria running chemolithoautotrophy based on the radioactive decay of uranium. This chemosynthesis revolutionized the study of biology and astrobiology by revealing that life need not be sunlight-dependent; it only requires water and an energy gradient in order to exist.", "title": "Research" }, { "paragraph_id": 62, "text": "Biologists have found extremophiles that thrive in ice, boiling water, acid, alkali, the water core of nuclear reactors, salt crystals, toxic waste and in a range of other extreme habitats that were previously thought to be inhospitable for life. This opened up a new avenue in astrobiology by massively expanding the number of possible extraterrestrial habitats. Characterization of these organisms, their environments and their evolutionary pathways, is considered a crucial component to understanding how life might evolve elsewhere in the universe. For example, some organisms able to withstand exposure to the vacuum and radiation of outer space include the lichen fungi Rhizocarpon geographicum and Xanthoria elegans, the bacterium Bacillus safensis, Deinococcus radiodurans, Bacillus subtilis, yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, seeds from Arabidopsis thaliana ('mouse-ear cress'), as well as the invertebrate animal Tardigrade. While tardigrades are not considered true extremophiles, they are considered extremotolerant microorganisms that have contributed to the field of astrobiology. Their extreme radiation tolerance and presence of DNA protection proteins may provide answers as to whether life can survive away from the protection of the Earth's atmosphere.", "title": "Research" }, { "paragraph_id": 63, "text": "Jupiter's moon, Europa, and Saturn's moon, Enceladus, are now considered the most likely locations for extant extraterrestrial life in the Solar System due to their subsurface water oceans where radiogenic and tidal heating enables liquid water to exist.", "title": "Research" }, { "paragraph_id": 64, "text": "The origin of life, known as abiogenesis, distinct from the evolution of life, is another ongoing field of research. Oparin and Haldane postulated that the conditions on the early Earth were conducive to the formation of organic compounds from inorganic elements and thus to the formation of many of the chemicals common to all forms of life we see today. The study of this process, known as prebiotic chemistry, has made some progress, but it is still unclear whether or not life could have formed in such a manner on Earth. The alternative hypothesis of panspermia is that the first elements of life may have formed on another planet with even more favorable conditions (or even in interstellar space, asteroids, etc.) and then have been carried over to Earth.", "title": "Research" }, { "paragraph_id": 65, "text": "The cosmic dust permeating the universe contains complex organic compounds (\"amorphous organic solids with a mixed aromatic-aliphatic structure\") that could be created naturally, and rapidly, by stars. Further, a scientist suggested that these compounds may have been related to the development of life on Earth and said that, \"If this is the case, life on Earth may have had an easier time getting started as these organics can serve as basic ingredients for life.\"", "title": "Research" }, { "paragraph_id": 66, "text": "More than 20% of the carbon in the universe may be associated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), possible starting materials for the formation of life. PAHs seem to have been formed shortly after the Big Bang, are widespread throughout the universe, and are associated with new stars and exoplanets. PAHs are subjected to interstellar medium conditions and are transformed through hydrogenation, oxygenation and hydroxylation, to more complex organics—\"a step along the path toward amino acids and nucleotides, the raw materials of proteins and DNA, respectively\".", "title": "Research" }, { "paragraph_id": 67, "text": "In October 2020, astronomers proposed the idea of detecting life on distant planets by studying the shadows of trees at certain times of the day to find patterns that could be detected through observation of exoplanets.", "title": "Research" }, { "paragraph_id": 68, "text": "The Rare Earth hypothesis postulates that multicellular life forms found on Earth may actually be more of a rarity than scientists assume. According to this hypothesis, life on Earth (and more, multi-cellular life) is possible because of a conjunction of the right circumstances (galaxy and location within it, planetary system, star, orbit, planetary size, atmosphere, etc.); and the chance for all those circumstances to repeat elsewhere may be rare. It provides a possible answer to the Fermi paradox which suggests, \"If extraterrestrial aliens are common, why aren't they obvious?\" It is apparently in opposition to the principle of mediocrity, assumed by famed astronomers Frank Drake, Carl Sagan, and others. The principle of mediocrity suggests that life on Earth is not exceptional, and it is more than likely to be found on innumerable other worlds.", "title": "Rare Earth hypothesis" }, { "paragraph_id": 69, "text": "Research into the environmental limits of life and the workings of extreme ecosystems is ongoing, enabling researchers to better predict what planetary environments might be most likely to harbor life. Missions such as the Phoenix lander, Mars Science Laboratory, ExoMars, Mars 2020 rover to Mars, and the Cassini probe to Saturn's moons aim to further explore the possibilities of life on other planets in the Solar System.", "title": "Missions" }, { "paragraph_id": 70, "text": "The two Viking landers each carried four types of biological experiments to the surface of Mars in the late 1970s. These were the only Mars landers to carry out experiments looking specifically for metabolism by current microbial life on Mars. The landers used a robotic arm to collect soil samples into sealed test containers on the craft. The two landers were identical, so the same tests were carried out at two places on Mars' surface; Viking 1 near the equator and Viking 2 further north. The result was inconclusive, and is still disputed by some scientists.", "title": "Missions" }, { "paragraph_id": 71, "text": "Norman Horowitz was the chief of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory bioscience section for the Mariner and Viking missions from 1965 to 1976. Horowitz considered that the great versatility of the carbon atom makes it the element most likely to provide solutions, even exotic solutions, to the problems of survival of life on other planets. However, he also considered that the conditions found on Mars were incompatible with carbon based life.", "title": "Missions" }, { "paragraph_id": 72, "text": "Beagle 2 was an unsuccessful British Mars lander that formed part of the European Space Agency's 2003 Mars Express mission. Its primary purpose was to search for signs of life on Mars, past or present. Although it landed safely, it was unable to correctly deploy its solar panels and telecom antenna.", "title": "Missions" }, { "paragraph_id": 73, "text": "EXPOSE is a multi-user facility mounted in 2008 outside the International Space Station dedicated to astrobiology. EXPOSE was developed by the European Space Agency (ESA) for long-term spaceflights that allow exposure of organic chemicals and biological samples to outer space in low Earth orbit.", "title": "Missions" }, { "paragraph_id": 74, "text": "The Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission landed the Curiosity rover that is currently in operation on Mars. It was launched 26 November 2011, and landed at Gale Crater on 6 August 2012. Mission objectives are to help assess Mars' habitability and in doing so, determine whether Mars is or has ever been able to support life, collect data for a future human mission, study Martian geology, its climate, and further assess the role that water, an essential ingredient for life as we know it, played in forming minerals on Mars.", "title": "Missions" }, { "paragraph_id": 75, "text": "The Tanpopo mission is an orbital astrobiology experiment investigating the potential interplanetary transfer of life, organic compounds, and possible terrestrial particles in the low Earth orbit. The purpose is to assess the panspermia hypothesis and the possibility of natural interplanetary transport of microbial life as well as prebiotic organic compounds. Early mission results show evidence that some clumps of microorganism can survive for at least one year in space. This may support the idea that clumps greater than 0.5 millimeters of microorganisms could be one way for life to spread from planet to planet.", "title": "Missions" }, { "paragraph_id": 76, "text": "ExoMars is a robotic mission to Mars to search for possible biosignatures of Martian life, past or present. This astrobiological mission is currently under development by the European Space Agency (ESA) in partnership with the Russian Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos); it is planned for a 2022 launch.", "title": "Missions" }, { "paragraph_id": 77, "text": "Mars 2020 successfully landed its rover Perseverance in Jezero Crater on 18 February 2021. It will investigate environments on Mars relevant to astrobiology, investigate its surface geological processes and history, including the assessment of its past habitability and potential for preservation of biosignatures and biomolecules within accessible geological materials. The Science Definition Team is proposing the rover collect and package at least 31 samples of rock cores and soil for a later mission to bring back for more definitive analysis in laboratories on Earth. The rover could make measurements and technology demonstrations to help designers of a human expedition understand any hazards posed by Martian dust and demonstrate how to collect carbon dioxide (CO2), which could be a resource for making molecular oxygen (O2) and rocket fuel.", "title": "Missions" }, { "paragraph_id": 78, "text": "Europa Clipper is a mission planned by NASA for a 2025 launch that will conduct detailed reconnaissance of Jupiter's moon Europa and will investigate whether its internal ocean could harbor conditions suitable for life. It will also aid in the selection of future landing sites.", "title": "Missions" }, { "paragraph_id": 79, "text": "Dragonfly is a NASA mission scheduled to land on Titan in 2036 to assess its microbial habitability and study its prebiotic chemistry. Dragonfly is a rotorcraft lander that will perform controlled flights between multiple locations on the surface, which allows sampling of diverse regions and geological contexts.", "title": "Missions" }, { "paragraph_id": 80, "text": "Icebreaker Life is a lander mission that was proposed for NASA's Discovery Program for the 2021 launch opportunity, but it was not selected for development. It would have had a stationary lander that would be a near copy of the successful 2008 Phoenix and it would have carried an upgraded astrobiology scientific payload, including a 1-meter-long core drill to sample ice-cemented ground in the northern plains to conduct a search for organic molecules and evidence of current or past life on Mars. One of the key goals of the Icebreaker Life mission is to test the hypothesis that the ice-rich ground in the polar regions has significant concentrations of organics due to protection by the ice from oxidants and radiation.", "title": "Missions" }, { "paragraph_id": 81, "text": "Journey to Enceladus and Titan (JET) is an astrobiology mission concept to assess the habitability potential of Saturn's moons Enceladus and Titan by means of an orbiter.", "title": "Missions" }, { "paragraph_id": 82, "text": "Enceladus Life Finder (ELF) is a proposed astrobiology mission concept for a space probe intended to assess the habitability of the internal aquatic ocean of Enceladus, Saturn's sixth-largest moon.", "title": "Missions" }, { "paragraph_id": 83, "text": "Life Investigation For Enceladus (LIFE) is a proposed astrobiology sample-return mission concept. The spacecraft would enter into Saturn orbit and enable multiple flybys through Enceladus' icy plumes to collect icy plume particles and volatiles and return them to Earth on a capsule. The spacecraft may sample Enceladus' plumes, the E ring of Saturn, and the upper atmosphere of Titan.", "title": "Missions" }, { "paragraph_id": 84, "text": "Oceanus is an orbiter proposed in 2017 for the New Frontiers mission No. 4. It would travel to the moon of Saturn, Titan, to assess its habitability. Oceanus' objectives are to reveal Titan's organic chemistry, geology, gravity, topography, collect 3D reconnaissance data, catalog the organics and determine where they may interact with liquid water.", "title": "Missions" }, { "paragraph_id": 85, "text": "Explorer of Enceladus and Titan (ET) is an orbiter mission concept that would investigate the evolution and habitability of the Saturnian satellites Enceladus and Titan. The mission concept was proposed in 2017 by the European Space Agency.", "title": "Missions" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "An air show (or airshow, air fair, air tattoo) is a public event where aircraft are exhibited. They often include aerobatics demonstrations, without they are called \"static air shows\" with aircraft parked on the ground.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The largest air show measured by number of exhibitors and size of exhibit space is Le Bourget, followed by Farnborough, with the Dubai Airshow and Singapore Airshow both claiming third place. The largest air show or fly-in by number of participating aircraft is EAA AirVenture Oshkosh, with approximately 10,000 aircraft participating annually. The biggest military airshow in the world is the Royal International Air Tattoo, at RAF Fairford in England. On the other hand, FIDAE in II Air Brigade of the FACH, next to the Arturo Merino Benítez International Airport in Santiago, Chile, is the largest aerospace fair in Latin America and the Southern Hemisphere.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Some airshows are held as a business venture or as a trade event where aircraft, avionics and other services are promoted to potential customers. Many air shows are held in support of local, national or military charities. Military air firms often organise air shows at military airfields as a public relations exercise to thank the local community, promote military careers and raise the profile of the military.", "title": "Outline" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Air \"seasons\" vary around the world. The United States enjoys a long season that generally runs from March to November, covering the spring, summer, and fall seasons. Other countries often have much shorter seasons. In Japan air shows are generally events held at Japan Air Self-Defense Force bases regularly throughout the year. The European season usually starts in late April or Early May and is usually over by mid October. The Middle East, Australia, and New Zealand hold their events between January and March. However, for many acts, the \"off-season\" does not mean a period of inactivity; pilots and performers use this time for maintenance and practice.", "title": "Outline" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The type of displays seen at shows are constrained by a number of factors, including the weather and visibility. Most aviation authorities now publish rules and guidance on minimum display heights and criteria for differing conditions. In addition to the weather, pilots and organizers must also consider local airspace restrictions. Most exhibitors will plan \"full\", \"rolling\" and \"flat\" display for varying weather and airspace conditions.", "title": "Outline" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The types of shows vary greatly. Some are large scale military events with large flying displays and ground exhibitions while others held at small local airstrips can often feature just one or two hours of flying with just a few stalls on the ground. Air displays can be held during day or night with the latter becoming increasingly popular. Air shows often, but do not always, take place over airfields; some have been held over the grounds of stately homes or castles and over the sea at coastal resorts.", "title": "Outline" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "The first public international airshow, at which many types of aircraft were displayed and flown, was the Grande Semaine d'Aviation de la Champagne, held Aug. 22–29, 1909 in Reims. This had been preceded by what may have been the first ever gathering of enthusiasts, June 28 – July 19 of the same year at the airfield at La Brayelle, near Douai.", "title": "Outline" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Before World War II, air shows were associated with long-distance air races, often lasting many days and covering thousands of miles. While the Reno Air Races keep this tradition alive, most air shows today primarily feature a series of aerial demos of short duration.", "title": "Attractions" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Most air shows feature warbirds, aerobatics, and demonstrations of modern military aircraft, and many air shows offer a variety of other aeronautical attractions as well, such as wing-walking, radio-controlled aircraft, water/slurry drops from firefighting aircraft, simulated helicopter rescues and sky diving.", "title": "Attractions" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Specialist aerobatic aircraft have powerful piston engines, light weight and big control surfaces, making them capable of very high roll rates and accelerations. A skilled pilot will be able to climb vertically, perform very tight turns, tumble his aircraft end-over-end and perform manoeuvres during loops.", "title": "Attractions" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Larger airshows can be headlined by military jet demonstration teams, such as the United States Navy Blue Angels, United States Air Force Thunderbirds, Royal Canadian Air Force Snowbirds, Royal Air Force Red Arrows, and Swiss Air Force Patrouille Suisse, among many others.", "title": "Attractions" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "Solo military demos, also known as tactical demos, feature one aircraft. The demonstration focuses on the capabilities of modern military aircraft. The display will usually demonstrate the aircraft's very short (and often very loud) rolls, fast speeds, slow approach speeds, as well as their ability to quickly make tight turns, to climb quickly, and their ability to be precisely controlled at a large range of speeds. Manoeuvres include aileron rolls, barrel rolls, hesitation rolls, Cuban-8s, tight turns, high-alpha flight, a high-speed pass, double Immelmans, and touch-and-gos. Tactical demos may include simulated bomb drops, sometimes with pyrotechnics on the ground for effect. Aircraft with special characteristics that give them unique capabilities will often display those in their demos; For example, Russian fighters with thrust vectoring may be used to perform the cobra maneuver or the Kulbit, while VTOL aircraft such as the Harrier may display such vertical capabilities or perform complex maneuvers with them. Some military air shows also feature demonstrations of aircraft ordnance in airstrikes and close air support, using either blanks or live munitions.", "title": "Attractions" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Air shows may present some risk to spectators and aviators. Accidents have occurred, sometimes with a large loss of life, such as the 1988 Ramstein air show disaster (70 deaths) in Germany and the 2002 Sknyliv air show disaster (77 deaths) in Ukraine.", "title": "Safety" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "Because of these accidents, the various aviation authorities around the world have set rules and guidance for those running and participating in air displays. For example, after the breakup of an aircraft at 1952 Farnborough air show (31 deaths), the separation between display and spectators was increased. Air displays are often monitored by aviation authorities to ensure safe procedures.", "title": "Safety" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "In the United Kingdom, local authorities will first need to approve any application for an event to which the public is admitted. No approval, no event. The first priority must be to arrange insurance cover and details can be obtained from your local authority. An added complication is a whole new raft of legislation concerning Health & Safety in particular Corporate Manslaughter, which can involve the event organiser being charged with a criminal offence if any of the insurances and risk assessments are not fully completed well in advance of the event. If this very basic step is not completed then any further activity should be halted until it is.", "title": "Safety" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "Rules govern the distance from the crowds that aircraft must fly. These vary according to the rating of the pilot/crew, the type of aircraft and the way the aircraft is being flown. For instance, slower, lighter aircraft are usually allowed closer and lower to the crowd than larger, faster types. Also, a fighter jet flying straight and level will be able to do so closer to the crowd and lower than if it were performing a roll or a loop.", "title": "Safety" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "Pilots can get authorizations for differing types of displays (i.e. limbo flying, basic aerobatics to unlimited aerobatics) and to differing minimum base heights above the ground. To gain such authorizations, the pilots will have to demonstrate to an examiner that they can perform to those limits without endangering themselves, ground crew or spectators.", "title": "Safety" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "Despite display rules and guidances, accidents have continued to happen. However, air show accidents are rare and where there is proper supervision air shows have impressive safety records. Each year, organizations such as International Council of Air Shows and European Airshow Council meet and discuss various subjects including air show safety where accidents are discussed and lessons learned.", "title": "Safety" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The anthropic principle, also known as the \"observation selection effect\", is the hypothesis, first proposed in 1957 by Robert Dicke, that the range of possible observations that could be made about the universe is limited by the fact that observations could happen only in a universe capable of developing intelligent life. Proponents of the anthropic principle argue that it explains why the universe has the age and the fundamental physical constants necessary to accommodate conscious life, since if either had been different, no one would have been around to make observations. Anthropic reasoning is often used to deal with the idea that the universe seems to be finely tuned for the existence of life.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "There are many different formulations of the anthropic principle. Philosopher Nick Bostrom counts them at thirty, but the underlying principles can be divided into \"weak\" and \"strong\" forms, depending on the types of cosmological claims they entail. The weak anthropic principle (WAP), as defined by Brandon Carter, states that the universe's ostensible fine tuning is the result of selection bias (specifically survivorship bias). Most such arguments draw upon some notion of the multiverse for there to be a statistical population of universes from which to select. However, a single vast universe is sufficient for most forms of the WAP that do not specifically deal with fine tuning. Carter distinguished the WAP from the strong anthropic principle (SAP), which considers the universe in some sense compelled to eventually have conscious and sapient life emerge within it. A form of the latter known as the participatory anthropic principle, articulated by John Archibald Wheeler, suggests on the basis of quantum mechanics that the universe, as a condition of its existence, must be observed, thus implying one or more observers. Stronger yet is the final anthropic principle (FAP), proposed by John D. Barrow and Frank Tipler, which views the universe's structure as expressible by bits of information in such a way that information processing is inevitable and eternal.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The principle was formulated as a response to a series of observations that the laws of nature and parameters of the universe have values that are consistent with conditions for life as it is known rather than values that would not be consistent with life on Earth. The anthropic principle states that this is an a posteriori necessity, because if life were impossible, no living entity would be there to observe it, and thus it would not be known. That is, it must be possible to observe some universe, and hence, the laws and constants of any such universe must accommodate that possibility.", "title": "Definition and basis" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The term anthropic in \"anthropic principle\" has been argued to be a misnomer. While singling out the currently-observable kind of carbon-based life, none of the finely tuned phenomena require human life or some kind of carbon chauvinism. Any form of life or any form of heavy atom, stone, star, or galaxy would do; nothing specifically human or anthropic is involved.", "title": "Definition and basis" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The anthropic principle has given rise to some confusion and controversy, partly because the phrase has been applied to several distinct ideas. All versions of the principle have been accused of discouraging the search for a deeper physical understanding of the universe. The anthropic principle is often criticized for lacking falsifiability and therefore its critics may point out that the anthropic principle is a non-scientific concept, even though the weak anthropic principle, \"conditions that are observed in the universe must allow the observer to exist\", is \"easy\" to support in mathematics and philosophy (i.e., it is a tautology or truism). However, building a substantive argument based on a tautological foundation is problematic. Stronger variants of the anthropic principle are not tautologies and thus make claims considered controversial by some and that are contingent upon empirical verification.", "title": "Definition and basis" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "In 1961, Robert Dicke noted that the age of the universe, as seen by living observers, cannot be random. Instead, biological factors constrain the universe to be more or less in a \"golden age\", neither too young nor too old. If the universe were one tenth as old as its present age, there would not have been sufficient time to build up appreciable levels of metallicity (levels of elements besides hydrogen and helium) especially carbon, by nucleosynthesis. Small rocky planets did not yet exist. If the universe were 10 times older than it actually is, most stars would be too old to remain on the main sequence and would have turned into white dwarfs, aside from the dimmest red dwarfs, and stable planetary systems would have already come to an end. Thus, Dicke explained the coincidence between large dimensionless numbers constructed from the constants of physics and the age of the universe, a coincidence that inspired Dirac's varying-G theory.", "title": "Anthropic 'coincidences'" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Dicke later reasoned that the density of matter in the universe must be almost exactly the critical density needed to prevent the Big Crunch (the \"Dicke coincidences\" argument). The most recent measurements may suggest that the observed density of baryonic matter, and some theoretical predictions of the amount of dark matter, account for about 30% of this critical density, with the rest contributed by a cosmological constant. Steven Weinberg gave an anthropic explanation for this fact: he noted that the cosmological constant has a remarkably low value, some 120 orders of magnitude smaller than the value particle physics predicts (this has been described as the \"worst prediction in physics\"). However, if the cosmological constant were only several orders of magnitude larger than its observed value, the universe would suffer catastrophic inflation, which would preclude the formation of stars, and hence life.", "title": "Anthropic 'coincidences'" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "The observed values of the dimensionless physical constants (such as the fine-structure constant) governing the four fundamental interactions are balanced as if fine-tuned to permit the formation of commonly found matter and subsequently the emergence of life. A slight increase in the strong interaction (up to 50% for some authors) would bind the dineutron and the diproton and convert all hydrogen in the early universe to helium; likewise, an increase in the weak interaction also would convert all hydrogen to helium. Water, as well as sufficiently long-lived stable stars, both essential for the emergence of life as it is known, would not exist. More generally, small changes in the relative strengths of the four fundamental interactions can greatly affect the universe's age, structure, and capacity for life.", "title": "Anthropic 'coincidences'" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "The phrase \"anthropic principle\" first appeared in Brandon Carter's contribution to a 1973 Kraków symposium honouring Copernicus's 500th birthday. Carter, a theoretical astrophysicist, articulated the Anthropic Principle in reaction to the Copernican Principle, which states that humans do not occupy a privileged position in the Universe. Carter said: \"Although our situation is not necessarily central, it is inevitably privileged to some extent.\" Specifically, Carter disagreed with using the Copernican principle to justify the Perfect Cosmological Principle, which states that all large regions and times in the universe must be statistically identical. The latter principle underlies the steady-state theory, which had recently been falsified by the 1965 discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation. This discovery was unequivocal evidence that the universe has changed radically over time (for example, via the Big Bang).", "title": "Origin" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Carter defined two forms of the anthropic principle, a \"weak\" one which referred only to anthropic selection of privileged spacetime locations in the universe, and a more controversial \"strong\" form that addressed the values of the fundamental constants of physics.", "title": "Origin" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Roger Penrose explained the weak form as follows:", "title": "Origin" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "The argument can be used to explain why the conditions happen to be just right for the existence of (intelligent) life on the Earth at the present time. For if they were not just right, then we should not have found ourselves to be here now, but somewhere else, at some other appropriate time. This principle was used very effectively by Brandon Carter and Robert Dicke to resolve an issue that had puzzled physicists for a good many years. The issue concerned various striking numerical relations that are observed to hold between the physical constants (the gravitational constant, the mass of the proton, the age of the universe, etc.). A puzzling aspect of this was that some of the relations hold only at the present epoch in the Earth's history, so we appear, coincidentally, to be living at a very special time (give or take a few million years!). This was later explained, by Carter and Dicke, by the fact that this epoch coincided with the lifetime of what are called main-sequence stars, such as the Sun. At any other epoch, the argument ran, there would be no intelligent life around to measure the physical constants in question—so the coincidence had to hold, simply because there would be intelligent life around only at the particular time that the coincidence did hold!", "title": "Origin" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "One reason this is plausible is that there are many other places and times in which humans could have evolved. But when applying the strong principle, there is only one universe, with one set of fundamental parameters, so what exactly is the point being made? Carter offers two possibilities: First, humans can use their own existence to make \"predictions\" about the parameters. But second, \"as a last resort\", humans can convert these predictions into explanations by assuming that there is more than one universe, in fact a large and possibly infinite collection of universes, something that is now called the multiverse (\"world ensemble\" was Carter's term), in which the parameters (and perhaps the laws of physics) vary across universes. The strong principle then becomes an example of a selection effect, exactly analogous to the weak principle. Postulating a multiverse is certainly a radical step, but taking it could provide at least a partial answer to a question seemingly out of the reach of normal science: \"Why do the fundamental laws of physics take the particular form we observe and not another?\"", "title": "Origin" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "Since Carter's 1973 paper, the term anthropic principle has been extended to cover a number of ideas that differ in important ways from his. Particular confusion was caused by the 1986 book The Anthropic Cosmological Principle by John D. Barrow and Frank Tipler, which distinguished between a \"weak\" and \"strong\" anthropic principle in a way very different from Carter's, as discussed in the next section.", "title": "Origin" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "Carter was not the first to invoke some form of the anthropic principle. In fact, the evolutionary biologist Alfred Russel Wallace anticipated the anthropic principle as long ago as 1904: \"Such a vast and complex universe as that which we know exists around us, may have been absolutely required [...] in order to produce a world that should be precisely adapted in every detail for the orderly development of life culminating in man.\" In 1957, Robert Dicke wrote: \"The age of the Universe 'now' is not random but conditioned by biological factors [...] [changes in the values of the fundamental constants of physics] would preclude the existence of man to consider the problem.\"", "title": "Origin" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "Ludwig Boltzmann may have been one of the first in modern science to use anthropic reasoning. Prior to knowledge of the Big Bang Boltzmann's thermodynamic concepts painted a picture of a universe that had inexplicably low entropy. Boltzmann suggested several explanations, one of which relied on fluctuations that could produce pockets of low entropy or Boltzmann universes. While most of the universe is featureless in this model, to Boltzmann, it is unremarkable that humanity happens to inhabit a Boltzmann universe, as that is the only place where intelligent life could be.", "title": "Origin" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "Weak anthropic principle (WAP) (Carter): \"... our location in the universe is necessarily privileged to the extent of being compatible with our existence as observers.\" Note that for Carter, \"location\" refers to our location in time as well as space.", "title": "Variants" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "Strong anthropic principle (SAP) (Carter): \"[T]he universe (and hence the fundamental parameters on which it depends) must be such as to admit the creation of observers within it at some stage. To paraphrase Descartes, cogito ergo mundus talis est.\"The Latin tag (\"I think, therefore the world is such [as it is]\") makes it clear that \"must\" indicates a deduction from the fact of our existence; the statement is thus a truism.", "title": "Variants" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "In their 1986 book, The anthropic cosmological principle, John Barrow and Frank Tipler depart from Carter and define the WAP and SAP as follows:", "title": "Variants" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "Weak anthropic principle (WAP) (Barrow and Tipler): \"The observed values of all physical and cosmological quantities are not equally probable but they take on values restricted by the requirement that there exist sites where carbon-based life can evolve and by the requirements that the universe be old enough for it to have already done so.\"Unlike Carter they restrict the principle to carbon-based life, rather than just \"observers\". A more important difference is that they apply the WAP to the fundamental physical constants, such as the fine-structure constant, the number of spacetime dimensions, and the cosmological constant—topics that fall under Carter's SAP.", "title": "Variants" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "Strong anthropic principle (SAP) (Barrow and Tipler): \"The Universe must have those properties which allow life to develop within it at some stage in its history.\"This looks very similar to Carter's SAP, but unlike the case with Carter's SAP, the \"must\" is an imperative, as shown by the following three possible elaborations of the SAP, each proposed by Barrow and Tipler:", "title": "Variants" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "The philosophers John Leslie and Nick Bostrom reject the Barrow and Tipler SAP as a fundamental misreading of Carter. For Bostrom, Carter's anthropic principle just warns us to make allowance for anthropic bias—that is, the bias created by anthropic selection effects (which Bostrom calls \"observation\" selection effects)—the necessity for observers to exist in order to get a result. He writes:", "title": "Variants" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "Many 'anthropic principles' are simply confused. Some, especially those drawing inspiration from Brandon Carter's seminal papers, are sound, but... they are too weak to do any real scientific work. In particular, I argue that existing methodology does not permit any observational consequences to be derived from contemporary cosmological theories, though these theories quite plainly can be and are being tested empirically by astronomers. What is needed to bridge this methodological gap is a more adequate formulation of how observation selection effects are to be taken into account.", "title": "Variants" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "Strong self-sampling assumption (SSSA) (Bostrom): \"Each observer-moment should reason as if it were randomly selected from the class of all observer-moments in its reference class.\" Analysing an observer's experience into a sequence of \"observer-moments\" helps avoid certain paradoxes; but the main ambiguity is the selection of the appropriate \"reference class\": for Carter's WAP this might correspond to all real or potential observer-moments in our universe; for the SAP, to all in the multiverse. Bostrom's mathematical development shows that choosing either too broad or too narrow a reference class leads to counter-intuitive results, but he is not able to prescribe an ideal choice.", "title": "Variants" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "According to Jürgen Schmidhuber, the anthropic principle essentially just says that the conditional probability of finding yourself in a universe compatible with your existence is always 1. It does not allow for any additional nontrivial predictions such as \"gravity won't change tomorrow\". To gain more predictive power, additional assumptions on the prior distribution of alternative universes are necessary.", "title": "Variants" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "Playwright and novelist Michael Frayn describes a form of the strong anthropic principle in his 2006 book The Human Touch, which explores what he characterises as \"the central oddity of the Universe\":", "title": "Variants" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "It's this simple paradox. The Universe is very old and very large. Humankind, by comparison, is only a tiny disturbance in one small corner of it – and a very recent one. Yet the Universe is only very large and very old because we are here to say it is... And yet, of course, we all know perfectly well that it is what it is whether we are here or not.", "title": "Variants" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "Carter chose to focus on a tautological aspect of his ideas, which has resulted in much confusion. In fact, anthropic reasoning interests scientists because of something that is only implicit in the above formal definitions, namely that humans should give serious consideration to there being other universes with different values of the \"fundamental parameters\"—that is, the dimensionless physical constants and initial conditions for the Big Bang. Carter and others have argued that life would not be possible in most such universes. In other words, the universe humans live in is fine tuned to permit life. Collins & Hawking (1973) characterized Carter's then-unpublished big idea as the postulate that \"there is not one universe but a whole infinite ensemble of universes with all possible initial conditions\". If this is granted, the anthropic principle provides a plausible explanation for the fine tuning of our universe: the \"typical\" universe is not fine-tuned, but given enough universes, a small fraction will be capable of supporting intelligent life. Ours must be one of these, and so the observed fine tuning should be no cause for wonder.", "title": "Character of anthropic reasoning" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "Although philosophers have discussed related concepts for centuries, in the early 1970s the only genuine physical theory yielding a multiverse of sorts was the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics. This would allow variation in initial conditions, but not in the truly fundamental constants. Since that time a number of mechanisms for producing a multiverse have been suggested: see the review by Max Tegmark. An important development in the 1980s was the combination of inflation theory with the hypothesis that some parameters are determined by symmetry breaking in the early universe, which allows parameters previously thought of as \"fundamental constants\" to vary over very large distances, thus eroding the distinction between Carter's weak and strong principles. At the beginning of the 21st century, the string landscape emerged as a mechanism for varying essentially all the constants, including the number of spatial dimensions.", "title": "Character of anthropic reasoning" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "The anthropic idea that fundamental parameters are selected from a multitude of different possibilities (each actual in some universe or other) contrasts with the traditional hope of physicists for a theory of everything having no free parameters. As Albert Einstein said: \"What really interests me is whether God had any choice in the creation of the world.\" In 2002, some proponents of the leading candidate for a \"theory of everything\", string theory, proclaimed \"the end of the anthropic principle\" since there would be no free parameters to select. In 2003, however, Leonard Susskind stated: \"...it seems plausible that the landscape is unimaginably large and diverse. This is the behavior that gives credence to the anthropic principle.\"", "title": "Character of anthropic reasoning" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "The modern form of a design argument is put forth by intelligent design. Proponents of intelligent design often cite the fine-tuning observations that (in part) preceded the formulation of the anthropic principle by Carter as a proof of an intelligent designer. Opponents of intelligent design are not limited to those who hypothesize that other universes exist; they may also argue, anti-anthropically, that the universe is less fine-tuned than often claimed, or that accepting fine tuning as a brute fact is less astonishing than the idea of an intelligent creator. Furthermore, even accepting fine tuning, Sober (2005) and Ikeda and Jefferys, argue that the anthropic principle as conventionally stated actually undermines intelligent design.", "title": "Character of anthropic reasoning" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "Paul Davies's book The Goldilocks Enigma (2006) reviews the current state of the fine-tuning debate in detail, and concludes by enumerating the following responses to that debate:", "title": "Character of anthropic reasoning" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "Omitted here is Lee Smolin's model of cosmological natural selection, also known as fecund universes, which proposes that universes have \"offspring\" that are more plentiful if they resemble our universe. Also see Gardner (2005).", "title": "Character of anthropic reasoning" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "Clearly each of these hypotheses resolve some aspects of the puzzle, while leaving others unanswered. Followers of Carter would admit only option 3 as an anthropic explanation, whereas 3 through 6 are covered by different versions of Barrow and Tipler's SAP (which would also include 7 if it is considered a variant of 4, as in Tipler 1994).", "title": "Character of anthropic reasoning" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "The anthropic principle, at least as Carter conceived it, can be applied on scales much smaller than the whole universe. For example, Carter (1983) inverted the usual line of reasoning and pointed out that when interpreting the evolutionary record, one must take into account cosmological and astrophysical considerations. With this in mind, Carter concluded that given the best estimates of the age of the universe, the evolutionary chain culminating in Homo sapiens probably admits only one or two low probability links.", "title": "Character of anthropic reasoning" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "No possible observational evidence bears on Carter's WAP, as it is merely advice to the scientist and asserts nothing debatable. The obvious test of Barrow's SAP, which says that the universe is \"required\" to support life, is to find evidence of life in universes other than ours. Any other universe is, by most definitions, unobservable (otherwise it would be included in our portion of this universe). Thus, in principle Barrow's SAP cannot be falsified by observing a universe in which an observer cannot exist.", "title": "Observational evidence" }, { "paragraph_id": 36, "text": "Philosopher John Leslie states that the Carter SAP (with multiverse) predicts the following:", "title": "Observational evidence" }, { "paragraph_id": 37, "text": "Hogan has emphasised that it would be very strange if all fundamental constants were strictly determined, since this would leave us with no ready explanation for apparent fine tuning. In fact, humans might have to resort to something akin to Barrow and Tipler's SAP: there would be no option for such a universe not to support life.", "title": "Observational evidence" }, { "paragraph_id": 38, "text": "Probabilistic predictions of parameter values can be made given:", "title": "Observational evidence" }, { "paragraph_id": 39, "text": "The probability of observing value X is then proportional to N(X) P(X). A generic feature of an analysis of this nature is that the expected values of the fundamental physical constants should not be \"over-tuned\", i.e. if there is some perfectly tuned predicted value (e.g. zero), the observed value need be no closer to that predicted value than what is required to make life possible. The small but finite value of the cosmological constant can be regarded as a successful prediction in this sense.", "title": "Observational evidence" }, { "paragraph_id": 40, "text": "One thing that would not count as evidence for the anthropic principle is evidence that the Earth or the Solar System occupied a privileged position in the universe, in violation of the Copernican principle (for possible counterevidence to this principle, see Copernican principle), unless there was some reason to think that that position was a necessary condition for our existence as observers.", "title": "Observational evidence" }, { "paragraph_id": 41, "text": "Fred Hoyle may have invoked anthropic reasoning to predict an astrophysical phenomenon. He is said to have reasoned, from the prevalence on Earth of life forms whose chemistry was based on carbon-12 nuclei, that there must be an undiscovered resonance in the carbon-12 nucleus facilitating its synthesis in stellar interiors via the triple-alpha process. He then calculated the energy of this undiscovered resonance to be 7.6 million electronvolts. Willie Fowler's research group soon found this resonance, and its measured energy was close to Hoyle's prediction.", "title": "Applications of the principle" }, { "paragraph_id": 42, "text": "However, in 2010 Helge Kragh argued that Hoyle did not use anthropic reasoning in making his prediction, since he made his prediction in 1953 and anthropic reasoning did not come into prominence until 1980. He called this an \"anthropic myth,\" saying that Hoyle and others made an after-the-fact connection between carbon and life decades after the discovery of the resonance.", "title": "Applications of the principle" }, { "paragraph_id": 43, "text": "An investigation of the historical circumstances of the prediction and its subsequent experimental confirmation shows that Hoyle and his contemporaries did not associate the level in the carbon nucleus with life at all.", "title": "Applications of the principle" }, { "paragraph_id": 44, "text": "Don Page criticized the entire theory of cosmic inflation as follows. He emphasized that initial conditions that made possible a thermodynamic arrow of time in a universe with a Big Bang origin, must include the assumption that at the initial singularity, the entropy of the universe was low and therefore extremely improbable. Paul Davies rebutted this criticism by invoking an inflationary version of the anthropic principle. While Davies accepted the premise that the initial state of the visible universe (which filled a microscopic amount of space before inflating) had to possess a very low entropy value—due to random quantum fluctuations—to account for the observed thermodynamic arrow of time, he deemed this fact an advantage for the theory. That the tiny patch of space from which our observable universe grew had to be extremely orderly, to allow the post-inflation universe to have an arrow of time, makes it unnecessary to adopt any \"ad hoc\" hypotheses about the initial entropy state, hypotheses other Big Bang theories require.", "title": "Applications of the principle" }, { "paragraph_id": 45, "text": "String theory predicts a large number of possible universes, called the \"backgrounds\" or \"vacua\". The set of these vacua is often called the \"multiverse\" or \"anthropic landscape\" or \"string landscape\". Leonard Susskind has argued that the existence of a large number of vacua puts anthropic reasoning on firm ground: only universes whose properties are such as to allow observers to exist are observed, while a possibly much larger set of universes lacking such properties go unnoticed.", "title": "Applications of the principle" }, { "paragraph_id": 46, "text": "Steven Weinberg believes the anthropic principle may be appropriated by cosmologists committed to nontheism, and refers to that principle as a \"turning point\" in modern science because applying it to the string landscape \"may explain how the constants of nature that we observe can take values suitable for life without being fine-tuned by a benevolent creator\". Others—most notably David Gross but also Lubos Motl, Peter Woit, and Lee Smolin—argue that this is not predictive. Max Tegmark, Mario Livio, and Martin Rees argue that only some aspects of a physical theory need be observable and/or testable for the theory to be accepted, and that many well-accepted theories are far from completely testable at present.", "title": "Applications of the principle" }, { "paragraph_id": 47, "text": "Jürgen Schmidhuber (2000–2002) points out that Ray Solomonoff's theory of universal inductive inference and its extensions already provide a framework for maximizing our confidence in any theory, given a limited sequence of physical observations, and some prior distribution on the set of possible explanations of the universe.", "title": "Applications of the principle" }, { "paragraph_id": 48, "text": "", "title": "Applications of the principle" }, { "paragraph_id": 49, "text": "There are two kinds of dimensions: spatial (bidirectional) and temporal (unidirectional). Let the number of spatial dimensions be N and the number of temporal dimensions be T. That N = 3 and T = 1, setting aside the compactified dimensions invoked by string theory and undetectable to date, can be explained by appealing to the physical consequences of letting N differ from 3 and T differ from 1. The argument is often of an anthropic character and possibly the first of its kind, albeit before the complete concept came into vogue.", "title": "Applications of the principle" }, { "paragraph_id": 50, "text": "The implicit notion that the dimensionality of the universe is special is first attributed to Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who in the Discourse on Metaphysics suggested that the world is \"the one which is at the same time the simplest in hypothesis and the richest in phenomena\". Immanuel Kant argued that 3-dimensional space was a consequence of the inverse square law of universal gravitation. While Kant's argument is historically important, John D. Barrow said that it \"gets the punch-line back to front: it is the three-dimensionality of space that explains why we see inverse-square force laws in Nature, not vice-versa\" (Barrow 2002:204).", "title": "Applications of the principle" }, { "paragraph_id": 51, "text": "In 1920, Paul Ehrenfest showed that if there is only a single time dimension and more than three spatial dimensions, the orbit of a planet about its Sun cannot remain stable. The same is true of a star's orbit around the center of its galaxy. Ehrenfest also showed that if there are an even number of spatial dimensions, then the different parts of a wave impulse will travel at different speeds. If there are 5 + 2 k {\\displaystyle 5+2k} spatial dimensions, where k is a positive whole number, then wave impulses become distorted. In 1922, Hermann Weyl claimed that Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism can be expressed in terms of an action only for a four-dimensional manifold. Finally, Tangherlini showed in 1963 that when there are more than three spatial dimensions, electron orbitals around nuclei cannot be stable; electrons would either fall into the nucleus or disperse.", "title": "Applications of the principle" }, { "paragraph_id": 52, "text": "Max Tegmark expands on the preceding argument in the following anthropic manner. If T differs from 1, the behavior of physical systems could not be predicted reliably from knowledge of the relevant partial differential equations. In such a universe, intelligent life capable of manipulating technology could not emerge. Moreover, if T > 1, Tegmark maintains that protons and electrons would be unstable and could decay into particles having greater mass than themselves. (This is not a problem if the particles have a sufficiently low temperature.) Lastly, if N < 3, gravitation of any kind becomes problematic, and the universe would probably be too simple to contain observers. For example, when N < 3, nerves cannot cross without intersecting. Hence anthropic and other arguments rule out all cases except N = 3 and T = 1, which describes the world around us.", "title": "Applications of the principle" }, { "paragraph_id": 53, "text": "On the other hand, in view of creating black holes from an ideal monatomic gas under its self-gravity, Wei-Xiang Feng showed that (3+1)-dimensional spacetime is the marginal dimensionality. Moreover, it is the unique dimensionality that can afford a \"stable\" gas sphere with a \"positive\" cosmological constant. However, a self-gravitating gas cannot be stably bound if the mass sphere is larger than ~10 solar masses, due to the small positivity of the cosmological constant observed.", "title": "Applications of the principle" }, { "paragraph_id": 54, "text": "In 2019, James Scargill argued that complex life may be possible with two spatial dimensions. According to Scargill, a purely scalar theory of gravity may enable a local gravitational force, and 2D networks may be sufficient for complex neural networks.", "title": "Applications of the principle" }, { "paragraph_id": 55, "text": "Some of the metaphysical disputes and speculations include, for example, attempts to back Pierre Teilhard de Chardin's earlier interpretation of the universe as being Christ centered (compare Omega Point), expressing a creatio evolutiva instead the elder notion of creatio continua. From a strictly secular, humanist perspective, it allows as well to put human beings back in the center, an anthropogenic shift in cosmology. Karl W. Giberson has laconically stated that", "title": "Metaphysical interpretations" }, { "paragraph_id": 56, "text": "What emerges is the suggestion that cosmology may at last be in possession of some raw material for a postmodern creation myth.", "title": "Metaphysical interpretations" }, { "paragraph_id": 57, "text": "William Sims Bainbridge disagreed with de Chardin's optimism about a future Omega point at the end of history, arguing that logically, humans are trapped at the Omicron point, in the middle of the Greek alphabet rather than advancing to the end, because the universe does not need to have any characteristics that would support our further technical progress, if the anthropic principle merely requires it to be suitable for our evolution to this point.", "title": "Metaphysical interpretations" }, { "paragraph_id": 58, "text": "A thorough extant study of the anthropic principle is the book The anthropic cosmological principle by John D. Barrow, a cosmologist, and Frank J. Tipler, a cosmologist and mathematical physicist. This book sets out in detail the many known anthropic coincidences and constraints, including many found by its authors. While the book is primarily a work of theoretical astrophysics, it also touches on quantum physics, chemistry, and earth science. An entire chapter argues that Homo sapiens is, with high probability, the only intelligent species in the Milky Way.", "title": "Metaphysical interpretations" }, { "paragraph_id": 59, "text": "The book begins with an extensive review of many topics in the history of ideas the authors deem relevant to the anthropic principle, because the authors believe that principle has important antecedents in the notions of teleology and intelligent design. They discuss the writings of Fichte, Hegel, Bergson, and Alfred North Whitehead, and the Omega Point cosmology of Teilhard de Chardin. Barrow and Tipler carefully distinguish teleological reasoning from eutaxiological reasoning; the former asserts that order must have a consequent purpose; the latter asserts more modestly that order must have a planned cause. They attribute this important but nearly always overlooked distinction to an obscure 1883 book by L. E. Hicks.", "title": "Metaphysical interpretations" }, { "paragraph_id": 60, "text": "Seeing little sense in a principle requiring intelligent life to emerge while remaining indifferent to the possibility of its eventual extinction, Barrow and Tipler propose the final anthropic principle (FAP): Intelligent information-processing must come into existence in the universe, and, once it comes into existence, it will never die out.", "title": "Metaphysical interpretations" }, { "paragraph_id": 61, "text": "Barrow and Tipler submit that the FAP is both a valid physical statement and \"closely connected with moral values\". FAP places strong constraints on the structure of the universe, constraints developed further in Tipler's The Physics of Immortality. One such constraint is that the universe must end in a Big Crunch, which seems unlikely in view of the tentative conclusions drawn since 1998 about dark energy, based on observations of very distant supernovas.", "title": "Metaphysical interpretations" }, { "paragraph_id": 62, "text": "In his review of Barrow and Tipler, Martin Gardner ridiculed the FAP by quoting the last two sentences of their book as defining a completely ridiculous anthropic principle (CRAP):", "title": "Metaphysical interpretations" }, { "paragraph_id": 63, "text": "At the instant the Omega Point is reached, life will have gained control of all matter and forces not only in a single universe, but in all universes whose existence is logically possible; life will have spread into all spatial regions in all universes which could logically exist, and will have stored an infinite amount of information, including all bits of knowledge that it is logically possible to know. And this is the end.", "title": "Metaphysical interpretations" }, { "paragraph_id": 64, "text": "Carter has frequently regretted his own choice of the word \"anthropic\", because it conveys the misleading impression that the principle involves humans specifically, rather than intelligent observers in general. Others have criticised the word \"principle\" as being too grandiose to describe straightforward applications of selection effects.", "title": "Reception and controversies" }, { "paragraph_id": 65, "text": "A common criticism of Carter's SAP is that it is an easy deus ex machina that discourages searches for physical explanations. To quote Penrose again: \"[I]t tends to be invoked by theorists whenever they do not have a good enough theory to explain the observed facts.\"", "title": "Reception and controversies" }, { "paragraph_id": 66, "text": "Carter's SAP and Barrow and Tipler's WAP have been dismissed as truisms or trivial tautologies—that is, statements true solely by virtue of their logical form and not because a substantive claim is made and supported by observation of reality. As such, they are criticized as an elaborate way of saying, \"If things were different, they would be different\", which is a valid statement, but does not make a claim of some factual alternative over another.", "title": "Reception and controversies" }, { "paragraph_id": 67, "text": "Critics of the Barrow and Tipler SAP claim that it is neither testable nor falsifiable, and thus is not a scientific statement but rather a philosophical one. The same criticism has been leveled against the hypothesis of a multiverse, although some argue that it does make falsifiable predictions. A modified version of this criticism is that humanity understands so little about the emergence of life, especially intelligent life, that it is effectively impossible to calculate the number of observers in each universe. Also, the prior distribution of universes as a function of the fundamental constants is easily modified to get any desired result.", "title": "Reception and controversies" }, { "paragraph_id": 68, "text": "Many criticisms focus on versions of the strong anthropic principle, such as Barrow and Tipler's anthropic cosmological principle, which are teleological notions that tend to describe the existence of life as a necessary prerequisite for the observable constants of physics. Similarly, Stephen Jay Gould, Michael Shermer, and others claim that the stronger versions of the anthropic principle seem to reverse known causes and effects. Gould compared the claim that the universe is fine-tuned for the benefit of our kind of life to saying that sausages were made long and narrow so that they could fit into modern hotdog buns, or saying that ships had been invented to house barnacles. These critics cite the vast physical, fossil, genetic, and other biological evidence consistent with life having been fine-tuned through natural selection to adapt to the physical and geophysical environment in which life exists. Life appears to have adapted to the universe, and not vice versa.", "title": "Reception and controversies" }, { "paragraph_id": 69, "text": "Some applications of the anthropic principle have been criticized as an argument by lack of imagination, for tacitly assuming that carbon compounds and water are the only possible chemistry of life (sometimes called \"carbon chauvinism\", see also alternative biochemistry). The range of fundamental physical constants consistent with the evolution of carbon-based life may also be wider than those who advocate a fine-tuned universe have argued. For instance, Harnik et al. propose a Weakless Universe in which the weak nuclear force is eliminated. They show that this has no significant effect on the other fundamental interactions, provided some adjustments are made in how those interactions work. However, if some of the fine-tuned details of our universe were violated, that would rule out complex structures of any kind—stars, planets, galaxies, etc.", "title": "Reception and controversies" }, { "paragraph_id": 70, "text": "Lee Smolin has offered a theory designed to improve on the lack of imagination that anthropic principles have been accused of. He puts forth his fecund universes theory, which assumes universes have \"offspring\" through the creation of black holes whose offspring universes have values of physical constants that depend on those of the mother universe.", "title": "Reception and controversies" }, { "paragraph_id": 71, "text": "The philosophers of cosmology John Earman, Ernan McMullin, and Jesús Mosterín contend that \"in its weak version, the anthropic principle is a mere tautology, which does not allow us to explain anything or to predict anything that we did not already know. In its strong version, it is a gratuitous speculation\". A further criticism by Mosterín concerns the flawed \"anthropic\" inference from the assumption of an infinity of worlds to the existence of one like ours:", "title": "Reception and controversies" }, { "paragraph_id": 72, "text": "The suggestion that an infinity of objects characterized by certain numbers or properties implies the existence among them of objects with any combination of those numbers or characteristics [...] is mistaken. An infinity does not imply at all that any arrangement is present or repeated. [...] The assumption that all possible worlds are realized in an infinite universe is equivalent to the assertion that any infinite set of numbers contains all numbers (or at least all Gödel numbers of the [defining] sequences), which is obviously false.", "title": "Reception and controversies" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The Australian Army is the principal land warfare force of Australia, a part of the Australian Defence Force (ADF) along with the Royal Australian Navy and the Royal Australian Air Force. The Army is commanded by the Chief of Army (CA), who is subordinate to the Chief of the Defence Force (CDF) who commands the ADF. The CA is also directly responsible to the Minister for Defence, with the Department of Defence administering the ADF and the Army.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Formed in 1901, as the Commonwealth Military Forces, through the amalgamation of the colonial forces of Australia following the Federation of Australia. Although Australian soldiers have been involved in a number of minor and major conflicts throughout Australia's history, only during the Second World War has Australian territory come under direct attack.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The Australian Army was initially composed almost completely of part–time soldiers, where the vast majority were in units of the Citizens Military Force (CMF or Militia) (1901–1980) during peacetime, with limits set on the regular Army. Since all reservists were barred from forcibly serving overseas, volunteer expeditionary forces (1st AIF, ANMEF, 2nd AIF) were formed to enable the Army to send large numbers of soldiers to serve overseas during periods of war. This period lasted from federation until post–1947, when a standing peacetime regular army was formed and the Australian Army Reserve (1980–present) began to decline in importance.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "During its history, the Australian Army has fought in a number of major wars, including the Second Boer War, the First and Second World Wars, Korean War, Malayan Emergency, Indonesia-Malaysia Confrontation, Vietnam War, the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021) and the Iraq War. Since 1947, the Australian Army has also been involved in many peacekeeping operations, usually under the auspices of the United Nations. Today, it participates in multilateral and unilateral military exercises and provides emergency disaster relief and humanitarian aid in response to domestic and international crises.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Formed in March 1901, following federation, the Australian Army initially consisted of the six, disbanded and separate, colonial military forces' land components. Due to the Army being continuation of the colonial armies, it became immediately embroiled in conflict as contingents had been committed to fight for the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in the Second Boer War. The Army gained command of these contingents and even supplied federal units to reinforce their commitment at the request of the British government.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The Defence Act 1903, established the operation and command structure of the Australian Army. In 1911, the Universal Service Scheme was implemented, introducing conscription for the first time in Australia, with males aged 14–26 assigned into cadet and CMF units; though the scheme did not prescribe or allow overseas service outside the states and territories of Australia. This restriction would be primarily, and continually, bypassed through the process of raising separate volunteer forces until the mid-20th century; this solution was not without its drawbacks, as it caused logistical dilemmas.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "After the declaration of war on the Central Powers, the Australian Army raised the all volunteer First Australian Imperial Force (AIF) which had an initial recruitment of 52,561 out of a promised 20,000 men. A smaller expeditionary force, the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force (ANMEF), dealt with the issue of the German Pacific holdings. ANMEF recruitment began on 10 August 1914, and operations started 10 days later. On 11 September, the ANMEF landed at Rabaul to secure German New Guinea, with no German outposts in the Pacific left by November 1914. During the AIF's preparations to depart Australia, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers; thereby receiving declarations of war from the Allies of World War I in early November 1914.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "After initial recruitment and training, the AIF departed for Egypt where they underwent further preparations, and where the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) was formed. Their presence in Egypt was due to the planned Gallipoli campaign, an invasion of the Ottoman Empire via Gallipoli. On 25 April, the AIF landed at ANZAC Cove, which signaled the start of Australia's contribution to the campaign. Following little initial success, fighting quickly devolved into trench warfare, which precipitated a stalemate. On 15 December 1915, after eight months of fighting, the evacuation of Gallipoli commenced; it was completed 5 days later with no casualties recorded. After regrouping in Egypt, the AIF was split into two groups and further expanded with reinforcements. This division would see a majority of the Australian Light Horse fight the Ottomans in Arabia and the Levant, whereas the rest of the AIF would go to the Western Front.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "The AIF arrived in France with the 1st, 2nd, 4th and 5th Divisions; which comprised, in part, I ANZAC Corps and, in full, II ANZAC Corps. The 3rd Division would not arrive until November 1916, as it underwent training in England after its transfer from Australia. In July 1916, the AIF commenced operations with the Battle of the Somme, and more specifically with the Attack at Fromelles. Soon after, the 1st, 2nd and 4th Divisions became tied down in actions at the Battle of Pozières and Mouquet Farm. In around six weeks, the operations caused 28,000 Australian casualties. Due to these losses and pressure from the United Kingdom to maintain the AIF's manpower, Prime Minister Billy Hughes introduced the first conscription plebiscite. It was defeated by a narrow margin and created a bitter divide on the issue of conscription throughout the 20th century.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Following the German withdrawal to the Hindenburg Line in March 1917, which was better defended and eased manpower restraints, the first Australian assault on the Hindenburg Line occurred on 11 April 1917 with the First Battle of Bullecourt. On 20 September, the Australian contingent joined the Third Battle of Ypres with the Battle of Menin Road, and continued on to fight in the Battle of Polygon Wood, which lasted until 3 October; in total, these tow operations cost roughly 11,000 in Australian casualties. Until 15 November 1917, multiple attacks at the Battle of Broodseinde Ridge and the Battle of Passchendaele occurred, but, failed to take their objectives following the start of the rain and subsequent muddying of the fields.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "On 21 March 1918, the Germans attempted a breakout through the Michael Offensive, which was part of the much larger German spring offensive; the AIF suffered 15,000 casualties due to this effort. During this operation, Australian troops conducted a series of local defences and offensives to hold and retake Villers–Brettoneux over the period 4 to 25 April 1918. After the cessation of offensives by the German Army, the Australian Corps began participating in \"Peaceful penetration\" operations, which were localised raids designed to harass and gain small tracts of territory; these proved so effective that several major operational objectives were captured.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "On 4 July 1918, the Battle of Hamel saw the first successful use of tanks alongside Australians, with the battleplan of John Monash completed three minutes over the planned 90 minute operation. Following this success, the Battle of Amiens was launched on 8 August 1918, in conjunction with the Canadian Corps and the British III Corps, and concluded on 12 August 1918; General Erich Ludendorff described it as \"the black day of the German Army\". On 29 August 1918, following territorial advances and pursuits, the AIF attacked Pèronne and subsequently initiated the Battle of Mont St Quentin. Another operation around Épehy was planned for 18 September 1918, which aimed to retake the British trenches and, potentially, capture their most ambitious objective of the Hindenburg's outpost line – which they achieved.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Following news of a three-month furlough for certain soldiers, seven AIF battalions were disbanded; consequently, members of these battalions mutinied. Soon after the penetration of the Hindenburg Line, plans for the breakthrough of the main trench, with the Australian Corps as the vanguard, were completed. However, due to manpower issues, only the 3rd and 5th Divisions participated, with the American Expeditionary Forces' 27th and 30th Divisions given as reinforcements. On 29 September, following a three day long bombardment, the Battle of the Hindenburg Line commenced, wherein the corps attacked and captured more of the line. On 5 October 1918, after furious fighting, the Australian Corps was withdrawn from the front, as the entire corps had been operating continuously since 8 August 1918. They would not return to the battlefield, as Germany signed the Armistice of 11 November 1918 that ultimately ended the war on the Western Front.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "The Australian mounted units, composed of the ANZAC Mounted Division and eventually the Australian Mounted Division, participated in the Sinai and Palestine campaign. They were originally stationed there to protect the Suez Canal from the Turks, and following the threat of its capture passing, they started offensive operations and helped in the re-conquest of the Sinai Desert. This was followed by the Battles of Gaza, wherein on the 31 October 1917 the 4th and 12th Light Horse took Beersheba through the last charge of the Light Horse. They continued on to capture Jerusalem on 10 December 1917 and then eventually Damascus on 1 October 1918 whereby, a few days later on 10 October 1918, the Ottoman Empire surrendered.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "Repatriation efforts were implemented between the armistice and the end of 1919, which occurred after the disbandment of the Australian Imperial Force. In 1921, CMF units were renumbered to that of the AIF, to perpetuate the honours and numerical identities of the units involved in WW1. During this period there was a complacency towards matters of defence, due to the devastating effects of the previous war on the Australian psyche. Following the election of Prime Minister James Scullin in 1929, two events occurred that substantially affected the armed forces: conscription was abolished and the economic effects of the Great Depression started to be felt in Australia. The economic ramifications of the depression led to decisions that decreased defence expenditure and manpower for the army. Since conscription was repealed, to reflect the new volunteer nature of the Citizens Forces, the CMF was renamed to the Militia.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "Following the declaration of war on Nazi Germany and her allies by the United Kingdom, and the subsequent confirmation by Prime Minister Robert Menzies on 3 September 1939, the Australian Army raised the Second Australian Imperial Force, a 20,000-strong volunteer expeditionary force, which initially consisted of the 6th Division; later increased to include the 7th and 9th Divisions, alongside the 8th Division which was sent to Singapore. In October 1939, compulsory military training recommenced for unmarried men aged 21, who had to complete three months of training.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "The 2nd AIF commenced its first operations in North Africa with Operation Compass, that began with the Battle of Bardia. This was followed by supplying Australian units to defend against the Axis in the Battle of Greece. After the evacuation of Greece, Australian troops took part in the Battle of Crete which, though more successful, still failed and another withdrawal was ordered. During the Greek Campaign, the Allies were pushed back to Egypt and the Siege of Tobruk began. Tobruk's primary defence personnel were Australians of the 9th Division; the so-called 'Rats of Tobruk'. Additionally, the AIF participated in the Syria–Lebanon campaign. The 9th Division fought in the First and Second Battle of El Alamein before also being shipped home to fight the Japanese.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "In December 1941, following the Bombing of Pearl Harbour, Australia declared war on Japan. Consequently, the AIF was requested to return home, as the subsequent rapid conquest of Southeast Asia extremely concerned Australian policymakers, and the militia was mobilised. After the Fall of Singapore, and the consequent capture of the entire 8th Division as POWs, this concern only grew. These events hastened the relief of the Rats of Tobruk, while the other divisions were immediately recalled to reinforce New Guinea. General conscription was reintroduced, though service was again limited to Australian possessions, which caused tension between the AIF and Militia. This was in addition to the CMF's perceived inferior fighting ability, with these grievances earning the Militia their nicknames of \"koalas\" and \"chocos\" or \"chocolate soldiers\".", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "The Imperial Japanese Navy's failure in the Battle of the Coral Sea, was the impetus for the Imperial Japanese Army to try to capture Port Moresby via the Owen Stanley Range. On 21 July 1942, the Japanese began the Kokoda Campaign after landing at Gona; attempts to defeat them by Australian battalions were met with eventual success. Resultant offensive operations concluded with the Japanese being driven out of New Guinea entirely. In parallel with these defences, the Battle of Milne Bay was waged, and when the Japanese were repulsed, it was considered their first significant reversal for the war. In November 1942, the campaign ended after the Japanese withdrawal, with Australian advances leading to the Battle of Buna–Gona.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "In early 1943, the Salamaua–Lae campaign began, with operations against the entrenched Japanese aimed towards recapturing the eponymous towns. This culminated in the capture of Lae, held by the 7th Division in early September 1943, from a successful combined amphibious landing at Lae and an airborne landing at Nadzab. The seaborne assault was notable as it was the first large–scale amphibious operation since Gallipoli. Subsequently, Salamaua was taken days later on 11 September 1943, by a separate joint Australia–US attack. The Battle of Lae was additionally part of the wider Huon Peninsula campaign. Following Lae's capture, the Battle of Finschhafen commenced with a relatively swift control of objectives, with subsequent Japanese counterattacks beaten off. On 17 November 1943, a major offensive that began with the Battle of Sattelberg, continued with the Battle of Wareo, and concluded with the Battle of Sio on 15 January 1944, was unleashed. The momentum of this advance was continued by the 8th Brigade, as they pursued the enemy in retreat, which culminated with the Battle of Madang.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "In mid-1944, Australian forces took over the garrisoning of Torokina from the US with this changeover giving Australian command responsibility over the Bougainville campaign. Soon after arriving in November of the same year, the commander of II Corps, Lieutenant-General Stanley Savige, began an offensive to retake the island with the 3rd Division alongside the 11th and 23rd Brigades. The campaign lasted until the Japanese surrender, with controversy surrounding its little apparent significance to the war's conclusion, and the number of casualties incurred; this was one of Australia's most costliest campaigns in the Second World War.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "In October 1944, Australian participation in the Aitape–Wewak campaign began with the replacement of US forces at Aitape with the Australian 6th Division. US forces had previously captured the position, and had held it passively, though Australian command found this unsuitable. On 2 November 1944, the 2/6th Cavalry Commando Regiment was tasked with patrolling the area, wherein minor engagements were reported. In early December, the commandos were sent inland to establish access to the Torricelli Range, while the 19th Brigade handled patrolling, consequently, the amount of fierce fighting and territory secured increased. Following this success, thought was given for the capture of Maprik and Wewak, though supply became a major issue in this period. On 10 February 1945, the campaign's major offensive was underway, which resulted in both falling in quick succession on 22 April 1945. Smaller operations to secure the area continued, and all significant actions ceased by July.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "The Borneo campaign was a series of three distinct amphibious operations that were undertaken by the 7th and 9th Divisions. The campaign began with the Battle of Tarakan on 1 May 1945, followed six weeks later by the Battle of Labuan, and concluded with the Battle of Balikpapan. The purpose of capturing Tarakan was to establish airfields, and the island was taken seven weeks following the initial amphibious landing. On 10 June 1945, the operation at Labuan commenced, and was tasked to secure resources and a naval base, and would continue until Japan's surrender. On 1 July 1945, the Balikpapan engagement commenced, with all its major objectives being acquired by war's end; this operation remains the largest amphibious operation undertaken by Australian forces, with 33,000 Australian servicemen participating. On 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered, ending the Second World War.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "After the surrender of Japan, Australia provided a contingent to the British Commonwealth Occupation Force (BCOF) which included the 34th Brigade. The units that composed the brigade would eventually become the nucleus of the regular army, with the battalions and brigade being renumbered to reflect this change. Following the start of the Korean War, the Australian Army committed troops to fight against the North Korean forces; the units came from the Australian contribution to BCOF. The 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3RAR) arrived in Pusan on 28 September 1950. Australian troop numbers would increase and continue to be deployed up until the armistice, with 3RAR being eventually joined by the 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (1RAR). For a brief period, between 1951 and 1959, the Menzies Government reinstituted conscription and compulsory military training with the National Service Scheme, which required all males of eighteen years of age to serve for specified period in either the Australian Regular Army (ARA) or CMF.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "The Australian military entered the Malayan Emergency (1948–1960) in October 1955, committing the 2nd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (2RAR) to fight alongside Commonwealth forces. The 2RAR fought against the Malayan National Liberation Army (MNLA), a communist led guerrilla army whose goal was to turn Malaya into a socialist republic, and whose leaders had previously been trained and funded by Britain to resist the Japanese occupation of Malaya. Australian military operations in Malaya consisted of patrolling actions and guarding infrastructure, though they rarely saw combat as the emergency was nearly over by the time of their deployment. All three original Royal Australian Regiment battalions would complete at least one tour before the end of operations. In August 1963, Australia ended deployments to Malaya, three years after the emergency's official end.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "In 1962, the Borneo Confrontation began, due to Indonesia's opposition to the formation of Malaysia. It was an undeclared war that entailed a series of border conflicts between Indonesian-backed forces and British–Malaysian allies. Initial Australian support in the conflict began, and continued throughout, with the training and supply of Malaysian troops; Australian soldiers only saw combat during defensive operations. In January 1965, permission was granted for the deployment of 3RAR, with extensive operations conducted in Sarawak from March until their withdrawal in July 1965. The subsequent deployment of 4th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (4RAR), in April 1966, was less intensive, with the battalion withdrawn in August. This is not to mention the efforts of several other corps and units in the conflict.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "The Australian Army commenced its involvement in the Vietnam War by sending military advisors in 1962, which was then increased by sending in combat troops, specifically 1RAR, on 27 May 1965. Just before the official start of hostilities, the Australian Army was augmented with the reintroduction of conscription, which was based on a 'birthday ballot' selection process for all registered 20-year-old males. These men were required to register, unless they gave a legitimate reason for their exemption, else they faced penalties. This scheme would prove to be one of the most controversial implementations of conscription in Australia, with large protests against its adoption.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "In March 1966, the Australian Army increased its commitment again with the replacement of 1RAR with the 1st Australian Task Force, a force in which all nine battalions of the Royal Australian Regiment would serve. One of the heaviest actions of the war occurred in August 1966, with the Battle of Long Tan, wherein D Company, 6th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (6RAR) successfully fended off an enemy force, estimated at 2,000 men, for four hours. In 1968, Australian forces defended against the Tet Offensive, a Viet Cong military operation, and repulsed them with few casualties. The contribution of personnel to the war was gradually wound down, starting in late-1970 and ending in 1972; the official declaration of the end of Australia's involvement in the war was made on 11 January 1973.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "Following the Vietnam War, there was a significant hiatus of operational activity by the Australian Army. In late 1979, in the largest deployment of the decade, the Army committed 151 troops to the Commonwealth Monitoring Force, which monitored the transition of Rhodesia to universal suffrage. A decade later in 1989, Australia deployed 300 army engineer personnel as the Australian contribution to the United Nations Transition Assistance Group in Namibia. The mission helped transition the country to independence from South African control.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "Following the invasion of Kuwait by Iraq in August 1990, a coalition of countries sponsored by the United Nations Security Council, of which Australia was a part, gave a deadline for Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait of the 15 January 1991. Iraq refused to retreat and thus full conflict and the Gulf War began two days later on 17 January 1991. In January 1993, the Australian Army deployed 26 personnel on an ongoing rotational basis to the Multinational Force and Observers (MFO), as part of a non-United Nations peacekeeping organisation that observes and enforces the peace treaty between Israel and Egypt.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "Australia's largest peacekeeping deployment began in 1999 with the International Force for East Timor, while other ongoing operations include peacekeeping in the Sinai (as part of MFO), and the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (as part of Operation Paladin since 1956). Humanitarian relief after the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake in Aceh Province, Indonesia, Operation Sumatra Assist, ended on 24 March 2005.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "Following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks, Australia promised troops to any military operations that the US commenced in response to the attacks. Subsequently, the Australian Army committed combat troops to Afghanistan in Operation Slipper. This combat role continued until the end of 2013 when it was replaced by a training contingent operating under Operation Highroad until 2021.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "After the Gulf War the UN imposed heavy restrictions on Iraq to stop them producing any Weapon of mass destruction. In the early 21st century, the US accused Iraq of possessing these weapons and promoted unsubstantiated allegations, and requested that the UN invade the country in response, a motion which Australia supported. The UN denied this motion, however, it did not stop a coalition, that Australia joined, invading the country; thus starting the Iraq War on 19 March 2003.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "Between April 2015 and June 2020, the Army deployed a 300-strong element to Iraq, designated as Task Group Taji, as part of Operation Okra. In support of a capacity building mission, Task Group Taji's main role was to provide training to Iraqi forces, during which Australian troops have served alongside counterparts from New Zealand.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "In 2020 an investigation of allegations of war crimes committed during Australian military operations in Afghanistan was concluded with the release of the Brereton Report. The report identified 25 ADF personnel that were involved directly or indirectly in the murder of 39 civilians and prisoners, with 19 referred to the Australian Federal Police to be criminally investigated. A 'warrior culture' in the SAS was specifically criticised with investigators 'frustrated by outright deceit by those who knew the truth and, not infrequently, misguided resistance to inquiries and investigations by their superiors'.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "Beginning 1 July 2023, the division was renamed the 1st Australian Division. The 1st, 3rd and 7th Brigades were placed under the direct control of the division's headquarters. This reform aimed to improve the connections between the divisional headquarters and the brigades it commands during deployments.", "title": "Organisation" }, { "paragraph_id": 36, "text": "Forces Command controls for administrative purposes all non-combat assets of the Australian Army. Its focus is on unifying all training establishments to create a base for scaling and mobilisation:", "title": "Organisation" }, { "paragraph_id": 37, "text": "Additionally, Forces Command includes the following training and support establishments:", "title": "Organisation" }, { "paragraph_id": 38, "text": "Administers the reserve forces from its headquarters located in Sydney.", "title": "Organisation" }, { "paragraph_id": 39, "text": "Army Aviation Command is responsible for the Australian Army's helicopters and training, aviation safety and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV). Army Aviation Command comprises:", "title": "Organisation" }, { "paragraph_id": 40, "text": "Special Operations Command is a command formation of equal status to the other commands in the ADF and includes all of Army's special forces units. Special Operations Command comprises:", "title": "Organisation" }, { "paragraph_id": 41, "text": "Infantry, and some other combat units of the Australian Army carry flags called the King's Colour and the Regimental Colour, known as \"the Colours\". Armoured units carry Standards and Guidons – flags smaller than Colours and traditionally carried by Cavalry, Lancer, Light Horse and Mounted Infantry units. The 1st Armoured Regiment is the only unit in the Australian Army to carry a Standard, in the tradition of heavy armoured units. Artillery units' guns are considered to be their Colours, and on parade are provided with the same respect. Non-combat units (combat service support corps) do not have Colours, as Colours are battle flags and so are only available to combat units. As a substitute, many have Standards or Banners. Units awarded battle honours have them emblazoned on their Colours, Standards and Guidons. They are a link to the unit's past and a memorial to the fallen. Artillery do not have Battle Honours – their single Honour is \"Ubique\" which means \"Everywhere\" – although they can receive Honour Titles.", "title": "Colours, standards and guidons" }, { "paragraph_id": 42, "text": "The Army is the guardian of the National Flag and as such, unlike the Royal Australian Air Force, does not have a flag or Colours. The Army, instead, has a banner, known as the Army Banner. To commemorate the centenary of the Army, the Governor General Sir William Deane, presented the Army with a new Banner at a parade in front of the Australian War Memorial on 10 March 2001. The banner was presented to the Regimental Sergeant Major of the Army (RSM-A), Warrant Officer Peter Rosemond.", "title": "Colours, standards and guidons" }, { "paragraph_id": 43, "text": "The Army Banner bears the Australian Coat of Arms on the obverse, with the dates \"1901–2001\" in gold in the upper hoist. The reverse bears the \"rising sun\" badge of the Australian Army, flanked by seven campaign honours on small gold-edged scrolls: South Africa, World War I, World War II, Korea, Malaya-Borneo, South Vietnam, and Peacekeeping. The banner is trimmed with gold fringe, has gold and crimson cords and tassels, and is mounted on a pike with the usual British royal crest finial.", "title": "Colours, standards and guidons" }, { "paragraph_id": 44, "text": "As of June 2022 the Army had 28,387 permanent (regular) members and 20,742 reservists (part-time); all of whom are volunteers. As of June 2022, women made up 15.11% of the Army, with a target set for 18% 2025. Gender based restrictions for frontline combat or training roles were lifted in January 2013. Also as of June 2022, Indigenous Australians made up 3.7% of the Army.", "title": "Personnel" }, { "paragraph_id": 45, "text": "The ranks of the Australian Army are based on the ranks of the British Army, and carry mostly the same actual insignia. For officers the ranks are identical except for the shoulder title \"Australia\". The Non-Commissioned Officer insignia are the same up until Warrant Officer, where they are stylised for Australia (for example, using the Australian, rather than the British coat of arms). The ranks of the Australian Army are as follows:", "title": "Personnel" }, { "paragraph_id": 46, "text": "The Australian Army uniforms are detailed in the Australian Army Dress Manual and are grouped into nine general categories, each ranging from ceremonial dress, to general duties dress, to battle dress (in addition there are a number of special categories specific to uniforms that are only worn when posted to specific locations, like ADFA or RMC-D), these are further divided into individual 'Dress Orders' denoted by alphabetical suffixes that detail the specific items of clothing, embellishment and accoutrements, i.e. Dress Order No. 1A - 'Ceremonial Parade Service Dress', Dress Order No. 2G - 'General Duty Office Dress', Dress Order No 4C ‘Combat Dress (AMCU)’ . The slouch hat or beret are the regular service and general duties hat, while the field hat, or combat helmet is for use in the field, while training, on exercise, or on operations. In Dec 2013 the Chief of Army reversed a previous ban on berets as general duties headwear for all personnel except Special Forces personnel (SASR, CDO Regiments). Australian Multi-cam Camouflage Uniform is the camouflage pattern for Australian Army camouflage uniforms, and was introduced in 2014, replacing the Disruptive Pattern Camouflage Uniform (DPCU), and Disruptive Pattern Desert Uniform (DPDU) for all Australian Army orders of dress.", "title": "Personnel" }, { "paragraph_id": 47, "text": "The Army's operational headquarters, Forces Command, is located at Victoria Barracks in Sydney. The Australian Army's three regular brigades are based at Robertson Barracks near Darwin, Lavarack Barracks in Townsville, and Gallipoli Barracks in Brisbane. The Deployable Joint Force Headquarters is also located at Gallipoli Barracks.", "title": "Bases" }, { "paragraph_id": 48, "text": "Other important Army bases include the Army Aviation Centre near Oakey, Queensland, Holsworthy Barracks near Sydney, Lone Pine Barracks in Singleton, New South Wales and Woodside Barracks near Adelaide, South Australia. The SASR is based at Campbell Barracks Swanbourne, a suburb of Perth, Western Australia.", "title": "Bases" }, { "paragraph_id": 49, "text": "Puckapunyal, north of Melbourne, houses the Australian Army's Combined Arms Training Centre, Land Warfare Development Centre, and three of the five principal Combat Arms schools. Further barracks include Steele Barracks in Sydney, Keswick Barracks in Adelaide, and Irwin Barracks at Karrakatta in Perth. Dozens of Australian Army Reserve depots are located across Australia.", "title": "Bases" }, { "paragraph_id": 50, "text": "Since June 1948, the Australian Army has published its own journal titled the Australian Army Journal. The journal's first editor was Colonel Eustace Keogh, and initially, it was intended to assume the role that the Army Training Memoranda had filled during the Second World War, although its focus, purpose, and format has shifted over time. Covering a broad range of topics including essays, book reviews and editorials, with submissions from serving members as well as professional authors, the journal's stated goal is to provide \"...the primary forum for Army's professional discourse... [and]... debate within the Australian Army... [and improve the]... intellectual rigor of that debate by adhering to a strict and demanding standard of quality\". In 1976, the journal was placed on hiatus as the Defence Force Journal began publication; however, publishing of the Australian Army Journal began again in 1999 and since then the journal has been published largely on a quarterly basis, with only minimal interruptions.", "title": "Australian Army Journal" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN) is the regional Internet registry for the United States, Canada, and many Caribbean and North Atlantic islands. ARIN manages the distribution of Internet number resources, including IPv4 and IPv6 address space and AS numbers. ARIN opened for business on December 22, 1997 after incorporating on April 18, 1997. ARIN is a nonprofit corporation with headquarters in Chantilly, Virginia, United States.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "ARIN is one of five regional Internet registries in the world. Like the other regional Internet registries, ARIN:", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "ARIN provides services related to the technical coordination and management of Internet number resources. The nature of these services is described in ARIN's mission statement:", "title": "Services" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "These services are grouped in three areas: Registration, Organization, and Policy Development.", "title": "Services" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Registration services pertain to the technical coordination and inventory management of Internet number resources. Services include:", "title": "Services" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "For information on requesting Internet number resources from ARIN, see https://www.arin.net/resources/index.html. This section includes the request templates, specific distribution policies, and guidelines for requesting and managing Internet number resources.", "title": "Services" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Organization services pertain to interaction between stakeholders, ARIN members, and ARIN. Services include:", "title": "Services" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Policy development services facilitate the development of policy for the technical coordination and management of Internet number resources.", "title": "Services" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "All ARIN policies are set by the community. Everyone is encouraged to participate in the policy development process at public policy meetings and on the Public Policy Mailing List. The ARIN Board of Trustees ratifies policies only after:", "title": "Services" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Membership is not required to participate in ARIN's policy development process or to apply for Internet number resources.", "title": "Services" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Services include:", "title": "Services" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "ARIN consists of the Internet community within its region, its members, a 7-member Board of Trustees, a 15-member Advisory Council, and a professional staff of about 50. The board of trustees and Advisory Council are elected by ARIN members for three-year terms.", "title": "Organizational structure" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "The ARIN membership elects the Board of Trustees (BoT), which has ultimate responsibility for the business affairs and financial health of ARIN, and manages ARIN's operations in a manner consistent with the guidance received from the Advisory Council and the goals set by the registry's members. The BoT is responsible for determining the disposition of all revenues received to ensure all services are provided in an equitable manner. The BoT ratifies proposals generated from the membership and submitted through the Advisory Council. Executive decisions are carried out following approval by the BoT. The BoT consists of 7 members consisting of a President and CEO, a chairman, a Treasurer, and others.", "title": "Organizational structure" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "In addition to the BoT, ARIN has an advisory council that advises ARIN and the BoT on IP address allocation policy and related matters. Adhering to the procedures in the Internet Resource Policy Evaluation Process, the advisory council forwards consensus-based policy proposals to the BoT for ratification. The advisory council consists of 15 elected members consisting of a Chair, Vice Chair, and others.", "title": "Organizational structure" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "The organization was formed in December 1997 to \"provide IP registration services as an independent, nonprofit corporation.\" Until this time, IP address registration (outside of RIPE and APNIC regions) was done in accordance with policies set by the IETF by Network Solutions corporation as part of the InterNIC project. The National Science Foundation approved the plan for the creation of the not-for-profit organization to \"give the users of IP numbers (mostly Internet service providers, corporations and other large institutions) a voice in the policies by which they are managed and allocated within the North American region.\". As part of the transition, Network Solutions corporation transitioned these tasks as well as initial staff and computer infrastructure to ARIN.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "The initial Board of Trustees consisted of Scott Bradner, John Curran, Kim Hubbard, Don Telage, Randy Bush, Raymundo Vega Aguilar, and Jon Postel (IANA) as an ex-officio member.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "The first president of ARIN was Kim Hubbard, from 1997 until 2000. Kim was succeeded by Raymond \"Ray\" Plzak until the end of 2008. Trustee John Curran was acting president until July 1 of 2009 when he assumed the CEO role permanently.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "Until late 2002 it served Mexico, Central America, South America and all of the Caribbean. LACNIC now handles parts of the Caribbean, Mexico, Central America, and South America. Also, Sub-Saharan Africa was part of its region until April 2005, when AfriNIC was officially recognized by ICANN as the fifth regional Internet registry.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "On 24 September 2015 ARIN has declared exhaustion of the ARIN IPv4 addresses pool.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "The countries in the ARIN service region are:", "title": "Service region" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "ARIN formerly covered Angola, Botswana, Burundi, Republic of Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Eswatini, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe until AfriNIC was formed.", "title": "Service region" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "ARIN formerly covered Argentina, Aruba, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Dutch West Indies, Ecuador, El Salvador, Falkland Islands (UK), French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Uruguay, and Venezuela until LACNIC was formed.", "title": "Service region" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Isaac Asimov (1920–1992) was a writer.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Asimov may also refer to:", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Akihabara (Japanese: 秋葉原) is a neighborhood in the Chiyoda ward of Tokyo, Japan, generally considered to be the area surrounding Akihabara Station. Administratively, the area named Akihabara is actually found in the Sotokanda (外神田) and Kanda-Sakumachō districts in Chiyoda. There also exists an administrative district called Akihabara in the Taitō ward further north of Akihabara Station, but it is not the place people generally refer to as Akihabara.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The name Akihabara is a shortening of Akibagahara (秋葉ヶ原), which ultimately comes from Akiba (秋葉), named after a fire-controlling deity of a firefighting shrine built after the area was destroyed by a fire in 1869. Akihabara gained the nickname Akihabara Electric Town (秋葉原電気街, Akihabara Denki Gai) shortly after World War II for being a major shopping center for household electronic goods and the post-war black market.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Akihabara is considered by many to be the epicentre of modern Japanese otaku culture, and is a major shopping district for video games, anime, manga, electronics and computer-related goods. Icons from popular anime and manga are displayed prominently on the shops in the area, and numerous maid cafés and some arcades are found throughout the district.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The main area of Akihabara is located on a street just west of Akihabara Station, where most of the major shops are situated. Most of the electronics shops are just west of the station, and the anime and manga shops and the cosplay cafés are north of them.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "As mentioned above, the area called Akihabara now ranges over some districts in Chiyoda ward: Sotokanda (外神田, the west of the station including electric town), Kanda-Hanaokachō (神田花岡町, the east of the station), and Kanda-Sakumachō (神田佐久間町, the south and southeast of the station). There exists an administrative district called Akihabara in the Taitō ward further north of the station, but it is not the place which people generally refer to as Akihabara. It borders on Sotokanda in between Akihabara and Okachimachi stations, but is half occupied by JR tracks.", "title": "Geography" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The area that is now Akihabara was once near a city gate of Edo and served as a passage between the city and northwestern Japan. This made the region a home to many craftsmen and tradesmen, as well as some low-class samurai. One of Tokyo's frequent fires destroyed the area in 1869, and the people decided to replace the buildings of the area with a shrine called Chinkasha (now known as Akiba Shrine 秋葉神社 Akiba Jinja), meaning fire extinguisher shrine, in an attempt to prevent the spread of future fires. The locals nicknamed the shrine Akiba after the deity that could control fire, and the area around it became known as Akibagahara and later Akihabara. After Akihabara Station was built in 1888, the shrine was moved to the Taitō ward where it still resides today.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Since its opening in 1890, Akihabara Station became a major freight transit point, which allowed a vegetable and fruit market to spring up in the district. Then, in the 1920s, the station saw a large volume of passengers after opening for public transport, and after World War II, the black market thrived in the absence of a strong government. This disconnection of Akihabara from government authority has allowed the district to grow as a market city and given rise to an excellent atmosphere for entrepreneurship. In the 1930s, this climate turned Akihabara into a future-oriented market region specializing in household electronics, such as washing machines, refrigerators, televisions, and stereos, earning Akihabara the nickname \"Electric Town\".", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "As household electronics began to lose their futuristic appeal in the 1980s, the shops of Akihabara shifted their focus to home computers at a time when they were only used by specialists and hobbyists. This new specialization brought in a new type of consumer, computer nerds or otaku. The market in Akihabara naturally latched onto their new customer base that was focused on anime, manga, and video games. The connection between Akihabara and otaku has survived and grown to the point that the region is now known worldwide as a center for otaku culture, and some otaku even consider Akihabara to be a sacred place.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "The influence of otaku culture has shaped Akihabara's businesses and buildings to reflect the interests of otaku and gained the district worldwide fame for its distinctive imagery. Akihabara tries to create an atmosphere as close as possible to the game and anime worlds of customers' interest. The streets of Akihabara are covered with anime and manga icons, and cosplayers line the sidewalks handing out advertisements, especially for maid cafés. Release events, special events, and conventions in Akihabara give anime and manga fans frequent opportunities to meet the creators of the works they follow and strengthen the connection between the region and otaku culture. The design of many of the buildings serves to create the sort of atmosphere that draws in otaku. Architects design the stores of Akihabara to be more opaque and closed to reflect the general desire of many otaku to live in their anime worlds rather than display their interests to the world at large.", "title": "Otaku culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Akihabara's role as a free market has also allowed a large amount of amateur work to find a passionate audience in the otaku who frequent the area. Doujinshi (amateur or fanmade manga based on an anime/manga/game) has been growing in Akihabara since the 1970s when publishers began to drop manga that were not ready for large markets. Comiket is largest spot sale of Doujinshi in Japan.", "title": "Otaku culture" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Active Directory (AD) is a directory service developed by Microsoft for Windows domain networks. Windows Server operating systems include it as a set of processes and services. Originally, only centralized domain management used Active Directory. However, it ultimately became an umbrella title for various directory-based identity-related services.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "A domain controller is a server running the Active Directory Domain Service (AD DS) role. It authenticates and authorizes all users and computers in a Windows domain-type network, assigning and enforcing security policies for all computers and installing or updating software. For example, when a user logs into a computer which is part of a Windows domain, Active Directory checks the submitted username and password and determines whether the user is a system administrator or a non-admin user. Furthermore, it allows the management and storage of information, provides authentication and authorization mechanisms, and establishes a framework to deploy other related services: Certificate Services, Active Directory Federation Services, Lightweight Directory Services, and Rights Management Services.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Active Directory uses Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) versions 2 and 3, Microsoft's version of Kerberos, and DNS.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Robert R. King defined it in the following way:", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "\"A domain represents a database. That database holds records about network services-things like computers, users, groups and other things that use, support, or exist on a network. The domain database is, in effect, Active Directory.\"", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Like many information-technology efforts, Active Directory originated out of a democratization of design using Requests for Comments (RFCs). The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) oversees the RFC process and has accepted numerous RFCs initiated by widespread participants. For example, LDAP underpins Active Directory. Also, X.500 directories and the Organizational Unit preceded the Active Directory concept that uses those methods. The LDAP concept began to emerge even before the founding of Microsoft in April 1975, with RFCs as early as 1971. RFCs contributing to LDAP include RFC 1823 (on the LDAP API, August 1995), RFC 2307, RFC 3062, and RFC 4533.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Microsoft previewed Active Directory in 1999, released it first with Windows 2000 Server edition, and revised it to extend functionality and improve administration in Windows Server 2003. Active Directory support was also added to Windows 95, Windows 98, and Windows NT 4.0 via patch, with some unsupported features. Additional improvements came with subsequent versions of Windows Server. In Windows Server 2008, Microsoft added further services to Active Directory, such as Active Directory Federation Services. The part of the directory in charge of managing domains, which was a core part of the operating system, was renamed Active Directory Domain Services (ADDS) and became a server role like others. \"Active Directory\" became the umbrella title of a broader range of directory-based services. According to Byron Hynes, everything related to identity was brought under Active Directory's banner.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Active Directory Services consist of multiple directory services. The best known is Active Directory Domain Services, commonly abbreviated as AD DS or simply AD.", "title": "Active Directory Services" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Active Directory Domain Services (AD DS) is the foundation of every Windows domain network. It stores information about domain members, including devices and users, verifies their credentials, and defines their access rights. The server running this service is called a domain controller. A domain controller is contacted when a user logs into a device, accesses another device across the network, or runs a line-of-business Metro-style app sideloaded into a machine.", "title": "Active Directory Services" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Other Active Directory services (excluding LDS, as described below) and most Microsoft server technologies rely on or use Domain Services; examples include Group Policy, Encrypting File System, BitLocker, Domain Name Services, Remote Desktop Services, Exchange Server, and SharePoint Server.", "title": "Active Directory Services" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "The self-managed Active Directory DS must be distinct from managed Azure AD DS, a cloud product.", "title": "Active Directory Services" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "Active Directory Lightweight Directory Services (AD LDS), previously called Active Directory Application Mode (ADAM), implements the LDAP protocol for AD DS. It runs as a service on Windows Server and offers the same functionality as AD DS, including an equal API. However, AD LDS does not require the creation of domains or domain controllers. It provides a Data Store for storing directory data and a Directory Service with an LDAP Directory Service Interface. Unlike AD DS, multiple AD LDS instances can operate on the same server.", "title": "Active Directory Services" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Active Directory Certificate Services (AD CS) establishes an on-premises public key infrastructure. It can create, validate, revoke and perform other similar actions, public key certificates for internal uses of an organization. These certificates can be used to encrypt files (when used with Encrypting File System), emails (per S/MIME standard), and network traffic (when used by virtual private networks, Transport Layer Security protocol or IPSec protocol).", "title": "Active Directory Services" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "AD CS predates Windows Server 2008, but its name was simply Certificate Services.", "title": "Active Directory Services" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "AD CS requires an AD DS infrastructure.", "title": "Active Directory Services" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "Active Directory Federation Services (AD FS) is a single sign-on service. With an AD FS infrastructure in place, users may use several web-based services (e.g. internet forum, blog, online shopping, webmail) or network resources using only one set of credentials stored at a central location, as opposed to having to be granted a dedicated set of credentials for each service. AD FS uses many popular open standards to pass token credentials such as SAML, OAuth or OpenID Connect. AD FS supports encryption and signing of SAML assertions. AD FS's purpose is an extension of that of AD DS: The latter enables users to authenticate with and use the devices that are part of the same network, using one set of credentials. The former enables them to use the same set of credentials in a different network.", "title": "Active Directory Services" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "As the name suggests, AD FS works based on the concept of federated identity.", "title": "Active Directory Services" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "AD FS requires an AD DS infrastructure, although its federation partner may not.", "title": "Active Directory Services" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "Active Directory Rights Management Services (AD RMS), previously known as Rights Management Services or RMS before Windows Server 2008, is server software that allows for information rights management, included with Windows Server. It uses encryption and selective denial to restrict access to various documents, such as corporate e-mails, Microsoft Word documents, and web pages. It also limits the operations authorized users can perform on them, such as viewing, editing, copying, saving, or printing. IT administrators can create pre-set templates for end users for convenience, but end users can still define who can access the content and what actions they can take.", "title": "Active Directory Services" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "Active Directory is a service comprising a database and executable code. It is responsible for managing requests and maintaining the database. The Directory System Agent is the executable part, a set of Windows services and processes that run on Windows 2000 and later. Accessing the objects in Active Directory databases is possible through various interfaces such as LDAP, ADSI, messaging API, and Security Accounts Manager services.", "title": "Logical structure" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "Active Directory structures consist of information about objects classified into two categories: resources (such as printers) and security principals (which include user or computer accounts and groups). Each security principal is assigned a unique security identifier (SID). An object represents a single entity, such as a user, computer, printer, or group, along with its attributes. Some objects may even contain other objects within them. Each object has a unique name, and its definition is a set of characteristics and information by a schema, which determines the storage in the Active Directory.", "title": "Logical structure" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "Administrators can extend or modify the schema using the schema object when needed. However, because each schema object is integral to the definition of Active Directory objects, deactivating or changing them can fundamentally alter or disrupt a deployment. Modifying the schema affects the entire system automatically, and new objects cannot be deleted, only deactivated. Changing the schema usually requires planning.", "title": "Logical structure" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "In an Active Directory network, the framework that holds objects has different levels: the forest, tree, and domain. Domains within a deployment contain objects stored in a single replicable database, and the DNS name structure identifies their domains, the namespace. A domain is a logical group of network objects such as computers, users, and devices that share the same Active Directory database.", "title": "Logical structure" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "On the other hand, a tree is a collection of domains and domain trees in a contiguous namespace linked in a transitive trust hierarchy. The forest is at the top of the structure, a collection of trees with a standard global catalog, directory schema, logical structure, and directory configuration. The forest is a secure boundary that limits access to users, computers, groups, and other objects.", "title": "Logical structure" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "The objects held within a domain can be grouped into organizational units (OUs). OUs can provide hierarchy to a domain, ease its administration, and can resemble the organization's structure in managerial or geographical terms. OUs can contain other OUs—domains are containers in this sense. Microsoft recommends using OUs rather than domains for structure and simplifying the implementation of policies and administration. The OU is the recommended level at which to apply group policies, which are Active Directory objects formally named group policy objects (GPOs), although policies can also be applied to domains or sites (see below). The OU is the level at which administrative powers are commonly delegated, but delegation can be performed on individual objects or attributes as well.", "title": "Logical structure" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "Organizational units do not each have a separate namespace. As a consequence, for compatibility with Legacy NetBios implementations, user accounts with an identical sAMAccountName are not allowed within the same domain even if the accounts objects are in separate OUs. This is because sAMAccountName, a user object attribute, must be unique within the domain. However, two users in different OUs can have the same common name (CN), the name under which they are stored in the directory itself such as \"fred.staff-ou.domain\" and \"fred.student-ou.domain\", where \"staff-ou\" and \"student-ou\" are the OUs.", "title": "Logical structure" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "In general, the reason for this lack of allowance for duplicate names through hierarchical directory placement is that Microsoft primarily relies on the principles of NetBIOS, which is a flat-namespace method of network object management that, for Microsoft software, goes all the way back to Windows NT 3.1 and MS-DOS LAN Manager. Allowing for duplication of object names in the directory, or completely removing the use of NetBIOS names, would prevent backward compatibility with legacy software and equipment. However, disallowing duplicate object names in this way is a violation of the LDAP RFCs on which Active Directory is supposedly based.", "title": "Logical structure" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "As the number of users in a domain increases, conventions such as \"first initial, middle initial, last name\" (Western order) or the reverse (Eastern order) fail for common family names like Li (李), Smith or Garcia. Workarounds include adding a digit to the end of the username. Alternatives include creating a separate ID system of unique employee/student ID numbers to use as account names in place of actual users' names and allowing users to nominate their preferred word sequence within an acceptable use policy.", "title": "Logical structure" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "Because duplicate usernames cannot exist within a domain, account name generation poses a significant challenge for large organizations that cannot be easily subdivided into separate domains, such as students in a public school system or university who must be able to use any computer across the network.", "title": "Logical structure" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "In Microsoft's Active Directory, OUs do not confer access permissions, and objects placed within OUs are not automatically assigned access privileges based on their containing OU. It represents a design limitation specific to Active Directory, and other competing directories, such as Novell NDS, can set access privileges through object placement within an OU.", "title": "Logical structure" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "Active Directory requires a separate step for an administrator to assign an object in an OU as a group member also within that OU. Using only the OU location to determine access permissions is unreliable since the entity might not have been assigned to the group object for that OU yet.", "title": "Logical structure" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "A common workaround for an Active Directory administrator is to write a custom PowerShell or Visual Basic script to automatically create and maintain a user group for each OU in their Directory. The scripts run periodically to update the group to match the OU's account membership. However, they cannot instantly update the security groups anytime the directory changes, as occurs in competing directories, as security is directly implemented into the Directory. Such groups are known as shadow groups. Once created, these shadow groups are selectable in place of the OU in the administrative tools. Microsoft's Server 2008 Reference documentation mentions shadow groups but does not provide instructions on creating them. Additionally, there are no available server methods or console snap-ins for managing these groups.", "title": "Logical structure" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "An organization must determine the structure of its information infrastructure by dividing it into one or more domains and top-level OUs. This decision is critical and can base on various models such as business units, geographical locations, IT service, object type, or a combination of these models. The immediate purpose of organizing OUs is to simplify administrative delegation and, secondarily, to apply group policies. It's important to note that while OUs serve as an administrative boundary, the forest itself is the only security boundary. All other domains must trust any administrator in the forest to maintain security.", "title": "Logical structure" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "The Active Directory database is organized in partitions, each holding specific object types and following a particular replication pattern. Microsoft often refers to these partitions as 'naming contexts. The 'Schema' partition defines object classes and attributes within the forest. The 'Configuration' partition contains information on the physical structure and configuration of the forest (such as the site topology). Both replicate all domains in the forest. The 'Domain' partition holds all objects created in that domain and replicates only within it.", "title": "Logical structure" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "Sites are physical (rather than logical) groupings defined by one or more IP subnets. AD also defines connections, distinguishing low-speed (e.g., WAN, VPN) from high-speed (e.g., LAN) links. Site definitions are independent of the domain and OU structure and are shared across the forest. Sites play a crucial role in managing network traffic created by replication and directing clients to their nearest domain controllers (DCs). Microsoft Exchange Server 2007 uses the site topology for mail routing. Administrators can also define policies at the site level.", "title": "Physical structure" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "The Active Directory information is physically held on one or more peer domain controllers, replacing the NT PDC/BDC model. Each DC has a copy of the Active Directory. Member servers joined to Active Directory that are not domain controllers are called Member Servers. In the domain partition, a group of objects acts as copies of domain controllers set up as global catalogs. These global catalog servers offer a comprehensive list of all objects located in the forest.", "title": "Physical structure" }, { "paragraph_id": 36, "text": "Global Catalog servers replicate all objects from all domains to themselves, providing an international listing of entities in the forest. However, to minimize replication traffic and keep the GC's database small, only selected attributes of each object are replicated, called the partial attribute set (PAS). The PAS can be modified by modifying the schema and marking features for replication to the GC. Earlier versions of Windows used NetBIOS to communicate. Active Directory is fully integrated with DNS and requires TCP/IP—DNS. To fully operate, the DNS server must support SRV resource records, also known as service records.", "title": "Physical structure" }, { "paragraph_id": 37, "text": "Active Directory uses multi-master replication to synchronize changes, meaning replicas pull changes from the server where the change occurred rather than being pushed to them. The Knowledge Consistency Checker (KCC) uses defined sites to manage traffic and create a replication topology of site links. Intra-site replication occurs frequently and automatically due to change notifications, which prompt peers to begin a pull replication cycle. Replication intervals between different sites are usually less consistent and don't usually use change notifications. However, it's possible to set it up to be the same as replication between locations on the same network if needed.", "title": "Physical structure" }, { "paragraph_id": 38, "text": "Each DS3, T1, and ISDN link can have a cost, and the KCC alters the site link topology accordingly. Replication may occur transitively through several site links on same-protocol site link bridges if the price is low. However, KCC automatically costs a direct site-to-site link lower than transitive connections. A bridgehead server in each zone can send updates to other DCs in the exact location to replicate changes between sites. To configure replication for Active Directory zones, activate DNS in the domain based on the site.", "title": "Physical structure" }, { "paragraph_id": 39, "text": "To replicate Active Directory, Remote Procedure Calls (RPC) over IP (RPC/IP) are used. SMTP is used to replicate between sites but only for modifications in the Schema, Configuration, or Partial Attribute Set (Global Catalog) GCs. It's not suitable for reproducing the default Domain partition.", "title": "Physical structure" }, { "paragraph_id": 40, "text": "Generally, a network utilizing Active Directory has more than one licensed Windows server computer. Backup and restore of Active Directory are possible for a network with a single domain controller. However, Microsoft recommends more than one domain controller to provide automatic failover protection of the directory. Domain controllers are ideally single-purpose for directory operations only and should not run any other software or role.", "title": "Implementation" }, { "paragraph_id": 41, "text": "Since certain Microsoft products, like SQL Server and Exchange, can interfere with the operation of a domain controller, isolation of these products on additional Windows servers is advised. Combining them can complicate the configuration and troubleshooting of the domain controller or the other installed software more complex. If planning to implement Active Directory, a business should purchase multiple Windows server licenses to have at least two separate domain controllers. Administrators should consider additional domain controllers for performance or redundancy and individual servers for tasks like file storage, Exchange, and SQL Server since this will guarantee that all server roles are adequately supported.", "title": "Implementation" }, { "paragraph_id": 42, "text": "One way to lower the physical hardware costs is by using virtualization. However, for proper failover protection, Microsoft recommends not running multiple virtualized domain controllers on the same physical hardware.", "title": "Implementation" }, { "paragraph_id": 43, "text": "The Active-Directory database, the directory store, in Windows 2000 Server uses the JET Blue-based Extensible Storage Engine (ESE98). Each domain controller's database is limited to 16 terabytes and 2 billion objects (but only 1 billion security principals). Microsoft has created NTDS databases with more than 2 billion objects. NT4's Security Account Manager could support up to 40,000 objects. It has two main tables: the data table and the link table. Windows Server 2003 added a third main table for security descriptor single instancing.", "title": "Database" }, { "paragraph_id": 44, "text": "Programs may access the features of Active Directory via the COM interfaces provided by Active Directory Service Interfaces.", "title": "Database" }, { "paragraph_id": 45, "text": "To allow users in one domain to access resources in another, Active Directory uses trusts.", "title": "Trusting" }, { "paragraph_id": 46, "text": "Trusts inside a forest are automatically created when domains are created. The forest sets the default boundaries of trust, and implicit, transitive trust is automatic for all domains within a forest.", "title": "Trusting" }, { "paragraph_id": 47, "text": "Microsoft Active Directory management tools include:", "title": "Management tools" }, { "paragraph_id": 48, "text": "These management tools may not provide enough functionality for efficient workflow in large environments. Some third-party tools extend the administration and management capabilities. They provide essential features for a more convenient administration process, such as automation, reports, integration with other services, etc.", "title": "Management tools" }, { "paragraph_id": 49, "text": "Varying levels of interoperability with Active Directory can be achieved on most Unix-like operating systems (including Unix, Linux, Mac OS X or Java and Unix-based programs) through standards-compliant LDAP clients, but these systems usually do not interpret many attributes associated with Windows components, such as Group Policy and support for one-way trusts.", "title": "Unix integration" }, { "paragraph_id": 50, "text": "Third parties offer Active Directory integration for Unix-like platforms, including:", "title": "Unix integration" }, { "paragraph_id": 51, "text": "The schema additions shipped with Windows Server 2003 R2 include attributes that map closely enough to RFC 2307 to be generally usable. The reference implementation of RFC 2307, nss_ldap and pam_ldap provided by PADL.com, support these attributes directly. The default schema for group membership complies with RFC 2307bis (proposed). Windows Server 2003 R2 includes a Microsoft Management Console snap-in that creates and edits the attributes.", "title": "Unix integration" }, { "paragraph_id": 52, "text": "An alternative option is to use another directory service as non-Windows clients authenticate to this while Windows Clients authenticate to Active Directory. Non-Windows clients include 389 Directory Server (formerly Fedora Directory Server, FDS), ViewDS v7.2 XML Enabled Directory, and Sun Microsystems Sun Java System Directory Server. The latter two are both able to perform two-way synchronization with Active Directory and thus provide a \"deflected\" integration.", "title": "Unix integration" }, { "paragraph_id": 53, "text": "Another option is to use OpenLDAP with its translucent overlay, which can extend entries in any remote LDAP server with additional attributes stored in a local database. Clients pointed at the local database see entries containing both the remote and local attributes, while the remote database remains completely untouched.", "title": "Unix integration" }, { "paragraph_id": 54, "text": "Administration (querying, modifying, and monitoring) of Active Directory can be achieved via many scripting languages, including PowerShell, VBScript, JScript/JavaScript, Perl, Python, and Ruby. Free and non-free Active Directory administration tools can help to simplify and possibly automate Active Directory management tasks.", "title": "Unix integration" }, { "paragraph_id": 55, "text": "Since October 2017 Amazon AWS offers integration with Microsoft Active Directory.", "title": "Unix integration" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Arianism is a nontrinitarian Christological doctrine.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Arian may also refer to:", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Arian is a surname that originated in Ancient Persia", "title": "People" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Aldona (baptized Ona or Anna; her pagan name, Aldona, is known only from the writings of Maciej Stryjkowski; c. 1309 – 26 May 1339) was Queen consort of Poland (1333–1339), and a princess of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. She was the daughter of Gediminas, Grand Duke of Lithuania.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Aldona married Casimir III of Poland, when he was 15 or 16 years old. The bride was probably of about the same age. The marriage took place on 30 April or 16 October 1325 and was a purely political maneuver to strengthen the first Polish–Lithuanian coalition against the Teutonic Knights. Casimir was seeking allies in the dispute over Pomerania with the Order. Gediminas had just undertaken an unsuccessful attempt to Christianize Lithuania. This coalition was a prelude to the Union of Krewo in 1385, and the Union of Lublin in 1569, which resulted in the creation of a new state, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The details of the agreement are not known; however, it is known that Gediminas released all Polish captives, some 25,000 people, who returned to Poland. The importance of the marriage was attested by the fact that Władysław abandoned his earlier plans to marry his son to Jutta of Bohemia. The alliance was put into effect when joint Polish–Lithuanian forces organized an attack against the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1326. However, the coalition was not strong and collapsed c. 1330. Yet, there is no evidence of fighting between Poland and Lithuania while Aldona was alive. Aldona died suddenly at the end of May 1339, and was buried in Kraków.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Aldona was remembered for her piety and devotion to music. She was accompanied by court musicians wherever she went. It was even suggested by Jan Długosz that the cymbals which were played in procession before her represented a pagan Lithuanian tradition. Her husband Casimir is known for his romantic affairs: after Aldona's death he married three more times.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Aldona had two daughters:", "title": "Issue" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Queen Aldona Anna is one of the main characters in the first season of Polish historical TV drama series \"Korona Królów\" (\"The Crown of the Kings\"). She is played by Marta Bryła.", "title": "In popular culture" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Aron Nimzowitsch (Latvian: Ārons Nimcovičs, Russian: Аро́н Иса́евич Нимцо́вич, Aron Isayevich Nimtsovich; 7 November 1886 – 16 March 1935) was a Latvian born-Danish chess player and writer. In the late 1920s, Nimzowitsch was one of the best chess players in the world. He was the foremost figure amongst the hypermoderns and wrote a very influential book on chess theory: My System (1925–1927). Nimzowitsch's seminal work Chess Praxis, originally published in German in 1929, was purchased by a pre-teen and future World Champion Tigran Petrosian and was to have a great influence on his development as a chess player.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Born in Riga, then part of the Russian Empire, the Jewish Yiddish-speaking Nimzowitsch came from a wealthy family, where he learned chess from his father Shaya Abramovich Nimzowitsch (1860, Pinsk – 1918), who was a timber merchant. By 1897, the family lived in Dvinsk. Mother's name: Esphir Nohumovna Nimzowitsch (born Rabinovich, 1865, Polotsk – 1937), sister – Tsilya-Kreyna Pevzner, brothers Yakov, Osey and Benno. In 1904, he travelled to Berlin to study philosophy, but set aside his studies soon and began a career as a professional chess player that same year. He won his first international tournament at Munich 1906. Then, he tied for first with Alexander Alekhine at Saint Petersburg 1913/14 (the eighth All-Russian Masters' Tournament).", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "During the 1917 Russian Revolution, Nimzowitsch was in the Baltic war zone. He escaped being drafted into one of the armies by feigning madness, insisting that a fly was on his head. He then escaped to Berlin, and gave his first name as Arnold, possibly to avoid anti-Semitic persecution.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Nimzowitsch eventually moved to Copenhagen in 1922, where he lived for the rest of his life in one small rented room. In Copenhagen, he won the Nordic Championship twice, in 1924 and in 1934. He obtained Danish citizenship and lived in Denmark until his death in 1935.", "title": "Life" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The height of Nimzowitsch's career was the late 1920s and early 1930s. Chessmetrics places him as the third best player in the world from 1927 to 1931, behind Alexander Alekhine and José Capablanca. His most notable successes were first-place finishes at Copenhagen 1923, Marienbad 1925, Dresden 1926, Hanover 1926, the Carlsbad 1929 chess tournament, and second place behind Alekhine at the San Remo 1930 chess tournament. Nimzowitsch never developed a knack for match play, though; his best match success was a draw with Alekhine, but the match consisted of only two games and took place in 1914, thirteen years before Alekhine became world champion.", "title": "Chess career" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Nimzowitsch never beat Capablanca (+0−5=6), but fared better against Alekhine (+3−9=9). He even beat Alekhine with the black pieces, in their short 1914 match at St. Petersburg. One of Nimzowitsch's most famous games is his celebrated immortal zugzwang game against Sämisch at Copenhagen 1923. Another game on this theme is his win over Paul Johner at Dresden 1926. When in form, Nimzowitsch was very dangerous with the black pieces, scoring many fine wins over top players.", "title": "Chess career" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Nimzowitsch is considered one of the most important players and writers in chess history. His works influenced numerous other players, including Savielly Tartakower, Milan Vidmar, Richard Réti, Akiba Rubinstein, Mikhail Botvinnik, Bent Larsen, Viktor Korchnoi and Tigran Petrosian, and his influence is still felt today.", "title": "Legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "He wrote three books on chess strategy: Mein System (My System), 1925; Die Praxis meines Systems (The Practice of My System), 1929, commonly known as Chess Praxis; and Die Blockade (The Blockade), 1925, although much in this book is generally held to be a rehash of material already presented in Mein System. Mein System is considered to be one of the most influential chess books of all time. It sets out Nimzowitsch's most important ideas, while his second most influential work, Chess Praxis, elaborates upon these ideas, adds a few new ones, and has immense value as a stimulating collection of Nimzowitsch's own games accompanied by his idiosyncratic, hyperbolic commentary which is often as entertaining as instructive.", "title": "Legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Nimzowitsch's chess theories, when first propounded, flew in the face of widely held orthodoxies enunciated by the dominant theorist of the era, Siegbert Tarrasch, and his disciples. Tarrasch's rigid generalizations drew on the earlier work of Wilhelm Steinitz, and were upheld by Tarrasch's sharp tongue when dismissing the opinions of doubters. While the greatest players of the time, among them Alekhine, Emanuel Lasker and Capablanca, clearly did not allow their play to be hobbled by blind adherence to general concepts that the center had to be controlled by pawns, that development had to happen in support of this control, that rooks always belong on open files, that wing openings were unsound—core ideas of Tarrasch's chess philosophy as popularly understood—beginners were taught to think of these generalizations as unalterable principles.", "title": "Legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Nimzowitsch supplemented many of the earlier simplistic assumptions about chess strategy by enunciating in his turn a further number of general concepts of defensive play aimed at achieving one's own goals by preventing realization of the opponent's plans. Notable in his \"system\" were concepts such as overprotection of pieces and pawns under attack, control of the center by pieces instead of pawns, blockading of opposing pieces (notably the passed pawns) and prophylaxis. His aforementioned game versus Paul Johner in 1926 (listed in the notable games below) is a great example of Nimzowitsch's concept of 'first restrain, then blockade and finally destroy'. He manoeuvres the black queen from its starting point to h7 to form a part of king-side blockade along with the knight on f6 and h-pawn to stop any attacking threats from White. He was also a leading exponent of the fianchetto development of bishops. Perhaps most importantly, he formulated the terminology still in use for various complex chess strategies. Others had used these ideas in practice, but he was the first to present them systematically as a lexicon of themes accompanied by extensive taxonomical observations.", "title": "Legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Raymond Keene writes that Nimzowitsch \"was one of the world's leading grandmasters for a period extending over a quarter of a century, and for some of that time he was the obvious challenger for the world championship. ... [He was also] a great and profound chess thinker second only to Steinitz, and his works – Die Blockade, My System and Chess Praxis – established his reputation as one of the father figures of modern chess.\" GM Robert Byrne called him \"perhaps the most brilliant theoretician and teacher in the history of the game.\" GM Jan Hein Donner called Nimzowitsch \"a man who was too much of an artist to be able to prove he was right and who was regarded as something of a madman in his time. He would be understood only long after his death.\"", "title": "Legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "Many chess openings and variations are named after Nimzowitsch, the most famous being the Nimzo-Indian Defence (1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nc3 Bb4) and the less often played Nimzowitsch Defence (1.e4 Nc6). Nimzowitsch biographer GM Raymond Keene and others have referred to 1.Nf3 followed by 2.b3 as the Nimzowitsch–Larsen Attack. Keene wrote a book about the opening with that title. These openings all exemplify Nimzowitsch's ideas about controlling the center with pieces instead of pawns. He was also vital in the development of two important systems in the French Defence, the Winawer Variation (in some places called the Nimzowitsch Variation; its moves are 1.e4 e6 2.d4 d5 3.Nc3 Bb4) and the Advance Variation (1.e4 e6 2.d4 d5 3.e5). He also pioneered two provocative variations of the Sicilian Defence: the Nimzowitsch Variation, 1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 Nf6, which invites 3.e5 Nd5 (similar to Alekhine's Defence) and 1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 d5?! (the latter regarded as dubious today). International Master John L. Watson has dubbed the line 1.c4 Nf6 2.Nc3 e6 3.Nf3 Bb4 the \"Nimzo-English\", employing this designation in Chapter 11 of his book Mastering the Chess Openings, Volume 3.", "title": "Legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "There are many entertaining anecdotes regarding Nimzowitsch—some less savory than others. An article by Hans Kmoch and Fred Reinfeld entitled \"Unconventional Surrender\" on page 55 of the February 1950 Chess Review tells of the \"... example of Nimzowitsch, who ... once missed first prize in a tournament in Berlin by losing to Sämisch, and when it became clear he was going to lose the game, Nimzowitsch stood up on the table and shouted, 'Gegen diesen Idioten muss ich verlieren!' ('That I should lose to this idiot!')\".", "title": "Personality" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "Nimzowitsch was annoyed by his opponents' smoking. A popular, but probably apocryphal, story is that once when an opponent laid an unlit cigar on the table, he complained to the tournament arbiters, \"He is threatening to smoke, and as an old player you must know that the threat is stronger than the execution.\"", "title": "Personality" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "Nimzowitsch had lengthy and somewhat bitter dogmatic conflicts with Tarrasch over whose ideas constituted 'proper' chess.", "title": "Personality" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "Nimzowitsch's vanity and faith in his ideas of overprotection provoked Hans Kmoch to write a parody about him in February 1928 in the Wiener Schachzeitung. This consisted of a mock game against the fictional player \"Systemsson\", supposedly played and annotated by Nimzowitsch himself. The annotations gleefully exaggerate the idea of overprotection, as well as asserting the true genius of the wondrous idea. Kmoch was in fact a great admirer of Nimzowitsch, and Nimzowitsch was amused at the effort.", "title": "Personality" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "Kmoch also wrote an article about his nine years with Nimzowitsch:", "title": "Personality" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "Nimzovich suffered from the delusion that he was unappreciated and that the reason was malice. All it took to make him blossom, as I later learned, was a little praise. His paranoia was most evident when he dined in company. He always thought he was served much smaller portions than everyone else. He didn't care about the actual amount but only about the imagined affront. I once suggested that he and I order what the other actually wanted and, when the food was served, exchange plates. After we had done so, he shook his head in disbelief, still thinking that he had received the smaller portion.", "title": "Personality" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "Nimzowitsch's colleague Tartakower observed of him, \"He pretends to be crazy in order to drive us all crazy.\"", "title": "Personality" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "Although he had long suffered from heart trouble, his early death was unexpected; taken ill suddenly at the end of 1934, he lay bedridden for three months before dying of pneumonia. He is buried in Bispebjerg Cemetery in Copenhagen.", "title": "Death" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Aragonese (/ˌærəɡəˈniːz/ ARR-ə-gə-NEEZ; aragonés [aɾaɣoˈnes] in Aragonese) is a Romance language spoken in several dialects by about 12,000 people as of 2011, in the Pyrenees valleys of Aragon, Spain, primarily in the comarcas of Somontano de Barbastro, Jacetania, Alto Gállego, Sobrarbe, and Ribagorza/Ribagorça. It is the only modern language which survived from medieval Navarro-Aragonese in a form distinct from Spanish.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Historically, people referred to the language as fabla ('talk' or 'speech'). Native Aragonese people usually refer to it by the names of its local dialects such as cheso (from Valle de Hecho) or patués (from the Benasque Valley).", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Aragonese, which developed in portions of the Ebro basin, can be traced back to the High Middle Ages. It spread throughout the Pyrenees to areas where languages similar to modern Basque might have been previously spoken. The Kingdom of Aragon (formed by the counties of Aragon, Sobrarbe and Ribagorza) expanded southward from the mountains, pushing the Moors farther south in the Reconquista and spreading the Aragonese language.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The union of the Catalan counties and the Kingdom of Aragon which formed the 12th-century Crown of Aragon did not merge the languages of the two territories; Catalan continued to be spoken in the east and Navarro-Aragonese in the west, with the boundaries blurred by dialectal continuity. The Aragonese Reconquista in the south ended with the cession of Murcia by James I of Aragon to the Kingdom of Castile as dowry for an Aragonese princess.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The best-known proponent of the Aragonese language was Johan Ferrandez d'Heredia, the Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller in Rhodes at the end of the 14th century. He wrote an extensive catalog of works in Aragonese and translated several works from Greek into Aragonese (the first in medieval Europe).", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The spread of Castilian (Spanish), the Castilian origin of the Trastámara dynasty, and the similarity between Castilian (Spanish) and Aragonese facilitated the recession of the latter. A turning point was the 15th-century coronation of the Castilian Ferdinand I of Aragon, also known as Ferdinand of Antequera.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "In the early 18th century, after the defeat of the allies of Aragon in the War of the Spanish Succession, Philip V ordered the prohibition of the Aragonese language in the schools and the establishment of Castilian (Spanish) as the only official language in Aragon. This was ordered in the Aragonese Nueva Planta decrees of 1707.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "In recent times, Aragonese was mostly regarded as a group of rural dialects of Spanish. Compulsory education undermined its already weak position; for example, pupils were punished for using it. However, the 1978 Spanish transition to democracy heralded literary works and studies of the language.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Aragonese is the native language of the Aragonese mountain ranges of the Pyrenees, in the comarcas of Somontano, Jacetania, Sobrarbe, and Ribagorza. Cities and towns in which Aragonese is spoken are Huesca, Graus, Monzón, Barbastro, Bielsa, Chistén, Fonz, Echo, Estadilla, Benasque, Campo, Sabiñánigo, Jaca, Plan, Ansó, Ayerbe, Broto, and El Grado.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "It is spoken as a second language by inhabitants of Zaragoza, Huesca, Ejea de los Caballeros, or Teruel. According to recent polls, there are about 25,500 speakers (2011) including speakers living outside the native area. In 2017, the Dirección General de Política Lingüística de Aragón estimated there were 10,000 to 12,000 active speakers of Aragonese.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "In 2009, the Languages Act of Aragon (Law 10/2009) recognized the \"native language, original and historic\" of Aragon. The language received several linguistic rights, including its use in public administration. Some of the legislation was repealed by a new law in 2013 (Law 3/2013). [See Languages Acts of Aragon for more information on the subject]", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "Aragonese has many historical traits in common with Catalan. Some are conservative features that are also shared with the Astur-Leonese languages and Galician-Portuguese, where Spanish innovated in ways that did not spread to nearby languages.", "title": "Phonology" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "In 2010, the Academia de l'Aragonés (founded in 2006) established an orthographic standard to modernize medieval orthography and to make it more etymological. The new orthography is used by the Aragonese Wikipedia.", "title": "Orthography" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "Aragonese had two orthographic standards:", "title": "Orthography" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "During the 16th century, Aragonese Moriscos wrote aljamiado texts (Romance texts in Arabic script), possibly because of their inability to write in Arabic. The language in these texts has a mixture of Aragonese and Castilian traits, and they are among the last known written examples of the Aragonese formerly spoken in central and southern Aragon.", "title": "Orthography" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "In 2023, a new orthographic standard has been published by the Academia Aragonesa de la Lengua. This version is close to the Academia de l'Aragonés orthography, but with the following differences: /kw/ is always spelled cu, e. g. cuan, cuestión (exception is made for some loanwords: quad, quadrívium, quark, quásar, quáter, quórum); /ɲ/ is spelled ny or ñ by personal preference; final z is not written as tz.", "title": "Orthography" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "The marginal phoneme /x/ (only in loanwords, e. g. jabugo) is spelled j in the Uesca, Academia de l'Aragonés and Academia Aragonesa de la Lengua standards (not mentioned in the SLA standard). Additionally, the Academia de l'Aragonés and Academia Aragonesa de la Lengua orthographies allow the letter j in some loanwords internationally known with it (e. g. jazz, jacuzzi, which normally have /tʃ/ in the Aragonese pronunciation) and also mention the letters k and w, also used only in loanwords (w may represent /b/ or /w/).", "title": "Orthography" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "Aragonese grammar has a lot in common with Occitan and Catalan, but also Spanish.", "title": "Grammar" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "The definite article in Aragonese has undergone dialect-related changes, with definite articles in Old Aragonese similar to their present Spanish equivalents. There are two main forms:", "title": "Grammar" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "These forms are used in the eastern and some central dialects.", "title": "Grammar" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "These forms are used in the western and some central dialects.", "title": "Grammar" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "Neighboring Romance languages have influenced Aragonese. Catalan and Occitan influenced Aragonese for many years. Since the 15th century, Spanish has most influenced Aragonese; it was adopted throughout Aragon as the first language, limiting Aragonese to the northern region surrounding the Pyrenees. French has also influenced Aragonese; Italian loanwords have entered through other languages (such as Catalan), and Portuguese words have entered through Spanish. Germanic words came with the conquest of the region by Germanic peoples during the fifth century, and English has introduced a number of new words into the language.", "title": "Grammar" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "Words that were part of the Latin second declension—as well as words that joined it later on—are usually masculine:", "title": "Grammar" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "Words that were part of the Latin first declension are usually feminine:", "title": "Grammar" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "Some Latin neuter plural nouns joined the first declension as singular feminine nouns:", "title": "Grammar" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "Words ending in -or are feminine:", "title": "Grammar" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "The names of fruit trees usually end in -era (a suffix derived from Latin -aria) and are usually feminine:", "title": "Grammar" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "The genders of river names vary:", "title": "Grammar" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "Just like most other Occitano-Romance languages, Aragonese has partitive and locative clitic pronouns derived from the Latin inde and ibi: en/ne and bi/i/ie; unlike Ibero-Romance.", "title": "Grammar" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "Such pronouns are present in most major Romance languages (Catalan en and hi, Occitan ne and i, French en and y, and Italian ne and ci/vi).", "title": "Grammar" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "En/ne is used for:", "title": "Grammar" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "Bi/hi/ie is used for:", "title": "Grammar" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "Aragonese was not written until the 12th and 13th centuries; the history Liber Regum [an], Razón feita d'amor, Libre dels tres reys d'orient, and Vida de Santa María Egipcíaca date from this period; there is also an Aragonese version of the Chronicle of the Morea, differing also in its content and written in the late 14th century called Libro de los fechos et conquistas del principado de la Morea.", "title": "Literature" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "Since 1500, Spanish has been the cultural language of Aragon; many Aragonese wrote in Spanish, and during the 17th century the Argensola brothers went to Castile to teach Spanish. Aragonese became a popular village language. During the 17th century, popular literature in the language began to appear. In a 1650 Huesca literary contest, Aragonese poems were submitted by Matías Pradas, Isabel de Rodas and \"Fileno, montañés\".", "title": "Literature" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "The 19th and 20th centuries have seen a renaissance of Aragonese literature in several dialects. In 1844, Braulio Foz's novel Vida de Pedro Saputo was published in the Almudévar (southern) dialect. The 20th century featured Domingo Miral's costumbrist comedies and Veremundo Méndez Coarasa's poetry, both in Hecho (western) Aragonese; Cleto Torrodellas' poetry and Tonón de Baldomera's popular writings in the Graus (eastern) dialect and Arnal Cavero's costumbrist stories and Juana Coscujuela's novel A Lueca, historia d'una moceta d'o Semontano, also in the southern dialect.", "title": "Literature" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "The 1997 Aragonese law of languages stipulated that Aragonese (and Catalan) speakers had a right to the teaching of and in their own language. Following this, Aragonese lessons started in schools in the 1997–1998 academic year. It was originally taught as an extra-curricular, non-evaluable voluntary subject in four schools. However, whilst legally schools can choose to use Aragonese as the language of instruction, as of the 2013–2014 academic year, there are no recorded instances of this option being taken in primary or secondary education. In fact, the only current scenario in which Aragonese is used as the language of instruction is in the Aragonese philology university course, which is optional, taught over the summer and in which only some of the lectures are in Aragonese.", "title": "Aragonese in modern education" }, { "paragraph_id": 36, "text": "In pre-school education, students whose parents wish them to be taught Aragonese receive between thirty minutes to one hour of Aragonese lessons a week. In the 2014–2015 academic year there were 262 students recorded in pre-school Aragonese lessons.", "title": "Aragonese in modern education" }, { "paragraph_id": 37, "text": "The subject of Aragonese now has a fully developed curriculum in primary education in Aragon. Despite this, in the 2014–2015 academic year there were only seven Aragonese teachers in the region across both pre-primary and primary education and none hold permanent positions, whilst the number of primary education students receiving Aragonese lessons was 320.", "title": "Aragonese in modern education" }, { "paragraph_id": 38, "text": "As of 2017 there were 1068 reported Aragonese language students and 12 Aragonese language instructors in Aragon.", "title": "Aragonese in modern education" }, { "paragraph_id": 39, "text": "There is no officially approved program or teaching materials for the Aragonese language at the secondary level, and though two non-official textbooks are available (Pos ixo... Materials ta aprender aragonés (Benítez, 2007) and Aragonés ta Secundaria (Campos, 2014)) many instructors create their own learning materials. Further, most schools with Aragonese programs that have the possibility of being offered as an examinative subject have elected not to do so.", "title": "Aragonese in modern education" }, { "paragraph_id": 40, "text": "As of 2007 it is possible to use Aragonese as a language of instruction for multiple courses; however, no program is yet to instruct any curricular or examinative courses in Aragonese. As of the 2014–2015 academic year there were 14 Aragonese language students at the secondary level.", "title": "Aragonese in modern education" }, { "paragraph_id": 41, "text": "Aragonese is not currently a possible field of study for a bachelor's or postgraduate degree in any official capacity, nor is Aragonese used as a medium of instruction. A bachelor's or master's degree may be obtained in Magisterio (teaching) at the University of Zaragoza; however, no specialization in Aragonese language is currently available. As such those who wish to teach Aragonese at the pre-school, primary, or secondary level must already be competent in the language by being a native speaker or by other means. Further, prospective instructors must pass an ad hoc exam curated by the individual schools at which they wish to teach in order to prove their competence, as there are no recognized standard competency exams for the Aragonese language.", "title": "Aragonese in modern education" }, { "paragraph_id": 42, "text": "Since the 1994–1995 academic year, Aragonese has been an elective subject within the bachelor's degree for primary school education at the University of Zaragoza's Huesca campus.", "title": "Aragonese in modern education" }, { "paragraph_id": 43, "text": "The University of Zaragoza's Huesca campus also offers a Diploma de Especialización (These are studies that require a previous university degree and have a duration of between 30 and 59 ECTS credits.) in Aragonese Philology with 37 ECTS credits.", "title": "Aragonese in modern education" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) was an analog mobile phone system standard originally developed by Bell Labs and later modified in a cooperative effort between Bell Labs and Motorola. It was officially introduced in the Americas on October 13, 1983, and was deployed in many other countries too, including Israel in 1986, Australia in 1987, Singapore in 1988, and Pakistan in 1990. It was the primary analog mobile phone system in North America (and other locales) through the 1980s and into the 2000s. As of February 18, 2008, carriers in the United States were no longer required to support AMPS and companies such as AT&T and Verizon Communications have discontinued this service permanently. AMPS was discontinued in Australia in September 2000, in Pakistan by October 2004, in Israel by January 2010, and Brazil by 2010.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The first cellular network efforts began at Bell Labs and with research conducted at Motorola. In 1960, John F. Mitchell became Motorola's chief engineer for its mobile-communication products, and oversaw the development and marketing of the first pager to use transistors.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Motorola had long produced mobile telephones for automobiles, but these large and heavy models consumed too much power to allow their use without the automobile's engine running. Mitchell's team, which included the gifted Dr. Martin Cooper, developed portable cellular telephony. Cooper and Mitchell were among the Motorola employees granted a patent for this work in 1973. The first call on the prototype connected, reportedly, to a wrong number.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "While Motorola was developing a cellular phone, from 1968 to 1983 Bell Labs worked out a system called Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS), which became the first cellular network standard in the United States. The first system was successfully deployed in Chicago, Illinois, in 1979. Motorola and others designed and built the cellular phones for this and other cellular systems.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Martin Cooper, a former general manager for the systems division at Motorola, led a team that produced the first cellular handset in 1973 and made the first phone call from it. In 1983 Motorola introduced the DynaTAC 8000x, the first commercially available cellular phone small enough to be easily carried. He later introduced the so-called Bag Phone.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "In 1992, the first smartphone, called IBM Simon, used AMPS. Frank Canova led its design at IBM and it was demonstrated that year at the COMDEX computer-industry trade-show. A refined version of the product was marketed to consumers in 1994 by BellSouth under the name Simon Personal Communicator. The Simon was the first device that can be properly referred to as a \"smartphone\", even though that term was not yet coined.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "AMPS is a first-generation cellular technology that uses separate frequencies, or \"channels\", for each conversation. It therefore required considerable bandwidth for a large number of users. In general terms, AMPS was very similar to the older \"0G\" Improved Mobile Telephone Service it replaced, but used considerably more computing power to select frequencies, hand off conversations to land lines, and handle billing and call setup.", "title": "Technology" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "What really separated AMPS from older systems is the \"back end\" call setup functionality. In AMPS, the cell centers could flexibly assign channels to handsets based on signal strength, allowing the same frequency to be re-used, without interference, if locations were separated enough. The channels were grouped so a specific set was different of the one used on the cell nearby. This allowed a larger number of phones to be supported over a geographical area. AMPS pioneers coined the term \"cellular\" because of its use of small hexagonal \"cells\" within a system.", "title": "Technology" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "AMPS suffered from many weaknesses compared to today's digital technologies. As an analog standard, it was susceptible to static and noise, and there was no protection from 'eavesdropping' using a scanner or an older TV set that could tune into channels 70-83.", "title": "Technology" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "In the 1990s, an epidemic of \"cloning\" cost the cellular carriers millions of dollars. An eavesdropper with specialized equipment could intercept a handset's ESN (Electronic Serial Number) and MDN or CTN (Mobile Directory Number or Cellular Telephone Number). The Electronic Serial Number, a 12-digit number sent by the handset to the cellular system for billing purposes, uniquely identified that phone on the network. The system then allowed or disallowed calls and/or features based on its customer file. A person intercepting an ESN/MDN pair could clone the combination onto a different phone and use it in other areas for making calls without paying.", "title": "Cloning" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Cellular phone cloning became possible with off-the-shelf technology in the 1990s. Would-be cloners required three key items :", "title": "Cloning" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "The radio, when tuned to the proper frequency, would receive the signal transmitted by the cell phone to be cloned, containing the phone's ESN/MDN pair. This signal would feed into the sound-card audio-input of the PC, and Banpaia would decode the ESN/MDN pair from this signal and display it on the screen. The hacker could then copy that data into the Oki 900 phone and reboot it, after which the phone network could not distinguish the Oki from the original phone whose signal had been received. This gave the cloner, through the Oki phone, the ability to use the mobile-phone service of the legitimate subscriber whose phone was cloned – just as if that phone had been physically stolen, except that the subscriber retained his or her phone, unaware that the phone had been cloned—at least until that subscriber received his or her next bill.", "title": "Cloning" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "The problem became so large that some carriers required the use of a PIN before making calls. Eventually, the cellular companies initiated a system called RF Fingerprinting, whereby it could determine subtle differences in the signal of one phone from another and shut down some cloned phones. Some legitimate customers had problems with this though if they made certain changes to their own phone, such as replacing the battery and/or antenna.", "title": "Cloning" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "The Oki 900 could listen in to AMPS phone-calls right out-of-the-box with no hardware modifications.", "title": "Cloning" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "AMPS was originally standardized by American National Standards Institute (ANSI) as EIA/TIA/IS-3. EIA/TIA/IS-3 was superseded by EIA/TIA-553 and TIA interim standard with digital technologies, the cost of wireless service is so low that the problem of cloning has virtually disappeared.", "title": "Standards" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "AMPS cellular service operated in the 850 MHz Cellular band. For each market area, the United States Federal Communications Commission (FCC) allowed two licensees (networks) known as \"A\" and \"B\" carriers. Each carrier within a market used a specified \"block\" of frequencies consisting of 21 control channels and 395 voice channels. Originally, the B (wireline) side license was usually owned by the local phone company, and the A (non-wireline) license was given to wireless telephone providers.", "title": "Frequency bands" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "At the inception of cellular in 1983, the FCC had granted each carrier within a market 333 channel pairs (666 channels total). By the late 1980s, the cellular industry's subscriber base had grown into the millions across America and it became necessary to add channels for additional capacity. In 1989, the FCC granted carriers an expansion from the previous 666 channels to the final 832 (416 pairs per carrier). The additional frequencies were from the band held in reserve for future (inevitable) expansion. These frequencies were immediately adjacent to the existing cellular band. These bands had previously been allocated to UHF TV channels 70–83.", "title": "Frequency bands" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "Each duplex channel was composed of 2 frequencies. 416 of these were in the 824–849 MHz range for transmissions from mobile stations to the base stations, paired with 416 frequencies in the 869–894 MHz range for transmissions from base stations to the mobile stations. Each cell site used a different subset of these channels than its neighbors to avoid interference. This significantly reduced the number of channels available at each site in real-world systems. Each AMPS channel had a one way bandwidth of 30 kHz, for a total of 60 kHz for each duplex channel.", "title": "Frequency bands" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "Laws were passed in the US which prohibited the FCC type acceptance and sale of any receiver which could tune the frequency ranges occupied by analog AMPS cellular services. Though the service is no longer offered, these laws remain in force (although they may no longer be enforced).", "title": "Frequency bands" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "In 1991, Motorola proposed an AMPS enhancement known as narrowband AMPS (NAMPS or N-AMPS).", "title": "Narrowband AMPS" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "Later, many AMPS networks were partially converted to D-AMPS, often referred to as TDMA (though TDMA is a generic term that applies to many 2G cellular systems). D-AMPS, commercially deployed since 1993, was a digital, 2G standard used mainly by AT&T Mobility and U.S. Cellular in the United States, Rogers Wireless in Canada, Telcel in Mexico, Telecom Italia Mobile (TIM) in Brazil, VimpelCom in Russia, Movilnet in Venezuela, and Cellcom in Israel. In most areas, D-AMPS is no longer offered and has been replaced by more advanced digital wireless networks.", "title": "Digital AMPS" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "AMPS and D-AMPS have now been phased out in favor of either CDMA2000 or GSM, which allow for higher capacity data transfers for services such as WAP, Multimedia Messaging System (MMS), and wireless Internet access. There are some phones capable of supporting AMPS, D-AMPS and GSM all in one phone (using the GAIT standard).", "title": "Successor technologies" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "In 2002, the FCC decided to no longer require A and B carriers to support AMPS service as of February 18, 2008. All AMPS carriers have converted to a digital standard such as CDMA2000 or GSM. Digital technologies such as GSM and CDMA2000 support multiple voice calls on the same channel and offer enhanced features such as two-way text messaging and data services.", "title": "Analog AMPS being replaced by digital" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "Unlike in the United States, the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) and Industry Canada have not set any requirement for maintaining AMPS service in Canada. Rogers Wireless has dismantled their AMPS (along with IS-136) network; the networks were shut down May 31, 2007. Bell Mobility and Telus Mobility, who operated AMPS networks in Canada, announced that they would observe the same timetable as outlined by the FCC in the United States, and as a result would not begin to dismantle their AMPS networks until after February 2008.", "title": "Analog AMPS being replaced by digital" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "OnStar relied heavily on North American AMPS service for its subscribers because, when the system was developed, AMPS offered the most comprehensive wireless coverage in the US. In 2006, ADT asked the FCC to extend the AMPS deadline due to many of their alarm systems still using analog technology to communicate with the control centers. Cellular companies who own an A or B license (such as Verizon and Alltel) were required to provide analog service until February 18, 2008. After that point, however, most cellular companies were eager to shut down AMPS and use the remaining channels for digital services. OnStar transitioned to digital service with the help of data transport technology developed by Airbiquity, but warned customers who could not be upgraded to digital service that their service would permanently expire on January 1, 2008.", "title": "Analog AMPS being replaced by digital" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Aerodynamics (Ancient Greek: ἀήρ aero (air) + Ancient Greek: δυναμική (dynamics)) is the study of the motion of air, particularly when affected by a solid object, such as an airplane wing. It involves topics covered in the field of fluid dynamics and its subfield of gas dynamics, and is an important domain of study in aeronautics. The term aerodynamics is often used synonymously with gas dynamics, the difference being that \"gas dynamics\" applies to the study of the motion of all gases, and is not limited to air. The formal study of aerodynamics began in the modern sense in the eighteenth century, although observations of fundamental concepts such as aerodynamic drag were recorded much earlier. Most of the early efforts in aerodynamics were directed toward achieving heavier-than-air flight, which was first demonstrated by Otto Lilienthal in 1891. Since then, the use of aerodynamics through mathematical analysis, empirical approximations, wind tunnel experimentation, and computer simulations has formed a rational basis for the development of heavier-than-air flight and a number of other technologies. Recent work in aerodynamics has focused on issues related to compressible flow, turbulence, and boundary layers and has become increasingly computational in nature.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Modern aerodynamics only dates back to the seventeenth century, but aerodynamic forces have been harnessed by humans for thousands of years in sailboats and windmills, and images and stories of flight appear throughout recorded history, such as the Ancient Greek legend of Icarus and Daedalus. Fundamental concepts of continuum, drag, and pressure gradients appear in the work of Aristotle and Archimedes.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "In 1726, Sir Isaac Newton became the first person to develop a theory of air resistance, making him one of the first aerodynamicists. Dutch-Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli followed in 1738 with Hydrodynamica in which he described a fundamental relationship between pressure, density, and flow velocity for incompressible flow known today as Bernoulli's principle, which provides one method for calculating aerodynamic lift. In 1757, Leonhard Euler published the more general Euler equations which could be applied to both compressible and incompressible flows. The Euler equations were extended to incorporate the effects of viscosity in the first half of the 1800s, resulting in the Navier–Stokes equations. The Navier–Stokes equations are the most general governing equations of fluid flow but are difficult to solve for the flow around all but the simplest of shapes.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "In 1799, Sir George Cayley became the first person to identify the four aerodynamic forces of flight (weight, lift, drag, and thrust), as well as the relationships between them, and in doing so outlined the path toward achieving heavier-than-air flight for the next century. In 1871, Francis Herbert Wenham constructed the first wind tunnel, allowing precise measurements of aerodynamic forces. Drag theories were developed by Jean le Rond d'Alembert, Gustav Kirchhoff, and Lord Rayleigh. In 1889, Charles Renard, a French aeronautical engineer, became the first person to reasonably predict the power needed for sustained flight. Otto Lilienthal, the first person to become highly successful with glider flights, was also the first to propose thin, curved airfoils that would produce high lift and low drag. Building on these developments as well as research carried out in their own wind tunnel, the Wright brothers flew the first powered airplane on December 17, 1903.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "During the time of the first flights, Frederick W. Lanchester, Martin Kutta, and Nikolai Zhukovsky independently created theories that connected circulation of a fluid flow to lift. Kutta and Zhukovsky went on to develop a two-dimensional wing theory. Expanding upon the work of Lanchester, Ludwig Prandtl is credited with developing the mathematics behind thin-airfoil and lifting-line theories as well as work with boundary layers.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "As aircraft speed increased designers began to encounter challenges associated with air compressibility at speeds near the speed of sound. The differences in airflow under such conditions lead to problems in aircraft control, increased drag due to shock waves, and the threat of structural failure due to aeroelastic flutter. The ratio of the flow speed to the speed of sound was named the Mach number after Ernst Mach who was one of the first to investigate the properties of the supersonic flow. Macquorn Rankine and Pierre Henri Hugoniot independently developed the theory for flow properties before and after a shock wave, while Jakob Ackeret led the initial work of calculating the lift and drag of supersonic airfoils. Theodore von Kármán and Hugh Latimer Dryden introduced the term transonic to describe flow speeds between the critical Mach number and Mach 1 where drag increases rapidly. This rapid increase in drag led aerodynamicists and aviators to disagree on whether supersonic flight was achievable until the sound barrier was broken in 1947 using the Bell X-1 aircraft.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "By the time the sound barrier was broken, aerodynamicists' understanding of the subsonic and low supersonic flow had matured. The Cold War prompted the design of an ever-evolving line of high-performance aircraft. Computational fluid dynamics began as an effort to solve for flow properties around complex objects and has rapidly grown to the point where entire aircraft can be designed using computer software, with wind-tunnel tests followed by flight tests to confirm the computer predictions. Understanding of supersonic and hypersonic aerodynamics has matured since the 1960s, and the goals of aerodynamicists have shifted from the behaviour of fluid flow to the engineering of a vehicle such that it interacts predictably with the fluid flow. Designing aircraft for supersonic and hypersonic conditions, as well as the desire to improve the aerodynamic efficiency of current aircraft and propulsion systems, continues to motivate new research in aerodynamics, while work continues to be done on important problems in basic aerodynamic theory related to flow turbulence and the existence and uniqueness of analytical solutions to the Navier–Stokes equations.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Understanding the motion of air around an object (often called a flow field) enables the calculation of forces and moments acting on the object. In many aerodynamics problems, the forces of interest are the fundamental forces of flight: lift, drag, thrust, and weight. Of these, lift and drag are aerodynamic forces, i.e. forces due to air flow over a solid body. Calculation of these quantities is often founded upon the assumption that the flow field behaves as a continuum. Continuum flow fields are characterized by properties such as flow velocity, pressure, density, and temperature, which may be functions of position and time. These properties may be directly or indirectly measured in aerodynamics experiments or calculated starting with the equations for conservation of mass, momentum, and energy in air flows. Density, flow velocity, and an additional property, viscosity, are used to classify flow fields.", "title": "Fundamental concepts" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Flow velocity is used to classify flows according to speed regime. Subsonic flows are flow fields in which the air speed field is always below the local speed of sound. Transonic flows include both regions of subsonic flow and regions in which the local flow speed is greater than the local speed of sound. Supersonic flows are defined to be flows in which the flow speed is greater than the speed of sound everywhere. A fourth classification, hypersonic flow, refers to flows where the flow speed is much greater than the speed of sound. Aerodynamicists disagree on the precise definition of hypersonic flow.", "title": "Fundamental concepts" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Compressible flow accounts for varying density within the flow. Subsonic flows are often idealized as incompressible, i.e. the density is assumed to be constant. Transonic and supersonic flows are compressible, and calculations that neglect the changes of density in these flow fields will yield inaccurate results.", "title": "Fundamental concepts" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Viscosity is associated with the frictional forces in a flow. In some flow fields, viscous effects are very small, and approximate solutions may safely neglect viscous effects. These approximations are called inviscid flows. Flows for which viscosity is not neglected are called viscous flows. Finally, aerodynamic problems may also be classified by the flow environment. External aerodynamics is the study of flow around solid objects of various shapes (e.g. around an airplane wing), while internal aerodynamics is the study of flow through passages inside solid objects (e.g. through a jet engine).", "title": "Fundamental concepts" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "Unlike liquids and solids, gases are composed of discrete molecules which occupy only a small fraction of the volume filled by the gas. On a molecular level, flow fields are made up of the collisions of many individual of gas molecules between themselves and with solid surfaces. However, in most aerodynamics applications, the discrete molecular nature of gases is ignored, and the flow field is assumed to behave as a continuum. This assumption allows fluid properties such as density and flow velocity to be defined everywhere within the flow.", "title": "Fundamental concepts" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "The validity of the continuum assumption is dependent on the density of the gas and the application in question. For the continuum assumption to be valid, the mean free path length must be much smaller than the length scale of the application in question. For example, many aerodynamics applications deal with aircraft flying in atmospheric conditions, where the mean free path length is on the order of micrometers and where the body is orders of magnitude larger. In these cases, the length scale of the aircraft ranges from a few meters to a few tens of meters, which is much larger than the mean free path length. For such applications, the continuum assumption is reasonable. The continuum assumption is less valid for extremely low-density flows, such as those encountered by vehicles at very high altitudes (e.g. 300,000 ft/90 km) or satellites in Low Earth orbit. In those cases, statistical mechanics is a more accurate method of solving the problem than is continuum aerodynamics. The Knudsen number can be used to guide the choice between statistical mechanics and the continuous formulation of aerodynamics.", "title": "Fundamental concepts" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "The assumption of a fluid continuum allows problems in aerodynamics to be solved using fluid dynamics conservation laws. Three conservation principles are used:", "title": "Fundamental concepts" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "Together, these equations are known as the Navier–Stokes equations, although some authors define the term to only include the momentum equation(s). The Navier–Stokes equations have no known analytical solution and are solved in modern aerodynamics using computational techniques. Because computational methods using high speed computers were not historically available and the high computational cost of solving these complex equations now that they are available, simplifications of the Navier–Stokes equations have been and continue to be employed. The Euler equations are a set of similar conservation equations which neglect viscosity and may be used in cases where the effect of viscosity is expected to be small. Further simplifications lead to Laplace's equation and potential flow theory. Additionally, Bernoulli's equation is a solution in one dimension to both the momentum and energy conservation equations.", "title": "Fundamental concepts" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "The ideal gas law or another such equation of state is often used in conjunction with these equations to form a determined system that allows the solution for the unknown variables.", "title": "Fundamental concepts" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "Aerodynamic problems are classified by the flow environment or properties of the flow, including flow speed, compressibility, and viscosity. External aerodynamics is the study of flow around solid objects of various shapes. Evaluating the lift and drag on an airplane or the shock waves that form in front of the nose of a rocket are examples of external aerodynamics. Internal aerodynamics is the study of flow through passages in solid objects. For instance, internal aerodynamics encompasses the study of the airflow through a jet engine or through an air conditioning pipe.", "title": "Branches of aerodynamics" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "Aerodynamic problems can also be classified according to whether the flow speed is below, near or above the speed of sound. A problem is called subsonic if all the speeds in the problem are less than the speed of sound, transonic if speeds both below and above the speed of sound are present (normally when the characteristic speed is approximately the speed of sound), supersonic when the characteristic flow speed is greater than the speed of sound, and hypersonic when the flow speed is much greater than the speed of sound. Aerodynamicists disagree over the precise definition of hypersonic flow; a rough definition considers flows with Mach numbers above 5 to be hypersonic.", "title": "Branches of aerodynamics" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "The influence of viscosity on the flow dictates a third classification. Some problems may encounter only very small viscous effects, in which case viscosity can be considered to be negligible. The approximations to these problems are called inviscid flows. Flows for which viscosity cannot be neglected are called viscous flows.", "title": "Branches of aerodynamics" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "An incompressible flow is a flow in which density is constant in both time and space. Although all real fluids are compressible, a flow is often approximated as incompressible if the effect of the density changes cause only small changes to the calculated results. This is more likely to be true when the flow speeds are significantly lower than the speed of sound. Effects of compressibility are more significant at speeds close to or above the speed of sound. The Mach number is used to evaluate whether the incompressibility can be assumed, otherwise the effects of compressibility must be included.", "title": "Branches of aerodynamics" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "Subsonic (or low-speed) aerodynamics describes fluid motion in flows which are much lower than the speed of sound everywhere in the flow. There are several branches of subsonic flow but one special case arises when the flow is inviscid, incompressible and irrotational. This case is called potential flow and allows the differential equations that describe the flow to be a simplified version of the equations of fluid dynamics, thus making available to the aerodynamicist a range of quick and easy solutions.", "title": "Branches of aerodynamics" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "In solving a subsonic problem, one decision to be made by the aerodynamicist is whether to incorporate the effects of compressibility. Compressibility is a description of the amount of change of density in the flow. When the effects of compressibility on the solution are small, the assumption that density is constant may be made. The problem is then an incompressible low-speed aerodynamics problem. When the density is allowed to vary, the flow is called compressible. In air, compressibility effects are usually ignored when the Mach number in the flow does not exceed 0.3 (about 335 feet (102 m) per second or 228 miles (366 km) per hour at 60 °F (16 °C)). Above Mach 0.3, the problem flow should be described using compressible aerodynamics.", "title": "Branches of aerodynamics" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "According to the theory of aerodynamics, a flow is considered to be compressible if the density changes along a streamline. This means that – unlike incompressible flow – changes in density are considered. In general, this is the case where the Mach number in part or all of the flow exceeds 0.3. The Mach 0.3 value is rather arbitrary, but it is used because gas flows with a Mach number below that value demonstrate changes in density of less than 5%. Furthermore, that maximum 5% density change occurs at the stagnation point (the point on the object where flow speed is zero), while the density changes around the rest of the object will be significantly lower. Transonic, supersonic, and hypersonic flows are all compressible flows.", "title": "Branches of aerodynamics" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "The term Transonic refers to a range of flow velocities just below and above the local speed of sound (generally taken as Mach 0.8–1.2). It is defined as the range of speeds between the critical Mach number, when some parts of the airflow over an aircraft become supersonic, and a higher speed, typically near Mach 1.2, when all of the airflow is supersonic. Between these speeds, some of the airflow is supersonic, while some of the airflow is not supersonic.", "title": "Branches of aerodynamics" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "", "title": "Branches of aerodynamics" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "Supersonic aerodynamic problems are those involving flow speeds greater than the speed of sound. Calculating the lift on the Concorde during cruise can be an example of a supersonic aerodynamic problem.", "title": "Branches of aerodynamics" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "Supersonic flow behaves very differently from subsonic flow. Fluids react to differences in pressure; pressure changes are how a fluid is \"told\" to respond to its environment. Therefore, since sound is, in fact, an infinitesimal pressure difference propagating through a fluid, the speed of sound in that fluid can be considered the fastest speed that \"information\" can travel in the flow. This difference most obviously manifests itself in the case of a fluid striking an object. In front of that object, the fluid builds up a stagnation pressure as impact with the object brings the moving fluid to rest. In fluid traveling at subsonic speed, this pressure disturbance can propagate upstream, changing the flow pattern ahead of the object and giving the impression that the fluid \"knows\" the object is there by seemingly adjusting its movement and is flowing around it. In a supersonic flow, however, the pressure disturbance cannot propagate upstream. Thus, when the fluid finally reaches the object it strikes it and the fluid is forced to change its properties – temperature, density, pressure, and Mach number—in an extremely violent and irreversible fashion called a shock wave. The presence of shock waves, along with the compressibility effects of high-flow velocity (see Reynolds number) fluids, is the central difference between the supersonic and subsonic aerodynamics regimes.", "title": "Branches of aerodynamics" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "In aerodynamics, hypersonic speeds are speeds that are highly supersonic. In the 1970s, the term generally came to refer to speeds of Mach 5 (5 times the speed of sound) and above. The hypersonic regime is a subset of the supersonic regime. Hypersonic flow is characterized by high temperature flow behind a shock wave, viscous interaction, and chemical dissociation of gas.", "title": "Branches of aerodynamics" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "The incompressible and compressible flow regimes produce many associated phenomena, such as boundary layers and turbulence.", "title": "Associated terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "The concept of a boundary layer is important in many problems in aerodynamics. The viscosity and fluid friction in the air is approximated as being significant only in this thin layer. This assumption makes the description of such aerodynamics much more tractable mathematically.", "title": "Associated terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "In aerodynamics, turbulence is characterized by chaotic property changes in the flow. These include low momentum diffusion, high momentum convection, and rapid variation of pressure and flow velocity in space and time. Flow that is not turbulent is called laminar flow.", "title": "Associated terminology" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "Aerodynamics is a significant element of vehicle design, including road cars and trucks where the main goal is to reduce the vehicle drag coefficient, and racing cars, where in addition to reducing drag the goal is also to increase the overall level of downforce. Aerodynamics is also important in the prediction of forces and moments acting on sailing vessels. It is used in the design of mechanical components such as hard drive heads. Structural engineers resort to aerodynamics, and particularly aeroelasticity, when calculating wind loads in the design of large buildings, bridges, and wind turbines.", "title": "Aerodynamics in other fields" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "The aerodynamics of internal passages is important in heating/ventilation, gas piping, and in automotive engines where detailed flow patterns strongly affect the performance of the engine.", "title": "Aerodynamics in other fields" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "Urban aerodynamics are studied by town planners and designers seeking to improve amenity in outdoor spaces, or in creating urban microclimates to reduce the effects of urban pollution. The field of environmental aerodynamics describes ways in which atmospheric circulation and flight mechanics affect ecosystems.", "title": "Aerodynamics in other fields" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "Aerodynamic equations are used in numerical weather prediction.", "title": "Aerodynamics in other fields" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "Sports in which aerodynamics are of crucial importance include soccer, table tennis, cricket, baseball, and golf, in which most players can control the trajectory of the ball using the \"Magnus effect\".", "title": "Aerodynamics in other fields" }, { "paragraph_id": 36, "text": "General aerodynamics", "title": "Further reading" }, { "paragraph_id": 37, "text": "Subsonic aerodynamics", "title": "Further reading" }, { "paragraph_id": 38, "text": "Transonic aerodynamics", "title": "Further reading" }, { "paragraph_id": 39, "text": "Supersonic aerodynamics", "title": "Further reading" }, { "paragraph_id": 40, "text": "Hypersonic aerodynamics", "title": "Further reading" }, { "paragraph_id": 41, "text": "History of aerodynamics", "title": "Further reading" }, { "paragraph_id": 42, "text": "Aerodynamics related to engineering", "title": "Further reading" }, { "paragraph_id": 43, "text": "Ground vehicles", "title": "Further reading" }, { "paragraph_id": 44, "text": "Fixed-wing aircraft", "title": "Further reading" }, { "paragraph_id": 45, "text": "Helicopters", "title": "Further reading" }, { "paragraph_id": 46, "text": "Missiles", "title": "Further reading" }, { "paragraph_id": 47, "text": "Model aircraft", "title": "Further reading" }, { "paragraph_id": 48, "text": "Related branches of aerodynamics", "title": "Further reading" }, { "paragraph_id": 49, "text": "Aerothermodynamics", "title": "Further reading" }, { "paragraph_id": 50, "text": "Aeroelasticity", "title": "Further reading" }, { "paragraph_id": 51, "text": "Boundary layers", "title": "Further reading" }, { "paragraph_id": 52, "text": "Turbulence", "title": "Further reading" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Andreas Schlüter (1659 – c. June 1714) was a German baroque sculptor and architect, active in the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and the Russian Tsardom.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Andreas Schlüter was born probably in Hamburg. His early life is obscure as at least three different persons of that name are documented. The records of St. Michaelis Church, Hamburg show that an Andreas Schlüter, son of sculptor Gerhart Schlüter, had been baptized there on 22 May 1664. Documents from Danzig/Gdańsk (Royal Prussia) reported that an Andreas Schlüter (senior) had worked 1640–1652 in Danzig's Jopengasse lane (today's ulica Piwna). Possibly born in 1640, an Andres Schliter is recorded as apprentice on 9 May 1656 by the mason's guild. Other sources state 1659 as year of birth.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "He probably did spend several years abroad as Journeyman. His first work, in 1675, may have been epitaphs of the Dukes Sambor and Mestwin in the dome of Pelplin monastery.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Schlüter's first known work was the decoration of the facade of the Danzig Royal Chapel, in 1681. He later created statues for King John III Sobieski's Wilanów Palace in Warsaw and sepulchral sculptures in Zhovkva. In 1689, he moved to Warsaw and made the pediment reliefs and sculptural work of Krasiński Palace.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Schlüter was invited to Berlin in 1694 by Eberhard von Danckelmann to work as court sculptor at the armory (Zeughaus) for Elector Frederick III. His sculpted decorations are a masterpiece of baroque expression and pathos. While the more visible reliefs on the outside had to praise fighting, the statues of dying warriors in the interior denounced war and gave an indication of his pacifist religious beliefs (he is said to have been a Mennonite). Travelling through Italy in 1696, he studied the work of masters like Michelangelo Buonarroti and Gian Lorenzo Bernini.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Schlüter also worked as an architect and built many state buildings in Berlin in his role as \"Hofbaumeister\" (Court Architect), which he lost when one tower showed signs of a weak fundament. He also served as director of the Prussian Academy of Arts from 1702 to 1704, after which he began concentrating on sculpting again, as \"Hofbildhauer\" (Court Sculptor). His most important equestrian sculpture is that of the \"Great Elector\", Frederick William of Brandenburg, cast in 1708 and placed at \"Lange Brücke\" near the Berlin City Palace, now situated in the honor court before Charlottenburg Palace.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "The Berlin City Palace, and many of his works, were partially destroyed by bombing in World War II and by the subsequent Communist regime. A similar fate probably befell the Amber Room, made between 1701 and 1709, Schlüter's most famous work of architecture.", "title": "Biography" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "In 1713 Schlüter's fame brought him to work for Tsar Peter the Great in Saint Petersburg, where he died of an illness after creating several designs. Together with Johann Friedrich Braunstein, he designed the Grand Palace and Monplaisir Palace in Peterhof Palace Complex. Also the city's oldest building, Kikin Hall, and the reliefs at the Summer Palace are attributed to him. This way he became an important figure of Petrine Baroque.", "title": "Biography" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Ash or ashes are the solid remnants of fires. Specifically, ash refers to all non-aqueous, non-gaseous residues that remain after something burns. In analytical chemistry, to analyse the mineral and metal content of chemical samples, ash is the non-gaseous, non-liquid residue after complete combustion.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Ashes as the end product of incomplete combustion are mostly mineral, but usually still contain an amount of combustible organic or other oxidizable residues. The best-known type of ash is wood ash, as a product of wood combustion in campfires, fireplaces, etc. The darker the wood ashes, the higher the content of remaining charcoal from incomplete combustion. The ashes are of different types. Some ashes contain natural compounds that make soil fertile. Others have chemical compounds that can be toxic but may break up in soil from chemical changes and microorganism activity.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Like soap, ash is also a disinfecting agent (alkaline). The World Health Organization recommends ash or sand as alternative when soap is not available.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Ash occurs naturally from any fire that burns vegetation, and may disperse in the soil to fertilise it, or clump under it for long enough to carbonise into coal.", "title": "Natural occurrence" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Cremation ashes, also called cremated remains or \"cremains,\" are the bodily remains left from cremation. They often take the form of a grey powder resembling coarse sand. While often referred to as ashes, the remains primarily consist of powdered bone fragments due to the cremation process, which eliminates the body's organic materials. People often store these ashes in containers like urns, although they are also sometimes buried or scattered in specific locations.", "title": "Specific types" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "In calculus, an antiderivative, inverse derivative, primitive function, primitive integral or indefinite integral of a function f is a differentiable function F whose derivative is equal to the original function f. This can be stated symbolically as F' = f. The process of solving for antiderivatives is called antidifferentiation (or indefinite integration), and its opposite operation is called differentiation, which is the process of finding a derivative. Antiderivatives are often denoted by capital Roman letters such as F and G.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Antiderivatives are related to definite integrals through the second fundamental theorem of calculus: the definite integral of a function over a closed interval where the function is Riemann integrable is equal to the difference between the values of an antiderivative evaluated at the endpoints of the interval.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "In physics, antiderivatives arise in the context of rectilinear motion (e.g., in explaining the relationship between position, velocity and acceleration). The discrete equivalent of the notion of antiderivative is antidifference.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The function F ( x ) = x 3 3 {\\displaystyle F(x)={\\tfrac {x^{3}}{3}}} is an antiderivative of f ( x ) = x 2 {\\displaystyle f(x)=x^{2}} , since the derivative of x 3 3 {\\displaystyle {\\tfrac {x^{3}}{3}}} is x 2 {\\displaystyle x^{2}} . And since the derivative of a constant is zero, x 2 {\\displaystyle x^{2}} will have an infinite number of antiderivatives, such as x 3 3 , x 3 3 + 1 , x 3 3 − 2 {\\displaystyle {\\tfrac {x^{3}}{3}},{\\tfrac {x^{3}}{3}}+1,{\\tfrac {x^{3}}{3}}-2} , etc. Thus, all the antiderivatives of x 2 {\\displaystyle x^{2}} can be obtained by changing the value of c in F ( x ) = x 3 3 + c {\\displaystyle F(x)={\\tfrac {x^{3}}{3}}+c} , where c is an arbitrary constant known as the constant of integration. Essentially, the graphs of antiderivatives of a given function are vertical translations of each other, with each graph's vertical location depending upon the value c.", "title": "Examples" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "More generally, the power function f ( x ) = x n {\\displaystyle f(x)=x^{n}} has antiderivative F ( x ) = x n + 1 n + 1 + c {\\displaystyle F(x)={\\tfrac {x^{n+1}}{n+1}}+c} if n ≠ −1, and F ( x ) = log | x | + c {\\displaystyle F(x)=\\log |x|+c} if n = −1.", "title": "Examples" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "In physics, the integration of acceleration yields velocity plus a constant. The constant is the initial velocity term that would be lost upon taking the derivative of velocity, because the derivative of a constant term is zero. This same pattern applies to further integrations and derivatives of motion (position, velocity, acceleration, and so on). Thus, integration produces the relations of acceleration, velocity and displacement:", "title": "Examples" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Antiderivatives can be used to compute definite integrals, using the fundamental theorem of calculus: if F is an antiderivative of the integrable function f over the interval [ a , b ] {\\displaystyle [a,b]} , then:", "title": "Uses and properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Because of this, each of the infinitely many antiderivatives of a given function f may be called the \"indefinite integral\" of f and written using the integral symbol with no bounds:", "title": "Uses and properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "If F is an antiderivative of f, and the function f is defined on some interval, then every other antiderivative G of f differs from F by a constant: there exists a number c such that G ( x ) = F ( x ) + c {\\displaystyle G(x)=F(x)+c} for all x. c is called the constant of integration. If the domain of F is a disjoint union of two or more (open) intervals, then a different constant of integration may be chosen for each of the intervals. For instance", "title": "Uses and properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "is the most general antiderivative of f ( x ) = 1 / x 2 {\\displaystyle f(x)=1/x^{2}} on its natural domain ( − ∞ , 0 ) ∪ ( 0 , ∞ ) . {\\displaystyle (-\\infty ,0)\\cup (0,\\infty ).}", "title": "Uses and properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Every continuous function f has an antiderivative, and one antiderivative F is given by the definite integral of f with variable upper boundary:", "title": "Uses and properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "for any a in the domain of f. Varying the lower boundary produces other antiderivatives, but not necessarily all possible antiderivatives. This is another formulation of the fundamental theorem of calculus.", "title": "Uses and properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "There are many functions whose antiderivatives, even though they exist, cannot be expressed in terms of elementary functions (like polynomials, exponential functions, logarithms, trigonometric functions, inverse trigonometric functions and their combinations). Examples of these are", "title": "Uses and properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "For a more detailed discussion, see also Differential Galois theory.", "title": "Uses and properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "Finding antiderivatives of elementary functions is often considerably harder than finding their derivatives (indeed, there is no pre-defined method for computing indefinite integrals). For some elementary functions, it is impossible to find an antiderivative in terms of other elementary functions. To learn more, see elementary functions and nonelementary integral.", "title": "Techniques of integration" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "There exist many properties and techniques for finding antiderivatives. These include, among others:", "title": "Techniques of integration" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "Computer algebra systems can be used to automate some or all of the work involved in the symbolic techniques above, which is particularly useful when the algebraic manipulations involved are very complex or lengthy. Integrals which have already been derived can be looked up in a table of integrals.", "title": "Techniques of integration" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "Non-continuous functions can have antiderivatives. While there are still open questions in this area, it is known that:", "title": "Of non-continuous functions" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "Assuming that the domains of the functions are open intervals:", "title": "Of non-continuous functions" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "with f ( 0 ) = 0 {\\displaystyle f(0)=0} is not continuous at x = 0 {\\displaystyle x=0} but has the antiderivative", "title": "Of non-continuous functions" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "with f ( 0 ) = 0 {\\displaystyle f(0)=0} is not continuous at x = 0 {\\displaystyle x=0} but has the antiderivative", "title": "Of non-continuous functions" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "has an antiderivative", "title": "Of non-continuous functions" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "It can be shown that", "title": "Of non-continuous functions" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "for all values x where the series converges, and that the graph of F(x) has vertical tangent lines at all other values of x. In particular the graph has vertical tangent lines at all points in the set { x n } n ≥ 1 {\\displaystyle \\{x_{n}\\}_{n\\geq 1}} .", "title": "Of non-continuous functions" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "Moreover F ( x ) ≥ 0 {\\displaystyle F(x)\\geq 0} for all x where the derivative is defined. It follows that the inverse function G = F − 1 {\\displaystyle G=F^{-1}} is differentiable everywhere and that", "title": "Of non-continuous functions" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "for all x in the set { F ( x n ) } n ≥ 1 {\\displaystyle \\{F(x_{n})\\}_{n\\geq 1}} which is dense in the interval [ F ( − 1 ) , F ( 1 ) ] . {\\displaystyle [F(-1),F(1)].} Thus g has an antiderivative G. On the other hand, it can not be true that", "title": "Of non-continuous functions" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "\"The ABC Song\" is the best-known song used to recite the English alphabet in alphabetical order. It is commonly used to teach the alphabet to children in English-speaking countries. \"The ABC Song\" was first copyrighted in 1835 by Boston music publisher Charles Bradlee. The melody is from a 1761 French music book and is also used in other nursery rhymes like \"Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star\". It is not known who first set the alphabet to this tune. Songs set to the same melody are also used to teach the alphabets of other languages.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The melody of \"The ABC Song\" was first published in the French book of music Les Amusements d’une Heure et Demy (transl. Amusements of an Hour and a Half) (1761) without lyrics. It was adapted in Mozart's Twelve Variations and used in many nursery rhymes around the world, including \"Ah! vous dirai-je, maman\", \"Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star\" and later \"Baa, Baa, Black Sheep\", before being used in this song. It is unknown who set the alphabet to this tune.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "\"The ABC Song\" was first copyrighted in 1835 by Boston music publisher Charles Bradlee under the title \"The A.B.C., a German air with variations for the flute with an easy accompaniment for the piano forte.\" The melody was attributed to 18th-century composer Louis Le Maire.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "\"The ABC Song\" is commonly used in preschools across English-speaking countries. Due to the speed at which 'L, M, N, O, P' is spoken it is a common misconception among children still learning the alphabet to believe that it is in fact its own letter called \"elemenopee\". Some have proposed teaching slower versions of the song to avoid this issue, but attempts to do so have been criticized for lacking the end rhymes and the 'L, M, N, O, P\" part being an essential part of the song. The television series Sesame Street has covered the song many times, collaborating with popular artists such as Stevie Wonder, Katy Perry, Nina Simone and Usher.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Lyrics: (each line represents two measures, or eight beats)", "title": "Composition and variations" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "Lyrics for the alternate Zed version: (each line represents two measures, or eight beats)", "title": "Composition and variations" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "In the dialects spoken in most English-speaking countries, including the United Kingdom, the letter name for Z is pronounced /zɛd/ (Zed); although in American English, the dialect in mind by the composer, the letter is more commonly pronounced /ziː/ (Zee). In dialects which use the Zed pronunciation, the absent Zee-rhyme is generally not missed, although whilst singing the song, some children may accommodate for Zee which they would otherwise not use on a regular basis. Variants of the song exist to accommodate the Zed pronunciation. One such variation is shown below:", "title": "Composition and variations" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "This version has no closing line and the tune is modified accordingly. There is no lengthening of the W in this version.", "title": "Composition and variations" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Several versions exist covering the alphabet backwards, i.e. Z to A. One version is shown below.", "title": "Composition and variations" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "The e-d-c-b part is as fast as the l-m-n-o part in the normal alphabet song.", "title": "Composition and variations" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "The same melody used for \"The ABC Song\" has also been used for the German, French, and Arabic alphabets. A French-language version of the song is also taught in Canada, with generally no alterations to the melody except in the final line that requires adjustment to accommodate the two-syllable pronunciation of the French y.", "title": "Composition and variations" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The Antigonid dynasty (/ænˈtɪɡoʊnɪd/; Greek: Ἀντιγονίδαι) was a Macedonian Greek royal house which ruled the kingdom of Macedon during the Hellenistic period. Founded by Antigonus I Monophthalmus, a general and successor of Alexander the Great, the dynasty first came to power after the Battle of Salamis in 306 BC and ruled much of Hellenistic Greece from 294 until their defeat at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC (Third Macedonian War), after which Macedon came under the control of the Roman Republic.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The wars of the Diadochi witnessed the fall of the Argead dynasty in Macedon resulting in a power vacuum, which the Antigonid and Antipatrid dynasties sought to occupy. The Antigonid family first rose to power when Demetrius I Poliorcetes, son of Antigonus I, ousted Cassander's governor of Athens in 306 BC giving his father control over a land spanning from the Aegean Sea to the Middle East. Despite the subsequent instability and loss of the Asian territory, the family managed to maintain its power in mainland Greece and the islands, with Antigonus II Gonatas ultimately solidifying Antigonid control over Hellenistic Macedon –a territory also known as the Antigonid Empire. Antigonus III Doson further expanded Macedonian rule in southern Greece reestablishing the Hellenic Alliance with himself as the president. Under Philip V, Antigonid Macedon first came into conflict with Rome, which became a decisive power in the eastern Mediterranean. In the second century BC, the last Antigonid king, Perseus, became known as the champion of Greek resistance against Rome, albeit Rome's control over Antigonid Greece had begun to steadily expand, culminating in the fall of the dynasty in 168.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The beginning of Hellenistic Greece was defined by the struggle between the Antipatrid dynasty, led first by Cassander (r. 305 – 297 BC), son of Antipater, and the Antigonid dynasty, led by Antigonus I Monophthalmus (r. 306 – 301 BC) and his son, the future king Demetrius I Poliorcetes (r. 294 – 288 BC). After the power crisis in Macedon, which culminated in Philip III's and Euridice's death, Cassander managed to seize control from Olympias and began to establish his authority in the kingdom; in 316 BC he buried Philip III and Euridice at Aegae and married Philip II's daughter, Thessalonica, thus becoming a member of the Argead dynasty. In 310/309 BC, Cassander commanded Glaucias to secretly assassinate the 14-year-old Alexander IV, son of Alexander the Great, and his mother Roxane and the Macedonian Argead dynasty became extinct.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "In 306 BC, after defeating Ptolemy at the naval Battle of Salamis, Demetrius I conquered Cyprus and ousted Cassander's governor of Athens, Demerius Phaleron. Following that victory, Demetrius' father, Antigonus I, assumed the title of Basileus (\"King\" of Alexander's Empire) by the assembled armies and gained control over the Aegean, the eastern Mediterranean, and most of the Middle East. While Antigonus and Demetrius attempted to recreate Philip II's Hellenic league with themselves as dual hegemons, a revived coalition of Cassander, Ptolemy I Soter, Seleucus I Nicator, and Lysimachus decisively defeated the Antigonids at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC, during which Antigonus I was killed. Antigonus' son Demetrius I survived the battle and in 294 BC –during the struggles between Casander's sons Alexander V and Antipater I– he managed to seize control of Athens and establish himself as the king of Macedon. In 288 BC he was driven out by Phyrrus and Lysimachus and eventually died as a prisoner of Seleucus I Nicator. After a period of confusion, Demetrius's son Antigonus II Gonatas was able to establish the family's control over the old Kingdom of Macedon, as well as over most of the Greek city-states, by 276 BC.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The Antigonid was one of four dynasties established by Alexander's successors, the others being the Seleucid dynasty, Ptolemaic dynasty and Antipatrid dynasty. The last scion of the dynasty, Perseus of Macedon, who reigned between 179 and 168 BC, proved unable to stop the advancing Roman legions and Macedon's defeat at the Battle of Pydna signaled the end of the dynasty.", "title": "Legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The ruling members of the Antigonid dynasty were:", "title": "Dynasty" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "The Greek rebel against Rome and last King of Macedonia, Andriscus, claimed to be the son of Perseus.", "title": "Dynasty" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Abingdon may refer to:", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Abjuration is the solemn repudiation, abandonment, or renunciation by or upon oath, often the renunciation of citizenship or some other right or privilege. The term comes from the Latin abjurare, \"to forswear\".", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Abjuration of the realm was a type of abjuration in ancient English law. The person taking the oath swore to leave the country directly and promptly, never to return to the kingdom unless by permission of the sovereign. This was often taken by fugitives who had taken sanctuary:", "title": "Abjuration of the realm" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "I swear on the Holy Book that I will leave the realm of England and never return without the express permission of my Lord the King or his heirs. I will hasten by the direct road to the port allotted to me and not leave the King's highway under pain of arrest or execution. I will not stay at one place more than one night and will seek diligently for a passage across the sea as soon as I arrive, delaying only one tide if possible. If I cannot secure such passage, I will walk into the sea up to my knees every day as a token of my desire to cross. And if I fail in all this, then peril shall be my lot.", "title": "Abjuration of the realm" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Near the start of the English Civil War, on 18 August 1643 Parliament passed \"An Ordinance for Explanation of a former Ordinance for Sequestration of Delinquents Estates with some Enlargements.\" The enlargements included an oath which became known as the \"Oath of Abjuration\":", "title": "English Commonwealth" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "I ..; Do abjure and renounce the Pope's Supremacy and Authority over the Catholic Church in General, and over my self in Particular; And I do believe that there is not any Transubstantiation in the Sacrament of the Lords Supper, or in the Elements of Bread and Wine after Consecration thereof, by any Person whatsoever; And I do also believe, that there is not any Purgatory, Or that the consecrated Host, Crucifixes, or Images, ought to be worshipped, or that any worship is due unto any of them; And I also believe that Salvation cannot be Merited by Works, and all Doctrines in affirmation of the said Points; I do abjure and renounce, without any Equivocation, Mental Reservation, or secret Evasion whatsoever, taking the words by me spoken, according to the common and usual meaning of them. So help me God.", "title": "English Commonwealth" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "In 1656–7, it was reissued in what was for Catholics an even more objectionable form. Everyone was to be \"adjudged a Papist\" who refused this oath, and the consequent penalties began with the confiscation of two-thirds of the recusant's goods, and went on to deprive him of almost every civic right.", "title": "English Commonwealth" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "The Catholic Encyclopaedia makes the point that the oath and the penalties were so severe that it stopped the efforts of the Gallicanizing party among the English Catholics, who had been ready to offer forms of submission similar to the old oath of Allegiance, which was condemned anew about this time by Pope Innocent X.", "title": "English Commonwealth" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "During The Killing Time of the 1680s an Abjuration Oath could be put to suspects where they were given the option to abjure or renounce their allegiances. The terms of the oath were deliberately designed to offend the consciences of the Presbyterian Covenanters. Those who would not swear \"whether they have arms, or not\" could be \"immediately killed\" by field trial \"before two witnesses\" on a charge of high treason. John Brown was included among those executed in this judicial process by John Graham (Bluidy Clavers) on 1 May 1685. The wives and children of such men could also be put out of their houses if they had spoken to the suspect or refused the oath themselves.", "title": "Scotland" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "In England (and after 1707 Great Britain) the Oath of Abjuration denied the royal title of James II's heirs (i.e. the direct Catholic descendant of the House of Stuart exiled after the Glorious Revolution in 1688). In England, an Oath of Abjuration was taken by Members of Parliament, clergy, and laymen, pledging to support the current British monarch and repudiated the right of the Stuarts and other claimants to the throne. This oath was imposed under William III, George I and George III. It was superseded by the oath of allegiance. In Ireland, the oath was imposed of state officeholders, teachers, lawyers, and on the clergy of the established church in from 1703, the following year it was on all Irish voters and from 1709 it could be demanded of any adult male by a magistrate.", "title": "Great Britain and Ireland" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "The Bilino Polje abjuration, also known as \"Confessio Christianorum bosniensis\", was an act of alleged heresy abjuration by clergy of the Bosnian Church in presence of the Bosnian ruler, Ban Kulin, and Giovanni da Casamari. It affirmed the primacy of the pope and related to errors of practice, stemming from ignorance, rather than heretical doctrines. It was signed by seven Bosnian priors, on 8 April 1203 at Bilino Polje field, near today town of Zenica, in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The same document was brought to Buda, in 30 April by Giovanni da Casamari, Ban Kulin and two abbots, where it was examined by Emeric, King of Hungary, and the high clergy.", "title": "Bilino Polje abjuration" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Another famous abjuration was brought about by the Plakkaat van Verlatinghe of July 26, 1581, the formal declaration of independence of the Low Countries from the Spanish king, Philip II. This oath was the climax of the Eighty Years' War (Dutch Revolt).", "title": "The Netherlands" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Abitibi may refer to:", "title": "" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman: with Strictures on Political and Moral Subjects (1792), written by British philosopher and women's rights advocate Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797), is one of the earliest works of feminist philosophy. In it, Wollstonecraft responds to those educational and political theorists of the eighteenth century who did not believe women should receive a rational education. She argues that women ought to have an education commensurate with their position in society, claiming that women are essential to the nation because they educate its children and because they could be \"companions\" to their husbands, rather than mere wives. Instead of viewing women as ornaments to society or property to be traded in marriage, Wollstonecraft maintains that they are human beings deserving of the same fundamental rights as men.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Wollstonecraft was prompted to write the Rights of Woman after reading Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord's 1791 report to the French National Assembly, which stated that women should only receive domestic education. From her reaction to this specific event, she launched a broad attack against double standards, indicting men for encouraging women to indulge in excessive emotion. Wollstonecraft hurried to complete the work in direct response to ongoing events; she intended to write a more thoughtful second volume but died before completing it.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "While Wollstonecraft does call for equality between the sexes in particular areas of life, especially morality, she does not explicitly state that men and women are equal. Her ambiguous statements regarding the equality of the sexes have made it difficult to classify Wollstonecraft as a modern feminist; the word itself did not emerge until decades after her death.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Although it is commonly assumed that the Rights of Woman was unfavourably received, this is a modern misconception based on the belief that Wollstonecraft was as reviled during her lifetime as she became after the publication of William Godwin's Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1798). The Rights of Woman was generally received well when it was first published in 1792. Biographer Emily W. Sunstein called it \"perhaps the most original book of [Wollstonecraft's] century\". Wollstonecraft's work had significant impact on advocates for women's rights in the nineteenth century, particularly the 1848 Seneca Falls Convention which produced the Declaration of Sentiments laying out the aims of the women's suffrage movement in the United States.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman was written against the tumultuous background of the French Revolution and the debates that it spawned in Britain. In a lively and sometimes vicious pamphlet war, now referred to as the Revolution controversy, British political commentators addressed topics ranging from representative government to human rights to the separation of church and state, many of these issues having been raised in France first. Wollstonecraft first entered this fray in 1790 with A Vindication of the Rights of Men, a response to Edmund Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790). In his Reflections, Burke criticized the view of many British thinkers and writers who had welcomed the early stages of the French revolution. While they saw the revolution as analogous to Britain's own Glorious Revolution in 1688, which had restricted the powers of the monarchy, Burke argued that the appropriate historical analogy was the English Civil War (1642–1651) in which Charles I had been executed in 1649. He viewed the French revolution as the violent overthrow of a legitimate government. In Reflections he argues that citizens do not have the right to revolt against their government because civilization is the result of social and political consensus; its traditions cannot be continually challenged – the result would be anarchy. One of the key arguments of Wollstonecraft's Rights of Men, published just six weeks after Burke's Reflections, is that rights cannot be based on tradition; rights, she argues, should be conferred because they are reasonable and just, regardless of their basis in tradition.", "title": "Historical context" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "When Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord presented his Rapport sur l'instruction publique (1791) to the National Assembly in France, Wollstonecraft was galvanized to respond. In his recommendations for a national system of education, Talleyrand had written:", "title": "Historical context" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Let us bring up women, not to aspire to advantages which the Constitution denies them, but to know and appreciate those which it guarantees them ... Men are destined to live on the stage of the world. A public education suits them: it early places before their eyes all the scenes of life: only the proportions are different. The paternal home is better for the education of women; they have less need to learn to deal with the interests of others, than to accustom themselves to a calm and secluded life.", "title": "Historical context" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Wollstonecraft dedicated the Rights of Woman to Talleyrand: \"Having read with great pleasure a pamphlet which you have lately published, I dedicate this volume to you; to induce you to reconsider the subject, and maturely weigh what I have advanced respecting the rights of woman and national education.\" At the end of 1791, French feminist Olympe de Gouges had published her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen, and the question of women's rights became central to political debates in both France and Britain.", "title": "Historical context" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "The Rights of Woman is an extension of Wollstonecraft's arguments in the Rights of Men. In the Rights of Men, as the title suggests, she is concerned with the rights of particular men (eighteenth-century British men) while in the Rights of Woman, she is concerned with the rights afforded to \"woman\", an abstract category. She does not isolate her argument to eighteenth-century women or British women. The first chapter of the Rights of Woman addresses the issue of natural rights and asks who has those inalienable rights and on what grounds. She answers that since natural rights are given by God, for one segment of society to deny them to another segment is a sin. The Rights of Woman thus engages not only specific events in France and in Britain but also larger questions being raised by political philosophers such as John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.", "title": "Historical context" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "The Rights of Woman is a long (almost 87,000 words) essay that introduces all of its major topics in the opening chapters and then repeatedly returns to them, each time from a different point of view. It also adopts a hybrid tone that combines rational argument with the fervent rhetoric of sensibility. Wollstonecraft did not employ the formal argumentation or logical prose style common to eighteenth-century philosophical writing.", "title": "Themes" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Hysteria was once seen as a physical phenomenon – physicians and anatomists believed that the more \"sensitive\" people's \"nerves\", the more emotionally affected they would be by their surroundings. Since women were thought to have keener nerves than men, it was believed that women were more emotional than men. The emotional excess associated with sensibility also theoretically produced an ethic of compassion: those with sensibility could easily sympathise with people in pain. Thus historians have credited the discourse of sensibility and those who promoted it with the increased humanitarian efforts, such as the movement to abolish the slave trade. But sensibility also paralysed those who had too much of it; as scholar G. J. Barker-Benfield explains, \"an innate refinement of nerves was also identifiable with greater suffering, with weakness, and a susceptibility to disorder\".", "title": "Themes" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "By the time Wollstonecraft was writing the Rights of Woman, sensibility had already been under sustained attack for a number of years. Sensibility, which had initially promised to draw individuals together through sympathy, was now viewed as \"profoundly separatist\"; novels, plays, and poems that employed the language of sensibility asserted individual rights, sexual freedom, and unconventional familial relationships based only upon feeling. Furthermore, as Janet Todd, another scholar of sensibility, argues, \"to many in Britain the cult of sensibility seemed to have feminized the nation, given women undue prominence, and emasculated men\".", "title": "Themes" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "One of Wollstonecraft's central arguments in the Rights of Woman is that women should be educated in a rational manner to give them the opportunity to contribute to society. In the eighteenth century, it was often assumed by educational philosophers and conduct book writers, who wrote what one might think of as early self-help books, that women were incapable of rational or abstract thought. Women, it was believed, were too susceptible to sensibility and too fragile to be able to think clearly. Wollstonecraft, along with other female reformers such as Catharine Macaulay and Hester Chapone, maintained that women were indeed capable of rational thought and deserved to be educated. She argued this point in her own conduct book, Thoughts on the Education of Daughters (1787), in her children's book, Original Stories from Real Life (1788), as well as in the Rights of Woman.", "title": "Themes" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "Stating in her preface that \"my main argument is built on this simple principle, that if [woman] be not prepared by education to become the companion of man, she will stop the progress of knowledge and virtue; for truth must be common to all\", Wollstonecraft contends that society will degenerate without educated women, particularly because mothers are the primary educators of young children. She attributes the problem of uneducated women to men and \"a false system of education, gathered from the books written on this subject by men who [consider] females rather as women than human creatures\". Women are capable of rationality; it only appears that they are not, because men have refused to educate them and encouraged them to be frivolous (Wollstonecraft describes silly women as \"spaniels\" and \"toys\").", "title": "Themes" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "Wollstonecraft attacks conduct book writers such as James Fordyce and John Gregory as well as educational philosophers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau who argue that a woman does not need a rational education. (Rousseau argues in Emile [1762] that women should be educated for the pleasure of men; Wollstonecraft, infuriated by this argument, attacks not only it but also Rousseau himself.) Intent on illustrating the limitations that contemporary educational theory placed upon women, Wollstonecraft writes, \"taught from their infancy that beauty is woman's sceptre, the mind shapes itself to the body, and, roaming round its gilt cage, only seeks to adorn its prison\", implying that without this damaging ideology, which encourages young women to focus their attention on beauty and outward accomplishments, they could achieve much more. Wives could be the rational \"companions\" of their husbands and even pursue careers should they so choose: \"women might certainly study the art of healing, and be physicians as well as nurses. And midwifery, decency seems to allot to them ... they might, also, study politics ... Business of various kinds, they might likewise pursue.\"", "title": "Themes" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "For Wollstonecraft, \"the most perfect education\" is \"an exercise of the understanding as is best calculated to strengthen the body and form the heart. Or, in other words, to enable the individual to attach such habits of virtue as will render it independent.\" In addition to her broad philosophical arguments, Wollstonecraft lays out a specific plan for national education to counter Talleyrand's. In Chapter 12, \"On National Education\", she proposes that children be sent to free day schools as well as given some education at home \"to inspire a love of home and domestic pleasures\". She also maintains that schooling should be co-educational, contending that men and women, whose marriages are \"the cement of society\", should be \"educated after the same model\".", "title": "Themes" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "It is debatable to what extent the Rights of Woman is a feminist text; because the definitions of feminist vary, different scholars have come to different conclusions. The words feminist and feminism were not coined until the 1890s, and there was no feminist movement to speak of during Wollstonecraft's lifetime. Rights of Woman is often considered the source or original, \"the ur-document of modern liberal feminism\". In the introduction to her work on Wollstonecraft's thought, Barbara Taylor writes:", "title": "Themes" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "Describing [Wollstonecraft's philosophy] as feminist is problematic, and I do it only after much consideration. The label is of course anachronistic ... Treating Wollstonecraft's thought as an anticipation of nineteenth and twentieth-century feminist argument has meant sacrificing or distorting some of its key elements. Leading examples of this ... have been the widespread neglect of her religious beliefs, and the misrepresentation of her as a bourgeois liberal, which together have resulted in the displacement of a religiously inspired utopian radicalism by a secular, class-partisan reformism as alien to Wollstonecraft's political project as her dream of a divinely promised age of universal happiness is to our own. Even more important however has been the imposition on Wollstonecraft of a heroic-individualist brand of politics utterly at odds with her own ethically driven case for women's emancipation. Wollstonecraft's leading ambition for women was that they should attain virtue, and it was to this end that she sought their liberation.", "title": "Themes" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "In the Rights of Woman, Wollstonecraft does not make the claim for gender equality using the same arguments or the same language that late nineteenth- and twentieth-century feminists later would. For instance, rather than unequivocally stating that men and women are equal, Wollstonecraft contends that men and women are equal in the eyes of God, which means that they are both subject to the same moral law. For Wollstonecraft, men and women are equal in the most important areas of life. While such an idea may not seem revolutionary to twenty-first-century readers, its implications were revolutionary during the eighteenth century. For example, it implied that both men and women – not just women – should be modest and respect the sanctity of marriage. Wollstonecraft's argument exposed the sexual double standard of the late eighteenth century and demanded that men adhere to the same virtues demanded of women.", "title": "Themes" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "However, Wollstonecraft's arguments for equality stand in contrast to her statements respecting the superiority of masculine strength and valour. Wollstonecraft states:", "title": "Themes" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "Let it not be concluded, that I wish to invert the order of things; I have already granted, that, from the constitution of their bodies, men seem to be designed by Providence to attain a greater degree of virtue. I speak collectively of the whole sex; but I see not the shadow of a reason to conclude that their virtues should differ in respect to their nature. In fact, how can they, if virtue has only one eternal standard? I must therefore, if I reason consequentially, as strenuously maintain that they have the same simple direction, as that there is a God.", "title": "Themes" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "Wollstonecraft calls on men, rather than women, to initiate the social and political changes she outlines in the Rights of Woman. Because women are uneducated, they cannot alter their own situation – men must come to their aid. Wollstonecraft writes at the end of her chapter \"Of the Pernicious Effects Which Arise from the Unnatural Distinctions Established in Society\":", "title": "Themes" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "I then would fain convince reasonable men of the importance of some of my remarks; and prevail on them to weigh dispassionately the whole tenor of my observations ... I appeal to their understandings; and, as a fellow-creature, claim, in the name of my sex, some interest in their hearts. I entreat them to assist to emancipate their companion, to make her a help meet for them! Would men but generously snap our chains, and be content with rational fellowship instead of slavish obedience, they would find us more observant daughters, more affectionate sisters, more faithful wives, more reasonable mothers – in a word, better citizens.", "title": "Themes" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "Wollstonecraft's last novel, Maria: or, The Wrongs of Woman (1798), the fictionalized sequel to the Rights of Woman, is usually considered her most radical feminist work.", "title": "Themes" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "One of Wollstonecraft's most scathing criticisms in the Rights of Woman is against false and excessive sensibility, particularly in women. She argues that women who succumb to sensibility are \"blown about by every momentary gust of feeling\"; because these women are \"the prey of their senses\", they cannot think rationally. Not only do they do harm to themselves but they also do harm to all of civilization: these are not women who can refine civilization – these are women who will destroy it. But reason and feeling are not independent for Wollstonecraft; rather, she believes that they should inform each other. For Wollstonecraft the passions underpin all reason. This was a theme that she would return to throughout her career, but particularly in her novels Mary: A Fiction (1788) and Maria: or, The Wrongs of Woman. For the eighteenth-century Scottish philosopher David Hume, reason is dominated by the passions. He held that passions rather than reason govern human behaviour, famously proclaiming in A Treatise of Human Nature that \"Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions\".", "title": "Themes" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "As part of her argument that women should not be overly influenced by their feelings and emotions, Wollstonecraft emphasises that they should not be constrained by or made slaves to their bodies or their sexual feelings. This particular argument has led many modern feminists to suggest that Wollstonecraft intentionally avoids granting women any sexual desire. Cora Kaplan argues that the \"negative and prescriptive assault on female sexuality\" is a leitmotif of the Rights of Woman. For example, Wollstonecraft advises her readers to \"calmly let passion subside into friendship\" in the ideal companionate marriage (that is, in the ideal of a love-based marriage that was developing at the time). It would be better, she writes, when \"two virtuous young people marry . . . if some circumstances checked their passion\". According to Wollstonecraft, \"love and friendship cannot subsist in the same bosom\". As Mary Poovey explains, \"Wollstonecraft betrays her fear that female desire might in fact court man's lascivious and degrading attentions, that the subordinate position women have been given might even be deserved. Until women can transcend their fleshly desires and fleshly forms, they will be hostage to the body.\" If women are not interested in sexuality, they cannot be dominated by men. Wollstonecraft worries that women are consumed with \"romantic wavering\", that is, they are interested only in satisfying their lusts. Because the Rights of Woman eliminates sexuality from a woman's life, Kaplan contends, it \"expresses a violent antagonism to the sexual\" while at the same time \"exaggerat[ing] the importance of the sensual in the everyday life of women\". Wollstonecraft was so determined to wipe sexuality from her picture of the ideal woman that she ended up foregrounding it by insisting upon its absence. But as Kaplan and others have remarked, Wollstonecraft may have been forced to make this sacrifice: \"it is important to remember that the notion of woman as politically enabled and independent [was] fatally linked [during the eighteenth century] to the unrestrained and vicious exercise of her sexuality.\"", "title": "Themes" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "Claudia Johnson, a prominent Wollstonecraft scholar, has called the Rights of Woman \"a republican manifesto\". Johnson contends that Wollstonecraft is hearkening back to the Commonwealth tradition of the seventeenth century and attempting to reestablish a republican ethos. In Wollstonecraft's version, there would be strong, but separate, masculine and feminine roles for citizens. According to Johnson, Wollstonecraft \"denounces the collapse of proper sexual distinction as the leading feature of her age, and as the grievous consequence of sentimentality itself. The problem undermining society in her view is feminized men\". If men feel free to adopt both the masculine position and the sentimental feminine position, she argues, women have no position open to them in society. Johnson therefore sees Wollstonecraft as a critic, in both the Rights of Men and the Rights of Woman, of the \"masculinization of sensitivity\" in such works as Edmund Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France.", "title": "Themes" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "In the Rights of Woman Wollstonecraft adheres to a version of republicanism that includes a belief in the eventual overthrow of all titles, including the monarchy. She also suggests that all men and women should be represented in government. But the bulk of her \"political criticism\", as Chris Jones, a Wollstonecraft scholar, explains, \"is couched predominantly in terms of morality\". Her definition of virtue focuses on the individual's happiness rather than, for example, the good of society. This is reflected in her explanation of natural rights. Because rights ultimately proceed from God, Wollstonecraft maintains that there are duties, tied to those rights, incumbent upon each and every person. For Wollstonecraft, the individual is taught republicanism and benevolence within the family; domestic relations and familial ties are crucial to her understanding of social cohesion and patriotism.", "title": "Themes" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "In many ways the Rights of Woman is inflected by a bourgeois view of the world, as is its direct predecessor the Rights of Men. Wollstonecraft addresses her text to the middle class, which she calls the \"most natural state\". She also frequently praises modesty and industry, virtues which, at the time, were associated with the middle class. From her position as a middle-class writer arguing for a middle-class ethos, Wollstonecraft also attacks the wealthy, criticizing them using the same arguments she employs against women. She points out the \"false-refinement, immorality, and vanity\" of the rich, calling them \"weak, artificial beings, raised above the common wants and affections of their race, in a premature unnatural manner [who] undermine the very foundation of virtue, and spread corruption through the whole mass of society\".", "title": "Themes" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "But Wollstonecraft's criticisms of the wealthy do not necessarily reflect a concomitant sympathy for the poor. For her, the poor are fortunate because they will never be trapped by the snares of wealth: \"Happy is it when people have the cares of life to struggle with; for these struggles prevent their becoming a prey to enervating vices, merely from idleness!\" She contends that charity has only negative consequences because, as Jones puts it, she \"sees it as sustaining an unequal society while giving the appearance of virtue to the rich\".", "title": "Themes" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "In her national plan for education, she retains class distinctions (with an exception for the intelligent), suggesting that: \"After the age of nine, girls and boys, intended for domestic employments, or mechanical trades, ought to be removed to other schools, and receive instruction, in some measure appropriated to the destination of each individual ... The young people of superior abilities, or fortune, might now be taught, in another school, the dead and living languages, the elements of science, and continue the study of history and politics, on a more extensive scale, which would not exclude polite literature.\"", "title": "Themes" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "In attempting to navigate the cultural expectations of female writers and the generic conventions of political and philosophical discourse, Wollstonecraft, as she does throughout her oeuvre, constructs a unique blend of masculine and feminine styles in the Rights of Woman. She uses the language of philosophy, referring to her work as a \"treatise\" with \"arguments\" and \"principles\". However, Wollstonecraft also uses a personal tone, employing \"I\" and \"you\", dashes and exclamation marks, and autobiographical references to create a distinctly feminine voice in the text. The Rights of Woman further hybridizes its genre by weaving together elements of the conduct book, the short essay, and the novel, genres often associated with women, while at the same time claiming that these genres could be used to discuss philosophical topics such as rights.", "title": "Rhetoric and style" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "Although Wollstonecraft argues against excessive sensibility, the rhetoric of the Rights of Woman is at times heated and attempts to provoke the reader. Many of the most emotional comments in the book are directed at Rousseau. For example, after excerpting a long passage from Emile (1762), Wollstonecraft pithily states, \"I shall make no other comments on this ingenious passage, than just to observe, that it is the philosophy of lasciviousness.\" A mere page later, after indicting Rousseau's plan for female education, she writes \"I must relieve myself by drawing another picture.\" These terse exclamations are meant to draw the reader to her side of the argument (it is assumed that the reader will agree with them). While she claims to write in a plain style so that her ideas will reach the broadest possible audience, she actually combines the plain, rational language of the political treatise with the poetic, passionate language of sensibility to demonstrate that one can combine rationality and sensibility in the same self.", "title": "Rhetoric and style" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "In her efforts to vividly describe the condition of women within society, Wollstonecraft employs several different analogies. She often compares women to slaves, arguing that their ignorance and powerlessness places them in that position. But at the same time, she also compares them to \"capricious tyrants\" who use cunning and deceit to manipulate the men around them. At one point, she reasons that a woman can become either a slave or tyrant, which she describes as two sides of the same coin. Wollstonecraft also compares women to soldiers; like military men, they are valued only for their appearance and obedience. And like the rich, women's \"softness\" has \"debased mankind\".", "title": "Rhetoric and style" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "Wollstonecraft was forced to write the Rights of Woman hurriedly to respond to Talleyrand and ongoing events. Upon completing the work, she wrote to her friend William Roscoe: \"I am dissatisfied with myself for not having done justice to the subject ... Do not suspect me of false modesty – I mean to say that had I allowed myself more time I could have written a better book, in every sense of the word ... I intend to finish the next volume before I begin to print, for it is not pleasant to have the Devil coming for the conclusion of a sheet fore it is written.\" When Wollstonecraft revised the Rights of Woman for the second edition, she took the opportunity not only to fix small spelling and grammar mistakes but also to bolster the feminist claims of her argument. She changed some of her statements regarding female and male difference to reflect a greater equality between the sexes.", "title": "Revision" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "Wollstonecraft never wrote the second part to the Rights of Woman, although William Godwin published her \"Hints\", which were \"chiefly designed to have been incorporated in the second part of the Vindication of the Rights of Woman\", in the posthumous collection of her works. However, she did begin writing the novel Maria: or, The Wrongs of Woman, which most scholars consider a fictionalized sequel to the Rights of Woman. It was unfinished at her death and also included in the Posthumous Works published by Godwin.", "title": "Revision" }, { "paragraph_id": 36, "text": "When it was first published in 1792, the Rights of Woman was reviewed favourably by the Analytical Review, the General Magazine, the Literary Magazine, New York Magazine, and the Monthly Review, although the assumption persists that Rights of Woman received hostile reviews. It was almost immediately released in a second edition in 1792, several American editions appeared, and it was translated into French. Taylor writes that \"it was an immediate success\". Moreover, other writers such as Mary Hays and Mary Robinson specifically alluded to Wollstonecraft's text in their own works. Hays cited the Rights of Woman in her novel Memoirs of Emma Courtney (1796) and modelled her female characters after Wollstonecraft's ideal woman.", "title": "Reception and legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 37, "text": "Although female conservatives such as Hannah More excoriated Wollstonecraft personally, they actually shared many of the same values. As the scholar Anne Mellor has shown, both More and Wollstonecraft wanted a society founded on \"Christian virtues of rational benevolence, honesty, personal virtue, the fulfillment of social duty, thrift, sobriety, and hard work\". During the early 1790s, many writers within British society were engaged in an intense debate regarding the position of women in society. For example, the respected poet and essayist Anna Laetitia Barbauld and Wollstonecraft sparred back and forth; Barbauld published several poems responding to Wollstonecraft's work and Wollstonecraft commented on them in footnotes to the Rights of Woman. The work also provoked outright hostility. The bluestocking Elizabeth Carter was unimpressed with the work. Thomas Taylor, the Neoplatonist translator who had been a landlord to the Wollstonecraft family in the late 1770s, swiftly wrote a satire called A Vindication of the Rights of Brutes: if women have rights, why not animals too?", "title": "Reception and legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 38, "text": "After Wollstonecraft died in 1797, her husband William Godwin published his Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1798). He revealed much about her private life that had previously not been known to the public: her illegitimate child, her love affairs, and her attempts at suicide. While Godwin believed he was portraying his wife with love, sincerity, and compassion, contemporary readers were shocked by Wollstonecraft's unorthodox lifestyle and she became a reviled figure. Richard Polwhele targeted her in particular in his anonymous long poem The Unsex'd Females (1798), a defensive reaction to women's literary self-assertion: Hannah More is Christ to Wollstonecraft's Satan. His poem was \"well known\" among the responses to A Vindication.", "title": "Reception and legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 39, "text": "Wollstonecraft's ideas became associated with her life story and women writers felt that it was dangerous to mention her in their texts. Hays, who had previously been a close friend and an outspoken advocate for Wollstonecraft and her Rights of Woman, for example, did not include her in the collection of Illustrious and Celebrated Women she published in 1803. Maria Edgeworth specifically distances herself from Wollstonecraft in her novel Belinda (1802); she caricatures Wollstonecraft as a radical feminist in the character of Harriet Freke. But, like Jane Austen, she does not reject Wollstonecraft's ideas. Both Edgeworth and Austen argue that women are crucial to the development of the nation; moreover, they portray women as rational beings who should choose companionate marriage.", "title": "Reception and legacy" }, { "paragraph_id": 40, "text": "The negative views towards Wollstonecraft persisted for over a century. The Rights of Woman was not reprinted until the middle of the nineteenth century and it still retained an aura of ill-repute. George Eliot wrote \"there is in some quarters a vague prejudice against the Rights of Woman as in some way or other a reprehensible book, but readers who go to it with this impression will be surprised to find it eminently serious, severely moral, and withal rather heavy\". The suffragist (i.e. moderate reformer, as opposed to suffragette) Millicent Garrett Fawcett wrote the introduction to the centenary edition of the Rights of Woman, cleansing the memory of Wollstonecraft and claiming her as the foremother of the struggle for the vote. While the Rights of Woman may have paved the way for feminist arguments, twentieth-century feminists have tended to use Wollstonecraft's life story, rather than her texts, for inspiration; her unorthodox lifestyle convinced them to try new \"experiments in living\", as Virginia Woolf termed it in her famous essay on Wollstonecraft. However, there is some evidence that the Rights of Woman may be influencing current feminists. Ayaan Hirsi Ali, a feminist who is critical of Islam's dictates regarding women, cites the Rights of Woman in her autobiography Infidel, writing that she was \"inspired by Mary Wollstonecraft, the pioneering feminist thinker who told women they had the same ability to reason as men did and deserved the same rights\". Miriam Schneir also includes this text in her anthology Feminism: The Essential Historical Writings, labelling it as one of the essential feminist works. Further evidence of the enduring legacy of Wollstonecraft's A Vindication may be seen by direct references in recent historical fiction set: for example, in The Silk Weaver (1998) set in the late eighteenth century among Dublin silk weavers, author Gabrielle Warnock (1998) intervenes as narrator to hold up ‘Rights of Woman’ for the reader to reflect upon the politics, morals, and feelings of her female characters. In Death Comes to Pemberley (2011), set in 1803, P. D. James has one male character reference Rights of Woman in reproving another (Darcy) for denying voice to the woman in matters that concern her.", "title": "Reception and legacy" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The Afghan Hound is a hound distinguished by its thick, fine, silky coat, and a tail with a ring curl at the end. The breed is selectively bred for its unique features in the cold mountains of Afghanistan. Its local name is Tāžī Spay (Pashto: تاژي سپی) or Sag-e Tāzī (Dari: سگ تازی). Other names for this breed are Tāzī, Balkh Hound, Baluchi Hound, and Barakzai Hound.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The American Kennel Club (AKC) describes the breed as among the most eye-catching of all. The Afghan Hound is an \"aloof and dignified aristocrat of sublime beauty.\" Despite their regal appearance, the Afghan possesses an \"endearing streak of silliness and a profound loyalty.\"", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Admired since ancient times for their beauty, the Afghan Hound's distinctive coat has purpose for the breed. Its shag was developed as protection from the harsh montane climate. Their huge paw-pads served as shock absorbers on the rocky terrain.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "The Afghan Hound has been identified as a basal breed that predates the emergence of the modern breeds in the 19th century. It is most closely related to the Saluki.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Connections with other types and breeds from the same area may provide clues to the history. A name for a desert coursing Afghan Hound, Tazi (Sag-e-Tazi), suggests a shared ancestry with the very similar Tazy breed from the Caspian Sea area of Russia and Turkmenistan. Other types or breeds of similar appearance are the Taigan from the mountainous Tian Shan region on the Chinese border of Afghanistan, and the Barakzay, or Kurram Valley Hound.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "There are at least 13 types known in Afghanistan, and some are being developed (through breeding and record keeping) into modern purebred breeds.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Once out of Afghanistan, the history of the Afghan Hound breed became entwined with that of the very earliest dog shows and the Kennel Club (UK). Various sighthounds were brought to England in the 1800s by army officers returning from British India and were exhibited at dog shows, which were then just becoming popular, under various names, such as Barukzy hounds. They were also called \"Persian Greyhounds\" by the English, in reference to their own indigenous sighthound.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "One dog in particular, Zardin, was brought in 1907 from India by Captain John Barff. Zardin became the early ideal for the breed type still referred to as the Persian Greyhound. Zardin was the basis of the writing for the first breed standard in 1912, but this breeding cycle was stopped by World War I.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Out of the longhaired sighthound types known in Afghanistan, two main strains make up the modern Afghan Hound breed. The first were a group of hounds brought to Scotland from Balochistan by Major and Mrs. G. Bell-Murray and Miss Jean C. Manson in 1920, and they are known as the Bell-Murray strain. These dogs were of the “steppe” or “desert” type and were less heavily coated.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "The second strain was a group of dogs from a kennel in Kabul owned by Mrs. Mary Amps, which she shipped to England in 1925. She and her husband came to Kabul after the Afghan war in 1919, and the foundation sire of her kennel (named Ghazni) in Kabul was a dog that closely resembled Zardin. Her Ghazni strain were the more heavily coated mountain type. Most of the Afghans in the United States were developed from the Ghazni strain from England. The first Afghans in Australia were imported from the United States in 1934, also of the Ghazni strain. The mountain and steppe strains became mixed into the modern Afghan Hound breed, and a new standard was written in 1948, which is still used today.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "The Afghan Hound can also come with a much more \"patterned\" coat. This descends from the Bell-Murray's and the Ghazni lines, and is displayed in much lighter feathering of coat, deeper saddle (often actually looking like a saddle) and much shorter hair on the face and neck. It is believed that these particular Afghan Hounds were a product of much hotter parts of the country.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "The beauty of Afghan Hound dogs caused them to become highly desirable show dogs and pets, and they are recognised by all of the major kennel clubs in the English-speaking world. One of the Amps Ghazni, Sirdar, won BIS at Crufts in 1928 and 1930. An Afghan Hound was featured on the cover of Life Magazine, November 26, 1945. Afghan Hounds were the most popular in Australia in the 1970s, and won most of the major shows. An Afghan Hound won Best in Show (BIS) at the 1996 World Dog Show in Budapest. Afghan Hounds were BIS at the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show in 1957 and again in 1983. That win also marked the most recent win at Westminster for breeder-owner-handler, Chris Terrell.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "The Afghan Hound breed is no longer used for hunting, although it can be seen in the sport of lure coursing.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "On August 3, 2005, Korean scientist Hwang Woo-Suk announced that his team of researchers had become the first team to successfully clone a dog, an Afghan Hound named Snuppy. In 2006 Hwang Woo-Suk was dismissed from his university position for fabricating data in his research. Snuppy, nonetheless, was a genuine clone, and thus the first cloned dog in history.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "The dogs in this breed occur in many different coat colors. A study that mapped the genes of Afghan Hounds and discussed the effect of genes on coat colour in the breed was published in the Journal of Heredity in 2010.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "The Afghan Hound is tall, standing in height 61–74 cm (24–29 in) and weighing 20–27 kg (44–60 lb). The coat may be any colour, but white markings, particularly on the head, are discouraged; many individuals have a black facial mask. A specimen may have a beard on the lower jaw, this is known as a \"mandarin\". Some Afghan Hounds are almost white, but parti-color hounds (white with islands of red or black) are penalized in the AKC standard, but not by the FCI.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "Their long, fine-textured coat requires considerable care and grooming. The long topknot and the shorter-haired saddle on the back of the dog are distinctive features of the Afghan Hound coat. The high hipbones and unique small ring on the end of the tail are also characteristics of the breed.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "The temperament of the typical Afghan Hound can be aloof and dignified, but happy and clownish when playing. This breed, as tends to be the case with sighthounds, has a high prey drive and may kill small animals and livestock. Genomic studies have pointed to the Afghan Hound as one of the oldest of dog breeds.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "The breed has a reputation among dog trainers of having a relatively slow \"obedience intelligence\"; Stanley Coren, in his book The Intelligence of Dogs, ranked the breed last among 138 breeds mentioned in ability to understand and obey commands, requiring more than 80 repetitions to understand a new command and obeying on the first command less than 25% of the time. Coren noted that Afghan Hounds were consistently ranked among the least obedient dog breeds among all of the trainers he consulted, with a majority (121 out of 199) ranking the Afghan Hound in the lowest ten breeds out of 133 listed.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "The Khalag Tazi is a variety of the Afghan Hound introduced to Europe in 1920, when an Indian Army officer, Major G Bell-Murray, brought some animals back from Afghanistan.", "title": "Variants" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "Bakhmull (also Bakhmull Tazi or Tazi Bakhmull, also called the Aboriginal Afghan Hound) is a long-haired variety of sighthound. It has been bred mostly in Russia and claimed to represent an Afghan Hound aboriginal to Afghanistan. In Pashto the word bakhmull means \"velvet\", applied in reference to the dog's silky coat, which is rather abundant and long on the whole body, except the \"saddle\" (middle to lower back), front parts of all four legs, and the muzzle. Its color is always fawn, ivory, or white, with a darker \"saddle\", thus it produces an impression of a (yellowish) dog whose coat color matches the khaki sandstone and limestone of the Hindu Kush mountain landscape and deserts. The following colors are not permissible: red, red with white spots, black, and black with white spots.", "title": "Variants" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "Since the 1980s, the centre of Bakhmull breeding has been Russia, beginning in Moscow, then spreading to various other places in the CIS. The foundation stock was brought to Russia in the 1970s by military men returning from Afghanistan. Natalia Gherasiova (a breeder, of the Blue Dale el Bark Bakhmull kennel, and dog show judge) established the National Bakhmull Club, affiliated with the Russian Federation for Hunting Dogs (RFOS) and Russian Kynological Federation (RKF). A breed standard was first published in 1985, and a shared RFOS–RKF revision was produced in 1997.", "title": "Variants" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "Bakhmulls hunt solo and in couples. Although its coat is long, it does not require much grooming. Paws are well protected from injuries by \"feathering\" (thick additional paw fur). Its long, velvety coat and its stamina makes more suitable than many breeds for harsh weather. The breed standard calls for \"aristocratic gait and a beautiful head with gazelle-like ... eyes\". The eyes should be large, brown, slanting upwards, and of almond shape, with rims outlined black. Black coloration is required on the nose and lips for both white and fawn bakhmulls. The dog's height should be between 68–73 centimetres (27–29 in), 65–70 centimetres (26–28 in) for bitches. The height at the withers is 3–4 centimetres (1.2–1.6 in) higher than at the croup.", "title": "Variants" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "In various surveys conducted within the UK, Afghan Hounds were shown to have an average lifespan of about 12 years, similar to other breeds of their size. In the 2004 UK Kennel Club survey, the most common causes of death were cancer (31%), old age (20%), cardiac (10.5%), and urologic (5%). Those that died of old age had a median lifespan of 12 years, with 12% living to at least 14.", "title": "Health" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "Major health issues are allergies, cancer, and hip dysplasia. Sensitivity to anesthesia is an issue the Afghan Hound shares with the rest of the sighthound group, as sighthounds have relatively low levels of body fat. Afghan Hounds are also among the dog breeds most likely to develop chylothorax, a rare condition which causes the thoracic ducts to leak, allowing large quantities of chyle fluid to enter the dog's chest cavity. This condition commonly results in a lung-lobe torsion (in which the dog's lung twists within the chest cavity, requiring emergency surgery), due to the breed's typically deep, \"barrel\"-shaped chest. If not corrected through surgery, chylothorax can ultimately cause fibrosing pleuritis, or a hardening of the organs, due to scar tissue forming around the organs to protect them from the chyle fluid. Chylothorax is often fatal.", "title": "Health" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "Among other health problems are laryngeal paralysis, dilated cardiomyopathy (twice as common in males as females), and dermatological issues such as testosterone-responsive dermatosis of male dogs (often seen in castrated males), nasal depigmentation (also known as Dudley nose), and skin tumours. Afghans are also prone to Central diabetes insipidus (CDI), hypothyroidism and tricholemmoma, a rare condition which mainly affects older dogs in the Middle Ages. Ocular conditions that can occur include medial canthal pocket syndrome (breed predisposition due to shape of head), corneal dystrophy, cataract and generalized progressive retinal atrophy (GPRA). Afghan myelopathy (causing pelvic limb ataxia) is sometimes reported.", "title": "Health" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "Pablo Picasso said that his 1967 statue located in Chicago's Daley Plaza represented the head of an Afghan Hound named Kabul.", "title": "In popular culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "The Afghan hound has been represented in multiple animated feature films and TV shows, including Universal Pictures' Balto (Sylvie), Disney's Lady and the Tramp II: Scamp's Adventure (Ruby), Hasbro Studios's Pound Puppies (Twiggy) and ABC Kids' Bluey (Indy). An Afghan hound also appeared in the movies One Hundred and One Dalmatians, 101 Dalmatians, 102 Dalmatians, and 101 Dalmatians II: Patch's London Adventure. Other examples include Prince Amir of Kinjan from What-a-Mess, Persia from Road Rovers, Burt from Foofur, and Brainy Barker from Krypto the Superdog. Malory Archer in the show Archer also had an Afghan hound named Duchess at some point in her childhood.", "title": "In popular culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "In the 1941 novel Between the Acts, Virginia Woolf uses an Afghan hound named Sohrab to represent aspects of one of the book's human characters.", "title": "In popular culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "The Afghan Hound features prominently in the avant-garde music video of popular French band M83's, \"Set in Stone (M83 Remix)\".", "title": "In popular culture" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "An Afghan Hound was also featured on the cover of the 1967 (45 rpm) single \"Have Some More Tea/Victor Henry's Cool Book\" by British psychedelic rock band The Smoke.", "title": "In popular culture" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "The Azawakh is a breed of dog from West Africa. With ancient origins, it is raised throughout the Sahelian zone of Mali, Niger, and Burkina Faso. This region includes the Azawagh Valley for which the breed is named. While commonly associated with the nomadic Tuareg people, they are also bred and owned by other ethnic groups such as the Peulh, Bella, and Hausa. The Azawakh is more related to the Sloughi than it is to the Saluki.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Slim and elegant, with bone structure and muscles showing through thin skin. Eyes are almond-shaped.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "The coat is very short and almost absent on the belly. Its bone structure shows clearly through the skin and musculature. Its muscles are \"dry\", meaning that they are quite flat, unlike the Greyhound and Whippet. In this respect it is similar in type to the Saluki.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Colours permitted by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) breed standard are clear sand to dark fawn/brown, red and brindle (with or without a dark mask), with white bib, tail tip, and white on all feet (which can be tips of toes to high stockings). Since 2015 white stockings that go above the elbow joint are considered disqualifying features in the FCI member countries, as is a white collar or half collar (Irish marked).", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Some conservationists support the idea that in Africa, Azawakhs are still found in a variety of colours such as red, blue fawn (that is, with a lilac cast), grizzle, and, rarely, blue and black with various white markings including Irish marked (white collar) and particolour (mostly white). Because of this wide color variation in the native population, the American standard used by the AKC and UKC allows any color combination found in Africa. (AKC and UKC are not a member of the FCI)", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The Azawakh's light, supple, lissome gait is a notable breed characteristic, as is an upright double suspension gallop.", "title": "Description" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Azawakhs are an incredibly sound coursing hound. There is a small occurrence of adult-onset idiopathic epilepsy in the breed. Wobbler disease, or cervical vertebral instability, does rarely occur.", "title": "Health" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Unassisted birth of healthy puppies is normal. Litter sizes are usually from four to six puppies, but litters as small as one and as large as ten occur.", "title": "Reproduction" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Bred by the Tuareg, Fula and various other nomads of the Sahara and sub-Saharan Sahel in the countries of Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso, and southern Algeria, the breed known by the tuaregs as ”Oska” was used there as a guard dog and to hunt gazelle and hare at speeds up to 65 km/h (40 mph). The austerity of the Sahel environment has ensured that only the most fit dogs survive and has accentuated the breed's ruggedness and independence. Unlike some other sighthounds, the Azawakh is more of a pack hunter and they bump down the quarry with hindquarters when it has been tired out. In role of a guard dog, if an Azawakh senses danger it will bark to alert the other members of the pack, and they will gather together as a pack under the lead of the alpha dog, then chase off or attack the predator. The Sloughi, by comparison, is more of an independent lone hunter and has a high hunting instinct.", "title": "Temperament" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Azawakhs have a range of temperaments from lap dog to quite fierce. Lifelong socialization and gentle handling are critical. Well socialised and trained, they can be good with other dogs, cats, children, and strangers.", "title": "Temperament" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Unlike other sighthounds, the primary function of the Azawakh in its native land is that of protector. It develops an intense bond with its owner, yet can perform independently from its master. With those they accept, Azawakh are gentle and extremely affectionate. With strangers many are reserved and prefer not to be touched, but are not inherently aggressive. Although raised to guard against predators, they do not have innate aggression toward canines or humans unless they are threatened.", "title": "Temperament" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "Azawakh have high energy and tremendous endurance. They are excellent training companions for runners. Many Azawakh dislike rain and cold weather.", "title": "Temperament" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "Azawakh are pack oriented and form complex social hierarchies. They have tremendous memories and are able to recognize each other after long periods of separation. They can often be found sleeping on top of each other for warmth and companionship.", "title": "Temperament" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "Alberto Rossi: \"To raise an Azawakh is like building a very fragile construction, which takes a lot of sensibility and can be destroyed from one minute to the next. But every minute it lasts, it fills you with great happiness. Every time I´m sitting in a chair or sofa at least one of my dogs tries to take a seat on my lap. The same happens to those of my guests which they love. In these moments they seem to be the image of calmness, gentleness, and trust. But one should not be deceived about this. In the deepest place of their soul resides something wild and native, and they will remind us about it with the first occasion and we should not forget, even for a moment, not to treat them like a normal dog.\"", "title": "Temperament" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "The breed is relatively uncommon in Europe and North America but there is a growing band of devotees. Azawakh may be registered with the FCI in the USA via the Federación Canófila de Puerto Rico (FCPR). European FCI clubs and the AKC recognize the FCPR as an acceptable registry. The AKC (not a member of the FCI) currently recognizes Azawakh as a Foundation Stock Service breed and they are eligible to participate in AKC-sanctioned Companion & Performance events. The breed will enter the AKC Miscellaneous Class on June 30, 2011. The American Azawakh Association (AAA). is the AKC Parent Club for the Azawakh. Azawakh may be registered with the UKC and ARBA. The breed is not yet registered by CKC. Azawakh are eligible for ASFA and AKC lure coursing and NOFCA open field coursing events.", "title": "Breed history" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "Acrylic paint is a fast-drying paint made of pigment suspended in acrylic polymer emulsion and plasticizers, silicone oils, defoamers, stabilizers, or metal soaps. Most acrylic paints are water-based, but become water-resistant when dry. Depending on how much the paint is diluted with water, or modified with acrylic gels, mediums, or pastes, the finished acrylic painting can resemble a watercolor, a gouache, or an oil painting, or have its own unique characteristics not attainable with other media and are meant for canvases.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "Water-based acrylic paints are used as latex house paints, as latex is the technical term for a suspension of polymer microparticles in water. Interior latex house paints tend to be a combination of binder (sometimes acrylic, vinyl, pva, and others), filler, pigment, and water. Exterior latex house paints may also be a co-polymer blend, but the best exterior water-based paints are 100% acrylic, because of its elasticity and other factors. Vinyl, however, costs half of what 100% acrylic resins cost, and polyvinyl acetate (PVA) is even cheaper, so paint companies make many different combinations of them to match the market.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Otto Röhm invented acrylic resin, which was quickly transformed into acrylic paint. As early as 1934, the first usable acrylic resin dispersion was developed by German chemical company BASF, and patented by Rohm and Haas. The synthetic paint was first used in the 1940s, combining some of the properties of oil and watercolor. Between 1946 and 1949, Leonard Bocour and Sam Golden invented a solution acrylic paint under the brand Magna paint. These were mineral spirit-based paints.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Water-based acrylic paints were subsequently sold as latex house paints.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "Soon after the water-based acrylic binders were introduced as house paints, artists and companies alike began to explore the potential of the new binders. Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, and José Clemente Orozco were the first ones who experimented with acrylic paint. This is because they were very impressed with the durability of the acrylic paint. Because of this, artists and companies alike began to produce Politec Acrylic Artists' Colors in Mexico in 1953. According to The Times newspaper, Lancelot Ribeiro pioneered the use of acrylic paints in the UK because of his \"increasing impatience\" by the 1960s over the time it took for oil paints to dry, as also its \"lack of brilliance in its colour potential.\" He took to the new synthetic plastic bases that commercial paints were beginning to use, and soon got help from manufacturers like ICI, Courtaulds and Geigy. The companies supplied him samples of their latest paints in quantities that he was using three decades later, according to the paper. Initially, the firms thought the PVA compounds would not be needed in commercially viable quantities. But they quickly recognised the potential demand and \"so Ribeiro became the godfather of generations of artists using acrylics as an alternative to oils.\"", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "In 1956, José L. Gutiérrez produced Politec Acrylic Artists' Colors in Mexico, and Henry Levison of Cincinnati-based Permanent Pigments Co. produced Liquitex colors. These two product lines were the first acrylic emulsion artists' paints, with modern high-viscosity paints becoming available in the early 1960s. Meanwhile on the other side of the globe, 1958 saw the inception of Vynol Paints Pty Ltd (now Derivan) in Australia, who started producing a water-based artist acrylic called Vynol Colour, followed by Matisse Acrylics in the 1960s. Following that development, Golden came up with a waterborne acrylic paint called \"Aquatec\". In 1963, George Rowney (part of Daler-Rowney since 1983) was the first manufacturer to introduce artists' acrylic paints in Europe, under the brand name \"Cryla\".", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "Acrylic painters can modify the appearance, hardness, flexibility, texture, and other characteristics of the paint surface by using acrylic mediums or simply by adding water. Watercolor and oil painters also use various mediums, but the range of acrylic mediums is much greater. Acrylics have the ability to bond to many different surfaces, and mediums can be used to modify their binding characteristics. Acrylics can be used on paper, canvas, and a range of other materials; however, their use on engineered woods such as medium-density fiberboard can be problematic because of the porous nature of those surfaces. In these cases, it is recommended that the surface first be sealed with an appropriate sealer. The process of sealing acrylic painting is called varnishing. Artists use removable varnishes over isolation coat to protect paintings from dust, UV, scratches, etc. This process is similar to varnishing an oil painting.", "title": "Painting with acrylics" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "Acrylics can be applied in thin layers or washes to create effects that resemble watercolors and other water-based mediums. They can also be used to build thick layers of paint — gel and molding paste are sometimes used to create paintings with relief features. Acrylic paints are also used in hobbies such as trains, cars, houses, DIY projects, and human models. People who make such models use acrylic paint to build facial features on dolls or raised details on other types of models. Wet acrylic paint is easily removed from paintbrushes and skin with water, whereas oil paints require the use of a hydrocarbon.", "title": "Painting with acrylics" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "Acrylics are the most common paints used in grattage, a surrealist technique that began to be used with the advent of this type of paint. Acrylics are used for this purpose because they easily scrape or peel from a surface.", "title": "Painting with acrylics" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Acrylic artists' paints may be thinned with water or acrylic medium and used as washes in the manner of watercolor paints, but unlike watercolor the washes are not rehydratable once dry. For this reason, acrylics do not lend themselves to the color lifting techniques of gum arabic-based watercolor paints. Instead, the paint is applied in layers, sometimes diluting with water or acrylic medium to allow layers underneath to partially show through. Using an acrylic medium gives the paint more of a rich and glossy appearance, whereas using water makes the paint look more like watercolor and have a matte finish.", "title": "Painting with acrylics" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "Acrylic paints with gloss or matte finishes are common, although a satin (semi-matte) sheen is most common. Some brands exhibit a range of finishes (e.g. heavy-body paints from Golden, Liquitex, Winsor & Newton and Daler-Rowney); Politec acrylics are fully matte. As with oils, pigment amounts and particle size or shape can affect the paint sheen. Matting agents can also be added during manufacture to dull the finish. If desired, the artist can mix different media with their paints and use topcoats or varnishes to alter or unify sheen.", "title": "Painting with acrylics" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "When dry, acrylic paint is generally non-removable from a solid surface if it adheres to the surface. Water or mild solvents do not re-solubilize it, although isopropyl alcohol can lift some fresh paint films off. Toluene and acetone can remove paint films, but they do not lift paint stains very well and are not selective. The use of a solvent to remove paint may result in removal of all of the paint layers (acrylic gesso, et cetera). Oils and warm, soapy water can remove acrylic paint from skin. Acrylic paint can be removed from non-porous plastic surfaces, such as miniatures or models using certain cleaning products such as Dettol (containing chloroxylenol 4.8% v/w).", "title": "Painting with acrylics" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "An acrylic sizing should be used to prime canvas in preparation for painting with acrylic paints, to prevent Support Induced Discoloration (SID). Acrylic paint contains surfactants that can pull up discoloration from a raw canvas, especially in transparent glazed or translucent gelled areas. Gesso alone will not stop SID; a sizing must be applied before using a gesso.", "title": "Painting with acrylics" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "The viscosity of acrylic can be successfully reduced by using suitable extenders that maintain the integrity of the paint film. There are retarders to slow drying and extend workability time, and flow releases to increase color-blending ability.", "title": "Painting with acrylics" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "Commercial acrylic paints come in two grades by manufacturers:", "title": "Properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "The vehicle and binder of oil paints is linseed oil (or another drying oil), whereas acrylic paint has water as the vehicle for an emulsion (suspension) of acrylic polymer, which serves as the binder. Thus, oil paint is said to be \"oil-based\", whereas acrylic paint is \"water-based\" (or sometimes \"water-borne\").", "title": "Properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "The main practical difference between most acrylics and oil paints is the inherent drying time. Oils allow for more time to blend colors and apply even glazes over underpaintings. This slow-drying aspect of oil can be seen as an advantage for certain techniques, but it impedes an artist trying to work quickly. The fast evaporation of water from regular acrylic paint films can be slowed with the use of acrylic retarders. Retarders are generally glycol or glycerin-based additives. The addition of a retarder slows the evaporation rate of the water.", "title": "Properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "Oil paints may require the use of solvents such as mineral spirits or turpentine to thin the paint and clean up. These solvents generally have some level of toxicity and can be found objectionable. Relatively recently, water-miscible oil paints have been developed for artists' use. Oil paint films can gradually yellow and lose their flexibility over time creating cracks in the paint film; the \"fat over lean\" rule must be observed to ensure its durability.", "title": "Properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "Oil paint has a higher pigment load than acrylic paint. As linseed oil contains a smaller molecule than acrylic paint, oil paint is able to absorb substantially more pigment. Oil provides a refractive index that is less clear than acrylic dispersions, which imparts a unique \"look and feel\" to the resultant paint film. Not all the pigments of oil paints are available in acrylics and vice versa, as each medium has different chemical sensitivities. Some historical pigments are alkali sensitive, and therefore cannot be made in an acrylic emulsion; others are just too difficult to formulate. Approximate \"hue\" color formulations, that do not contain the historical pigments, are typically offered as substitutes.", "title": "Properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "Because of acrylic paint's more flexible nature and more consistent drying time between layers, an artist does not have to follow the same rules of oil painting, where more medium must be applied to each layer to avoid cracking. It usually takes 10–20 minutes for one to two layers of acrylic paint to dry, depending on the brand, quality, and humidity levels of the surrounding environment. Some professional grades of acrylic paint can take 20-30 minutes or even more than an hour. Although canvas needs to be properly primed before painting with oils to prevent the paint medium from eventually rotting the canvas, acrylic can be safely applied straight to the canvas. The rapid drying of acrylic paint tends to discourage blending of color and use of wet-in-wet technique as in oil painting. Even though acrylic retarders can slow drying time to several hours, it remains a relatively fast-drying medium and adding too much acrylic retarder can prevent the paint from ever drying properly.", "title": "Properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "Meanwhile, acrylic paint is very elastic, which prevents cracking from occurring. Acrylic paint's binder is acrylic polymer emulsion – as this binder dries, the paint remains flexible.", "title": "Properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "Another difference between oil and acrylic paints is the versatility offered by acrylic paints. Acrylics are very useful in mixed media, allowing the use of pastel (oil and chalk), charcoal and pen (among others) on top of the dried acrylic painted surface. Mixing other bodies into the acrylic is possible—sand, rice, and even pasta may be incorporated in the artwork. Mixing artist or student grade acrylic paint with household acrylic emulsions is possible, allowing the use of premixed tints straight from the tube or tin, and thereby presenting the painter with a vast color range at their disposal. This versatility is also illustrated by the variety of additional artistic uses for acrylics. Specialized acrylics have been manufactured and used for linoblock printing (acrylic block printing ink has been produced by Derivan since the early 1980s), face painting, airbrushing, watercolor-like techniques, and fabric screen printing.", "title": "Properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "Another difference between oil and acrylic paint is the cleanup. Acrylic paint can be cleaned out of a brush with any soap, while oil paint needs a specific type to be sure to get all the oil out of the brushes. Also, it is easier to let a palette with oil paint dry and then scrape the paint off, whereas one can easily clean wet acrylic paint with water.", "title": "Properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "The biggest difference is that acrylic paint is opaque, whereas watercolor paint is translucent in nature. Watercolors take about 5 to 15 minutes to dry while acrylics take about 10 to 20 minutes. In order to change the tone or shade of a watercolor pigment, you change the percentage of water mixed in to the color. For brighter colors, add more water. For darker colors, add less water. In order to create lighter or darker colors with acrylic paints, you add white or black.", "title": "Properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "Another difference is that watercolors must be painted onto a porous surface, primarily watercolor paper. Acrylic paints can be used on many different surfaces.", "title": "Properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "Both acrylic and watercolor are easy to clean up with water. Acrylic paint should be cleaned with soap and water immediately following use. Watercolor paint can be cleaned with just water.", "title": "Properties" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "", "title": "External links" } ]

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[ { "paragraph_id": 0, "text": "In physics, angular momentum (sometimes called moment of momentum or rotational momentum) is the rotational analog of linear momentum. It is an important physical quantity because it is a conserved quantity – the total angular momentum of a closed system remains constant. Angular momentum has both a direction and a magnitude, and both are conserved. Bicycles and motorcycles, flying discs, rifled bullets, and gyroscopes owe their useful properties to conservation of angular momentum. Conservation of angular momentum is also why hurricanes form spirals and neutron stars have high rotational rates. In general, conservation limits the possible motion of a system, but it does not uniquely determine it.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 1, "text": "The three-dimensional angular momentum for a point particle is classically represented as a pseudovector r × p, the cross product of the particle's position vector r (relative to some origin) and its momentum vector; the latter is p = mv in Newtonian mechanics. Unlike linear momentum, angular momentum depends on where this origin is chosen, since the particle's position is measured from it.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 2, "text": "Angular momentum is an extensive quantity; that is, the total angular momentum of any composite system is the sum of the angular momenta of its constituent parts. For a continuous rigid body or a fluid, the total angular momentum is the volume integral of angular momentum density (angular momentum per unit volume in the limit as volume shrinks to zero) over the entire body.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 3, "text": "Similar to conservation of linear momentum, where it is conserved if there is no external force, angular momentum is conserved if there is no external torque. Torque can be defined as the rate of change of angular momentum, analogous to force. The net external torque on any system is always equal to the total torque on the system; in other words, the sum of all internal torques of any system is always 0 (this is the rotational analogue of Newton's third law of motion). Therefore, for a closed system (where there is no net external torque), the total torque on the system must be 0, which means that the total angular momentum of the system is constant.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 4, "text": "The change in angular momentum for a particular interaction is called angular impulse, sometimes twirl. Angular impulse is the angular analog of (linear) impulse.", "title": "" }, { "paragraph_id": 5, "text": "The trivial case of the angular momentum L {\\displaystyle L} of a body in an orbit is given by", "title": "Examples" }, { "paragraph_id": 6, "text": "where M {\\displaystyle M} is the mass of the orbiting object, f {\\displaystyle f} is the orbit's frequency and r {\\displaystyle r} is the orbit's radius.", "title": "Examples" }, { "paragraph_id": 7, "text": "The angular momentum L {\\displaystyle L} of a uniform rigid sphere rotating around its axis instead is given by", "title": "Examples" }, { "paragraph_id": 8, "text": "where M {\\displaystyle M} is the sphere's mass, f {\\displaystyle f} is the frequency of rotation and r {\\displaystyle r} is the sphere's radius.", "title": "Examples" }, { "paragraph_id": 9, "text": "Thus, for example, the orbital angular momentum of the Earth with respect to the Sun is about 2.66 × 10 kg⋅m⋅s, while its rotational angular momentum is about 7.05 × 10 kg⋅m⋅s.", "title": "Examples" }, { "paragraph_id": 10, "text": "In the case of a uniform rigid sphere rotating around its axis, if, instead of its mass, its density is known, the angular momentum L {\\displaystyle L} is given by", "title": "Examples" }, { "paragraph_id": 11, "text": "where ρ {\\displaystyle \\rho } is the sphere's density, f {\\displaystyle f} is the frequency of rotation and r {\\displaystyle r} is the sphere's radius.", "title": "Examples" }, { "paragraph_id": 12, "text": "In the simplest case of a spinning disk, the angular momentum L {\\displaystyle L} is given by", "title": "Examples" }, { "paragraph_id": 13, "text": "where M {\\displaystyle M} is the disk's mass, f {\\displaystyle f} is the frequency of rotation and r {\\displaystyle r} is the disk's radius.", "title": "Examples" }, { "paragraph_id": 14, "text": "If instead the disk rotates about its diameter (e.g. coin toss), its angular momentum L {\\displaystyle L} is given by", "title": "Examples" }, { "paragraph_id": 15, "text": "Just as for angular velocity, there are two special types of angular momentum of an object: the spin angular momentum is the angular momentum about the object's centre of mass, while the orbital angular momentum is the angular momentum about a chosen center of rotation. The Earth has an orbital angular momentum by nature of revolving around the Sun, and a spin angular momentum by nature of its daily rotation around the polar axis. The total angular momentum is the sum of the spin and orbital angular momenta. In the case of the Earth the primary conserved quantity is the total angular momentum of the solar system because angular momentum is exchanged to a small but important extent among the planets and the Sun. The orbital angular momentum vector of a point particle is always parallel and directly proportional to its orbital angular velocity vector ω, where the constant of proportionality depends on both the mass of the particle and its distance from origin. The spin angular momentum vector of a rigid body is proportional but not always parallel to the spin angular velocity vector Ω, making the constant of proportionality a second-rank tensor rather than a scalar.", "title": "Definition in classical mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 16, "text": "Angular momentum is a vector quantity (more precisely, a pseudovector) that represents the product of a body's rotational inertia and rotational velocity (in radians/sec) about a particular axis. However, if the particle's trajectory lies in a single plane, it is sufficient to discard the vector nature of angular momentum, and treat it as a scalar (more precisely, a pseudoscalar). Angular momentum can be considered a rotational analog of linear momentum. Thus, where linear momentum p is proportional to mass m and linear speed v,", "title": "Definition in classical mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 17, "text": "angular momentum L is proportional to moment of inertia I and angular speed ω measured in radians per second.", "title": "Definition in classical mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 18, "text": "Unlike mass, which depends only on amount of matter, moment of inertia depends also on the position of the axis of rotation and the distribution of the matter. Unlike linear velocity, which does not depend upon the choice of origin, orbital angular velocity is always measured with respect to a fixed origin. Therefore, strictly speaking, L should be referred to as the angular momentum relative to that center.", "title": "Definition in classical mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 19, "text": "In the case of circular motion of a single particle, we can use I = r 2 m {\\displaystyle I=r^{2}m} and ω = v / r {\\displaystyle \\omega ={v}/{r}} to expand angular momentum as L = r 2 m ⋅ v / r , {\\displaystyle L=r^{2}m\\cdot {v}/{r},} reducing to:", "title": "Definition in classical mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 20, "text": "the product of the radius of rotation r and the linear momentum of the particle p = m v {\\displaystyle p=mv} , where v = r ω {\\displaystyle v=r\\omega } is the linear (tangential) speed.", "title": "Definition in classical mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 21, "text": "This simple analysis can also apply to non-circular motion if one uses the component of the motion perpendicular to the radius vector:", "title": "Definition in classical mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 22, "text": "where v ⊥ = v sin ( θ ) {\\displaystyle v_{\\perp }=v\\sin(\\theta )} is the perpendicular component of the motion. Expanding, L = r m v sin ( θ ) , {\\displaystyle L=rmv\\sin(\\theta ),} rearranging, L = r sin ( θ ) m v , {\\displaystyle L=r\\sin(\\theta )mv,} and reducing, angular momentum can also be expressed,", "title": "Definition in classical mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 23, "text": "where r ⊥ = r sin ( θ ) {\\displaystyle r_{\\perp }=r\\sin(\\theta )} is the length of the moment arm, a line dropped perpendicularly from the origin onto the path of the particle. It is this definition, (length of moment arm) × (linear momentum), to which the term moment of momentum refers.", "title": "Definition in classical mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 24, "text": "Another approach is to define angular momentum as the conjugate momentum (also called canonical momentum) of the angular coordinate ϕ {\\displaystyle \\phi } expressed in the Lagrangian of the mechanical system. Consider a mechanical system with a mass m {\\displaystyle m} constrained to move in a circle of radius a {\\displaystyle a} in the absence of any external force field. The kinetic energy of the system is", "title": "Definition in classical mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 25, "text": "And the potential energy is", "title": "Definition in classical mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 26, "text": "Then the Lagrangian is", "title": "Definition in classical mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 27, "text": "The generalized momentum \"canonically conjugate to\" the coordinate ϕ {\\displaystyle \\phi } is defined by", "title": "Definition in classical mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 28, "text": "To completely define orbital angular momentum in three dimensions, it is required to know the rate at which the position vector sweeps out angle, the direction perpendicular to the instantaneous plane of angular displacement, and the mass involved, as well as how this mass is distributed in space. By retaining this vector nature of angular momentum, the general nature of the equations is also retained, and can describe any sort of three-dimensional motion about the center of rotation – circular, linear, or otherwise. In vector notation, the orbital angular momentum of a point particle in motion about the origin can be expressed as:", "title": "Definition in classical mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 29, "text": "where", "title": "Definition in classical mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 30, "text": "This can be expanded, reduced, and by the rules of vector algebra, rearranged:", "title": "Definition in classical mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 31, "text": "which is the cross product of the position vector r {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {r} } and the linear momentum p = m v {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {p} =m\\mathbf {v} } of the particle. By the definition of the cross product, the L {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {L} } vector is perpendicular to both r {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {r} } and p {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {p} } . It is directed perpendicular to the plane of angular displacement, as indicated by the right-hand rule – so that the angular velocity is seen as counter-clockwise from the head of the vector. Conversely, the L {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {L} } vector defines the plane in which r {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {r} } and p {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {p} } lie.", "title": "Definition in classical mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 32, "text": "By defining a unit vector u ^ {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\hat {u}} } perpendicular to the plane of angular displacement, a scalar angular speed ω {\\displaystyle \\omega } results, where", "title": "Definition in classical mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 33, "text": "and", "title": "Definition in classical mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 34, "text": "where v ⊥ {\\displaystyle v_{\\perp }} is the perpendicular component of the motion, as above.", "title": "Definition in classical mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 35, "text": "The two-dimensional scalar equations of the previous section can thus be given direction:", "title": "Definition in classical mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 36, "text": "and L = r m v u ^ {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {L} =rmv\\mathbf {\\hat {u}} } for circular motion, where all of the motion is perpendicular to the radius r {\\displaystyle r} .", "title": "Definition in classical mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 37, "text": "In the spherical coordinate system the angular momentum vector expresses as", "title": "Definition in classical mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 38, "text": "Angular momentum can be defined in terms of the cross product only in three dimensions. Defining it as the bivector L = r ∧ p {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {L} =\\mathbf {r} \\wedge \\mathbf {p} } , where ∧ {\\displaystyle \\wedge } is the exterior product, is valid in any number of dimensions. This exterior product is equivalent to an antisymmetric tensor of degree 2, which also applies in any number of dimensions. Namely, if x i {\\displaystyle x_{i}} is a position vector and p i {\\displaystyle p_{i}} is the linear momentum vector, then we can define", "title": "Definition in classical mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 39, "text": "In the general case of summed angular momenta from multiple particles, this antisymmetric tensor has n ( n − 1 ) / 2 {\\displaystyle n(n-1)/2} independent components (degrees of freedom), where n {\\displaystyle n} is the number of dimensions. In the usual three-dimensional case it has 3 independent components, which allows us to identify it with a 3 dimensional pseudovector M = ( M x , M y , M z ) {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} =(M_{x},M_{y},M_{z})} . The components of this vector relate to the components of the rank 2 tensor as follows:", "title": "Definition in classical mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 40, "text": "Angular momentum can be described as the rotational analog of linear momentum. Like linear momentum it involves elements of mass and displacement. Unlike linear momentum it also involves elements of position and shape.", "title": "Analogy to linear momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 41, "text": "Many problems in physics involve matter in motion about some certain point in space, be it in actual rotation about it, or simply moving past it, where it is desired to know what effect the moving matter has on the point—can it exert energy upon it or perform work about it? Energy, the ability to do work, can be stored in matter by setting it in motion—a combination of its inertia and its displacement. Inertia is measured by its mass, and displacement by its velocity. Their product,", "title": "Analogy to linear momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 42, "text": "is the matter's momentum. Referring this momentum to a central point introduces a complication: the momentum is not applied to the point directly. For instance, a particle of matter at the outer edge of a wheel is, in effect, at the end of a lever of the same length as the wheel's radius, its momentum turning the lever about the center point. This imaginary lever is known as the moment arm. It has the effect of multiplying the momentum's effort in proportion to its length, an effect known as a moment. Hence, the particle's momentum referred to a particular point,", "title": "Analogy to linear momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 43, "text": "is the angular momentum, sometimes called, as here, the moment of momentum of the particle versus that particular center point. The equation L = r m v {\\displaystyle L=rmv} combines a moment (a mass m {\\displaystyle m} turning moment arm r {\\displaystyle r} ) with a linear (straight-line equivalent) speed v {\\displaystyle v} . Linear speed referred to the central point is simply the product of the distance r {\\displaystyle r} and the angular speed ω {\\displaystyle \\omega } versus the point: v = r ω , {\\displaystyle v=r\\omega ,} another moment. Hence, angular momentum contains a double moment: L = r m r ω . {\\displaystyle L=rmr\\omega .} Simplifying slightly, L = r 2 m ω , {\\displaystyle L=r^{2}m\\omega ,} the quantity r 2 m {\\displaystyle r^{2}m} is the particle's moment of inertia, sometimes called the second moment of mass. It is a measure of rotational inertia.", "title": "Analogy to linear momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 44, "text": "The above analogy of the translational momentum and rotational momentum can be expressed in vector form:", "title": "Analogy to linear momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 45, "text": "The direction of momentum is related to the direction of the velocity for linear movement. The direction of angular momentum is related to the angular velocity of the rotation.", "title": "Analogy to linear momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 46, "text": "Because moment of inertia is a crucial part of the spin angular momentum, the latter necessarily includes all of the complications of the former, which is calculated by multiplying elementary bits of the mass by the squares of their distances from the center of rotation. Therefore, the total moment of inertia, and the angular momentum, is a complex function of the configuration of the matter about the center of rotation and the orientation of the rotation for the various bits.", "title": "Analogy to linear momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 47, "text": "For a rigid body, for instance a wheel or an asteroid, the orientation of rotation is simply the position of the rotation axis versus the matter of the body. It may or may not pass through the center of mass, or it may lie completely outside of the body. For the same body, angular momentum may take a different value for every possible axis about which rotation may take place. It reaches a minimum when the axis passes through the center of mass.", "title": "Analogy to linear momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 48, "text": "For a collection of objects revolving about a center, for instance all of the bodies of the Solar System, the orientations may be somewhat organized, as is the Solar System, with most of the bodies' axes lying close to the system's axis. Their orientations may also be completely random.", "title": "Analogy to linear momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 49, "text": "In brief, the more mass and the farther it is from the center of rotation (the longer the moment arm), the greater the moment of inertia, and therefore the greater the angular momentum for a given angular velocity. In many cases the moment of inertia, and hence the angular momentum, can be simplified by,", "title": "Analogy to linear momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 50, "text": "where k {\\displaystyle k} is the radius of gyration, the distance from the axis at which the entire mass m {\\displaystyle m} may be considered as concentrated.", "title": "Analogy to linear momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 51, "text": "Similarly, for a point mass m {\\displaystyle m} the moment of inertia is defined as,", "title": "Analogy to linear momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 52, "text": "where r {\\displaystyle r} is the radius of the point mass from the center of rotation,", "title": "Analogy to linear momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 53, "text": "and for any collection of particles m i {\\displaystyle m_{i}} as the sum,", "title": "Analogy to linear momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 54, "text": "Angular momentum's dependence on position and shape is reflected in its units versus linear momentum: kg⋅m/s or N⋅m⋅s for angular momentum versus kg⋅m/s or N⋅s for linear momentum. When calculating angular momentum as the product of the moment of inertia times the angular velocity, the angular velocity must be expressed in radians per second, where the radian assumes the dimensionless value of unity. (When performing dimensional analysis, it may be productive to use orientational analysis which treats radians as a base unit, but this is not done in the International system of units). The units if angular momentum can be interpreted as torque⋅time. An object with angular momentum of L N⋅m⋅s can be reduced to zero angular velocity by an angular impulse of L N⋅m⋅s.", "title": "Analogy to linear momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 55, "text": "The plane perpendicular to the axis of angular momentum and passing through the center of mass is sometimes called the invariable plane, because the direction of the axis remains fixed if only the interactions of the bodies within the system, free from outside influences, are considered. One such plane is the invariable plane of the Solar System.", "title": "Analogy to linear momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 56, "text": "Newton's second law of motion can be expressed mathematically,", "title": "Analogy to linear momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 57, "text": "or force = mass × acceleration. The rotational equivalent for point particles may be derived as follows:", "title": "Analogy to linear momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 58, "text": "which means that the torque (i.e. the time derivative of the angular momentum) is", "title": "Analogy to linear momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 59, "text": "Because the moment of inertia is m r 2 {\\displaystyle mr^{2}} , it follows that d I d t = 2 m r d r d t = 2 r p | | {\\displaystyle {\\frac {dI}{dt}}=2mr{\\frac {dr}{dt}}=2rp_{||}} , and d L d t = I d ω d t + 2 r p | | ω , {\\displaystyle {\\frac {d\\mathbf {L} }{dt}}=I{\\frac {d{\\boldsymbol {\\omega }}}{dt}}+2rp_{||}{\\boldsymbol {\\omega }},} which, reduces to", "title": "Analogy to linear momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 60, "text": "This is the rotational analog of Newton's second law. Note that the torque is not necessarily proportional or parallel to the angular acceleration (as one might expect). The reason for this is that the moment of inertia of a particle can change with time, something that cannot occur for ordinary mass.", "title": "Analogy to linear momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 61, "text": "A rotational analog of Newton's third law of motion might be written, \"In a closed system, no torque can be exerted on any matter without the exertion on some other matter of an equal and opposite torque about the same axis.\" Hence, angular momentum can be exchanged between objects in a closed system, but total angular momentum before and after an exchange remains constant (is conserved).", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 62, "text": "Seen another way, a rotational analogue of Newton's first law of motion might be written, \"A rigid body continues in a state of uniform rotation unless acted by an external influence.\" Thus with no external influence to act upon it, the original angular momentum of the system remains constant.", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 63, "text": "The conservation of angular momentum is used in analyzing central force motion. If the net force on some body is directed always toward some point, the center, then there is no torque on the body with respect to the center, as all of the force is directed along the radius vector, and none is perpendicular to the radius. Mathematically, torque τ = r × F = 0 , {\\displaystyle {\\boldsymbol {\\tau }}=\\mathbf {r} \\times \\mathbf {F} =\\mathbf {0} ,} because in this case r {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {r} } and F {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {F} } are parallel vectors. Therefore, the angular momentum of the body about the center is constant. This is the case with gravitational attraction in the orbits of planets and satellites, where the gravitational force is always directed toward the primary body and orbiting bodies conserve angular momentum by exchanging distance and velocity as they move about the primary. Central force motion is also used in the analysis of the Bohr model of the atom.", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 64, "text": "For a planet, angular momentum is distributed between the spin of the planet and its revolution in its orbit, and these are often exchanged by various mechanisms. The conservation of angular momentum in the Earth–Moon system results in the transfer of angular momentum from Earth to Moon, due to tidal torque the Moon exerts on the Earth. This in turn results in the slowing down of the rotation rate of Earth, at about 65.7 nanoseconds per day, and in gradual increase of the radius of Moon's orbit, at about 3.82 centimeters per year.", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 65, "text": "The conservation of angular momentum explains the angular acceleration of an ice skater as they bring their arms and legs close to the vertical axis of rotation. By bringing part of the mass of their body closer to the axis, they decrease their body's moment of inertia. Because angular momentum is the product of moment of inertia and angular velocity, if the angular momentum remains constant (is conserved), then the angular velocity (rotational speed) of the skater must increase.", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 66, "text": "The same phenomenon results in extremely fast spin of compact stars (like white dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes) when they are formed out of much larger and slower rotating stars.", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 67, "text": "Conservation is not always a full explanation for the dynamics of a system but is a key constraint. For example, a spinning top is subject to gravitational torque making it lean over and change the angular momentum about the nutation axis, but neglecting friction at the point of spinning contact, it has a conserved angular momentum about its spinning axis, and another about its precession axis. Also, in any planetary system, the planets, star(s), comets, and asteroids can all move in numerous complicated ways, but only so that the angular momentum of the system is conserved.", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 68, "text": "Noether's theorem states that every conservation law is associated with a symmetry (invariant) of the underlying physics. The symmetry associated with conservation of angular momentum is rotational invariance. The fact that the physics of a system is unchanged if it is rotated by any angle about an axis implies that angular momentum is conserved.", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 69, "text": "While angular momentum total conservation can be understood separately from Newton's laws of motion as stemming from Noether's theorem in systems symmetric under rotations, it can also be understood simply as an efficient method of calculation of results that can also be otherwise arrived at directly from Newton's second law, together with laws governing the forces of nature (such as Newton's third law, Maxwell's equations and Lorentz force). Indeed, given initial conditions of position and velocity for every point, and the forces at such a condition, one may use Newton's second law to calculate the second derivative of position, and solving for this gives full information on the development of the physical system with time. Note, however, that this is no longer true in quantum mechanics, due to the existence of particle spin, which is angular momentum that cannot be described by the cumulative effect of point-like motions in space.", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 70, "text": "As an example, consider decreasing of the moment of inertia, e.g. when a figure skater is pulling in their hands, speeding up the circular motion. In terms of angular momentum conservation, we have, for angular momentum L, moment of inertia I and angular velocity ω:", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 71, "text": "Using this, we see that the change requires an energy of:", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 72, "text": "so that a decrease in the moment of inertia requires investing energy.", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 73, "text": "This can be compared to the work done as calculated using Newton's laws. Each point in the rotating body is accelerating, at each point of time, with radial acceleration of:", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 74, "text": "Let us observe a point of mass m, whose position vector relative to the center of motion is perpendicular to the z-axis at a given point of time, and is at a distance z. The centripetal force on this point, keeping the circular motion, is:", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 75, "text": "Thus the work required for moving this point to a distance dz farther from the center of motion is:", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 76, "text": "For a non-pointlike body one must integrate over this, with m replaced by the mass density per unit z. This gives:", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 77, "text": "which is exactly the energy required for keeping the angular momentum conserved.", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 78, "text": "Note, that the above calculation can also be performed per mass, using kinematics only. Thus the phenomena of figure skater accelerating tangential velocity while pulling their hands in, can be understood as follows in layman's language: The skater's palms are not moving in a straight line, so they are constantly accelerating inwards, but do not gain additional speed because the accelerating is always done when their motion inwards is zero. However, this is different when pulling the palms closer to the body: The acceleration due to rotation now increases the speed; but because of the rotation, the increase in speed does not translate to a significant speed inwards, but to an increase of the rotation speed.", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 79, "text": "In Lagrangian mechanics, angular momentum for rotation around a given axis, is the conjugate momentum of the generalized coordinate of the angle around the same axis. For example, L z {\\displaystyle L_{z}} , the angular momentum around the z axis, is:", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 80, "text": "where L {\\displaystyle {\\cal {L}}} is the Lagrangian and θ z {\\displaystyle \\theta _{z}} is the angle around the z axis.", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 81, "text": "Note that θ ˙ z {\\displaystyle {\\dot {\\theta }}_{z}} , the time derivative of the angle, is the angular velocity ω z {\\displaystyle \\omega _{z}} . Ordinarily, the Lagrangian depends on the angular velocity through the kinetic energy: The latter can be written by separating the velocity to its radial and tangential part, with the tangential part at the x-y plane, around the z-axis, being equal to:", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 82, "text": "where the subscript i stands for the i-th body, and m, vT and ωz stand for mass, tangential velocity around the z-axis and angular velocity around that axis, respectively.", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 83, "text": "For a body that is not point-like, with density ρ, we have instead:", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 84, "text": "where integration runs over the area of the body, and Iz is the moment of inertia around the z-axis.", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 85, "text": "Thus, assuming the potential energy does not depend on ωz (this assumption may fail for electromagnetic systems), we have the angular momentum of the ith object:", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 86, "text": "We have thus far rotated each object by a separate angle; we may also define an overall angle θz by which we rotate the whole system, thus rotating also each object around the z-axis, and have the overall angular momentum:", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 87, "text": "From Euler–Lagrange equations it then follows that:", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 88, "text": "Since the lagrangian is dependent upon the angles of the object only through the potential, we have:", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 89, "text": "which is the torque on the ith object.", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 90, "text": "Suppose the system is invariant to rotations, so that the potential is independent of an overall rotation by the angle θz (thus it may depend on the angles of objects only through their differences, in the form V ( θ z i , θ z j ) = V ( θ z i − θ z j ) {\\displaystyle V({\\theta _{z}}_{i},{\\theta _{z}}_{j})=V({\\theta _{z}}_{i}-{\\theta _{z}}_{j})} ). We therefore get for the total angular momentum:", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 91, "text": "And thus the angular momentum around the z-axis is conserved.", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 92, "text": "This analysis can be repeated separately for each axis, giving conversation of the angular momentum vector. However, the angles around the three axes cannot be treated simultaneously as generalized coordinates, since they are not independent; in particular, two angles per point suffice to determine its position. While it is true that in the case of a rigid body, fully describing it requires, in addition to three translational degrees of freedom, also specification of three rotational degrees of freedom; however these cannot be defined as rotations around the Cartesian axes (see Euler angles). This caveat is reflected in quantum mechanics in the non-trivial commutation relations of the different components of the angular momentum operator.", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 93, "text": "Equivalently, in Hamiltonian mechanics the Hamiltonian can be described as a function of the angular momentum. As before, the part of the kinetic energy related to rotation around the z-axis for the ith object is:", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 94, "text": "which is analogous to the energy dependence upon momentum along the z-axis, p z i 2 2 m i {\\displaystyle {\\frac {{{p_{z}}_{i}}^{2}}{{2m}_{i}}}} .", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 95, "text": "Hamilton's equations relate the angle around the z-axis to its conjugate momentum, the angular momentum around the same axis:", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 96, "text": "The first equation gives", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 97, "text": "And so we get the same results as in the Lagrangian formalism.", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 98, "text": "Note, that for combining all axes together, we write the kinetic energy as:", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 99, "text": "where pr is the momentum in the radial direction, and the moment of inertia is a 3-dimensional matrix; bold letters stand for 3-dimensional vectors.", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 100, "text": "For point-like bodies we have:", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 101, "text": "This form of the kinetic energy part of the Hamiltonian is useful in analyzing central potential problems, and is easily transformed to a quantum mechanical work frame (e.g. in the hydrogen atom problem).", "title": "Conservation of angular momentum" }, { "paragraph_id": 102, "text": "While in classical mechanics the language of angular momentum can be replaced by Newton's laws of motion, it is particularly useful for motion in central potential such as planetary motion in the solar system. Thus, the orbit of a planet in the solar system is defined by its energy, angular momentum and angles of the orbit major axis relative to a coordinate frame.", "title": "Angular momentum in orbital mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 103, "text": "In astrodynamics and celestial mechanics, a quantity closely related to angular momentum is defined as", "title": "Angular momentum in orbital mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 104, "text": "called specific angular momentum. Note that L = m h . {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {L} =m\\mathbf {h} .} Mass is often unimportant in orbital mechanics calculations, because motion of a body is determined by gravity. The primary body of the system is often so much larger than any bodies in motion about it that the gravitational effect of the smaller bodies on it can be neglected; it maintains, in effect, constant velocity. The motion of all bodies is affected by its gravity in the same way, regardless of mass, and therefore all move approximately the same way under the same conditions.", "title": "Angular momentum in orbital mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 105, "text": "Angular momentum is also an extremely useful concept for describing rotating rigid bodies such as a gyroscope or a rocky planet. For a continuous mass distribution with density function ρ(r), a differential volume element dV with position vector r within the mass has a mass element dm = ρ(r)dV. Therefore, the infinitesimal angular momentum of this element is:", "title": "Solid bodies" }, { "paragraph_id": 106, "text": "and integrating this differential over the volume of the entire mass gives its total angular momentum:", "title": "Solid bodies" }, { "paragraph_id": 107, "text": "In the derivation which follows, integrals similar to this can replace the sums for the case of continuous mass.", "title": "Solid bodies" }, { "paragraph_id": 108, "text": "For a collection of particles in motion about an arbitrary origin, it is informative to develop the equation of angular momentum by resolving their motion into components about their own center of mass and about the origin. Given,", "title": "Solid bodies" }, { "paragraph_id": 109, "text": "The total mass of the particles is simply their sum,", "title": "Solid bodies" }, { "paragraph_id": 110, "text": "The position vector of the center of mass is defined by,", "title": "Solid bodies" }, { "paragraph_id": 111, "text": "By inspection,", "title": "Solid bodies" }, { "paragraph_id": 112, "text": "The total angular momentum of the collection of particles is the sum of the angular momentum of each particle,", "title": "Solid bodies" }, { "paragraph_id": 113, "text": "L = ∑ i ( R i × m i V i ) {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {L} =\\sum _{i}\\left(\\mathbf {R} _{i}\\times m_{i}\\mathbf {V} _{i}\\right)} (1)", "title": "Solid bodies" }, { "paragraph_id": 114, "text": "Expanding R i {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {R} _{i}} ,", "title": "Solid bodies" }, { "paragraph_id": 115, "text": "Expanding V i {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} _{i}} ,", "title": "Solid bodies" }, { "paragraph_id": 116, "text": "It can be shown that (see sidebar),", "title": "Solid bodies" }, { "paragraph_id": 117, "text": "therefore the second and third terms vanish,", "title": "Solid bodies" }, { "paragraph_id": 118, "text": "The first term can be rearranged,", "title": "Solid bodies" }, { "paragraph_id": 119, "text": "and total angular momentum for the collection of particles is finally,", "title": "Solid bodies" }, { "paragraph_id": 120, "text": "L = R × M V + ∑ i r i × m i v i {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {L} =\\mathbf {R} \\times M\\mathbf {V} +\\sum _{i}\\mathbf {r} _{i}\\times m_{i}\\mathbf {v} _{i}} (2)", "title": "Solid bodies" }, { "paragraph_id": 121, "text": "The first term is the angular momentum of the center of mass relative to the origin. Similar to § Single particle, below, it is the angular momentum of one particle of mass M at the center of mass moving with velocity V. The second term is the angular momentum of the particles moving relative to the center of mass, similar to § Fixed center of mass, below. The result is general—the motion of the particles is not restricted to rotation or revolution about the origin or center of mass. The particles need not be individual masses, but can be elements of a continuous distribution, such as a solid body.", "title": "Solid bodies" }, { "paragraph_id": 122, "text": "Rearranging equation (2) by vector identities, multiplying both terms by \"one\", and grouping appropriately,", "title": "Solid bodies" }, { "paragraph_id": 123, "text": "gives the total angular momentum of the system of particles in terms of moment of inertia I {\\displaystyle I} and angular velocity ω {\\displaystyle {\\boldsymbol {\\omega }}} ,", "title": "Solid bodies" }, { "paragraph_id": 124, "text": "L = I R ω R + ∑ i I i ω i . {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {L} =I_{R}{\\boldsymbol {\\omega }}_{R}+\\sum _{i}I_{i}{\\boldsymbol {\\omega }}_{i}.} (3)", "title": "Solid bodies" }, { "paragraph_id": 125, "text": "In the case of a single particle moving about the arbitrary origin,", "title": "Solid bodies" }, { "paragraph_id": 126, "text": "and equations (2) and (3) for total angular momentum reduce to,", "title": "Solid bodies" }, { "paragraph_id": 127, "text": "For the case of the center of mass fixed in space with respect to the origin,", "title": "Solid bodies" }, { "paragraph_id": 128, "text": "and equations (2) and (3) for total angular momentum reduce to,", "title": "Solid bodies" }, { "paragraph_id": 129, "text": "In modern (20th century) theoretical physics, angular momentum (not including any intrinsic angular momentum – see below) is described using a different formalism, instead of a classical pseudovector. In this formalism, angular momentum is the 2-form Noether charge associated with rotational invariance. As a result, angular momentum is not conserved for general curved spacetimes, unless it happens to be asymptotically rotationally invariant.", "title": "Angular momentum in general relativity" }, { "paragraph_id": 130, "text": "In classical mechanics, the angular momentum of a particle can be reinterpreted as a plane element:", "title": "Angular momentum in general relativity" }, { "paragraph_id": 131, "text": "in which the exterior product (∧) replaces the cross product (×) (these products have similar characteristics but are nonequivalent). This has the advantage of a clearer geometric interpretation as a plane element, defined using the vectors x and p, and the expression is true in any number of dimensions. In Cartesian coordinates:", "title": "Angular momentum in general relativity" }, { "paragraph_id": 132, "text": "or more compactly in index notation:", "title": "Angular momentum in general relativity" }, { "paragraph_id": 133, "text": "The angular velocity can also be defined as an anti-symmetric second order tensor, with components ωij. The relation between the two anti-symmetric tensors is given by the moment of inertia which must now be a fourth order tensor:", "title": "Angular momentum in general relativity" }, { "paragraph_id": 134, "text": "Again, this equation in L and ω as tensors is true in any number of dimensions. This equation also appears in the geometric algebra formalism, in which L and ω are bivectors, and the moment of inertia is a mapping between them.", "title": "Angular momentum in general relativity" }, { "paragraph_id": 135, "text": "In relativistic mechanics, the relativistic angular momentum of a particle is expressed as an anti-symmetric tensor of second order:", "title": "Angular momentum in general relativity" }, { "paragraph_id": 136, "text": "in terms of four-vectors, namely the four-position X and the four-momentum P, and absorbs the above L together with the moment of mass, i.e., the product of the relativistic mass of the particle and its centre of mass, which can be thought of as describing the motion of its centre of mass, since mass–energy is conserved.", "title": "Angular momentum in general relativity" }, { "paragraph_id": 137, "text": "In each of the above cases, for a system of particles the total angular momentum is just the sum of the individual particle angular momenta, and the centre of mass is for the system.", "title": "Angular momentum in general relativity" }, { "paragraph_id": 138, "text": "In quantum mechanics, angular momentum (like other quantities) is expressed as an operator, and its one-dimensional projections have quantized eigenvalues. Angular momentum is subject to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, implying that at any time, only one projection (also called \"component\") can be measured with definite precision; the other two then remain uncertain. Because of this, the axis of rotation of a quantum particle is undefined. Quantum particles do possess a type of non-orbital angular momentum called \"spin\", but this angular momentum does not correspond to a spinning motion. In relativistic quantum mechanics the above relativistic definition becomes a tensorial operator.", "title": "Angular momentum in quantum mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 139, "text": "The classical definition of angular momentum as L = r × p {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {L} =\\mathbf {r} \\times \\mathbf {p} } can be carried over to quantum mechanics, by reinterpreting r as the quantum position operator and p as the quantum momentum operator. L is then an operator, specifically called the orbital angular momentum operator. The components of the angular momentum operator satisfy the commutation relations of the Lie algebra so(3). Indeed, these operators are precisely the infinitesimal action of the rotation group on the quantum Hilbert space. (See also the discussion below of the angular momentum operators as the generators of rotations.)", "title": "Angular momentum in quantum mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 140, "text": "However, in quantum physics, there is another type of angular momentum, called spin angular momentum, represented by the spin operator S. Spin is often depicted as a particle literally spinning around an axis, but this is a misleading and inaccurate picture: spin is an intrinsic property of a particle, unrelated to any sort of motion in space and fundamentally different from orbital angular momentum. All elementary particles have a characteristic spin (possibly zero), and almost all elementary particles have nonzero spin. For example electrons have \"spin 1/2\" (this actually means \"spin ħ/2\"), photons have \"spin 1\" (this actually means \"spin ħ\"), and pi-mesons have spin 0.", "title": "Angular momentum in quantum mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 141, "text": "Finally, there is total angular momentum J, which combines both the spin and orbital angular momentum of all particles and fields. (For one particle, J = L + S.) Conservation of angular momentum applies to J, but not to L or S; for example, the spin–orbit interaction allows angular momentum to transfer back and forth between L and S, with the total remaining constant. Electrons and photons need not have integer-based values for total angular momentum, but can also have half-integer values.", "title": "Angular momentum in quantum mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 142, "text": "In molecules the total angular momentum F is the sum of the rovibronic (orbital) angular momentum N, the electron spin angular momentum S, and the nuclear spin angular momentum I. For electronic singlet states the rovibronic angular momentum is denoted J rather than N. As explained by Van Vleck, the components of the molecular rovibronic angular momentum referred to molecule-fixed axes have different commutation relations from those for the components about space-fixed axes.", "title": "Angular momentum in quantum mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 143, "text": "In quantum mechanics, angular momentum is quantized – that is, it cannot vary continuously, but only in \"quantum leaps\" between certain allowed values. For any system, the following restrictions on measurement results apply, where ℏ {\\displaystyle \\hbar } is the reduced Planck constant and n ^ {\\displaystyle {\\hat {n}}} is any Euclidean vector such as x, y, or z:", "title": "Angular momentum in quantum mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 144, "text": "The reduced Planck constant ℏ {\\displaystyle \\hbar } is tiny by everyday standards, about 10 J s, and therefore this quantization does not noticeably affect the angular momentum of macroscopic objects. However, it is very important in the microscopic world. For example, the structure of electron shells and subshells in chemistry is significantly affected by the quantization of angular momentum.", "title": "Angular momentum in quantum mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 145, "text": "Quantization of angular momentum was first postulated by Niels Bohr in his model of the atom and was later predicted by Erwin Schrödinger in his Schrödinger equation.", "title": "Angular momentum in quantum mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 146, "text": "In the definition L = r × p {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {L} =\\mathbf {r} \\times \\mathbf {p} } , six operators are involved: The position operators r x {\\displaystyle r_{x}} , r y {\\displaystyle r_{y}} , r z {\\displaystyle r_{z}} , and the momentum operators p x {\\displaystyle p_{x}} , p y {\\displaystyle p_{y}} , p z {\\displaystyle p_{z}} . However, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle tells us that it is not possible for all six of these quantities to be known simultaneously with arbitrary precision. Therefore, there are limits to what can be known or measured about a particle's angular momentum. It turns out that the best that one can do is to simultaneously measure both the angular momentum vector's magnitude and its component along one axis.", "title": "Angular momentum in quantum mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 147, "text": "The uncertainty is closely related to the fact that different components of an angular momentum operator do not commute, for example L x L y ≠ L y L x {\\displaystyle L_{x}L_{y}\\neq L_{y}L_{x}} . (For the precise commutation relations, see angular momentum operator.)", "title": "Angular momentum in quantum mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 148, "text": "As mentioned above, orbital angular momentum L is defined as in classical mechanics: L = r × p {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {L} =\\mathbf {r} \\times \\mathbf {p} } , but total angular momentum J is defined in a different, more basic way: J is defined as the \"generator of rotations\". More specifically, J is defined so that the operator", "title": "Angular momentum in quantum mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 149, "text": "is the rotation operator that takes any system and rotates it by angle ϕ {\\displaystyle \\phi } about the axis n ^ {\\displaystyle {\\hat {\\mathbf {n} }}} . (The \"exp\" in the formula refers to operator exponential.) To put this the other way around, whatever our quantum Hilbert space is, we expect that the rotation group SO(3) will act on it. There is then an associated action of the Lie algebra so(3) of SO(3); the operators describing the action of so(3) on our Hilbert space are the (total) angular momentum operators.", "title": "Angular momentum in quantum mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 150, "text": "The relationship between the angular momentum operator and the rotation operators is the same as the relationship between Lie algebras and Lie groups in mathematics. The close relationship between angular momentum and rotations is reflected in Noether's theorem that proves that angular momentum is conserved whenever the laws of physics are rotationally invariant.", "title": "Angular momentum in quantum mechanics" }, { "paragraph_id": 151, "text": "When describing the motion of a charged particle in an electromagnetic field, the canonical momentum P (derived from the Lagrangian for this system) is not gauge invariant. As a consequence, the canonical angular momentum L = r × P is not gauge invariant either. Instead, the momentum that is physical, the so-called kinetic momentum (used throughout this article), is (in SI units)", "title": "Angular momentum in electrodynamics" }, { "paragraph_id": 152, "text": "where e is the electric charge of the particle and A the magnetic vector potential of the electromagnetic field. The gauge-invariant angular momentum, that is kinetic angular momentum, is given by", "title": "Angular momentum in electrodynamics" }, { "paragraph_id": 153, "text": "The interplay with quantum mechanics is discussed further in the article on canonical commutation relations.", "title": "Angular momentum in electrodynamics" }, { "paragraph_id": 154, "text": "In classical Maxwell electrodynamics the Poynting vector is a linear momentum density of electromagnetic field.", "title": "Angular momentum in optics" }, { "paragraph_id": 155, "text": "The angular momentum density vector L ( r , t ) {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {L} (\\mathbf {r} ,t)} is given by a vector product as in classical mechanics:", "title": "Angular momentum in optics" }, { "paragraph_id": 156, "text": "The above identities are valid locally, i.e. in each space point r {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {r} } in a given moment t {\\displaystyle t} .", "title": "Angular momentum in optics" }, { "paragraph_id": 157, "text": "Tropical cyclones and other related weather phenomena involve conservation of angular momentum in order to explain the dynamics. Winds revolve slowly around low pressure systems, mainly due to the coriolis effect. If the low pressure intensifies and the slowly circulating air is drawn toward the center, the molecules must speed up in order to conserve angular momentum. By the time they reach the center, the speeds become destructive.", "title": "Angular momentum in nature and the cosmos" }, { "paragraph_id": 158, "text": "Johannes Kepler determined the laws of planetary motion without knowledge of conservation of momentum. However, not long after his discovery their derivation was determined from conservation of angular momentum. Planets move more slowly the further they are out in their elliptical orbits, which is explained intuitively by the fact that orbital angular momentum is proportional to the radius of the orbit. Since the mass does not change and the angular momentum is conserved, the velocity drops.", "title": "Angular momentum in nature and the cosmos" }, { "paragraph_id": 159, "text": "Tidal acceleration is an effect of the tidal forces between an orbiting natural satellite (e.g. the Moon) and the primary planet that it orbits (e.g. Earth). The gravitational torque between the Moon and the tidal bulge of Earth causes the Moon to be constantly promoted to a slightly higher orbit (~3.8 cm per year) and Earth to be decelerated (by −25.858 ± 0.003″/cy²) in its rotation (the length of the day increases by ~1.7 ms per century, +2.3 ms from tidal effect and −0.6 ms from post-glacial rebound). The Earth loses angular momentum which is transferred to the Moon such that the overall angular momentum is conserved.", "title": "Angular momentum in nature and the cosmos" }, { "paragraph_id": 160, "text": "Examples of using conservation of angular momentum for practical advantage are abundant. In engines such as steam engines or internal combustion engines, a flywheel is needed to efficiently convert the lateral motion of the pistons to rotational motion.", "title": "Angular momentum in engineering and technology" }, { "paragraph_id": 161, "text": "Inertial navigation systems explicitly use the fact that angular momentum is conserved with respect to the inertial frame of space. Inertial navigation is what enables submarine trips under the polar ice cap, but are also crucial to all forms of modern navigation.", "title": "Angular momentum in engineering and technology" }, { "paragraph_id": 162, "text": "Rifled bullets use the stability provided by conservation of angular momentum to be more true in their trajectory. The invention of rifled firearms and cannons gave their users significant strategic advantage in battle, and thus were a technological turning point in history.", "title": "Angular momentum in engineering and technology" }, { "paragraph_id": 163, "text": "Isaac Newton, in the Principia, hinted at angular momentum in his examples of the first law of motion,", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 164, "text": "A top, whose parts by their cohesion are perpetually drawn aside from rectilinear motions, does not cease its rotation, otherwise than as it is retarded by the air. The greater bodies of the planets and comets, meeting with less resistance in more free spaces, preserve their motions both progressive and circular for a much longer time.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 165, "text": "He did not further investigate angular momentum directly in the Principia, saying:", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 166, "text": "From such kind of reflexions also sometimes arise the circular motions of bodies about their own centres. But these are cases which I do not consider in what follows; and it would be too tedious to demonstrate every particular that relates to this subject.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 167, "text": "However, his geometric proof of the law of areas is an outstanding example of Newton's genius, and indirectly proves angular momentum conservation in the case of a central force.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 168, "text": "As a planet orbits the Sun, the line between the Sun and the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time. This had been known since Kepler expounded his second law of planetary motion. Newton derived a unique geometric proof, and went on to show that the attractive force of the Sun's gravity was the cause of all of Kepler's laws.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 169, "text": "During the first interval of time, an object is in motion from point A to point B. Undisturbed, it would continue to point c during the second interval. When the object arrives at B, it receives an impulse directed toward point S. The impulse gives it a small added velocity toward S, such that if this were its only velocity, it would move from B to V during the second interval. By the rules of velocity composition, these two velocities add, and point C is found by construction of parallelogram BcCV. Thus the object's path is deflected by the impulse so that it arrives at point C at the end of the second interval. Because the triangles SBc and SBC have the same base SB and the same height Bc or VC, they have the same area. By symmetry, triangle SBc also has the same area as triangle SAB, therefore the object has swept out equal areas SAB and SBC in equal times.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 170, "text": "At point C, the object receives another impulse toward S, again deflecting its path during the third interval from d to D. Thus it continues to E and beyond, the triangles SAB, SBc, SBC, SCd, SCD, SDe, SDE all having the same area. Allowing the time intervals to become ever smaller, the path ABCDE approaches indefinitely close to a continuous curve.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 171, "text": "Note that because this derivation is geometric, and no specific force is applied, it proves a more general law than Kepler's second law of planetary motion. It shows that the Law of Areas applies to any central force, attractive or repulsive, continuous or non-continuous, or zero.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 172, "text": "The proportionality of angular momentum to the area swept out by a moving object can be understood by realizing that the bases of the triangles, that is, the lines from S to the object, are equivalent to the radius r, and that the heights of the triangles are proportional to the perpendicular component of velocity v⊥. Hence, if the area swept per unit time is constant, then by the triangular area formula 1/2(base)(height), the product (base)(height) and therefore the product rv⊥ are constant: if r and the base length are decreased, v⊥ and height must increase proportionally. Mass is constant, therefore angular momentum rmv⊥ is conserved by this exchange of distance and velocity.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 173, "text": "In the case of triangle SBC, area is equal to 1/2(SB)(VC). Wherever C is eventually located due to the impulse applied at B, the product (SB)(VC), and therefore rmv⊥ remain constant. Similarly so for each of the triangles.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 174, "text": "Another areal proof of conservation of momentum for any central force uses Mamikon's sweeping tangents theorem.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 175, "text": "Leonhard Euler, Daniel Bernoulli, and Patrick d'Arcy all understood angular momentum in terms of conservation of areal velocity, a result of their analysis of Kepler's second law of planetary motion. It is unlikely that they realized the implications for ordinary rotating matter.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 176, "text": "In 1736 Euler, like Newton, touched on some of the equations of angular momentum in his Mechanica without further developing them.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 177, "text": "Bernoulli wrote in a 1744 letter of a \"moment of rotational motion\", possibly the first conception of angular momentum as we now understand it.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 178, "text": "In 1799, Pierre-Simon Laplace first realized that a fixed plane was associated with rotation—his invariable plane.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 179, "text": "Louis Poinsot in 1803 began representing rotations as a line segment perpendicular to the rotation, and elaborated on the \"conservation of moments\".", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 180, "text": "In 1852 Léon Foucault used a gyroscope in an experiment to display the Earth's rotation.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 181, "text": "William J. M. Rankine's 1858 Manual of Applied Mechanics defined angular momentum in the modern sense for the first time:", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 182, "text": "...a line whose length is proportional to the magnitude of the angular momentum, and whose direction is perpendicular to the plane of motion of the body and of the fixed point, and such, that when the motion of the body is viewed from the extremity of the line, the radius-vector of the body seems to have right-handed rotation.", "title": "History" }, { "paragraph_id": 183, "text": "In an 1872 edition of the same book, Rankine stated that \"The term angular momentum was introduced by Mr. Hayward,\" probably referring to R.B. Hayward's article On a Direct Method of estimating Velocities, Accelerations, and all similar Quantities with respect to Axes moveable in any manner in Space with Applications, which was introduced in 1856, and published in 1864. Rankine was mistaken, as numerous publications feature the term starting in the late 18th to early 19th centuries. However, Hayward's article apparently was the first use of the term and the concept seen by much of the English-speaking world. Before this, angular momentum was typically referred to as \"momentum of rotation\" in English.", "title": "History" } ]

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