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Which team did Djamel Bouaïcha play for in 02/05/2010? | May 02, 2010 | {
"text": [
"USM Annaba"
]
} | L2_Q5285217_P54_1 | Djamel Bouaïcha plays for JS Kabylie from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2013.
Djamel Bouaïcha plays for MC El Eulma from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2012.
Djamel Bouaïcha plays for Paradou AC from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2010.
Djamel Bouaïcha plays for RC Arbaâ from Jan, 2014 to Dec, 2022.
Djamel Bouaïcha plays for Mouloudia Club Oranais from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014.
Djamel Bouaïcha plays for USM Annaba from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011. | Djamel BouaïchaDjamel Bouaïcha (born June 19, 1982 in Meftah) is an Algerian football player who plays for RC Arbaâ in the Algerian Ligue Professionnelle 1.In the summer of 2011, Bouaïcha left USM Annaba for MC El Eulma. On September 10, 2011, he made his debut for the club, in a league match against CR Belouizdad. A week later, in his second match for the club, he scored two goals against WA Tlemcen. | [
"RC Arbaâ",
"MC El Eulma",
"Mouloudia Club Oranais",
"Paradou AC",
"JS Kabylie"
] |
|
Which team did Djamel Bouaïcha play for in May 02, 2010? | May 02, 2010 | {
"text": [
"USM Annaba"
]
} | L2_Q5285217_P54_1 | Djamel Bouaïcha plays for JS Kabylie from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2013.
Djamel Bouaïcha plays for MC El Eulma from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2012.
Djamel Bouaïcha plays for Paradou AC from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2010.
Djamel Bouaïcha plays for RC Arbaâ from Jan, 2014 to Dec, 2022.
Djamel Bouaïcha plays for Mouloudia Club Oranais from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014.
Djamel Bouaïcha plays for USM Annaba from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011. | Djamel BouaïchaDjamel Bouaïcha (born June 19, 1982 in Meftah) is an Algerian football player who plays for RC Arbaâ in the Algerian Ligue Professionnelle 1.In the summer of 2011, Bouaïcha left USM Annaba for MC El Eulma. On September 10, 2011, he made his debut for the club, in a league match against CR Belouizdad. A week later, in his second match for the club, he scored two goals against WA Tlemcen. | [
"RC Arbaâ",
"MC El Eulma",
"Mouloudia Club Oranais",
"Paradou AC",
"JS Kabylie"
] |
|
Which team did Djamel Bouaïcha play for in 05/02/2010? | May 02, 2010 | {
"text": [
"USM Annaba"
]
} | L2_Q5285217_P54_1 | Djamel Bouaïcha plays for JS Kabylie from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2013.
Djamel Bouaïcha plays for MC El Eulma from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2012.
Djamel Bouaïcha plays for Paradou AC from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2010.
Djamel Bouaïcha plays for RC Arbaâ from Jan, 2014 to Dec, 2022.
Djamel Bouaïcha plays for Mouloudia Club Oranais from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014.
Djamel Bouaïcha plays for USM Annaba from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011. | Djamel BouaïchaDjamel Bouaïcha (born June 19, 1982 in Meftah) is an Algerian football player who plays for RC Arbaâ in the Algerian Ligue Professionnelle 1.In the summer of 2011, Bouaïcha left USM Annaba for MC El Eulma. On September 10, 2011, he made his debut for the club, in a league match against CR Belouizdad. A week later, in his second match for the club, he scored two goals against WA Tlemcen. | [
"RC Arbaâ",
"MC El Eulma",
"Mouloudia Club Oranais",
"Paradou AC",
"JS Kabylie"
] |
|
Which team did Djamel Bouaïcha play for in 02-May-201002-May-2010? | May 02, 2010 | {
"text": [
"USM Annaba"
]
} | L2_Q5285217_P54_1 | Djamel Bouaïcha plays for JS Kabylie from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2013.
Djamel Bouaïcha plays for MC El Eulma from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2012.
Djamel Bouaïcha plays for Paradou AC from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2010.
Djamel Bouaïcha plays for RC Arbaâ from Jan, 2014 to Dec, 2022.
Djamel Bouaïcha plays for Mouloudia Club Oranais from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014.
Djamel Bouaïcha plays for USM Annaba from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011. | Djamel BouaïchaDjamel Bouaïcha (born June 19, 1982 in Meftah) is an Algerian football player who plays for RC Arbaâ in the Algerian Ligue Professionnelle 1.In the summer of 2011, Bouaïcha left USM Annaba for MC El Eulma. On September 10, 2011, he made his debut for the club, in a league match against CR Belouizdad. A week later, in his second match for the club, he scored two goals against WA Tlemcen. | [
"RC Arbaâ",
"MC El Eulma",
"Mouloudia Club Oranais",
"Paradou AC",
"JS Kabylie"
] |
|
Who was the head of Kharkiv Oblast in Sep, 2020? | September 17, 2020 | {
"text": [
"Oleksiy Kucher"
]
} | L2_Q170666_P6_1 | Oleksiy Kucher is the head of the government of Kharkiv Oblast from Nov, 2019 to Nov, 2020.
Yuliya Svitlychna is the head of the government of Kharkiv Oblast from Aug, 2016 to Nov, 2019.
Aina Tymchuk is the head of the government of Kharkiv Oblast from Nov, 2020 to Aug, 2021. | Kharkiv OblastKharkiv Oblast (, also referred to as , ; ) is an oblast (province) in eastern Ukraine. The oblast borders Russia to the north, Luhansk Oblast to the east, Donetsk Oblast to the south-east, Dnipropetrovsk Oblast to the south-west, Poltava Oblast to the west and Sumy Oblast to the north-west. The area of the oblast is 31,400 km², corresponding to 5.2% of the total territory of Ukraine. Population: The oblast is the third most populous province of Ukraine, with a population of 2,857,751 in 2004, more than half (1.5 million) of whom live in the city of Kharkiv, the oblast's administrative center. While the Russian language is primarily spoken in the cities of Kharkiv oblast, elsewhere in the oblast most inhabitants speak Ukrainian.The oblast borders Russia to the north, Luhansk Oblast to the east, Donetsk Oblast to the south-east, Dnipropetrovsk Oblast to the south-west, Poltava Oblast to the west and Sumy Oblast to the north-west.During the Soviet administrative reform of 1923–1929, in 1925, the Kharkov Governorate was abolished leaving its five okruhas: Okhtyrka (originally Bohodukhiv), Izyum, Kupyansk, Sumy, and Kharkiv. Introduced in the Soviet Union in 1923, a similar subdivisions existed in Ukraine back in 1918. In 1930 all okruhas were also abolished with raions becoming the first level of subdivision of Ukraine until 1932.The modern Kharkiv Oblast was established on 27 February 1932. In summer of 1932, some parts of the oblast were included in the newly created Donetsk Oblast originally centered in Artemivsk (later in Stalino). Then in the fall, some territories of the Kharkiv Oblast were used in creation of Chernihiv Oblast. More territories became part of Poltava Oblast in fall of 1937 and Sumy Oblast in winter of 1939.During the Holodomor the population of the Kharkiv Oblast together with Kyiv Oblast suffered the most. The region saw major fighting during World War II in several Battles of Kharkov between 1941 and 1943.During the 1991 referendum, 86.33% of votes in Kharkiv Oblast were in favor of the Declaration of Independence of Ukraine. A survey conducted in December 2014 by the Kyiv International Institute of Sociology found 4.2% of the oblast's population supported their region joining Russia, 71.5% did not support the idea, and the rest were undecided or did not respond.The following sites were nominated for the Seven Wonders of Ukraine.Its population in 2001 was 2,895,800 million (1,328,900 males (45.9%) and 1,566,900 females (54.1%)).At the 2001 census, the ethnic groups within the Kharkiv Oblast were:the groups by native language:The Kharkiv oblast has a primarily industrially based economy, including engineering, metallurgy, manufacturing, production of chemicals and food processing. It also has an important agricultural sector with 19,000 square kilometres of arable land (comprising 5.9% of the total arable lands of Ukraine). Agricultural production grew substantially in 2015.Also in Kharkiv is the Airplane plant for space controlling systems. It is a major center for all branches of engineering, from large-scale manufacture to microelectronics. Also situated in Kharkiv Oblast is a gas field, which is one of the biggest in Ukraine.The Kharkiv Oblast is administratively subdivided into 7 raions (districts) (prior to 2020 decentralization reform this number was 25), as well as 7 cities (municipalities) which are directly subordinate to the oblast government: Chuhuiv, Izium, Kupiansk, Liubotyn, Lozova, Pervomaiskyi, and the administrative center of the oblast, Kharkiv.Note: Asterisks (*) Though the administrative center of the rayon is housed in the city/town that it is named after, cities do not answer to the rayon authorities only towns do; instead they are directly subordinated to the oblast government and therefore are not counted as part of rayon statistics.Most of Ukraine's oblasts are named after their capital cities, officially called "oblast centers" (, translit. "oblasnyi tsentr"). The name of each oblast is a relative adjective, formed by adding a feminine suffix to the name of respective center city: "Kharkiv" is the center of the "Kharkivs’ka oblast’" (Kharkiv Oblast). Most oblasts are also sometimes referred to in a feminine noun form, following the convention of traditional regional place names, ending with the suffix "-shchyna", as is the case with the Kharkiv Oblast, "Kharkivshchyna".It has a regional federation within Ukrainian Bandy and Rink bandy Federation. | [
"Yuliya Svitlychna",
"Aina Tymchuk"
] |
|
Who was the head of Kharkiv Oblast in 2020-09-17? | September 17, 2020 | {
"text": [
"Oleksiy Kucher"
]
} | L2_Q170666_P6_1 | Oleksiy Kucher is the head of the government of Kharkiv Oblast from Nov, 2019 to Nov, 2020.
Yuliya Svitlychna is the head of the government of Kharkiv Oblast from Aug, 2016 to Nov, 2019.
Aina Tymchuk is the head of the government of Kharkiv Oblast from Nov, 2020 to Aug, 2021. | Kharkiv OblastKharkiv Oblast (, also referred to as , ; ) is an oblast (province) in eastern Ukraine. The oblast borders Russia to the north, Luhansk Oblast to the east, Donetsk Oblast to the south-east, Dnipropetrovsk Oblast to the south-west, Poltava Oblast to the west and Sumy Oblast to the north-west. The area of the oblast is 31,400 km², corresponding to 5.2% of the total territory of Ukraine. Population: The oblast is the third most populous province of Ukraine, with a population of 2,857,751 in 2004, more than half (1.5 million) of whom live in the city of Kharkiv, the oblast's administrative center. While the Russian language is primarily spoken in the cities of Kharkiv oblast, elsewhere in the oblast most inhabitants speak Ukrainian.The oblast borders Russia to the north, Luhansk Oblast to the east, Donetsk Oblast to the south-east, Dnipropetrovsk Oblast to the south-west, Poltava Oblast to the west and Sumy Oblast to the north-west.During the Soviet administrative reform of 1923–1929, in 1925, the Kharkov Governorate was abolished leaving its five okruhas: Okhtyrka (originally Bohodukhiv), Izyum, Kupyansk, Sumy, and Kharkiv. Introduced in the Soviet Union in 1923, a similar subdivisions existed in Ukraine back in 1918. In 1930 all okruhas were also abolished with raions becoming the first level of subdivision of Ukraine until 1932.The modern Kharkiv Oblast was established on 27 February 1932. In summer of 1932, some parts of the oblast were included in the newly created Donetsk Oblast originally centered in Artemivsk (later in Stalino). Then in the fall, some territories of the Kharkiv Oblast were used in creation of Chernihiv Oblast. More territories became part of Poltava Oblast in fall of 1937 and Sumy Oblast in winter of 1939.During the Holodomor the population of the Kharkiv Oblast together with Kyiv Oblast suffered the most. The region saw major fighting during World War II in several Battles of Kharkov between 1941 and 1943.During the 1991 referendum, 86.33% of votes in Kharkiv Oblast were in favor of the Declaration of Independence of Ukraine. A survey conducted in December 2014 by the Kyiv International Institute of Sociology found 4.2% of the oblast's population supported their region joining Russia, 71.5% did not support the idea, and the rest were undecided or did not respond.The following sites were nominated for the Seven Wonders of Ukraine.Its population in 2001 was 2,895,800 million (1,328,900 males (45.9%) and 1,566,900 females (54.1%)).At the 2001 census, the ethnic groups within the Kharkiv Oblast were:the groups by native language:The Kharkiv oblast has a primarily industrially based economy, including engineering, metallurgy, manufacturing, production of chemicals and food processing. It also has an important agricultural sector with 19,000 square kilometres of arable land (comprising 5.9% of the total arable lands of Ukraine). Agricultural production grew substantially in 2015.Also in Kharkiv is the Airplane plant for space controlling systems. It is a major center for all branches of engineering, from large-scale manufacture to microelectronics. Also situated in Kharkiv Oblast is a gas field, which is one of the biggest in Ukraine.The Kharkiv Oblast is administratively subdivided into 7 raions (districts) (prior to 2020 decentralization reform this number was 25), as well as 7 cities (municipalities) which are directly subordinate to the oblast government: Chuhuiv, Izium, Kupiansk, Liubotyn, Lozova, Pervomaiskyi, and the administrative center of the oblast, Kharkiv.Note: Asterisks (*) Though the administrative center of the rayon is housed in the city/town that it is named after, cities do not answer to the rayon authorities only towns do; instead they are directly subordinated to the oblast government and therefore are not counted as part of rayon statistics.Most of Ukraine's oblasts are named after their capital cities, officially called "oblast centers" (, translit. "oblasnyi tsentr"). The name of each oblast is a relative adjective, formed by adding a feminine suffix to the name of respective center city: "Kharkiv" is the center of the "Kharkivs’ka oblast’" (Kharkiv Oblast). Most oblasts are also sometimes referred to in a feminine noun form, following the convention of traditional regional place names, ending with the suffix "-shchyna", as is the case with the Kharkiv Oblast, "Kharkivshchyna".It has a regional federation within Ukrainian Bandy and Rink bandy Federation. | [
"Yuliya Svitlychna",
"Aina Tymchuk"
] |
|
Who was the head of Kharkiv Oblast in 17/09/2020? | September 17, 2020 | {
"text": [
"Oleksiy Kucher"
]
} | L2_Q170666_P6_1 | Oleksiy Kucher is the head of the government of Kharkiv Oblast from Nov, 2019 to Nov, 2020.
Yuliya Svitlychna is the head of the government of Kharkiv Oblast from Aug, 2016 to Nov, 2019.
Aina Tymchuk is the head of the government of Kharkiv Oblast from Nov, 2020 to Aug, 2021. | Kharkiv OblastKharkiv Oblast (, also referred to as , ; ) is an oblast (province) in eastern Ukraine. The oblast borders Russia to the north, Luhansk Oblast to the east, Donetsk Oblast to the south-east, Dnipropetrovsk Oblast to the south-west, Poltava Oblast to the west and Sumy Oblast to the north-west. The area of the oblast is 31,400 km², corresponding to 5.2% of the total territory of Ukraine. Population: The oblast is the third most populous province of Ukraine, with a population of 2,857,751 in 2004, more than half (1.5 million) of whom live in the city of Kharkiv, the oblast's administrative center. While the Russian language is primarily spoken in the cities of Kharkiv oblast, elsewhere in the oblast most inhabitants speak Ukrainian.The oblast borders Russia to the north, Luhansk Oblast to the east, Donetsk Oblast to the south-east, Dnipropetrovsk Oblast to the south-west, Poltava Oblast to the west and Sumy Oblast to the north-west.During the Soviet administrative reform of 1923–1929, in 1925, the Kharkov Governorate was abolished leaving its five okruhas: Okhtyrka (originally Bohodukhiv), Izyum, Kupyansk, Sumy, and Kharkiv. Introduced in the Soviet Union in 1923, a similar subdivisions existed in Ukraine back in 1918. In 1930 all okruhas were also abolished with raions becoming the first level of subdivision of Ukraine until 1932.The modern Kharkiv Oblast was established on 27 February 1932. In summer of 1932, some parts of the oblast were included in the newly created Donetsk Oblast originally centered in Artemivsk (later in Stalino). Then in the fall, some territories of the Kharkiv Oblast were used in creation of Chernihiv Oblast. More territories became part of Poltava Oblast in fall of 1937 and Sumy Oblast in winter of 1939.During the Holodomor the population of the Kharkiv Oblast together with Kyiv Oblast suffered the most. The region saw major fighting during World War II in several Battles of Kharkov between 1941 and 1943.During the 1991 referendum, 86.33% of votes in Kharkiv Oblast were in favor of the Declaration of Independence of Ukraine. A survey conducted in December 2014 by the Kyiv International Institute of Sociology found 4.2% of the oblast's population supported their region joining Russia, 71.5% did not support the idea, and the rest were undecided or did not respond.The following sites were nominated for the Seven Wonders of Ukraine.Its population in 2001 was 2,895,800 million (1,328,900 males (45.9%) and 1,566,900 females (54.1%)).At the 2001 census, the ethnic groups within the Kharkiv Oblast were:the groups by native language:The Kharkiv oblast has a primarily industrially based economy, including engineering, metallurgy, manufacturing, production of chemicals and food processing. It also has an important agricultural sector with 19,000 square kilometres of arable land (comprising 5.9% of the total arable lands of Ukraine). Agricultural production grew substantially in 2015.Also in Kharkiv is the Airplane plant for space controlling systems. It is a major center for all branches of engineering, from large-scale manufacture to microelectronics. Also situated in Kharkiv Oblast is a gas field, which is one of the biggest in Ukraine.The Kharkiv Oblast is administratively subdivided into 7 raions (districts) (prior to 2020 decentralization reform this number was 25), as well as 7 cities (municipalities) which are directly subordinate to the oblast government: Chuhuiv, Izium, Kupiansk, Liubotyn, Lozova, Pervomaiskyi, and the administrative center of the oblast, Kharkiv.Note: Asterisks (*) Though the administrative center of the rayon is housed in the city/town that it is named after, cities do not answer to the rayon authorities only towns do; instead they are directly subordinated to the oblast government and therefore are not counted as part of rayon statistics.Most of Ukraine's oblasts are named after their capital cities, officially called "oblast centers" (, translit. "oblasnyi tsentr"). The name of each oblast is a relative adjective, formed by adding a feminine suffix to the name of respective center city: "Kharkiv" is the center of the "Kharkivs’ka oblast’" (Kharkiv Oblast). Most oblasts are also sometimes referred to in a feminine noun form, following the convention of traditional regional place names, ending with the suffix "-shchyna", as is the case with the Kharkiv Oblast, "Kharkivshchyna".It has a regional federation within Ukrainian Bandy and Rink bandy Federation. | [
"Yuliya Svitlychna",
"Aina Tymchuk"
] |
|
Who was the head of Kharkiv Oblast in Sep 17, 2020? | September 17, 2020 | {
"text": [
"Oleksiy Kucher"
]
} | L2_Q170666_P6_1 | Oleksiy Kucher is the head of the government of Kharkiv Oblast from Nov, 2019 to Nov, 2020.
Yuliya Svitlychna is the head of the government of Kharkiv Oblast from Aug, 2016 to Nov, 2019.
Aina Tymchuk is the head of the government of Kharkiv Oblast from Nov, 2020 to Aug, 2021. | Kharkiv OblastKharkiv Oblast (, also referred to as , ; ) is an oblast (province) in eastern Ukraine. The oblast borders Russia to the north, Luhansk Oblast to the east, Donetsk Oblast to the south-east, Dnipropetrovsk Oblast to the south-west, Poltava Oblast to the west and Sumy Oblast to the north-west. The area of the oblast is 31,400 km², corresponding to 5.2% of the total territory of Ukraine. Population: The oblast is the third most populous province of Ukraine, with a population of 2,857,751 in 2004, more than half (1.5 million) of whom live in the city of Kharkiv, the oblast's administrative center. While the Russian language is primarily spoken in the cities of Kharkiv oblast, elsewhere in the oblast most inhabitants speak Ukrainian.The oblast borders Russia to the north, Luhansk Oblast to the east, Donetsk Oblast to the south-east, Dnipropetrovsk Oblast to the south-west, Poltava Oblast to the west and Sumy Oblast to the north-west.During the Soviet administrative reform of 1923–1929, in 1925, the Kharkov Governorate was abolished leaving its five okruhas: Okhtyrka (originally Bohodukhiv), Izyum, Kupyansk, Sumy, and Kharkiv. Introduced in the Soviet Union in 1923, a similar subdivisions existed in Ukraine back in 1918. In 1930 all okruhas were also abolished with raions becoming the first level of subdivision of Ukraine until 1932.The modern Kharkiv Oblast was established on 27 February 1932. In summer of 1932, some parts of the oblast were included in the newly created Donetsk Oblast originally centered in Artemivsk (later in Stalino). Then in the fall, some territories of the Kharkiv Oblast were used in creation of Chernihiv Oblast. More territories became part of Poltava Oblast in fall of 1937 and Sumy Oblast in winter of 1939.During the Holodomor the population of the Kharkiv Oblast together with Kyiv Oblast suffered the most. The region saw major fighting during World War II in several Battles of Kharkov between 1941 and 1943.During the 1991 referendum, 86.33% of votes in Kharkiv Oblast were in favor of the Declaration of Independence of Ukraine. A survey conducted in December 2014 by the Kyiv International Institute of Sociology found 4.2% of the oblast's population supported their region joining Russia, 71.5% did not support the idea, and the rest were undecided or did not respond.The following sites were nominated for the Seven Wonders of Ukraine.Its population in 2001 was 2,895,800 million (1,328,900 males (45.9%) and 1,566,900 females (54.1%)).At the 2001 census, the ethnic groups within the Kharkiv Oblast were:the groups by native language:The Kharkiv oblast has a primarily industrially based economy, including engineering, metallurgy, manufacturing, production of chemicals and food processing. It also has an important agricultural sector with 19,000 square kilometres of arable land (comprising 5.9% of the total arable lands of Ukraine). Agricultural production grew substantially in 2015.Also in Kharkiv is the Airplane plant for space controlling systems. It is a major center for all branches of engineering, from large-scale manufacture to microelectronics. Also situated in Kharkiv Oblast is a gas field, which is one of the biggest in Ukraine.The Kharkiv Oblast is administratively subdivided into 7 raions (districts) (prior to 2020 decentralization reform this number was 25), as well as 7 cities (municipalities) which are directly subordinate to the oblast government: Chuhuiv, Izium, Kupiansk, Liubotyn, Lozova, Pervomaiskyi, and the administrative center of the oblast, Kharkiv.Note: Asterisks (*) Though the administrative center of the rayon is housed in the city/town that it is named after, cities do not answer to the rayon authorities only towns do; instead they are directly subordinated to the oblast government and therefore are not counted as part of rayon statistics.Most of Ukraine's oblasts are named after their capital cities, officially called "oblast centers" (, translit. "oblasnyi tsentr"). The name of each oblast is a relative adjective, formed by adding a feminine suffix to the name of respective center city: "Kharkiv" is the center of the "Kharkivs’ka oblast’" (Kharkiv Oblast). Most oblasts are also sometimes referred to in a feminine noun form, following the convention of traditional regional place names, ending with the suffix "-shchyna", as is the case with the Kharkiv Oblast, "Kharkivshchyna".It has a regional federation within Ukrainian Bandy and Rink bandy Federation. | [
"Yuliya Svitlychna",
"Aina Tymchuk"
] |
|
Who was the head of Kharkiv Oblast in 09/17/2020? | September 17, 2020 | {
"text": [
"Oleksiy Kucher"
]
} | L2_Q170666_P6_1 | Oleksiy Kucher is the head of the government of Kharkiv Oblast from Nov, 2019 to Nov, 2020.
Yuliya Svitlychna is the head of the government of Kharkiv Oblast from Aug, 2016 to Nov, 2019.
Aina Tymchuk is the head of the government of Kharkiv Oblast from Nov, 2020 to Aug, 2021. | Kharkiv OblastKharkiv Oblast (, also referred to as , ; ) is an oblast (province) in eastern Ukraine. The oblast borders Russia to the north, Luhansk Oblast to the east, Donetsk Oblast to the south-east, Dnipropetrovsk Oblast to the south-west, Poltava Oblast to the west and Sumy Oblast to the north-west. The area of the oblast is 31,400 km², corresponding to 5.2% of the total territory of Ukraine. Population: The oblast is the third most populous province of Ukraine, with a population of 2,857,751 in 2004, more than half (1.5 million) of whom live in the city of Kharkiv, the oblast's administrative center. While the Russian language is primarily spoken in the cities of Kharkiv oblast, elsewhere in the oblast most inhabitants speak Ukrainian.The oblast borders Russia to the north, Luhansk Oblast to the east, Donetsk Oblast to the south-east, Dnipropetrovsk Oblast to the south-west, Poltava Oblast to the west and Sumy Oblast to the north-west.During the Soviet administrative reform of 1923–1929, in 1925, the Kharkov Governorate was abolished leaving its five okruhas: Okhtyrka (originally Bohodukhiv), Izyum, Kupyansk, Sumy, and Kharkiv. Introduced in the Soviet Union in 1923, a similar subdivisions existed in Ukraine back in 1918. In 1930 all okruhas were also abolished with raions becoming the first level of subdivision of Ukraine until 1932.The modern Kharkiv Oblast was established on 27 February 1932. In summer of 1932, some parts of the oblast were included in the newly created Donetsk Oblast originally centered in Artemivsk (later in Stalino). Then in the fall, some territories of the Kharkiv Oblast were used in creation of Chernihiv Oblast. More territories became part of Poltava Oblast in fall of 1937 and Sumy Oblast in winter of 1939.During the Holodomor the population of the Kharkiv Oblast together with Kyiv Oblast suffered the most. The region saw major fighting during World War II in several Battles of Kharkov between 1941 and 1943.During the 1991 referendum, 86.33% of votes in Kharkiv Oblast were in favor of the Declaration of Independence of Ukraine. A survey conducted in December 2014 by the Kyiv International Institute of Sociology found 4.2% of the oblast's population supported their region joining Russia, 71.5% did not support the idea, and the rest were undecided or did not respond.The following sites were nominated for the Seven Wonders of Ukraine.Its population in 2001 was 2,895,800 million (1,328,900 males (45.9%) and 1,566,900 females (54.1%)).At the 2001 census, the ethnic groups within the Kharkiv Oblast were:the groups by native language:The Kharkiv oblast has a primarily industrially based economy, including engineering, metallurgy, manufacturing, production of chemicals and food processing. It also has an important agricultural sector with 19,000 square kilometres of arable land (comprising 5.9% of the total arable lands of Ukraine). Agricultural production grew substantially in 2015.Also in Kharkiv is the Airplane plant for space controlling systems. It is a major center for all branches of engineering, from large-scale manufacture to microelectronics. Also situated in Kharkiv Oblast is a gas field, which is one of the biggest in Ukraine.The Kharkiv Oblast is administratively subdivided into 7 raions (districts) (prior to 2020 decentralization reform this number was 25), as well as 7 cities (municipalities) which are directly subordinate to the oblast government: Chuhuiv, Izium, Kupiansk, Liubotyn, Lozova, Pervomaiskyi, and the administrative center of the oblast, Kharkiv.Note: Asterisks (*) Though the administrative center of the rayon is housed in the city/town that it is named after, cities do not answer to the rayon authorities only towns do; instead they are directly subordinated to the oblast government and therefore are not counted as part of rayon statistics.Most of Ukraine's oblasts are named after their capital cities, officially called "oblast centers" (, translit. "oblasnyi tsentr"). The name of each oblast is a relative adjective, formed by adding a feminine suffix to the name of respective center city: "Kharkiv" is the center of the "Kharkivs’ka oblast’" (Kharkiv Oblast). Most oblasts are also sometimes referred to in a feminine noun form, following the convention of traditional regional place names, ending with the suffix "-shchyna", as is the case with the Kharkiv Oblast, "Kharkivshchyna".It has a regional federation within Ukrainian Bandy and Rink bandy Federation. | [
"Yuliya Svitlychna",
"Aina Tymchuk"
] |
|
Who was the head of Kharkiv Oblast in 17-Sep-202017-September-2020? | September 17, 2020 | {
"text": [
"Oleksiy Kucher"
]
} | L2_Q170666_P6_1 | Oleksiy Kucher is the head of the government of Kharkiv Oblast from Nov, 2019 to Nov, 2020.
Yuliya Svitlychna is the head of the government of Kharkiv Oblast from Aug, 2016 to Nov, 2019.
Aina Tymchuk is the head of the government of Kharkiv Oblast from Nov, 2020 to Aug, 2021. | Kharkiv OblastKharkiv Oblast (, also referred to as , ; ) is an oblast (province) in eastern Ukraine. The oblast borders Russia to the north, Luhansk Oblast to the east, Donetsk Oblast to the south-east, Dnipropetrovsk Oblast to the south-west, Poltava Oblast to the west and Sumy Oblast to the north-west. The area of the oblast is 31,400 km², corresponding to 5.2% of the total territory of Ukraine. Population: The oblast is the third most populous province of Ukraine, with a population of 2,857,751 in 2004, more than half (1.5 million) of whom live in the city of Kharkiv, the oblast's administrative center. While the Russian language is primarily spoken in the cities of Kharkiv oblast, elsewhere in the oblast most inhabitants speak Ukrainian.The oblast borders Russia to the north, Luhansk Oblast to the east, Donetsk Oblast to the south-east, Dnipropetrovsk Oblast to the south-west, Poltava Oblast to the west and Sumy Oblast to the north-west.During the Soviet administrative reform of 1923–1929, in 1925, the Kharkov Governorate was abolished leaving its five okruhas: Okhtyrka (originally Bohodukhiv), Izyum, Kupyansk, Sumy, and Kharkiv. Introduced in the Soviet Union in 1923, a similar subdivisions existed in Ukraine back in 1918. In 1930 all okruhas were also abolished with raions becoming the first level of subdivision of Ukraine until 1932.The modern Kharkiv Oblast was established on 27 February 1932. In summer of 1932, some parts of the oblast were included in the newly created Donetsk Oblast originally centered in Artemivsk (later in Stalino). Then in the fall, some territories of the Kharkiv Oblast were used in creation of Chernihiv Oblast. More territories became part of Poltava Oblast in fall of 1937 and Sumy Oblast in winter of 1939.During the Holodomor the population of the Kharkiv Oblast together with Kyiv Oblast suffered the most. The region saw major fighting during World War II in several Battles of Kharkov between 1941 and 1943.During the 1991 referendum, 86.33% of votes in Kharkiv Oblast were in favor of the Declaration of Independence of Ukraine. A survey conducted in December 2014 by the Kyiv International Institute of Sociology found 4.2% of the oblast's population supported their region joining Russia, 71.5% did not support the idea, and the rest were undecided or did not respond.The following sites were nominated for the Seven Wonders of Ukraine.Its population in 2001 was 2,895,800 million (1,328,900 males (45.9%) and 1,566,900 females (54.1%)).At the 2001 census, the ethnic groups within the Kharkiv Oblast were:the groups by native language:The Kharkiv oblast has a primarily industrially based economy, including engineering, metallurgy, manufacturing, production of chemicals and food processing. It also has an important agricultural sector with 19,000 square kilometres of arable land (comprising 5.9% of the total arable lands of Ukraine). Agricultural production grew substantially in 2015.Also in Kharkiv is the Airplane plant for space controlling systems. It is a major center for all branches of engineering, from large-scale manufacture to microelectronics. Also situated in Kharkiv Oblast is a gas field, which is one of the biggest in Ukraine.The Kharkiv Oblast is administratively subdivided into 7 raions (districts) (prior to 2020 decentralization reform this number was 25), as well as 7 cities (municipalities) which are directly subordinate to the oblast government: Chuhuiv, Izium, Kupiansk, Liubotyn, Lozova, Pervomaiskyi, and the administrative center of the oblast, Kharkiv.Note: Asterisks (*) Though the administrative center of the rayon is housed in the city/town that it is named after, cities do not answer to the rayon authorities only towns do; instead they are directly subordinated to the oblast government and therefore are not counted as part of rayon statistics.Most of Ukraine's oblasts are named after their capital cities, officially called "oblast centers" (, translit. "oblasnyi tsentr"). The name of each oblast is a relative adjective, formed by adding a feminine suffix to the name of respective center city: "Kharkiv" is the center of the "Kharkivs’ka oblast’" (Kharkiv Oblast). Most oblasts are also sometimes referred to in a feminine noun form, following the convention of traditional regional place names, ending with the suffix "-shchyna", as is the case with the Kharkiv Oblast, "Kharkivshchyna".It has a regional federation within Ukrainian Bandy and Rink bandy Federation. | [
"Yuliya Svitlychna",
"Aina Tymchuk"
] |
|
Which position did Hrushikesh Naik hold in Mar, 1988? | March 29, 1988 | {
"text": [
"Member of the Ninth Odisha Legislative Assembly"
]
} | L2_Q23761984_P39_1 | Hrushikesh Naik holds the position of Member of the Eighth Odisha Legislative Assembly from Jun, 1980 to Mar, 1985.
Hrushikesh Naik holds the position of Member of the Eleventh Odisha Legislative Assembly from Mar, 1995 to Feb, 2000.
Hrushikesh Naik holds the position of Member of the Fourteenth Odisha Legislative Assembly from May, 2009 to May, 2014.
Hrushikesh Naik holds the position of Member of the Ninth Odisha Legislative Assembly from Mar, 1985 to Mar, 1990.
Hrushikesh Naik holds the position of Member of the Fifteenth Odisha Legislative Assembly from May, 2014 to Dec, 2022. | Hrushikesh NaikHrushikesh Naik is a politician from Odisha, India. He represents the Patna (Odisha Vidhan Sabha constituency) since the year 2014.He is the chairperson of District Planning Committee (DPC) of Kendujhar District. | [
"Member of the Fourteenth Odisha Legislative Assembly",
"Member of the Eleventh Odisha Legislative Assembly",
"Member of the Eighth Odisha Legislative Assembly",
"Member of the Fifteenth Odisha Legislative Assembly"
] |
|
Which position did Hrushikesh Naik hold in 1988-03-29? | March 29, 1988 | {
"text": [
"Member of the Ninth Odisha Legislative Assembly"
]
} | L2_Q23761984_P39_1 | Hrushikesh Naik holds the position of Member of the Eighth Odisha Legislative Assembly from Jun, 1980 to Mar, 1985.
Hrushikesh Naik holds the position of Member of the Eleventh Odisha Legislative Assembly from Mar, 1995 to Feb, 2000.
Hrushikesh Naik holds the position of Member of the Fourteenth Odisha Legislative Assembly from May, 2009 to May, 2014.
Hrushikesh Naik holds the position of Member of the Ninth Odisha Legislative Assembly from Mar, 1985 to Mar, 1990.
Hrushikesh Naik holds the position of Member of the Fifteenth Odisha Legislative Assembly from May, 2014 to Dec, 2022. | Hrushikesh NaikHrushikesh Naik is a politician from Odisha, India. He represents the Patna (Odisha Vidhan Sabha constituency) since the year 2014.He is the chairperson of District Planning Committee (DPC) of Kendujhar District. | [
"Member of the Fourteenth Odisha Legislative Assembly",
"Member of the Eleventh Odisha Legislative Assembly",
"Member of the Eighth Odisha Legislative Assembly",
"Member of the Fifteenth Odisha Legislative Assembly"
] |
|
Which position did Hrushikesh Naik hold in 29/03/1988? | March 29, 1988 | {
"text": [
"Member of the Ninth Odisha Legislative Assembly"
]
} | L2_Q23761984_P39_1 | Hrushikesh Naik holds the position of Member of the Eighth Odisha Legislative Assembly from Jun, 1980 to Mar, 1985.
Hrushikesh Naik holds the position of Member of the Eleventh Odisha Legislative Assembly from Mar, 1995 to Feb, 2000.
Hrushikesh Naik holds the position of Member of the Fourteenth Odisha Legislative Assembly from May, 2009 to May, 2014.
Hrushikesh Naik holds the position of Member of the Ninth Odisha Legislative Assembly from Mar, 1985 to Mar, 1990.
Hrushikesh Naik holds the position of Member of the Fifteenth Odisha Legislative Assembly from May, 2014 to Dec, 2022. | Hrushikesh NaikHrushikesh Naik is a politician from Odisha, India. He represents the Patna (Odisha Vidhan Sabha constituency) since the year 2014.He is the chairperson of District Planning Committee (DPC) of Kendujhar District. | [
"Member of the Fourteenth Odisha Legislative Assembly",
"Member of the Eleventh Odisha Legislative Assembly",
"Member of the Eighth Odisha Legislative Assembly",
"Member of the Fifteenth Odisha Legislative Assembly"
] |
|
Which position did Hrushikesh Naik hold in Mar 29, 1988? | March 29, 1988 | {
"text": [
"Member of the Ninth Odisha Legislative Assembly"
]
} | L2_Q23761984_P39_1 | Hrushikesh Naik holds the position of Member of the Eighth Odisha Legislative Assembly from Jun, 1980 to Mar, 1985.
Hrushikesh Naik holds the position of Member of the Eleventh Odisha Legislative Assembly from Mar, 1995 to Feb, 2000.
Hrushikesh Naik holds the position of Member of the Fourteenth Odisha Legislative Assembly from May, 2009 to May, 2014.
Hrushikesh Naik holds the position of Member of the Ninth Odisha Legislative Assembly from Mar, 1985 to Mar, 1990.
Hrushikesh Naik holds the position of Member of the Fifteenth Odisha Legislative Assembly from May, 2014 to Dec, 2022. | Hrushikesh NaikHrushikesh Naik is a politician from Odisha, India. He represents the Patna (Odisha Vidhan Sabha constituency) since the year 2014.He is the chairperson of District Planning Committee (DPC) of Kendujhar District. | [
"Member of the Fourteenth Odisha Legislative Assembly",
"Member of the Eleventh Odisha Legislative Assembly",
"Member of the Eighth Odisha Legislative Assembly",
"Member of the Fifteenth Odisha Legislative Assembly"
] |
|
Which position did Hrushikesh Naik hold in 03/29/1988? | March 29, 1988 | {
"text": [
"Member of the Ninth Odisha Legislative Assembly"
]
} | L2_Q23761984_P39_1 | Hrushikesh Naik holds the position of Member of the Eighth Odisha Legislative Assembly from Jun, 1980 to Mar, 1985.
Hrushikesh Naik holds the position of Member of the Eleventh Odisha Legislative Assembly from Mar, 1995 to Feb, 2000.
Hrushikesh Naik holds the position of Member of the Fourteenth Odisha Legislative Assembly from May, 2009 to May, 2014.
Hrushikesh Naik holds the position of Member of the Ninth Odisha Legislative Assembly from Mar, 1985 to Mar, 1990.
Hrushikesh Naik holds the position of Member of the Fifteenth Odisha Legislative Assembly from May, 2014 to Dec, 2022. | Hrushikesh NaikHrushikesh Naik is a politician from Odisha, India. He represents the Patna (Odisha Vidhan Sabha constituency) since the year 2014.He is the chairperson of District Planning Committee (DPC) of Kendujhar District. | [
"Member of the Fourteenth Odisha Legislative Assembly",
"Member of the Eleventh Odisha Legislative Assembly",
"Member of the Eighth Odisha Legislative Assembly",
"Member of the Fifteenth Odisha Legislative Assembly"
] |
|
Which position did Hrushikesh Naik hold in 29-Mar-198829-March-1988? | March 29, 1988 | {
"text": [
"Member of the Ninth Odisha Legislative Assembly"
]
} | L2_Q23761984_P39_1 | Hrushikesh Naik holds the position of Member of the Eighth Odisha Legislative Assembly from Jun, 1980 to Mar, 1985.
Hrushikesh Naik holds the position of Member of the Eleventh Odisha Legislative Assembly from Mar, 1995 to Feb, 2000.
Hrushikesh Naik holds the position of Member of the Fourteenth Odisha Legislative Assembly from May, 2009 to May, 2014.
Hrushikesh Naik holds the position of Member of the Ninth Odisha Legislative Assembly from Mar, 1985 to Mar, 1990.
Hrushikesh Naik holds the position of Member of the Fifteenth Odisha Legislative Assembly from May, 2014 to Dec, 2022. | Hrushikesh NaikHrushikesh Naik is a politician from Odisha, India. He represents the Patna (Odisha Vidhan Sabha constituency) since the year 2014.He is the chairperson of District Planning Committee (DPC) of Kendujhar District. | [
"Member of the Fourteenth Odisha Legislative Assembly",
"Member of the Eleventh Odisha Legislative Assembly",
"Member of the Eighth Odisha Legislative Assembly",
"Member of the Fifteenth Odisha Legislative Assembly"
] |
|
Which employer did Leonid Kantorovich work for in Jan, 1972? | January 28, 1972 | {
"text": [
"State Committee for Science and Technology"
]
} | L2_Q107441_P108_4 | Leonid Kantorovich works for Saint Petersburg State University from Jan, 1931 to Jan, 1960.
Leonid Kantorovich works for Novosibirsk State University from Jan, 1961 to Jan, 1971.
Leonid Kantorovich works for State Committee for Science and Technology from Jan, 1971 to Jan, 1976.
Leonid Kantorovich works for Military Engineering-Technical University from Jan, 1939 to Jan, 1945.
Leonid Kantorovich works for St. Petersburg State Transport University from Jan, 1930 to Jan, 1939.
Leonid Kantorovich works for Institute for Systems Analysis from Jan, 1976 to Jan, 1976. | Leonid KantorovichLeonid Vitaliyevich Kantorovich (; 19 January 19127 April 1986) was a Soviet mathematician and economist, known for his theory and development of techniques for the optimal allocation of resources. He is regarded as the founder of linear programming. He was the winner of the Stalin Prize in 1949 and the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1975.Kantorovich was born on 19 January 1912, to a Russian Jewish family. His father was a doctor practicing in Saint Petersburg. In 1926, at the age of fourteen, he began his studies at the Leningrad University. He graduated from the Faculty of Mathematics in 1930, and began his graduate studies. In 1934, at the age of 22 years, he became a full professor.Later, Kantorovich worked for the Soviet government. He was given the task of optimizing production in a plywood industry. He came up with the mathematical technique now known as linear programming in 1939, some years before it was advanced by George Dantzig. He authored several books including "The Mathematical Method of Production Planning and Organization" (Russian original 1939), "The Best Uses of Economic Resources" (Russian original 1959), and, with Vladimir Ivanovich Krylov, "Approximate methods of higher analysis" (Russian original 1936). For his work, Kantorovich was awarded the Stalin Prize in 1949.After 1939, he became the professor of Military Engineering-Technical University. During the Siege of Leningrad, Kantorovich was the professor of VITU of Navy and in charge of safety on the Road of Life. He calculated the optimal distance between cars on ice, depending on thickness of ice and temperature of the air. In December 1941 and January 1942, Kantorovich personally walked between cars driving on the ice of Lake Ladoga, on the Road of Life, to ensure the cars did not sink. However, many cars with food for survivors of the siege were destroyed by the German airstrikes. In 1948 Kantorovich was assigned to the atomic project of the USSR. For his feat and courage Kantorovich was awarded the Order of the Patriotic War, and was decorated with the medal "For Defense of Leningrad". After 1960, Kantorovich lived and worked in Novosibirsk, where he created and took charge of the Department of Computational Mathematics in Novosibirsk State University.The Nobel Memorial Prize, which he shared with Tjalling Koopmans, was given "for their contributions to the theory of optimum allocation of resources."In mathematical analysis, Kantorovich had important results in functional analysis, approximation theory, and operator theory.In particular, Kantorovich formulated fundamental results in the theory of normed vector lattices, which are called "K-spaces" in his honor.Kantorovich showed that functional analysis could be used in the analysis of iterative methods, obtaining the Kantorovich inequalities on the convergence rate of the gradient method and of Newton's method (see the Kantorovich theorem).Kantorovich considered infinite-dimensional optimization problems, such as the Kantorovich-Monge problem in transportation theory. His analysis proposed the Kantorovich metric, which is used in probability theory, in the theory of the weak convergence of probability measures. | [
"Military Engineering-Technical University",
"Novosibirsk State University",
"Saint Petersburg State University",
"Institute for Systems Analysis",
"St. Petersburg State Transport University"
] |
|
Which employer did Leonid Kantorovich work for in 1972-01-28? | January 28, 1972 | {
"text": [
"State Committee for Science and Technology"
]
} | L2_Q107441_P108_4 | Leonid Kantorovich works for Saint Petersburg State University from Jan, 1931 to Jan, 1960.
Leonid Kantorovich works for Novosibirsk State University from Jan, 1961 to Jan, 1971.
Leonid Kantorovich works for State Committee for Science and Technology from Jan, 1971 to Jan, 1976.
Leonid Kantorovich works for Military Engineering-Technical University from Jan, 1939 to Jan, 1945.
Leonid Kantorovich works for St. Petersburg State Transport University from Jan, 1930 to Jan, 1939.
Leonid Kantorovich works for Institute for Systems Analysis from Jan, 1976 to Jan, 1976. | Leonid KantorovichLeonid Vitaliyevich Kantorovich (; 19 January 19127 April 1986) was a Soviet mathematician and economist, known for his theory and development of techniques for the optimal allocation of resources. He is regarded as the founder of linear programming. He was the winner of the Stalin Prize in 1949 and the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1975.Kantorovich was born on 19 January 1912, to a Russian Jewish family. His father was a doctor practicing in Saint Petersburg. In 1926, at the age of fourteen, he began his studies at the Leningrad University. He graduated from the Faculty of Mathematics in 1930, and began his graduate studies. In 1934, at the age of 22 years, he became a full professor.Later, Kantorovich worked for the Soviet government. He was given the task of optimizing production in a plywood industry. He came up with the mathematical technique now known as linear programming in 1939, some years before it was advanced by George Dantzig. He authored several books including "The Mathematical Method of Production Planning and Organization" (Russian original 1939), "The Best Uses of Economic Resources" (Russian original 1959), and, with Vladimir Ivanovich Krylov, "Approximate methods of higher analysis" (Russian original 1936). For his work, Kantorovich was awarded the Stalin Prize in 1949.After 1939, he became the professor of Military Engineering-Technical University. During the Siege of Leningrad, Kantorovich was the professor of VITU of Navy and in charge of safety on the Road of Life. He calculated the optimal distance between cars on ice, depending on thickness of ice and temperature of the air. In December 1941 and January 1942, Kantorovich personally walked between cars driving on the ice of Lake Ladoga, on the Road of Life, to ensure the cars did not sink. However, many cars with food for survivors of the siege were destroyed by the German airstrikes. In 1948 Kantorovich was assigned to the atomic project of the USSR. For his feat and courage Kantorovich was awarded the Order of the Patriotic War, and was decorated with the medal "For Defense of Leningrad". After 1960, Kantorovich lived and worked in Novosibirsk, where he created and took charge of the Department of Computational Mathematics in Novosibirsk State University.The Nobel Memorial Prize, which he shared with Tjalling Koopmans, was given "for their contributions to the theory of optimum allocation of resources."In mathematical analysis, Kantorovich had important results in functional analysis, approximation theory, and operator theory.In particular, Kantorovich formulated fundamental results in the theory of normed vector lattices, which are called "K-spaces" in his honor.Kantorovich showed that functional analysis could be used in the analysis of iterative methods, obtaining the Kantorovich inequalities on the convergence rate of the gradient method and of Newton's method (see the Kantorovich theorem).Kantorovich considered infinite-dimensional optimization problems, such as the Kantorovich-Monge problem in transportation theory. His analysis proposed the Kantorovich metric, which is used in probability theory, in the theory of the weak convergence of probability measures. | [
"Military Engineering-Technical University",
"Novosibirsk State University",
"Saint Petersburg State University",
"Institute for Systems Analysis",
"St. Petersburg State Transport University"
] |
|
Which employer did Leonid Kantorovich work for in 28/01/1972? | January 28, 1972 | {
"text": [
"State Committee for Science and Technology"
]
} | L2_Q107441_P108_4 | Leonid Kantorovich works for Saint Petersburg State University from Jan, 1931 to Jan, 1960.
Leonid Kantorovich works for Novosibirsk State University from Jan, 1961 to Jan, 1971.
Leonid Kantorovich works for State Committee for Science and Technology from Jan, 1971 to Jan, 1976.
Leonid Kantorovich works for Military Engineering-Technical University from Jan, 1939 to Jan, 1945.
Leonid Kantorovich works for St. Petersburg State Transport University from Jan, 1930 to Jan, 1939.
Leonid Kantorovich works for Institute for Systems Analysis from Jan, 1976 to Jan, 1976. | Leonid KantorovichLeonid Vitaliyevich Kantorovich (; 19 January 19127 April 1986) was a Soviet mathematician and economist, known for his theory and development of techniques for the optimal allocation of resources. He is regarded as the founder of linear programming. He was the winner of the Stalin Prize in 1949 and the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1975.Kantorovich was born on 19 January 1912, to a Russian Jewish family. His father was a doctor practicing in Saint Petersburg. In 1926, at the age of fourteen, he began his studies at the Leningrad University. He graduated from the Faculty of Mathematics in 1930, and began his graduate studies. In 1934, at the age of 22 years, he became a full professor.Later, Kantorovich worked for the Soviet government. He was given the task of optimizing production in a plywood industry. He came up with the mathematical technique now known as linear programming in 1939, some years before it was advanced by George Dantzig. He authored several books including "The Mathematical Method of Production Planning and Organization" (Russian original 1939), "The Best Uses of Economic Resources" (Russian original 1959), and, with Vladimir Ivanovich Krylov, "Approximate methods of higher analysis" (Russian original 1936). For his work, Kantorovich was awarded the Stalin Prize in 1949.After 1939, he became the professor of Military Engineering-Technical University. During the Siege of Leningrad, Kantorovich was the professor of VITU of Navy and in charge of safety on the Road of Life. He calculated the optimal distance between cars on ice, depending on thickness of ice and temperature of the air. In December 1941 and January 1942, Kantorovich personally walked between cars driving on the ice of Lake Ladoga, on the Road of Life, to ensure the cars did not sink. However, many cars with food for survivors of the siege were destroyed by the German airstrikes. In 1948 Kantorovich was assigned to the atomic project of the USSR. For his feat and courage Kantorovich was awarded the Order of the Patriotic War, and was decorated with the medal "For Defense of Leningrad". After 1960, Kantorovich lived and worked in Novosibirsk, where he created and took charge of the Department of Computational Mathematics in Novosibirsk State University.The Nobel Memorial Prize, which he shared with Tjalling Koopmans, was given "for their contributions to the theory of optimum allocation of resources."In mathematical analysis, Kantorovich had important results in functional analysis, approximation theory, and operator theory.In particular, Kantorovich formulated fundamental results in the theory of normed vector lattices, which are called "K-spaces" in his honor.Kantorovich showed that functional analysis could be used in the analysis of iterative methods, obtaining the Kantorovich inequalities on the convergence rate of the gradient method and of Newton's method (see the Kantorovich theorem).Kantorovich considered infinite-dimensional optimization problems, such as the Kantorovich-Monge problem in transportation theory. His analysis proposed the Kantorovich metric, which is used in probability theory, in the theory of the weak convergence of probability measures. | [
"Military Engineering-Technical University",
"Novosibirsk State University",
"Saint Petersburg State University",
"Institute for Systems Analysis",
"St. Petersburg State Transport University"
] |
|
Which employer did Leonid Kantorovich work for in Jan 28, 1972? | January 28, 1972 | {
"text": [
"State Committee for Science and Technology"
]
} | L2_Q107441_P108_4 | Leonid Kantorovich works for Saint Petersburg State University from Jan, 1931 to Jan, 1960.
Leonid Kantorovich works for Novosibirsk State University from Jan, 1961 to Jan, 1971.
Leonid Kantorovich works for State Committee for Science and Technology from Jan, 1971 to Jan, 1976.
Leonid Kantorovich works for Military Engineering-Technical University from Jan, 1939 to Jan, 1945.
Leonid Kantorovich works for St. Petersburg State Transport University from Jan, 1930 to Jan, 1939.
Leonid Kantorovich works for Institute for Systems Analysis from Jan, 1976 to Jan, 1976. | Leonid KantorovichLeonid Vitaliyevich Kantorovich (; 19 January 19127 April 1986) was a Soviet mathematician and economist, known for his theory and development of techniques for the optimal allocation of resources. He is regarded as the founder of linear programming. He was the winner of the Stalin Prize in 1949 and the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1975.Kantorovich was born on 19 January 1912, to a Russian Jewish family. His father was a doctor practicing in Saint Petersburg. In 1926, at the age of fourteen, he began his studies at the Leningrad University. He graduated from the Faculty of Mathematics in 1930, and began his graduate studies. In 1934, at the age of 22 years, he became a full professor.Later, Kantorovich worked for the Soviet government. He was given the task of optimizing production in a plywood industry. He came up with the mathematical technique now known as linear programming in 1939, some years before it was advanced by George Dantzig. He authored several books including "The Mathematical Method of Production Planning and Organization" (Russian original 1939), "The Best Uses of Economic Resources" (Russian original 1959), and, with Vladimir Ivanovich Krylov, "Approximate methods of higher analysis" (Russian original 1936). For his work, Kantorovich was awarded the Stalin Prize in 1949.After 1939, he became the professor of Military Engineering-Technical University. During the Siege of Leningrad, Kantorovich was the professor of VITU of Navy and in charge of safety on the Road of Life. He calculated the optimal distance between cars on ice, depending on thickness of ice and temperature of the air. In December 1941 and January 1942, Kantorovich personally walked between cars driving on the ice of Lake Ladoga, on the Road of Life, to ensure the cars did not sink. However, many cars with food for survivors of the siege were destroyed by the German airstrikes. In 1948 Kantorovich was assigned to the atomic project of the USSR. For his feat and courage Kantorovich was awarded the Order of the Patriotic War, and was decorated with the medal "For Defense of Leningrad". After 1960, Kantorovich lived and worked in Novosibirsk, where he created and took charge of the Department of Computational Mathematics in Novosibirsk State University.The Nobel Memorial Prize, which he shared with Tjalling Koopmans, was given "for their contributions to the theory of optimum allocation of resources."In mathematical analysis, Kantorovich had important results in functional analysis, approximation theory, and operator theory.In particular, Kantorovich formulated fundamental results in the theory of normed vector lattices, which are called "K-spaces" in his honor.Kantorovich showed that functional analysis could be used in the analysis of iterative methods, obtaining the Kantorovich inequalities on the convergence rate of the gradient method and of Newton's method (see the Kantorovich theorem).Kantorovich considered infinite-dimensional optimization problems, such as the Kantorovich-Monge problem in transportation theory. His analysis proposed the Kantorovich metric, which is used in probability theory, in the theory of the weak convergence of probability measures. | [
"Military Engineering-Technical University",
"Novosibirsk State University",
"Saint Petersburg State University",
"Institute for Systems Analysis",
"St. Petersburg State Transport University"
] |
|
Which employer did Leonid Kantorovich work for in 01/28/1972? | January 28, 1972 | {
"text": [
"State Committee for Science and Technology"
]
} | L2_Q107441_P108_4 | Leonid Kantorovich works for Saint Petersburg State University from Jan, 1931 to Jan, 1960.
Leonid Kantorovich works for Novosibirsk State University from Jan, 1961 to Jan, 1971.
Leonid Kantorovich works for State Committee for Science and Technology from Jan, 1971 to Jan, 1976.
Leonid Kantorovich works for Military Engineering-Technical University from Jan, 1939 to Jan, 1945.
Leonid Kantorovich works for St. Petersburg State Transport University from Jan, 1930 to Jan, 1939.
Leonid Kantorovich works for Institute for Systems Analysis from Jan, 1976 to Jan, 1976. | Leonid KantorovichLeonid Vitaliyevich Kantorovich (; 19 January 19127 April 1986) was a Soviet mathematician and economist, known for his theory and development of techniques for the optimal allocation of resources. He is regarded as the founder of linear programming. He was the winner of the Stalin Prize in 1949 and the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1975.Kantorovich was born on 19 January 1912, to a Russian Jewish family. His father was a doctor practicing in Saint Petersburg. In 1926, at the age of fourteen, he began his studies at the Leningrad University. He graduated from the Faculty of Mathematics in 1930, and began his graduate studies. In 1934, at the age of 22 years, he became a full professor.Later, Kantorovich worked for the Soviet government. He was given the task of optimizing production in a plywood industry. He came up with the mathematical technique now known as linear programming in 1939, some years before it was advanced by George Dantzig. He authored several books including "The Mathematical Method of Production Planning and Organization" (Russian original 1939), "The Best Uses of Economic Resources" (Russian original 1959), and, with Vladimir Ivanovich Krylov, "Approximate methods of higher analysis" (Russian original 1936). For his work, Kantorovich was awarded the Stalin Prize in 1949.After 1939, he became the professor of Military Engineering-Technical University. During the Siege of Leningrad, Kantorovich was the professor of VITU of Navy and in charge of safety on the Road of Life. He calculated the optimal distance between cars on ice, depending on thickness of ice and temperature of the air. In December 1941 and January 1942, Kantorovich personally walked between cars driving on the ice of Lake Ladoga, on the Road of Life, to ensure the cars did not sink. However, many cars with food for survivors of the siege were destroyed by the German airstrikes. In 1948 Kantorovich was assigned to the atomic project of the USSR. For his feat and courage Kantorovich was awarded the Order of the Patriotic War, and was decorated with the medal "For Defense of Leningrad". After 1960, Kantorovich lived and worked in Novosibirsk, where he created and took charge of the Department of Computational Mathematics in Novosibirsk State University.The Nobel Memorial Prize, which he shared with Tjalling Koopmans, was given "for their contributions to the theory of optimum allocation of resources."In mathematical analysis, Kantorovich had important results in functional analysis, approximation theory, and operator theory.In particular, Kantorovich formulated fundamental results in the theory of normed vector lattices, which are called "K-spaces" in his honor.Kantorovich showed that functional analysis could be used in the analysis of iterative methods, obtaining the Kantorovich inequalities on the convergence rate of the gradient method and of Newton's method (see the Kantorovich theorem).Kantorovich considered infinite-dimensional optimization problems, such as the Kantorovich-Monge problem in transportation theory. His analysis proposed the Kantorovich metric, which is used in probability theory, in the theory of the weak convergence of probability measures. | [
"Military Engineering-Technical University",
"Novosibirsk State University",
"Saint Petersburg State University",
"Institute for Systems Analysis",
"St. Petersburg State Transport University"
] |
|
Which employer did Leonid Kantorovich work for in 28-Jan-197228-January-1972? | January 28, 1972 | {
"text": [
"State Committee for Science and Technology"
]
} | L2_Q107441_P108_4 | Leonid Kantorovich works for Saint Petersburg State University from Jan, 1931 to Jan, 1960.
Leonid Kantorovich works for Novosibirsk State University from Jan, 1961 to Jan, 1971.
Leonid Kantorovich works for State Committee for Science and Technology from Jan, 1971 to Jan, 1976.
Leonid Kantorovich works for Military Engineering-Technical University from Jan, 1939 to Jan, 1945.
Leonid Kantorovich works for St. Petersburg State Transport University from Jan, 1930 to Jan, 1939.
Leonid Kantorovich works for Institute for Systems Analysis from Jan, 1976 to Jan, 1976. | Leonid KantorovichLeonid Vitaliyevich Kantorovich (; 19 January 19127 April 1986) was a Soviet mathematician and economist, known for his theory and development of techniques for the optimal allocation of resources. He is regarded as the founder of linear programming. He was the winner of the Stalin Prize in 1949 and the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1975.Kantorovich was born on 19 January 1912, to a Russian Jewish family. His father was a doctor practicing in Saint Petersburg. In 1926, at the age of fourteen, he began his studies at the Leningrad University. He graduated from the Faculty of Mathematics in 1930, and began his graduate studies. In 1934, at the age of 22 years, he became a full professor.Later, Kantorovich worked for the Soviet government. He was given the task of optimizing production in a plywood industry. He came up with the mathematical technique now known as linear programming in 1939, some years before it was advanced by George Dantzig. He authored several books including "The Mathematical Method of Production Planning and Organization" (Russian original 1939), "The Best Uses of Economic Resources" (Russian original 1959), and, with Vladimir Ivanovich Krylov, "Approximate methods of higher analysis" (Russian original 1936). For his work, Kantorovich was awarded the Stalin Prize in 1949.After 1939, he became the professor of Military Engineering-Technical University. During the Siege of Leningrad, Kantorovich was the professor of VITU of Navy and in charge of safety on the Road of Life. He calculated the optimal distance between cars on ice, depending on thickness of ice and temperature of the air. In December 1941 and January 1942, Kantorovich personally walked between cars driving on the ice of Lake Ladoga, on the Road of Life, to ensure the cars did not sink. However, many cars with food for survivors of the siege were destroyed by the German airstrikes. In 1948 Kantorovich was assigned to the atomic project of the USSR. For his feat and courage Kantorovich was awarded the Order of the Patriotic War, and was decorated with the medal "For Defense of Leningrad". After 1960, Kantorovich lived and worked in Novosibirsk, where he created and took charge of the Department of Computational Mathematics in Novosibirsk State University.The Nobel Memorial Prize, which he shared with Tjalling Koopmans, was given "for their contributions to the theory of optimum allocation of resources."In mathematical analysis, Kantorovich had important results in functional analysis, approximation theory, and operator theory.In particular, Kantorovich formulated fundamental results in the theory of normed vector lattices, which are called "K-spaces" in his honor.Kantorovich showed that functional analysis could be used in the analysis of iterative methods, obtaining the Kantorovich inequalities on the convergence rate of the gradient method and of Newton's method (see the Kantorovich theorem).Kantorovich considered infinite-dimensional optimization problems, such as the Kantorovich-Monge problem in transportation theory. His analysis proposed the Kantorovich metric, which is used in probability theory, in the theory of the weak convergence of probability measures. | [
"Military Engineering-Technical University",
"Novosibirsk State University",
"Saint Petersburg State University",
"Institute for Systems Analysis",
"St. Petersburg State Transport University"
] |
|
Who was the head of Santa Coloma de Gramenet in Jun, 2001? | June 27, 2001 | {
"text": [
"Manuela de Madre"
]
} | L2_Q15473_P6_1 | Núria Parlón is the head of the government of Santa Coloma de Gramenet from Nov, 2009 to Dec, 2022.
Manuela de Madre is the head of the government of Santa Coloma de Gramenet from Jun, 1991 to Jun, 2002.
Bartomeu Muñoz i Calvet is the head of the government of Santa Coloma de Gramenet from Jun, 2002 to Nov, 2009.
Lluís Hernández Alcàsser is the head of the government of Santa Coloma de Gramenet from Apr, 1979 to Jun, 1991. | Santa Coloma de GramenetSanta Coloma de Gramenet () informally simply known as Santa Coloma (historically also known as "Gramenet de Besòs") is a municipality in Catalonia, Spain. It is essentially a suburb of Barcelona. It is situated on the south-east side of the Litoral range, with the Puig Castellar (299 m) as its highest point, on the left bank of the Besòs river: the municipalities of Sant Adrià de Besòs and Badalona separate it from the coast. It's the ninth most populated city in Catalonia.The area has been inhabited since at least the Iberic period, and the remains of an Iberic village have been found on Puig Castellar. The artefacts are housed in a museum in "La Torre Balldovina", a building dating from the 18th century.Other notable buildings include the renaissance palace of "La Torre Pallaresa" and the "noucentista""Clínica Mental".In November 2008, the city made worldwide news by installing solar panels on top of crypts in the local cemetery, in an effort to help fight climate change.Various archaeological finds from the Neolithic and Eneolithic times, discovered within the Santa Coloma de Gramanet area, reveal the presence of human groups at least from the year 3500 BC. It seems that between the 10th and 6th centuries BC. Several migrations from the north arrived in the area that converged a short time later in the settlement of the Iberian tribe of Layetanos, established in the 6th or 5th century BC. C. in the town of Puig Castellar, in the extreme north of the current municipality. They occupied the entire coastal strip from Sitges to Blanes, and their culture survived until the strong impact of the Roman conquest (3rd century BC) marked the beginning of their progressive extinction. The town of Puig Castellar was probably abandoned at the beginning of the 2nd century BC.There are hardly any data on the population in Roman and Visigothic times. It seems that there were several villages scattered in the valley, near the Besòs, very influenced by the neighboring cities: Baetulo (Badalona), active until the 2nd century AD. C., and Barcino (Barcelona).After the relative abandonment of the Saracen invasion, from the 9th century the repopulation of the sector began. The new settlers, coming from the north, had to know the tradition of the martyrdom of Santa Coloma (Santa Columba de Sens, sacrificed by the Romans in Gaul in the year 274, when she was only 17 years old) and it is probable that a pre-Romanesque church was dedicated to her. which was destroyed by Almanzor in 985. A Romanesque temple was built in the same place, documented since 1019, which survived as a parish church for more than seven centuries. Around this church the first urban nucleus began to form, which coexisted with some old farmhouses. This hypothesis about the origin of the toponym "Coloma", defended by the local historian Joan Vilaseca Segalés, contrasts with the one supported by other sources according to which "Coloma" would be the result of the evolution of the Latin word "columbarium", a name that Romans overlooked the place where the urns were placed with the cremated remains of the corpses. The systematic Christianization of "pagan" names exercised by the power of the Catholic Church contributed the qualifier of Saint, so common, on the other hand in other place names.In 1966, Víctor Jove Minguillón, accused of bribery for collecting bribes for the granting of licenses, was surprised by the imprisonment without bail of the former mayor from 2 October 1959 to 11 June 1965.In 2013 it joined the Network of Municipalities for the Third Republic, becoming the most populated city council of the same until the incorporation of Parla in 2016. Also during this year a discovery of underground hot springs was made in the Fondo neighborhood.The Plaza de la Vila, with its corresponding urbanization, emerged at the end of the s. XIX in the lands of the disappeared farmhouse of Can Pascali.The first nucleus of buildings, known as Casa de la Villa or New Town Hall, dates from the year 1886 and consisted of the municipal government offices, together with the court-prison and a school.This temple, dedicated to Santa Coloma (martyr), was built between 26 May 1912, when the first stone was laid and 5 September 1915, when it was inaugurated. It is one of the last neo-Gothic buildings to be built in Catalonia between the last of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. A new interpretation of medieval Gothic made with a good dose of freedom.On the exterior façade there is a pointed window instead of the typical rose window with a stained glass window that represents the Virgin of Montserrat. The mid-rise octagonal bell tower is topped by a conical black tile pinnacle reminiscent of Northern Europe. At the same time, we find some details of Catalan Modernism of the time, such as the ornamentation that surrounds the upper part of the bell tower based on pointed battlements and Greek crosses. A notable feature of the entire exterior is its verticality that gives it a "transcendent" air.The interior features a coffered ceiling that recalls the ceiling of the Santa Ágata chapel in Barcelona. It is a staggering of wooden beams that forms rectangular squares. The trace of the modernist movement is not lacking either, reflected in the combination of artificial stone and exposed brick and in the ornamentation carried by the two capitals - one lower and one upper - that support each column.The temple was designed and its works, in part, directed by Francesc d'Assís Berenguer i Mestres, a close collaborator of the great Gaudí with whom he worked for twenty-seven years. As Berenguer did not have the title of architect, the project was signed by Miquel Pascual i Tintorer. It seems that he assumed the direction of the works when he died suddenly in Berenguer in 1914, at the age of forty-seven. The construction was supported by a legacy from Mn. Jaume Gordi who was the son of the people and who had died a few years before.An altarpiece that was in the Main Altar was destroyed in the first days of the civil war of 1936-1939. After having tried various solutions to dress the nakedness left by the absence of this altarpiece, the ceramic screen that is contemplated today was built, the work of Ricardo Altés. It was released in 1990 on the occasion of the 75th anniversary of the inauguration of the temple.The windows in the upper part of the apse have been provided with seven stained glass windows. You have to observe the three in the center, made by the cartoonist Pere Cánovas and the glazier Francisco Queixalós that offer a rich diversity of colors.The middle one represents Santa Colona (Patroness) with her legendary emblems (the bear, fire and rain, the dove and the Bible).The one on the left reproduces the historical signs of the Colomense town during its long rural period (the Pallaresa Tower, the Balldovina Tower, the Puig Castellar, "the Old Church" and the most typical agricultural products from which the local peasantry lived). the right shows the two most emblematic buildings of the current city (the Town Hall and the church of Santa Coloma).In addition, the blue color that decorates the lower part of the two stained glass windows - "rural" and "urban" - evokes the river Besós present in all eras.To the right of the Main Altar is the image of the patron saint of the city, Santa Coloma Mártir, original from the 15th century. Her face was damaged by a fire during July 1936 caused by the Republican side and, later, it was rebuilt with a slightly different appearance than it had previously.Next to the temple is the rectory, of a very austere Gothic style, almost archaeological, adorned by a set of crenellated windows and, at the same time, by a certain asymmetry that gives it, within its severity, a slight air of modernist style.The current church of Sant Josep Oriol occupies the same site as the original 11th century Romanesque church, replaced in 1761 by a new Baroque temple, which was destroyed in 1936. Of the current building, the most remarkable element is the presbytery, decorated by the artist Grau Garriga, and which is presided over by an impressive cotton tapestry in the shape of the Esquix lamb, which symbolizes Jesus Christ.The Iberian town is located at the top of Puig Castellar, 303 m high. It is the remains of a village of a Laietana tribe, founded in the 6th century BC. C. and that lasted until the 3rd centuries BC. C. or II a. C, precisely with the arrival of the Romans in the lands.The town was medium in size, basically dedicated to agriculture and livestock, although traces found confirm commercial activity with foreign civilizations such as the Greek or Carthaginian. The structure of the town is elliptical, with three longitudinal streets and an area of about 4000 m², which is estimated to be about thirty buildings and a population of about 200 inhabitants. For its defense and security, the town was surrounded by a wall.The town was discovered in 1902 by Ferran de Sagarra, who carried out the first excavations and finds, ceded to the Institute of Catalan Studies. The work was continued by Serra-Ràfols and later by the Puig Castellar hiking center. Currently most of the objects discovered are in the Torre Balldovina Museum.To recover the historical heritage, since 2007 the Iberian Festival has been celebrated in the city. Among the activities, stand out the representations of the daily life of the Iberians. | [
"Núria Parlón",
"Bartomeu Muñoz i Calvet",
"Lluís Hernández Alcàsser"
] |
|
Who was the head of Santa Coloma de Gramenet in 2001-06-27? | June 27, 2001 | {
"text": [
"Manuela de Madre"
]
} | L2_Q15473_P6_1 | Núria Parlón is the head of the government of Santa Coloma de Gramenet from Nov, 2009 to Dec, 2022.
Manuela de Madre is the head of the government of Santa Coloma de Gramenet from Jun, 1991 to Jun, 2002.
Bartomeu Muñoz i Calvet is the head of the government of Santa Coloma de Gramenet from Jun, 2002 to Nov, 2009.
Lluís Hernández Alcàsser is the head of the government of Santa Coloma de Gramenet from Apr, 1979 to Jun, 1991. | Santa Coloma de GramenetSanta Coloma de Gramenet () informally simply known as Santa Coloma (historically also known as "Gramenet de Besòs") is a municipality in Catalonia, Spain. It is essentially a suburb of Barcelona. It is situated on the south-east side of the Litoral range, with the Puig Castellar (299 m) as its highest point, on the left bank of the Besòs river: the municipalities of Sant Adrià de Besòs and Badalona separate it from the coast. It's the ninth most populated city in Catalonia.The area has been inhabited since at least the Iberic period, and the remains of an Iberic village have been found on Puig Castellar. The artefacts are housed in a museum in "La Torre Balldovina", a building dating from the 18th century.Other notable buildings include the renaissance palace of "La Torre Pallaresa" and the "noucentista""Clínica Mental".In November 2008, the city made worldwide news by installing solar panels on top of crypts in the local cemetery, in an effort to help fight climate change.Various archaeological finds from the Neolithic and Eneolithic times, discovered within the Santa Coloma de Gramanet area, reveal the presence of human groups at least from the year 3500 BC. It seems that between the 10th and 6th centuries BC. Several migrations from the north arrived in the area that converged a short time later in the settlement of the Iberian tribe of Layetanos, established in the 6th or 5th century BC. C. in the town of Puig Castellar, in the extreme north of the current municipality. They occupied the entire coastal strip from Sitges to Blanes, and their culture survived until the strong impact of the Roman conquest (3rd century BC) marked the beginning of their progressive extinction. The town of Puig Castellar was probably abandoned at the beginning of the 2nd century BC.There are hardly any data on the population in Roman and Visigothic times. It seems that there were several villages scattered in the valley, near the Besòs, very influenced by the neighboring cities: Baetulo (Badalona), active until the 2nd century AD. C., and Barcino (Barcelona).After the relative abandonment of the Saracen invasion, from the 9th century the repopulation of the sector began. The new settlers, coming from the north, had to know the tradition of the martyrdom of Santa Coloma (Santa Columba de Sens, sacrificed by the Romans in Gaul in the year 274, when she was only 17 years old) and it is probable that a pre-Romanesque church was dedicated to her. which was destroyed by Almanzor in 985. A Romanesque temple was built in the same place, documented since 1019, which survived as a parish church for more than seven centuries. Around this church the first urban nucleus began to form, which coexisted with some old farmhouses. This hypothesis about the origin of the toponym "Coloma", defended by the local historian Joan Vilaseca Segalés, contrasts with the one supported by other sources according to which "Coloma" would be the result of the evolution of the Latin word "columbarium", a name that Romans overlooked the place where the urns were placed with the cremated remains of the corpses. The systematic Christianization of "pagan" names exercised by the power of the Catholic Church contributed the qualifier of Saint, so common, on the other hand in other place names.In 1966, Víctor Jove Minguillón, accused of bribery for collecting bribes for the granting of licenses, was surprised by the imprisonment without bail of the former mayor from 2 October 1959 to 11 June 1965.In 2013 it joined the Network of Municipalities for the Third Republic, becoming the most populated city council of the same until the incorporation of Parla in 2016. Also during this year a discovery of underground hot springs was made in the Fondo neighborhood.The Plaza de la Vila, with its corresponding urbanization, emerged at the end of the s. XIX in the lands of the disappeared farmhouse of Can Pascali.The first nucleus of buildings, known as Casa de la Villa or New Town Hall, dates from the year 1886 and consisted of the municipal government offices, together with the court-prison and a school.This temple, dedicated to Santa Coloma (martyr), was built between 26 May 1912, when the first stone was laid and 5 September 1915, when it was inaugurated. It is one of the last neo-Gothic buildings to be built in Catalonia between the last of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. A new interpretation of medieval Gothic made with a good dose of freedom.On the exterior façade there is a pointed window instead of the typical rose window with a stained glass window that represents the Virgin of Montserrat. The mid-rise octagonal bell tower is topped by a conical black tile pinnacle reminiscent of Northern Europe. At the same time, we find some details of Catalan Modernism of the time, such as the ornamentation that surrounds the upper part of the bell tower based on pointed battlements and Greek crosses. A notable feature of the entire exterior is its verticality that gives it a "transcendent" air.The interior features a coffered ceiling that recalls the ceiling of the Santa Ágata chapel in Barcelona. It is a staggering of wooden beams that forms rectangular squares. The trace of the modernist movement is not lacking either, reflected in the combination of artificial stone and exposed brick and in the ornamentation carried by the two capitals - one lower and one upper - that support each column.The temple was designed and its works, in part, directed by Francesc d'Assís Berenguer i Mestres, a close collaborator of the great Gaudí with whom he worked for twenty-seven years. As Berenguer did not have the title of architect, the project was signed by Miquel Pascual i Tintorer. It seems that he assumed the direction of the works when he died suddenly in Berenguer in 1914, at the age of forty-seven. The construction was supported by a legacy from Mn. Jaume Gordi who was the son of the people and who had died a few years before.An altarpiece that was in the Main Altar was destroyed in the first days of the civil war of 1936-1939. After having tried various solutions to dress the nakedness left by the absence of this altarpiece, the ceramic screen that is contemplated today was built, the work of Ricardo Altés. It was released in 1990 on the occasion of the 75th anniversary of the inauguration of the temple.The windows in the upper part of the apse have been provided with seven stained glass windows. You have to observe the three in the center, made by the cartoonist Pere Cánovas and the glazier Francisco Queixalós that offer a rich diversity of colors.The middle one represents Santa Colona (Patroness) with her legendary emblems (the bear, fire and rain, the dove and the Bible).The one on the left reproduces the historical signs of the Colomense town during its long rural period (the Pallaresa Tower, the Balldovina Tower, the Puig Castellar, "the Old Church" and the most typical agricultural products from which the local peasantry lived). the right shows the two most emblematic buildings of the current city (the Town Hall and the church of Santa Coloma).In addition, the blue color that decorates the lower part of the two stained glass windows - "rural" and "urban" - evokes the river Besós present in all eras.To the right of the Main Altar is the image of the patron saint of the city, Santa Coloma Mártir, original from the 15th century. Her face was damaged by a fire during July 1936 caused by the Republican side and, later, it was rebuilt with a slightly different appearance than it had previously.Next to the temple is the rectory, of a very austere Gothic style, almost archaeological, adorned by a set of crenellated windows and, at the same time, by a certain asymmetry that gives it, within its severity, a slight air of modernist style.The current church of Sant Josep Oriol occupies the same site as the original 11th century Romanesque church, replaced in 1761 by a new Baroque temple, which was destroyed in 1936. Of the current building, the most remarkable element is the presbytery, decorated by the artist Grau Garriga, and which is presided over by an impressive cotton tapestry in the shape of the Esquix lamb, which symbolizes Jesus Christ.The Iberian town is located at the top of Puig Castellar, 303 m high. It is the remains of a village of a Laietana tribe, founded in the 6th century BC. C. and that lasted until the 3rd centuries BC. C. or II a. C, precisely with the arrival of the Romans in the lands.The town was medium in size, basically dedicated to agriculture and livestock, although traces found confirm commercial activity with foreign civilizations such as the Greek or Carthaginian. The structure of the town is elliptical, with three longitudinal streets and an area of about 4000 m², which is estimated to be about thirty buildings and a population of about 200 inhabitants. For its defense and security, the town was surrounded by a wall.The town was discovered in 1902 by Ferran de Sagarra, who carried out the first excavations and finds, ceded to the Institute of Catalan Studies. The work was continued by Serra-Ràfols and later by the Puig Castellar hiking center. Currently most of the objects discovered are in the Torre Balldovina Museum.To recover the historical heritage, since 2007 the Iberian Festival has been celebrated in the city. Among the activities, stand out the representations of the daily life of the Iberians. | [
"Núria Parlón",
"Bartomeu Muñoz i Calvet",
"Lluís Hernández Alcàsser"
] |
|
Who was the head of Santa Coloma de Gramenet in 27/06/2001? | June 27, 2001 | {
"text": [
"Manuela de Madre"
]
} | L2_Q15473_P6_1 | Núria Parlón is the head of the government of Santa Coloma de Gramenet from Nov, 2009 to Dec, 2022.
Manuela de Madre is the head of the government of Santa Coloma de Gramenet from Jun, 1991 to Jun, 2002.
Bartomeu Muñoz i Calvet is the head of the government of Santa Coloma de Gramenet from Jun, 2002 to Nov, 2009.
Lluís Hernández Alcàsser is the head of the government of Santa Coloma de Gramenet from Apr, 1979 to Jun, 1991. | Santa Coloma de GramenetSanta Coloma de Gramenet () informally simply known as Santa Coloma (historically also known as "Gramenet de Besòs") is a municipality in Catalonia, Spain. It is essentially a suburb of Barcelona. It is situated on the south-east side of the Litoral range, with the Puig Castellar (299 m) as its highest point, on the left bank of the Besòs river: the municipalities of Sant Adrià de Besòs and Badalona separate it from the coast. It's the ninth most populated city in Catalonia.The area has been inhabited since at least the Iberic period, and the remains of an Iberic village have been found on Puig Castellar. The artefacts are housed in a museum in "La Torre Balldovina", a building dating from the 18th century.Other notable buildings include the renaissance palace of "La Torre Pallaresa" and the "noucentista""Clínica Mental".In November 2008, the city made worldwide news by installing solar panels on top of crypts in the local cemetery, in an effort to help fight climate change.Various archaeological finds from the Neolithic and Eneolithic times, discovered within the Santa Coloma de Gramanet area, reveal the presence of human groups at least from the year 3500 BC. It seems that between the 10th and 6th centuries BC. Several migrations from the north arrived in the area that converged a short time later in the settlement of the Iberian tribe of Layetanos, established in the 6th or 5th century BC. C. in the town of Puig Castellar, in the extreme north of the current municipality. They occupied the entire coastal strip from Sitges to Blanes, and their culture survived until the strong impact of the Roman conquest (3rd century BC) marked the beginning of their progressive extinction. The town of Puig Castellar was probably abandoned at the beginning of the 2nd century BC.There are hardly any data on the population in Roman and Visigothic times. It seems that there were several villages scattered in the valley, near the Besòs, very influenced by the neighboring cities: Baetulo (Badalona), active until the 2nd century AD. C., and Barcino (Barcelona).After the relative abandonment of the Saracen invasion, from the 9th century the repopulation of the sector began. The new settlers, coming from the north, had to know the tradition of the martyrdom of Santa Coloma (Santa Columba de Sens, sacrificed by the Romans in Gaul in the year 274, when she was only 17 years old) and it is probable that a pre-Romanesque church was dedicated to her. which was destroyed by Almanzor in 985. A Romanesque temple was built in the same place, documented since 1019, which survived as a parish church for more than seven centuries. Around this church the first urban nucleus began to form, which coexisted with some old farmhouses. This hypothesis about the origin of the toponym "Coloma", defended by the local historian Joan Vilaseca Segalés, contrasts with the one supported by other sources according to which "Coloma" would be the result of the evolution of the Latin word "columbarium", a name that Romans overlooked the place where the urns were placed with the cremated remains of the corpses. The systematic Christianization of "pagan" names exercised by the power of the Catholic Church contributed the qualifier of Saint, so common, on the other hand in other place names.In 1966, Víctor Jove Minguillón, accused of bribery for collecting bribes for the granting of licenses, was surprised by the imprisonment without bail of the former mayor from 2 October 1959 to 11 June 1965.In 2013 it joined the Network of Municipalities for the Third Republic, becoming the most populated city council of the same until the incorporation of Parla in 2016. Also during this year a discovery of underground hot springs was made in the Fondo neighborhood.The Plaza de la Vila, with its corresponding urbanization, emerged at the end of the s. XIX in the lands of the disappeared farmhouse of Can Pascali.The first nucleus of buildings, known as Casa de la Villa or New Town Hall, dates from the year 1886 and consisted of the municipal government offices, together with the court-prison and a school.This temple, dedicated to Santa Coloma (martyr), was built between 26 May 1912, when the first stone was laid and 5 September 1915, when it was inaugurated. It is one of the last neo-Gothic buildings to be built in Catalonia between the last of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. A new interpretation of medieval Gothic made with a good dose of freedom.On the exterior façade there is a pointed window instead of the typical rose window with a stained glass window that represents the Virgin of Montserrat. The mid-rise octagonal bell tower is topped by a conical black tile pinnacle reminiscent of Northern Europe. At the same time, we find some details of Catalan Modernism of the time, such as the ornamentation that surrounds the upper part of the bell tower based on pointed battlements and Greek crosses. A notable feature of the entire exterior is its verticality that gives it a "transcendent" air.The interior features a coffered ceiling that recalls the ceiling of the Santa Ágata chapel in Barcelona. It is a staggering of wooden beams that forms rectangular squares. The trace of the modernist movement is not lacking either, reflected in the combination of artificial stone and exposed brick and in the ornamentation carried by the two capitals - one lower and one upper - that support each column.The temple was designed and its works, in part, directed by Francesc d'Assís Berenguer i Mestres, a close collaborator of the great Gaudí with whom he worked for twenty-seven years. As Berenguer did not have the title of architect, the project was signed by Miquel Pascual i Tintorer. It seems that he assumed the direction of the works when he died suddenly in Berenguer in 1914, at the age of forty-seven. The construction was supported by a legacy from Mn. Jaume Gordi who was the son of the people and who had died a few years before.An altarpiece that was in the Main Altar was destroyed in the first days of the civil war of 1936-1939. After having tried various solutions to dress the nakedness left by the absence of this altarpiece, the ceramic screen that is contemplated today was built, the work of Ricardo Altés. It was released in 1990 on the occasion of the 75th anniversary of the inauguration of the temple.The windows in the upper part of the apse have been provided with seven stained glass windows. You have to observe the three in the center, made by the cartoonist Pere Cánovas and the glazier Francisco Queixalós that offer a rich diversity of colors.The middle one represents Santa Colona (Patroness) with her legendary emblems (the bear, fire and rain, the dove and the Bible).The one on the left reproduces the historical signs of the Colomense town during its long rural period (the Pallaresa Tower, the Balldovina Tower, the Puig Castellar, "the Old Church" and the most typical agricultural products from which the local peasantry lived). the right shows the two most emblematic buildings of the current city (the Town Hall and the church of Santa Coloma).In addition, the blue color that decorates the lower part of the two stained glass windows - "rural" and "urban" - evokes the river Besós present in all eras.To the right of the Main Altar is the image of the patron saint of the city, Santa Coloma Mártir, original from the 15th century. Her face was damaged by a fire during July 1936 caused by the Republican side and, later, it was rebuilt with a slightly different appearance than it had previously.Next to the temple is the rectory, of a very austere Gothic style, almost archaeological, adorned by a set of crenellated windows and, at the same time, by a certain asymmetry that gives it, within its severity, a slight air of modernist style.The current church of Sant Josep Oriol occupies the same site as the original 11th century Romanesque church, replaced in 1761 by a new Baroque temple, which was destroyed in 1936. Of the current building, the most remarkable element is the presbytery, decorated by the artist Grau Garriga, and which is presided over by an impressive cotton tapestry in the shape of the Esquix lamb, which symbolizes Jesus Christ.The Iberian town is located at the top of Puig Castellar, 303 m high. It is the remains of a village of a Laietana tribe, founded in the 6th century BC. C. and that lasted until the 3rd centuries BC. C. or II a. C, precisely with the arrival of the Romans in the lands.The town was medium in size, basically dedicated to agriculture and livestock, although traces found confirm commercial activity with foreign civilizations such as the Greek or Carthaginian. The structure of the town is elliptical, with three longitudinal streets and an area of about 4000 m², which is estimated to be about thirty buildings and a population of about 200 inhabitants. For its defense and security, the town was surrounded by a wall.The town was discovered in 1902 by Ferran de Sagarra, who carried out the first excavations and finds, ceded to the Institute of Catalan Studies. The work was continued by Serra-Ràfols and later by the Puig Castellar hiking center. Currently most of the objects discovered are in the Torre Balldovina Museum.To recover the historical heritage, since 2007 the Iberian Festival has been celebrated in the city. Among the activities, stand out the representations of the daily life of the Iberians. | [
"Núria Parlón",
"Bartomeu Muñoz i Calvet",
"Lluís Hernández Alcàsser"
] |
|
Who was the head of Santa Coloma de Gramenet in Jun 27, 2001? | June 27, 2001 | {
"text": [
"Manuela de Madre"
]
} | L2_Q15473_P6_1 | Núria Parlón is the head of the government of Santa Coloma de Gramenet from Nov, 2009 to Dec, 2022.
Manuela de Madre is the head of the government of Santa Coloma de Gramenet from Jun, 1991 to Jun, 2002.
Bartomeu Muñoz i Calvet is the head of the government of Santa Coloma de Gramenet from Jun, 2002 to Nov, 2009.
Lluís Hernández Alcàsser is the head of the government of Santa Coloma de Gramenet from Apr, 1979 to Jun, 1991. | Santa Coloma de GramenetSanta Coloma de Gramenet () informally simply known as Santa Coloma (historically also known as "Gramenet de Besòs") is a municipality in Catalonia, Spain. It is essentially a suburb of Barcelona. It is situated on the south-east side of the Litoral range, with the Puig Castellar (299 m) as its highest point, on the left bank of the Besòs river: the municipalities of Sant Adrià de Besòs and Badalona separate it from the coast. It's the ninth most populated city in Catalonia.The area has been inhabited since at least the Iberic period, and the remains of an Iberic village have been found on Puig Castellar. The artefacts are housed in a museum in "La Torre Balldovina", a building dating from the 18th century.Other notable buildings include the renaissance palace of "La Torre Pallaresa" and the "noucentista""Clínica Mental".In November 2008, the city made worldwide news by installing solar panels on top of crypts in the local cemetery, in an effort to help fight climate change.Various archaeological finds from the Neolithic and Eneolithic times, discovered within the Santa Coloma de Gramanet area, reveal the presence of human groups at least from the year 3500 BC. It seems that between the 10th and 6th centuries BC. Several migrations from the north arrived in the area that converged a short time later in the settlement of the Iberian tribe of Layetanos, established in the 6th or 5th century BC. C. in the town of Puig Castellar, in the extreme north of the current municipality. They occupied the entire coastal strip from Sitges to Blanes, and their culture survived until the strong impact of the Roman conquest (3rd century BC) marked the beginning of their progressive extinction. The town of Puig Castellar was probably abandoned at the beginning of the 2nd century BC.There are hardly any data on the population in Roman and Visigothic times. It seems that there were several villages scattered in the valley, near the Besòs, very influenced by the neighboring cities: Baetulo (Badalona), active until the 2nd century AD. C., and Barcino (Barcelona).After the relative abandonment of the Saracen invasion, from the 9th century the repopulation of the sector began. The new settlers, coming from the north, had to know the tradition of the martyrdom of Santa Coloma (Santa Columba de Sens, sacrificed by the Romans in Gaul in the year 274, when she was only 17 years old) and it is probable that a pre-Romanesque church was dedicated to her. which was destroyed by Almanzor in 985. A Romanesque temple was built in the same place, documented since 1019, which survived as a parish church for more than seven centuries. Around this church the first urban nucleus began to form, which coexisted with some old farmhouses. This hypothesis about the origin of the toponym "Coloma", defended by the local historian Joan Vilaseca Segalés, contrasts with the one supported by other sources according to which "Coloma" would be the result of the evolution of the Latin word "columbarium", a name that Romans overlooked the place where the urns were placed with the cremated remains of the corpses. The systematic Christianization of "pagan" names exercised by the power of the Catholic Church contributed the qualifier of Saint, so common, on the other hand in other place names.In 1966, Víctor Jove Minguillón, accused of bribery for collecting bribes for the granting of licenses, was surprised by the imprisonment without bail of the former mayor from 2 October 1959 to 11 June 1965.In 2013 it joined the Network of Municipalities for the Third Republic, becoming the most populated city council of the same until the incorporation of Parla in 2016. Also during this year a discovery of underground hot springs was made in the Fondo neighborhood.The Plaza de la Vila, with its corresponding urbanization, emerged at the end of the s. XIX in the lands of the disappeared farmhouse of Can Pascali.The first nucleus of buildings, known as Casa de la Villa or New Town Hall, dates from the year 1886 and consisted of the municipal government offices, together with the court-prison and a school.This temple, dedicated to Santa Coloma (martyr), was built between 26 May 1912, when the first stone was laid and 5 September 1915, when it was inaugurated. It is one of the last neo-Gothic buildings to be built in Catalonia between the last of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. A new interpretation of medieval Gothic made with a good dose of freedom.On the exterior façade there is a pointed window instead of the typical rose window with a stained glass window that represents the Virgin of Montserrat. The mid-rise octagonal bell tower is topped by a conical black tile pinnacle reminiscent of Northern Europe. At the same time, we find some details of Catalan Modernism of the time, such as the ornamentation that surrounds the upper part of the bell tower based on pointed battlements and Greek crosses. A notable feature of the entire exterior is its verticality that gives it a "transcendent" air.The interior features a coffered ceiling that recalls the ceiling of the Santa Ágata chapel in Barcelona. It is a staggering of wooden beams that forms rectangular squares. The trace of the modernist movement is not lacking either, reflected in the combination of artificial stone and exposed brick and in the ornamentation carried by the two capitals - one lower and one upper - that support each column.The temple was designed and its works, in part, directed by Francesc d'Assís Berenguer i Mestres, a close collaborator of the great Gaudí with whom he worked for twenty-seven years. As Berenguer did not have the title of architect, the project was signed by Miquel Pascual i Tintorer. It seems that he assumed the direction of the works when he died suddenly in Berenguer in 1914, at the age of forty-seven. The construction was supported by a legacy from Mn. Jaume Gordi who was the son of the people and who had died a few years before.An altarpiece that was in the Main Altar was destroyed in the first days of the civil war of 1936-1939. After having tried various solutions to dress the nakedness left by the absence of this altarpiece, the ceramic screen that is contemplated today was built, the work of Ricardo Altés. It was released in 1990 on the occasion of the 75th anniversary of the inauguration of the temple.The windows in the upper part of the apse have been provided with seven stained glass windows. You have to observe the three in the center, made by the cartoonist Pere Cánovas and the glazier Francisco Queixalós that offer a rich diversity of colors.The middle one represents Santa Colona (Patroness) with her legendary emblems (the bear, fire and rain, the dove and the Bible).The one on the left reproduces the historical signs of the Colomense town during its long rural period (the Pallaresa Tower, the Balldovina Tower, the Puig Castellar, "the Old Church" and the most typical agricultural products from which the local peasantry lived). the right shows the two most emblematic buildings of the current city (the Town Hall and the church of Santa Coloma).In addition, the blue color that decorates the lower part of the two stained glass windows - "rural" and "urban" - evokes the river Besós present in all eras.To the right of the Main Altar is the image of the patron saint of the city, Santa Coloma Mártir, original from the 15th century. Her face was damaged by a fire during July 1936 caused by the Republican side and, later, it was rebuilt with a slightly different appearance than it had previously.Next to the temple is the rectory, of a very austere Gothic style, almost archaeological, adorned by a set of crenellated windows and, at the same time, by a certain asymmetry that gives it, within its severity, a slight air of modernist style.The current church of Sant Josep Oriol occupies the same site as the original 11th century Romanesque church, replaced in 1761 by a new Baroque temple, which was destroyed in 1936. Of the current building, the most remarkable element is the presbytery, decorated by the artist Grau Garriga, and which is presided over by an impressive cotton tapestry in the shape of the Esquix lamb, which symbolizes Jesus Christ.The Iberian town is located at the top of Puig Castellar, 303 m high. It is the remains of a village of a Laietana tribe, founded in the 6th century BC. C. and that lasted until the 3rd centuries BC. C. or II a. C, precisely with the arrival of the Romans in the lands.The town was medium in size, basically dedicated to agriculture and livestock, although traces found confirm commercial activity with foreign civilizations such as the Greek or Carthaginian. The structure of the town is elliptical, with three longitudinal streets and an area of about 4000 m², which is estimated to be about thirty buildings and a population of about 200 inhabitants. For its defense and security, the town was surrounded by a wall.The town was discovered in 1902 by Ferran de Sagarra, who carried out the first excavations and finds, ceded to the Institute of Catalan Studies. The work was continued by Serra-Ràfols and later by the Puig Castellar hiking center. Currently most of the objects discovered are in the Torre Balldovina Museum.To recover the historical heritage, since 2007 the Iberian Festival has been celebrated in the city. Among the activities, stand out the representations of the daily life of the Iberians. | [
"Núria Parlón",
"Bartomeu Muñoz i Calvet",
"Lluís Hernández Alcàsser"
] |
|
Who was the head of Santa Coloma de Gramenet in 06/27/2001? | June 27, 2001 | {
"text": [
"Manuela de Madre"
]
} | L2_Q15473_P6_1 | Núria Parlón is the head of the government of Santa Coloma de Gramenet from Nov, 2009 to Dec, 2022.
Manuela de Madre is the head of the government of Santa Coloma de Gramenet from Jun, 1991 to Jun, 2002.
Bartomeu Muñoz i Calvet is the head of the government of Santa Coloma de Gramenet from Jun, 2002 to Nov, 2009.
Lluís Hernández Alcàsser is the head of the government of Santa Coloma de Gramenet from Apr, 1979 to Jun, 1991. | Santa Coloma de GramenetSanta Coloma de Gramenet () informally simply known as Santa Coloma (historically also known as "Gramenet de Besòs") is a municipality in Catalonia, Spain. It is essentially a suburb of Barcelona. It is situated on the south-east side of the Litoral range, with the Puig Castellar (299 m) as its highest point, on the left bank of the Besòs river: the municipalities of Sant Adrià de Besòs and Badalona separate it from the coast. It's the ninth most populated city in Catalonia.The area has been inhabited since at least the Iberic period, and the remains of an Iberic village have been found on Puig Castellar. The artefacts are housed in a museum in "La Torre Balldovina", a building dating from the 18th century.Other notable buildings include the renaissance palace of "La Torre Pallaresa" and the "noucentista""Clínica Mental".In November 2008, the city made worldwide news by installing solar panels on top of crypts in the local cemetery, in an effort to help fight climate change.Various archaeological finds from the Neolithic and Eneolithic times, discovered within the Santa Coloma de Gramanet area, reveal the presence of human groups at least from the year 3500 BC. It seems that between the 10th and 6th centuries BC. Several migrations from the north arrived in the area that converged a short time later in the settlement of the Iberian tribe of Layetanos, established in the 6th or 5th century BC. C. in the town of Puig Castellar, in the extreme north of the current municipality. They occupied the entire coastal strip from Sitges to Blanes, and their culture survived until the strong impact of the Roman conquest (3rd century BC) marked the beginning of their progressive extinction. The town of Puig Castellar was probably abandoned at the beginning of the 2nd century BC.There are hardly any data on the population in Roman and Visigothic times. It seems that there were several villages scattered in the valley, near the Besòs, very influenced by the neighboring cities: Baetulo (Badalona), active until the 2nd century AD. C., and Barcino (Barcelona).After the relative abandonment of the Saracen invasion, from the 9th century the repopulation of the sector began. The new settlers, coming from the north, had to know the tradition of the martyrdom of Santa Coloma (Santa Columba de Sens, sacrificed by the Romans in Gaul in the year 274, when she was only 17 years old) and it is probable that a pre-Romanesque church was dedicated to her. which was destroyed by Almanzor in 985. A Romanesque temple was built in the same place, documented since 1019, which survived as a parish church for more than seven centuries. Around this church the first urban nucleus began to form, which coexisted with some old farmhouses. This hypothesis about the origin of the toponym "Coloma", defended by the local historian Joan Vilaseca Segalés, contrasts with the one supported by other sources according to which "Coloma" would be the result of the evolution of the Latin word "columbarium", a name that Romans overlooked the place where the urns were placed with the cremated remains of the corpses. The systematic Christianization of "pagan" names exercised by the power of the Catholic Church contributed the qualifier of Saint, so common, on the other hand in other place names.In 1966, Víctor Jove Minguillón, accused of bribery for collecting bribes for the granting of licenses, was surprised by the imprisonment without bail of the former mayor from 2 October 1959 to 11 June 1965.In 2013 it joined the Network of Municipalities for the Third Republic, becoming the most populated city council of the same until the incorporation of Parla in 2016. Also during this year a discovery of underground hot springs was made in the Fondo neighborhood.The Plaza de la Vila, with its corresponding urbanization, emerged at the end of the s. XIX in the lands of the disappeared farmhouse of Can Pascali.The first nucleus of buildings, known as Casa de la Villa or New Town Hall, dates from the year 1886 and consisted of the municipal government offices, together with the court-prison and a school.This temple, dedicated to Santa Coloma (martyr), was built between 26 May 1912, when the first stone was laid and 5 September 1915, when it was inaugurated. It is one of the last neo-Gothic buildings to be built in Catalonia between the last of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. A new interpretation of medieval Gothic made with a good dose of freedom.On the exterior façade there is a pointed window instead of the typical rose window with a stained glass window that represents the Virgin of Montserrat. The mid-rise octagonal bell tower is topped by a conical black tile pinnacle reminiscent of Northern Europe. At the same time, we find some details of Catalan Modernism of the time, such as the ornamentation that surrounds the upper part of the bell tower based on pointed battlements and Greek crosses. A notable feature of the entire exterior is its verticality that gives it a "transcendent" air.The interior features a coffered ceiling that recalls the ceiling of the Santa Ágata chapel in Barcelona. It is a staggering of wooden beams that forms rectangular squares. The trace of the modernist movement is not lacking either, reflected in the combination of artificial stone and exposed brick and in the ornamentation carried by the two capitals - one lower and one upper - that support each column.The temple was designed and its works, in part, directed by Francesc d'Assís Berenguer i Mestres, a close collaborator of the great Gaudí with whom he worked for twenty-seven years. As Berenguer did not have the title of architect, the project was signed by Miquel Pascual i Tintorer. It seems that he assumed the direction of the works when he died suddenly in Berenguer in 1914, at the age of forty-seven. The construction was supported by a legacy from Mn. Jaume Gordi who was the son of the people and who had died a few years before.An altarpiece that was in the Main Altar was destroyed in the first days of the civil war of 1936-1939. After having tried various solutions to dress the nakedness left by the absence of this altarpiece, the ceramic screen that is contemplated today was built, the work of Ricardo Altés. It was released in 1990 on the occasion of the 75th anniversary of the inauguration of the temple.The windows in the upper part of the apse have been provided with seven stained glass windows. You have to observe the three in the center, made by the cartoonist Pere Cánovas and the glazier Francisco Queixalós that offer a rich diversity of colors.The middle one represents Santa Colona (Patroness) with her legendary emblems (the bear, fire and rain, the dove and the Bible).The one on the left reproduces the historical signs of the Colomense town during its long rural period (the Pallaresa Tower, the Balldovina Tower, the Puig Castellar, "the Old Church" and the most typical agricultural products from which the local peasantry lived). the right shows the two most emblematic buildings of the current city (the Town Hall and the church of Santa Coloma).In addition, the blue color that decorates the lower part of the two stained glass windows - "rural" and "urban" - evokes the river Besós present in all eras.To the right of the Main Altar is the image of the patron saint of the city, Santa Coloma Mártir, original from the 15th century. Her face was damaged by a fire during July 1936 caused by the Republican side and, later, it was rebuilt with a slightly different appearance than it had previously.Next to the temple is the rectory, of a very austere Gothic style, almost archaeological, adorned by a set of crenellated windows and, at the same time, by a certain asymmetry that gives it, within its severity, a slight air of modernist style.The current church of Sant Josep Oriol occupies the same site as the original 11th century Romanesque church, replaced in 1761 by a new Baroque temple, which was destroyed in 1936. Of the current building, the most remarkable element is the presbytery, decorated by the artist Grau Garriga, and which is presided over by an impressive cotton tapestry in the shape of the Esquix lamb, which symbolizes Jesus Christ.The Iberian town is located at the top of Puig Castellar, 303 m high. It is the remains of a village of a Laietana tribe, founded in the 6th century BC. C. and that lasted until the 3rd centuries BC. C. or II a. C, precisely with the arrival of the Romans in the lands.The town was medium in size, basically dedicated to agriculture and livestock, although traces found confirm commercial activity with foreign civilizations such as the Greek or Carthaginian. The structure of the town is elliptical, with three longitudinal streets and an area of about 4000 m², which is estimated to be about thirty buildings and a population of about 200 inhabitants. For its defense and security, the town was surrounded by a wall.The town was discovered in 1902 by Ferran de Sagarra, who carried out the first excavations and finds, ceded to the Institute of Catalan Studies. The work was continued by Serra-Ràfols and later by the Puig Castellar hiking center. Currently most of the objects discovered are in the Torre Balldovina Museum.To recover the historical heritage, since 2007 the Iberian Festival has been celebrated in the city. Among the activities, stand out the representations of the daily life of the Iberians. | [
"Núria Parlón",
"Bartomeu Muñoz i Calvet",
"Lluís Hernández Alcàsser"
] |
|
Who was the head of Santa Coloma de Gramenet in 27-Jun-200127-June-2001? | June 27, 2001 | {
"text": [
"Manuela de Madre"
]
} | L2_Q15473_P6_1 | Núria Parlón is the head of the government of Santa Coloma de Gramenet from Nov, 2009 to Dec, 2022.
Manuela de Madre is the head of the government of Santa Coloma de Gramenet from Jun, 1991 to Jun, 2002.
Bartomeu Muñoz i Calvet is the head of the government of Santa Coloma de Gramenet from Jun, 2002 to Nov, 2009.
Lluís Hernández Alcàsser is the head of the government of Santa Coloma de Gramenet from Apr, 1979 to Jun, 1991. | Santa Coloma de GramenetSanta Coloma de Gramenet () informally simply known as Santa Coloma (historically also known as "Gramenet de Besòs") is a municipality in Catalonia, Spain. It is essentially a suburb of Barcelona. It is situated on the south-east side of the Litoral range, with the Puig Castellar (299 m) as its highest point, on the left bank of the Besòs river: the municipalities of Sant Adrià de Besòs and Badalona separate it from the coast. It's the ninth most populated city in Catalonia.The area has been inhabited since at least the Iberic period, and the remains of an Iberic village have been found on Puig Castellar. The artefacts are housed in a museum in "La Torre Balldovina", a building dating from the 18th century.Other notable buildings include the renaissance palace of "La Torre Pallaresa" and the "noucentista""Clínica Mental".In November 2008, the city made worldwide news by installing solar panels on top of crypts in the local cemetery, in an effort to help fight climate change.Various archaeological finds from the Neolithic and Eneolithic times, discovered within the Santa Coloma de Gramanet area, reveal the presence of human groups at least from the year 3500 BC. It seems that between the 10th and 6th centuries BC. Several migrations from the north arrived in the area that converged a short time later in the settlement of the Iberian tribe of Layetanos, established in the 6th or 5th century BC. C. in the town of Puig Castellar, in the extreme north of the current municipality. They occupied the entire coastal strip from Sitges to Blanes, and their culture survived until the strong impact of the Roman conquest (3rd century BC) marked the beginning of their progressive extinction. The town of Puig Castellar was probably abandoned at the beginning of the 2nd century BC.There are hardly any data on the population in Roman and Visigothic times. It seems that there were several villages scattered in the valley, near the Besòs, very influenced by the neighboring cities: Baetulo (Badalona), active until the 2nd century AD. C., and Barcino (Barcelona).After the relative abandonment of the Saracen invasion, from the 9th century the repopulation of the sector began. The new settlers, coming from the north, had to know the tradition of the martyrdom of Santa Coloma (Santa Columba de Sens, sacrificed by the Romans in Gaul in the year 274, when she was only 17 years old) and it is probable that a pre-Romanesque church was dedicated to her. which was destroyed by Almanzor in 985. A Romanesque temple was built in the same place, documented since 1019, which survived as a parish church for more than seven centuries. Around this church the first urban nucleus began to form, which coexisted with some old farmhouses. This hypothesis about the origin of the toponym "Coloma", defended by the local historian Joan Vilaseca Segalés, contrasts with the one supported by other sources according to which "Coloma" would be the result of the evolution of the Latin word "columbarium", a name that Romans overlooked the place where the urns were placed with the cremated remains of the corpses. The systematic Christianization of "pagan" names exercised by the power of the Catholic Church contributed the qualifier of Saint, so common, on the other hand in other place names.In 1966, Víctor Jove Minguillón, accused of bribery for collecting bribes for the granting of licenses, was surprised by the imprisonment without bail of the former mayor from 2 October 1959 to 11 June 1965.In 2013 it joined the Network of Municipalities for the Third Republic, becoming the most populated city council of the same until the incorporation of Parla in 2016. Also during this year a discovery of underground hot springs was made in the Fondo neighborhood.The Plaza de la Vila, with its corresponding urbanization, emerged at the end of the s. XIX in the lands of the disappeared farmhouse of Can Pascali.The first nucleus of buildings, known as Casa de la Villa or New Town Hall, dates from the year 1886 and consisted of the municipal government offices, together with the court-prison and a school.This temple, dedicated to Santa Coloma (martyr), was built between 26 May 1912, when the first stone was laid and 5 September 1915, when it was inaugurated. It is one of the last neo-Gothic buildings to be built in Catalonia between the last of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. A new interpretation of medieval Gothic made with a good dose of freedom.On the exterior façade there is a pointed window instead of the typical rose window with a stained glass window that represents the Virgin of Montserrat. The mid-rise octagonal bell tower is topped by a conical black tile pinnacle reminiscent of Northern Europe. At the same time, we find some details of Catalan Modernism of the time, such as the ornamentation that surrounds the upper part of the bell tower based on pointed battlements and Greek crosses. A notable feature of the entire exterior is its verticality that gives it a "transcendent" air.The interior features a coffered ceiling that recalls the ceiling of the Santa Ágata chapel in Barcelona. It is a staggering of wooden beams that forms rectangular squares. The trace of the modernist movement is not lacking either, reflected in the combination of artificial stone and exposed brick and in the ornamentation carried by the two capitals - one lower and one upper - that support each column.The temple was designed and its works, in part, directed by Francesc d'Assís Berenguer i Mestres, a close collaborator of the great Gaudí with whom he worked for twenty-seven years. As Berenguer did not have the title of architect, the project was signed by Miquel Pascual i Tintorer. It seems that he assumed the direction of the works when he died suddenly in Berenguer in 1914, at the age of forty-seven. The construction was supported by a legacy from Mn. Jaume Gordi who was the son of the people and who had died a few years before.An altarpiece that was in the Main Altar was destroyed in the first days of the civil war of 1936-1939. After having tried various solutions to dress the nakedness left by the absence of this altarpiece, the ceramic screen that is contemplated today was built, the work of Ricardo Altés. It was released in 1990 on the occasion of the 75th anniversary of the inauguration of the temple.The windows in the upper part of the apse have been provided with seven stained glass windows. You have to observe the three in the center, made by the cartoonist Pere Cánovas and the glazier Francisco Queixalós that offer a rich diversity of colors.The middle one represents Santa Colona (Patroness) with her legendary emblems (the bear, fire and rain, the dove and the Bible).The one on the left reproduces the historical signs of the Colomense town during its long rural period (the Pallaresa Tower, the Balldovina Tower, the Puig Castellar, "the Old Church" and the most typical agricultural products from which the local peasantry lived). the right shows the two most emblematic buildings of the current city (the Town Hall and the church of Santa Coloma).In addition, the blue color that decorates the lower part of the two stained glass windows - "rural" and "urban" - evokes the river Besós present in all eras.To the right of the Main Altar is the image of the patron saint of the city, Santa Coloma Mártir, original from the 15th century. Her face was damaged by a fire during July 1936 caused by the Republican side and, later, it was rebuilt with a slightly different appearance than it had previously.Next to the temple is the rectory, of a very austere Gothic style, almost archaeological, adorned by a set of crenellated windows and, at the same time, by a certain asymmetry that gives it, within its severity, a slight air of modernist style.The current church of Sant Josep Oriol occupies the same site as the original 11th century Romanesque church, replaced in 1761 by a new Baroque temple, which was destroyed in 1936. Of the current building, the most remarkable element is the presbytery, decorated by the artist Grau Garriga, and which is presided over by an impressive cotton tapestry in the shape of the Esquix lamb, which symbolizes Jesus Christ.The Iberian town is located at the top of Puig Castellar, 303 m high. It is the remains of a village of a Laietana tribe, founded in the 6th century BC. C. and that lasted until the 3rd centuries BC. C. or II a. C, precisely with the arrival of the Romans in the lands.The town was medium in size, basically dedicated to agriculture and livestock, although traces found confirm commercial activity with foreign civilizations such as the Greek or Carthaginian. The structure of the town is elliptical, with three longitudinal streets and an area of about 4000 m², which is estimated to be about thirty buildings and a population of about 200 inhabitants. For its defense and security, the town was surrounded by a wall.The town was discovered in 1902 by Ferran de Sagarra, who carried out the first excavations and finds, ceded to the Institute of Catalan Studies. The work was continued by Serra-Ràfols and later by the Puig Castellar hiking center. Currently most of the objects discovered are in the Torre Balldovina Museum.To recover the historical heritage, since 2007 the Iberian Festival has been celebrated in the city. Among the activities, stand out the representations of the daily life of the Iberians. | [
"Núria Parlón",
"Bartomeu Muñoz i Calvet",
"Lluís Hernández Alcàsser"
] |
|
Who was the head of Isabela in Aug, 2017? | August 28, 2017 | {
"text": [
"Faustino G. Dy III"
]
} | L2_Q13826_P6_5 | Faustino G. Dy III is the head of the government of Isabela from Jun, 2010 to Jun, 2019.
Silvestre Bello III is the head of the government of Isabela from Apr, 1986 to Feb, 1988.
Faustino Dy Jr. is the head of the government of Isabela from Jun, 2001 to Jun, 2004.
Grace Padaca is the head of the government of Isabela from Jun, 2004 to Jun, 2010.
Rodolfo T. Albano III is the head of the government of Isabela from Jun, 2019 to Dec, 2022.
Benjamin Dy is the head of the government of Isabela from Jun, 1992 to Jun, 2001.
Faustino Dy is the head of the government of Isabela from Feb, 1988 to Jun, 1992. | Isabela (province)Isabela, officially the Province of Isabela (; ; ) is the second largest province in the Philippines in land area located in the Cagayan Valley region in Luzon. Its capital and largest local government unit is the city of Ilagan. It is bordered by the provinces of Cagayan to the north, Kalinga to the northwest, Mountain Province to the central-west, Ifugao and Nueva Vizcaya to the southwest, Quirino and Aurora to the south, and the Philippine Sea to the east.This primarily agricultural province is the rice and corn granary of Luzon due to its plain and rolling terrain. In 2012, the province was declared as the country's top producer of corn with 1,209,524 metric tons. Isabela was also declared the second-largest rice producer in the Philippines and the Queen Province of the Philippines.Isabela is the 10th richest province in the Philippines as of 2020. The province has four trade centers in the cities of Ilagan, Cauayan, Santiago and the municipality of Roxas. One of Isabela's cities, Santiago City, is considered the fastest-growing local economy in the entire Philippines.The province was named after Isabella II, the first queen regnant of Spain. There have been proposals to change the name of the province into something that will better suit the indigenous roots of the country. However, such plans were rejected by the residents of Isabela.The province of Isabela used to be a vast rainforest where numerous indigenous ethnolinguistic groups lived. Many of the same ethnic groups still live in the province. Shell midden sites and other archaeological sites throughout the province constitute the material culture of those groups during the classical era.During the Spanish era, prior to 1856, the Cagayan Valley was divided into only two provinces: Cagayan and Nueva Vizcaya. The Province of Cagayan at that time consisted of all towns from Tumauini to Aparri in the north. All other towns from Ilagan southward to Aritao comprised the Province of the old Nueva Vizcaya. In order to facilitate the work of the Catholic missionaries in the evangelization of the Cagayan Valley, a royal decree was issued on May 1, 1856 creating the Province of Isabela consisting of the towns of Gamu, Old Angadanan (now Alicia), Bindang (now Roxas) and Camarag (now Echague), Carig (now Santiago City) and Palanan, all detached from the Province of Nueva Vizcaya; while Cabagan and Tumauini were taken from the Province of Cagayan.The province was placed under the jurisdiction of a governor with Ilagan as the capital, where it remains up to present. It was initially called "Isabela de Luzón" to differentiate from other places in the Philippines bearing the name of Isabela. The new province was named after Queen Isabella II of Spain.Although the province did not play a major role in the revolt against Spain, it is in Palanan that the final pages of the Philippine Revolution were written when United States troops, led by General Frederick Funston, finally captured General Emilio Aguinaldo in the area on March 23, 1901. Isabela was re-organized as a province under the American military government through "Act No. 210", passed August 24, 1901.The Americans built schools and other buildings and instituted changes in the overall political system. However, the province's economy remained particularly agricultural with rice replacing corn and tobacco as the dominant crop. World War II stagnated the province's economic growth but it recovered dramatically after the war. In 1942, Imperial Japanese occupied Isabela. In 1945, the liberation of Isabela commenced with the arrival of the Philippine Commonwealth troops under the Philippine Army, Constabulary, and USAFIP-NL units and recognized guerrillas attacked by the Japanese Imperial forces in World War II.A new wave of immigration began in the late 19th and 20th centuries with the arrival of the Ilokano who came in large numbers. They now constitute the largest group in the province. Other ethnic groups followed that made Isabela the "Melting Pot of the Northern Philippines".In 1975, construction began on the Magat Dam on the boundary of Ramon, Isabela with neighboring Ifugao Province, becoming a catchbasin for 8 rivers upstream in Ifugao and serving multiple functions, including: irrigating of agricultural lands; flood control; and power generation. The construction was protested by the Ifugao people due to the flooding of their ancestral lands, but the dam was eventually completed in 1982, partially funded through a loan from the World Bank.In 1995, "Republic Act 7891" was passed, legislating that Isabela be divided into two new provinces: Isabela del Norte and Isabela del Sur. A referendum was held on the same year with a slight majority voting against partitioning the province.In 2012, the capital town of Ilagan officially became a city, after the move gained 96% of the votes in the plebiscite conducted on August 11, 2012. The night after the plebiscite, Ilagan was declared as a component city of the province.Isabela comprises an aggregate land area of , representing almost 40 percent of the regional territory. It is the largest province in the island of Luzon and the second largest province in the Philippines by land area. Occupying the central section of the Cagayan Valley region in Luzon, Isabela is bordered by Cagayan to the north, Kalinga to the northwest, Mountain Province to the central-west, Ifugao and Nueva Vizcaya to the southwest, Quirino to the south, and Aurora to the south. To the east lies the Philippine Sea, making Isabela one of the typhoon-prone provinces in the country.The province is divided into three physiographic areas. The eastern area, straddled by the Sierra Madre mountain range, is rugged and thickly forested. A substantial portion is uncharted. These unexplored hinterlands are home to a rich variety of flora and fauna, and some are under government reservations. It is home to one of the world's largest remaining low-altitude rainforests, with numerous unknown endemic species of flora and fauna and biological diversity in the protected area known as the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park. Isabela has of Cagayan Valley’s of forest cover.The highest point of the province is located near the border with Cagayan. Mount Dos Cuernos peak has an elevation of located in San Pablo near the border with Maconacon. Other notable peaks in the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park is Mount Cresta in Divilacan with an elevation of .The western area is a fertile valley hemmed by the Central Cordillera. It is crisscrossed by the mighty Cagayan River, Siffu River, and Magat River.Mallig Plains Region is a region in the western section of the province. Its name was derived from the rolling terrains or kilometers of plain lands in western Isabela. The municipality of Roxas serves as the business center of the region. The Plains covers the municipalities of Quezon, Mallig, Quirino, Burgos, Aurora, San Manuel and Roxas.Isabela is politically subdivided into thirty four (34) municipalities, two component cities and one independent component city. The province is represented in the Philippine House of Representatives with six legislative districts.The province has ten first class municipalities, two second class cities and one first class independent component city. Ilagan City, which became a city thirteen years after its failed cityhood proposal in 1998, it is now Luzon’s largest and the country’s fourth biggest city after Davao City, Puerto Princesa and Zamboanga City by land area.The 34 municipalities and 3 cities of the province comprise 1,055 barangays, with "Rizal" in Santiago City as the most populous in 2010, and "Catalina" in Cauayan City as the least. If cities are excluded, "Bugallon Proper (Poblacion)" in Ramon has the highest population, and "Uauang-Tuliao" in Santo Tomas has the lowest.After Isabela was re-organized as a province under the American regime in 1901, its first provincial governor was Rafael Maramag, a former Municipal President and also the first Municipal President of the capital town Ilagan. He was succeeded by his brother, Gabriel. Afterwards, Isabela was ruled by the Dy family for 34 years (1969-2004). The dynasty was started by the patriarch of the family, Faustino N. Dy, Sr., who served as the Mayor of Cauayan from 1965 to 1969 and sat as the provincial governor of Isabela for 22 years (1969–1992).Around 1987,former mayor of Santiago,mayor Dodo Miranda plan to run governor of isabela but sadly he ambushed by unidentified gunman in reina mercedes.so that the reason santiago city is independent to isabela because of that incedent. He was succeeded by his son, Benjamin G. Dy, in the gubernatorial seat from 1992 to 2001. Another Dy took over the gubernatorial seat in 2001 when Faustino Dy Jr. won the 2001 elections after having served as the district representative of the 2nd Legislative District of the province from 1992 to 2001. It was only in the 2004 elections that the family's control of the gubernatorial seat ended when Grace Padaca won over Faustino Dy Jr. She was the first woman to serve as the governor of the province. After serving for six years (2004-2010), she was defeated in the 2010 National Elections by Faustino "Bojie" G. Dy III who served as governor of the province for three consecutive terms (2010-2019).On September 27, 2018, "Republic Act No. 11080", an act reapportioning the province of Isabela into six legislative districts from four, was signed into law and the reapportioned districts elected its representatives starting in the 2019 midterm elections. Accordingly, the new districts are as follows:The population of Isabela in the was people, making it the most populated province among the five provinces in Cagayan Valley (Region II). It had a density of .In 2010, Isabela had a population of 1,489,645 people: 46 percent of the 3.2 million people in the region at that time. At the national level, the province contributed 1.58 percent to the total population of 88.57 million. There were 254,928 households in the province in 2007.For all ages, the sex ratio in Isabela was about 105 with 660,627 males and 626,948 females in the 2000 Census of Population and Housing (Census 2000). There are more males than females below 50 years old.Ilocanos are the most prominent group in the province. Of the total household population, 68.71 percent classified themselves as Ilocanos, followed by the Ibanags (14.05 percent), and Tagalogs (10.02 percent). The majority ethnic group were the Ibanags, who were first seen by the Spanish explorers and converted to Christianity by missionaries, the reason why the Ibanag language had spread throughout the valley region prior to the arrival of the migrating Ilocanos. The remaining 7.22 percent are either Gaddang, Paranan, Yogad, or from other ethnic groups who have assimilated into the Ibanag-Ilocano culture . More recently, a new group from the south, the Muslim Filipinos, have migrated to this province and have made a community for themselves. In addition to this, Tagalog-speaking peoples from Central Luzon (mostly from Nueva Ecija) and Southern Luzon have also settled in the area, as well as a few Pangasinans and Kapampangans from the Central Luzon.Major languages spoken are Ilocano followed by Ibanag, Yogad, and Gaddang. Ilocanos and Ibanags speak Ilocano with an Ibanag accent, as descendants of Ilocanos from first generation in Isabela who lived within Ibanag population learned Ibanag; same situation with Ilocano tinged by Gaddang, Paranan, Yogad, and Itawis accents when descendants of Ilocanos from first generation in Isabela who lived within Gaddang, Paranan, Yogad, and Itawis populations learned their languages. People especially in the capital and commercial centers speak and understand English and Tagalog. Tagalogs, Ilocanos, and Ibanags speak Tagalog with an Ibanag accent, as descendants of Tagalogs from first generation in Isabela who lived within Ibanag population learned Ibanag.Roman Catholicism is the predominant faith followed by about 80% of the people. Other religions practiced are Aglipayan, United Methodist Church and various Christian churches such as The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Iglesia ni Cristo,and Protestant Churches Baptist, Seventh-day Adventist, other Charismatic Christians and Jehovah's Witnesses. There are also small number of Muslims.In terms of income classification, Isabela is rated as first-class province and considered among the richest and most progressive province in the Philippines and the most progressive in Region 02 courtesy of the three key cities strategically located in the province.Strategically located at the center of Cagayan Valley region, Isabela is acknowledged to have demonstrated strengths in business and industry. Thus, it has come to be known as the "Regional Trade and Industrial Center" of north-eastern Luzon.The province of Isabela is the richest in Cagayan Valley. It is also the Top 10 Richest Province in the Philippines last 2011.The cities of Cauayan, Ilagan, Santiago and the town of Roxas are the principal commercial centers of the province. Metro Manila-based malls and fast food chains have recently opened in these key trading hubs. To date, 192 banking branches operate in the province, with most of the universal and commercial banks providing automated teller machines for the convenience of their clients.Since the start of the 21st century, a growing number of foreign and local investors have selected Isabela as site of their business ventures. Heading the list are Isabela's top investors, namely: Mindanao Grains Processing Company, Inc., SN Aboitiz Power- Magat Inc., Universal Leaf Philippines, Coca-Cola FEMSA Philippines, Inc., San Miguel Corporation, RC Cola and Pepsi Cola.In the rice industry, substantial investments have been made by Valiant Rice Mills Corporation, Family Choice Grains Processing Center, Golden Season Grains Center, Herco Agro Industries, JDT Silver Grains Center, New Cauayan Goldyluck Grains and the La Suerte Rice Mill Corporation.Retail giants like SM Prime, Robinsons and Puregold Price Club, Inc. have set up shops like Savemore, Robinsons Supermarket and Puregold, respectively. In 2014, these retail companies opened its pioneer malls in the region, the SM City Cauayan and Robinsons Place Santiago.Land transportation operators Victory Liner, Five Star Bus Company, Dalin Liner, GV Florida Transport, EMC Transportation, Inc., Solid North Transit Inc., and Northern Luzon Bus Company (NELBUSCO) have terminals and depots in the province.Leading car, motorcycle and truck manufacturers such as Honda, Toyota, Mitsubishi Motors, Isuzu Motors, Kia Motors, Nissan, Ford, Chevrolet, Suzuki, Hyundai, Mazda, Foton, Peugeot, MAN SE, Yamaha and many other companies entered the province over the past years.Telecom firms Globe, PLDT/Smart and Digitel/ Sun Cellular operate cellular sites and fixed telephony facilities throughout Isabela.Big real estate developers like Vista Land and Lifescapes, Inc. entered the province with the opening of Camella Isabela, Camella Santiago, Camella Santiago Trails and Lessandra Santiago in Santiago City, and Camella Cauayan and Lumina Isabela in Cauayan City. Vista Malls is set to launch its first high end mall in Santiago City.Agriculture is the biggest industry in Isabela. As the country's top corn producing province, it contributes 21% of the annual national yellow corn production. Asia's largest post-harvest corn processing facility, the Mindanao Grains, is located in the town of Reina Mercedes.As second highest rice-growing province nationwide, Isabela produces 15% of the aggregate national rice production on an annual basis. Being a surplus producer of the Filipinos’ staple crop, the province's rice sufficiency rate is at 224%, which means that Isabelinos produce more than they consume and are in fact responsible for supplying the rice requirements of Metro Manila and many other provinces. The unprecedented increase in palay production of Isabela made the province the "Hybrid Rice Champion" of the Philippines.High-value agricultural crops grown in Isabela include monggo, tobacco, coffee, banana, and mango. Its livestock and poultry industries are also on the rise, especially dairy processing, hog production, cattle breeding, and commercial poultry raising.Farming is highly mechanized as most of the agricultural lands are irrigated. With the presence of the Isabela State University, joint ventures and other foreign assisted projects and the Magat Dam contribute to the high productivity in agriculture. It is also the hub of trade and commerce and other economic activities due to its central location in the region. The wood industry used to be a top earner for the province but due to the logging ban imposed in the Cagayan Valley Region, activities in this industry considerably declined. However, furniture making using narra wood and other indigenous forest materials continue to exist.Isabela is one of the most progressive provinces of the Philippines having been adjudged as the most outstanding province on food security in the "Gawad Sapat Ani Awards 2000". For corn production, Isabela ranks first among the top ten corn producing provinces for cy 2004, contributing 15.70% to national production. In 2013, the Department of Agriculture declared Isabela as the "Best Corn-Quality Awardee". Ilagan City was proclaimed as the "Corn Capital of the Philippines" for being the top corn producer among the 34 municipalities and 2 cities of the province as well as in the whole country.Forestland covers 54.37% or of Isabela's total land area of which 62% is protected forest and 38% is production forest. The best quality of timber resources in the Philippines are found in Isabela's forest. Isabela's vast forest resources are now being ecologically manage to effect sustainable forest-based resource not only for the wood working industry but to secure a balanced ecosystem. The woodwork industry continues to operate under a regulated system, particularly the making furniture using indigenous materials.Isabela has a fertile fishing ground on the Pacific Coast. The Magat Dam reservoir is utilized for fish cage operations for tilapia production for domestic markets. Another thriving industry in the province is aquaculture, sustained by inland fishing through 1,108 hectares of developed freshwater fishponds and 450 hectares of fish cage culture at Magat Dam Reservoir. Rich marine resources could be found in Isabela's coastal seaboard municipalities of Maconacon, Divilacan, Palanan, and Dinapigue.Large deposits of copper, gold, zinc and chromite, manganese and nickel have been found in Isabela. It also has extensive deposits of non-metallic minerals such as limestone, clay, marbles, guano, sand and gravel, and boulders. Indigenous energy sources such as natural gas and hydroelectric capabilities have been found to be abundant in the valley. Many of its mineral reserves have yet to be fully tapped.Solar and biomass power plants in the city of Cauayan and in the town of Alicia have started operating in 2015 to supplement the region's high energy demand. The online solar power plant in Cauayan City is capable of supplying at least 20 megawatts while the biomass power plant in Alicia can produce another 20 megawatts. Both systems provide clean and renewable energy. The P2 billion power facility established by the "Isabela Biomass Energy Corporation" (IBEC) was built to augment power supply in the Cagayan Valley region. The use of biomass as fuel makes the power plant carbon neutral and sustainable. This biomass power facility is the first in the region and is designed to provide economical source of energy as well as job opportunities to residents of the host town/city.On May 27, 2015, the service contract of the largest solar PV power plant in the country has been approved by the Department of Energy (DOE). The P7-billion worth 100 MW Solar PV project in the city of Ilagan is designed to reduce the current shortage in electricity that causes regular blackouts that results to industry closures as well as inconvenience to the consumers. The solar power facility will be constructed at a 100-hectare land at Barangay Cabannungan, several kilometers away from the city proper.Isabela is accessible by all means of transportation. Almost 180-kilometers of the Pan-Philippine Highway pass through the different towns and cities of the province. Several bus companies offer daily trips to different routes like Manila, Dagupan, Baguio and Ilocos vice versa. Public utility vans and small-time bus operators ply daily trips from Tuguegarao in Cagayan to Santiago City vice versa, while jeepneys and tricycles are commonly used as the basic mode of transportation within the province's jurisdiction.The construction of an 82-kilometer road through the protected Sierra Madre mountains is designed to open access to three coastal towns of the province. The approved budget contract of the project amounting to P1.5B, will pass through the foothills of the 359,486-hectare Northern Sierra Madre mountain ranges. The plan is to improve an old logging road used by a defunct logging company until the 1990s. It will start in Barangay Sindon Bayabo in capital city of Ilagan and will end in Barangay Dicatian in the coastal town of Divilacan. The project is set to be completed in 2021.Travel to the isolated coastal towns of Divilacan, Palanan and Maconacon is often made by boat or by plane only, making it difficult to reach the coastal towns in times of emergencies and calamities. There are no roads that links the capital city of Ilagan to the coastal areas, depriving residents of basic necessities and social services, such as health. Once completed, the road project is expected to boost the economies of the coastal areas, citing Divilacan's 119-hectares beach and freshwater areas that have lured tourists. The Protected Area Management Board (PAMB) issued Resolution No. 11, which reclassifies portions of the Sierra Madre as a special-use zone. The Agta and Dumagat in the area have also signed a memorandum of agreement with the provincial government, expressing their consent to the road project. At least 1,800 Agta and Dumagat have been staying in the park areas. But the impact of the road on the protected forest has alarmed residents who feared that the project may damage its forests and ecosystems. The project was delayed in the recent years due to concerns about the road's potential impact on the environment. The Cagayan Valley Regional Development Council required the project's proponents to study the full impact of the road on the area's biodiversity.There are five airports in the province. The Cauayan Airport is the primary airport in the province serving a trip to Manila, Palanan, and Maconacon. The other two are the Palanan Airport in Palanan and Maconacon Airport in Maconacon. The country's leading passenger airline Cebu Pacific services the Cauayan-Manila-Cauayan Route. Light planes operated by Cyclone Airways and WCC Aviation's Sky Pasada Have flights from Cauayan Domestic Airport to the community airports in Palanan and Maconacon. The province has two minor seaports, the Divilacan Port and Palanan Port in the coastal towns of Divilacan and Palanan. The trade going to the ports come primarily from major seaports in Cagayan such as Port of Aparri in Aparri, Cagayan, and Port of San Vicente and Port Irene, both in Santa Ana, Cagayan. The other two airstrips are found in Divilacan, and in Magat River Management Project Site.Isabela is one of the primary centers of education in the Cagayan Valley Region. There are several public and private educational institutions, the most notable being the Isabela State University, a government-owned and controlled public university. Its main campus is located in Echague and satellite campuses in Cauayan City, Ilagan City, Angadanan, Cabagan, Jones, Palanan (extension), Roxas, San Mariano, San Mateo and Santiago City (extension).Among the most notable higher educational institutions found in the province of Isabela are the following:Since the early 2000s, tourism has become an income-generating industry for Isabela. New hotels and resorts have opened, mostly in the cities of Ilagan, Cauayan and Santiago, and the towns of Tumauini, Gamu, Roxas, Alicia, Burgos, Ramon, San Mariano and Cordon. Top tourist attractions are the centuries-old churches; Magat Dam Tourism Complex, which houses Southeast Asia's biggest dam; Santa Victoria Caves, Pinzal Falls and Ilagan Sanctuary at Fuyot National Park; the white sand beaches in the coastal municipalities of Maconacon, Divilacan, Palanan, Dinapigue and islands of coastal Isabela; the world's biggest wooden lounge chair or "butaka" in Ilagan City; and various festival and fiestas, including the "Bambanti Festival" annually celebrated every February, and the commemoration of the birth of the province during Isabela Day every May. | [
"Grace Padaca",
"Rodolfo T. Albano III",
"Silvestre Bello III",
"Faustino Dy",
"Benjamin Dy",
"Faustino Dy Jr."
] |
|
Who was the head of Isabela in 2017-08-28? | August 28, 2017 | {
"text": [
"Faustino G. Dy III"
]
} | L2_Q13826_P6_5 | Faustino G. Dy III is the head of the government of Isabela from Jun, 2010 to Jun, 2019.
Silvestre Bello III is the head of the government of Isabela from Apr, 1986 to Feb, 1988.
Faustino Dy Jr. is the head of the government of Isabela from Jun, 2001 to Jun, 2004.
Grace Padaca is the head of the government of Isabela from Jun, 2004 to Jun, 2010.
Rodolfo T. Albano III is the head of the government of Isabela from Jun, 2019 to Dec, 2022.
Benjamin Dy is the head of the government of Isabela from Jun, 1992 to Jun, 2001.
Faustino Dy is the head of the government of Isabela from Feb, 1988 to Jun, 1992. | Isabela (province)Isabela, officially the Province of Isabela (; ; ) is the second largest province in the Philippines in land area located in the Cagayan Valley region in Luzon. Its capital and largest local government unit is the city of Ilagan. It is bordered by the provinces of Cagayan to the north, Kalinga to the northwest, Mountain Province to the central-west, Ifugao and Nueva Vizcaya to the southwest, Quirino and Aurora to the south, and the Philippine Sea to the east.This primarily agricultural province is the rice and corn granary of Luzon due to its plain and rolling terrain. In 2012, the province was declared as the country's top producer of corn with 1,209,524 metric tons. Isabela was also declared the second-largest rice producer in the Philippines and the Queen Province of the Philippines.Isabela is the 10th richest province in the Philippines as of 2020. The province has four trade centers in the cities of Ilagan, Cauayan, Santiago and the municipality of Roxas. One of Isabela's cities, Santiago City, is considered the fastest-growing local economy in the entire Philippines.The province was named after Isabella II, the first queen regnant of Spain. There have been proposals to change the name of the province into something that will better suit the indigenous roots of the country. However, such plans were rejected by the residents of Isabela.The province of Isabela used to be a vast rainforest where numerous indigenous ethnolinguistic groups lived. Many of the same ethnic groups still live in the province. Shell midden sites and other archaeological sites throughout the province constitute the material culture of those groups during the classical era.During the Spanish era, prior to 1856, the Cagayan Valley was divided into only two provinces: Cagayan and Nueva Vizcaya. The Province of Cagayan at that time consisted of all towns from Tumauini to Aparri in the north. All other towns from Ilagan southward to Aritao comprised the Province of the old Nueva Vizcaya. In order to facilitate the work of the Catholic missionaries in the evangelization of the Cagayan Valley, a royal decree was issued on May 1, 1856 creating the Province of Isabela consisting of the towns of Gamu, Old Angadanan (now Alicia), Bindang (now Roxas) and Camarag (now Echague), Carig (now Santiago City) and Palanan, all detached from the Province of Nueva Vizcaya; while Cabagan and Tumauini were taken from the Province of Cagayan.The province was placed under the jurisdiction of a governor with Ilagan as the capital, where it remains up to present. It was initially called "Isabela de Luzón" to differentiate from other places in the Philippines bearing the name of Isabela. The new province was named after Queen Isabella II of Spain.Although the province did not play a major role in the revolt against Spain, it is in Palanan that the final pages of the Philippine Revolution were written when United States troops, led by General Frederick Funston, finally captured General Emilio Aguinaldo in the area on March 23, 1901. Isabela was re-organized as a province under the American military government through "Act No. 210", passed August 24, 1901.The Americans built schools and other buildings and instituted changes in the overall political system. However, the province's economy remained particularly agricultural with rice replacing corn and tobacco as the dominant crop. World War II stagnated the province's economic growth but it recovered dramatically after the war. In 1942, Imperial Japanese occupied Isabela. In 1945, the liberation of Isabela commenced with the arrival of the Philippine Commonwealth troops under the Philippine Army, Constabulary, and USAFIP-NL units and recognized guerrillas attacked by the Japanese Imperial forces in World War II.A new wave of immigration began in the late 19th and 20th centuries with the arrival of the Ilokano who came in large numbers. They now constitute the largest group in the province. Other ethnic groups followed that made Isabela the "Melting Pot of the Northern Philippines".In 1975, construction began on the Magat Dam on the boundary of Ramon, Isabela with neighboring Ifugao Province, becoming a catchbasin for 8 rivers upstream in Ifugao and serving multiple functions, including: irrigating of agricultural lands; flood control; and power generation. The construction was protested by the Ifugao people due to the flooding of their ancestral lands, but the dam was eventually completed in 1982, partially funded through a loan from the World Bank.In 1995, "Republic Act 7891" was passed, legislating that Isabela be divided into two new provinces: Isabela del Norte and Isabela del Sur. A referendum was held on the same year with a slight majority voting against partitioning the province.In 2012, the capital town of Ilagan officially became a city, after the move gained 96% of the votes in the plebiscite conducted on August 11, 2012. The night after the plebiscite, Ilagan was declared as a component city of the province.Isabela comprises an aggregate land area of , representing almost 40 percent of the regional territory. It is the largest province in the island of Luzon and the second largest province in the Philippines by land area. Occupying the central section of the Cagayan Valley region in Luzon, Isabela is bordered by Cagayan to the north, Kalinga to the northwest, Mountain Province to the central-west, Ifugao and Nueva Vizcaya to the southwest, Quirino to the south, and Aurora to the south. To the east lies the Philippine Sea, making Isabela one of the typhoon-prone provinces in the country.The province is divided into three physiographic areas. The eastern area, straddled by the Sierra Madre mountain range, is rugged and thickly forested. A substantial portion is uncharted. These unexplored hinterlands are home to a rich variety of flora and fauna, and some are under government reservations. It is home to one of the world's largest remaining low-altitude rainforests, with numerous unknown endemic species of flora and fauna and biological diversity in the protected area known as the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park. Isabela has of Cagayan Valley’s of forest cover.The highest point of the province is located near the border with Cagayan. Mount Dos Cuernos peak has an elevation of located in San Pablo near the border with Maconacon. Other notable peaks in the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park is Mount Cresta in Divilacan with an elevation of .The western area is a fertile valley hemmed by the Central Cordillera. It is crisscrossed by the mighty Cagayan River, Siffu River, and Magat River.Mallig Plains Region is a region in the western section of the province. Its name was derived from the rolling terrains or kilometers of plain lands in western Isabela. The municipality of Roxas serves as the business center of the region. The Plains covers the municipalities of Quezon, Mallig, Quirino, Burgos, Aurora, San Manuel and Roxas.Isabela is politically subdivided into thirty four (34) municipalities, two component cities and one independent component city. The province is represented in the Philippine House of Representatives with six legislative districts.The province has ten first class municipalities, two second class cities and one first class independent component city. Ilagan City, which became a city thirteen years after its failed cityhood proposal in 1998, it is now Luzon’s largest and the country’s fourth biggest city after Davao City, Puerto Princesa and Zamboanga City by land area.The 34 municipalities and 3 cities of the province comprise 1,055 barangays, with "Rizal" in Santiago City as the most populous in 2010, and "Catalina" in Cauayan City as the least. If cities are excluded, "Bugallon Proper (Poblacion)" in Ramon has the highest population, and "Uauang-Tuliao" in Santo Tomas has the lowest.After Isabela was re-organized as a province under the American regime in 1901, its first provincial governor was Rafael Maramag, a former Municipal President and also the first Municipal President of the capital town Ilagan. He was succeeded by his brother, Gabriel. Afterwards, Isabela was ruled by the Dy family for 34 years (1969-2004). The dynasty was started by the patriarch of the family, Faustino N. Dy, Sr., who served as the Mayor of Cauayan from 1965 to 1969 and sat as the provincial governor of Isabela for 22 years (1969–1992).Around 1987,former mayor of Santiago,mayor Dodo Miranda plan to run governor of isabela but sadly he ambushed by unidentified gunman in reina mercedes.so that the reason santiago city is independent to isabela because of that incedent. He was succeeded by his son, Benjamin G. Dy, in the gubernatorial seat from 1992 to 2001. Another Dy took over the gubernatorial seat in 2001 when Faustino Dy Jr. won the 2001 elections after having served as the district representative of the 2nd Legislative District of the province from 1992 to 2001. It was only in the 2004 elections that the family's control of the gubernatorial seat ended when Grace Padaca won over Faustino Dy Jr. She was the first woman to serve as the governor of the province. After serving for six years (2004-2010), she was defeated in the 2010 National Elections by Faustino "Bojie" G. Dy III who served as governor of the province for three consecutive terms (2010-2019).On September 27, 2018, "Republic Act No. 11080", an act reapportioning the province of Isabela into six legislative districts from four, was signed into law and the reapportioned districts elected its representatives starting in the 2019 midterm elections. Accordingly, the new districts are as follows:The population of Isabela in the was people, making it the most populated province among the five provinces in Cagayan Valley (Region II). It had a density of .In 2010, Isabela had a population of 1,489,645 people: 46 percent of the 3.2 million people in the region at that time. At the national level, the province contributed 1.58 percent to the total population of 88.57 million. There were 254,928 households in the province in 2007.For all ages, the sex ratio in Isabela was about 105 with 660,627 males and 626,948 females in the 2000 Census of Population and Housing (Census 2000). There are more males than females below 50 years old.Ilocanos are the most prominent group in the province. Of the total household population, 68.71 percent classified themselves as Ilocanos, followed by the Ibanags (14.05 percent), and Tagalogs (10.02 percent). The majority ethnic group were the Ibanags, who were first seen by the Spanish explorers and converted to Christianity by missionaries, the reason why the Ibanag language had spread throughout the valley region prior to the arrival of the migrating Ilocanos. The remaining 7.22 percent are either Gaddang, Paranan, Yogad, or from other ethnic groups who have assimilated into the Ibanag-Ilocano culture . More recently, a new group from the south, the Muslim Filipinos, have migrated to this province and have made a community for themselves. In addition to this, Tagalog-speaking peoples from Central Luzon (mostly from Nueva Ecija) and Southern Luzon have also settled in the area, as well as a few Pangasinans and Kapampangans from the Central Luzon.Major languages spoken are Ilocano followed by Ibanag, Yogad, and Gaddang. Ilocanos and Ibanags speak Ilocano with an Ibanag accent, as descendants of Ilocanos from first generation in Isabela who lived within Ibanag population learned Ibanag; same situation with Ilocano tinged by Gaddang, Paranan, Yogad, and Itawis accents when descendants of Ilocanos from first generation in Isabela who lived within Gaddang, Paranan, Yogad, and Itawis populations learned their languages. People especially in the capital and commercial centers speak and understand English and Tagalog. Tagalogs, Ilocanos, and Ibanags speak Tagalog with an Ibanag accent, as descendants of Tagalogs from first generation in Isabela who lived within Ibanag population learned Ibanag.Roman Catholicism is the predominant faith followed by about 80% of the people. Other religions practiced are Aglipayan, United Methodist Church and various Christian churches such as The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Iglesia ni Cristo,and Protestant Churches Baptist, Seventh-day Adventist, other Charismatic Christians and Jehovah's Witnesses. There are also small number of Muslims.In terms of income classification, Isabela is rated as first-class province and considered among the richest and most progressive province in the Philippines and the most progressive in Region 02 courtesy of the three key cities strategically located in the province.Strategically located at the center of Cagayan Valley region, Isabela is acknowledged to have demonstrated strengths in business and industry. Thus, it has come to be known as the "Regional Trade and Industrial Center" of north-eastern Luzon.The province of Isabela is the richest in Cagayan Valley. It is also the Top 10 Richest Province in the Philippines last 2011.The cities of Cauayan, Ilagan, Santiago and the town of Roxas are the principal commercial centers of the province. Metro Manila-based malls and fast food chains have recently opened in these key trading hubs. To date, 192 banking branches operate in the province, with most of the universal and commercial banks providing automated teller machines for the convenience of their clients.Since the start of the 21st century, a growing number of foreign and local investors have selected Isabela as site of their business ventures. Heading the list are Isabela's top investors, namely: Mindanao Grains Processing Company, Inc., SN Aboitiz Power- Magat Inc., Universal Leaf Philippines, Coca-Cola FEMSA Philippines, Inc., San Miguel Corporation, RC Cola and Pepsi Cola.In the rice industry, substantial investments have been made by Valiant Rice Mills Corporation, Family Choice Grains Processing Center, Golden Season Grains Center, Herco Agro Industries, JDT Silver Grains Center, New Cauayan Goldyluck Grains and the La Suerte Rice Mill Corporation.Retail giants like SM Prime, Robinsons and Puregold Price Club, Inc. have set up shops like Savemore, Robinsons Supermarket and Puregold, respectively. In 2014, these retail companies opened its pioneer malls in the region, the SM City Cauayan and Robinsons Place Santiago.Land transportation operators Victory Liner, Five Star Bus Company, Dalin Liner, GV Florida Transport, EMC Transportation, Inc., Solid North Transit Inc., and Northern Luzon Bus Company (NELBUSCO) have terminals and depots in the province.Leading car, motorcycle and truck manufacturers such as Honda, Toyota, Mitsubishi Motors, Isuzu Motors, Kia Motors, Nissan, Ford, Chevrolet, Suzuki, Hyundai, Mazda, Foton, Peugeot, MAN SE, Yamaha and many other companies entered the province over the past years.Telecom firms Globe, PLDT/Smart and Digitel/ Sun Cellular operate cellular sites and fixed telephony facilities throughout Isabela.Big real estate developers like Vista Land and Lifescapes, Inc. entered the province with the opening of Camella Isabela, Camella Santiago, Camella Santiago Trails and Lessandra Santiago in Santiago City, and Camella Cauayan and Lumina Isabela in Cauayan City. Vista Malls is set to launch its first high end mall in Santiago City.Agriculture is the biggest industry in Isabela. As the country's top corn producing province, it contributes 21% of the annual national yellow corn production. Asia's largest post-harvest corn processing facility, the Mindanao Grains, is located in the town of Reina Mercedes.As second highest rice-growing province nationwide, Isabela produces 15% of the aggregate national rice production on an annual basis. Being a surplus producer of the Filipinos’ staple crop, the province's rice sufficiency rate is at 224%, which means that Isabelinos produce more than they consume and are in fact responsible for supplying the rice requirements of Metro Manila and many other provinces. The unprecedented increase in palay production of Isabela made the province the "Hybrid Rice Champion" of the Philippines.High-value agricultural crops grown in Isabela include monggo, tobacco, coffee, banana, and mango. Its livestock and poultry industries are also on the rise, especially dairy processing, hog production, cattle breeding, and commercial poultry raising.Farming is highly mechanized as most of the agricultural lands are irrigated. With the presence of the Isabela State University, joint ventures and other foreign assisted projects and the Magat Dam contribute to the high productivity in agriculture. It is also the hub of trade and commerce and other economic activities due to its central location in the region. The wood industry used to be a top earner for the province but due to the logging ban imposed in the Cagayan Valley Region, activities in this industry considerably declined. However, furniture making using narra wood and other indigenous forest materials continue to exist.Isabela is one of the most progressive provinces of the Philippines having been adjudged as the most outstanding province on food security in the "Gawad Sapat Ani Awards 2000". For corn production, Isabela ranks first among the top ten corn producing provinces for cy 2004, contributing 15.70% to national production. In 2013, the Department of Agriculture declared Isabela as the "Best Corn-Quality Awardee". Ilagan City was proclaimed as the "Corn Capital of the Philippines" for being the top corn producer among the 34 municipalities and 2 cities of the province as well as in the whole country.Forestland covers 54.37% or of Isabela's total land area of which 62% is protected forest and 38% is production forest. The best quality of timber resources in the Philippines are found in Isabela's forest. Isabela's vast forest resources are now being ecologically manage to effect sustainable forest-based resource not only for the wood working industry but to secure a balanced ecosystem. The woodwork industry continues to operate under a regulated system, particularly the making furniture using indigenous materials.Isabela has a fertile fishing ground on the Pacific Coast. The Magat Dam reservoir is utilized for fish cage operations for tilapia production for domestic markets. Another thriving industry in the province is aquaculture, sustained by inland fishing through 1,108 hectares of developed freshwater fishponds and 450 hectares of fish cage culture at Magat Dam Reservoir. Rich marine resources could be found in Isabela's coastal seaboard municipalities of Maconacon, Divilacan, Palanan, and Dinapigue.Large deposits of copper, gold, zinc and chromite, manganese and nickel have been found in Isabela. It also has extensive deposits of non-metallic minerals such as limestone, clay, marbles, guano, sand and gravel, and boulders. Indigenous energy sources such as natural gas and hydroelectric capabilities have been found to be abundant in the valley. Many of its mineral reserves have yet to be fully tapped.Solar and biomass power plants in the city of Cauayan and in the town of Alicia have started operating in 2015 to supplement the region's high energy demand. The online solar power plant in Cauayan City is capable of supplying at least 20 megawatts while the biomass power plant in Alicia can produce another 20 megawatts. Both systems provide clean and renewable energy. The P2 billion power facility established by the "Isabela Biomass Energy Corporation" (IBEC) was built to augment power supply in the Cagayan Valley region. The use of biomass as fuel makes the power plant carbon neutral and sustainable. This biomass power facility is the first in the region and is designed to provide economical source of energy as well as job opportunities to residents of the host town/city.On May 27, 2015, the service contract of the largest solar PV power plant in the country has been approved by the Department of Energy (DOE). The P7-billion worth 100 MW Solar PV project in the city of Ilagan is designed to reduce the current shortage in electricity that causes regular blackouts that results to industry closures as well as inconvenience to the consumers. The solar power facility will be constructed at a 100-hectare land at Barangay Cabannungan, several kilometers away from the city proper.Isabela is accessible by all means of transportation. Almost 180-kilometers of the Pan-Philippine Highway pass through the different towns and cities of the province. Several bus companies offer daily trips to different routes like Manila, Dagupan, Baguio and Ilocos vice versa. Public utility vans and small-time bus operators ply daily trips from Tuguegarao in Cagayan to Santiago City vice versa, while jeepneys and tricycles are commonly used as the basic mode of transportation within the province's jurisdiction.The construction of an 82-kilometer road through the protected Sierra Madre mountains is designed to open access to three coastal towns of the province. The approved budget contract of the project amounting to P1.5B, will pass through the foothills of the 359,486-hectare Northern Sierra Madre mountain ranges. The plan is to improve an old logging road used by a defunct logging company until the 1990s. It will start in Barangay Sindon Bayabo in capital city of Ilagan and will end in Barangay Dicatian in the coastal town of Divilacan. The project is set to be completed in 2021.Travel to the isolated coastal towns of Divilacan, Palanan and Maconacon is often made by boat or by plane only, making it difficult to reach the coastal towns in times of emergencies and calamities. There are no roads that links the capital city of Ilagan to the coastal areas, depriving residents of basic necessities and social services, such as health. Once completed, the road project is expected to boost the economies of the coastal areas, citing Divilacan's 119-hectares beach and freshwater areas that have lured tourists. The Protected Area Management Board (PAMB) issued Resolution No. 11, which reclassifies portions of the Sierra Madre as a special-use zone. The Agta and Dumagat in the area have also signed a memorandum of agreement with the provincial government, expressing their consent to the road project. At least 1,800 Agta and Dumagat have been staying in the park areas. But the impact of the road on the protected forest has alarmed residents who feared that the project may damage its forests and ecosystems. The project was delayed in the recent years due to concerns about the road's potential impact on the environment. The Cagayan Valley Regional Development Council required the project's proponents to study the full impact of the road on the area's biodiversity.There are five airports in the province. The Cauayan Airport is the primary airport in the province serving a trip to Manila, Palanan, and Maconacon. The other two are the Palanan Airport in Palanan and Maconacon Airport in Maconacon. The country's leading passenger airline Cebu Pacific services the Cauayan-Manila-Cauayan Route. Light planes operated by Cyclone Airways and WCC Aviation's Sky Pasada Have flights from Cauayan Domestic Airport to the community airports in Palanan and Maconacon. The province has two minor seaports, the Divilacan Port and Palanan Port in the coastal towns of Divilacan and Palanan. The trade going to the ports come primarily from major seaports in Cagayan such as Port of Aparri in Aparri, Cagayan, and Port of San Vicente and Port Irene, both in Santa Ana, Cagayan. The other two airstrips are found in Divilacan, and in Magat River Management Project Site.Isabela is one of the primary centers of education in the Cagayan Valley Region. There are several public and private educational institutions, the most notable being the Isabela State University, a government-owned and controlled public university. Its main campus is located in Echague and satellite campuses in Cauayan City, Ilagan City, Angadanan, Cabagan, Jones, Palanan (extension), Roxas, San Mariano, San Mateo and Santiago City (extension).Among the most notable higher educational institutions found in the province of Isabela are the following:Since the early 2000s, tourism has become an income-generating industry for Isabela. New hotels and resorts have opened, mostly in the cities of Ilagan, Cauayan and Santiago, and the towns of Tumauini, Gamu, Roxas, Alicia, Burgos, Ramon, San Mariano and Cordon. Top tourist attractions are the centuries-old churches; Magat Dam Tourism Complex, which houses Southeast Asia's biggest dam; Santa Victoria Caves, Pinzal Falls and Ilagan Sanctuary at Fuyot National Park; the white sand beaches in the coastal municipalities of Maconacon, Divilacan, Palanan, Dinapigue and islands of coastal Isabela; the world's biggest wooden lounge chair or "butaka" in Ilagan City; and various festival and fiestas, including the "Bambanti Festival" annually celebrated every February, and the commemoration of the birth of the province during Isabela Day every May. | [
"Grace Padaca",
"Rodolfo T. Albano III",
"Silvestre Bello III",
"Faustino Dy",
"Benjamin Dy",
"Faustino Dy Jr."
] |
|
Who was the head of Isabela in 28/08/2017? | August 28, 2017 | {
"text": [
"Faustino G. Dy III"
]
} | L2_Q13826_P6_5 | Faustino G. Dy III is the head of the government of Isabela from Jun, 2010 to Jun, 2019.
Silvestre Bello III is the head of the government of Isabela from Apr, 1986 to Feb, 1988.
Faustino Dy Jr. is the head of the government of Isabela from Jun, 2001 to Jun, 2004.
Grace Padaca is the head of the government of Isabela from Jun, 2004 to Jun, 2010.
Rodolfo T. Albano III is the head of the government of Isabela from Jun, 2019 to Dec, 2022.
Benjamin Dy is the head of the government of Isabela from Jun, 1992 to Jun, 2001.
Faustino Dy is the head of the government of Isabela from Feb, 1988 to Jun, 1992. | Isabela (province)Isabela, officially the Province of Isabela (; ; ) is the second largest province in the Philippines in land area located in the Cagayan Valley region in Luzon. Its capital and largest local government unit is the city of Ilagan. It is bordered by the provinces of Cagayan to the north, Kalinga to the northwest, Mountain Province to the central-west, Ifugao and Nueva Vizcaya to the southwest, Quirino and Aurora to the south, and the Philippine Sea to the east.This primarily agricultural province is the rice and corn granary of Luzon due to its plain and rolling terrain. In 2012, the province was declared as the country's top producer of corn with 1,209,524 metric tons. Isabela was also declared the second-largest rice producer in the Philippines and the Queen Province of the Philippines.Isabela is the 10th richest province in the Philippines as of 2020. The province has four trade centers in the cities of Ilagan, Cauayan, Santiago and the municipality of Roxas. One of Isabela's cities, Santiago City, is considered the fastest-growing local economy in the entire Philippines.The province was named after Isabella II, the first queen regnant of Spain. There have been proposals to change the name of the province into something that will better suit the indigenous roots of the country. However, such plans were rejected by the residents of Isabela.The province of Isabela used to be a vast rainforest where numerous indigenous ethnolinguistic groups lived. Many of the same ethnic groups still live in the province. Shell midden sites and other archaeological sites throughout the province constitute the material culture of those groups during the classical era.During the Spanish era, prior to 1856, the Cagayan Valley was divided into only two provinces: Cagayan and Nueva Vizcaya. The Province of Cagayan at that time consisted of all towns from Tumauini to Aparri in the north. All other towns from Ilagan southward to Aritao comprised the Province of the old Nueva Vizcaya. In order to facilitate the work of the Catholic missionaries in the evangelization of the Cagayan Valley, a royal decree was issued on May 1, 1856 creating the Province of Isabela consisting of the towns of Gamu, Old Angadanan (now Alicia), Bindang (now Roxas) and Camarag (now Echague), Carig (now Santiago City) and Palanan, all detached from the Province of Nueva Vizcaya; while Cabagan and Tumauini were taken from the Province of Cagayan.The province was placed under the jurisdiction of a governor with Ilagan as the capital, where it remains up to present. It was initially called "Isabela de Luzón" to differentiate from other places in the Philippines bearing the name of Isabela. The new province was named after Queen Isabella II of Spain.Although the province did not play a major role in the revolt against Spain, it is in Palanan that the final pages of the Philippine Revolution were written when United States troops, led by General Frederick Funston, finally captured General Emilio Aguinaldo in the area on March 23, 1901. Isabela was re-organized as a province under the American military government through "Act No. 210", passed August 24, 1901.The Americans built schools and other buildings and instituted changes in the overall political system. However, the province's economy remained particularly agricultural with rice replacing corn and tobacco as the dominant crop. World War II stagnated the province's economic growth but it recovered dramatically after the war. In 1942, Imperial Japanese occupied Isabela. In 1945, the liberation of Isabela commenced with the arrival of the Philippine Commonwealth troops under the Philippine Army, Constabulary, and USAFIP-NL units and recognized guerrillas attacked by the Japanese Imperial forces in World War II.A new wave of immigration began in the late 19th and 20th centuries with the arrival of the Ilokano who came in large numbers. They now constitute the largest group in the province. Other ethnic groups followed that made Isabela the "Melting Pot of the Northern Philippines".In 1975, construction began on the Magat Dam on the boundary of Ramon, Isabela with neighboring Ifugao Province, becoming a catchbasin for 8 rivers upstream in Ifugao and serving multiple functions, including: irrigating of agricultural lands; flood control; and power generation. The construction was protested by the Ifugao people due to the flooding of their ancestral lands, but the dam was eventually completed in 1982, partially funded through a loan from the World Bank.In 1995, "Republic Act 7891" was passed, legislating that Isabela be divided into two new provinces: Isabela del Norte and Isabela del Sur. A referendum was held on the same year with a slight majority voting against partitioning the province.In 2012, the capital town of Ilagan officially became a city, after the move gained 96% of the votes in the plebiscite conducted on August 11, 2012. The night after the plebiscite, Ilagan was declared as a component city of the province.Isabela comprises an aggregate land area of , representing almost 40 percent of the regional territory. It is the largest province in the island of Luzon and the second largest province in the Philippines by land area. Occupying the central section of the Cagayan Valley region in Luzon, Isabela is bordered by Cagayan to the north, Kalinga to the northwest, Mountain Province to the central-west, Ifugao and Nueva Vizcaya to the southwest, Quirino to the south, and Aurora to the south. To the east lies the Philippine Sea, making Isabela one of the typhoon-prone provinces in the country.The province is divided into three physiographic areas. The eastern area, straddled by the Sierra Madre mountain range, is rugged and thickly forested. A substantial portion is uncharted. These unexplored hinterlands are home to a rich variety of flora and fauna, and some are under government reservations. It is home to one of the world's largest remaining low-altitude rainforests, with numerous unknown endemic species of flora and fauna and biological diversity in the protected area known as the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park. Isabela has of Cagayan Valley’s of forest cover.The highest point of the province is located near the border with Cagayan. Mount Dos Cuernos peak has an elevation of located in San Pablo near the border with Maconacon. Other notable peaks in the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park is Mount Cresta in Divilacan with an elevation of .The western area is a fertile valley hemmed by the Central Cordillera. It is crisscrossed by the mighty Cagayan River, Siffu River, and Magat River.Mallig Plains Region is a region in the western section of the province. Its name was derived from the rolling terrains or kilometers of plain lands in western Isabela. The municipality of Roxas serves as the business center of the region. The Plains covers the municipalities of Quezon, Mallig, Quirino, Burgos, Aurora, San Manuel and Roxas.Isabela is politically subdivided into thirty four (34) municipalities, two component cities and one independent component city. The province is represented in the Philippine House of Representatives with six legislative districts.The province has ten first class municipalities, two second class cities and one first class independent component city. Ilagan City, which became a city thirteen years after its failed cityhood proposal in 1998, it is now Luzon’s largest and the country’s fourth biggest city after Davao City, Puerto Princesa and Zamboanga City by land area.The 34 municipalities and 3 cities of the province comprise 1,055 barangays, with "Rizal" in Santiago City as the most populous in 2010, and "Catalina" in Cauayan City as the least. If cities are excluded, "Bugallon Proper (Poblacion)" in Ramon has the highest population, and "Uauang-Tuliao" in Santo Tomas has the lowest.After Isabela was re-organized as a province under the American regime in 1901, its first provincial governor was Rafael Maramag, a former Municipal President and also the first Municipal President of the capital town Ilagan. He was succeeded by his brother, Gabriel. Afterwards, Isabela was ruled by the Dy family for 34 years (1969-2004). The dynasty was started by the patriarch of the family, Faustino N. Dy, Sr., who served as the Mayor of Cauayan from 1965 to 1969 and sat as the provincial governor of Isabela for 22 years (1969–1992).Around 1987,former mayor of Santiago,mayor Dodo Miranda plan to run governor of isabela but sadly he ambushed by unidentified gunman in reina mercedes.so that the reason santiago city is independent to isabela because of that incedent. He was succeeded by his son, Benjamin G. Dy, in the gubernatorial seat from 1992 to 2001. Another Dy took over the gubernatorial seat in 2001 when Faustino Dy Jr. won the 2001 elections after having served as the district representative of the 2nd Legislative District of the province from 1992 to 2001. It was only in the 2004 elections that the family's control of the gubernatorial seat ended when Grace Padaca won over Faustino Dy Jr. She was the first woman to serve as the governor of the province. After serving for six years (2004-2010), she was defeated in the 2010 National Elections by Faustino "Bojie" G. Dy III who served as governor of the province for three consecutive terms (2010-2019).On September 27, 2018, "Republic Act No. 11080", an act reapportioning the province of Isabela into six legislative districts from four, was signed into law and the reapportioned districts elected its representatives starting in the 2019 midterm elections. Accordingly, the new districts are as follows:The population of Isabela in the was people, making it the most populated province among the five provinces in Cagayan Valley (Region II). It had a density of .In 2010, Isabela had a population of 1,489,645 people: 46 percent of the 3.2 million people in the region at that time. At the national level, the province contributed 1.58 percent to the total population of 88.57 million. There were 254,928 households in the province in 2007.For all ages, the sex ratio in Isabela was about 105 with 660,627 males and 626,948 females in the 2000 Census of Population and Housing (Census 2000). There are more males than females below 50 years old.Ilocanos are the most prominent group in the province. Of the total household population, 68.71 percent classified themselves as Ilocanos, followed by the Ibanags (14.05 percent), and Tagalogs (10.02 percent). The majority ethnic group were the Ibanags, who were first seen by the Spanish explorers and converted to Christianity by missionaries, the reason why the Ibanag language had spread throughout the valley region prior to the arrival of the migrating Ilocanos. The remaining 7.22 percent are either Gaddang, Paranan, Yogad, or from other ethnic groups who have assimilated into the Ibanag-Ilocano culture . More recently, a new group from the south, the Muslim Filipinos, have migrated to this province and have made a community for themselves. In addition to this, Tagalog-speaking peoples from Central Luzon (mostly from Nueva Ecija) and Southern Luzon have also settled in the area, as well as a few Pangasinans and Kapampangans from the Central Luzon.Major languages spoken are Ilocano followed by Ibanag, Yogad, and Gaddang. Ilocanos and Ibanags speak Ilocano with an Ibanag accent, as descendants of Ilocanos from first generation in Isabela who lived within Ibanag population learned Ibanag; same situation with Ilocano tinged by Gaddang, Paranan, Yogad, and Itawis accents when descendants of Ilocanos from first generation in Isabela who lived within Gaddang, Paranan, Yogad, and Itawis populations learned their languages. People especially in the capital and commercial centers speak and understand English and Tagalog. Tagalogs, Ilocanos, and Ibanags speak Tagalog with an Ibanag accent, as descendants of Tagalogs from first generation in Isabela who lived within Ibanag population learned Ibanag.Roman Catholicism is the predominant faith followed by about 80% of the people. Other religions practiced are Aglipayan, United Methodist Church and various Christian churches such as The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Iglesia ni Cristo,and Protestant Churches Baptist, Seventh-day Adventist, other Charismatic Christians and Jehovah's Witnesses. There are also small number of Muslims.In terms of income classification, Isabela is rated as first-class province and considered among the richest and most progressive province in the Philippines and the most progressive in Region 02 courtesy of the three key cities strategically located in the province.Strategically located at the center of Cagayan Valley region, Isabela is acknowledged to have demonstrated strengths in business and industry. Thus, it has come to be known as the "Regional Trade and Industrial Center" of north-eastern Luzon.The province of Isabela is the richest in Cagayan Valley. It is also the Top 10 Richest Province in the Philippines last 2011.The cities of Cauayan, Ilagan, Santiago and the town of Roxas are the principal commercial centers of the province. Metro Manila-based malls and fast food chains have recently opened in these key trading hubs. To date, 192 banking branches operate in the province, with most of the universal and commercial banks providing automated teller machines for the convenience of their clients.Since the start of the 21st century, a growing number of foreign and local investors have selected Isabela as site of their business ventures. Heading the list are Isabela's top investors, namely: Mindanao Grains Processing Company, Inc., SN Aboitiz Power- Magat Inc., Universal Leaf Philippines, Coca-Cola FEMSA Philippines, Inc., San Miguel Corporation, RC Cola and Pepsi Cola.In the rice industry, substantial investments have been made by Valiant Rice Mills Corporation, Family Choice Grains Processing Center, Golden Season Grains Center, Herco Agro Industries, JDT Silver Grains Center, New Cauayan Goldyluck Grains and the La Suerte Rice Mill Corporation.Retail giants like SM Prime, Robinsons and Puregold Price Club, Inc. have set up shops like Savemore, Robinsons Supermarket and Puregold, respectively. In 2014, these retail companies opened its pioneer malls in the region, the SM City Cauayan and Robinsons Place Santiago.Land transportation operators Victory Liner, Five Star Bus Company, Dalin Liner, GV Florida Transport, EMC Transportation, Inc., Solid North Transit Inc., and Northern Luzon Bus Company (NELBUSCO) have terminals and depots in the province.Leading car, motorcycle and truck manufacturers such as Honda, Toyota, Mitsubishi Motors, Isuzu Motors, Kia Motors, Nissan, Ford, Chevrolet, Suzuki, Hyundai, Mazda, Foton, Peugeot, MAN SE, Yamaha and many other companies entered the province over the past years.Telecom firms Globe, PLDT/Smart and Digitel/ Sun Cellular operate cellular sites and fixed telephony facilities throughout Isabela.Big real estate developers like Vista Land and Lifescapes, Inc. entered the province with the opening of Camella Isabela, Camella Santiago, Camella Santiago Trails and Lessandra Santiago in Santiago City, and Camella Cauayan and Lumina Isabela in Cauayan City. Vista Malls is set to launch its first high end mall in Santiago City.Agriculture is the biggest industry in Isabela. As the country's top corn producing province, it contributes 21% of the annual national yellow corn production. Asia's largest post-harvest corn processing facility, the Mindanao Grains, is located in the town of Reina Mercedes.As second highest rice-growing province nationwide, Isabela produces 15% of the aggregate national rice production on an annual basis. Being a surplus producer of the Filipinos’ staple crop, the province's rice sufficiency rate is at 224%, which means that Isabelinos produce more than they consume and are in fact responsible for supplying the rice requirements of Metro Manila and many other provinces. The unprecedented increase in palay production of Isabela made the province the "Hybrid Rice Champion" of the Philippines.High-value agricultural crops grown in Isabela include monggo, tobacco, coffee, banana, and mango. Its livestock and poultry industries are also on the rise, especially dairy processing, hog production, cattle breeding, and commercial poultry raising.Farming is highly mechanized as most of the agricultural lands are irrigated. With the presence of the Isabela State University, joint ventures and other foreign assisted projects and the Magat Dam contribute to the high productivity in agriculture. It is also the hub of trade and commerce and other economic activities due to its central location in the region. The wood industry used to be a top earner for the province but due to the logging ban imposed in the Cagayan Valley Region, activities in this industry considerably declined. However, furniture making using narra wood and other indigenous forest materials continue to exist.Isabela is one of the most progressive provinces of the Philippines having been adjudged as the most outstanding province on food security in the "Gawad Sapat Ani Awards 2000". For corn production, Isabela ranks first among the top ten corn producing provinces for cy 2004, contributing 15.70% to national production. In 2013, the Department of Agriculture declared Isabela as the "Best Corn-Quality Awardee". Ilagan City was proclaimed as the "Corn Capital of the Philippines" for being the top corn producer among the 34 municipalities and 2 cities of the province as well as in the whole country.Forestland covers 54.37% or of Isabela's total land area of which 62% is protected forest and 38% is production forest. The best quality of timber resources in the Philippines are found in Isabela's forest. Isabela's vast forest resources are now being ecologically manage to effect sustainable forest-based resource not only for the wood working industry but to secure a balanced ecosystem. The woodwork industry continues to operate under a regulated system, particularly the making furniture using indigenous materials.Isabela has a fertile fishing ground on the Pacific Coast. The Magat Dam reservoir is utilized for fish cage operations for tilapia production for domestic markets. Another thriving industry in the province is aquaculture, sustained by inland fishing through 1,108 hectares of developed freshwater fishponds and 450 hectares of fish cage culture at Magat Dam Reservoir. Rich marine resources could be found in Isabela's coastal seaboard municipalities of Maconacon, Divilacan, Palanan, and Dinapigue.Large deposits of copper, gold, zinc and chromite, manganese and nickel have been found in Isabela. It also has extensive deposits of non-metallic minerals such as limestone, clay, marbles, guano, sand and gravel, and boulders. Indigenous energy sources such as natural gas and hydroelectric capabilities have been found to be abundant in the valley. Many of its mineral reserves have yet to be fully tapped.Solar and biomass power plants in the city of Cauayan and in the town of Alicia have started operating in 2015 to supplement the region's high energy demand. The online solar power plant in Cauayan City is capable of supplying at least 20 megawatts while the biomass power plant in Alicia can produce another 20 megawatts. Both systems provide clean and renewable energy. The P2 billion power facility established by the "Isabela Biomass Energy Corporation" (IBEC) was built to augment power supply in the Cagayan Valley region. The use of biomass as fuel makes the power plant carbon neutral and sustainable. This biomass power facility is the first in the region and is designed to provide economical source of energy as well as job opportunities to residents of the host town/city.On May 27, 2015, the service contract of the largest solar PV power plant in the country has been approved by the Department of Energy (DOE). The P7-billion worth 100 MW Solar PV project in the city of Ilagan is designed to reduce the current shortage in electricity that causes regular blackouts that results to industry closures as well as inconvenience to the consumers. The solar power facility will be constructed at a 100-hectare land at Barangay Cabannungan, several kilometers away from the city proper.Isabela is accessible by all means of transportation. Almost 180-kilometers of the Pan-Philippine Highway pass through the different towns and cities of the province. Several bus companies offer daily trips to different routes like Manila, Dagupan, Baguio and Ilocos vice versa. Public utility vans and small-time bus operators ply daily trips from Tuguegarao in Cagayan to Santiago City vice versa, while jeepneys and tricycles are commonly used as the basic mode of transportation within the province's jurisdiction.The construction of an 82-kilometer road through the protected Sierra Madre mountains is designed to open access to three coastal towns of the province. The approved budget contract of the project amounting to P1.5B, will pass through the foothills of the 359,486-hectare Northern Sierra Madre mountain ranges. The plan is to improve an old logging road used by a defunct logging company until the 1990s. It will start in Barangay Sindon Bayabo in capital city of Ilagan and will end in Barangay Dicatian in the coastal town of Divilacan. The project is set to be completed in 2021.Travel to the isolated coastal towns of Divilacan, Palanan and Maconacon is often made by boat or by plane only, making it difficult to reach the coastal towns in times of emergencies and calamities. There are no roads that links the capital city of Ilagan to the coastal areas, depriving residents of basic necessities and social services, such as health. Once completed, the road project is expected to boost the economies of the coastal areas, citing Divilacan's 119-hectares beach and freshwater areas that have lured tourists. The Protected Area Management Board (PAMB) issued Resolution No. 11, which reclassifies portions of the Sierra Madre as a special-use zone. The Agta and Dumagat in the area have also signed a memorandum of agreement with the provincial government, expressing their consent to the road project. At least 1,800 Agta and Dumagat have been staying in the park areas. But the impact of the road on the protected forest has alarmed residents who feared that the project may damage its forests and ecosystems. The project was delayed in the recent years due to concerns about the road's potential impact on the environment. The Cagayan Valley Regional Development Council required the project's proponents to study the full impact of the road on the area's biodiversity.There are five airports in the province. The Cauayan Airport is the primary airport in the province serving a trip to Manila, Palanan, and Maconacon. The other two are the Palanan Airport in Palanan and Maconacon Airport in Maconacon. The country's leading passenger airline Cebu Pacific services the Cauayan-Manila-Cauayan Route. Light planes operated by Cyclone Airways and WCC Aviation's Sky Pasada Have flights from Cauayan Domestic Airport to the community airports in Palanan and Maconacon. The province has two minor seaports, the Divilacan Port and Palanan Port in the coastal towns of Divilacan and Palanan. The trade going to the ports come primarily from major seaports in Cagayan such as Port of Aparri in Aparri, Cagayan, and Port of San Vicente and Port Irene, both in Santa Ana, Cagayan. The other two airstrips are found in Divilacan, and in Magat River Management Project Site.Isabela is one of the primary centers of education in the Cagayan Valley Region. There are several public and private educational institutions, the most notable being the Isabela State University, a government-owned and controlled public university. Its main campus is located in Echague and satellite campuses in Cauayan City, Ilagan City, Angadanan, Cabagan, Jones, Palanan (extension), Roxas, San Mariano, San Mateo and Santiago City (extension).Among the most notable higher educational institutions found in the province of Isabela are the following:Since the early 2000s, tourism has become an income-generating industry for Isabela. New hotels and resorts have opened, mostly in the cities of Ilagan, Cauayan and Santiago, and the towns of Tumauini, Gamu, Roxas, Alicia, Burgos, Ramon, San Mariano and Cordon. Top tourist attractions are the centuries-old churches; Magat Dam Tourism Complex, which houses Southeast Asia's biggest dam; Santa Victoria Caves, Pinzal Falls and Ilagan Sanctuary at Fuyot National Park; the white sand beaches in the coastal municipalities of Maconacon, Divilacan, Palanan, Dinapigue and islands of coastal Isabela; the world's biggest wooden lounge chair or "butaka" in Ilagan City; and various festival and fiestas, including the "Bambanti Festival" annually celebrated every February, and the commemoration of the birth of the province during Isabela Day every May. | [
"Grace Padaca",
"Rodolfo T. Albano III",
"Silvestre Bello III",
"Faustino Dy",
"Benjamin Dy",
"Faustino Dy Jr."
] |
|
Who was the head of Isabela in Aug 28, 2017? | August 28, 2017 | {
"text": [
"Faustino G. Dy III"
]
} | L2_Q13826_P6_5 | Faustino G. Dy III is the head of the government of Isabela from Jun, 2010 to Jun, 2019.
Silvestre Bello III is the head of the government of Isabela from Apr, 1986 to Feb, 1988.
Faustino Dy Jr. is the head of the government of Isabela from Jun, 2001 to Jun, 2004.
Grace Padaca is the head of the government of Isabela from Jun, 2004 to Jun, 2010.
Rodolfo T. Albano III is the head of the government of Isabela from Jun, 2019 to Dec, 2022.
Benjamin Dy is the head of the government of Isabela from Jun, 1992 to Jun, 2001.
Faustino Dy is the head of the government of Isabela from Feb, 1988 to Jun, 1992. | Isabela (province)Isabela, officially the Province of Isabela (; ; ) is the second largest province in the Philippines in land area located in the Cagayan Valley region in Luzon. Its capital and largest local government unit is the city of Ilagan. It is bordered by the provinces of Cagayan to the north, Kalinga to the northwest, Mountain Province to the central-west, Ifugao and Nueva Vizcaya to the southwest, Quirino and Aurora to the south, and the Philippine Sea to the east.This primarily agricultural province is the rice and corn granary of Luzon due to its plain and rolling terrain. In 2012, the province was declared as the country's top producer of corn with 1,209,524 metric tons. Isabela was also declared the second-largest rice producer in the Philippines and the Queen Province of the Philippines.Isabela is the 10th richest province in the Philippines as of 2020. The province has four trade centers in the cities of Ilagan, Cauayan, Santiago and the municipality of Roxas. One of Isabela's cities, Santiago City, is considered the fastest-growing local economy in the entire Philippines.The province was named after Isabella II, the first queen regnant of Spain. There have been proposals to change the name of the province into something that will better suit the indigenous roots of the country. However, such plans were rejected by the residents of Isabela.The province of Isabela used to be a vast rainforest where numerous indigenous ethnolinguistic groups lived. Many of the same ethnic groups still live in the province. Shell midden sites and other archaeological sites throughout the province constitute the material culture of those groups during the classical era.During the Spanish era, prior to 1856, the Cagayan Valley was divided into only two provinces: Cagayan and Nueva Vizcaya. The Province of Cagayan at that time consisted of all towns from Tumauini to Aparri in the north. All other towns from Ilagan southward to Aritao comprised the Province of the old Nueva Vizcaya. In order to facilitate the work of the Catholic missionaries in the evangelization of the Cagayan Valley, a royal decree was issued on May 1, 1856 creating the Province of Isabela consisting of the towns of Gamu, Old Angadanan (now Alicia), Bindang (now Roxas) and Camarag (now Echague), Carig (now Santiago City) and Palanan, all detached from the Province of Nueva Vizcaya; while Cabagan and Tumauini were taken from the Province of Cagayan.The province was placed under the jurisdiction of a governor with Ilagan as the capital, where it remains up to present. It was initially called "Isabela de Luzón" to differentiate from other places in the Philippines bearing the name of Isabela. The new province was named after Queen Isabella II of Spain.Although the province did not play a major role in the revolt against Spain, it is in Palanan that the final pages of the Philippine Revolution were written when United States troops, led by General Frederick Funston, finally captured General Emilio Aguinaldo in the area on March 23, 1901. Isabela was re-organized as a province under the American military government through "Act No. 210", passed August 24, 1901.The Americans built schools and other buildings and instituted changes in the overall political system. However, the province's economy remained particularly agricultural with rice replacing corn and tobacco as the dominant crop. World War II stagnated the province's economic growth but it recovered dramatically after the war. In 1942, Imperial Japanese occupied Isabela. In 1945, the liberation of Isabela commenced with the arrival of the Philippine Commonwealth troops under the Philippine Army, Constabulary, and USAFIP-NL units and recognized guerrillas attacked by the Japanese Imperial forces in World War II.A new wave of immigration began in the late 19th and 20th centuries with the arrival of the Ilokano who came in large numbers. They now constitute the largest group in the province. Other ethnic groups followed that made Isabela the "Melting Pot of the Northern Philippines".In 1975, construction began on the Magat Dam on the boundary of Ramon, Isabela with neighboring Ifugao Province, becoming a catchbasin for 8 rivers upstream in Ifugao and serving multiple functions, including: irrigating of agricultural lands; flood control; and power generation. The construction was protested by the Ifugao people due to the flooding of their ancestral lands, but the dam was eventually completed in 1982, partially funded through a loan from the World Bank.In 1995, "Republic Act 7891" was passed, legislating that Isabela be divided into two new provinces: Isabela del Norte and Isabela del Sur. A referendum was held on the same year with a slight majority voting against partitioning the province.In 2012, the capital town of Ilagan officially became a city, after the move gained 96% of the votes in the plebiscite conducted on August 11, 2012. The night after the plebiscite, Ilagan was declared as a component city of the province.Isabela comprises an aggregate land area of , representing almost 40 percent of the regional territory. It is the largest province in the island of Luzon and the second largest province in the Philippines by land area. Occupying the central section of the Cagayan Valley region in Luzon, Isabela is bordered by Cagayan to the north, Kalinga to the northwest, Mountain Province to the central-west, Ifugao and Nueva Vizcaya to the southwest, Quirino to the south, and Aurora to the south. To the east lies the Philippine Sea, making Isabela one of the typhoon-prone provinces in the country.The province is divided into three physiographic areas. The eastern area, straddled by the Sierra Madre mountain range, is rugged and thickly forested. A substantial portion is uncharted. These unexplored hinterlands are home to a rich variety of flora and fauna, and some are under government reservations. It is home to one of the world's largest remaining low-altitude rainforests, with numerous unknown endemic species of flora and fauna and biological diversity in the protected area known as the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park. Isabela has of Cagayan Valley’s of forest cover.The highest point of the province is located near the border with Cagayan. Mount Dos Cuernos peak has an elevation of located in San Pablo near the border with Maconacon. Other notable peaks in the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park is Mount Cresta in Divilacan with an elevation of .The western area is a fertile valley hemmed by the Central Cordillera. It is crisscrossed by the mighty Cagayan River, Siffu River, and Magat River.Mallig Plains Region is a region in the western section of the province. Its name was derived from the rolling terrains or kilometers of plain lands in western Isabela. The municipality of Roxas serves as the business center of the region. The Plains covers the municipalities of Quezon, Mallig, Quirino, Burgos, Aurora, San Manuel and Roxas.Isabela is politically subdivided into thirty four (34) municipalities, two component cities and one independent component city. The province is represented in the Philippine House of Representatives with six legislative districts.The province has ten first class municipalities, two second class cities and one first class independent component city. Ilagan City, which became a city thirteen years after its failed cityhood proposal in 1998, it is now Luzon’s largest and the country’s fourth biggest city after Davao City, Puerto Princesa and Zamboanga City by land area.The 34 municipalities and 3 cities of the province comprise 1,055 barangays, with "Rizal" in Santiago City as the most populous in 2010, and "Catalina" in Cauayan City as the least. If cities are excluded, "Bugallon Proper (Poblacion)" in Ramon has the highest population, and "Uauang-Tuliao" in Santo Tomas has the lowest.After Isabela was re-organized as a province under the American regime in 1901, its first provincial governor was Rafael Maramag, a former Municipal President and also the first Municipal President of the capital town Ilagan. He was succeeded by his brother, Gabriel. Afterwards, Isabela was ruled by the Dy family for 34 years (1969-2004). The dynasty was started by the patriarch of the family, Faustino N. Dy, Sr., who served as the Mayor of Cauayan from 1965 to 1969 and sat as the provincial governor of Isabela for 22 years (1969–1992).Around 1987,former mayor of Santiago,mayor Dodo Miranda plan to run governor of isabela but sadly he ambushed by unidentified gunman in reina mercedes.so that the reason santiago city is independent to isabela because of that incedent. He was succeeded by his son, Benjamin G. Dy, in the gubernatorial seat from 1992 to 2001. Another Dy took over the gubernatorial seat in 2001 when Faustino Dy Jr. won the 2001 elections after having served as the district representative of the 2nd Legislative District of the province from 1992 to 2001. It was only in the 2004 elections that the family's control of the gubernatorial seat ended when Grace Padaca won over Faustino Dy Jr. She was the first woman to serve as the governor of the province. After serving for six years (2004-2010), she was defeated in the 2010 National Elections by Faustino "Bojie" G. Dy III who served as governor of the province for three consecutive terms (2010-2019).On September 27, 2018, "Republic Act No. 11080", an act reapportioning the province of Isabela into six legislative districts from four, was signed into law and the reapportioned districts elected its representatives starting in the 2019 midterm elections. Accordingly, the new districts are as follows:The population of Isabela in the was people, making it the most populated province among the five provinces in Cagayan Valley (Region II). It had a density of .In 2010, Isabela had a population of 1,489,645 people: 46 percent of the 3.2 million people in the region at that time. At the national level, the province contributed 1.58 percent to the total population of 88.57 million. There were 254,928 households in the province in 2007.For all ages, the sex ratio in Isabela was about 105 with 660,627 males and 626,948 females in the 2000 Census of Population and Housing (Census 2000). There are more males than females below 50 years old.Ilocanos are the most prominent group in the province. Of the total household population, 68.71 percent classified themselves as Ilocanos, followed by the Ibanags (14.05 percent), and Tagalogs (10.02 percent). The majority ethnic group were the Ibanags, who were first seen by the Spanish explorers and converted to Christianity by missionaries, the reason why the Ibanag language had spread throughout the valley region prior to the arrival of the migrating Ilocanos. The remaining 7.22 percent are either Gaddang, Paranan, Yogad, or from other ethnic groups who have assimilated into the Ibanag-Ilocano culture . More recently, a new group from the south, the Muslim Filipinos, have migrated to this province and have made a community for themselves. In addition to this, Tagalog-speaking peoples from Central Luzon (mostly from Nueva Ecija) and Southern Luzon have also settled in the area, as well as a few Pangasinans and Kapampangans from the Central Luzon.Major languages spoken are Ilocano followed by Ibanag, Yogad, and Gaddang. Ilocanos and Ibanags speak Ilocano with an Ibanag accent, as descendants of Ilocanos from first generation in Isabela who lived within Ibanag population learned Ibanag; same situation with Ilocano tinged by Gaddang, Paranan, Yogad, and Itawis accents when descendants of Ilocanos from first generation in Isabela who lived within Gaddang, Paranan, Yogad, and Itawis populations learned their languages. People especially in the capital and commercial centers speak and understand English and Tagalog. Tagalogs, Ilocanos, and Ibanags speak Tagalog with an Ibanag accent, as descendants of Tagalogs from first generation in Isabela who lived within Ibanag population learned Ibanag.Roman Catholicism is the predominant faith followed by about 80% of the people. Other religions practiced are Aglipayan, United Methodist Church and various Christian churches such as The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Iglesia ni Cristo,and Protestant Churches Baptist, Seventh-day Adventist, other Charismatic Christians and Jehovah's Witnesses. There are also small number of Muslims.In terms of income classification, Isabela is rated as first-class province and considered among the richest and most progressive province in the Philippines and the most progressive in Region 02 courtesy of the three key cities strategically located in the province.Strategically located at the center of Cagayan Valley region, Isabela is acknowledged to have demonstrated strengths in business and industry. Thus, it has come to be known as the "Regional Trade and Industrial Center" of north-eastern Luzon.The province of Isabela is the richest in Cagayan Valley. It is also the Top 10 Richest Province in the Philippines last 2011.The cities of Cauayan, Ilagan, Santiago and the town of Roxas are the principal commercial centers of the province. Metro Manila-based malls and fast food chains have recently opened in these key trading hubs. To date, 192 banking branches operate in the province, with most of the universal and commercial banks providing automated teller machines for the convenience of their clients.Since the start of the 21st century, a growing number of foreign and local investors have selected Isabela as site of their business ventures. Heading the list are Isabela's top investors, namely: Mindanao Grains Processing Company, Inc., SN Aboitiz Power- Magat Inc., Universal Leaf Philippines, Coca-Cola FEMSA Philippines, Inc., San Miguel Corporation, RC Cola and Pepsi Cola.In the rice industry, substantial investments have been made by Valiant Rice Mills Corporation, Family Choice Grains Processing Center, Golden Season Grains Center, Herco Agro Industries, JDT Silver Grains Center, New Cauayan Goldyluck Grains and the La Suerte Rice Mill Corporation.Retail giants like SM Prime, Robinsons and Puregold Price Club, Inc. have set up shops like Savemore, Robinsons Supermarket and Puregold, respectively. In 2014, these retail companies opened its pioneer malls in the region, the SM City Cauayan and Robinsons Place Santiago.Land transportation operators Victory Liner, Five Star Bus Company, Dalin Liner, GV Florida Transport, EMC Transportation, Inc., Solid North Transit Inc., and Northern Luzon Bus Company (NELBUSCO) have terminals and depots in the province.Leading car, motorcycle and truck manufacturers such as Honda, Toyota, Mitsubishi Motors, Isuzu Motors, Kia Motors, Nissan, Ford, Chevrolet, Suzuki, Hyundai, Mazda, Foton, Peugeot, MAN SE, Yamaha and many other companies entered the province over the past years.Telecom firms Globe, PLDT/Smart and Digitel/ Sun Cellular operate cellular sites and fixed telephony facilities throughout Isabela.Big real estate developers like Vista Land and Lifescapes, Inc. entered the province with the opening of Camella Isabela, Camella Santiago, Camella Santiago Trails and Lessandra Santiago in Santiago City, and Camella Cauayan and Lumina Isabela in Cauayan City. Vista Malls is set to launch its first high end mall in Santiago City.Agriculture is the biggest industry in Isabela. As the country's top corn producing province, it contributes 21% of the annual national yellow corn production. Asia's largest post-harvest corn processing facility, the Mindanao Grains, is located in the town of Reina Mercedes.As second highest rice-growing province nationwide, Isabela produces 15% of the aggregate national rice production on an annual basis. Being a surplus producer of the Filipinos’ staple crop, the province's rice sufficiency rate is at 224%, which means that Isabelinos produce more than they consume and are in fact responsible for supplying the rice requirements of Metro Manila and many other provinces. The unprecedented increase in palay production of Isabela made the province the "Hybrid Rice Champion" of the Philippines.High-value agricultural crops grown in Isabela include monggo, tobacco, coffee, banana, and mango. Its livestock and poultry industries are also on the rise, especially dairy processing, hog production, cattle breeding, and commercial poultry raising.Farming is highly mechanized as most of the agricultural lands are irrigated. With the presence of the Isabela State University, joint ventures and other foreign assisted projects and the Magat Dam contribute to the high productivity in agriculture. It is also the hub of trade and commerce and other economic activities due to its central location in the region. The wood industry used to be a top earner for the province but due to the logging ban imposed in the Cagayan Valley Region, activities in this industry considerably declined. However, furniture making using narra wood and other indigenous forest materials continue to exist.Isabela is one of the most progressive provinces of the Philippines having been adjudged as the most outstanding province on food security in the "Gawad Sapat Ani Awards 2000". For corn production, Isabela ranks first among the top ten corn producing provinces for cy 2004, contributing 15.70% to national production. In 2013, the Department of Agriculture declared Isabela as the "Best Corn-Quality Awardee". Ilagan City was proclaimed as the "Corn Capital of the Philippines" for being the top corn producer among the 34 municipalities and 2 cities of the province as well as in the whole country.Forestland covers 54.37% or of Isabela's total land area of which 62% is protected forest and 38% is production forest. The best quality of timber resources in the Philippines are found in Isabela's forest. Isabela's vast forest resources are now being ecologically manage to effect sustainable forest-based resource not only for the wood working industry but to secure a balanced ecosystem. The woodwork industry continues to operate under a regulated system, particularly the making furniture using indigenous materials.Isabela has a fertile fishing ground on the Pacific Coast. The Magat Dam reservoir is utilized for fish cage operations for tilapia production for domestic markets. Another thriving industry in the province is aquaculture, sustained by inland fishing through 1,108 hectares of developed freshwater fishponds and 450 hectares of fish cage culture at Magat Dam Reservoir. Rich marine resources could be found in Isabela's coastal seaboard municipalities of Maconacon, Divilacan, Palanan, and Dinapigue.Large deposits of copper, gold, zinc and chromite, manganese and nickel have been found in Isabela. It also has extensive deposits of non-metallic minerals such as limestone, clay, marbles, guano, sand and gravel, and boulders. Indigenous energy sources such as natural gas and hydroelectric capabilities have been found to be abundant in the valley. Many of its mineral reserves have yet to be fully tapped.Solar and biomass power plants in the city of Cauayan and in the town of Alicia have started operating in 2015 to supplement the region's high energy demand. The online solar power plant in Cauayan City is capable of supplying at least 20 megawatts while the biomass power plant in Alicia can produce another 20 megawatts. Both systems provide clean and renewable energy. The P2 billion power facility established by the "Isabela Biomass Energy Corporation" (IBEC) was built to augment power supply in the Cagayan Valley region. The use of biomass as fuel makes the power plant carbon neutral and sustainable. This biomass power facility is the first in the region and is designed to provide economical source of energy as well as job opportunities to residents of the host town/city.On May 27, 2015, the service contract of the largest solar PV power plant in the country has been approved by the Department of Energy (DOE). The P7-billion worth 100 MW Solar PV project in the city of Ilagan is designed to reduce the current shortage in electricity that causes regular blackouts that results to industry closures as well as inconvenience to the consumers. The solar power facility will be constructed at a 100-hectare land at Barangay Cabannungan, several kilometers away from the city proper.Isabela is accessible by all means of transportation. Almost 180-kilometers of the Pan-Philippine Highway pass through the different towns and cities of the province. Several bus companies offer daily trips to different routes like Manila, Dagupan, Baguio and Ilocos vice versa. Public utility vans and small-time bus operators ply daily trips from Tuguegarao in Cagayan to Santiago City vice versa, while jeepneys and tricycles are commonly used as the basic mode of transportation within the province's jurisdiction.The construction of an 82-kilometer road through the protected Sierra Madre mountains is designed to open access to three coastal towns of the province. The approved budget contract of the project amounting to P1.5B, will pass through the foothills of the 359,486-hectare Northern Sierra Madre mountain ranges. The plan is to improve an old logging road used by a defunct logging company until the 1990s. It will start in Barangay Sindon Bayabo in capital city of Ilagan and will end in Barangay Dicatian in the coastal town of Divilacan. The project is set to be completed in 2021.Travel to the isolated coastal towns of Divilacan, Palanan and Maconacon is often made by boat or by plane only, making it difficult to reach the coastal towns in times of emergencies and calamities. There are no roads that links the capital city of Ilagan to the coastal areas, depriving residents of basic necessities and social services, such as health. Once completed, the road project is expected to boost the economies of the coastal areas, citing Divilacan's 119-hectares beach and freshwater areas that have lured tourists. The Protected Area Management Board (PAMB) issued Resolution No. 11, which reclassifies portions of the Sierra Madre as a special-use zone. The Agta and Dumagat in the area have also signed a memorandum of agreement with the provincial government, expressing their consent to the road project. At least 1,800 Agta and Dumagat have been staying in the park areas. But the impact of the road on the protected forest has alarmed residents who feared that the project may damage its forests and ecosystems. The project was delayed in the recent years due to concerns about the road's potential impact on the environment. The Cagayan Valley Regional Development Council required the project's proponents to study the full impact of the road on the area's biodiversity.There are five airports in the province. The Cauayan Airport is the primary airport in the province serving a trip to Manila, Palanan, and Maconacon. The other two are the Palanan Airport in Palanan and Maconacon Airport in Maconacon. The country's leading passenger airline Cebu Pacific services the Cauayan-Manila-Cauayan Route. Light planes operated by Cyclone Airways and WCC Aviation's Sky Pasada Have flights from Cauayan Domestic Airport to the community airports in Palanan and Maconacon. The province has two minor seaports, the Divilacan Port and Palanan Port in the coastal towns of Divilacan and Palanan. The trade going to the ports come primarily from major seaports in Cagayan such as Port of Aparri in Aparri, Cagayan, and Port of San Vicente and Port Irene, both in Santa Ana, Cagayan. The other two airstrips are found in Divilacan, and in Magat River Management Project Site.Isabela is one of the primary centers of education in the Cagayan Valley Region. There are several public and private educational institutions, the most notable being the Isabela State University, a government-owned and controlled public university. Its main campus is located in Echague and satellite campuses in Cauayan City, Ilagan City, Angadanan, Cabagan, Jones, Palanan (extension), Roxas, San Mariano, San Mateo and Santiago City (extension).Among the most notable higher educational institutions found in the province of Isabela are the following:Since the early 2000s, tourism has become an income-generating industry for Isabela. New hotels and resorts have opened, mostly in the cities of Ilagan, Cauayan and Santiago, and the towns of Tumauini, Gamu, Roxas, Alicia, Burgos, Ramon, San Mariano and Cordon. Top tourist attractions are the centuries-old churches; Magat Dam Tourism Complex, which houses Southeast Asia's biggest dam; Santa Victoria Caves, Pinzal Falls and Ilagan Sanctuary at Fuyot National Park; the white sand beaches in the coastal municipalities of Maconacon, Divilacan, Palanan, Dinapigue and islands of coastal Isabela; the world's biggest wooden lounge chair or "butaka" in Ilagan City; and various festival and fiestas, including the "Bambanti Festival" annually celebrated every February, and the commemoration of the birth of the province during Isabela Day every May. | [
"Grace Padaca",
"Rodolfo T. Albano III",
"Silvestre Bello III",
"Faustino Dy",
"Benjamin Dy",
"Faustino Dy Jr."
] |
|
Who was the head of Isabela in 08/28/2017? | August 28, 2017 | {
"text": [
"Faustino G. Dy III"
]
} | L2_Q13826_P6_5 | Faustino G. Dy III is the head of the government of Isabela from Jun, 2010 to Jun, 2019.
Silvestre Bello III is the head of the government of Isabela from Apr, 1986 to Feb, 1988.
Faustino Dy Jr. is the head of the government of Isabela from Jun, 2001 to Jun, 2004.
Grace Padaca is the head of the government of Isabela from Jun, 2004 to Jun, 2010.
Rodolfo T. Albano III is the head of the government of Isabela from Jun, 2019 to Dec, 2022.
Benjamin Dy is the head of the government of Isabela from Jun, 1992 to Jun, 2001.
Faustino Dy is the head of the government of Isabela from Feb, 1988 to Jun, 1992. | Isabela (province)Isabela, officially the Province of Isabela (; ; ) is the second largest province in the Philippines in land area located in the Cagayan Valley region in Luzon. Its capital and largest local government unit is the city of Ilagan. It is bordered by the provinces of Cagayan to the north, Kalinga to the northwest, Mountain Province to the central-west, Ifugao and Nueva Vizcaya to the southwest, Quirino and Aurora to the south, and the Philippine Sea to the east.This primarily agricultural province is the rice and corn granary of Luzon due to its plain and rolling terrain. In 2012, the province was declared as the country's top producer of corn with 1,209,524 metric tons. Isabela was also declared the second-largest rice producer in the Philippines and the Queen Province of the Philippines.Isabela is the 10th richest province in the Philippines as of 2020. The province has four trade centers in the cities of Ilagan, Cauayan, Santiago and the municipality of Roxas. One of Isabela's cities, Santiago City, is considered the fastest-growing local economy in the entire Philippines.The province was named after Isabella II, the first queen regnant of Spain. There have been proposals to change the name of the province into something that will better suit the indigenous roots of the country. However, such plans were rejected by the residents of Isabela.The province of Isabela used to be a vast rainforest where numerous indigenous ethnolinguistic groups lived. Many of the same ethnic groups still live in the province. Shell midden sites and other archaeological sites throughout the province constitute the material culture of those groups during the classical era.During the Spanish era, prior to 1856, the Cagayan Valley was divided into only two provinces: Cagayan and Nueva Vizcaya. The Province of Cagayan at that time consisted of all towns from Tumauini to Aparri in the north. All other towns from Ilagan southward to Aritao comprised the Province of the old Nueva Vizcaya. In order to facilitate the work of the Catholic missionaries in the evangelization of the Cagayan Valley, a royal decree was issued on May 1, 1856 creating the Province of Isabela consisting of the towns of Gamu, Old Angadanan (now Alicia), Bindang (now Roxas) and Camarag (now Echague), Carig (now Santiago City) and Palanan, all detached from the Province of Nueva Vizcaya; while Cabagan and Tumauini were taken from the Province of Cagayan.The province was placed under the jurisdiction of a governor with Ilagan as the capital, where it remains up to present. It was initially called "Isabela de Luzón" to differentiate from other places in the Philippines bearing the name of Isabela. The new province was named after Queen Isabella II of Spain.Although the province did not play a major role in the revolt against Spain, it is in Palanan that the final pages of the Philippine Revolution were written when United States troops, led by General Frederick Funston, finally captured General Emilio Aguinaldo in the area on March 23, 1901. Isabela was re-organized as a province under the American military government through "Act No. 210", passed August 24, 1901.The Americans built schools and other buildings and instituted changes in the overall political system. However, the province's economy remained particularly agricultural with rice replacing corn and tobacco as the dominant crop. World War II stagnated the province's economic growth but it recovered dramatically after the war. In 1942, Imperial Japanese occupied Isabela. In 1945, the liberation of Isabela commenced with the arrival of the Philippine Commonwealth troops under the Philippine Army, Constabulary, and USAFIP-NL units and recognized guerrillas attacked by the Japanese Imperial forces in World War II.A new wave of immigration began in the late 19th and 20th centuries with the arrival of the Ilokano who came in large numbers. They now constitute the largest group in the province. Other ethnic groups followed that made Isabela the "Melting Pot of the Northern Philippines".In 1975, construction began on the Magat Dam on the boundary of Ramon, Isabela with neighboring Ifugao Province, becoming a catchbasin for 8 rivers upstream in Ifugao and serving multiple functions, including: irrigating of agricultural lands; flood control; and power generation. The construction was protested by the Ifugao people due to the flooding of their ancestral lands, but the dam was eventually completed in 1982, partially funded through a loan from the World Bank.In 1995, "Republic Act 7891" was passed, legislating that Isabela be divided into two new provinces: Isabela del Norte and Isabela del Sur. A referendum was held on the same year with a slight majority voting against partitioning the province.In 2012, the capital town of Ilagan officially became a city, after the move gained 96% of the votes in the plebiscite conducted on August 11, 2012. The night after the plebiscite, Ilagan was declared as a component city of the province.Isabela comprises an aggregate land area of , representing almost 40 percent of the regional territory. It is the largest province in the island of Luzon and the second largest province in the Philippines by land area. Occupying the central section of the Cagayan Valley region in Luzon, Isabela is bordered by Cagayan to the north, Kalinga to the northwest, Mountain Province to the central-west, Ifugao and Nueva Vizcaya to the southwest, Quirino to the south, and Aurora to the south. To the east lies the Philippine Sea, making Isabela one of the typhoon-prone provinces in the country.The province is divided into three physiographic areas. The eastern area, straddled by the Sierra Madre mountain range, is rugged and thickly forested. A substantial portion is uncharted. These unexplored hinterlands are home to a rich variety of flora and fauna, and some are under government reservations. It is home to one of the world's largest remaining low-altitude rainforests, with numerous unknown endemic species of flora and fauna and biological diversity in the protected area known as the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park. Isabela has of Cagayan Valley’s of forest cover.The highest point of the province is located near the border with Cagayan. Mount Dos Cuernos peak has an elevation of located in San Pablo near the border with Maconacon. Other notable peaks in the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park is Mount Cresta in Divilacan with an elevation of .The western area is a fertile valley hemmed by the Central Cordillera. It is crisscrossed by the mighty Cagayan River, Siffu River, and Magat River.Mallig Plains Region is a region in the western section of the province. Its name was derived from the rolling terrains or kilometers of plain lands in western Isabela. The municipality of Roxas serves as the business center of the region. The Plains covers the municipalities of Quezon, Mallig, Quirino, Burgos, Aurora, San Manuel and Roxas.Isabela is politically subdivided into thirty four (34) municipalities, two component cities and one independent component city. The province is represented in the Philippine House of Representatives with six legislative districts.The province has ten first class municipalities, two second class cities and one first class independent component city. Ilagan City, which became a city thirteen years after its failed cityhood proposal in 1998, it is now Luzon’s largest and the country’s fourth biggest city after Davao City, Puerto Princesa and Zamboanga City by land area.The 34 municipalities and 3 cities of the province comprise 1,055 barangays, with "Rizal" in Santiago City as the most populous in 2010, and "Catalina" in Cauayan City as the least. If cities are excluded, "Bugallon Proper (Poblacion)" in Ramon has the highest population, and "Uauang-Tuliao" in Santo Tomas has the lowest.After Isabela was re-organized as a province under the American regime in 1901, its first provincial governor was Rafael Maramag, a former Municipal President and also the first Municipal President of the capital town Ilagan. He was succeeded by his brother, Gabriel. Afterwards, Isabela was ruled by the Dy family for 34 years (1969-2004). The dynasty was started by the patriarch of the family, Faustino N. Dy, Sr., who served as the Mayor of Cauayan from 1965 to 1969 and sat as the provincial governor of Isabela for 22 years (1969–1992).Around 1987,former mayor of Santiago,mayor Dodo Miranda plan to run governor of isabela but sadly he ambushed by unidentified gunman in reina mercedes.so that the reason santiago city is independent to isabela because of that incedent. He was succeeded by his son, Benjamin G. Dy, in the gubernatorial seat from 1992 to 2001. Another Dy took over the gubernatorial seat in 2001 when Faustino Dy Jr. won the 2001 elections after having served as the district representative of the 2nd Legislative District of the province from 1992 to 2001. It was only in the 2004 elections that the family's control of the gubernatorial seat ended when Grace Padaca won over Faustino Dy Jr. She was the first woman to serve as the governor of the province. After serving for six years (2004-2010), she was defeated in the 2010 National Elections by Faustino "Bojie" G. Dy III who served as governor of the province for three consecutive terms (2010-2019).On September 27, 2018, "Republic Act No. 11080", an act reapportioning the province of Isabela into six legislative districts from four, was signed into law and the reapportioned districts elected its representatives starting in the 2019 midterm elections. Accordingly, the new districts are as follows:The population of Isabela in the was people, making it the most populated province among the five provinces in Cagayan Valley (Region II). It had a density of .In 2010, Isabela had a population of 1,489,645 people: 46 percent of the 3.2 million people in the region at that time. At the national level, the province contributed 1.58 percent to the total population of 88.57 million. There were 254,928 households in the province in 2007.For all ages, the sex ratio in Isabela was about 105 with 660,627 males and 626,948 females in the 2000 Census of Population and Housing (Census 2000). There are more males than females below 50 years old.Ilocanos are the most prominent group in the province. Of the total household population, 68.71 percent classified themselves as Ilocanos, followed by the Ibanags (14.05 percent), and Tagalogs (10.02 percent). The majority ethnic group were the Ibanags, who were first seen by the Spanish explorers and converted to Christianity by missionaries, the reason why the Ibanag language had spread throughout the valley region prior to the arrival of the migrating Ilocanos. The remaining 7.22 percent are either Gaddang, Paranan, Yogad, or from other ethnic groups who have assimilated into the Ibanag-Ilocano culture . More recently, a new group from the south, the Muslim Filipinos, have migrated to this province and have made a community for themselves. In addition to this, Tagalog-speaking peoples from Central Luzon (mostly from Nueva Ecija) and Southern Luzon have also settled in the area, as well as a few Pangasinans and Kapampangans from the Central Luzon.Major languages spoken are Ilocano followed by Ibanag, Yogad, and Gaddang. Ilocanos and Ibanags speak Ilocano with an Ibanag accent, as descendants of Ilocanos from first generation in Isabela who lived within Ibanag population learned Ibanag; same situation with Ilocano tinged by Gaddang, Paranan, Yogad, and Itawis accents when descendants of Ilocanos from first generation in Isabela who lived within Gaddang, Paranan, Yogad, and Itawis populations learned their languages. People especially in the capital and commercial centers speak and understand English and Tagalog. Tagalogs, Ilocanos, and Ibanags speak Tagalog with an Ibanag accent, as descendants of Tagalogs from first generation in Isabela who lived within Ibanag population learned Ibanag.Roman Catholicism is the predominant faith followed by about 80% of the people. Other religions practiced are Aglipayan, United Methodist Church and various Christian churches such as The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Iglesia ni Cristo,and Protestant Churches Baptist, Seventh-day Adventist, other Charismatic Christians and Jehovah's Witnesses. There are also small number of Muslims.In terms of income classification, Isabela is rated as first-class province and considered among the richest and most progressive province in the Philippines and the most progressive in Region 02 courtesy of the three key cities strategically located in the province.Strategically located at the center of Cagayan Valley region, Isabela is acknowledged to have demonstrated strengths in business and industry. Thus, it has come to be known as the "Regional Trade and Industrial Center" of north-eastern Luzon.The province of Isabela is the richest in Cagayan Valley. It is also the Top 10 Richest Province in the Philippines last 2011.The cities of Cauayan, Ilagan, Santiago and the town of Roxas are the principal commercial centers of the province. Metro Manila-based malls and fast food chains have recently opened in these key trading hubs. To date, 192 banking branches operate in the province, with most of the universal and commercial banks providing automated teller machines for the convenience of their clients.Since the start of the 21st century, a growing number of foreign and local investors have selected Isabela as site of their business ventures. Heading the list are Isabela's top investors, namely: Mindanao Grains Processing Company, Inc., SN Aboitiz Power- Magat Inc., Universal Leaf Philippines, Coca-Cola FEMSA Philippines, Inc., San Miguel Corporation, RC Cola and Pepsi Cola.In the rice industry, substantial investments have been made by Valiant Rice Mills Corporation, Family Choice Grains Processing Center, Golden Season Grains Center, Herco Agro Industries, JDT Silver Grains Center, New Cauayan Goldyluck Grains and the La Suerte Rice Mill Corporation.Retail giants like SM Prime, Robinsons and Puregold Price Club, Inc. have set up shops like Savemore, Robinsons Supermarket and Puregold, respectively. In 2014, these retail companies opened its pioneer malls in the region, the SM City Cauayan and Robinsons Place Santiago.Land transportation operators Victory Liner, Five Star Bus Company, Dalin Liner, GV Florida Transport, EMC Transportation, Inc., Solid North Transit Inc., and Northern Luzon Bus Company (NELBUSCO) have terminals and depots in the province.Leading car, motorcycle and truck manufacturers such as Honda, Toyota, Mitsubishi Motors, Isuzu Motors, Kia Motors, Nissan, Ford, Chevrolet, Suzuki, Hyundai, Mazda, Foton, Peugeot, MAN SE, Yamaha and many other companies entered the province over the past years.Telecom firms Globe, PLDT/Smart and Digitel/ Sun Cellular operate cellular sites and fixed telephony facilities throughout Isabela.Big real estate developers like Vista Land and Lifescapes, Inc. entered the province with the opening of Camella Isabela, Camella Santiago, Camella Santiago Trails and Lessandra Santiago in Santiago City, and Camella Cauayan and Lumina Isabela in Cauayan City. Vista Malls is set to launch its first high end mall in Santiago City.Agriculture is the biggest industry in Isabela. As the country's top corn producing province, it contributes 21% of the annual national yellow corn production. Asia's largest post-harvest corn processing facility, the Mindanao Grains, is located in the town of Reina Mercedes.As second highest rice-growing province nationwide, Isabela produces 15% of the aggregate national rice production on an annual basis. Being a surplus producer of the Filipinos’ staple crop, the province's rice sufficiency rate is at 224%, which means that Isabelinos produce more than they consume and are in fact responsible for supplying the rice requirements of Metro Manila and many other provinces. The unprecedented increase in palay production of Isabela made the province the "Hybrid Rice Champion" of the Philippines.High-value agricultural crops grown in Isabela include monggo, tobacco, coffee, banana, and mango. Its livestock and poultry industries are also on the rise, especially dairy processing, hog production, cattle breeding, and commercial poultry raising.Farming is highly mechanized as most of the agricultural lands are irrigated. With the presence of the Isabela State University, joint ventures and other foreign assisted projects and the Magat Dam contribute to the high productivity in agriculture. It is also the hub of trade and commerce and other economic activities due to its central location in the region. The wood industry used to be a top earner for the province but due to the logging ban imposed in the Cagayan Valley Region, activities in this industry considerably declined. However, furniture making using narra wood and other indigenous forest materials continue to exist.Isabela is one of the most progressive provinces of the Philippines having been adjudged as the most outstanding province on food security in the "Gawad Sapat Ani Awards 2000". For corn production, Isabela ranks first among the top ten corn producing provinces for cy 2004, contributing 15.70% to national production. In 2013, the Department of Agriculture declared Isabela as the "Best Corn-Quality Awardee". Ilagan City was proclaimed as the "Corn Capital of the Philippines" for being the top corn producer among the 34 municipalities and 2 cities of the province as well as in the whole country.Forestland covers 54.37% or of Isabela's total land area of which 62% is protected forest and 38% is production forest. The best quality of timber resources in the Philippines are found in Isabela's forest. Isabela's vast forest resources are now being ecologically manage to effect sustainable forest-based resource not only for the wood working industry but to secure a balanced ecosystem. The woodwork industry continues to operate under a regulated system, particularly the making furniture using indigenous materials.Isabela has a fertile fishing ground on the Pacific Coast. The Magat Dam reservoir is utilized for fish cage operations for tilapia production for domestic markets. Another thriving industry in the province is aquaculture, sustained by inland fishing through 1,108 hectares of developed freshwater fishponds and 450 hectares of fish cage culture at Magat Dam Reservoir. Rich marine resources could be found in Isabela's coastal seaboard municipalities of Maconacon, Divilacan, Palanan, and Dinapigue.Large deposits of copper, gold, zinc and chromite, manganese and nickel have been found in Isabela. It also has extensive deposits of non-metallic minerals such as limestone, clay, marbles, guano, sand and gravel, and boulders. Indigenous energy sources such as natural gas and hydroelectric capabilities have been found to be abundant in the valley. Many of its mineral reserves have yet to be fully tapped.Solar and biomass power plants in the city of Cauayan and in the town of Alicia have started operating in 2015 to supplement the region's high energy demand. The online solar power plant in Cauayan City is capable of supplying at least 20 megawatts while the biomass power plant in Alicia can produce another 20 megawatts. Both systems provide clean and renewable energy. The P2 billion power facility established by the "Isabela Biomass Energy Corporation" (IBEC) was built to augment power supply in the Cagayan Valley region. The use of biomass as fuel makes the power plant carbon neutral and sustainable. This biomass power facility is the first in the region and is designed to provide economical source of energy as well as job opportunities to residents of the host town/city.On May 27, 2015, the service contract of the largest solar PV power plant in the country has been approved by the Department of Energy (DOE). The P7-billion worth 100 MW Solar PV project in the city of Ilagan is designed to reduce the current shortage in electricity that causes regular blackouts that results to industry closures as well as inconvenience to the consumers. The solar power facility will be constructed at a 100-hectare land at Barangay Cabannungan, several kilometers away from the city proper.Isabela is accessible by all means of transportation. Almost 180-kilometers of the Pan-Philippine Highway pass through the different towns and cities of the province. Several bus companies offer daily trips to different routes like Manila, Dagupan, Baguio and Ilocos vice versa. Public utility vans and small-time bus operators ply daily trips from Tuguegarao in Cagayan to Santiago City vice versa, while jeepneys and tricycles are commonly used as the basic mode of transportation within the province's jurisdiction.The construction of an 82-kilometer road through the protected Sierra Madre mountains is designed to open access to three coastal towns of the province. The approved budget contract of the project amounting to P1.5B, will pass through the foothills of the 359,486-hectare Northern Sierra Madre mountain ranges. The plan is to improve an old logging road used by a defunct logging company until the 1990s. It will start in Barangay Sindon Bayabo in capital city of Ilagan and will end in Barangay Dicatian in the coastal town of Divilacan. The project is set to be completed in 2021.Travel to the isolated coastal towns of Divilacan, Palanan and Maconacon is often made by boat or by plane only, making it difficult to reach the coastal towns in times of emergencies and calamities. There are no roads that links the capital city of Ilagan to the coastal areas, depriving residents of basic necessities and social services, such as health. Once completed, the road project is expected to boost the economies of the coastal areas, citing Divilacan's 119-hectares beach and freshwater areas that have lured tourists. The Protected Area Management Board (PAMB) issued Resolution No. 11, which reclassifies portions of the Sierra Madre as a special-use zone. The Agta and Dumagat in the area have also signed a memorandum of agreement with the provincial government, expressing their consent to the road project. At least 1,800 Agta and Dumagat have been staying in the park areas. But the impact of the road on the protected forest has alarmed residents who feared that the project may damage its forests and ecosystems. The project was delayed in the recent years due to concerns about the road's potential impact on the environment. The Cagayan Valley Regional Development Council required the project's proponents to study the full impact of the road on the area's biodiversity.There are five airports in the province. The Cauayan Airport is the primary airport in the province serving a trip to Manila, Palanan, and Maconacon. The other two are the Palanan Airport in Palanan and Maconacon Airport in Maconacon. The country's leading passenger airline Cebu Pacific services the Cauayan-Manila-Cauayan Route. Light planes operated by Cyclone Airways and WCC Aviation's Sky Pasada Have flights from Cauayan Domestic Airport to the community airports in Palanan and Maconacon. The province has two minor seaports, the Divilacan Port and Palanan Port in the coastal towns of Divilacan and Palanan. The trade going to the ports come primarily from major seaports in Cagayan such as Port of Aparri in Aparri, Cagayan, and Port of San Vicente and Port Irene, both in Santa Ana, Cagayan. The other two airstrips are found in Divilacan, and in Magat River Management Project Site.Isabela is one of the primary centers of education in the Cagayan Valley Region. There are several public and private educational institutions, the most notable being the Isabela State University, a government-owned and controlled public university. Its main campus is located in Echague and satellite campuses in Cauayan City, Ilagan City, Angadanan, Cabagan, Jones, Palanan (extension), Roxas, San Mariano, San Mateo and Santiago City (extension).Among the most notable higher educational institutions found in the province of Isabela are the following:Since the early 2000s, tourism has become an income-generating industry for Isabela. New hotels and resorts have opened, mostly in the cities of Ilagan, Cauayan and Santiago, and the towns of Tumauini, Gamu, Roxas, Alicia, Burgos, Ramon, San Mariano and Cordon. Top tourist attractions are the centuries-old churches; Magat Dam Tourism Complex, which houses Southeast Asia's biggest dam; Santa Victoria Caves, Pinzal Falls and Ilagan Sanctuary at Fuyot National Park; the white sand beaches in the coastal municipalities of Maconacon, Divilacan, Palanan, Dinapigue and islands of coastal Isabela; the world's biggest wooden lounge chair or "butaka" in Ilagan City; and various festival and fiestas, including the "Bambanti Festival" annually celebrated every February, and the commemoration of the birth of the province during Isabela Day every May. | [
"Grace Padaca",
"Rodolfo T. Albano III",
"Silvestre Bello III",
"Faustino Dy",
"Benjamin Dy",
"Faustino Dy Jr."
] |
|
Who was the head of Isabela in 28-Aug-201728-August-2017? | August 28, 2017 | {
"text": [
"Faustino G. Dy III"
]
} | L2_Q13826_P6_5 | Faustino G. Dy III is the head of the government of Isabela from Jun, 2010 to Jun, 2019.
Silvestre Bello III is the head of the government of Isabela from Apr, 1986 to Feb, 1988.
Faustino Dy Jr. is the head of the government of Isabela from Jun, 2001 to Jun, 2004.
Grace Padaca is the head of the government of Isabela from Jun, 2004 to Jun, 2010.
Rodolfo T. Albano III is the head of the government of Isabela from Jun, 2019 to Dec, 2022.
Benjamin Dy is the head of the government of Isabela from Jun, 1992 to Jun, 2001.
Faustino Dy is the head of the government of Isabela from Feb, 1988 to Jun, 1992. | Isabela (province)Isabela, officially the Province of Isabela (; ; ) is the second largest province in the Philippines in land area located in the Cagayan Valley region in Luzon. Its capital and largest local government unit is the city of Ilagan. It is bordered by the provinces of Cagayan to the north, Kalinga to the northwest, Mountain Province to the central-west, Ifugao and Nueva Vizcaya to the southwest, Quirino and Aurora to the south, and the Philippine Sea to the east.This primarily agricultural province is the rice and corn granary of Luzon due to its plain and rolling terrain. In 2012, the province was declared as the country's top producer of corn with 1,209,524 metric tons. Isabela was also declared the second-largest rice producer in the Philippines and the Queen Province of the Philippines.Isabela is the 10th richest province in the Philippines as of 2020. The province has four trade centers in the cities of Ilagan, Cauayan, Santiago and the municipality of Roxas. One of Isabela's cities, Santiago City, is considered the fastest-growing local economy in the entire Philippines.The province was named after Isabella II, the first queen regnant of Spain. There have been proposals to change the name of the province into something that will better suit the indigenous roots of the country. However, such plans were rejected by the residents of Isabela.The province of Isabela used to be a vast rainforest where numerous indigenous ethnolinguistic groups lived. Many of the same ethnic groups still live in the province. Shell midden sites and other archaeological sites throughout the province constitute the material culture of those groups during the classical era.During the Spanish era, prior to 1856, the Cagayan Valley was divided into only two provinces: Cagayan and Nueva Vizcaya. The Province of Cagayan at that time consisted of all towns from Tumauini to Aparri in the north. All other towns from Ilagan southward to Aritao comprised the Province of the old Nueva Vizcaya. In order to facilitate the work of the Catholic missionaries in the evangelization of the Cagayan Valley, a royal decree was issued on May 1, 1856 creating the Province of Isabela consisting of the towns of Gamu, Old Angadanan (now Alicia), Bindang (now Roxas) and Camarag (now Echague), Carig (now Santiago City) and Palanan, all detached from the Province of Nueva Vizcaya; while Cabagan and Tumauini were taken from the Province of Cagayan.The province was placed under the jurisdiction of a governor with Ilagan as the capital, where it remains up to present. It was initially called "Isabela de Luzón" to differentiate from other places in the Philippines bearing the name of Isabela. The new province was named after Queen Isabella II of Spain.Although the province did not play a major role in the revolt against Spain, it is in Palanan that the final pages of the Philippine Revolution were written when United States troops, led by General Frederick Funston, finally captured General Emilio Aguinaldo in the area on March 23, 1901. Isabela was re-organized as a province under the American military government through "Act No. 210", passed August 24, 1901.The Americans built schools and other buildings and instituted changes in the overall political system. However, the province's economy remained particularly agricultural with rice replacing corn and tobacco as the dominant crop. World War II stagnated the province's economic growth but it recovered dramatically after the war. In 1942, Imperial Japanese occupied Isabela. In 1945, the liberation of Isabela commenced with the arrival of the Philippine Commonwealth troops under the Philippine Army, Constabulary, and USAFIP-NL units and recognized guerrillas attacked by the Japanese Imperial forces in World War II.A new wave of immigration began in the late 19th and 20th centuries with the arrival of the Ilokano who came in large numbers. They now constitute the largest group in the province. Other ethnic groups followed that made Isabela the "Melting Pot of the Northern Philippines".In 1975, construction began on the Magat Dam on the boundary of Ramon, Isabela with neighboring Ifugao Province, becoming a catchbasin for 8 rivers upstream in Ifugao and serving multiple functions, including: irrigating of agricultural lands; flood control; and power generation. The construction was protested by the Ifugao people due to the flooding of their ancestral lands, but the dam was eventually completed in 1982, partially funded through a loan from the World Bank.In 1995, "Republic Act 7891" was passed, legislating that Isabela be divided into two new provinces: Isabela del Norte and Isabela del Sur. A referendum was held on the same year with a slight majority voting against partitioning the province.In 2012, the capital town of Ilagan officially became a city, after the move gained 96% of the votes in the plebiscite conducted on August 11, 2012. The night after the plebiscite, Ilagan was declared as a component city of the province.Isabela comprises an aggregate land area of , representing almost 40 percent of the regional territory. It is the largest province in the island of Luzon and the second largest province in the Philippines by land area. Occupying the central section of the Cagayan Valley region in Luzon, Isabela is bordered by Cagayan to the north, Kalinga to the northwest, Mountain Province to the central-west, Ifugao and Nueva Vizcaya to the southwest, Quirino to the south, and Aurora to the south. To the east lies the Philippine Sea, making Isabela one of the typhoon-prone provinces in the country.The province is divided into three physiographic areas. The eastern area, straddled by the Sierra Madre mountain range, is rugged and thickly forested. A substantial portion is uncharted. These unexplored hinterlands are home to a rich variety of flora and fauna, and some are under government reservations. It is home to one of the world's largest remaining low-altitude rainforests, with numerous unknown endemic species of flora and fauna and biological diversity in the protected area known as the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park. Isabela has of Cagayan Valley’s of forest cover.The highest point of the province is located near the border with Cagayan. Mount Dos Cuernos peak has an elevation of located in San Pablo near the border with Maconacon. Other notable peaks in the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park is Mount Cresta in Divilacan with an elevation of .The western area is a fertile valley hemmed by the Central Cordillera. It is crisscrossed by the mighty Cagayan River, Siffu River, and Magat River.Mallig Plains Region is a region in the western section of the province. Its name was derived from the rolling terrains or kilometers of plain lands in western Isabela. The municipality of Roxas serves as the business center of the region. The Plains covers the municipalities of Quezon, Mallig, Quirino, Burgos, Aurora, San Manuel and Roxas.Isabela is politically subdivided into thirty four (34) municipalities, two component cities and one independent component city. The province is represented in the Philippine House of Representatives with six legislative districts.The province has ten first class municipalities, two second class cities and one first class independent component city. Ilagan City, which became a city thirteen years after its failed cityhood proposal in 1998, it is now Luzon’s largest and the country’s fourth biggest city after Davao City, Puerto Princesa and Zamboanga City by land area.The 34 municipalities and 3 cities of the province comprise 1,055 barangays, with "Rizal" in Santiago City as the most populous in 2010, and "Catalina" in Cauayan City as the least. If cities are excluded, "Bugallon Proper (Poblacion)" in Ramon has the highest population, and "Uauang-Tuliao" in Santo Tomas has the lowest.After Isabela was re-organized as a province under the American regime in 1901, its first provincial governor was Rafael Maramag, a former Municipal President and also the first Municipal President of the capital town Ilagan. He was succeeded by his brother, Gabriel. Afterwards, Isabela was ruled by the Dy family for 34 years (1969-2004). The dynasty was started by the patriarch of the family, Faustino N. Dy, Sr., who served as the Mayor of Cauayan from 1965 to 1969 and sat as the provincial governor of Isabela for 22 years (1969–1992).Around 1987,former mayor of Santiago,mayor Dodo Miranda plan to run governor of isabela but sadly he ambushed by unidentified gunman in reina mercedes.so that the reason santiago city is independent to isabela because of that incedent. He was succeeded by his son, Benjamin G. Dy, in the gubernatorial seat from 1992 to 2001. Another Dy took over the gubernatorial seat in 2001 when Faustino Dy Jr. won the 2001 elections after having served as the district representative of the 2nd Legislative District of the province from 1992 to 2001. It was only in the 2004 elections that the family's control of the gubernatorial seat ended when Grace Padaca won over Faustino Dy Jr. She was the first woman to serve as the governor of the province. After serving for six years (2004-2010), she was defeated in the 2010 National Elections by Faustino "Bojie" G. Dy III who served as governor of the province for three consecutive terms (2010-2019).On September 27, 2018, "Republic Act No. 11080", an act reapportioning the province of Isabela into six legislative districts from four, was signed into law and the reapportioned districts elected its representatives starting in the 2019 midterm elections. Accordingly, the new districts are as follows:The population of Isabela in the was people, making it the most populated province among the five provinces in Cagayan Valley (Region II). It had a density of .In 2010, Isabela had a population of 1,489,645 people: 46 percent of the 3.2 million people in the region at that time. At the national level, the province contributed 1.58 percent to the total population of 88.57 million. There were 254,928 households in the province in 2007.For all ages, the sex ratio in Isabela was about 105 with 660,627 males and 626,948 females in the 2000 Census of Population and Housing (Census 2000). There are more males than females below 50 years old.Ilocanos are the most prominent group in the province. Of the total household population, 68.71 percent classified themselves as Ilocanos, followed by the Ibanags (14.05 percent), and Tagalogs (10.02 percent). The majority ethnic group were the Ibanags, who were first seen by the Spanish explorers and converted to Christianity by missionaries, the reason why the Ibanag language had spread throughout the valley region prior to the arrival of the migrating Ilocanos. The remaining 7.22 percent are either Gaddang, Paranan, Yogad, or from other ethnic groups who have assimilated into the Ibanag-Ilocano culture . More recently, a new group from the south, the Muslim Filipinos, have migrated to this province and have made a community for themselves. In addition to this, Tagalog-speaking peoples from Central Luzon (mostly from Nueva Ecija) and Southern Luzon have also settled in the area, as well as a few Pangasinans and Kapampangans from the Central Luzon.Major languages spoken are Ilocano followed by Ibanag, Yogad, and Gaddang. Ilocanos and Ibanags speak Ilocano with an Ibanag accent, as descendants of Ilocanos from first generation in Isabela who lived within Ibanag population learned Ibanag; same situation with Ilocano tinged by Gaddang, Paranan, Yogad, and Itawis accents when descendants of Ilocanos from first generation in Isabela who lived within Gaddang, Paranan, Yogad, and Itawis populations learned their languages. People especially in the capital and commercial centers speak and understand English and Tagalog. Tagalogs, Ilocanos, and Ibanags speak Tagalog with an Ibanag accent, as descendants of Tagalogs from first generation in Isabela who lived within Ibanag population learned Ibanag.Roman Catholicism is the predominant faith followed by about 80% of the people. Other religions practiced are Aglipayan, United Methodist Church and various Christian churches such as The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Iglesia ni Cristo,and Protestant Churches Baptist, Seventh-day Adventist, other Charismatic Christians and Jehovah's Witnesses. There are also small number of Muslims.In terms of income classification, Isabela is rated as first-class province and considered among the richest and most progressive province in the Philippines and the most progressive in Region 02 courtesy of the three key cities strategically located in the province.Strategically located at the center of Cagayan Valley region, Isabela is acknowledged to have demonstrated strengths in business and industry. Thus, it has come to be known as the "Regional Trade and Industrial Center" of north-eastern Luzon.The province of Isabela is the richest in Cagayan Valley. It is also the Top 10 Richest Province in the Philippines last 2011.The cities of Cauayan, Ilagan, Santiago and the town of Roxas are the principal commercial centers of the province. Metro Manila-based malls and fast food chains have recently opened in these key trading hubs. To date, 192 banking branches operate in the province, with most of the universal and commercial banks providing automated teller machines for the convenience of their clients.Since the start of the 21st century, a growing number of foreign and local investors have selected Isabela as site of their business ventures. Heading the list are Isabela's top investors, namely: Mindanao Grains Processing Company, Inc., SN Aboitiz Power- Magat Inc., Universal Leaf Philippines, Coca-Cola FEMSA Philippines, Inc., San Miguel Corporation, RC Cola and Pepsi Cola.In the rice industry, substantial investments have been made by Valiant Rice Mills Corporation, Family Choice Grains Processing Center, Golden Season Grains Center, Herco Agro Industries, JDT Silver Grains Center, New Cauayan Goldyluck Grains and the La Suerte Rice Mill Corporation.Retail giants like SM Prime, Robinsons and Puregold Price Club, Inc. have set up shops like Savemore, Robinsons Supermarket and Puregold, respectively. In 2014, these retail companies opened its pioneer malls in the region, the SM City Cauayan and Robinsons Place Santiago.Land transportation operators Victory Liner, Five Star Bus Company, Dalin Liner, GV Florida Transport, EMC Transportation, Inc., Solid North Transit Inc., and Northern Luzon Bus Company (NELBUSCO) have terminals and depots in the province.Leading car, motorcycle and truck manufacturers such as Honda, Toyota, Mitsubishi Motors, Isuzu Motors, Kia Motors, Nissan, Ford, Chevrolet, Suzuki, Hyundai, Mazda, Foton, Peugeot, MAN SE, Yamaha and many other companies entered the province over the past years.Telecom firms Globe, PLDT/Smart and Digitel/ Sun Cellular operate cellular sites and fixed telephony facilities throughout Isabela.Big real estate developers like Vista Land and Lifescapes, Inc. entered the province with the opening of Camella Isabela, Camella Santiago, Camella Santiago Trails and Lessandra Santiago in Santiago City, and Camella Cauayan and Lumina Isabela in Cauayan City. Vista Malls is set to launch its first high end mall in Santiago City.Agriculture is the biggest industry in Isabela. As the country's top corn producing province, it contributes 21% of the annual national yellow corn production. Asia's largest post-harvest corn processing facility, the Mindanao Grains, is located in the town of Reina Mercedes.As second highest rice-growing province nationwide, Isabela produces 15% of the aggregate national rice production on an annual basis. Being a surplus producer of the Filipinos’ staple crop, the province's rice sufficiency rate is at 224%, which means that Isabelinos produce more than they consume and are in fact responsible for supplying the rice requirements of Metro Manila and many other provinces. The unprecedented increase in palay production of Isabela made the province the "Hybrid Rice Champion" of the Philippines.High-value agricultural crops grown in Isabela include monggo, tobacco, coffee, banana, and mango. Its livestock and poultry industries are also on the rise, especially dairy processing, hog production, cattle breeding, and commercial poultry raising.Farming is highly mechanized as most of the agricultural lands are irrigated. With the presence of the Isabela State University, joint ventures and other foreign assisted projects and the Magat Dam contribute to the high productivity in agriculture. It is also the hub of trade and commerce and other economic activities due to its central location in the region. The wood industry used to be a top earner for the province but due to the logging ban imposed in the Cagayan Valley Region, activities in this industry considerably declined. However, furniture making using narra wood and other indigenous forest materials continue to exist.Isabela is one of the most progressive provinces of the Philippines having been adjudged as the most outstanding province on food security in the "Gawad Sapat Ani Awards 2000". For corn production, Isabela ranks first among the top ten corn producing provinces for cy 2004, contributing 15.70% to national production. In 2013, the Department of Agriculture declared Isabela as the "Best Corn-Quality Awardee". Ilagan City was proclaimed as the "Corn Capital of the Philippines" for being the top corn producer among the 34 municipalities and 2 cities of the province as well as in the whole country.Forestland covers 54.37% or of Isabela's total land area of which 62% is protected forest and 38% is production forest. The best quality of timber resources in the Philippines are found in Isabela's forest. Isabela's vast forest resources are now being ecologically manage to effect sustainable forest-based resource not only for the wood working industry but to secure a balanced ecosystem. The woodwork industry continues to operate under a regulated system, particularly the making furniture using indigenous materials.Isabela has a fertile fishing ground on the Pacific Coast. The Magat Dam reservoir is utilized for fish cage operations for tilapia production for domestic markets. Another thriving industry in the province is aquaculture, sustained by inland fishing through 1,108 hectares of developed freshwater fishponds and 450 hectares of fish cage culture at Magat Dam Reservoir. Rich marine resources could be found in Isabela's coastal seaboard municipalities of Maconacon, Divilacan, Palanan, and Dinapigue.Large deposits of copper, gold, zinc and chromite, manganese and nickel have been found in Isabela. It also has extensive deposits of non-metallic minerals such as limestone, clay, marbles, guano, sand and gravel, and boulders. Indigenous energy sources such as natural gas and hydroelectric capabilities have been found to be abundant in the valley. Many of its mineral reserves have yet to be fully tapped.Solar and biomass power plants in the city of Cauayan and in the town of Alicia have started operating in 2015 to supplement the region's high energy demand. The online solar power plant in Cauayan City is capable of supplying at least 20 megawatts while the biomass power plant in Alicia can produce another 20 megawatts. Both systems provide clean and renewable energy. The P2 billion power facility established by the "Isabela Biomass Energy Corporation" (IBEC) was built to augment power supply in the Cagayan Valley region. The use of biomass as fuel makes the power plant carbon neutral and sustainable. This biomass power facility is the first in the region and is designed to provide economical source of energy as well as job opportunities to residents of the host town/city.On May 27, 2015, the service contract of the largest solar PV power plant in the country has been approved by the Department of Energy (DOE). The P7-billion worth 100 MW Solar PV project in the city of Ilagan is designed to reduce the current shortage in electricity that causes regular blackouts that results to industry closures as well as inconvenience to the consumers. The solar power facility will be constructed at a 100-hectare land at Barangay Cabannungan, several kilometers away from the city proper.Isabela is accessible by all means of transportation. Almost 180-kilometers of the Pan-Philippine Highway pass through the different towns and cities of the province. Several bus companies offer daily trips to different routes like Manila, Dagupan, Baguio and Ilocos vice versa. Public utility vans and small-time bus operators ply daily trips from Tuguegarao in Cagayan to Santiago City vice versa, while jeepneys and tricycles are commonly used as the basic mode of transportation within the province's jurisdiction.The construction of an 82-kilometer road through the protected Sierra Madre mountains is designed to open access to three coastal towns of the province. The approved budget contract of the project amounting to P1.5B, will pass through the foothills of the 359,486-hectare Northern Sierra Madre mountain ranges. The plan is to improve an old logging road used by a defunct logging company until the 1990s. It will start in Barangay Sindon Bayabo in capital city of Ilagan and will end in Barangay Dicatian in the coastal town of Divilacan. The project is set to be completed in 2021.Travel to the isolated coastal towns of Divilacan, Palanan and Maconacon is often made by boat or by plane only, making it difficult to reach the coastal towns in times of emergencies and calamities. There are no roads that links the capital city of Ilagan to the coastal areas, depriving residents of basic necessities and social services, such as health. Once completed, the road project is expected to boost the economies of the coastal areas, citing Divilacan's 119-hectares beach and freshwater areas that have lured tourists. The Protected Area Management Board (PAMB) issued Resolution No. 11, which reclassifies portions of the Sierra Madre as a special-use zone. The Agta and Dumagat in the area have also signed a memorandum of agreement with the provincial government, expressing their consent to the road project. At least 1,800 Agta and Dumagat have been staying in the park areas. But the impact of the road on the protected forest has alarmed residents who feared that the project may damage its forests and ecosystems. The project was delayed in the recent years due to concerns about the road's potential impact on the environment. The Cagayan Valley Regional Development Council required the project's proponents to study the full impact of the road on the area's biodiversity.There are five airports in the province. The Cauayan Airport is the primary airport in the province serving a trip to Manila, Palanan, and Maconacon. The other two are the Palanan Airport in Palanan and Maconacon Airport in Maconacon. The country's leading passenger airline Cebu Pacific services the Cauayan-Manila-Cauayan Route. Light planes operated by Cyclone Airways and WCC Aviation's Sky Pasada Have flights from Cauayan Domestic Airport to the community airports in Palanan and Maconacon. The province has two minor seaports, the Divilacan Port and Palanan Port in the coastal towns of Divilacan and Palanan. The trade going to the ports come primarily from major seaports in Cagayan such as Port of Aparri in Aparri, Cagayan, and Port of San Vicente and Port Irene, both in Santa Ana, Cagayan. The other two airstrips are found in Divilacan, and in Magat River Management Project Site.Isabela is one of the primary centers of education in the Cagayan Valley Region. There are several public and private educational institutions, the most notable being the Isabela State University, a government-owned and controlled public university. Its main campus is located in Echague and satellite campuses in Cauayan City, Ilagan City, Angadanan, Cabagan, Jones, Palanan (extension), Roxas, San Mariano, San Mateo and Santiago City (extension).Among the most notable higher educational institutions found in the province of Isabela are the following:Since the early 2000s, tourism has become an income-generating industry for Isabela. New hotels and resorts have opened, mostly in the cities of Ilagan, Cauayan and Santiago, and the towns of Tumauini, Gamu, Roxas, Alicia, Burgos, Ramon, San Mariano and Cordon. Top tourist attractions are the centuries-old churches; Magat Dam Tourism Complex, which houses Southeast Asia's biggest dam; Santa Victoria Caves, Pinzal Falls and Ilagan Sanctuary at Fuyot National Park; the white sand beaches in the coastal municipalities of Maconacon, Divilacan, Palanan, Dinapigue and islands of coastal Isabela; the world's biggest wooden lounge chair or "butaka" in Ilagan City; and various festival and fiestas, including the "Bambanti Festival" annually celebrated every February, and the commemoration of the birth of the province during Isabela Day every May. | [
"Grace Padaca",
"Rodolfo T. Albano III",
"Silvestre Bello III",
"Faustino Dy",
"Benjamin Dy",
"Faustino Dy Jr."
] |
|
Which position did Timothy Michael Healy hold in Jan, 1899? | January 01, 1899 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Queen's Counsel"
]
} | L2_Q333199_P39_5 | Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1885 to Jan, 1886.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Feb, 1887 to Jun, 1892.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1900 to Jan, 1906.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1906 to Jan, 1910.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1880 to Jun, 1883.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1895 to Sep, 1900.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of bencher from Jan, 1910 to Jan, 1910.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Queen's Counsel from Jan, 1899 to Jan, 1899.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1910 to Nov, 1910.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1892 to Jul, 1895.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1911 to Nov, 1918.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Governor-General of the Irish Free State from Dec, 1922 to Jan, 1928. | Tim Healy (politician)Timothy Michael Healy, KC (17 May 1855 – 26 March 1931) was an Irish nationalist politician, journalist, author, barrister and one of the most controversial Irish Members of Parliament (MPs) in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. His political career began in the 1880s under Charles Stewart Parnell's leadership of the Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP), and continued into the 1920s, when he was the first Governor-General of the Irish Free State.He was born in Bantry, County Cork, the second son of Maurice Healy, clerk of the Bantry Poor Law Union, and Eliza Healy (née Sullivan). His elder brother Thomas Healy (1854–1924) was a solicitor and Member of Parliament (MP) for North Wexford and his younger brother Maurice Healy (1859–1923), with whom he held a lifelong close relationship, was a solicitor and MP for Cork City.His father was descended from a family line which in holding to their Catholic faith, lost their lands, which he compensated by being a scholarly gentleman. His father was transferred in 1862 to a similar position in Lismore, County Waterford, holding the post until his death in 1906. Timothy was educated at the Christian Brothers school in Fermoy, and was otherwise largely self-educated, in 1869 at the age of fourteen going to live with his uncle Timothy Daniel Sullivan MP in Dublin.He then moved to England finding employment in 1871 with the North Eastern Railway Company in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. There he became deeply involved in the Irish Home Rule politics of the local Irish community. After leaving for London in 1878 Healy worked as a confidential clerk in a factory owned by his relative, then worked as a parliamentary correspondent for "The Nation" newspaper owned by his uncle, writing numerous articles in support of Parnell, the newly emergent and more militant home rule leader, and his policy of parliamentary "obstructionism".Parnell admired Healy's intelligence and energy after Healy had established himself as part of Parnell's broader political circle. He became Parnell's secretary but was denied contact to Parnell's small inner circle of political colleagues. Parnell, however, brought Healy into the Irish Party (IPP) and supported him as a nationalist candidate when elected MP for Wexford Borough in 1880–83 against the aspiring John Redmond whose father, William Archer Redmond, was its recently deceased MP. Healy was returned unopposed to parliament, aided by the fact that Redmond stood aside and that he had survived an agrarian court case which alleging intimidation.In parliament, Healy did not physically cut an imposing figure but impressed by the application of sheer intelligence, diligence and volatile use of speech when he achieved the "Healy Clause" in the Land Law (Ireland) Act 1881 which provided that no further rent should in future be charged on tenant's improvements. By the mid-1880s Healy had already acquired a reputation for a scurrilousness of tone. He married his cousin Eliza Sullivan in 1882, they had three daughters and three sons and he enjoyed a happy and intense family life, closely interlinked both by friendship and intermarriage with the Sullivans of west Cork.Through his reputation as a friend of the farmers, after having been imprisoned for four months following an agrarian case, and backed by Parnell, he was elected in a Monaghan by-election in June 1883–5, deemed to be the climax in the Healy-Parnell relationship. In 1884 he was called to the Irish bar as a barrister (in 1889 to the inner bar as K.C., in London in 1910). His reputation allowed him to build an extensive legal practice, particularly in land cases. Parnell chose him unwisely for South Londonderry in 1885, which Ulster seat he only held for a year. He was then elected in 1886–92 for North Longford.Prompted by the depression in the prices of dairy products and cattle in the mid-1880 as well as bad weather for a number of years, many tenant farmers unable to pay their rents were left under the threat of eviction. Healy devised a strategy to secure a reduction in rent from the landlords which became known as the Plan of Campaign, organised in 1886 amongst others by Timothy Harrington.In his novel "The Man Who Was Thursday" G.K. Chesterton describes one of his characters as a "... little man, with a black beard and glasses — a man somewhat of the type of Mr Tim Healy ...".Initially a passionate supporter of Parnell, he became disenchanted with his leader after Healy opposed Parnell's nomination of Captain William O’Shea to stand for a by-election in Galway city. At the time O’Shea was separated from his wife, Katharine O'Shea, with whom Parnell was secretly living. Healy objected to this, as the party had not been consulted and he believed Parnell was putting his personal relationship before the national interest. When Parnell travelled to Galway to support O’Shea, Healy was forced to back down.In 1890 in a sensational divorce case O'Shea sued his wife for divorce, citing Parnell as co-respondent. Healy and most of Parnell's associates rejected Parnell's continuing leadership of the party, believing it was recklessly endangering the party's alliance with Gladstonian Liberalism. Healy became Parnell's most outspoken critic. When Parnell asked his colleagues at one party meeting "Who is the master of the party?", Healy famously retorted with another question "Aye, but who is the mistress of the party?" – a comment that almost led to the men coming to blows. His savage onslaught in public reflected his conservative Catholic origin. A substantial minority of the Irish people never forgave him for his role during the divorce crisis, permanently damaging his own standing in public life. The rift prompted nine-year-old Dublin schoolboy James Joyce to write a poem called "Et Tu, Healy?", which Joyce's father had printed and circulated. Only three lines remain:"His quaint-perched aerie on the crags of Time""Where the rude din of this century""Can trouble him no more."Following Parnell's death in 1891, the IPP's anti-Parnellite majority group broke away forming the Irish National Federation (INF) under John Dillon. Healy was at first its most outspoken member, when in 1892 he captured North Louth for the anti-Parnellites, who in all won seventy-one seats. But finding it impossible to work with or under any post-Parnell leadership, especially Dillon's, he was expelled in 1895 from the INF executive committee, having previously been expelled from the Irish party's minor nine-member pro-Parnellite Irish National League (INL) under John Redmond.In the following decades, largely due to his expanding legal practice, he became a part-time politician and estranged from the national movement, setting up his own personal 'Healyite' organisation, called the "People's Rights Association", based on his position as MP for North Louth (the seat he held until the December 1910 election when defeated by Richard Hazleton). He waged war during the 1890s with Dillon and his National Federation (INF) and then intrigued with Redmond's smaller Parnellite group to play a substantial role behind the scenes in helping the rival party factions to re-unite under Redmond in 1900.Healy was extremely embittered by the fact that both his brothers and his followers were purged from the IPP list in the 1900 general election, and that his support for Redmond in the re-united party went unrewarded; on the contrary, Redmond soon found it wiser to conciliate Dillon. But Healy's talent for disruption was soon recognised when two years later he was again expelled. He remained "the enemy within", recruiting malcontent MPs to harass the party and survived politically by dint of his assiduous constituency work, as well as through the influence of his clerical ally Dr. Michael Cardinal Logue, Primate of All Ireland and Archbishop of Armagh. Healy remained rooted in the extended 'Bantry Gang', a highly influential political and commercial nexus based originally in West Cork, which included his key patron, the Catholic business magnate and owner of the "Irish Independent", William Martin Murphy, who provided a platform for Healy and other critics of the IPP.However, at least after 1903, Healy was joined in his estrangement from the party leadership by William O'Brien. O’Brien had been for years one of Healy's strongest critics, but now he too felt annoyed both by his own alienation from the party and by Redmond's subservience to Dillon. Involved with the Irish Reform Association 1904–5, they entered a loose coalition, which lasted throughout the life of the IPP. They were in agreement that agrarian radicalism brought little return, and with Healy practically becoming a Parnellite, they preferred to pursue a policy of conciliation with the Protestant class in order to further the acceptance of Home Rule. Redmond was sympathetic to this policy but was inhibited by Dillon. Redmond, in an act of "rapprochement", briefly re-united them with the party in 1908. Fiercely independent, both split off again in 1909, responding to real changes in the social basis of Irish politics. In 1908 Healy acted as counsel for Sir Arthur Vicars, former Ulster King of Arms, in connection with the 1908 investigation of the previous year's theft of the Irish Crown Jewels.By the 1910s, it looked as though Healy was to remain a maverick on the fringes of Irish nationalism. However, he came into notoriety once more when returned in the January 1910 general election in alliance with William O'Brien's newly founded All-for-Ireland Party (AFIL), their alliance based largely on common opposition to the Irish party. He lost his seat in the following December 1910 election, but soon afterwards rejoined the O'Brienites, O’Brien providing the 1911 north-east Cork by-election vacancy created by the retirement of Moreton Frewen. Healy's reputation was not enhanced when he represented as counsel his associate William Martin Murphy, the industrialist who sparked the 1913 Dublin Lockout. Healy assiduously cultivated relationships with power brokers in Westminster such as Lord Beaverbrook, and once they were introduced at Cherkley, was great friends with Janet Aitken for the remainder of his life.Redmond's and the IPP's powerful position of holding the balance of power at Westminster—and with the passing of the Third Home Rule Bill assured—left Healy and the AFIL critics in a weakened position. They condemned the bill as a 'partition deal', abstaining from its final vote in the Commons. With the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, the Healy brothers supported the Allied and the British war effort. Two had a son enlist in one of the Irish divisions, Timothy's eldest son, Joe, fought with distinction at Gallipoli.Having done much to damage the popular image and authority of constitutional nationalism, Healy after the Easter Rising was convinced that the IPP and Redmond were doomed and slowly withdrew from the forefront of politics, making it clear in 1917 that he was in general sympathy with Arthur Griffith's Sinn Féin movement, but not with physical force methods. In September that year he acted as counsel for the family of the dead Sinn Féin hunger striker Thomas Ashe. He was one of the few King's Counsel to provide legal services to members of Sinn Féin in various legal proceedings in both Ireland and England post the 1916 Rising. This included acting for those interned in 1916 illegally in Frongoch in North Wales. During this time, Healy also represented Georgina Frost, in her attempts to be appointed a Petty Sessions clerk in her native County Clare. In 1920 the Bar Council of Ireland passed an initial resolution that any barrister appearing before the Dáil Courts would be guilty of professional misconduct. This was challenged by Tim Healy and no final decision was made on the matter. Before the December 1918 general election, he was the first of the AFIL members to resign his seat in favour of the Sinn Féin party's candidate, and spoke in support of P. J. Little, the Sinn Féin candidate for Rathmines in Dublin.He returned to considerable prominence in 1922 when, on the urging of the soon-to-be Irish Free State's Provisional Government of W. T. Cosgrave, the British government recommended to King George V that Healy be appointed the first 'Governor-General of the Irish Free State', a new office representative of the Crown created in the 1921 Anglo-Irish Treaty and introduced by a combination of the Constitution of the Irish Free State and Letters Patent from the King. The constitution was enacted in December 1922. Healy was the uncle of Kevin O'Higgins, the Vice-President of the Executive Council and Minister for Justice in the new Free State.Initially, the Government of the Irish Free State under Cosgrave wished for Healy to reside in a new small residence, but, facing death threats from the IRA, he was moved as a temporary measure into the Viceregal Lodge, the former 'out of season' residence of the Lord Lieutenant, the former representative of the Crown until 1922.Healy officially entered office as Governor-General on 6 December 1922. He never wore, certainly not in public in Ireland, the official ceremonial uniform of a Governor-General in the British Empire. At that time, in the 1920s, Healy was unique amongst viceregal representatives in the British Empire in this regard. Healy was also unique (along with his successor, James McNeill) amongst all the Governors-General in the British Empire in the 1920s in that he was never sworn in as a member of the Imperial Privy Council. Nor was he ever sworn into the Privy Council of Ireland, a body that ceased to exist in early December 1922. Thus, unusually for a Governor-General within the Empire, he never gained the prefix 'The Right Honourable' nor the post-nominals 'PC'.Healy proved an able Governor-General, possessing a degree of political skill, deep political insight and contacts in Britain that the new Irish Government initially lacked, and had long recommended himself to the Catholic Hierarchy: all-round good credentials for this key symbolic and reconciling position at the centre of public life. He joked once that the government didn't advise him, he advised the government: a comment at a dinner for The Duke of York (the future King George VI) that led to public criticism. However, the waspish Healy still could not help courting further controversy, most notably in a public attack on the new Fianna Fáil and its leader, Éamon de Valera, which led to republican calls for his resignation.Much of the contact between governments in London and Dublin went through Healy. He had access to all sensitive state papers, and received instructions from the British Government on the use of his powers to grant, withhold or refuse the Royal Assent to legislation enacted by the Oireachtas. For instance, Healy was instructed to reject any bill that abolished the Oath of Allegiance. However, neither this nor any other bill that he was secretly instructed to block were introduced during his time as Governor-General. That role of being the UK government's representative, and acting on its advice, was abandoned throughout the British Commonwealth in the mid-1920s as a result of an Imperial Conference decision, leaving him and his successors exclusively as the King's representative and nominal head of the Irish executive.Healy seemed to believe that he had been awarded the Governor-Generalship for life. However, the Executive Council of the Irish Free State decided in 1927 that the term of office of Governors-General would be five years. As a result, he retired from the office and public life in January 1928. His wife had died the previous year. He published his extensive two-volume memoirs in 1928. Throughout his life he was formidable because he was ferociously quick-witted, because he was unworried by social or political convention, and because he knew no party discipline. Towards the end of his life he mellowed and became otherwise more diplomatic.He died on 26 March 1931, aged 75, in Chapelizod, County Dublin, where he lived at his home Glenaulin, and was buried in Glasnevin Cemetery. | [
"Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"bencher",
"Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Governor-General of the Irish Free State",
"Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Timothy Michael Healy hold in 1899-01-01? | January 01, 1899 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Queen's Counsel"
]
} | L2_Q333199_P39_5 | Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1885 to Jan, 1886.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Feb, 1887 to Jun, 1892.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1900 to Jan, 1906.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1906 to Jan, 1910.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1880 to Jun, 1883.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1895 to Sep, 1900.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of bencher from Jan, 1910 to Jan, 1910.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Queen's Counsel from Jan, 1899 to Jan, 1899.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1910 to Nov, 1910.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1892 to Jul, 1895.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1911 to Nov, 1918.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Governor-General of the Irish Free State from Dec, 1922 to Jan, 1928. | Tim Healy (politician)Timothy Michael Healy, KC (17 May 1855 – 26 March 1931) was an Irish nationalist politician, journalist, author, barrister and one of the most controversial Irish Members of Parliament (MPs) in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. His political career began in the 1880s under Charles Stewart Parnell's leadership of the Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP), and continued into the 1920s, when he was the first Governor-General of the Irish Free State.He was born in Bantry, County Cork, the second son of Maurice Healy, clerk of the Bantry Poor Law Union, and Eliza Healy (née Sullivan). His elder brother Thomas Healy (1854–1924) was a solicitor and Member of Parliament (MP) for North Wexford and his younger brother Maurice Healy (1859–1923), with whom he held a lifelong close relationship, was a solicitor and MP for Cork City.His father was descended from a family line which in holding to their Catholic faith, lost their lands, which he compensated by being a scholarly gentleman. His father was transferred in 1862 to a similar position in Lismore, County Waterford, holding the post until his death in 1906. Timothy was educated at the Christian Brothers school in Fermoy, and was otherwise largely self-educated, in 1869 at the age of fourteen going to live with his uncle Timothy Daniel Sullivan MP in Dublin.He then moved to England finding employment in 1871 with the North Eastern Railway Company in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. There he became deeply involved in the Irish Home Rule politics of the local Irish community. After leaving for London in 1878 Healy worked as a confidential clerk in a factory owned by his relative, then worked as a parliamentary correspondent for "The Nation" newspaper owned by his uncle, writing numerous articles in support of Parnell, the newly emergent and more militant home rule leader, and his policy of parliamentary "obstructionism".Parnell admired Healy's intelligence and energy after Healy had established himself as part of Parnell's broader political circle. He became Parnell's secretary but was denied contact to Parnell's small inner circle of political colleagues. Parnell, however, brought Healy into the Irish Party (IPP) and supported him as a nationalist candidate when elected MP for Wexford Borough in 1880–83 against the aspiring John Redmond whose father, William Archer Redmond, was its recently deceased MP. Healy was returned unopposed to parliament, aided by the fact that Redmond stood aside and that he had survived an agrarian court case which alleging intimidation.In parliament, Healy did not physically cut an imposing figure but impressed by the application of sheer intelligence, diligence and volatile use of speech when he achieved the "Healy Clause" in the Land Law (Ireland) Act 1881 which provided that no further rent should in future be charged on tenant's improvements. By the mid-1880s Healy had already acquired a reputation for a scurrilousness of tone. He married his cousin Eliza Sullivan in 1882, they had three daughters and three sons and he enjoyed a happy and intense family life, closely interlinked both by friendship and intermarriage with the Sullivans of west Cork.Through his reputation as a friend of the farmers, after having been imprisoned for four months following an agrarian case, and backed by Parnell, he was elected in a Monaghan by-election in June 1883–5, deemed to be the climax in the Healy-Parnell relationship. In 1884 he was called to the Irish bar as a barrister (in 1889 to the inner bar as K.C., in London in 1910). His reputation allowed him to build an extensive legal practice, particularly in land cases. Parnell chose him unwisely for South Londonderry in 1885, which Ulster seat he only held for a year. He was then elected in 1886–92 for North Longford.Prompted by the depression in the prices of dairy products and cattle in the mid-1880 as well as bad weather for a number of years, many tenant farmers unable to pay their rents were left under the threat of eviction. Healy devised a strategy to secure a reduction in rent from the landlords which became known as the Plan of Campaign, organised in 1886 amongst others by Timothy Harrington.In his novel "The Man Who Was Thursday" G.K. Chesterton describes one of his characters as a "... little man, with a black beard and glasses — a man somewhat of the type of Mr Tim Healy ...".Initially a passionate supporter of Parnell, he became disenchanted with his leader after Healy opposed Parnell's nomination of Captain William O’Shea to stand for a by-election in Galway city. At the time O’Shea was separated from his wife, Katharine O'Shea, with whom Parnell was secretly living. Healy objected to this, as the party had not been consulted and he believed Parnell was putting his personal relationship before the national interest. When Parnell travelled to Galway to support O’Shea, Healy was forced to back down.In 1890 in a sensational divorce case O'Shea sued his wife for divorce, citing Parnell as co-respondent. Healy and most of Parnell's associates rejected Parnell's continuing leadership of the party, believing it was recklessly endangering the party's alliance with Gladstonian Liberalism. Healy became Parnell's most outspoken critic. When Parnell asked his colleagues at one party meeting "Who is the master of the party?", Healy famously retorted with another question "Aye, but who is the mistress of the party?" – a comment that almost led to the men coming to blows. His savage onslaught in public reflected his conservative Catholic origin. A substantial minority of the Irish people never forgave him for his role during the divorce crisis, permanently damaging his own standing in public life. The rift prompted nine-year-old Dublin schoolboy James Joyce to write a poem called "Et Tu, Healy?", which Joyce's father had printed and circulated. Only three lines remain:"His quaint-perched aerie on the crags of Time""Where the rude din of this century""Can trouble him no more."Following Parnell's death in 1891, the IPP's anti-Parnellite majority group broke away forming the Irish National Federation (INF) under John Dillon. Healy was at first its most outspoken member, when in 1892 he captured North Louth for the anti-Parnellites, who in all won seventy-one seats. But finding it impossible to work with or under any post-Parnell leadership, especially Dillon's, he was expelled in 1895 from the INF executive committee, having previously been expelled from the Irish party's minor nine-member pro-Parnellite Irish National League (INL) under John Redmond.In the following decades, largely due to his expanding legal practice, he became a part-time politician and estranged from the national movement, setting up his own personal 'Healyite' organisation, called the "People's Rights Association", based on his position as MP for North Louth (the seat he held until the December 1910 election when defeated by Richard Hazleton). He waged war during the 1890s with Dillon and his National Federation (INF) and then intrigued with Redmond's smaller Parnellite group to play a substantial role behind the scenes in helping the rival party factions to re-unite under Redmond in 1900.Healy was extremely embittered by the fact that both his brothers and his followers were purged from the IPP list in the 1900 general election, and that his support for Redmond in the re-united party went unrewarded; on the contrary, Redmond soon found it wiser to conciliate Dillon. But Healy's talent for disruption was soon recognised when two years later he was again expelled. He remained "the enemy within", recruiting malcontent MPs to harass the party and survived politically by dint of his assiduous constituency work, as well as through the influence of his clerical ally Dr. Michael Cardinal Logue, Primate of All Ireland and Archbishop of Armagh. Healy remained rooted in the extended 'Bantry Gang', a highly influential political and commercial nexus based originally in West Cork, which included his key patron, the Catholic business magnate and owner of the "Irish Independent", William Martin Murphy, who provided a platform for Healy and other critics of the IPP.However, at least after 1903, Healy was joined in his estrangement from the party leadership by William O'Brien. O’Brien had been for years one of Healy's strongest critics, but now he too felt annoyed both by his own alienation from the party and by Redmond's subservience to Dillon. Involved with the Irish Reform Association 1904–5, they entered a loose coalition, which lasted throughout the life of the IPP. They were in agreement that agrarian radicalism brought little return, and with Healy practically becoming a Parnellite, they preferred to pursue a policy of conciliation with the Protestant class in order to further the acceptance of Home Rule. Redmond was sympathetic to this policy but was inhibited by Dillon. Redmond, in an act of "rapprochement", briefly re-united them with the party in 1908. Fiercely independent, both split off again in 1909, responding to real changes in the social basis of Irish politics. In 1908 Healy acted as counsel for Sir Arthur Vicars, former Ulster King of Arms, in connection with the 1908 investigation of the previous year's theft of the Irish Crown Jewels.By the 1910s, it looked as though Healy was to remain a maverick on the fringes of Irish nationalism. However, he came into notoriety once more when returned in the January 1910 general election in alliance with William O'Brien's newly founded All-for-Ireland Party (AFIL), their alliance based largely on common opposition to the Irish party. He lost his seat in the following December 1910 election, but soon afterwards rejoined the O'Brienites, O’Brien providing the 1911 north-east Cork by-election vacancy created by the retirement of Moreton Frewen. Healy's reputation was not enhanced when he represented as counsel his associate William Martin Murphy, the industrialist who sparked the 1913 Dublin Lockout. Healy assiduously cultivated relationships with power brokers in Westminster such as Lord Beaverbrook, and once they were introduced at Cherkley, was great friends with Janet Aitken for the remainder of his life.Redmond's and the IPP's powerful position of holding the balance of power at Westminster—and with the passing of the Third Home Rule Bill assured—left Healy and the AFIL critics in a weakened position. They condemned the bill as a 'partition deal', abstaining from its final vote in the Commons. With the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, the Healy brothers supported the Allied and the British war effort. Two had a son enlist in one of the Irish divisions, Timothy's eldest son, Joe, fought with distinction at Gallipoli.Having done much to damage the popular image and authority of constitutional nationalism, Healy after the Easter Rising was convinced that the IPP and Redmond were doomed and slowly withdrew from the forefront of politics, making it clear in 1917 that he was in general sympathy with Arthur Griffith's Sinn Féin movement, but not with physical force methods. In September that year he acted as counsel for the family of the dead Sinn Féin hunger striker Thomas Ashe. He was one of the few King's Counsel to provide legal services to members of Sinn Féin in various legal proceedings in both Ireland and England post the 1916 Rising. This included acting for those interned in 1916 illegally in Frongoch in North Wales. During this time, Healy also represented Georgina Frost, in her attempts to be appointed a Petty Sessions clerk in her native County Clare. In 1920 the Bar Council of Ireland passed an initial resolution that any barrister appearing before the Dáil Courts would be guilty of professional misconduct. This was challenged by Tim Healy and no final decision was made on the matter. Before the December 1918 general election, he was the first of the AFIL members to resign his seat in favour of the Sinn Féin party's candidate, and spoke in support of P. J. Little, the Sinn Féin candidate for Rathmines in Dublin.He returned to considerable prominence in 1922 when, on the urging of the soon-to-be Irish Free State's Provisional Government of W. T. Cosgrave, the British government recommended to King George V that Healy be appointed the first 'Governor-General of the Irish Free State', a new office representative of the Crown created in the 1921 Anglo-Irish Treaty and introduced by a combination of the Constitution of the Irish Free State and Letters Patent from the King. The constitution was enacted in December 1922. Healy was the uncle of Kevin O'Higgins, the Vice-President of the Executive Council and Minister for Justice in the new Free State.Initially, the Government of the Irish Free State under Cosgrave wished for Healy to reside in a new small residence, but, facing death threats from the IRA, he was moved as a temporary measure into the Viceregal Lodge, the former 'out of season' residence of the Lord Lieutenant, the former representative of the Crown until 1922.Healy officially entered office as Governor-General on 6 December 1922. He never wore, certainly not in public in Ireland, the official ceremonial uniform of a Governor-General in the British Empire. At that time, in the 1920s, Healy was unique amongst viceregal representatives in the British Empire in this regard. Healy was also unique (along with his successor, James McNeill) amongst all the Governors-General in the British Empire in the 1920s in that he was never sworn in as a member of the Imperial Privy Council. Nor was he ever sworn into the Privy Council of Ireland, a body that ceased to exist in early December 1922. Thus, unusually for a Governor-General within the Empire, he never gained the prefix 'The Right Honourable' nor the post-nominals 'PC'.Healy proved an able Governor-General, possessing a degree of political skill, deep political insight and contacts in Britain that the new Irish Government initially lacked, and had long recommended himself to the Catholic Hierarchy: all-round good credentials for this key symbolic and reconciling position at the centre of public life. He joked once that the government didn't advise him, he advised the government: a comment at a dinner for The Duke of York (the future King George VI) that led to public criticism. However, the waspish Healy still could not help courting further controversy, most notably in a public attack on the new Fianna Fáil and its leader, Éamon de Valera, which led to republican calls for his resignation.Much of the contact between governments in London and Dublin went through Healy. He had access to all sensitive state papers, and received instructions from the British Government on the use of his powers to grant, withhold or refuse the Royal Assent to legislation enacted by the Oireachtas. For instance, Healy was instructed to reject any bill that abolished the Oath of Allegiance. However, neither this nor any other bill that he was secretly instructed to block were introduced during his time as Governor-General. That role of being the UK government's representative, and acting on its advice, was abandoned throughout the British Commonwealth in the mid-1920s as a result of an Imperial Conference decision, leaving him and his successors exclusively as the King's representative and nominal head of the Irish executive.Healy seemed to believe that he had been awarded the Governor-Generalship for life. However, the Executive Council of the Irish Free State decided in 1927 that the term of office of Governors-General would be five years. As a result, he retired from the office and public life in January 1928. His wife had died the previous year. He published his extensive two-volume memoirs in 1928. Throughout his life he was formidable because he was ferociously quick-witted, because he was unworried by social or political convention, and because he knew no party discipline. Towards the end of his life he mellowed and became otherwise more diplomatic.He died on 26 March 1931, aged 75, in Chapelizod, County Dublin, where he lived at his home Glenaulin, and was buried in Glasnevin Cemetery. | [
"Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"bencher",
"Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Governor-General of the Irish Free State",
"Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Timothy Michael Healy hold in 01/01/1899? | January 01, 1899 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Queen's Counsel"
]
} | L2_Q333199_P39_5 | Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1885 to Jan, 1886.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Feb, 1887 to Jun, 1892.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1900 to Jan, 1906.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1906 to Jan, 1910.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1880 to Jun, 1883.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1895 to Sep, 1900.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of bencher from Jan, 1910 to Jan, 1910.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Queen's Counsel from Jan, 1899 to Jan, 1899.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1910 to Nov, 1910.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1892 to Jul, 1895.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1911 to Nov, 1918.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Governor-General of the Irish Free State from Dec, 1922 to Jan, 1928. | Tim Healy (politician)Timothy Michael Healy, KC (17 May 1855 – 26 March 1931) was an Irish nationalist politician, journalist, author, barrister and one of the most controversial Irish Members of Parliament (MPs) in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. His political career began in the 1880s under Charles Stewart Parnell's leadership of the Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP), and continued into the 1920s, when he was the first Governor-General of the Irish Free State.He was born in Bantry, County Cork, the second son of Maurice Healy, clerk of the Bantry Poor Law Union, and Eliza Healy (née Sullivan). His elder brother Thomas Healy (1854–1924) was a solicitor and Member of Parliament (MP) for North Wexford and his younger brother Maurice Healy (1859–1923), with whom he held a lifelong close relationship, was a solicitor and MP for Cork City.His father was descended from a family line which in holding to their Catholic faith, lost their lands, which he compensated by being a scholarly gentleman. His father was transferred in 1862 to a similar position in Lismore, County Waterford, holding the post until his death in 1906. Timothy was educated at the Christian Brothers school in Fermoy, and was otherwise largely self-educated, in 1869 at the age of fourteen going to live with his uncle Timothy Daniel Sullivan MP in Dublin.He then moved to England finding employment in 1871 with the North Eastern Railway Company in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. There he became deeply involved in the Irish Home Rule politics of the local Irish community. After leaving for London in 1878 Healy worked as a confidential clerk in a factory owned by his relative, then worked as a parliamentary correspondent for "The Nation" newspaper owned by his uncle, writing numerous articles in support of Parnell, the newly emergent and more militant home rule leader, and his policy of parliamentary "obstructionism".Parnell admired Healy's intelligence and energy after Healy had established himself as part of Parnell's broader political circle. He became Parnell's secretary but was denied contact to Parnell's small inner circle of political colleagues. Parnell, however, brought Healy into the Irish Party (IPP) and supported him as a nationalist candidate when elected MP for Wexford Borough in 1880–83 against the aspiring John Redmond whose father, William Archer Redmond, was its recently deceased MP. Healy was returned unopposed to parliament, aided by the fact that Redmond stood aside and that he had survived an agrarian court case which alleging intimidation.In parliament, Healy did not physically cut an imposing figure but impressed by the application of sheer intelligence, diligence and volatile use of speech when he achieved the "Healy Clause" in the Land Law (Ireland) Act 1881 which provided that no further rent should in future be charged on tenant's improvements. By the mid-1880s Healy had already acquired a reputation for a scurrilousness of tone. He married his cousin Eliza Sullivan in 1882, they had three daughters and three sons and he enjoyed a happy and intense family life, closely interlinked both by friendship and intermarriage with the Sullivans of west Cork.Through his reputation as a friend of the farmers, after having been imprisoned for four months following an agrarian case, and backed by Parnell, he was elected in a Monaghan by-election in June 1883–5, deemed to be the climax in the Healy-Parnell relationship. In 1884 he was called to the Irish bar as a barrister (in 1889 to the inner bar as K.C., in London in 1910). His reputation allowed him to build an extensive legal practice, particularly in land cases. Parnell chose him unwisely for South Londonderry in 1885, which Ulster seat he only held for a year. He was then elected in 1886–92 for North Longford.Prompted by the depression in the prices of dairy products and cattle in the mid-1880 as well as bad weather for a number of years, many tenant farmers unable to pay their rents were left under the threat of eviction. Healy devised a strategy to secure a reduction in rent from the landlords which became known as the Plan of Campaign, organised in 1886 amongst others by Timothy Harrington.In his novel "The Man Who Was Thursday" G.K. Chesterton describes one of his characters as a "... little man, with a black beard and glasses — a man somewhat of the type of Mr Tim Healy ...".Initially a passionate supporter of Parnell, he became disenchanted with his leader after Healy opposed Parnell's nomination of Captain William O’Shea to stand for a by-election in Galway city. At the time O’Shea was separated from his wife, Katharine O'Shea, with whom Parnell was secretly living. Healy objected to this, as the party had not been consulted and he believed Parnell was putting his personal relationship before the national interest. When Parnell travelled to Galway to support O’Shea, Healy was forced to back down.In 1890 in a sensational divorce case O'Shea sued his wife for divorce, citing Parnell as co-respondent. Healy and most of Parnell's associates rejected Parnell's continuing leadership of the party, believing it was recklessly endangering the party's alliance with Gladstonian Liberalism. Healy became Parnell's most outspoken critic. When Parnell asked his colleagues at one party meeting "Who is the master of the party?", Healy famously retorted with another question "Aye, but who is the mistress of the party?" – a comment that almost led to the men coming to blows. His savage onslaught in public reflected his conservative Catholic origin. A substantial minority of the Irish people never forgave him for his role during the divorce crisis, permanently damaging his own standing in public life. The rift prompted nine-year-old Dublin schoolboy James Joyce to write a poem called "Et Tu, Healy?", which Joyce's father had printed and circulated. Only three lines remain:"His quaint-perched aerie on the crags of Time""Where the rude din of this century""Can trouble him no more."Following Parnell's death in 1891, the IPP's anti-Parnellite majority group broke away forming the Irish National Federation (INF) under John Dillon. Healy was at first its most outspoken member, when in 1892 he captured North Louth for the anti-Parnellites, who in all won seventy-one seats. But finding it impossible to work with or under any post-Parnell leadership, especially Dillon's, he was expelled in 1895 from the INF executive committee, having previously been expelled from the Irish party's minor nine-member pro-Parnellite Irish National League (INL) under John Redmond.In the following decades, largely due to his expanding legal practice, he became a part-time politician and estranged from the national movement, setting up his own personal 'Healyite' organisation, called the "People's Rights Association", based on his position as MP for North Louth (the seat he held until the December 1910 election when defeated by Richard Hazleton). He waged war during the 1890s with Dillon and his National Federation (INF) and then intrigued with Redmond's smaller Parnellite group to play a substantial role behind the scenes in helping the rival party factions to re-unite under Redmond in 1900.Healy was extremely embittered by the fact that both his brothers and his followers were purged from the IPP list in the 1900 general election, and that his support for Redmond in the re-united party went unrewarded; on the contrary, Redmond soon found it wiser to conciliate Dillon. But Healy's talent for disruption was soon recognised when two years later he was again expelled. He remained "the enemy within", recruiting malcontent MPs to harass the party and survived politically by dint of his assiduous constituency work, as well as through the influence of his clerical ally Dr. Michael Cardinal Logue, Primate of All Ireland and Archbishop of Armagh. Healy remained rooted in the extended 'Bantry Gang', a highly influential political and commercial nexus based originally in West Cork, which included his key patron, the Catholic business magnate and owner of the "Irish Independent", William Martin Murphy, who provided a platform for Healy and other critics of the IPP.However, at least after 1903, Healy was joined in his estrangement from the party leadership by William O'Brien. O’Brien had been for years one of Healy's strongest critics, but now he too felt annoyed both by his own alienation from the party and by Redmond's subservience to Dillon. Involved with the Irish Reform Association 1904–5, they entered a loose coalition, which lasted throughout the life of the IPP. They were in agreement that agrarian radicalism brought little return, and with Healy practically becoming a Parnellite, they preferred to pursue a policy of conciliation with the Protestant class in order to further the acceptance of Home Rule. Redmond was sympathetic to this policy but was inhibited by Dillon. Redmond, in an act of "rapprochement", briefly re-united them with the party in 1908. Fiercely independent, both split off again in 1909, responding to real changes in the social basis of Irish politics. In 1908 Healy acted as counsel for Sir Arthur Vicars, former Ulster King of Arms, in connection with the 1908 investigation of the previous year's theft of the Irish Crown Jewels.By the 1910s, it looked as though Healy was to remain a maverick on the fringes of Irish nationalism. However, he came into notoriety once more when returned in the January 1910 general election in alliance with William O'Brien's newly founded All-for-Ireland Party (AFIL), their alliance based largely on common opposition to the Irish party. He lost his seat in the following December 1910 election, but soon afterwards rejoined the O'Brienites, O’Brien providing the 1911 north-east Cork by-election vacancy created by the retirement of Moreton Frewen. Healy's reputation was not enhanced when he represented as counsel his associate William Martin Murphy, the industrialist who sparked the 1913 Dublin Lockout. Healy assiduously cultivated relationships with power brokers in Westminster such as Lord Beaverbrook, and once they were introduced at Cherkley, was great friends with Janet Aitken for the remainder of his life.Redmond's and the IPP's powerful position of holding the balance of power at Westminster—and with the passing of the Third Home Rule Bill assured—left Healy and the AFIL critics in a weakened position. They condemned the bill as a 'partition deal', abstaining from its final vote in the Commons. With the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, the Healy brothers supported the Allied and the British war effort. Two had a son enlist in one of the Irish divisions, Timothy's eldest son, Joe, fought with distinction at Gallipoli.Having done much to damage the popular image and authority of constitutional nationalism, Healy after the Easter Rising was convinced that the IPP and Redmond were doomed and slowly withdrew from the forefront of politics, making it clear in 1917 that he was in general sympathy with Arthur Griffith's Sinn Féin movement, but not with physical force methods. In September that year he acted as counsel for the family of the dead Sinn Féin hunger striker Thomas Ashe. He was one of the few King's Counsel to provide legal services to members of Sinn Féin in various legal proceedings in both Ireland and England post the 1916 Rising. This included acting for those interned in 1916 illegally in Frongoch in North Wales. During this time, Healy also represented Georgina Frost, in her attempts to be appointed a Petty Sessions clerk in her native County Clare. In 1920 the Bar Council of Ireland passed an initial resolution that any barrister appearing before the Dáil Courts would be guilty of professional misconduct. This was challenged by Tim Healy and no final decision was made on the matter. Before the December 1918 general election, he was the first of the AFIL members to resign his seat in favour of the Sinn Féin party's candidate, and spoke in support of P. J. Little, the Sinn Féin candidate for Rathmines in Dublin.He returned to considerable prominence in 1922 when, on the urging of the soon-to-be Irish Free State's Provisional Government of W. T. Cosgrave, the British government recommended to King George V that Healy be appointed the first 'Governor-General of the Irish Free State', a new office representative of the Crown created in the 1921 Anglo-Irish Treaty and introduced by a combination of the Constitution of the Irish Free State and Letters Patent from the King. The constitution was enacted in December 1922. Healy was the uncle of Kevin O'Higgins, the Vice-President of the Executive Council and Minister for Justice in the new Free State.Initially, the Government of the Irish Free State under Cosgrave wished for Healy to reside in a new small residence, but, facing death threats from the IRA, he was moved as a temporary measure into the Viceregal Lodge, the former 'out of season' residence of the Lord Lieutenant, the former representative of the Crown until 1922.Healy officially entered office as Governor-General on 6 December 1922. He never wore, certainly not in public in Ireland, the official ceremonial uniform of a Governor-General in the British Empire. At that time, in the 1920s, Healy was unique amongst viceregal representatives in the British Empire in this regard. Healy was also unique (along with his successor, James McNeill) amongst all the Governors-General in the British Empire in the 1920s in that he was never sworn in as a member of the Imperial Privy Council. Nor was he ever sworn into the Privy Council of Ireland, a body that ceased to exist in early December 1922. Thus, unusually for a Governor-General within the Empire, he never gained the prefix 'The Right Honourable' nor the post-nominals 'PC'.Healy proved an able Governor-General, possessing a degree of political skill, deep political insight and contacts in Britain that the new Irish Government initially lacked, and had long recommended himself to the Catholic Hierarchy: all-round good credentials for this key symbolic and reconciling position at the centre of public life. He joked once that the government didn't advise him, he advised the government: a comment at a dinner for The Duke of York (the future King George VI) that led to public criticism. However, the waspish Healy still could not help courting further controversy, most notably in a public attack on the new Fianna Fáil and its leader, Éamon de Valera, which led to republican calls for his resignation.Much of the contact between governments in London and Dublin went through Healy. He had access to all sensitive state papers, and received instructions from the British Government on the use of his powers to grant, withhold or refuse the Royal Assent to legislation enacted by the Oireachtas. For instance, Healy was instructed to reject any bill that abolished the Oath of Allegiance. However, neither this nor any other bill that he was secretly instructed to block were introduced during his time as Governor-General. That role of being the UK government's representative, and acting on its advice, was abandoned throughout the British Commonwealth in the mid-1920s as a result of an Imperial Conference decision, leaving him and his successors exclusively as the King's representative and nominal head of the Irish executive.Healy seemed to believe that he had been awarded the Governor-Generalship for life. However, the Executive Council of the Irish Free State decided in 1927 that the term of office of Governors-General would be five years. As a result, he retired from the office and public life in January 1928. His wife had died the previous year. He published his extensive two-volume memoirs in 1928. Throughout his life he was formidable because he was ferociously quick-witted, because he was unworried by social or political convention, and because he knew no party discipline. Towards the end of his life he mellowed and became otherwise more diplomatic.He died on 26 March 1931, aged 75, in Chapelizod, County Dublin, where he lived at his home Glenaulin, and was buried in Glasnevin Cemetery. | [
"Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"bencher",
"Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Governor-General of the Irish Free State",
"Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Timothy Michael Healy hold in Jan 01, 1899? | January 01, 1899 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Queen's Counsel"
]
} | L2_Q333199_P39_5 | Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1885 to Jan, 1886.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Feb, 1887 to Jun, 1892.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1900 to Jan, 1906.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1906 to Jan, 1910.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1880 to Jun, 1883.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1895 to Sep, 1900.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of bencher from Jan, 1910 to Jan, 1910.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Queen's Counsel from Jan, 1899 to Jan, 1899.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1910 to Nov, 1910.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1892 to Jul, 1895.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1911 to Nov, 1918.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Governor-General of the Irish Free State from Dec, 1922 to Jan, 1928. | Tim Healy (politician)Timothy Michael Healy, KC (17 May 1855 – 26 March 1931) was an Irish nationalist politician, journalist, author, barrister and one of the most controversial Irish Members of Parliament (MPs) in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. His political career began in the 1880s under Charles Stewart Parnell's leadership of the Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP), and continued into the 1920s, when he was the first Governor-General of the Irish Free State.He was born in Bantry, County Cork, the second son of Maurice Healy, clerk of the Bantry Poor Law Union, and Eliza Healy (née Sullivan). His elder brother Thomas Healy (1854–1924) was a solicitor and Member of Parliament (MP) for North Wexford and his younger brother Maurice Healy (1859–1923), with whom he held a lifelong close relationship, was a solicitor and MP for Cork City.His father was descended from a family line which in holding to their Catholic faith, lost their lands, which he compensated by being a scholarly gentleman. His father was transferred in 1862 to a similar position in Lismore, County Waterford, holding the post until his death in 1906. Timothy was educated at the Christian Brothers school in Fermoy, and was otherwise largely self-educated, in 1869 at the age of fourteen going to live with his uncle Timothy Daniel Sullivan MP in Dublin.He then moved to England finding employment in 1871 with the North Eastern Railway Company in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. There he became deeply involved in the Irish Home Rule politics of the local Irish community. After leaving for London in 1878 Healy worked as a confidential clerk in a factory owned by his relative, then worked as a parliamentary correspondent for "The Nation" newspaper owned by his uncle, writing numerous articles in support of Parnell, the newly emergent and more militant home rule leader, and his policy of parliamentary "obstructionism".Parnell admired Healy's intelligence and energy after Healy had established himself as part of Parnell's broader political circle. He became Parnell's secretary but was denied contact to Parnell's small inner circle of political colleagues. Parnell, however, brought Healy into the Irish Party (IPP) and supported him as a nationalist candidate when elected MP for Wexford Borough in 1880–83 against the aspiring John Redmond whose father, William Archer Redmond, was its recently deceased MP. Healy was returned unopposed to parliament, aided by the fact that Redmond stood aside and that he had survived an agrarian court case which alleging intimidation.In parliament, Healy did not physically cut an imposing figure but impressed by the application of sheer intelligence, diligence and volatile use of speech when he achieved the "Healy Clause" in the Land Law (Ireland) Act 1881 which provided that no further rent should in future be charged on tenant's improvements. By the mid-1880s Healy had already acquired a reputation for a scurrilousness of tone. He married his cousin Eliza Sullivan in 1882, they had three daughters and three sons and he enjoyed a happy and intense family life, closely interlinked both by friendship and intermarriage with the Sullivans of west Cork.Through his reputation as a friend of the farmers, after having been imprisoned for four months following an agrarian case, and backed by Parnell, he was elected in a Monaghan by-election in June 1883–5, deemed to be the climax in the Healy-Parnell relationship. In 1884 he was called to the Irish bar as a barrister (in 1889 to the inner bar as K.C., in London in 1910). His reputation allowed him to build an extensive legal practice, particularly in land cases. Parnell chose him unwisely for South Londonderry in 1885, which Ulster seat he only held for a year. He was then elected in 1886–92 for North Longford.Prompted by the depression in the prices of dairy products and cattle in the mid-1880 as well as bad weather for a number of years, many tenant farmers unable to pay their rents were left under the threat of eviction. Healy devised a strategy to secure a reduction in rent from the landlords which became known as the Plan of Campaign, organised in 1886 amongst others by Timothy Harrington.In his novel "The Man Who Was Thursday" G.K. Chesterton describes one of his characters as a "... little man, with a black beard and glasses — a man somewhat of the type of Mr Tim Healy ...".Initially a passionate supporter of Parnell, he became disenchanted with his leader after Healy opposed Parnell's nomination of Captain William O’Shea to stand for a by-election in Galway city. At the time O’Shea was separated from his wife, Katharine O'Shea, with whom Parnell was secretly living. Healy objected to this, as the party had not been consulted and he believed Parnell was putting his personal relationship before the national interest. When Parnell travelled to Galway to support O’Shea, Healy was forced to back down.In 1890 in a sensational divorce case O'Shea sued his wife for divorce, citing Parnell as co-respondent. Healy and most of Parnell's associates rejected Parnell's continuing leadership of the party, believing it was recklessly endangering the party's alliance with Gladstonian Liberalism. Healy became Parnell's most outspoken critic. When Parnell asked his colleagues at one party meeting "Who is the master of the party?", Healy famously retorted with another question "Aye, but who is the mistress of the party?" – a comment that almost led to the men coming to blows. His savage onslaught in public reflected his conservative Catholic origin. A substantial minority of the Irish people never forgave him for his role during the divorce crisis, permanently damaging his own standing in public life. The rift prompted nine-year-old Dublin schoolboy James Joyce to write a poem called "Et Tu, Healy?", which Joyce's father had printed and circulated. Only three lines remain:"His quaint-perched aerie on the crags of Time""Where the rude din of this century""Can trouble him no more."Following Parnell's death in 1891, the IPP's anti-Parnellite majority group broke away forming the Irish National Federation (INF) under John Dillon. Healy was at first its most outspoken member, when in 1892 he captured North Louth for the anti-Parnellites, who in all won seventy-one seats. But finding it impossible to work with or under any post-Parnell leadership, especially Dillon's, he was expelled in 1895 from the INF executive committee, having previously been expelled from the Irish party's minor nine-member pro-Parnellite Irish National League (INL) under John Redmond.In the following decades, largely due to his expanding legal practice, he became a part-time politician and estranged from the national movement, setting up his own personal 'Healyite' organisation, called the "People's Rights Association", based on his position as MP for North Louth (the seat he held until the December 1910 election when defeated by Richard Hazleton). He waged war during the 1890s with Dillon and his National Federation (INF) and then intrigued with Redmond's smaller Parnellite group to play a substantial role behind the scenes in helping the rival party factions to re-unite under Redmond in 1900.Healy was extremely embittered by the fact that both his brothers and his followers were purged from the IPP list in the 1900 general election, and that his support for Redmond in the re-united party went unrewarded; on the contrary, Redmond soon found it wiser to conciliate Dillon. But Healy's talent for disruption was soon recognised when two years later he was again expelled. He remained "the enemy within", recruiting malcontent MPs to harass the party and survived politically by dint of his assiduous constituency work, as well as through the influence of his clerical ally Dr. Michael Cardinal Logue, Primate of All Ireland and Archbishop of Armagh. Healy remained rooted in the extended 'Bantry Gang', a highly influential political and commercial nexus based originally in West Cork, which included his key patron, the Catholic business magnate and owner of the "Irish Independent", William Martin Murphy, who provided a platform for Healy and other critics of the IPP.However, at least after 1903, Healy was joined in his estrangement from the party leadership by William O'Brien. O’Brien had been for years one of Healy's strongest critics, but now he too felt annoyed both by his own alienation from the party and by Redmond's subservience to Dillon. Involved with the Irish Reform Association 1904–5, they entered a loose coalition, which lasted throughout the life of the IPP. They were in agreement that agrarian radicalism brought little return, and with Healy practically becoming a Parnellite, they preferred to pursue a policy of conciliation with the Protestant class in order to further the acceptance of Home Rule. Redmond was sympathetic to this policy but was inhibited by Dillon. Redmond, in an act of "rapprochement", briefly re-united them with the party in 1908. Fiercely independent, both split off again in 1909, responding to real changes in the social basis of Irish politics. In 1908 Healy acted as counsel for Sir Arthur Vicars, former Ulster King of Arms, in connection with the 1908 investigation of the previous year's theft of the Irish Crown Jewels.By the 1910s, it looked as though Healy was to remain a maverick on the fringes of Irish nationalism. However, he came into notoriety once more when returned in the January 1910 general election in alliance with William O'Brien's newly founded All-for-Ireland Party (AFIL), their alliance based largely on common opposition to the Irish party. He lost his seat in the following December 1910 election, but soon afterwards rejoined the O'Brienites, O’Brien providing the 1911 north-east Cork by-election vacancy created by the retirement of Moreton Frewen. Healy's reputation was not enhanced when he represented as counsel his associate William Martin Murphy, the industrialist who sparked the 1913 Dublin Lockout. Healy assiduously cultivated relationships with power brokers in Westminster such as Lord Beaverbrook, and once they were introduced at Cherkley, was great friends with Janet Aitken for the remainder of his life.Redmond's and the IPP's powerful position of holding the balance of power at Westminster—and with the passing of the Third Home Rule Bill assured—left Healy and the AFIL critics in a weakened position. They condemned the bill as a 'partition deal', abstaining from its final vote in the Commons. With the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, the Healy brothers supported the Allied and the British war effort. Two had a son enlist in one of the Irish divisions, Timothy's eldest son, Joe, fought with distinction at Gallipoli.Having done much to damage the popular image and authority of constitutional nationalism, Healy after the Easter Rising was convinced that the IPP and Redmond were doomed and slowly withdrew from the forefront of politics, making it clear in 1917 that he was in general sympathy with Arthur Griffith's Sinn Féin movement, but not with physical force methods. In September that year he acted as counsel for the family of the dead Sinn Féin hunger striker Thomas Ashe. He was one of the few King's Counsel to provide legal services to members of Sinn Féin in various legal proceedings in both Ireland and England post the 1916 Rising. This included acting for those interned in 1916 illegally in Frongoch in North Wales. During this time, Healy also represented Georgina Frost, in her attempts to be appointed a Petty Sessions clerk in her native County Clare. In 1920 the Bar Council of Ireland passed an initial resolution that any barrister appearing before the Dáil Courts would be guilty of professional misconduct. This was challenged by Tim Healy and no final decision was made on the matter. Before the December 1918 general election, he was the first of the AFIL members to resign his seat in favour of the Sinn Féin party's candidate, and spoke in support of P. J. Little, the Sinn Féin candidate for Rathmines in Dublin.He returned to considerable prominence in 1922 when, on the urging of the soon-to-be Irish Free State's Provisional Government of W. T. Cosgrave, the British government recommended to King George V that Healy be appointed the first 'Governor-General of the Irish Free State', a new office representative of the Crown created in the 1921 Anglo-Irish Treaty and introduced by a combination of the Constitution of the Irish Free State and Letters Patent from the King. The constitution was enacted in December 1922. Healy was the uncle of Kevin O'Higgins, the Vice-President of the Executive Council and Minister for Justice in the new Free State.Initially, the Government of the Irish Free State under Cosgrave wished for Healy to reside in a new small residence, but, facing death threats from the IRA, he was moved as a temporary measure into the Viceregal Lodge, the former 'out of season' residence of the Lord Lieutenant, the former representative of the Crown until 1922.Healy officially entered office as Governor-General on 6 December 1922. He never wore, certainly not in public in Ireland, the official ceremonial uniform of a Governor-General in the British Empire. At that time, in the 1920s, Healy was unique amongst viceregal representatives in the British Empire in this regard. Healy was also unique (along with his successor, James McNeill) amongst all the Governors-General in the British Empire in the 1920s in that he was never sworn in as a member of the Imperial Privy Council. Nor was he ever sworn into the Privy Council of Ireland, a body that ceased to exist in early December 1922. Thus, unusually for a Governor-General within the Empire, he never gained the prefix 'The Right Honourable' nor the post-nominals 'PC'.Healy proved an able Governor-General, possessing a degree of political skill, deep political insight and contacts in Britain that the new Irish Government initially lacked, and had long recommended himself to the Catholic Hierarchy: all-round good credentials for this key symbolic and reconciling position at the centre of public life. He joked once that the government didn't advise him, he advised the government: a comment at a dinner for The Duke of York (the future King George VI) that led to public criticism. However, the waspish Healy still could not help courting further controversy, most notably in a public attack on the new Fianna Fáil and its leader, Éamon de Valera, which led to republican calls for his resignation.Much of the contact between governments in London and Dublin went through Healy. He had access to all sensitive state papers, and received instructions from the British Government on the use of his powers to grant, withhold or refuse the Royal Assent to legislation enacted by the Oireachtas. For instance, Healy was instructed to reject any bill that abolished the Oath of Allegiance. However, neither this nor any other bill that he was secretly instructed to block were introduced during his time as Governor-General. That role of being the UK government's representative, and acting on its advice, was abandoned throughout the British Commonwealth in the mid-1920s as a result of an Imperial Conference decision, leaving him and his successors exclusively as the King's representative and nominal head of the Irish executive.Healy seemed to believe that he had been awarded the Governor-Generalship for life. However, the Executive Council of the Irish Free State decided in 1927 that the term of office of Governors-General would be five years. As a result, he retired from the office and public life in January 1928. His wife had died the previous year. He published his extensive two-volume memoirs in 1928. Throughout his life he was formidable because he was ferociously quick-witted, because he was unworried by social or political convention, and because he knew no party discipline. Towards the end of his life he mellowed and became otherwise more diplomatic.He died on 26 March 1931, aged 75, in Chapelizod, County Dublin, where he lived at his home Glenaulin, and was buried in Glasnevin Cemetery. | [
"Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"bencher",
"Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Governor-General of the Irish Free State",
"Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Timothy Michael Healy hold in 01/01/1899? | January 01, 1899 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Queen's Counsel"
]
} | L2_Q333199_P39_5 | Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1885 to Jan, 1886.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Feb, 1887 to Jun, 1892.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1900 to Jan, 1906.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1906 to Jan, 1910.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1880 to Jun, 1883.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1895 to Sep, 1900.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of bencher from Jan, 1910 to Jan, 1910.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Queen's Counsel from Jan, 1899 to Jan, 1899.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1910 to Nov, 1910.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1892 to Jul, 1895.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1911 to Nov, 1918.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Governor-General of the Irish Free State from Dec, 1922 to Jan, 1928. | Tim Healy (politician)Timothy Michael Healy, KC (17 May 1855 – 26 March 1931) was an Irish nationalist politician, journalist, author, barrister and one of the most controversial Irish Members of Parliament (MPs) in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. His political career began in the 1880s under Charles Stewart Parnell's leadership of the Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP), and continued into the 1920s, when he was the first Governor-General of the Irish Free State.He was born in Bantry, County Cork, the second son of Maurice Healy, clerk of the Bantry Poor Law Union, and Eliza Healy (née Sullivan). His elder brother Thomas Healy (1854–1924) was a solicitor and Member of Parliament (MP) for North Wexford and his younger brother Maurice Healy (1859–1923), with whom he held a lifelong close relationship, was a solicitor and MP for Cork City.His father was descended from a family line which in holding to their Catholic faith, lost their lands, which he compensated by being a scholarly gentleman. His father was transferred in 1862 to a similar position in Lismore, County Waterford, holding the post until his death in 1906. Timothy was educated at the Christian Brothers school in Fermoy, and was otherwise largely self-educated, in 1869 at the age of fourteen going to live with his uncle Timothy Daniel Sullivan MP in Dublin.He then moved to England finding employment in 1871 with the North Eastern Railway Company in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. There he became deeply involved in the Irish Home Rule politics of the local Irish community. After leaving for London in 1878 Healy worked as a confidential clerk in a factory owned by his relative, then worked as a parliamentary correspondent for "The Nation" newspaper owned by his uncle, writing numerous articles in support of Parnell, the newly emergent and more militant home rule leader, and his policy of parliamentary "obstructionism".Parnell admired Healy's intelligence and energy after Healy had established himself as part of Parnell's broader political circle. He became Parnell's secretary but was denied contact to Parnell's small inner circle of political colleagues. Parnell, however, brought Healy into the Irish Party (IPP) and supported him as a nationalist candidate when elected MP for Wexford Borough in 1880–83 against the aspiring John Redmond whose father, William Archer Redmond, was its recently deceased MP. Healy was returned unopposed to parliament, aided by the fact that Redmond stood aside and that he had survived an agrarian court case which alleging intimidation.In parliament, Healy did not physically cut an imposing figure but impressed by the application of sheer intelligence, diligence and volatile use of speech when he achieved the "Healy Clause" in the Land Law (Ireland) Act 1881 which provided that no further rent should in future be charged on tenant's improvements. By the mid-1880s Healy had already acquired a reputation for a scurrilousness of tone. He married his cousin Eliza Sullivan in 1882, they had three daughters and three sons and he enjoyed a happy and intense family life, closely interlinked both by friendship and intermarriage with the Sullivans of west Cork.Through his reputation as a friend of the farmers, after having been imprisoned for four months following an agrarian case, and backed by Parnell, he was elected in a Monaghan by-election in June 1883–5, deemed to be the climax in the Healy-Parnell relationship. In 1884 he was called to the Irish bar as a barrister (in 1889 to the inner bar as K.C., in London in 1910). His reputation allowed him to build an extensive legal practice, particularly in land cases. Parnell chose him unwisely for South Londonderry in 1885, which Ulster seat he only held for a year. He was then elected in 1886–92 for North Longford.Prompted by the depression in the prices of dairy products and cattle in the mid-1880 as well as bad weather for a number of years, many tenant farmers unable to pay their rents were left under the threat of eviction. Healy devised a strategy to secure a reduction in rent from the landlords which became known as the Plan of Campaign, organised in 1886 amongst others by Timothy Harrington.In his novel "The Man Who Was Thursday" G.K. Chesterton describes one of his characters as a "... little man, with a black beard and glasses — a man somewhat of the type of Mr Tim Healy ...".Initially a passionate supporter of Parnell, he became disenchanted with his leader after Healy opposed Parnell's nomination of Captain William O’Shea to stand for a by-election in Galway city. At the time O’Shea was separated from his wife, Katharine O'Shea, with whom Parnell was secretly living. Healy objected to this, as the party had not been consulted and he believed Parnell was putting his personal relationship before the national interest. When Parnell travelled to Galway to support O’Shea, Healy was forced to back down.In 1890 in a sensational divorce case O'Shea sued his wife for divorce, citing Parnell as co-respondent. Healy and most of Parnell's associates rejected Parnell's continuing leadership of the party, believing it was recklessly endangering the party's alliance with Gladstonian Liberalism. Healy became Parnell's most outspoken critic. When Parnell asked his colleagues at one party meeting "Who is the master of the party?", Healy famously retorted with another question "Aye, but who is the mistress of the party?" – a comment that almost led to the men coming to blows. His savage onslaught in public reflected his conservative Catholic origin. A substantial minority of the Irish people never forgave him for his role during the divorce crisis, permanently damaging his own standing in public life. The rift prompted nine-year-old Dublin schoolboy James Joyce to write a poem called "Et Tu, Healy?", which Joyce's father had printed and circulated. Only three lines remain:"His quaint-perched aerie on the crags of Time""Where the rude din of this century""Can trouble him no more."Following Parnell's death in 1891, the IPP's anti-Parnellite majority group broke away forming the Irish National Federation (INF) under John Dillon. Healy was at first its most outspoken member, when in 1892 he captured North Louth for the anti-Parnellites, who in all won seventy-one seats. But finding it impossible to work with or under any post-Parnell leadership, especially Dillon's, he was expelled in 1895 from the INF executive committee, having previously been expelled from the Irish party's minor nine-member pro-Parnellite Irish National League (INL) under John Redmond.In the following decades, largely due to his expanding legal practice, he became a part-time politician and estranged from the national movement, setting up his own personal 'Healyite' organisation, called the "People's Rights Association", based on his position as MP for North Louth (the seat he held until the December 1910 election when defeated by Richard Hazleton). He waged war during the 1890s with Dillon and his National Federation (INF) and then intrigued with Redmond's smaller Parnellite group to play a substantial role behind the scenes in helping the rival party factions to re-unite under Redmond in 1900.Healy was extremely embittered by the fact that both his brothers and his followers were purged from the IPP list in the 1900 general election, and that his support for Redmond in the re-united party went unrewarded; on the contrary, Redmond soon found it wiser to conciliate Dillon. But Healy's talent for disruption was soon recognised when two years later he was again expelled. He remained "the enemy within", recruiting malcontent MPs to harass the party and survived politically by dint of his assiduous constituency work, as well as through the influence of his clerical ally Dr. Michael Cardinal Logue, Primate of All Ireland and Archbishop of Armagh. Healy remained rooted in the extended 'Bantry Gang', a highly influential political and commercial nexus based originally in West Cork, which included his key patron, the Catholic business magnate and owner of the "Irish Independent", William Martin Murphy, who provided a platform for Healy and other critics of the IPP.However, at least after 1903, Healy was joined in his estrangement from the party leadership by William O'Brien. O’Brien had been for years one of Healy's strongest critics, but now he too felt annoyed both by his own alienation from the party and by Redmond's subservience to Dillon. Involved with the Irish Reform Association 1904–5, they entered a loose coalition, which lasted throughout the life of the IPP. They were in agreement that agrarian radicalism brought little return, and with Healy practically becoming a Parnellite, they preferred to pursue a policy of conciliation with the Protestant class in order to further the acceptance of Home Rule. Redmond was sympathetic to this policy but was inhibited by Dillon. Redmond, in an act of "rapprochement", briefly re-united them with the party in 1908. Fiercely independent, both split off again in 1909, responding to real changes in the social basis of Irish politics. In 1908 Healy acted as counsel for Sir Arthur Vicars, former Ulster King of Arms, in connection with the 1908 investigation of the previous year's theft of the Irish Crown Jewels.By the 1910s, it looked as though Healy was to remain a maverick on the fringes of Irish nationalism. However, he came into notoriety once more when returned in the January 1910 general election in alliance with William O'Brien's newly founded All-for-Ireland Party (AFIL), their alliance based largely on common opposition to the Irish party. He lost his seat in the following December 1910 election, but soon afterwards rejoined the O'Brienites, O’Brien providing the 1911 north-east Cork by-election vacancy created by the retirement of Moreton Frewen. Healy's reputation was not enhanced when he represented as counsel his associate William Martin Murphy, the industrialist who sparked the 1913 Dublin Lockout. Healy assiduously cultivated relationships with power brokers in Westminster such as Lord Beaverbrook, and once they were introduced at Cherkley, was great friends with Janet Aitken for the remainder of his life.Redmond's and the IPP's powerful position of holding the balance of power at Westminster—and with the passing of the Third Home Rule Bill assured—left Healy and the AFIL critics in a weakened position. They condemned the bill as a 'partition deal', abstaining from its final vote in the Commons. With the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, the Healy brothers supported the Allied and the British war effort. Two had a son enlist in one of the Irish divisions, Timothy's eldest son, Joe, fought with distinction at Gallipoli.Having done much to damage the popular image and authority of constitutional nationalism, Healy after the Easter Rising was convinced that the IPP and Redmond were doomed and slowly withdrew from the forefront of politics, making it clear in 1917 that he was in general sympathy with Arthur Griffith's Sinn Féin movement, but not with physical force methods. In September that year he acted as counsel for the family of the dead Sinn Féin hunger striker Thomas Ashe. He was one of the few King's Counsel to provide legal services to members of Sinn Féin in various legal proceedings in both Ireland and England post the 1916 Rising. This included acting for those interned in 1916 illegally in Frongoch in North Wales. During this time, Healy also represented Georgina Frost, in her attempts to be appointed a Petty Sessions clerk in her native County Clare. In 1920 the Bar Council of Ireland passed an initial resolution that any barrister appearing before the Dáil Courts would be guilty of professional misconduct. This was challenged by Tim Healy and no final decision was made on the matter. Before the December 1918 general election, he was the first of the AFIL members to resign his seat in favour of the Sinn Féin party's candidate, and spoke in support of P. J. Little, the Sinn Féin candidate for Rathmines in Dublin.He returned to considerable prominence in 1922 when, on the urging of the soon-to-be Irish Free State's Provisional Government of W. T. Cosgrave, the British government recommended to King George V that Healy be appointed the first 'Governor-General of the Irish Free State', a new office representative of the Crown created in the 1921 Anglo-Irish Treaty and introduced by a combination of the Constitution of the Irish Free State and Letters Patent from the King. The constitution was enacted in December 1922. Healy was the uncle of Kevin O'Higgins, the Vice-President of the Executive Council and Minister for Justice in the new Free State.Initially, the Government of the Irish Free State under Cosgrave wished for Healy to reside in a new small residence, but, facing death threats from the IRA, he was moved as a temporary measure into the Viceregal Lodge, the former 'out of season' residence of the Lord Lieutenant, the former representative of the Crown until 1922.Healy officially entered office as Governor-General on 6 December 1922. He never wore, certainly not in public in Ireland, the official ceremonial uniform of a Governor-General in the British Empire. At that time, in the 1920s, Healy was unique amongst viceregal representatives in the British Empire in this regard. Healy was also unique (along with his successor, James McNeill) amongst all the Governors-General in the British Empire in the 1920s in that he was never sworn in as a member of the Imperial Privy Council. Nor was he ever sworn into the Privy Council of Ireland, a body that ceased to exist in early December 1922. Thus, unusually for a Governor-General within the Empire, he never gained the prefix 'The Right Honourable' nor the post-nominals 'PC'.Healy proved an able Governor-General, possessing a degree of political skill, deep political insight and contacts in Britain that the new Irish Government initially lacked, and had long recommended himself to the Catholic Hierarchy: all-round good credentials for this key symbolic and reconciling position at the centre of public life. He joked once that the government didn't advise him, he advised the government: a comment at a dinner for The Duke of York (the future King George VI) that led to public criticism. However, the waspish Healy still could not help courting further controversy, most notably in a public attack on the new Fianna Fáil and its leader, Éamon de Valera, which led to republican calls for his resignation.Much of the contact between governments in London and Dublin went through Healy. He had access to all sensitive state papers, and received instructions from the British Government on the use of his powers to grant, withhold or refuse the Royal Assent to legislation enacted by the Oireachtas. For instance, Healy was instructed to reject any bill that abolished the Oath of Allegiance. However, neither this nor any other bill that he was secretly instructed to block were introduced during his time as Governor-General. That role of being the UK government's representative, and acting on its advice, was abandoned throughout the British Commonwealth in the mid-1920s as a result of an Imperial Conference decision, leaving him and his successors exclusively as the King's representative and nominal head of the Irish executive.Healy seemed to believe that he had been awarded the Governor-Generalship for life. However, the Executive Council of the Irish Free State decided in 1927 that the term of office of Governors-General would be five years. As a result, he retired from the office and public life in January 1928. His wife had died the previous year. He published his extensive two-volume memoirs in 1928. Throughout his life he was formidable because he was ferociously quick-witted, because he was unworried by social or political convention, and because he knew no party discipline. Towards the end of his life he mellowed and became otherwise more diplomatic.He died on 26 March 1931, aged 75, in Chapelizod, County Dublin, where he lived at his home Glenaulin, and was buried in Glasnevin Cemetery. | [
"Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"bencher",
"Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Governor-General of the Irish Free State",
"Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Timothy Michael Healy hold in 01-Jan-189901-January-1899? | January 01, 1899 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Queen's Counsel"
]
} | L2_Q333199_P39_5 | Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1885 to Jan, 1886.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Feb, 1887 to Jun, 1892.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1900 to Jan, 1906.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1906 to Jan, 1910.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1880 to Jun, 1883.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1895 to Sep, 1900.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of bencher from Jan, 1910 to Jan, 1910.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Queen's Counsel from Jan, 1899 to Jan, 1899.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1910 to Nov, 1910.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1892 to Jul, 1895.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1911 to Nov, 1918.
Timothy Michael Healy holds the position of Governor-General of the Irish Free State from Dec, 1922 to Jan, 1928. | Tim Healy (politician)Timothy Michael Healy, KC (17 May 1855 – 26 March 1931) was an Irish nationalist politician, journalist, author, barrister and one of the most controversial Irish Members of Parliament (MPs) in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. His political career began in the 1880s under Charles Stewart Parnell's leadership of the Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP), and continued into the 1920s, when he was the first Governor-General of the Irish Free State.He was born in Bantry, County Cork, the second son of Maurice Healy, clerk of the Bantry Poor Law Union, and Eliza Healy (née Sullivan). His elder brother Thomas Healy (1854–1924) was a solicitor and Member of Parliament (MP) for North Wexford and his younger brother Maurice Healy (1859–1923), with whom he held a lifelong close relationship, was a solicitor and MP for Cork City.His father was descended from a family line which in holding to their Catholic faith, lost their lands, which he compensated by being a scholarly gentleman. His father was transferred in 1862 to a similar position in Lismore, County Waterford, holding the post until his death in 1906. Timothy was educated at the Christian Brothers school in Fermoy, and was otherwise largely self-educated, in 1869 at the age of fourteen going to live with his uncle Timothy Daniel Sullivan MP in Dublin.He then moved to England finding employment in 1871 with the North Eastern Railway Company in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. There he became deeply involved in the Irish Home Rule politics of the local Irish community. After leaving for London in 1878 Healy worked as a confidential clerk in a factory owned by his relative, then worked as a parliamentary correspondent for "The Nation" newspaper owned by his uncle, writing numerous articles in support of Parnell, the newly emergent and more militant home rule leader, and his policy of parliamentary "obstructionism".Parnell admired Healy's intelligence and energy after Healy had established himself as part of Parnell's broader political circle. He became Parnell's secretary but was denied contact to Parnell's small inner circle of political colleagues. Parnell, however, brought Healy into the Irish Party (IPP) and supported him as a nationalist candidate when elected MP for Wexford Borough in 1880–83 against the aspiring John Redmond whose father, William Archer Redmond, was its recently deceased MP. Healy was returned unopposed to parliament, aided by the fact that Redmond stood aside and that he had survived an agrarian court case which alleging intimidation.In parliament, Healy did not physically cut an imposing figure but impressed by the application of sheer intelligence, diligence and volatile use of speech when he achieved the "Healy Clause" in the Land Law (Ireland) Act 1881 which provided that no further rent should in future be charged on tenant's improvements. By the mid-1880s Healy had already acquired a reputation for a scurrilousness of tone. He married his cousin Eliza Sullivan in 1882, they had three daughters and three sons and he enjoyed a happy and intense family life, closely interlinked both by friendship and intermarriage with the Sullivans of west Cork.Through his reputation as a friend of the farmers, after having been imprisoned for four months following an agrarian case, and backed by Parnell, he was elected in a Monaghan by-election in June 1883–5, deemed to be the climax in the Healy-Parnell relationship. In 1884 he was called to the Irish bar as a barrister (in 1889 to the inner bar as K.C., in London in 1910). His reputation allowed him to build an extensive legal practice, particularly in land cases. Parnell chose him unwisely for South Londonderry in 1885, which Ulster seat he only held for a year. He was then elected in 1886–92 for North Longford.Prompted by the depression in the prices of dairy products and cattle in the mid-1880 as well as bad weather for a number of years, many tenant farmers unable to pay their rents were left under the threat of eviction. Healy devised a strategy to secure a reduction in rent from the landlords which became known as the Plan of Campaign, organised in 1886 amongst others by Timothy Harrington.In his novel "The Man Who Was Thursday" G.K. Chesterton describes one of his characters as a "... little man, with a black beard and glasses — a man somewhat of the type of Mr Tim Healy ...".Initially a passionate supporter of Parnell, he became disenchanted with his leader after Healy opposed Parnell's nomination of Captain William O’Shea to stand for a by-election in Galway city. At the time O’Shea was separated from his wife, Katharine O'Shea, with whom Parnell was secretly living. Healy objected to this, as the party had not been consulted and he believed Parnell was putting his personal relationship before the national interest. When Parnell travelled to Galway to support O’Shea, Healy was forced to back down.In 1890 in a sensational divorce case O'Shea sued his wife for divorce, citing Parnell as co-respondent. Healy and most of Parnell's associates rejected Parnell's continuing leadership of the party, believing it was recklessly endangering the party's alliance with Gladstonian Liberalism. Healy became Parnell's most outspoken critic. When Parnell asked his colleagues at one party meeting "Who is the master of the party?", Healy famously retorted with another question "Aye, but who is the mistress of the party?" – a comment that almost led to the men coming to blows. His savage onslaught in public reflected his conservative Catholic origin. A substantial minority of the Irish people never forgave him for his role during the divorce crisis, permanently damaging his own standing in public life. The rift prompted nine-year-old Dublin schoolboy James Joyce to write a poem called "Et Tu, Healy?", which Joyce's father had printed and circulated. Only three lines remain:"His quaint-perched aerie on the crags of Time""Where the rude din of this century""Can trouble him no more."Following Parnell's death in 1891, the IPP's anti-Parnellite majority group broke away forming the Irish National Federation (INF) under John Dillon. Healy was at first its most outspoken member, when in 1892 he captured North Louth for the anti-Parnellites, who in all won seventy-one seats. But finding it impossible to work with or under any post-Parnell leadership, especially Dillon's, he was expelled in 1895 from the INF executive committee, having previously been expelled from the Irish party's minor nine-member pro-Parnellite Irish National League (INL) under John Redmond.In the following decades, largely due to his expanding legal practice, he became a part-time politician and estranged from the national movement, setting up his own personal 'Healyite' organisation, called the "People's Rights Association", based on his position as MP for North Louth (the seat he held until the December 1910 election when defeated by Richard Hazleton). He waged war during the 1890s with Dillon and his National Federation (INF) and then intrigued with Redmond's smaller Parnellite group to play a substantial role behind the scenes in helping the rival party factions to re-unite under Redmond in 1900.Healy was extremely embittered by the fact that both his brothers and his followers were purged from the IPP list in the 1900 general election, and that his support for Redmond in the re-united party went unrewarded; on the contrary, Redmond soon found it wiser to conciliate Dillon. But Healy's talent for disruption was soon recognised when two years later he was again expelled. He remained "the enemy within", recruiting malcontent MPs to harass the party and survived politically by dint of his assiduous constituency work, as well as through the influence of his clerical ally Dr. Michael Cardinal Logue, Primate of All Ireland and Archbishop of Armagh. Healy remained rooted in the extended 'Bantry Gang', a highly influential political and commercial nexus based originally in West Cork, which included his key patron, the Catholic business magnate and owner of the "Irish Independent", William Martin Murphy, who provided a platform for Healy and other critics of the IPP.However, at least after 1903, Healy was joined in his estrangement from the party leadership by William O'Brien. O’Brien had been for years one of Healy's strongest critics, but now he too felt annoyed both by his own alienation from the party and by Redmond's subservience to Dillon. Involved with the Irish Reform Association 1904–5, they entered a loose coalition, which lasted throughout the life of the IPP. They were in agreement that agrarian radicalism brought little return, and with Healy practically becoming a Parnellite, they preferred to pursue a policy of conciliation with the Protestant class in order to further the acceptance of Home Rule. Redmond was sympathetic to this policy but was inhibited by Dillon. Redmond, in an act of "rapprochement", briefly re-united them with the party in 1908. Fiercely independent, both split off again in 1909, responding to real changes in the social basis of Irish politics. In 1908 Healy acted as counsel for Sir Arthur Vicars, former Ulster King of Arms, in connection with the 1908 investigation of the previous year's theft of the Irish Crown Jewels.By the 1910s, it looked as though Healy was to remain a maverick on the fringes of Irish nationalism. However, he came into notoriety once more when returned in the January 1910 general election in alliance with William O'Brien's newly founded All-for-Ireland Party (AFIL), their alliance based largely on common opposition to the Irish party. He lost his seat in the following December 1910 election, but soon afterwards rejoined the O'Brienites, O’Brien providing the 1911 north-east Cork by-election vacancy created by the retirement of Moreton Frewen. Healy's reputation was not enhanced when he represented as counsel his associate William Martin Murphy, the industrialist who sparked the 1913 Dublin Lockout. Healy assiduously cultivated relationships with power brokers in Westminster such as Lord Beaverbrook, and once they were introduced at Cherkley, was great friends with Janet Aitken for the remainder of his life.Redmond's and the IPP's powerful position of holding the balance of power at Westminster—and with the passing of the Third Home Rule Bill assured—left Healy and the AFIL critics in a weakened position. They condemned the bill as a 'partition deal', abstaining from its final vote in the Commons. With the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, the Healy brothers supported the Allied and the British war effort. Two had a son enlist in one of the Irish divisions, Timothy's eldest son, Joe, fought with distinction at Gallipoli.Having done much to damage the popular image and authority of constitutional nationalism, Healy after the Easter Rising was convinced that the IPP and Redmond were doomed and slowly withdrew from the forefront of politics, making it clear in 1917 that he was in general sympathy with Arthur Griffith's Sinn Féin movement, but not with physical force methods. In September that year he acted as counsel for the family of the dead Sinn Féin hunger striker Thomas Ashe. He was one of the few King's Counsel to provide legal services to members of Sinn Féin in various legal proceedings in both Ireland and England post the 1916 Rising. This included acting for those interned in 1916 illegally in Frongoch in North Wales. During this time, Healy also represented Georgina Frost, in her attempts to be appointed a Petty Sessions clerk in her native County Clare. In 1920 the Bar Council of Ireland passed an initial resolution that any barrister appearing before the Dáil Courts would be guilty of professional misconduct. This was challenged by Tim Healy and no final decision was made on the matter. Before the December 1918 general election, he was the first of the AFIL members to resign his seat in favour of the Sinn Féin party's candidate, and spoke in support of P. J. Little, the Sinn Féin candidate for Rathmines in Dublin.He returned to considerable prominence in 1922 when, on the urging of the soon-to-be Irish Free State's Provisional Government of W. T. Cosgrave, the British government recommended to King George V that Healy be appointed the first 'Governor-General of the Irish Free State', a new office representative of the Crown created in the 1921 Anglo-Irish Treaty and introduced by a combination of the Constitution of the Irish Free State and Letters Patent from the King. The constitution was enacted in December 1922. Healy was the uncle of Kevin O'Higgins, the Vice-President of the Executive Council and Minister for Justice in the new Free State.Initially, the Government of the Irish Free State under Cosgrave wished for Healy to reside in a new small residence, but, facing death threats from the IRA, he was moved as a temporary measure into the Viceregal Lodge, the former 'out of season' residence of the Lord Lieutenant, the former representative of the Crown until 1922.Healy officially entered office as Governor-General on 6 December 1922. He never wore, certainly not in public in Ireland, the official ceremonial uniform of a Governor-General in the British Empire. At that time, in the 1920s, Healy was unique amongst viceregal representatives in the British Empire in this regard. Healy was also unique (along with his successor, James McNeill) amongst all the Governors-General in the British Empire in the 1920s in that he was never sworn in as a member of the Imperial Privy Council. Nor was he ever sworn into the Privy Council of Ireland, a body that ceased to exist in early December 1922. Thus, unusually for a Governor-General within the Empire, he never gained the prefix 'The Right Honourable' nor the post-nominals 'PC'.Healy proved an able Governor-General, possessing a degree of political skill, deep political insight and contacts in Britain that the new Irish Government initially lacked, and had long recommended himself to the Catholic Hierarchy: all-round good credentials for this key symbolic and reconciling position at the centre of public life. He joked once that the government didn't advise him, he advised the government: a comment at a dinner for The Duke of York (the future King George VI) that led to public criticism. However, the waspish Healy still could not help courting further controversy, most notably in a public attack on the new Fianna Fáil and its leader, Éamon de Valera, which led to republican calls for his resignation.Much of the contact between governments in London and Dublin went through Healy. He had access to all sensitive state papers, and received instructions from the British Government on the use of his powers to grant, withhold or refuse the Royal Assent to legislation enacted by the Oireachtas. For instance, Healy was instructed to reject any bill that abolished the Oath of Allegiance. However, neither this nor any other bill that he was secretly instructed to block were introduced during his time as Governor-General. That role of being the UK government's representative, and acting on its advice, was abandoned throughout the British Commonwealth in the mid-1920s as a result of an Imperial Conference decision, leaving him and his successors exclusively as the King's representative and nominal head of the Irish executive.Healy seemed to believe that he had been awarded the Governor-Generalship for life. However, the Executive Council of the Irish Free State decided in 1927 that the term of office of Governors-General would be five years. As a result, he retired from the office and public life in January 1928. His wife had died the previous year. He published his extensive two-volume memoirs in 1928. Throughout his life he was formidable because he was ferociously quick-witted, because he was unworried by social or political convention, and because he knew no party discipline. Towards the end of his life he mellowed and became otherwise more diplomatic.He died on 26 March 1931, aged 75, in Chapelizod, County Dublin, where he lived at his home Glenaulin, and was buried in Glasnevin Cemetery. | [
"Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 22nd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"bencher",
"Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Governor-General of the Irish Free State",
"Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Thomas Francis Kennedy hold in Oct, 1829? | October 07, 1829 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q7789773_P39_2 | Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1826 to Jul, 1830.
Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1818 to Feb, 1820.
Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jun, 1826.
Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Feb, 1834.
Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1830 to Apr, 1831.
Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1831 to Dec, 1832. | Thomas Francis KennedyThomas Francis Kennedy (11 November 17881 April 1879), Scottish politician, was born near Ayr in 1788. He studied for the bar and became advocate in 1811. Having been elected Member of Parliament for the Ayr Burghs in 1818, he devoted the greater part of his life to the promotion of liberal reforms.In 1820 he married the only daughter of Sir Samuel Romilly. He was greatly assisted by Lord Cockburn, then Mr. Henry Cockburn, and a volume of correspondence published by Kennedy in 1874 forms a curious and interesting record of the consultations of the two friends on measures which they regarded as requisite for the political regeneration of their native country. One of the first measures to which he directed his attention was the withdrawal of the power of nominating juries from the judges, and the imparting of a right of peremptory challenge to prisoners. Among other subjects were the improvement of the parish schools, of pauper administration, and of several of the corrupt forms of legal procedure which then prevailed.Kennedy took a prominent part in the construction of the Scottish Reform Act 1832; indeed he and Lord Cockburn may almost be regarded as its authors. After the accession of the Whigs to office in 1832 he held office in the ministry as Clerk of the Ordnance in 1832 and as a Junior Lord of the Treasury from 1832 to 1834, and most of the measures of reform for Scotland, such as burgh reform, the improvements in the law of entail, and the reform of the sheriff courts, owed much to his sagacity and energy. In 1837 he went to Ireland as pay master of civil services, and set himself to the promotion of various measures of reform. Kennedy retired from office in 1854, but continued to take keen interest in political affairs and up to his death in 1879 took a great part in both county and parish business. He had a stern love of justice, and a determined hatred of everything savouring of corruption or dishonesty. | [
"Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Thomas Francis Kennedy hold in 1829-10-07? | October 07, 1829 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q7789773_P39_2 | Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1826 to Jul, 1830.
Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1818 to Feb, 1820.
Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jun, 1826.
Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Feb, 1834.
Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1830 to Apr, 1831.
Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1831 to Dec, 1832. | Thomas Francis KennedyThomas Francis Kennedy (11 November 17881 April 1879), Scottish politician, was born near Ayr in 1788. He studied for the bar and became advocate in 1811. Having been elected Member of Parliament for the Ayr Burghs in 1818, he devoted the greater part of his life to the promotion of liberal reforms.In 1820 he married the only daughter of Sir Samuel Romilly. He was greatly assisted by Lord Cockburn, then Mr. Henry Cockburn, and a volume of correspondence published by Kennedy in 1874 forms a curious and interesting record of the consultations of the two friends on measures which they regarded as requisite for the political regeneration of their native country. One of the first measures to which he directed his attention was the withdrawal of the power of nominating juries from the judges, and the imparting of a right of peremptory challenge to prisoners. Among other subjects were the improvement of the parish schools, of pauper administration, and of several of the corrupt forms of legal procedure which then prevailed.Kennedy took a prominent part in the construction of the Scottish Reform Act 1832; indeed he and Lord Cockburn may almost be regarded as its authors. After the accession of the Whigs to office in 1832 he held office in the ministry as Clerk of the Ordnance in 1832 and as a Junior Lord of the Treasury from 1832 to 1834, and most of the measures of reform for Scotland, such as burgh reform, the improvements in the law of entail, and the reform of the sheriff courts, owed much to his sagacity and energy. In 1837 he went to Ireland as pay master of civil services, and set himself to the promotion of various measures of reform. Kennedy retired from office in 1854, but continued to take keen interest in political affairs and up to his death in 1879 took a great part in both county and parish business. He had a stern love of justice, and a determined hatred of everything savouring of corruption or dishonesty. | [
"Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Thomas Francis Kennedy hold in 07/10/1829? | October 07, 1829 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q7789773_P39_2 | Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1826 to Jul, 1830.
Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1818 to Feb, 1820.
Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jun, 1826.
Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Feb, 1834.
Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1830 to Apr, 1831.
Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1831 to Dec, 1832. | Thomas Francis KennedyThomas Francis Kennedy (11 November 17881 April 1879), Scottish politician, was born near Ayr in 1788. He studied for the bar and became advocate in 1811. Having been elected Member of Parliament for the Ayr Burghs in 1818, he devoted the greater part of his life to the promotion of liberal reforms.In 1820 he married the only daughter of Sir Samuel Romilly. He was greatly assisted by Lord Cockburn, then Mr. Henry Cockburn, and a volume of correspondence published by Kennedy in 1874 forms a curious and interesting record of the consultations of the two friends on measures which they regarded as requisite for the political regeneration of their native country. One of the first measures to which he directed his attention was the withdrawal of the power of nominating juries from the judges, and the imparting of a right of peremptory challenge to prisoners. Among other subjects were the improvement of the parish schools, of pauper administration, and of several of the corrupt forms of legal procedure which then prevailed.Kennedy took a prominent part in the construction of the Scottish Reform Act 1832; indeed he and Lord Cockburn may almost be regarded as its authors. After the accession of the Whigs to office in 1832 he held office in the ministry as Clerk of the Ordnance in 1832 and as a Junior Lord of the Treasury from 1832 to 1834, and most of the measures of reform for Scotland, such as burgh reform, the improvements in the law of entail, and the reform of the sheriff courts, owed much to his sagacity and energy. In 1837 he went to Ireland as pay master of civil services, and set himself to the promotion of various measures of reform. Kennedy retired from office in 1854, but continued to take keen interest in political affairs and up to his death in 1879 took a great part in both county and parish business. He had a stern love of justice, and a determined hatred of everything savouring of corruption or dishonesty. | [
"Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Thomas Francis Kennedy hold in Oct 07, 1829? | October 07, 1829 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q7789773_P39_2 | Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1826 to Jul, 1830.
Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1818 to Feb, 1820.
Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jun, 1826.
Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Feb, 1834.
Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1830 to Apr, 1831.
Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1831 to Dec, 1832. | Thomas Francis KennedyThomas Francis Kennedy (11 November 17881 April 1879), Scottish politician, was born near Ayr in 1788. He studied for the bar and became advocate in 1811. Having been elected Member of Parliament for the Ayr Burghs in 1818, he devoted the greater part of his life to the promotion of liberal reforms.In 1820 he married the only daughter of Sir Samuel Romilly. He was greatly assisted by Lord Cockburn, then Mr. Henry Cockburn, and a volume of correspondence published by Kennedy in 1874 forms a curious and interesting record of the consultations of the two friends on measures which they regarded as requisite for the political regeneration of their native country. One of the first measures to which he directed his attention was the withdrawal of the power of nominating juries from the judges, and the imparting of a right of peremptory challenge to prisoners. Among other subjects were the improvement of the parish schools, of pauper administration, and of several of the corrupt forms of legal procedure which then prevailed.Kennedy took a prominent part in the construction of the Scottish Reform Act 1832; indeed he and Lord Cockburn may almost be regarded as its authors. After the accession of the Whigs to office in 1832 he held office in the ministry as Clerk of the Ordnance in 1832 and as a Junior Lord of the Treasury from 1832 to 1834, and most of the measures of reform for Scotland, such as burgh reform, the improvements in the law of entail, and the reform of the sheriff courts, owed much to his sagacity and energy. In 1837 he went to Ireland as pay master of civil services, and set himself to the promotion of various measures of reform. Kennedy retired from office in 1854, but continued to take keen interest in political affairs and up to his death in 1879 took a great part in both county and parish business. He had a stern love of justice, and a determined hatred of everything savouring of corruption or dishonesty. | [
"Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Thomas Francis Kennedy hold in 10/07/1829? | October 07, 1829 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q7789773_P39_2 | Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1826 to Jul, 1830.
Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1818 to Feb, 1820.
Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jun, 1826.
Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Feb, 1834.
Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1830 to Apr, 1831.
Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1831 to Dec, 1832. | Thomas Francis KennedyThomas Francis Kennedy (11 November 17881 April 1879), Scottish politician, was born near Ayr in 1788. He studied for the bar and became advocate in 1811. Having been elected Member of Parliament for the Ayr Burghs in 1818, he devoted the greater part of his life to the promotion of liberal reforms.In 1820 he married the only daughter of Sir Samuel Romilly. He was greatly assisted by Lord Cockburn, then Mr. Henry Cockburn, and a volume of correspondence published by Kennedy in 1874 forms a curious and interesting record of the consultations of the two friends on measures which they regarded as requisite for the political regeneration of their native country. One of the first measures to which he directed his attention was the withdrawal of the power of nominating juries from the judges, and the imparting of a right of peremptory challenge to prisoners. Among other subjects were the improvement of the parish schools, of pauper administration, and of several of the corrupt forms of legal procedure which then prevailed.Kennedy took a prominent part in the construction of the Scottish Reform Act 1832; indeed he and Lord Cockburn may almost be regarded as its authors. After the accession of the Whigs to office in 1832 he held office in the ministry as Clerk of the Ordnance in 1832 and as a Junior Lord of the Treasury from 1832 to 1834, and most of the measures of reform for Scotland, such as burgh reform, the improvements in the law of entail, and the reform of the sheriff courts, owed much to his sagacity and energy. In 1837 he went to Ireland as pay master of civil services, and set himself to the promotion of various measures of reform. Kennedy retired from office in 1854, but continued to take keen interest in political affairs and up to his death in 1879 took a great part in both county and parish business. He had a stern love of justice, and a determined hatred of everything savouring of corruption or dishonesty. | [
"Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Thomas Francis Kennedy hold in 07-Oct-182907-October-1829? | October 07, 1829 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q7789773_P39_2 | Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1826 to Jul, 1830.
Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1818 to Feb, 1820.
Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jun, 1826.
Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Feb, 1834.
Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1830 to Apr, 1831.
Thomas Francis Kennedy holds the position of Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1831 to Dec, 1832. | Thomas Francis KennedyThomas Francis Kennedy (11 November 17881 April 1879), Scottish politician, was born near Ayr in 1788. He studied for the bar and became advocate in 1811. Having been elected Member of Parliament for the Ayr Burghs in 1818, he devoted the greater part of his life to the promotion of liberal reforms.In 1820 he married the only daughter of Sir Samuel Romilly. He was greatly assisted by Lord Cockburn, then Mr. Henry Cockburn, and a volume of correspondence published by Kennedy in 1874 forms a curious and interesting record of the consultations of the two friends on measures which they regarded as requisite for the political regeneration of their native country. One of the first measures to which he directed his attention was the withdrawal of the power of nominating juries from the judges, and the imparting of a right of peremptory challenge to prisoners. Among other subjects were the improvement of the parish schools, of pauper administration, and of several of the corrupt forms of legal procedure which then prevailed.Kennedy took a prominent part in the construction of the Scottish Reform Act 1832; indeed he and Lord Cockburn may almost be regarded as its authors. After the accession of the Whigs to office in 1832 he held office in the ministry as Clerk of the Ordnance in 1832 and as a Junior Lord of the Treasury from 1832 to 1834, and most of the measures of reform for Scotland, such as burgh reform, the improvements in the law of entail, and the reform of the sheriff courts, owed much to his sagacity and energy. In 1837 he went to Ireland as pay master of civil services, and set himself to the promotion of various measures of reform. Kennedy retired from office in 1854, but continued to take keen interest in political affairs and up to his death in 1879 took a great part in both county and parish business. He had a stern love of justice, and a determined hatred of everything savouring of corruption or dishonesty. | [
"Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which employer did Kevin Anderson work for in Oct, 2001? | October 18, 2001 | {
"text": [
"University of California, Berkeley"
]
} | L2_Q6395723_P108_0 | Kevin Anderson works for United States Military Academy from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2010.
Kevin Anderson works for University of Maryland from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2018.
Kevin Anderson works for Oregon State University from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2004.
Kevin Anderson works for University of California, Berkeley from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2002. | Kevin Anderson (athletic director)Kevin Bruce Anderson (born August 5, 1955) is a former American college athletics administrator for California State University, Northridge and former athletic director for the Maryland Terrapins, the NCAA Division I sports program of the University of Maryland, College Park. On October 16, 2017, the University of Maryland placed Kevin Anderson on a six-month leave of absence, and he officially resigned on April 13, 2018.Anderson grew up in San Francisco and attended Abraham Lincoln High School, where he was a multi-sport athlete. He is a 1979 graduate of San Francisco State University with a bachelor's degree in political science. After a stint as a high school football coach, Anderson attended the Sports Management Institute's executive management program and the new manager school at Xerox.Following Xerox, Anderson began a fundraising role at the United Negro College Fund at the recommendation of the vice president at the University of California, Berkeley. Ultimately, Anderson entered college athletics at UC Berkeley at age 32.Anderson's first athletic director position was at the United States Military Academy, where he directed the Army Black Knights from 2004 to 2010. At Army, Anderson was responsible for a 25-sport program, and an annual budget of $25 million, that served more than 900 cadet-athletes.Anderson's Maryland athletic director contract was initially for five years (2010–2015) at $401,015 annually, with up to $50,000 collectively in incentives for athletes' graduation rates and academic achievements, athletic fund-raising, and team success. Among significant events during his tenure: | [
"Oregon State University",
"University of Maryland",
"United States Military Academy"
] |
|
Which employer did Kevin Anderson work for in 2001-10-18? | October 18, 2001 | {
"text": [
"University of California, Berkeley"
]
} | L2_Q6395723_P108_0 | Kevin Anderson works for United States Military Academy from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2010.
Kevin Anderson works for University of Maryland from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2018.
Kevin Anderson works for Oregon State University from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2004.
Kevin Anderson works for University of California, Berkeley from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2002. | Kevin Anderson (athletic director)Kevin Bruce Anderson (born August 5, 1955) is a former American college athletics administrator for California State University, Northridge and former athletic director for the Maryland Terrapins, the NCAA Division I sports program of the University of Maryland, College Park. On October 16, 2017, the University of Maryland placed Kevin Anderson on a six-month leave of absence, and he officially resigned on April 13, 2018.Anderson grew up in San Francisco and attended Abraham Lincoln High School, where he was a multi-sport athlete. He is a 1979 graduate of San Francisco State University with a bachelor's degree in political science. After a stint as a high school football coach, Anderson attended the Sports Management Institute's executive management program and the new manager school at Xerox.Following Xerox, Anderson began a fundraising role at the United Negro College Fund at the recommendation of the vice president at the University of California, Berkeley. Ultimately, Anderson entered college athletics at UC Berkeley at age 32.Anderson's first athletic director position was at the United States Military Academy, where he directed the Army Black Knights from 2004 to 2010. At Army, Anderson was responsible for a 25-sport program, and an annual budget of $25 million, that served more than 900 cadet-athletes.Anderson's Maryland athletic director contract was initially for five years (2010–2015) at $401,015 annually, with up to $50,000 collectively in incentives for athletes' graduation rates and academic achievements, athletic fund-raising, and team success. Among significant events during his tenure: | [
"Oregon State University",
"University of Maryland",
"United States Military Academy"
] |
|
Which employer did Kevin Anderson work for in 18/10/2001? | October 18, 2001 | {
"text": [
"University of California, Berkeley"
]
} | L2_Q6395723_P108_0 | Kevin Anderson works for United States Military Academy from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2010.
Kevin Anderson works for University of Maryland from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2018.
Kevin Anderson works for Oregon State University from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2004.
Kevin Anderson works for University of California, Berkeley from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2002. | Kevin Anderson (athletic director)Kevin Bruce Anderson (born August 5, 1955) is a former American college athletics administrator for California State University, Northridge and former athletic director for the Maryland Terrapins, the NCAA Division I sports program of the University of Maryland, College Park. On October 16, 2017, the University of Maryland placed Kevin Anderson on a six-month leave of absence, and he officially resigned on April 13, 2018.Anderson grew up in San Francisco and attended Abraham Lincoln High School, where he was a multi-sport athlete. He is a 1979 graduate of San Francisco State University with a bachelor's degree in political science. After a stint as a high school football coach, Anderson attended the Sports Management Institute's executive management program and the new manager school at Xerox.Following Xerox, Anderson began a fundraising role at the United Negro College Fund at the recommendation of the vice president at the University of California, Berkeley. Ultimately, Anderson entered college athletics at UC Berkeley at age 32.Anderson's first athletic director position was at the United States Military Academy, where he directed the Army Black Knights from 2004 to 2010. At Army, Anderson was responsible for a 25-sport program, and an annual budget of $25 million, that served more than 900 cadet-athletes.Anderson's Maryland athletic director contract was initially for five years (2010–2015) at $401,015 annually, with up to $50,000 collectively in incentives for athletes' graduation rates and academic achievements, athletic fund-raising, and team success. Among significant events during his tenure: | [
"Oregon State University",
"University of Maryland",
"United States Military Academy"
] |
|
Which employer did Kevin Anderson work for in Oct 18, 2001? | October 18, 2001 | {
"text": [
"University of California, Berkeley"
]
} | L2_Q6395723_P108_0 | Kevin Anderson works for United States Military Academy from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2010.
Kevin Anderson works for University of Maryland from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2018.
Kevin Anderson works for Oregon State University from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2004.
Kevin Anderson works for University of California, Berkeley from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2002. | Kevin Anderson (athletic director)Kevin Bruce Anderson (born August 5, 1955) is a former American college athletics administrator for California State University, Northridge and former athletic director for the Maryland Terrapins, the NCAA Division I sports program of the University of Maryland, College Park. On October 16, 2017, the University of Maryland placed Kevin Anderson on a six-month leave of absence, and he officially resigned on April 13, 2018.Anderson grew up in San Francisco and attended Abraham Lincoln High School, where he was a multi-sport athlete. He is a 1979 graduate of San Francisco State University with a bachelor's degree in political science. After a stint as a high school football coach, Anderson attended the Sports Management Institute's executive management program and the new manager school at Xerox.Following Xerox, Anderson began a fundraising role at the United Negro College Fund at the recommendation of the vice president at the University of California, Berkeley. Ultimately, Anderson entered college athletics at UC Berkeley at age 32.Anderson's first athletic director position was at the United States Military Academy, where he directed the Army Black Knights from 2004 to 2010. At Army, Anderson was responsible for a 25-sport program, and an annual budget of $25 million, that served more than 900 cadet-athletes.Anderson's Maryland athletic director contract was initially for five years (2010–2015) at $401,015 annually, with up to $50,000 collectively in incentives for athletes' graduation rates and academic achievements, athletic fund-raising, and team success. Among significant events during his tenure: | [
"Oregon State University",
"University of Maryland",
"United States Military Academy"
] |
|
Which employer did Kevin Anderson work for in 10/18/2001? | October 18, 2001 | {
"text": [
"University of California, Berkeley"
]
} | L2_Q6395723_P108_0 | Kevin Anderson works for United States Military Academy from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2010.
Kevin Anderson works for University of Maryland from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2018.
Kevin Anderson works for Oregon State University from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2004.
Kevin Anderson works for University of California, Berkeley from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2002. | Kevin Anderson (athletic director)Kevin Bruce Anderson (born August 5, 1955) is a former American college athletics administrator for California State University, Northridge and former athletic director for the Maryland Terrapins, the NCAA Division I sports program of the University of Maryland, College Park. On October 16, 2017, the University of Maryland placed Kevin Anderson on a six-month leave of absence, and he officially resigned on April 13, 2018.Anderson grew up in San Francisco and attended Abraham Lincoln High School, where he was a multi-sport athlete. He is a 1979 graduate of San Francisco State University with a bachelor's degree in political science. After a stint as a high school football coach, Anderson attended the Sports Management Institute's executive management program and the new manager school at Xerox.Following Xerox, Anderson began a fundraising role at the United Negro College Fund at the recommendation of the vice president at the University of California, Berkeley. Ultimately, Anderson entered college athletics at UC Berkeley at age 32.Anderson's first athletic director position was at the United States Military Academy, where he directed the Army Black Knights from 2004 to 2010. At Army, Anderson was responsible for a 25-sport program, and an annual budget of $25 million, that served more than 900 cadet-athletes.Anderson's Maryland athletic director contract was initially for five years (2010–2015) at $401,015 annually, with up to $50,000 collectively in incentives for athletes' graduation rates and academic achievements, athletic fund-raising, and team success. Among significant events during his tenure: | [
"Oregon State University",
"University of Maryland",
"United States Military Academy"
] |
|
Which employer did Kevin Anderson work for in 18-Oct-200118-October-2001? | October 18, 2001 | {
"text": [
"University of California, Berkeley"
]
} | L2_Q6395723_P108_0 | Kevin Anderson works for United States Military Academy from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2010.
Kevin Anderson works for University of Maryland from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2018.
Kevin Anderson works for Oregon State University from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2004.
Kevin Anderson works for University of California, Berkeley from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2002. | Kevin Anderson (athletic director)Kevin Bruce Anderson (born August 5, 1955) is a former American college athletics administrator for California State University, Northridge and former athletic director for the Maryland Terrapins, the NCAA Division I sports program of the University of Maryland, College Park. On October 16, 2017, the University of Maryland placed Kevin Anderson on a six-month leave of absence, and he officially resigned on April 13, 2018.Anderson grew up in San Francisco and attended Abraham Lincoln High School, where he was a multi-sport athlete. He is a 1979 graduate of San Francisco State University with a bachelor's degree in political science. After a stint as a high school football coach, Anderson attended the Sports Management Institute's executive management program and the new manager school at Xerox.Following Xerox, Anderson began a fundraising role at the United Negro College Fund at the recommendation of the vice president at the University of California, Berkeley. Ultimately, Anderson entered college athletics at UC Berkeley at age 32.Anderson's first athletic director position was at the United States Military Academy, where he directed the Army Black Knights from 2004 to 2010. At Army, Anderson was responsible for a 25-sport program, and an annual budget of $25 million, that served more than 900 cadet-athletes.Anderson's Maryland athletic director contract was initially for five years (2010–2015) at $401,015 annually, with up to $50,000 collectively in incentives for athletes' graduation rates and academic achievements, athletic fund-raising, and team success. Among significant events during his tenure: | [
"Oregon State University",
"University of Maryland",
"United States Military Academy"
] |
|
Which position did Charles Baring Wall hold in Apr, 1831? | April 18, 1831 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q21165490_P39_3 | Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1830 to Apr, 1831.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1841 to Jul, 1847.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Dec, 1834.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1835 to Jul, 1837.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1826 to Jul, 1830.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1852 to Oct, 1853.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1837 to Jun, 1841.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jun, 1826.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Aug, 1831 to Dec, 1832.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 15th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1847 to Jul, 1852.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Feb, 1819 to Feb, 1820. | Charles Baring WallCharles Baring Wall (1795 – 14 October 1853) was at various stages throughout the 19th century the Member of Parliament for Guildford, Wareham, Weymouth and Salisbury. Wall was initially a Conservative but shifted to the Whigs as an MP for Guildford. He then belonged to the Peelite faction and died while MP for Salisbury.He was the son of Charles Wall and Harriet Baring. His maternal grandfather was Sir Francis Baring, 1st Baronet. He was educated at Eton College and Christ Church, Oxford.He did not marry. His property included the Norman Court estate, straddling the Hampshire/Wiltshire border. | [
"Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 15th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Charles Baring Wall hold in 1831-04-18? | April 18, 1831 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q21165490_P39_3 | Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1830 to Apr, 1831.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1841 to Jul, 1847.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Dec, 1834.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1835 to Jul, 1837.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1826 to Jul, 1830.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1852 to Oct, 1853.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1837 to Jun, 1841.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jun, 1826.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Aug, 1831 to Dec, 1832.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 15th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1847 to Jul, 1852.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Feb, 1819 to Feb, 1820. | Charles Baring WallCharles Baring Wall (1795 – 14 October 1853) was at various stages throughout the 19th century the Member of Parliament for Guildford, Wareham, Weymouth and Salisbury. Wall was initially a Conservative but shifted to the Whigs as an MP for Guildford. He then belonged to the Peelite faction and died while MP for Salisbury.He was the son of Charles Wall and Harriet Baring. His maternal grandfather was Sir Francis Baring, 1st Baronet. He was educated at Eton College and Christ Church, Oxford.He did not marry. His property included the Norman Court estate, straddling the Hampshire/Wiltshire border. | [
"Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 15th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Charles Baring Wall hold in 18/04/1831? | April 18, 1831 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q21165490_P39_3 | Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1830 to Apr, 1831.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1841 to Jul, 1847.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Dec, 1834.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1835 to Jul, 1837.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1826 to Jul, 1830.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1852 to Oct, 1853.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1837 to Jun, 1841.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jun, 1826.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Aug, 1831 to Dec, 1832.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 15th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1847 to Jul, 1852.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Feb, 1819 to Feb, 1820. | Charles Baring WallCharles Baring Wall (1795 – 14 October 1853) was at various stages throughout the 19th century the Member of Parliament for Guildford, Wareham, Weymouth and Salisbury. Wall was initially a Conservative but shifted to the Whigs as an MP for Guildford. He then belonged to the Peelite faction and died while MP for Salisbury.He was the son of Charles Wall and Harriet Baring. His maternal grandfather was Sir Francis Baring, 1st Baronet. He was educated at Eton College and Christ Church, Oxford.He did not marry. His property included the Norman Court estate, straddling the Hampshire/Wiltshire border. | [
"Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 15th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Charles Baring Wall hold in Apr 18, 1831? | April 18, 1831 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q21165490_P39_3 | Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1830 to Apr, 1831.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1841 to Jul, 1847.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Dec, 1834.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1835 to Jul, 1837.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1826 to Jul, 1830.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1852 to Oct, 1853.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1837 to Jun, 1841.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jun, 1826.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Aug, 1831 to Dec, 1832.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 15th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1847 to Jul, 1852.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Feb, 1819 to Feb, 1820. | Charles Baring WallCharles Baring Wall (1795 – 14 October 1853) was at various stages throughout the 19th century the Member of Parliament for Guildford, Wareham, Weymouth and Salisbury. Wall was initially a Conservative but shifted to the Whigs as an MP for Guildford. He then belonged to the Peelite faction and died while MP for Salisbury.He was the son of Charles Wall and Harriet Baring. His maternal grandfather was Sir Francis Baring, 1st Baronet. He was educated at Eton College and Christ Church, Oxford.He did not marry. His property included the Norman Court estate, straddling the Hampshire/Wiltshire border. | [
"Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 15th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Charles Baring Wall hold in 04/18/1831? | April 18, 1831 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q21165490_P39_3 | Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1830 to Apr, 1831.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1841 to Jul, 1847.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Dec, 1834.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1835 to Jul, 1837.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1826 to Jul, 1830.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1852 to Oct, 1853.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1837 to Jun, 1841.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jun, 1826.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Aug, 1831 to Dec, 1832.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 15th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1847 to Jul, 1852.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Feb, 1819 to Feb, 1820. | Charles Baring WallCharles Baring Wall (1795 – 14 October 1853) was at various stages throughout the 19th century the Member of Parliament for Guildford, Wareham, Weymouth and Salisbury. Wall was initially a Conservative but shifted to the Whigs as an MP for Guildford. He then belonged to the Peelite faction and died while MP for Salisbury.He was the son of Charles Wall and Harriet Baring. His maternal grandfather was Sir Francis Baring, 1st Baronet. He was educated at Eton College and Christ Church, Oxford.He did not marry. His property included the Norman Court estate, straddling the Hampshire/Wiltshire border. | [
"Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 15th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Charles Baring Wall hold in 18-Apr-183118-April-1831? | April 18, 1831 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q21165490_P39_3 | Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 9th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1830 to Apr, 1831.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1841 to Jul, 1847.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Dec, 1834.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1835 to Jul, 1837.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1826 to Jul, 1830.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1852 to Oct, 1853.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1837 to Jun, 1841.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1820 to Jun, 1826.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Aug, 1831 to Dec, 1832.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 15th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1847 to Jul, 1852.
Charles Baring Wall holds the position of Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Feb, 1819 to Feb, 1820. | Charles Baring WallCharles Baring Wall (1795 – 14 October 1853) was at various stages throughout the 19th century the Member of Parliament for Guildford, Wareham, Weymouth and Salisbury. Wall was initially a Conservative but shifted to the Whigs as an MP for Guildford. He then belonged to the Peelite faction and died while MP for Salisbury.He was the son of Charles Wall and Harriet Baring. His maternal grandfather was Sir Francis Baring, 1st Baronet. He was educated at Eton College and Christ Church, Oxford.He did not marry. His property included the Norman Court estate, straddling the Hampshire/Wiltshire border. | [
"Member of the 10th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 16th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 15th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 8th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 6th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 7th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which team did Eddie McMorran play for in Aug, 1949? | August 07, 1949 | {
"text": [
"Leeds United F.C."
]
} | L2_Q5336305_P54_2 | Eddie McMorran plays for Crewe Alexandra F.C. from Jan, 1957 to Jan, 1958.
Eddie McMorran plays for Frickley Athletic F.C. from Jan, 1958 to Jan, 1960.
Eddie McMorran plays for Doncaster Rovers F.C. from Jan, 1953 to Jan, 1957.
Eddie McMorran plays for Barnsley F.C. from Jan, 1950 to Jan, 1953.
Eddie McMorran plays for Leeds United F.C. from Jan, 1949 to Jan, 1950.
Eddie McMorran plays for Belfast Celtic F.C. from Jan, 1946 to Jan, 1947.
Eddie McMorran plays for Manchester City F.C from Jan, 1947 to Jan, 1949. | Eddie McMorranEdward James "Eddie" McMorran (2 September 1923 – 27 January 1984) was a footballer who played as a centre forward and inside forward in the Football League, for Ireland and Northern Ireland.McMorran was born in Larne, County Antrim and attended Larne School during which time he won Irish School Honours. He later played for Ballyclare Comrades, Linfield Swifts and Larne Olympic. He meanwhile began his working life as a blacksmith.Belfast Celtic was his first senior club. In the 1946–47 season they won the League title, Irish Cup and Gold Cup. In only 24 league games he netted 30 times.City signed him for £7,000 in July 1947. His debut was in a 4–3 victory against Wolves on 23 August when he scored the 3rd goal in front of a crowd of 65809. His time at Manchester wasn't as successful as had been expected with 12 goals in 36 games.In January 1949 he moved to Leeds, who had just been relegated to Division 2, for £10,000. His debut was against Sheffield Wednesday on 22 January, and his first goal a week later in a victory against Blackburn Rovers. He scored 6 times in 40 games for Leeds.McMorran was sold to Barnsley for £10,000 in July 1950.In February 1953, McMorran was brought to Doncaster for then club record of £8,000 by fellow Irishman, player manager Peter Doherty, who also was manager of Northern Ireland at the time. This was a time when they were enjoying a successful period in League Division 2. In 1954 they made it to the Fifth Round of the FA Cup for the first time, knocking out big-spending Sunderland where McMorran scored twice in the 2–0 win. In total he scored 38 times in 139 games for Doncaster.He finished his professional career by moving to Crewe for the season in November 1957. Crewe had finished the previous season bottom of Division 3 North and ended up in the same position this season.After Crewe, he played for Frickley Colliery in the Midland League till the end of the 1959–60 season, still playing as centre forward. The following season, he became manager of Dodworth Miners Welfare in Yorkshire League Division Two.He scored twice in two appearances for the Ireland Youth team in 1937. His first Ireland cap came against England in 1946, followed by Inter-League caps against the Football League and League of Ireland. His only international win was in his last game in a World Cup Qualifier in 1957 against Portugal where he scored in the 3–0 win.1946/47 with Belfast Celtic | [
"Doncaster Rovers F.C.",
"Crewe Alexandra F.C.",
"Manchester City F.C",
"Frickley Athletic F.C.",
"Barnsley F.C.",
"Belfast Celtic F.C."
] |
|
Which team did Eddie McMorran play for in 1949-08-07? | August 07, 1949 | {
"text": [
"Leeds United F.C."
]
} | L2_Q5336305_P54_2 | Eddie McMorran plays for Crewe Alexandra F.C. from Jan, 1957 to Jan, 1958.
Eddie McMorran plays for Frickley Athletic F.C. from Jan, 1958 to Jan, 1960.
Eddie McMorran plays for Doncaster Rovers F.C. from Jan, 1953 to Jan, 1957.
Eddie McMorran plays for Barnsley F.C. from Jan, 1950 to Jan, 1953.
Eddie McMorran plays for Leeds United F.C. from Jan, 1949 to Jan, 1950.
Eddie McMorran plays for Belfast Celtic F.C. from Jan, 1946 to Jan, 1947.
Eddie McMorran plays for Manchester City F.C from Jan, 1947 to Jan, 1949. | Eddie McMorranEdward James "Eddie" McMorran (2 September 1923 – 27 January 1984) was a footballer who played as a centre forward and inside forward in the Football League, for Ireland and Northern Ireland.McMorran was born in Larne, County Antrim and attended Larne School during which time he won Irish School Honours. He later played for Ballyclare Comrades, Linfield Swifts and Larne Olympic. He meanwhile began his working life as a blacksmith.Belfast Celtic was his first senior club. In the 1946–47 season they won the League title, Irish Cup and Gold Cup. In only 24 league games he netted 30 times.City signed him for £7,000 in July 1947. His debut was in a 4–3 victory against Wolves on 23 August when he scored the 3rd goal in front of a crowd of 65809. His time at Manchester wasn't as successful as had been expected with 12 goals in 36 games.In January 1949 he moved to Leeds, who had just been relegated to Division 2, for £10,000. His debut was against Sheffield Wednesday on 22 January, and his first goal a week later in a victory against Blackburn Rovers. He scored 6 times in 40 games for Leeds.McMorran was sold to Barnsley for £10,000 in July 1950.In February 1953, McMorran was brought to Doncaster for then club record of £8,000 by fellow Irishman, player manager Peter Doherty, who also was manager of Northern Ireland at the time. This was a time when they were enjoying a successful period in League Division 2. In 1954 they made it to the Fifth Round of the FA Cup for the first time, knocking out big-spending Sunderland where McMorran scored twice in the 2–0 win. In total he scored 38 times in 139 games for Doncaster.He finished his professional career by moving to Crewe for the season in November 1957. Crewe had finished the previous season bottom of Division 3 North and ended up in the same position this season.After Crewe, he played for Frickley Colliery in the Midland League till the end of the 1959–60 season, still playing as centre forward. The following season, he became manager of Dodworth Miners Welfare in Yorkshire League Division Two.He scored twice in two appearances for the Ireland Youth team in 1937. His first Ireland cap came against England in 1946, followed by Inter-League caps against the Football League and League of Ireland. His only international win was in his last game in a World Cup Qualifier in 1957 against Portugal where he scored in the 3–0 win.1946/47 with Belfast Celtic | [
"Doncaster Rovers F.C.",
"Crewe Alexandra F.C.",
"Manchester City F.C",
"Frickley Athletic F.C.",
"Barnsley F.C.",
"Belfast Celtic F.C."
] |
|
Which team did Eddie McMorran play for in 07/08/1949? | August 07, 1949 | {
"text": [
"Leeds United F.C."
]
} | L2_Q5336305_P54_2 | Eddie McMorran plays for Crewe Alexandra F.C. from Jan, 1957 to Jan, 1958.
Eddie McMorran plays for Frickley Athletic F.C. from Jan, 1958 to Jan, 1960.
Eddie McMorran plays for Doncaster Rovers F.C. from Jan, 1953 to Jan, 1957.
Eddie McMorran plays for Barnsley F.C. from Jan, 1950 to Jan, 1953.
Eddie McMorran plays for Leeds United F.C. from Jan, 1949 to Jan, 1950.
Eddie McMorran plays for Belfast Celtic F.C. from Jan, 1946 to Jan, 1947.
Eddie McMorran plays for Manchester City F.C from Jan, 1947 to Jan, 1949. | Eddie McMorranEdward James "Eddie" McMorran (2 September 1923 – 27 January 1984) was a footballer who played as a centre forward and inside forward in the Football League, for Ireland and Northern Ireland.McMorran was born in Larne, County Antrim and attended Larne School during which time he won Irish School Honours. He later played for Ballyclare Comrades, Linfield Swifts and Larne Olympic. He meanwhile began his working life as a blacksmith.Belfast Celtic was his first senior club. In the 1946–47 season they won the League title, Irish Cup and Gold Cup. In only 24 league games he netted 30 times.City signed him for £7,000 in July 1947. His debut was in a 4–3 victory against Wolves on 23 August when he scored the 3rd goal in front of a crowd of 65809. His time at Manchester wasn't as successful as had been expected with 12 goals in 36 games.In January 1949 he moved to Leeds, who had just been relegated to Division 2, for £10,000. His debut was against Sheffield Wednesday on 22 January, and his first goal a week later in a victory against Blackburn Rovers. He scored 6 times in 40 games for Leeds.McMorran was sold to Barnsley for £10,000 in July 1950.In February 1953, McMorran was brought to Doncaster for then club record of £8,000 by fellow Irishman, player manager Peter Doherty, who also was manager of Northern Ireland at the time. This was a time when they were enjoying a successful period in League Division 2. In 1954 they made it to the Fifth Round of the FA Cup for the first time, knocking out big-spending Sunderland where McMorran scored twice in the 2–0 win. In total he scored 38 times in 139 games for Doncaster.He finished his professional career by moving to Crewe for the season in November 1957. Crewe had finished the previous season bottom of Division 3 North and ended up in the same position this season.After Crewe, he played for Frickley Colliery in the Midland League till the end of the 1959–60 season, still playing as centre forward. The following season, he became manager of Dodworth Miners Welfare in Yorkshire League Division Two.He scored twice in two appearances for the Ireland Youth team in 1937. His first Ireland cap came against England in 1946, followed by Inter-League caps against the Football League and League of Ireland. His only international win was in his last game in a World Cup Qualifier in 1957 against Portugal where he scored in the 3–0 win.1946/47 with Belfast Celtic | [
"Doncaster Rovers F.C.",
"Crewe Alexandra F.C.",
"Manchester City F.C",
"Frickley Athletic F.C.",
"Barnsley F.C.",
"Belfast Celtic F.C."
] |
|
Which team did Eddie McMorran play for in Aug 07, 1949? | August 07, 1949 | {
"text": [
"Leeds United F.C."
]
} | L2_Q5336305_P54_2 | Eddie McMorran plays for Crewe Alexandra F.C. from Jan, 1957 to Jan, 1958.
Eddie McMorran plays for Frickley Athletic F.C. from Jan, 1958 to Jan, 1960.
Eddie McMorran plays for Doncaster Rovers F.C. from Jan, 1953 to Jan, 1957.
Eddie McMorran plays for Barnsley F.C. from Jan, 1950 to Jan, 1953.
Eddie McMorran plays for Leeds United F.C. from Jan, 1949 to Jan, 1950.
Eddie McMorran plays for Belfast Celtic F.C. from Jan, 1946 to Jan, 1947.
Eddie McMorran plays for Manchester City F.C from Jan, 1947 to Jan, 1949. | Eddie McMorranEdward James "Eddie" McMorran (2 September 1923 – 27 January 1984) was a footballer who played as a centre forward and inside forward in the Football League, for Ireland and Northern Ireland.McMorran was born in Larne, County Antrim and attended Larne School during which time he won Irish School Honours. He later played for Ballyclare Comrades, Linfield Swifts and Larne Olympic. He meanwhile began his working life as a blacksmith.Belfast Celtic was his first senior club. In the 1946–47 season they won the League title, Irish Cup and Gold Cup. In only 24 league games he netted 30 times.City signed him for £7,000 in July 1947. His debut was in a 4–3 victory against Wolves on 23 August when he scored the 3rd goal in front of a crowd of 65809. His time at Manchester wasn't as successful as had been expected with 12 goals in 36 games.In January 1949 he moved to Leeds, who had just been relegated to Division 2, for £10,000. His debut was against Sheffield Wednesday on 22 January, and his first goal a week later in a victory against Blackburn Rovers. He scored 6 times in 40 games for Leeds.McMorran was sold to Barnsley for £10,000 in July 1950.In February 1953, McMorran was brought to Doncaster for then club record of £8,000 by fellow Irishman, player manager Peter Doherty, who also was manager of Northern Ireland at the time. This was a time when they were enjoying a successful period in League Division 2. In 1954 they made it to the Fifth Round of the FA Cup for the first time, knocking out big-spending Sunderland where McMorran scored twice in the 2–0 win. In total he scored 38 times in 139 games for Doncaster.He finished his professional career by moving to Crewe for the season in November 1957. Crewe had finished the previous season bottom of Division 3 North and ended up in the same position this season.After Crewe, he played for Frickley Colliery in the Midland League till the end of the 1959–60 season, still playing as centre forward. The following season, he became manager of Dodworth Miners Welfare in Yorkshire League Division Two.He scored twice in two appearances for the Ireland Youth team in 1937. His first Ireland cap came against England in 1946, followed by Inter-League caps against the Football League and League of Ireland. His only international win was in his last game in a World Cup Qualifier in 1957 against Portugal where he scored in the 3–0 win.1946/47 with Belfast Celtic | [
"Doncaster Rovers F.C.",
"Crewe Alexandra F.C.",
"Manchester City F.C",
"Frickley Athletic F.C.",
"Barnsley F.C.",
"Belfast Celtic F.C."
] |
|
Which team did Eddie McMorran play for in 08/07/1949? | August 07, 1949 | {
"text": [
"Leeds United F.C."
]
} | L2_Q5336305_P54_2 | Eddie McMorran plays for Crewe Alexandra F.C. from Jan, 1957 to Jan, 1958.
Eddie McMorran plays for Frickley Athletic F.C. from Jan, 1958 to Jan, 1960.
Eddie McMorran plays for Doncaster Rovers F.C. from Jan, 1953 to Jan, 1957.
Eddie McMorran plays for Barnsley F.C. from Jan, 1950 to Jan, 1953.
Eddie McMorran plays for Leeds United F.C. from Jan, 1949 to Jan, 1950.
Eddie McMorran plays for Belfast Celtic F.C. from Jan, 1946 to Jan, 1947.
Eddie McMorran plays for Manchester City F.C from Jan, 1947 to Jan, 1949. | Eddie McMorranEdward James "Eddie" McMorran (2 September 1923 – 27 January 1984) was a footballer who played as a centre forward and inside forward in the Football League, for Ireland and Northern Ireland.McMorran was born in Larne, County Antrim and attended Larne School during which time he won Irish School Honours. He later played for Ballyclare Comrades, Linfield Swifts and Larne Olympic. He meanwhile began his working life as a blacksmith.Belfast Celtic was his first senior club. In the 1946–47 season they won the League title, Irish Cup and Gold Cup. In only 24 league games he netted 30 times.City signed him for £7,000 in July 1947. His debut was in a 4–3 victory against Wolves on 23 August when he scored the 3rd goal in front of a crowd of 65809. His time at Manchester wasn't as successful as had been expected with 12 goals in 36 games.In January 1949 he moved to Leeds, who had just been relegated to Division 2, for £10,000. His debut was against Sheffield Wednesday on 22 January, and his first goal a week later in a victory against Blackburn Rovers. He scored 6 times in 40 games for Leeds.McMorran was sold to Barnsley for £10,000 in July 1950.In February 1953, McMorran was brought to Doncaster for then club record of £8,000 by fellow Irishman, player manager Peter Doherty, who also was manager of Northern Ireland at the time. This was a time when they were enjoying a successful period in League Division 2. In 1954 they made it to the Fifth Round of the FA Cup for the first time, knocking out big-spending Sunderland where McMorran scored twice in the 2–0 win. In total he scored 38 times in 139 games for Doncaster.He finished his professional career by moving to Crewe for the season in November 1957. Crewe had finished the previous season bottom of Division 3 North and ended up in the same position this season.After Crewe, he played for Frickley Colliery in the Midland League till the end of the 1959–60 season, still playing as centre forward. The following season, he became manager of Dodworth Miners Welfare in Yorkshire League Division Two.He scored twice in two appearances for the Ireland Youth team in 1937. His first Ireland cap came against England in 1946, followed by Inter-League caps against the Football League and League of Ireland. His only international win was in his last game in a World Cup Qualifier in 1957 against Portugal where he scored in the 3–0 win.1946/47 with Belfast Celtic | [
"Doncaster Rovers F.C.",
"Crewe Alexandra F.C.",
"Manchester City F.C",
"Frickley Athletic F.C.",
"Barnsley F.C.",
"Belfast Celtic F.C."
] |
|
Which team did Eddie McMorran play for in 07-Aug-194907-August-1949? | August 07, 1949 | {
"text": [
"Leeds United F.C."
]
} | L2_Q5336305_P54_2 | Eddie McMorran plays for Crewe Alexandra F.C. from Jan, 1957 to Jan, 1958.
Eddie McMorran plays for Frickley Athletic F.C. from Jan, 1958 to Jan, 1960.
Eddie McMorran plays for Doncaster Rovers F.C. from Jan, 1953 to Jan, 1957.
Eddie McMorran plays for Barnsley F.C. from Jan, 1950 to Jan, 1953.
Eddie McMorran plays for Leeds United F.C. from Jan, 1949 to Jan, 1950.
Eddie McMorran plays for Belfast Celtic F.C. from Jan, 1946 to Jan, 1947.
Eddie McMorran plays for Manchester City F.C from Jan, 1947 to Jan, 1949. | Eddie McMorranEdward James "Eddie" McMorran (2 September 1923 – 27 January 1984) was a footballer who played as a centre forward and inside forward in the Football League, for Ireland and Northern Ireland.McMorran was born in Larne, County Antrim and attended Larne School during which time he won Irish School Honours. He later played for Ballyclare Comrades, Linfield Swifts and Larne Olympic. He meanwhile began his working life as a blacksmith.Belfast Celtic was his first senior club. In the 1946–47 season they won the League title, Irish Cup and Gold Cup. In only 24 league games he netted 30 times.City signed him for £7,000 in July 1947. His debut was in a 4–3 victory against Wolves on 23 August when he scored the 3rd goal in front of a crowd of 65809. His time at Manchester wasn't as successful as had been expected with 12 goals in 36 games.In January 1949 he moved to Leeds, who had just been relegated to Division 2, for £10,000. His debut was against Sheffield Wednesday on 22 January, and his first goal a week later in a victory against Blackburn Rovers. He scored 6 times in 40 games for Leeds.McMorran was sold to Barnsley for £10,000 in July 1950.In February 1953, McMorran was brought to Doncaster for then club record of £8,000 by fellow Irishman, player manager Peter Doherty, who also was manager of Northern Ireland at the time. This was a time when they were enjoying a successful period in League Division 2. In 1954 they made it to the Fifth Round of the FA Cup for the first time, knocking out big-spending Sunderland where McMorran scored twice in the 2–0 win. In total he scored 38 times in 139 games for Doncaster.He finished his professional career by moving to Crewe for the season in November 1957. Crewe had finished the previous season bottom of Division 3 North and ended up in the same position this season.After Crewe, he played for Frickley Colliery in the Midland League till the end of the 1959–60 season, still playing as centre forward. The following season, he became manager of Dodworth Miners Welfare in Yorkshire League Division Two.He scored twice in two appearances for the Ireland Youth team in 1937. His first Ireland cap came against England in 1946, followed by Inter-League caps against the Football League and League of Ireland. His only international win was in his last game in a World Cup Qualifier in 1957 against Portugal where he scored in the 3–0 win.1946/47 with Belfast Celtic | [
"Doncaster Rovers F.C.",
"Crewe Alexandra F.C.",
"Manchester City F.C",
"Frickley Athletic F.C.",
"Barnsley F.C.",
"Belfast Celtic F.C."
] |
|
Which team did Andy McDermott play for in Oct, 2003? | October 15, 2003 | {
"text": [
"Dunfermline Athletic F.C."
]
} | L2_Q4761015_P54_4 | Andy McDermott plays for Northern Spirit FC from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2003.
Andy McDermott plays for West Bromwich Albion F.C. from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2000.
Andy McDermott plays for Dunfermline Athletic F.C. from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2004.
Andy McDermott plays for Queens Park Rangers F.C. from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 1997.
Andy McDermott plays for Notts County F.C. from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2001. | Andy McDermott (footballer)Andrew McDermott (born 24 March 1977 in Sydney) is a retired Australian professional soccer player.McDermott spent most of his career in England at West Bromwich Albion. In a three-year spell at the club he made over 50 appearances and scored twice, with strikes against Luton Town in the League Cup and Wolverhampton Wanderers in the league. | [
"Northern Spirit FC",
"Queens Park Rangers F.C.",
"Notts County F.C.",
"West Bromwich Albion F.C."
] |
|
Which team did Andy McDermott play for in 2003-10-15? | October 15, 2003 | {
"text": [
"Dunfermline Athletic F.C."
]
} | L2_Q4761015_P54_4 | Andy McDermott plays for Northern Spirit FC from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2003.
Andy McDermott plays for West Bromwich Albion F.C. from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2000.
Andy McDermott plays for Dunfermline Athletic F.C. from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2004.
Andy McDermott plays for Queens Park Rangers F.C. from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 1997.
Andy McDermott plays for Notts County F.C. from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2001. | Andy McDermott (footballer)Andrew McDermott (born 24 March 1977 in Sydney) is a retired Australian professional soccer player.McDermott spent most of his career in England at West Bromwich Albion. In a three-year spell at the club he made over 50 appearances and scored twice, with strikes against Luton Town in the League Cup and Wolverhampton Wanderers in the league. | [
"Northern Spirit FC",
"Queens Park Rangers F.C.",
"Notts County F.C.",
"West Bromwich Albion F.C."
] |
|
Which team did Andy McDermott play for in 15/10/2003? | October 15, 2003 | {
"text": [
"Dunfermline Athletic F.C."
]
} | L2_Q4761015_P54_4 | Andy McDermott plays for Northern Spirit FC from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2003.
Andy McDermott plays for West Bromwich Albion F.C. from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2000.
Andy McDermott plays for Dunfermline Athletic F.C. from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2004.
Andy McDermott plays for Queens Park Rangers F.C. from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 1997.
Andy McDermott plays for Notts County F.C. from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2001. | Andy McDermott (footballer)Andrew McDermott (born 24 March 1977 in Sydney) is a retired Australian professional soccer player.McDermott spent most of his career in England at West Bromwich Albion. In a three-year spell at the club he made over 50 appearances and scored twice, with strikes against Luton Town in the League Cup and Wolverhampton Wanderers in the league. | [
"Northern Spirit FC",
"Queens Park Rangers F.C.",
"Notts County F.C.",
"West Bromwich Albion F.C."
] |
|
Which team did Andy McDermott play for in Oct 15, 2003? | October 15, 2003 | {
"text": [
"Dunfermline Athletic F.C."
]
} | L2_Q4761015_P54_4 | Andy McDermott plays for Northern Spirit FC from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2003.
Andy McDermott plays for West Bromwich Albion F.C. from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2000.
Andy McDermott plays for Dunfermline Athletic F.C. from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2004.
Andy McDermott plays for Queens Park Rangers F.C. from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 1997.
Andy McDermott plays for Notts County F.C. from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2001. | Andy McDermott (footballer)Andrew McDermott (born 24 March 1977 in Sydney) is a retired Australian professional soccer player.McDermott spent most of his career in England at West Bromwich Albion. In a three-year spell at the club he made over 50 appearances and scored twice, with strikes against Luton Town in the League Cup and Wolverhampton Wanderers in the league. | [
"Northern Spirit FC",
"Queens Park Rangers F.C.",
"Notts County F.C.",
"West Bromwich Albion F.C."
] |
|
Which team did Andy McDermott play for in 10/15/2003? | October 15, 2003 | {
"text": [
"Dunfermline Athletic F.C."
]
} | L2_Q4761015_P54_4 | Andy McDermott plays for Northern Spirit FC from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2003.
Andy McDermott plays for West Bromwich Albion F.C. from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2000.
Andy McDermott plays for Dunfermline Athletic F.C. from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2004.
Andy McDermott plays for Queens Park Rangers F.C. from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 1997.
Andy McDermott plays for Notts County F.C. from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2001. | Andy McDermott (footballer)Andrew McDermott (born 24 March 1977 in Sydney) is a retired Australian professional soccer player.McDermott spent most of his career in England at West Bromwich Albion. In a three-year spell at the club he made over 50 appearances and scored twice, with strikes against Luton Town in the League Cup and Wolverhampton Wanderers in the league. | [
"Northern Spirit FC",
"Queens Park Rangers F.C.",
"Notts County F.C.",
"West Bromwich Albion F.C."
] |
|
Which team did Andy McDermott play for in 15-Oct-200315-October-2003? | October 15, 2003 | {
"text": [
"Dunfermline Athletic F.C."
]
} | L2_Q4761015_P54_4 | Andy McDermott plays for Northern Spirit FC from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2003.
Andy McDermott plays for West Bromwich Albion F.C. from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 2000.
Andy McDermott plays for Dunfermline Athletic F.C. from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2004.
Andy McDermott plays for Queens Park Rangers F.C. from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 1997.
Andy McDermott plays for Notts County F.C. from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2001. | Andy McDermott (footballer)Andrew McDermott (born 24 March 1977 in Sydney) is a retired Australian professional soccer player.McDermott spent most of his career in England at West Bromwich Albion. In a three-year spell at the club he made over 50 appearances and scored twice, with strikes against Luton Town in the League Cup and Wolverhampton Wanderers in the league. | [
"Northern Spirit FC",
"Queens Park Rangers F.C.",
"Notts County F.C.",
"West Bromwich Albion F.C."
] |
|
Who was the head of Netherlands in Jan, 1964? | January 24, 1964 | {
"text": [
"Victor Marijnen"
]
} | L2_Q55_P6_8 | Jelle Zijlstra is the head of the government of Netherlands from Nov, 1966 to Apr, 1967.
Joop den Uyl is the head of the government of Netherlands from May, 1973 to Dec, 1977.
Wim Kok is the head of the government of Netherlands from Aug, 1994 to Jul, 2002.
Louis Beel is the head of the government of Netherlands from Jul, 1946 to Aug, 1948.
Victor Marijnen is the head of the government of Netherlands from Jul, 1963 to Apr, 1965.
Hendrikus Colijn is the head of the government of Netherlands from Aug, 1925 to Mar, 1926.
Ruud Lubbers is the head of the government of Netherlands from Nov, 1982 to Aug, 1994.
Willem Drees is the head of the government of Netherlands from Aug, 1948 to Dec, 1958.
Jan de Quay is the head of the government of Netherlands from May, 1959 to Jul, 1963.
Jo Cals is the head of the government of Netherlands from Apr, 1965 to Nov, 1966.
Piet de Jong is the head of the government of Netherlands from Apr, 1967 to Jul, 1971.
Jan Peter Balkenende is the head of the government of Netherlands from Jul, 2002 to Oct, 2010.
Barend Biesheuvel is the head of the government of Netherlands from Jul, 1971 to May, 1973.
Dirk Jan de Geer is the head of the government of Netherlands from Mar, 1926 to Aug, 1929.
Wim Schermerhorn is the head of the government of Netherlands from Jun, 1945 to Jul, 1946.
Pieter Sjoerds Gerbrandy is the head of the government of Netherlands from Sep, 1940 to Jun, 1945.
Dries van Agt is the head of the government of Netherlands from Dec, 1977 to Nov, 1982.
Mark Rutte is the head of the government of Netherlands from Oct, 2010 to Dec, 2022.
Charles Ruijs de Beerenbrouck is the head of the government of Netherlands from Sep, 1918 to Aug, 1925. | NetherlandsThe Netherlands ( ), sometimes informally Holland, is a country located in Western Europe with territories in the Caribbean. It is the largest of four constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. In Europe, the Netherlands consists of twelve provinces, bordering Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, with maritime borders in the North Sea with those countries and the United Kingdom. In the Caribbean, it consists of three special municipalities: the islands of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba. The country's official language is Dutch, with West Frisian as a secondary official language in the province of Friesland, and English and Papiamento as secondary official languages in the Caribbean Netherlands. Dutch Low Saxon and Limburgish are recognised regional languages (spoken in the east and southeast respectively), while Dutch Sign Language, Sinte Romani and Yiddish are recognised non-territorial languages.The four largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague and Utrecht. Amsterdam is the country's most populous city and nominal capital, while The Hague holds the seat of the States General, Cabinet and Supreme Court. The Port of Rotterdam is the busiest seaport in Europe, and the busiest in any country outside East Asia and Southeast Asia, behind only China and Singapore. Amsterdam Airport Schiphol is the busiest airport in the Netherlands, and the third busiest in Europe. The country is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. It hosts several intergovernmental organisations and international courts, many of which are centred in The Hague, which is consequently dubbed 'the world's legal capital'."Netherlands" literally means "lower countries" in reference to its low elevation and flat topography, with only about 50% of its land exceeding above sea level, and nearly 26% falling below sea level. Most of the areas below sea level, known as "polders", are the result of land reclamation that began in the 14th century. Colloquially or informally the Netherlands is occasionally referred to by the pars pro toto "Holland". With a population of 17.4 million people, all living within a total area of roughly —of which the land area is —the Netherlands is the 16th most densely populated country in the world and the 2nd most densely populated country in the European Union, with a density of . Nevertheless, it is the world's second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products by value, owing to its fertile soil, mild climate, intensive agriculture and inventiveness.The Netherlands has been a parliamentary constitutional monarchy with a unitary structure since 1848. The country has a tradition of pillarisation and a long record of social tolerance, having legalised abortion, prostitution and human euthanasia, along with maintaining a liberal drug policy. The Netherlands abolished the death penalty in Civil Law in 1870, though it was not completely removed until a new constitution was approved in 1983. The Netherlands allowed women's suffrage in 1919, before becoming the world's first country to legalise same-sex marriage in 2001. Its mixed-market advanced economy had the eleventh-highest per capita income globally. The Netherlands ranks among the highest in international indexes of press freedom, economic freedom, human development and quality of life, as well as happiness. In 2020, it ranked eighth on the human development index and fifth on the 2021 World Happiness Index.The Netherlands' turbulent history and shifts of power resulted in exceptionally many and widely varying names in different languages. There is diversity even within languages. In English, the Netherlands is also called Holland or (part of) the Low Countries, whereas the term ""Dutch"" is used as the demonym and adjectival form.The region called the Low Countries (comprising Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg) have the same toponymy. Place names with "Neder", "Nieder", "Nedre", "Nether", "Lage(r)" or "Low(er)" (in Germanic languages) and "Bas" or "Inferior" (in Romance languages) are in use in low-lying places all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a deictic relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as "Super(ior)", "Up(per)", "Op(per)", "Ober", "Boven", "High", "Haut" or "Hoch". In the case of the Low Countries / Netherlands the geographical location of the "lower" region has been more or less downstream and near the sea. The geographical location of the upper region, however, changed tremendously over time, depending on the location of the economic and military power governing the Low Countries area. The Romans made a distinction between the Roman provinces of downstream Germania Inferior (nowadays part of Belgium and the Netherlands) and upstream Germania Superior (nowadays part of Germany). The designation 'Low' to refer to the region returns again in the 10th century Duchy of Lower Lorraine, that covered much of the Low Countries. But this time the corresponding "Upper" region is Upper Lorraine, in nowadays Northern France.The Dukes of Burgundy, who ruled from their residence in the Low Countries in the 15th century, used the term "les pays de par deçà" ("the lands over here") for the Low Countries, as opposed to "les pays de par delà" ("the lands over there") for their original homeland: Burgundy in present-day east-central France. Under Habsburg rule, "Les pays de par deçà" developed in "pays d'embas" ("lands down-here"), a deictic expression in relation to other Habsburg possessions like Hungary and Austria. This was translated as "Neder-landen" in contemporary Dutch official documents. From a regional point of view, "Niderlant" was also the area between the Meuse and the lower Rhine in the late Middle Ages. The area known as "Oberland" (High country) was in this deictic context considered to begin approximately at the nearby higher located Cologne.From the mid-sixteenth century on, the "Low Countries" and the "Netherlands" lost their original deictic meaning. They were probably the most commonly used names, besides Flanders, a "pars pro toto" for the Low Countries, especially in Romance language-speaking Europe. The Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) divided the Low Countries into an independent northern Dutch Republic (or Latinised "Belgica Foederata", "Federated Netherlands", the precursor state of the Netherlands) and a Spanish controlled Southern Netherlands (Latinised "Belgica Regia", "Royal Netherlands", the precursor state of Belgium). The Low Countries today is a designation that includes the countries of the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg, although in most Romance languages, the term "Low Countries" is used as the name for the Netherlands specifically. It is used synonymously with the more neutral and geopolitical term Benelux.The Netherlands is also referred to as Holland in various languages, including English. However, Holland proper is only a region within the country that consists of North and South Holland, two of the nation's twelve provinces. Formerly they were a single province, and earlier the County of Holland, a remnant of the dissolved Frisian Kingdom which also included parts of present-day Utrecht. Following the decline of the Duchy of Brabant and the County of Flanders, Holland became the most economically and politically important county in the Low Countries region. The emphasis on Holland during the formation of the Dutch Republic, the Eighty Years' War, and the Anglo-Dutch Wars in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, made Holland serve as a "pars pro toto" for the entire country, which is now considered informal or incorrect. Nonetheless, the name "Holland" is still widely used for the Netherlands national football team, including in the Netherlands, and the Dutch government's international websites for tourism and trade are "holland.com" and "hollandtradeandinvest.com". In 2020, however, the Dutch government announced that it would only communicate and advertise under the name "the Netherlands" in the future.The term Dutch is used as the demonymic and adjectival form of the Netherlands in the English language. The origins of the word go back to Proto-Germanic "*þiudiskaz", Latinised into Theodiscus, meaning "popular" or "of the people"; akin to Old Dutch "Dietsch", Old High German "duitsch", and Old English "þeodisc", all meaning "(of) the common (Germanic) people". At first, the English language used (the contemporary form of) Dutch to refer to any or all speakers of West Germanic languages (e.g. the Dutch, the Frisians, and the Germans). Gradually its meaning shifted to the West Germanic people they had most contact with, because of their geographical proximity and for the rivalry in trade and overseas territories. The derivative of the Proto-Germanic word "*þiudiskaz" in modern Dutch, "Diets", can be found in Dutch literature as a poetic name for the Dutch people or language, but is considered very archaic. Although it had a short resurgence after World War II to avoid the reference to Germany. It is still used in the expression "diets maken" – to put it straight to him/her (as in a threat) or, more neutral, to make it clear, understandable, explain, say in the people's language (cf. the Vulgate (Bible not in Greek or Hebrew, but Latin; the folks' language) in meaning vulgar, though not in a pejorative sense).In Dutch, the names for the Netherlands, the Dutch language and a Dutch citizen are "Nederland", "Nederlands" and "Nederlander", respectively. Colloquially the country is also by the Dutch often referred to as Holland, although to lesser extent outside the two provinces North and South Holland, where it may even be used as a pejorative term, e.g. Hollènder (dialect) in Maastricht.The plural "Nederlanden" is used in many different connotations in the past, but since 1815 it has been used in the official name "Koninkrijk der Nederlanden" ("Kingdom of the Netherlands"). In many other languages the plural stuck, for example "Niederlande" (German), "Pays-Bas" (French) and "Países Bajos" (Spanish). In Indonesian (a former colony) the country is called "Belanda", a name derived from 'Holland'.The prehistory of the area that is now the Netherlands was largely shaped by the sea and the rivers that constantly shifted the low-lying geography. The oldest human (Neanderthal) traces were found in higher soils, near Maastricht, from what is believed to be about 250,000 years ago. At the end of the Ice Age, the nomadic late Upper Paleolithic Hamburg culture (c. 13.000–10.000 BC) hunted reindeer in the area, using spears, but the later Ahrensburg culture (c. 11.200–9500 BC) used bow and arrow. From Mesolithic Maglemosian-like tribes (c. 8000 BC) the oldest canoe in the world was found in Drenthe.Indigenous late Mesolithic hunter-gatherers from the Swifterbant culture (c. 5600 BC) were related to the southern Scandinavian Ertebølle culture and were strongly linked to rivers and open water. Between 4800 and 4500 BC, the Swifterbant people started to copy from the neighbouring Linear Pottery culture the practise of animal husbandry, and between 4300 and 4000 BC the practice of agriculture. The Funnelbeaker culture (c. 4300–2800 BC), which is related to the Swifterbant culture, erected the dolmens, large stone grave monuments found in Drenthe. There was a quick and smooth transition from the Funnelbeaker farming culture to the pan-European Corded Ware pastoralist culture (c. 2950 BC). In the southwest, the Seine-Oise-Marne culture — which was related to the Vlaardingen culture (c. 2600 BC), an apparently more primitive culture of hunter-gatherers — survived well into the Neolithic period, until it too was succeeded by the Corded Ware culture.Of the subsequent Bell Beaker culture (2700–2100 BC) several regions of origin have been postulated, notably the Iberian peninsula, the Netherlands and Central Europe. They introduced metalwork in copper, gold and later bronze and opened international trade routes not seen before, reflected in the discoveries of copper artifacts, as the metal is not normally found in Dutch soil. The many finds in Drenthe of rare bronze objects, suggest that it was even a trading centre in the Bronze Age (2000–800 BC). The Bell Beaker culture developed locally into the Barbed-Wire Beaker culture (2100–1800 BC) and later the Elp culture (c. 1800–800 BC), a Middle Bronze Age archaeological culture having earthenware pottery of low quality as a marker. The initial phase of the Elp culture was characterised by tumuli (1800–1200 BC) that were strongly tied to contemporary tumuli in northern Germany and Scandinavia and was apparently related to the Tumulus culture in central Europe. The subsequent phase was that of cremating the dead and placing their ashes in urns which were then buried in fields, following the customs of the Urnfield culture (1200–800 BC). The southern region became dominated by the related Hilversum culture (1800–800 BC), which apparently inherited cultural ties with Britain of the previous Barbed-Wire Beaker culture.From 800 BC onwards, the Iron Age Celtic Hallstatt culture became influential, replacing the Hilversum culture. Iron ore brought a measure of prosperity and was available throughout the country, including bog iron. Smiths travelled from settlement to settlement with bronze and iron, fabricating tools on demand. The King's grave of Oss (700 BC) was found in a burial mound, the largest of its kind in western Europe and containing an iron sword with an inlay of gold and coral.The deteriorating climate in Scandinavia around 850 BC further deteriorated around 650 BC and might have triggered migration of Germanic tribes from the North. By the time this migration was complete, around 250 BC, a few general cultural and linguistic groups had emerged. The North Sea Germanic Ingaevones inhabited the northern part of the Low Countries. They would later develop into the Frisii and the early Saxons. A second grouping, the Weser-Rhine Germanic (or Istvaeones), extended along the middle Rhine and Weser and inhabited the Low Countries south of the great rivers. This group consisted of tribes that would eventually develop into the Salian Franks. Also the Celtic La Tène culture (c. 450 BC up to the Roman conquest) had expanded over a wide range, including the southern area of the Low Countries. Some scholars have speculated that even a third ethnic identity and language, neither Germanic nor Celtic, survived in the Netherlands until the Roman period, the Iron Age Nordwestblock culture, that eventually was absorbed by the Celts to the south and the Germanic peoples from the east.The first author to describe the coast of Holland and Flanders was the Greek geographer Pytheas, who noted in c. 325 BC that in these regions, "more people died in the struggle against water than in the struggle against men." During the Gallic Wars, the area south and west of the Rhine was conquered by Roman forces under Julius Caesar from 57 BC to 53 BC. Caesar describes two main Celtic tribes living in what is now the southern Netherlands: the Menapii and the Eburones. The Rhine became fixed as Rome's northern frontier around 12 AD. Notable towns would arise along the Limes Germanicus: Nijmegen and Voorburg. In the first part of Gallia Belgica, the area south of the Limes became part of the Roman province of Germania Inferior. The area to the north of the Rhine, inhabited by the Frisii, remained outside Roman rule (but not its presence and control), while the Germanic border tribes of the Batavi and Cananefates served in the Roman cavalry. The Batavi rose against the Romans in the Batavian rebellion of 69 AD but were eventually defeated. The Batavi later merged with other tribes into the confederation of the Salian Franks, whose identity emerged at the first half of the third century. Salian Franks appear in Roman texts as both allies and enemies. They were forced by the confederation of the Saxons from the east to move over the Rhine into Roman territory in the fourth century. From their new base in West Flanders and the Southwest Netherlands, they were raiding the English Channel. Roman forces pacified the region, but did not expel the Franks, who continued to be feared at least until the time of Julian the Apostate (358) when Salian Franks were allowed to settle as "foederati" in Texandria. It has been postulated that after deteriorating climate conditions and the Romans' withdrawal, the Frisii disappeared as "laeti" in c. 296, leaving the coastal lands largely unpopulated for the next two centuries. However, recent excavations in Kennemerland show clear indication of a permanent habitation.After Roman government in the area collapsed, the Franks expanded their territories in numerous kingdoms. By the 490s, Clovis I had conquered and united all these territories in the southern Netherlands in one Frankish kingdom, and from there continued his conquests into Gaul. During this expansion, Franks migrating to the south eventually adopted the Vulgar Latin of the local population. A widening cultural divide grew with the Franks remaining in their original homeland in the north (i.e. the southern Netherlands and Flanders), who kept on speaking Old Frankish, which by the ninth century had evolved into Old Low Franconian or Old Dutch. A Dutch-French language boundary hence came into existence.To the north of the Franks, climatic conditions improved, and during the Migration Period Saxons, the closely related Angles, Jutes and Frisii settled the coastal land. Many moved on to England and came to be known as Anglo-Saxons, but those who stayed would be referred to as Frisians and their language as Frisian, named after the land that was once inhabited by Frisii. Frisian was spoken along the entire southern North Sea coast, and it is still the language most closely related to English among the living languages of continental Europe. By the seventh century a Frisian Kingdom (650–734) under King Aldegisel and King Redbad emerged with Traiectum (Utrecht) as its centre of power, while Dorestad was a flourishing trading place. Between 600 and around 719 the cities were often fought over between the Frisians and the Franks. In 734, at the Battle of the Boarn, the Frisians were defeated after a series of wars. With the approval of the Franks, the Anglo-Saxon missionary Willibrord converted the Frisian people to Christianity. He established the Archdiocese of Utrecht and became bishop of the Frisians. However, his successor Boniface was murdered by the Frisians in Dokkum, in 754.The Frankish Carolingian empire modelled itself on the Roman Empire and controlled much of Western Europe. However, in 843, it was divided into three parts—East, Middle, and West Francia. Most of present-day Netherlands became part of Middle Francia, which was a weak kingdom and subject of numerous partitions and annexation attempts by its stronger neighbours. It comprised territories from Frisia in the north to the Kingdom of Italy in the south. Around 850, Lothair I of Middle Francia acknowledged the Viking Rorik of Dorestad as ruler of most of Frisia. When the kingdom of Middle Francia was partitioned in 855, the lands north of the Alps passed to Lothair II and subsequently were named Lotharingia. After he died in 869, Lotharingia was partitioned, into Upper and Lower Lotharingia, the latter part comprising the Low Countries that technically became part of East Francia in 870, although it was effectively under the control of Vikings, who raided the largely defenceless Frisian and Frankish towns lying on the Frisian coast and along the rivers. Around 879, another Viking expedition led by Godfrid, Duke of Frisia, raided the Frisian lands. The Viking raids made the sway of French and German lords in the area weak. Resistance to the Vikings, if any, came from local nobles, who gained in stature as a result, and that laid the basis for the disintegration of Lower Lotharingia into semi-independent states. One of these local nobles was Gerolf of Holland, who assumed lordship in Frisia after he helped to assassinate Godfrid, and Viking rule came to an end.The Holy Roman Empire (the successor state of East Francia and then Lotharingia) ruled much of the Low Countries in the 10th and 11th century but was not able to maintain political unity. Powerful local nobles turned their cities, counties and duchies into private kingdoms that felt little sense of obligation to the emperor. Holland, Hainaut, Flanders, Gelre, Brabant, and Utrecht were in a state of almost continual war or in paradoxically formed personal unions. The language and culture of most of the people who lived in the County of Holland were originally Frisian. As Frankish settlement progressed from Flanders and Brabant, the area quickly became Old Low Franconian (or Old Dutch). The rest of Frisia in the north (now Friesland and Groningen) continued to maintain its independence and had its own institutions (collectively called the "Frisian freedom"), which resented the imposition of the feudal system.Around 1000 AD, due to several agricultural developments, the economy started to develop at a fast pace, and the higher productivity allowed workers to farm more land or to become tradesmen. Towns grew around monasteries and castles, and a mercantile middle class began to develop in these urban areas, especially in Flanders and later also Brabant. Wealthy cities started to buy certain privileges for themselves from the sovereign. In practice, this meant that Bruges and Antwerp became quasi-independent republics in their own right and would later develop into some of the most important cities and ports in Europe.Around 1100 AD, farmers from Flanders and Utrecht began draining and cultivating uninhabited swampy land in the western Netherlands, making the emergence of the County of Holland as the centre of power possible. The title of Count of Holland was fought over in the Hook and Cod Wars () between 1350 and 1490. The Cod faction consisted of the more progressive cities, while the Hook faction consisted of the conservative noblemen. These noblemen invited the Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy — who was also Count of Flanders — to conquer Holland.Most of the Imperial and French fiefs in what is now the Netherlands and Belgium were united in a personal union by Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, in 1433. The House of Valois-Burgundy and their Habsburg heirs would rule the Low Countries in the period from 1384 to 1581. Before the Burgundian union, the Dutch identified themselves by the town they lived in or their local duchy or county. The Burgundian period is when the road to nationhood began. The new rulers defended Dutch trading interests, which then developed rapidly. The fleets of the County of Holland defeated the fleets of the Hanseatic League several times. Amsterdam grew and in the 15th century became the primary trading port in Europe for grain from the Baltic region. Amsterdam distributed grain to the major cities of Belgium, Northern France and England. This trade was vital because Holland could no longer produce enough grain to feed itself. Land drainage had caused the peat of the former wetlands to reduce to a level that was too low for drainage to be maintained.Under Habsburg Charles V, ruler of the Holy Roman Empire and King of Spain, all fiefs in the current Netherlands region were united into the Seventeen Provinces, which also included most of present-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and some adjacent land in what is now France and Germany. In 1568, under Phillip II, the Eighty Years' War between the Provinces and their Spanish ruler began. The level of ferocity exhibited by both sides can be gleaned from a Dutch chronicler's report:The Duke of Alba ruthlessly attempted to suppress the Protestant movement in the Netherlands. Netherlanders were "burned, strangled, beheaded, or buried alive" by his "Blood Council" and his Spanish soldiers. Severed heads and decapitated corpses were displayed along streets and roads to terrorize the population into submission. Alba boasted of having executed 18,600, but this figure does not include those who perished by war and famine.The first great siege was Alba's effort to capture Haarlem and thereby cut Holland in half. It dragged on from December 1572 to the next summer, when Haarlemers finally surrendered on 13 July upon the promise that the city would be spared from being sacked. It was a stipulation Don Fadrique was unable to honour, when his soldiers mutinied, angered over pay owed and the miserable conditions they endured during the long, cold months of the campaign. On 4 November 1576, Spanish tercios seized Antwerp and subjected it to the worst pillage in the Netherlands' history. The citizens resisted, but were overcome; seven thousand of them were mowed down; a thousand buildings were torched; men, women, and children were slaughtered in a delirium of blood by soldiers crying, "Santiago! España! A sangre, a carne, a fuego, a sacco!" (Saint James! Spain! To blood, to the flesh, to fire, to sack!)Following the sack of Antwerp, delegates from Catholic Brabant, Protestant Holland and Zeeland agreed, at Ghent, to join Utrecht and William the Silent in driving out all Spanish troops and forming a new government for the Netherlands. Don Juan of Austria, the new Spanish governor, was forced to concede initially, but within months returned to active hostilities. As the fighting restarted, the Dutch began to look for help from the Queen of England, but she initially stood by her commitments to the Spanish in the Treaty of Bristol of 1574. The result was that when the next large-scale battle did occur at Gembloux in 1578, the Spanish forces easily won the day, killing at least 10,000 rebels, with the Spanish suffering few losses. In light of the defeat at Gembloux, the southern states of the Seventeen Provinces (today in northern France and Belgium) distanced themselves from the rebels in the north with the 1579 Union of Arras, which expressed their loyalty to Philip II of Spain. Opposing them, the northern half of the Seventeen Provinces forged the Union of Utrecht (also of 1579) in which they committed to support each other in their defence against the Spanish army. The Union of Utrecht is seen as the foundation of the modern Netherlands.Spanish troops sacked Maastricht in 1579, killing over 10,000 civilians and thereby ensuring the rebellion continued. In 1581, the northern provinces adopted the Act of Abjuration, the declaration of independence in which the provinces officially deposed Philip II as reigning monarch in the northern provinces. Against the rebels Philip could draw on the resources of Spain, Spanish America, Spanish Italy and the Spanish Netherlands. The Protestant Queen Elizabeth I of England sympathised with the Dutch struggle against the Spanish and sent an army of 7,600 soldiers to aid the Dutch in their war with the Catholic Spanish. English forces under the Earl of Leicester and then Lord Willoughby faced the Spanish in the Netherlands under the Duke of Parma in a series of largely indecisive actions that tied down significant numbers of Spanish troops and bought time for the Dutch to reorganise their defences. The war continued until 1648, when Spain under King Philip IV finally recognised the independence of the seven north-western provinces in the Peace of Münster. Parts of the southern provinces became "de facto" colonies of the new republican-mercantile empire.After declaring their independence, the provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Groningen, Friesland, Utrecht, Overijssel, and Gelderland formed a confederation. All these duchies, lordships and counties were autonomous and had their own government, the States-Provincial. The States General, the confederal government, were seated in The Hague and consisted of representatives from each of the seven provinces. The sparsely populated region of Drenthe was part of the republic too, although it was not considered one of the provinces. Moreover, the Republic had come to occupy during the Eighty Years' War a number of so-called Generality Lands in Flanders, Brabant and Limburg. Their population was mainly Roman Catholic, and these areas did not have a governmental structure of their own, and were used as a buffer zone between the Republic and the Spanish-controlled Southern Netherlands.In the Dutch Golden Age, spanning much of the 17th century, the Dutch Empire grew to become one of the major seafaring and economic powers, alongside Portugal, Spain, France and England. Science, military, and art (especially painting) were among the most acclaimed in the world. By 1650, the Dutch owned 16,000 merchant ships. The Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company established colonies and trading posts all over the world, including ruling the northern parts of Taiwan between 1624–1662 and 1664–1667. The Dutch settlement in North America began with the founding of New Amsterdam on the southern part of Manhattan in 1614. In South Africa, the Dutch settled the Cape Colony in 1652. Dutch colonies in South America were established along the many rivers in the fertile Guyana plains, among them Colony of Surinam (now Suriname). In Asia, the Dutch established the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia), and the only western trading post in Japan, Dejima.During the period of Proto-industrialization, the empire received 50% of textiles and 80% of silks import from the India's Mughal Empire, chiefly from its most developed region known as Bengal Subah.Many economic historians regard the Netherlands as the first thoroughly capitalist country in the world. In early modern Europe, it had the wealthiest trading city (Amsterdam) and the first full-time stock exchange. The inventiveness of the traders led to insurance and retirement funds as well as phenomena such as the boom-bust cycle, the world's first asset-inflation bubble, the tulip mania of 1636–1637, and the world's first bear raider, Isaac le Maire, who forced prices down by dumping stock and then buying it back at a discount. In 1672 – known in Dutch history as the Rampjaar (Disaster Year) – the Dutch Republic was at war with France, England and three German Bishoprics simultaneously. At sea, it could successfully prevent the English and French navy from entering the western shores. On land, however, it was almost taken over internally by the advancing French and German armies coming from the east. It managed to turn the tide by inundating parts of Holland but could never recover to its former glory again and went into a state of a general decline in the 18th century, with economic competition from England and long-standing rivalries between the two main factions in Dutch society, the republican "Staatsgezinden" and the supporters of the stadtholder the "Prinsgezinden" as main political factions.With the armed support of revolutionary France, Dutch republicans proclaimed the Batavian Republic, modelled after the French Republic and rendering the Netherlands a unitary state on 19 January 1795. The stadtholder William V of Orange had fled to England. But from 1806 to 1810, the Kingdom of Holland was set up by Napoleon Bonaparte as a puppet kingdom governed by his brother Louis Bonaparte to control the Netherlands more effectively. However, King Louis Bonaparte tried to serve Dutch interests instead of his brother's, and he was forced to abdicate on 1 July 1810. The Emperor sent in an army and the Netherlands became part of the French Empire until the autumn of 1813 when Napoleon was defeated in the Battle of Leipzig.William Frederick, son of the last stadtholder, returned to the Netherlands in 1813 and proclaimed himself Sovereign Prince of the Netherlands. Two years later, the Congress of Vienna added the southern Netherlands to the north to create a strong country on the northern border of France. William Frederick raised this United Netherlands to the status of a kingdom and proclaimed himself as King William I in 1815. In addition, William became hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg in exchange for his German possessions. However, the Southern Netherlands had been culturally separate from the north since 1581, and rebelled. The south gained independence in 1830 as Belgium (recognised by the Northern Netherlands in 1839 as the Kingdom of the Netherlands was created by decree), while the personal union between Luxembourg and the Netherlands was severed in 1890, when William III died with no surviving male heirs. Ascendancy laws prevented his daughter Queen Wilhelmina from becoming the next Grand Duchess.The Belgian Revolution at home and the Java War in the Dutch East Indies brought the Netherlands to the brink of bankruptcy. However, the Cultivation System was introduced in 1830; in the Dutch East Indies, 20% of village land had to be devoted to government crops for export. The policy brought the Dutch enormous wealth and made the colony self-sufficient.The Netherlands abolished slavery in its colonies in 1863. Slaves in Suriname would be fully free only in 1873, since the law stipulated that there was to be a mandatory 10-year transition.The Netherlands was able to remain neutral during World War I, in part because the import of goods through the Netherlands proved essential to German survival until the blockade by the British Royal Navy in 1916. That changed in World War II, when Nazi Germany invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940. The Rotterdam Blitz forced the main element of the Dutch army to surrender four days later. During the occupation, over 100,000 Dutch Jews were rounded up and transported to Nazi extermination camps; only a few of them survived. Dutch workers were conscripted for forced labour in Germany, civilians who resisted were killed in reprisal for attacks on German soldiers, and the countryside was plundered for food. Although there were thousands of Dutch who risked their lives by hiding Jews from the Germans, over 20,000 Dutch fascists joined the Waffen SS, fighting on the Eastern Front. Political collaborators were members of the fascist NSB, the only legal political party in the occupied Netherlands. On 8 December 1941, the Dutch government-in-exile in London declared war on Japan, but could not prevent the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia). In 1944–45, the First Canadian Army, which included Canadian, British and Polish troops, was responsible for liberating much of the Netherlands. Soon after VE Day, the Dutch fought a colonial war against the new Republic of Indonesia.In 1954, the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands reformed the political structure of the Netherlands, which was a result of international pressure to carry out decolonisation. The Dutch colonies of Surinam and Curaçao and Dependencies and the European country all became countries within the Kingdom, on a basis of equality. Indonesia had declared its independence in August 1945 (recognised in 1949), and thus was never part of the reformed Kingdom. Suriname followed in 1975. After the war, the Netherlands left behind an era of neutrality and gained closer ties with neighbouring states. The Netherlands was one of the founding members of the Benelux, the NATO, Euratom and the European Coal and Steel Community, which would evolve into the EEC (Common Market) and later the European Union.Government-encouraged emigration efforts to reduce population density prompted some 500,000 Dutch people to leave the country after the war. The 1960s and 1970s were a time of great social and cultural change, such as rapid de-pillarisation characterised by the decay of the old divisions along political and religious lines. Youths, and students in particular, rejected traditional mores and pushed for change in matters such as women's rights, sexuality, disarmament and environmental issues. In 2002 the euro was introduced as fiat money, and in 2010 the Netherlands Antilles was dissolved. Referendums were held on each island to determine their future status. As a result, the islands of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba (the BES islands) were to obtain closer ties with the Netherlands. This led to the incorporation of these three islands into the country of the Netherlands as "special municipalities" upon the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles. The special municipalities are collectively known as the Caribbean Netherlands.According to the Central Bureau of Statistics, the European Netherlands has a total area of , including water bodies; and a land area of . The Caribbean Netherlands has a total area of It lies between latitudes 50° and 54° N, and longitudes 3° and 8° E.The Netherlands is geographically very low relative to sea level and is considered a flat country, with about 26% of its area and 21% of its population located below sea level, and only about 50% of its land exceeding one metre above sea level. The European part of the country is for the most part flat, with the exception of foothills in the far southeast, up to a height of no more than 321 metres, and some low hill ranges in the central parts. Most of the areas below sea level are man-made, caused by peat extraction or achieved through land reclamation. Since the late 16th century, large polder areas are preserved through elaborate drainage systems that include dikes, canals and pumping stations. Nearly 17% of the country's land area is reclaimed from the sea and from lakes.Much of the country was originally formed by the estuaries of three large European rivers: the Rhine ("Rijn"), the Meuse ("Maas") and the Scheldt ("Schelde"), as well as their tributaries. The south-western part of the Netherlands is to this day a river delta of these three rivers, the Rhine-Meuse-Scheldt delta.The European Netherlands is divided into north and south parts by the Rhine, the Waal, its main tributary branch, and the Meuse. In the past, these rivers functioned as a natural barrier between fiefdoms and hence historically created a cultural divide, as is evident in some phonetic traits that are recognisable on either side of what the Dutch call their "Great Rivers" ("de Grote Rivieren"). Another significant branch of the Rhine, the IJssel river, discharges into Lake IJssel, the former Zuiderzee ('southern sea'). Just like the previous, this river forms a linguistic divide: people to the northeast of this river speak Dutch Low Saxon dialects (except for the province of Friesland, which has its own language).The modern Netherlands formed as a result of the interplay of the four main rivers (Rhine, Meuse, Schelde and IJssel) and the influence of the North Sea. The Netherlands is mostly composed of deltaic, coastal and eolian derived sediments during the Pleistocene glacial and interglacial periods.Almost the entire west Netherlands is composed of the Rhine-Meuse river estuary, but human intervention greatly modified the natural processes at work. Most of the western Netherlands is below sea level due to the human process of turning standing bodies of water into usable land, a polder.In the east of the Netherlands, remains are found of the last ice age, which ended approximately ten thousand years ago. As the continental ice sheet moved in from the north, it pushed moraine forward. The ice sheet halted as it covered the eastern half of the Netherlands. After the ice age ended, the moraine remained in the form of a long hill-line. The cities of Arnhem and Nijmegen are built upon these hills.Over the centuries, the Dutch coastline has changed considerably as a result of natural disasters and human intervention.On 14 December 1287, St. Lucia's flood affected the Netherlands and Germany, killing more than 50,000 people in one of the most destructive floods in recorded history. The St. Elizabeth flood of 1421 and the mismanagement in its aftermath destroyed a newly reclaimed polder, replacing it with the "Biesbosch" tidal floodplains in the south-centre. The huge North Sea flood of early February 1953 caused the collapse of several dikes in the south-west of the Netherlands; more than 1,800 people drowned in the flood. The Dutch government subsequently instituted a large-scale programme, the "Delta Works", to protect the country against future flooding, which was completed over a period of more than thirty years.The impact of disasters was, to an extent, increased through human activity. Relatively high-lying swampland was drained to be used as farmland. The drainage caused the fertile peat to contract and ground levels to drop, upon which groundwater levels were lowered to compensate for the drop in ground level, causing the underlying peat to contract further. Additionally, until the 19th-century peat was mined, dried, and used for fuel, further exacerbating the problem. Centuries of extensive and poorly controlled peat extraction lowered an already low land surface by several metres. Even in flooded areas, peat extraction continued through turf dredging.Because of the flooding, farming was difficult, which encouraged foreign trade, the result of which was that the Dutch were involved in world affairs since the early 14th/15th century.To guard against floods, a series of defences against the water were contrived. In the first millennium AD, villages and farmhouses were built on man-made hills called "terps". Later, these terps were connected by dikes. In the 12th century, local government agencies called ""waterschappen"" ("water boards") or ""hoogheemraadschappen"" ("high home councils") started to appear, whose job it was to maintain the water level and to protect a region from floods; these agencies continue to exist. As the ground level dropped, the dikes by necessity grew and merged into an integrated system. By the 13th century windmills had come into use to pump water out of areas below sea level. The windmills were later used to drain lakes, creating the famous polders.In 1932 the "Afsluitdijk" ("Closure Dike") was completed, blocking the former "Zuiderzee" (Southern Sea) from the North Sea and thus creating the IJsselmeer (IJssel Lake). It became part of the larger Zuiderzee Works in which four polders totalling were reclaimed from the sea.The Netherlands is one of the countries that may suffer most from climate change. Not only is the rising sea a problem, but erratic weather patterns may cause the rivers to overflow.After the 1953 disaster, the Delta Works was constructed, which is a comprehensive set of civil works throughout the Dutch coast. The project started in 1958 and was largely completed in 1997 with the completion of the Maeslantkering. Since then, new projects have been periodically started to renovate and renew the Delta Works. The main goal of the Delta project was to reduce the risk of flooding in South Holland and Zeeland to once per 10,000 years (compared to once per 4000 years for the rest of the country). This was achieved by raising of outer sea-dikes and of the inner, canal, and river dikes, and by closing off the sea estuaries of the Zeeland province. New risk assessments occasionally show problems requiring additional Delta project dike reinforcements. The Delta project is considered by the American Society of Civil Engineers as one of the seven wonders of the modern world.It is anticipated that global warming in the 21st century will result in a rise in sea level. The Netherlands is actively preparing for a sea-level rise. A politically neutral Delta Commission has formulated an action plan to cope with a sea-level rise of and a simultaneous land height decline of . The plan encompasses the reinforcement of the existing coastal defences like dikes and dunes with of additional flood protection. Climate change will not only threaten the Netherlands from the seaside but could also alter rainfall patterns and river run-off. To protect the country from river flooding, another programme is already being executed. The Room for the River plan grants more flow space to rivers, protects the major populated areas and allows for periodic flooding of indefensible lands. The few residents who lived in these so-called "overflow areas" have been moved to higher ground, with some of that ground having been raised above anticipated flood levels.The predominant wind direction in the European Netherlands is southwest, which causes a mild maritime climate, with moderately warm summers and cool winters, and typically high humidity. This is especially true close to the Dutch coastline, where the difference in temperature between summer and winter, as well as between day and night is noticeably smaller than it is in the southeast of the country.Ice days—maximum temperature below —usually occur from December until February, with the occasional rare ice day prior to or after that period. Freezing days—minimum temperature below —occur much more often, usually ranging from mid-November to late March, but not rarely measured as early as mid-October and as late as mid-May. If one chooses the height of measurement to be above ground instead of , one may even find such temperatures in the middle of the summer. On average, snow can occur from November to April but sometimes occurs in May or October too.Warm days—maximum temperature above —are usually found in April to October, but in some parts of the country these warm days can also occur in March, or even sometimes in November or February (usually not in , however). Summer days—maximum temperature above —are usually measured in from May until September, tropical days—maximum temperature above —are rare and usually occur only in June to August.Precipitation throughout the year is distributed relatively equally each month. Summer and autumn months tend to gather a little more precipitation than the other months, mainly because of the intensity of the rainfall rather than the frequency of rain days (this is especially the case in summer when lightning is also much more frequent).The number of sunshine hours is affected by the fact that because of the geographical latitude, the length of the days varies between barely eight hours in December and nearly 17 hours in June.The following table are based on mean measurements by the KNMI weather station in De Bilt between 1991 and 2020. The highest recorded temperature was reached on 25 July 2019 in Gilze-Rijen.The Netherlands has 20 national parks and hundreds of other nature reserves, that include lakes, heathland, woods, dunes, and other habitats. Most of these are owned by Staatsbosbeheer, the national department for forestry and nature conservation and Natuurmonumenten (literally 'Natures monuments'), a private organisation that buys, protects and manages nature reserves. The Dutch part of the Wadden Sea in the north, with its tidal flats and wetlands, is rich in biological diversity, and was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Nature Site in 2009.The Oosterschelde, formerly the northeast estuary of the river Scheldt was designated a national park in 2002, thereby making it the largest national park in the Netherlands at an area of . It consists primarily of the salt waters of the Oosterschelde but also includes mudflats, meadows, and shoals. Because of the large variety of sea life, including unique regional species, the park is popular with Scuba divers. Other activities include sailing, fishing, cycling, and bird watching.Phytogeographically, the European Netherlands is shared between the Atlantic European and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, the European territory of the Netherlands belongs to the ecoregion of Atlantic mixed forests. In 1871, the last old original natural woods were cut down, and most woods today are planted monocultures of trees like Scots pine and trees that are not native to the Netherlands. These woods were planted on anthropogenic heaths and sand-drifts (overgrazed heaths) (Veluwe). The Netherlands had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 0.6/10, ranking it 169th globally out of 172 countries.While Curaçao, Aruba and Sint Maarten have a constituent country status, the Caribbean Netherlands are three islands designated as special municipalities of the Netherlands. The islands are part of the Lesser Antilles and have land borders with France (Saint Martin) and maritime borders with Anguilla, Curaçao, France (Saint Barthélemy), Saint Kitts and Nevis, Sint Maarten, the U.S. Virgin Islands and Venezuela.Within this island group:The islands of the Caribbean Netherlands enjoy a tropical climate with warm weather all year round. The Leeward Antilles are warmer and drier than the Windward islands. In summer, the Windward Islands can be subject to hurricanes.The Netherlands has been a constitutional monarchy since 1815, and due to the efforts of Johan Rudolph Thorbecke became a parliamentary democracy in 1848. The Netherlands is described as a consociational state. Dutch politics and governance are characterised by an effort to achieve broad consensus on important issues, within both the political community and society as a whole. In 2017, "The Economist" ranked the Netherlands as the 11th most democratic country in the world.The monarch is the head of state, at present King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands. Constitutionally, the position is equipped with limited powers. By law, the King has the right to be periodically briefed and consulted on government affairs. Depending on the personalities and relationships of the King and the ministers, the monarch might have influence beyond the power granted by the Constitution of the Netherlands.The executive power is formed by the Council of Ministers, the deliberative organ of the Dutch cabinet. The cabinet usually consists of 13 to 16 ministers and a varying number of state secretaries. One to three ministers are ministers without portfolio. The head of government is the Prime Minister of the Netherlands, who often is the leader of the largest party of the coalition. The Prime Minister is a "primus inter pares", with no explicit powers beyond those of the other ministers. Mark Rutte has been Prime Minister since October 2010; the Prime Minister had been the leader of the largest party of the governing coalition continuously since 1973.The cabinet is responsible to the bicameral parliament, the States General, which also has legislative powers. The 150 members of the House of Representatives, the lower house, are elected in direct elections on the basis of party-list proportional representation. These are held every four years, or sooner in case the cabinet falls (for example: when one of the chambers carries a motion of no confidence, the cabinet offers its resignation to the monarch). The States-Provincial are directly elected every four years as well. The members of the provincial assemblies elect the 75 members of the Senate, the upper house, which has the power to reject laws, but not propose or amend them. Both houses send members to the Benelux Parliament, a consultative council.Both trade unions and employers organisations are consulted beforehand in policymaking in the financial, economic and social areas. They meet regularly with the government in the Social-Economic Council. This body advises government and its advice cannot be put aside easily.The Netherlands has a long tradition of social tolerance. In the 18th century, while the Dutch Reformed Church was the state religion, Catholicism, other forms of Protestantism, such as Baptists and Lutherans, as well as Judaism were tolerated but discriminated against.In the late 19th century this Dutch tradition of religious tolerance transformed into a system of pillarisation, in which religious groups coexisted separately and only interacted at the level of government. This tradition of tolerance influences Dutch criminal justice policies on recreational drugs, prostitution, LGBT rights, euthanasia, and abortion, which are among the most liberal in the world.Because of the multi-party system, no single party has held a majority in parliament since the 19th century, as a result, coalition cabinets had to be formed. Since suffrage became universal in 1917, the Dutch political system has been dominated by three families of political parties: the strongest of which were the Christian Democrats, currently represented by the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA); second were the Social Democrats, represented by the Labour Party (PvdA); and third were the Liberals, of which the right-wing People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD) is the main representative.These parties co-operated in coalition cabinets in which the Christian Democrats had always been a partner: so either a centre-left coalition of the Christian Democrats and Social Democrats was ruling or a centre-right coalition of Christian Democrats and Liberals. In the 1970s, the party system became more volatile: the Christian Democratic parties lost seats, while new parties became successful, such as the radical democrat and progressive liberal Democrats 66 (D66) or the ecologist party GroenLinks (GL).In the 1994 election, the CDA lost its dominant position. A "purple" cabinet was formed by the VVD, D66, and PvdA. In the 2002 elections, this cabinet lost its majority, because of an increased support for the CDA and the rise of the right-wing LPF, a new political party, around Pim Fortuyn, who was assassinated a week before the elections. A short-lived cabinet was formed by CDA, VVD, and LPF, which was led by the CDA Leader Jan Peter Balkenende. After the 2003 elections, in which the LPF lost most of its seats, a cabinet was formed by the CDA, VVD, and D66. The cabinet initiated an ambitious programme of reforming the welfare state, the healthcare system, and immigration policy.In June 2006, the cabinet fell after D66 voted in favour of a motion of no confidence against the Minister of Immigration and Integration, Rita Verdonk, who had instigated an investigation of the asylum procedure of Ayaan Hirsi Ali, a VVD MP. A caretaker cabinet was formed by the CDA and VVD, and general elections were held on 22 November 2006. In these elections, the CDA remained the largest party and the Socialist Party made the largest gains. The formation of a new cabinet took three months, resulting in a coalition of CDA, PvdA, and Christian Union.On 20 February 2010, the cabinet fell when the PvdA refused to prolong the involvement of the Dutch Army in Uruzgan, Afghanistan. Snap elections were held on 9 June 2010, with devastating results for the previously largest party, the CDA, which lost about half of its seats, resulting in 21 seats. The VVD became the largest party with 31 seats, closely followed by the PvdA with 30 seats. The big winner of the 2010 elections was Geert Wilders, whose right wing PVV, the ideological successor to the LPF, more than doubled its number of seats. Negotiation talks for a new government resulted in a minority government, led by VVD (a first) in coalition with CDA, which was sworn in on 14 October 2010. This unprecedented minority government was supported by PVV, but proved ultimately to be unstable, when on 21 April 2012, Wilders, leader of PVV, unexpectedly 'torpedoed seven weeks of austerity talks' on new austerity measures, paving the way for early elections.VVD and PvdA won a majority in the House of Representatives during the 2012 general election. On 5 November 2012 they formed the second Rutte cabinet. After the 2017 general election, VVD, Christian Democratic Appeal, Democrats 66 and ChristenUnie formed the third Rutte cabinet. This cabinet resigned in January 2021, two months before the general election, after a child welfare fraud scandal. In March 2021, centre-right VVD of Prime Minister Mark Rutte was the winner of the elections, securing 35 out of 150 seats. The second biggest party was the centre-left D66 with 24 seats. Geert Wilders' far-right party lost its support. Prime Minister Mark Rutte, in power since 2010, formed his fourth coalition government.The Netherlands is divided into twelve provinces, each under a King's Commissioner ("Commissaris van de Koning"). Informally in Limburg province this position is named Governor ("Gouverneur"). All provinces are divided into municipalities ("gemeenten"), of which there are 355 (2019).The country is also subdivided into 21 water districts, governed by a water board ("waterschap" or "hoogheemraadschap"), each having authority in matters concerning water management. The creation of water boards actually pre-dates that of the nation itself, the first appearing in 1196. The Dutch water boards are among the oldest democratic entities in the world still in existence. Direct elections of the water boards take place every four years.The administrative structure on the three BES islands, collectively known as the Caribbean Netherlands, is outside the twelve provinces. These islands have the status of "openbare lichamen (public bodies)". In the Netherlands these administrative units are often referred to as "special municipalities".The Netherlands has several Belgian exclaves and within those even several enclaves which are part of the province of North Brabant. Because the Netherlands and Belgium are both in the Benelux, and more recently in the Schengen Area, citizens of respective countries can travel through these enclaves without controls.The history of Dutch foreign policy has been characterised by its neutrality. Since World War II, the Netherlands has become a member of a large number of international organisations, most prominently the UN, NATO and the EU. The Dutch economy is very open and relies strongly on international trade.The foreign policy of the Netherlands is based on four basic commitments: to Atlantic co-operation, to European integration, to international development and to international law. One of the more controversial international issues surrounding the Netherlands is its liberal policy towards soft drugs.During and after the Dutch Golden Age, the Dutch people built up a commercial and colonial empire. The most important colonies were present-day Suriname and Indonesia. Indonesia became independent after the Indonesian National Revolution in the 1940s following a war of independence, international pressure and several United Nations Security Council resolutions. Suriname became independent in 1975. The historical ties inherited from its colonial past still influence the foreign relations of the Netherlands. In addition, many people from these countries are living permanently in the Netherlands.The Netherlands has one of the oldest standing armies in Europe; it was first established as such by Maurice of Nassau in the late 1500s. The Dutch army was used throughout the Dutch Empire. After the defeat of Napoleon, the Dutch army was transformed into a conscription army. The army was unsuccessfully deployed during the Belgian Revolution in 1830. After 1830, it was deployed mainly in the Dutch colonies, as the Netherlands remained neutral in European wars (including the First World War), until the Netherlands was invaded in World War II and defeated by the Wehrmacht in May 1940.The Netherlands abandoned its neutrality in 1948 when it signed the Treaty of Brussels, and became a founding member of NATO in 1949. The Dutch military was therefore part of the NATO strength in Cold War Europe, deploying its army to several bases in Germany. More than 3,000 Dutch soldiers were assigned to the 2nd Infantry Division of the United States Army during the Korean War. In 1996 conscription was suspended, and the Dutch army was once again transformed into a professional army. Since the 1990s the Dutch army has been involved in the Bosnian War and the Kosovo War, it held a province in Iraq after the defeat of Saddam Hussein, and it was engaged in Afghanistan.The military is composed of four branches, all of which carry the prefix "Koninklijke" (Royal):The submarine service opened to women on 1 January 2017. The Korps Commandotroepen, the Special Operations Force of the Netherlands Army, is open to women, but because of the extremely high physical demands for initial training, it is almost impossible for a woman to become a commando. The Dutch Ministry of Defence employs more than 70,000 personnel, including over 20,000 civilians and over 50,000 military personnel. In April 2011 the government announced a major reduction in its military because of a cut in government expenditure, including a decrease in the number of tanks, fighter aircraft, naval ships and senior officials.The Netherlands has ratified many international conventions concerning war law. The Netherlands decided not to sign the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.The Netherlands has a developed economy and has been playing a special role in the European economy for many centuries. Since the 16th century, shipping, fishing, agriculture, trade, and banking have been leading sectors of the Dutch economy. The Netherlands has a high level of economic freedom. The Netherlands is one of the top countries in the Global Enabling Trade Report (2nd in 2016), and was ranked the fifth most competitive economy in the world by the Swiss International Institute for Management Development in 2017. In addition, the country was ranked the second most innovative nation in the world in the 2018 Global Innovation Index., the key trading partners of the Netherlands were Germany, Belgium, the United Kingdom, the United States, France, Italy, China and Russia. The Netherlands is one of the world's 10 leading exporting countries. Foodstuffs form the largest industrial sector. Other major industries include chemicals, metallurgy, machinery, electrical goods, trade, services and tourism. Examples of international Dutch companies operating in Netherlands include Randstad, Unilever, Heineken, KLM, financial services (ING, ABN AMRO, Rabobank), chemicals (DSM, AKZO), petroleum refining (Royal Dutch Shell), electronical machinery (Philips, ASML), and satellite navigation (TomTom).The Netherlands has the 17th-largest economy in the world, and ranks 11th in GDP (nominal) per capita. Between 1997 and 2000 annual economic growth (GDP) averaged nearly 4%, well above the European average. Growth slowed considerably from 2001 to 2005 with the global economic slowdown, but accelerated to 4.1% in the third quarter of 2007. In May 2013, inflation was at 2.8% per year. In April 2013, unemployment was at 8.2% (or 6.7% following the ILO definition) of the labour force. In February 2019, this was reduced to 3.4%.In Q3 and Q4 2011, the Dutch economy contracted by 0.4% and 0.7%, respectively, because of European Debt Crisis, while in Q4 the Eurozone economy shrunk by 0.3%. The Netherlands also has a relatively low GINI coefficient of 0.326. Despite ranking 11th in GDP per capita, UNICEF ranked the Netherlands 1st in child well-being in rich countries, both in 2007 and in 2013. On the Index of Economic Freedom Netherlands is the 14th most free market capitalist economy out of 180 surveyed countries.Amsterdam is the financial and business capital of the Netherlands. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange (AEX), part of Euronext, is the world's oldest stock exchange and is one of Europe's largest bourses. It is situated near Dam Square in the city's centre. As a founding member of the euro, the Netherlands replaced (for accounting purposes) its former currency, the "gulden" (guilder), on 1 January 1999, along with 15 other adopters of the euro. Actual euro coins and banknotes followed on 1 January 2002. One euro was equivalent to 2.20371 Dutch guilders. In the Caribbean Netherlands, the United States dollar is used instead of the euro.The Dutch location gives it prime access to markets in the UK and Germany, with the Port of Rotterdam being the largest port in Europe. Other important parts of the economy are international trade (Dutch colonialism started with co-operative private enterprises such as the Dutch East India Company), banking and transport. The Netherlands successfully addressed the issue of public finances and stagnating job growth long before its European partners. Amsterdam is the 5th-busiest tourist destination in Europe with more than 4.2 million international visitors. Since the enlargement of the EU large numbers of migrant workers have arrived in the Netherlands from Central and Eastern Europe.The Netherlands continues to be one of the leading European nations for attracting foreign direct investment and is one of the five largest investors in the United States. The economy experienced a slowdown in 2005, but in 2006 recovered to the fastest pace in six years on the back of increased exports and strong investment. The pace of job growth reached 10-year highs in 2007. The Netherlands is the fourth-most competitive economy in the world, according to the World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report.Beginning in the 1950s, the Netherlands discovered huge natural gas resources. The sale of natural gas generated enormous revenues for the Netherlands for decades, adding hundreds of billions of euros to the government's budget. However, the unforeseen consequences of the country's huge energy wealth impacted the competitiveness of other sectors of the economy, leading to the theory of Dutch disease.Apart from coal and gas, the country has no mining resources. The last coal mine was closed in 1974. The Groningen gas field, one of the largest natural-gas fields in the world, is situated near Slochteren. The exploitation of this field has resulted in €159 billion in revenue since the mid-1970s. The field is operated by government-owned Gasunie and output is jointly exploited by the government, Royal Dutch Shell, and Exxon Mobil through NAM (Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij). "Gas extraction has resulted in increasingly strong earth tremors, some measuring as much as 3.6 on the Richter magnitude scale. The cost of damage repairs, structural improvements to buildings, and compensation for home value decreases has been estimated at €6.5 billion. Around 35,000 homes are said to be affected." The Netherlands has an estimated 25% of natural gas reserves in the EU. The energy sector accounted for almost 11% of the GDP in 2014. Netherlands' economy, mainly due to the large shares of natural gas reserves, is considered to have "very high" energy intensity rating.The Netherlands is faced with future challenges as the energy supply is forecasted to fall short of the demand by the year 2025 in the gas sector. This is attributed to the depletion of the Netherlands' major gas field, Groningen, and the earthquakes that have hit the Groningen region. In addition, there is ambiguity surrounding the feasibility of producing unconventional gas. The Netherlands relies heavily on natural gas to provide energy. Gas is the main source of heating for households in the Netherlands and represented 35% of the energy mix in 2014. Furthermore, The European Union 2020 package (20% reduction in GHG emissions, 20% renewables in the energy mix and 20% improvement in energy efficiency) enacted in 2009 has influenced the domestic energy politics of Netherlands and pressured non-state actors to give consent to more aggressive energy reforms that would reduce reliance on natural resources as a source of income to the economy. Therefore, a transition towards renewable energy has been a key objective by Netherlands in order to safeguard the energy security of the country from natural resources depletion, mainly gas. Netherlands has set a 14% renewable energy target of the total energy mix by the year 2020. However, the continuation of providing tax breaks to electricity generated by coal and gas, and to the exploration and extraction of gas from fields that are "insufficiently" profitable, renders a successful transition towards renewable energy more difficult to achieve due to inconsistencies in the policy mix. In 2011, it was estimated that the renewable energy sector received 31% (EUR 743MM), while the conventional energy sector received 69% (EUR 1.6B), of the total energy subsidies by the government. Furthermore, the energy market in the Netherlands remains to be dominated by few major corporations Nuon, RWE, E.ON, Eneco, and Delta that have significant influence over the energy policy. Renewable energy share in the energy mix is estimated to reach 12.4% by the year 2020, falling 1.6% short of the 14% target.From a biological resource perspective, the Netherlands has a low endowment: the Netherlands’ biocapacity adds up to only 0.8 global hectares in 2016, 0.2 of which are dedicated to agriculture. The Dutch biocapacity per person is just about half of the 1.6 global hectares of biocapacity per person available worldwide. In contrast, in 2016, the Dutch used on average 4.8 global hectares of biocapacity - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means the Dutch required nearly six times as much biocapacity as the Netherlands contains. As a result, the Netherlands was running a biocapacity deficit of 4.0 global hectares per person in 2016.The Dutch agricultural sector is highly mechanised, and has a strong focus on international exports. It employs about 4% of the Dutch labour force but produces large surpluses in the food-processing industry and accounts for 21% of the Dutch total export value. The Dutch rank first in the European Union and second worldwide in value of agricultural exports, behind only the United States, with agricultural exports earning €80.7 billion in 2014, up from €75.4 billion in 2012. In 2019 agricultural exports were worth €94.5 billion.One-third of the world's exports of chilis, tomatoes, and cucumbers goes through the country. The Netherlands also exports one-fifteenth of the world's apples.Aside from that, a significant portion of Dutch agricultural exports consists of fresh-cut plants, flowers, and flower bulbs, with the Netherlands exporting two-thirds of the world's total.The Netherlands had an estimated population of 17,493,969 as of 30 April 2021. It is the 5th most densely populated country in Europe, and except for the very small city-states like Monaco, Vatican City and San Marino it is the most densely populated country in Europe. And it is the 16th most densely populated country in the world with a density of . It is the 67th most populous country in the world. Between 1900 and 1950, the country's population almost doubled from 5.1 to 10 million. From 1950 to 2000, the population further increased, to 15.9 million, though this represented a lower rate of population growth. The estimated growth rate is 0.44%.The fertility rate in the Netherlands is 1.78 children per woman (2018 estimate), which is high compared with many other European countries, but below the rate of 2.1 children per woman required for natural population replacement, it remains considerably below the high of 5.39 children born per woman in 1879. Netherlands subsequently has one of the oldest populations in the world, with the average age of 42.7 years. Life expectancy is high in the Netherlands: 84.3 years for newborn girls and 79.7 for boys (2020 estimate). The country has a migration rate of 1.9 migrants per 1,000 inhabitants per year. The majority of the population of the Netherlands is ethnically Dutch. According to a 2005 estimate, the population was 80.9% Dutch, 2.4% Indonesian, 2.4% German, 2.2% Turkish, 2.0% Surinamese, 1.9% Moroccan, 0.8% Antillean and Aruban, and 7.4% others. Some 150,000 to 200,000 people living in the Netherlands are expatriates, mostly concentrated in and around Amsterdam and The Hague, now constituting almost 10% of the population of these cities.The Dutch are the tallest people in the world, by nationality, with an average height of for adult males and for adult females in 2009. People in the south are on average about shorter than those in the north.According to Eurostat, in 2010 there were 1.8 million foreign-born residents in the Netherlands, corresponding to 11.1% of the total population. Of these, 1.4 million (8.5%) were born outside the EU and 0.43 million (2.6%) were born in another EU Member State. On 21 November 2016, there were 3.8 million residents in the Netherlands with at least one foreign-born parent ("migration background"). Over half the young people in Amsterdam and Rotterdam have a non-western background. Dutch people, or descendants of Dutch people, are also found in migrant communities worldwide, notably in Canada, Australia, South Africa and the United States. According to the United States Census Bureau (2006), more than 5 million Americans claim total or partial Dutch ancestry. There are close to 3 million Dutch-descended Afrikaners living in South Africa. In 1940, there were 290,000 Europeans and Eurasians in Indonesia, but most have since left the country.The Randstad is the country's largest conurbation located in the west of the country and contains the four largest cities: Amsterdam in the province North Holland, Rotterdam and The Hague in the province South Holland, and Utrecht in the province Utrecht. The Randstad has a population of about 8.2 million inhabitants and is the 5th largest metropolitan area in Europe. According to Dutch Central Statistics Bureau, in 2015, 28 per cent of the Dutch population had a spendable income above 45,000 euros (which does not include spending on health care or education).The official language is Dutch, which is spoken by the vast majority of the inhabitants. Besides Dutch, West Frisian is recognised as a second official language in the northern province of Friesland ("Fryslân" in West Frisian). West Frisian has a formal status for government correspondence in that province. In the European part of the kingdom two other regional languages are recognised under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.The first of these recognised regional languages is Low Saxon ("Nedersaksisch" in Dutch). Low Saxon consists of several dialects spoken in the north and east, like Tweants in the region of Twente, and Drents in the province of Drenthe. Secondly, Limburgish is also recognised as a regional language. It consists of Dutch varieties of Meuse-Rhenish Franconian languages and is spoken in the south-eastern province of Limburg. The dialects most spoken in the Netherlands are the Brabantian-Hollandic dialects.Ripuarian language, which is spoken in Kerkrade and Vaals in the form of, respectively, the Kerkrade dialect and the Vaals dialect are legally treated as Limburgish as well - see Southeast Limburgish dialect.English has a formal status in the special municipalities of Saba and Sint Eustatius. It is widely spoken on these islands. Papiamento has a formal status in the special municipality of Bonaire. Yiddish and the Romani language were recognised in 1996 as non-territorial languages. The Netherlands has a tradition of learning foreign languages, formalised in Dutch education laws. Some 90% of the total population indicate they are able to converse in English, 70% in German, and 29% in French. English is a mandatory course in all secondary schools. In most lower level secondary school educations ("vmbo"), one additional modern foreign language is mandatory during the first two years.In higher level secondary schools (HAVO and VWO), the acquisition of two additional modern foreign language skills is mandatory during the first three years. Only during the last three years in VWO one foreign language is mandatory. Besides English, the standard modern languages are French and German, although schools can replace one of these modern languages with Chinese, Spanish, Russian, Italian, Turkish or Arabic. Additionally, schools in Friesland teach and have exams in West Frisian, and schools across the country teach and have exams in Ancient Greek and Latin for secondary school (called Gymnasium or VWO+).The population of the Netherlands was predominantly Christian until the late 20th century, divided into a number of denominations. Although significant religious diversity remains, there has been a decline of religious adherence. The Netherlands is now one of the most secular societies in the world.In 2019, Statistics Netherlands found that 54.1% of the total population declared itself to be non-religious. Groups that represent the non-religious in the Netherlands include Humanistisch Verbond. Roman Catholics comprised 20.1% of the total population, Protestants (14.8%). Muslims comprised 5.0% of the total population and followers of other Christian denominations and other religions (like Judaism, Buddhism and Hinduism) comprised the remaining 5.9%. A 2015 survey from another source found that Protestants outnumbered Catholics.The southern provinces of North Brabant and Limburg have historically been strongly Roman Catholic, and some residents consider the Catholic Church as a base for their cultural identity. Protestantism in the Netherlands consists of a number of churches within various traditions. The largest of these is the Protestant Church in the Netherlands (PKN), a United church which is Reformed and Lutheran in orientation. It was formed in 2004 as a merger of the Dutch Reformed Church, the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands and a smaller Lutheran Church. Several orthodox Reformed and liberal churches did not merge into the PKN. Although in the Netherlands as a whole Christianity has become a minority, the Netherlands contains a Bible Belt from Zeeland to the northern parts of the province Overijssel, in which Protestant (particularly Reformed) beliefs remain strong, and even has majorities in municipal councils.Islam is the second largest religion in the state. In 2012, there were about 825,000 Muslims in the Netherlands (5% of the population). The Muslim population increased from the 1960 as a result of large numbers of migrant workers. This included migrant workers from Turkey and Morocco, as well as migrants from former Dutch colonies, such as Surinam and Indonesia. During the 1990s, Muslim refugees arrived from countries like Bosnia and Herzegovina, Iran, Iraq, Somalia, and Afghanistan.Another religion practised is Hinduism, with around 215,000 adherents (slightly over 1% of the population). Most of these are Indo-Surinamese. There are also sizable populations of Hindu immigrants from India and Sri Lanka, and some Western adherents of Hinduism-oriented new religious movements such as Hare Krishnas. The Netherlands has an estimated 250,000 Buddhists or people strongly attracted to this religion, mainly ethnic Dutch people. In addition, there are about 45,000 Jews in the Netherlands.The Constitution of the Netherlands guarantees freedom of education, which means that all schools that adhere to general quality criteria receive the same government funding. This includes schools based on religious principles by religious groups (especially Roman Catholic and various Protestant). Three political parties in the Dutch parliament, (CDA, and two small parties, ChristianUnion and SGP) are based upon the Christian belief. Several Christian religious holidays are national holidays (Christmas, Easter, Pentecost and the Ascension of Jesus).Upon the country's independence, Protestants were predominant in most of the country, while Roman Catholics were dominant in the south, especially North Brabant and Limburg. In the late 19th century, secularism, atheism and pillarisation gained adherents. By 1960, Roman Catholics equalled Protestants in number; thereafter, both Christian branches began to decline. Conversely, Islam grew considerably as the result of immigration. Since 2000 there has been raised awareness of religion, mainly due to Muslim extremism.The Dutch royal family has been traditionally associated with Calvinism, specifically the Dutch Reformed Church, which has merged into the Protestant Church in the Netherlands. The Dutch Reformed Church was the only major Protestant church in the Netherlands from the Reformation until the 19th century. Denominational splits in 1834 and in 1886 diversified Dutch Calvinism. In 2013, a Roman Catholic became Queen consort.A survey in December 2014 concluded that for the first time there were more atheists (25%) than theists (17%) in the Netherlands, while the remainder of the population was agnostic (31%) or ietsistic (27%). In 2015, a vast majority of the inhabitants of the Netherlands (82%) said they had never or almost never visited a church, and 59% stated that they had never been to a church of any kind. Of all the people questioned, 24% saw themselves as atheist, an increase of 11% compared to the previous study done in 2006. The expected rise of spirituality (ietsism) has come to a halt according to research in 2015. In 2006, 40% of respondents considered themselves spiritual; in 2015 this has dropped to 31%. The number who believed in the existence of a higher power fell from 36% to 28% over the same period.Education in the Netherlands is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 16. If a child does not have a "starting qualification" (HAVO, VWO or MBO 2+ degree) they are still forced to attend classes until they achieve such a qualification or reach the age of 18.All children in the Netherlands usually attend elementary school from (on average) ages 4 to 12. It comprises eight grades, the first of which is facultative. Based on an aptitude test, the eighth grade teacher's recommendation and the opinion of the pupil's parents or caretakers, a choice is made for one of the three main streams of secondary education. After completing a particular stream, a pupil may still continue in the penultimate year of the next stream.The VMBO has four grades and is subdivided over several levels. Successfully completing the VMBO results in a low-level vocational degree that grants access to the MBO. The MBO (middle-level applied education) is a form of education that primarily focuses on teaching a practical trade or a vocational degree. With the MBO certification, a student can apply for the HBO. The HAVO has 5 grades and allows for admission to the HBO. The HBO (higher professional education) are universities of professional education (applied sciences) that award professional bachelor's degrees; similar to polytechnic degrees. An HBO degree gives access to the university system. The VWO (comprising atheneum and gymnasium) has 6 grades and prepares for studying at a research university. Universities offer a three-year bachelor's degree, followed by a one or two-year master's degree, which in turn can be followed by a four or five-year doctoral degree programme.Doctoral candidates in the Netherlands are generally non-tenured employees of a university. All Dutch schools and universities are publicly funded and managed with the exception of religious schools that are publicly funded but not managed by the state even though requirements are necessary for the funding to be authorised. Dutch universities have a tuition fee of about 2,000 euros a year for students from the Netherlands and the European Union. The amount is about 10,000 euros for non-EU students.In 2016, the Netherlands maintained its number one position at the top of the annual Euro health consumer index (EHCI), which compares healthcare systems in Europe, scoring 916 of a maximum 1,000 points. The Netherlands has been among the top three countries in each report published since 2005. On 48 indicators such as patient rights and information, accessibility, prevention and outcomes, the Netherlands secured its top position among 37 European countries for six years in a row.The Netherlands was ranked first in a study in 2009 comparing the health care systems of the United States, Australia, Canada, Germany and New Zealand.Ever since a major reform of the health care system in 2006, the Dutch system received more points in the Index each year. According to the HCP (Health Consumer Powerhouse), the Netherlands has 'a chaos system', meaning patients have a great degree of freedom from where to buy their health insurance, to where they get their healthcare service. The difference between the Netherlands and other countries is that the chaos is managed. Healthcare decisions are being made in a dialogue between the patients and healthcare professionals.Health insurance in the Netherlands is mandatory. Healthcare in the Netherlands is covered by two statutory forms of insurance:While Dutch residents are automatically insured by the government for AWBZ, everyone has to take out their own basic healthcare insurance (basisverzekering), except those under 18 who are automatically covered under their parents' premium. If a person decides not to carry out an insurance coverage, the person may be fined. Insurers have to offer a universal package for everyone over the age of 18 years, regardless of age or state of health – it's illegal to refuse an application or impose special conditions. In contrast to many other European systems, the Dutch government is responsible for the accessibility and quality of the healthcare system in the Netherlands, but not in charge of its management.Healthcare in the Netherlands can be divided in several ways: three echelons, in somatic and mental health care and in 'cure' (short term) and 'care' (long term). Home doctors ("huisartsen", comparable to general practitioners) form the largest part of the first echelon. Being referenced by a member of the first echelon is mandatory for access to the second and third echelon. The health care system is in comparison to other Western countries quite effective but not the most cost-effective.Healthcare in the Netherlands is financed by a dual system that came into effect in January 2006. Long-term treatments, especially those that involve semi-permanent hospitalisation, and also disability costs such as wheelchairs, are covered by a state-controlled mandatory insurance. This is laid down in the "Algemene Wet Bijzondere Ziektekosten" ("General Law on Exceptional Healthcare Costs") which first came into effect in 1968. In 2009 this insurance covered 27% of all health care expenses.For all regular (short-term) medical treatment, there is a system of obligatory health insurance, with private health insurance companies. These insurance companies are obliged to provide a package with a defined set of insured treatments. This insurance covers 41% of all health care expenses.Other sources of health care payment are taxes (14%), out of pocket payments (9%), additional optional health insurance packages (4%) and a range of other sources (4%). Affordability is guaranteed through a system of income-related allowances and individual and employer-paid income-related premiums.A key feature of the Dutch system is that premiums may not be related to health status or age. Risk variances between private health insurance companies due to the different risks presented by individual policy holders are compensated through risk equalisation and a common risk pool. The funding burden for all short-term health care coverage is carried 50% by employers, 45% by the insured person and 5% by the government. Children under 18 are covered for free. Those on low incomes receive compensation to help them pay their insurance. Premiums paid by the insured are about €100 per month (about US$127 in August 2010 and €150 or US$196 in 2012), with variation of about 5% between the various competing insurers, and a yearly deductible of €220 (US$288).Mobility on Dutch roads has grown continuously since the 1950s and now exceeds 200 billion km travelled per year, three quarters of which are done by car. Around half of all trips in the Netherlands are made by car, 25% by bicycle, 20% walking, and 5% by public transport.With a total road network of 139,295 km, which includes 2,758 km of expressways, the Netherlands has one of the densest road networks in the world—much denser than Germany and France, but still not as dense as Belgium.As part of its commitment to environmental sustainability, the Government of the Netherlands initiated a plan to establish over 200 recharging stations for electric vehicles across the country. The rollout will be undertaken by Switzerland-based power and automation company ABB and Dutch startup Fastned, and will aim to provide at least one station within a 50-kilometre radius (30 miles) from every home in the Netherlands. Currently, the Netherlands alone hosts more than a quarter of all recharging stations in the European Union. This share rises to 30% if Brexit is taken into account. Moreover, newly sold cars in the Netherlands have on average the lowest CO2 emissions in the EU.About 13% of all distance is travelled by public transport, the majority of which by train. Like in many other European countries, the Dutch rail network of 3,013 km route is also rather dense. The network is mostly focused on passenger rail services and connects all major towns and cities, with over 400 stations. Trains are frequent, with two trains per hour on lesser lines, two to four trains per hour on average, and up to eight trains an hour on the busiest lines. The Dutch national train network also includes the HSL-Zuid, a high-speed line between the Amsterdam metropolitan area and the Belgian border for trains running from Paris and London to the Netherlands.Cycling is a ubiquitous mode of transport in the Netherlands. Almost as many kilometres are covered by bicycle as by train. The Dutch are estimated to have at least 18 million bicycles, which makes more than one per capita, and twice as many as the circa 9 million motor vehicles on the road. In 2013, the European Cyclists' Federation ranked both the Netherlands and Denmark as the most bike-friendly countries in Europe, but more of the Dutch (36%) than of the Danes (23%) list the bike as their most frequent mode of transport on a typical day. Cycling infrastructure is comprehensive. Busy roads have received some 35,000 km of dedicated cycle tracks, physically segregated from motorised traffic. Busy junctions are often equipped with bicycle-specific traffic lights. There are large bicycle parking facilities, particularly in city centres and at train stations.Until the introduction of trains, ships were the primary mode of transport in the Netherlands. And shipping has remained crucial afterwards. The Port of Rotterdam is the largest port in Europe and the largest port in the world outside East-Asia, with the rivers Meuse and Rhine providing excellent access to the hinterland upstream reaching to Basel, Switzerland, and into Germany and France. , Rotterdam was the world's eighth largest container port handling 440.5 million metric tonnes of cargo annually. The port's main activities are petrochemical industries and general cargo handling and transshipment. The harbour functions as an important transit point for bulk materials and between the European continent and overseas. From Rotterdam goods are transported by ship, river barge, train or road. The Volkeraksluizen between Rotterdam and Antwerp are the biggest sluices for inland navigation in the world in terms of tonnage passing through them. In 2007, the Betuweroute, a new fast freight railway from Rotterdam to Germany, was completed. The Netherlands also hosts Europe's 4th largest port in Amsterdam. The inland shipping fleet of the Netherlands is the largest in Europe. The Netherlands also has the largest fleet of active historical ships in the world. Boats are used for passenger travel as well, such as the Watertaxies in Rotterdam. The ferry network in Amsterdam and the Waterbus network in Rotterdam are part of the public transport system.Schiphol Airport, just southwest of Amsterdam, is the main international airport in the Netherlands, and the third busiest airport in Europe in terms of passengers. Schiphol is the main hub for KLM, the nation's flag carrier and the world's oldest airline. In 2016, the Royal Schiphol Group airports handled 70 million passengers. All air traffic is international and Schiphol Airport is connected to over 300 destinations worldwide, more than any other European airport. The airport is a major freight hub as well, processing 1.44 million tonnes of cargo in 2020. Smaller international airports in the country include Eindhoven Airport, Rotterdam The Hague Airport, Maastricht Aachen Airport and Groningen Airport Eelde. Air transport is of vital significance for the Caribbean part of the Netherlands, with all islands having their own airport. This includes the shortest runway in the world on Saba.The Netherlands has had many well-known painters. In the Middle Ages Hieronymus Bosch, Petrus Christus, Lucas Gassel and Pieter Bruegel the Elder were leading Dutch pioneers.During the Dutch Golden Age, spanning much of the 17th century, the Dutch Republic was prosperous and witnessed a flourishing artistic movement. This was the age of the "Dutch Masters", such as Rembrandt van Rijn, Johannes Vermeer, Jan Steen, Jacob van Ruisdael, Gerard van Honthorst, Theodoor van Thulden and many others. Famous Dutch painters of the 19th and 20th century were Vincent van Gogh and the luminists Jan Sluijters, Leo Gestel, and Piet Mondrian. M. C. Escher is a well-known graphic artist. Willem de Kooning was born and trained in Rotterdam, although he is considered to have reached acclaim as an American artist. Literature flourished as well during the Dutch Golden Age, with Joost van den Vondel and P. C. Hooft as the two most famous writers. In the 19th century, Multatuli wrote about the poor treatment of the natives in the Dutch colony, the current Indonesia. Important 20th century authors include Godfried Bomans, Harry Mulisch, Jan Wolkers, Simon Vestdijk, Hella S. Haasse, Cees Nooteboom, Gerard Reve and Willem Frederik Hermans. Anne Frank's "Diary of a Young Girl" was published after she was murdered in the Holocaust and translated from Dutch to all major languages.Various architectural styles can be distinguished in the Netherlands. Over the years, various styles have been built and preserved.The Romanesque architecture was built between the years 950 and 1250. This architectural style is most concentrated in the provinces of Gelderland and Limburg. Limburg, in particular, differs greatly in architectural style from the rest of the Netherlands.The Gothic architecture came to in the Netherlands from about 1230. Gothic buildings often had large windows, pointed arches and were richly decorated.Brabantine Gothic originated with the rise of the Duchy of Brabant and spread throughout the Burgundian provinces.This architectural style is most concentrated in the province of North Brabant, such as St. John's Cathedral in 's-Hertogenbosch, The Church of Our Lady in Breda and the Margraves Palace in Bergen op Zoom.What many know as traditional Dutch architecture is the Dutch Baroque architecture (1525 – 1630) and classicism (1630 – 1700).These style of architecture is especially in evidence in the cities of North Holland, South Holland and Zeeland.Other architectural styles that are common in the Netherlands are Style Louis XIV, Art Nouveau, Rationalism, NeoclassicismExpressionism, De Stijl, Traditionalism and Brutalism.The Netherlands is the country of philosophers Erasmus, Rudolf Agricola and Spinoza. Much of Descartes' major work was done in the Netherlands, where he studied at Leiden University — as did geologist James Hutton, British Prime Minister John Stuart, U.S. President John Quincy Adams, Physics Nobel Prize laureate Hendrik Lorentz and Enrico Fermi. The Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) discovered Saturn's moon Titan, argued that light travelled as waves, invented the pendulum clock and was the first physicist to use mathematical formulae. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe and describe single-celled organisms with a microscope.Replicas of Dutch buildings can be found in Huis Ten Bosch, Nagasaki, Japan. A similar Holland Village is being built in Shenyang, China. Windmills, tulips, wooden shoes, cheese, Delftware pottery, and cannabis are among the items associated with the Netherlands by tourists.In the south of the Netherlands there are some festivals that rarely or never occur in the rest of the Netherlands. These celebrations grew out of Catholic traditions, including Carnival, lantern parades during the celebration of Three Kings, Brabantian Day and huge Bloemencorso. Bloemencorsos used to occur in many places in the Netherlands, but in the 21th century, Zundert and Valkenswaard in North Brabant have taken the lead.Dutch society is egalitarian and modern. The Dutch have an aversion to the non-essential. Ostentatious behaviour is to be avoided. The Dutch are proud of their cultural heritage, rich history in art and involvement in international affairs.Dutch manners are open and direct with a no-nonsense attitude—informality combined with adherence to basic behaviour. According to a humorous source on Dutch culture, "Their directness gives many the impression that they are rude and crude—attributes they prefer to call openness." A well known more serious source on Dutch etiquette is "Dealing with the Dutch" by Jacob Vossestein: "Dutch egalitarianism is the idea that people are equal, especially from a moral point of view, and accordingly, causes the somewhat ambiguous stance the Dutch have towards hierarchy and status." As always, manners differ between groups. Asking about basic rules will not be considered impolite. "What may strike you as being blatantly blunt topics and comments are no more embarrassing or unusual to the Dutch than discussing the weather."The Netherlands is one of the most secular countries of Europe, and religion in the Netherlands is generally considered as a personal matter which is not supposed to be propagated in public, although it often remains a discussion subject. For only 17% of the population religion is important and 14% goes to church weekly.The Netherlands has a long history of social tolerance and today is regarded as a liberal country, considering its drug policy and its legalisation of euthanasia. On 1 April 2001, the Netherlands became the first nation to legalise same-sex marriage.As of 2018 the Netherlands had one of the highest rates of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in the European Union, above those of Germany, France and Belgium. In addition, the Dutch waste more food than any other EU citizen, at over three times the EU average Despite this, the Netherlands has nonetheless the reputation of the leader country in environmental and population management. In 2015, Amsterdam and Rotterdam were ranked fourth and fifth, respectively, on the Arcadis Sustainable Cities Index.Sustainability is a concept important for the Dutch. The goal of the Dutch Government is to have a sustainable, reliable and affordable energy system, by 2050, in which emissions have been halved and 40 per cent of electricity is derived from sustainable sources.The government is investing billions of euros in energy efficiency, sustainable energy and reduction. The Kingdom also encourages Dutch companies to build sustainable business/projects/facilities, with financial aids from the state to the companies or individuals who are active in making the country more sustainable.The Netherlands has multiple music traditions. Traditional Dutch music is a genre known as "Levenslied", meaning "Song of life", to an extent comparable to a French Chanson or a German Schlager. These songs typically have a simple melody and rhythm, and a straightforward structure of verses and choruses. Themes can be light, but are often sentimental and include love, death and loneliness. Traditional musical instruments such as the accordion and the barrel organ are a staple of levenslied music, though in recent years many artists also use synthesisers and guitars. Artists in this genre include Jan Smit, Frans Bauer and André Hazes.Contemporary Dutch rock and pop music (Nederpop) originated in the 1960s, heavily influenced by popular music from the United States and Britain. In the 1960s and 1970s the lyrics were mostly in English, and some tracks were instrumental. Bands such as Shocking Blue, Golden Earring, Tee Set, George Baker Selection and Focus enjoyed international success. As of the 1980s, more and more pop musicians started working in the Dutch language, partly inspired by the huge success of the band Doe Maar. Today Dutch rock and pop music thrives in both languages, with some artists recording in both.Current symphonic metal bands Epica, Delain, ReVamp, The Gathering, Asrai, Autumn, Ayreon and Within Temptation as well as jazz and pop singer Caro Emerald are having international success. Also, metal bands like Hail of Bullets, God Dethroned, Izegrim, Asphyx, Textures, Present Danger, Heidevolk and Slechtvalk are popular guests at the biggest metal festivals in Europe. Contemporary local stars include pop singer Anouk, country pop singer Ilse DeLange, South Guelderish and Limburgish dialect singing folk band Rowwen Hèze, rock band BLØF and duo Nick & Simon. Trijntje Oosterhuis, one of the country's most well known and versatile singers, has made multiple albums with famous American composers Vince Mendoza and Burt Bacharach.Early 1990s Dutch and Belgian house music came together in Eurodance project 2 Unlimited. Selling 18 million records, the two singers in the band are the most successful Dutch music artists to this day. Tracks like "Get Ready for This" are still popular themes of U.S. sports events, like the NHL. In the mid 1990s Dutch language rap and hip hop ("Nederhop") also came to fruition and has become popular in the Netherlands and Belgium. Artists with North African, Caribbean or Middle Eastern origins have strongly influenced this genre.Since the 1990s, Dutch electronic dance music (EDM) gained widespread popularity in the world in many forms, from trance, techno and gabber to hardstyle. Some of the world's best known dance music DJs hail from the Netherlands, including Armin van Buuren, Tiësto, Hardwell, Martin Garrix, Dash Berlin, Julian Jordan, Nicky Romero, W&W, Don Diablo and Afrojack; the first four of which have been ranked as best in the world by DJ Mag Top 100 DJs. The Amsterdam Dance Event (ADE) is the world's leading electronic music conference and the biggest club festival for the many electronic subgenres on the planet. These DJs also contribute to the world's mainstream pop music, as they frequently collaborate and produce for high-profile international artists.The Netherlands have participated in the Eurovision Song Contest since its first edition in 1956, and have won five times. Their most recent win was in 2019.In classical music, Jan Sweelinck ranks as the Dutch most famous composer, with Louis Andriessen amongst the best known living Dutch classical composers. Ton Koopman is a Dutch conductor, organist and harpsichordist. He is also professor at the Royal Conservatory of The Hague. Notable violinists are Janine Jansen and André Rieu. The latter, together with his Johann Strauss Orchestra, has taken classical and waltz music on worldwide concert tours, the size and revenue of which are otherwise only seen from the world's biggest rock and pop music acts. The most famous Dutch classical composition is "Canto Ostinato" by Simeon ten Holt, a minimalistic composition for multiple instruments. Acclaimed harpist Lavinia Meijer in 2012 released an album with works from Philip Glass that she transcribed for harp, with approval of Glass himself. The Concertgebouw (completed in 1888) in Amsterdam is home to the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, considered one of the world's finest orchestras.Some Dutch films – mainly by director Paul Verhoeven – have received international distribution and recognition, such as "Turkish Delight" (""Turks Fruit"", 1973), "Soldier of Orange" (""Soldaat van Oranje"", 1977), "Spetters" (1980) and "The Fourth Man" (""De Vierde Man"", 1983). Verhoeven then went on to direct big Hollywood movies like "RoboCop" (1987), "Total Recall" (1990) and "Basic Instinct" (1992), and returned with Dutch film "Black Book" (""Zwartboek"", 2006).Other well-known Dutch film directors are Jan de Bont ("Speed"), Anton Corbijn ("A Most wanted Man"), Dick Maas ("De Lift"), Fons Rademakers ("The Assault"), and documentary makers Bert Haanstra and Joris Ivens. Film director Theo van Gogh achieved international notoriety in 2004 when he was murdered by Mohammed Bouyeri in the streets of Amsterdam after directing the short film "Submission".Internationally, successful directors of photography from the Netherlands are Hoyte van Hoytema ("Interstellar", "Spectre", "Dunkirk") and Theo van de Sande ("Wayne's World" and "Blade"). Van Hoytema went to the National Film School in Łódź (Poland) and Van de Sande went to the Netherlands Film Academy. Internationally successful Dutch actors include Famke Janssen ("X-Men"), Carice van Houten ("Game of Thrones"), Michiel Huisman ("Game of Thrones"), Rutger Hauer ("Blade Runner"), Jeroen Krabbé ("The Living Daylights") and Derek de Lint ("Three Men and a Baby").The Netherlands has a well developed television market, with both multiple commercial and public broadcasters. Imported TV programmes, as well as interviews with responses in a foreign language, are virtually always shown with the original sound and subtitled. Only foreign shows for children are dubbed.TV exports from the Netherlands mostly take the form of specific formats and franchises, most notably through internationally active TV production conglomerate Endemol, founded by Dutch media tycoons John de Mol and Joop van den Ende. Headquartered in Amsterdam, Endemol has around 90 companies in over 30 countries. Endemol and its subsidiaries create and run reality, talent, and game show franchises worldwide, including "Big Brother" and "Deal or No Deal". John de Mol later started his own company Talpa which created show franchises like "The Voice" and "Utopia".Approximately 4.5 million of the 16.8 million people in the Netherlands are registered to one of the 35,000 sports clubs in the country. About two-thirds of the population between 15 and 75 participates in sports weekly. Football is the most popular participant sport in the Netherlands, before field hockey and volleyball as the second and third most popular team sports. The Netherlands national football team is one of the most popular aspects of Dutch sports; especially since the 1970s when one of the greatest footballers of all time, Johan Cruyff, developed Total Football with coach Rinus Michels. Tennis, gymnastics and golf are the three most widely engaged in individual sports.Organisation of sports began at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. Federations for sports were established (such as the speed skating federation in 1882), rules were unified and sports clubs came into existence. A Dutch National Olympic Committee was established in 1912. Thus far, the nation has won 266 medals at the Summer Olympic Games and another 110 medals at the Winter Olympic Games. In international competition, Dutch national teams and athletes are dominant in several fields of sport. The Netherlands women's field hockey team is the most successful team in World Cup history. The Netherlands baseball team have won the European championship 20 times out of 32 events. Dutch K-1 kickboxers have won the K-1 World Grand Prix 15 times out of 19 tournaments. The Netherlands Women's handball team holds the record of the only team in the world that consecutively reached all six semifinals of major international tournaments since 2015, winning silver and bronze at the European Women's Handball Championship and silver, bronze and gold at the World Women's Handball Championship. They finished fourth at the 2016 Summer Olympics.The Dutch speed skaters' performance at the 2014 Winter Olympics, where they won 8 out of 12 events, 23 out of 36 medals, including 4 clean sweeps, is the most dominant performance in a single sport in Olympic history. Motorcycle racing at the TT Circuit Assen has a long history. Assen is the only venue to have held a round of the Motorcycle World Championship every year since its creation in 1949. The circuit was purpose-built for the Dutch TT in 1954, with previous events having been held on public roads.The Dutch have also had success in all three of cyclings Grand Tours with Jan Janssen winning the 1968 Tour de France, more recently with Tom Dumoulin winning the 2017 Giro d'Italia and legendary rider Joop Zoetemelk was the 1985 UCI World Champion, the winner of the 1979 Vuelta a Espana, the 1980 Tour de France and still holds or shares numerous Tour de France records including most Tours finished and most kilometres ridden.Limburger Max Verstappen currently races in Formula One, and was the first Dutchman to win a Grand Prix. The coastal resort of Zandvoort hosted the Dutch Grand Prix from 1958 to 1985, and has been announced to return in 2020. The volleyball national men's team has also been successful, winning the silver medal at the 1992 Summer Olympics and the gold medal four years later in Atlanta. The biggest success of the women's national team was winning the European Championship in 1995 and the World Grand Prix in 2007.Recently cricket has made a remarkable progress in the Netherlands. Netherlands have participated in 1996, 2003, 2007 and 2011 ODI cricket World Cup. They have also qualified for 2009 and 2014 T20 World Cup. In the 2009 T20 World Cup, Netherlands defeated England, the current World Champions and inventor of the game. Ryan ten Doeschate is the only Dutch player to have played in the IPL on the team Kolkata Knight Riders.Originally, the country's cuisine was shaped by the practices of fishing and farming, including the cultivation of the soil for growing crops and raising domesticated animals. Dutch cuisine is simple and straightforward, and contains many dairy products. Breakfast and lunch are typically bread with toppings, with cereal for breakfast as an alternative. Traditionally, dinner consists of potatoes, a portion of meat, and (seasonal) vegetables. The Dutch diet was relatively high in carbohydrates and fat, reflecting the dietary needs of the labourers whose culture moulded the country. Without many refinements, it is best described as rustic, though many holidays are still celebrated with special foods. In the course of the twentieth century this diet changed and became much more cosmopolitan, with most global cuisines being represented in the major cities.Modern culinary writers distinguish between three general regional forms of Dutch cuisine. The regions in the northeast of the Netherlands, roughly the provinces of Groningen, Friesland, Drenthe, Overijssel and Gelderland north of the great rivers are the least populated areas of the Netherlands. The late (18th century) introduction of large scale agriculture means that the cuisine is generally known for its many kinds of meats. The relative lack of farms allowed for an abundance of game and husbandry, though dishes near the coastal regions of Friesland, Groningen and the parts of Overijssel bordering the IJsselmeer also include a large amount of fish. The various dried sausages, belonging to the metworst-family of Dutch sausages are found throughout this region and are highly prized for their often very strong taste. Also smoked sausages are common, of which ("Gelderse") "rookworst" is the most renowned. The sausage contains a lot of fat and is very juicy. Larger sausages are often eaten alongside "stamppot", "hutspot" or "zuurkool" (sauerkraut); whereas smaller ones are often eaten as a street food. The provinces are also home to hard textured rye bread, pastries and cookies, the latter heavily spiced with ginger or succade or containing small bits of meat. Various kinds of "Kruidkoek" (such as ), "" and "" (small savoury pancakes cooked in a waffle iron) are considered typical. A notable characteristic of "Fries roggebrood" (Frisian rye bread) is its long baking time (up to 20 hours), resulting in a sweet taste and a deep dark colour. In terms of alcoholic beverages, the region is renowned for its many bitters (such as "Beerenburg") and other high-proof liquors rather than beer, which is, apart from "Jenever", typical for the rest of the country. As a coastal region, Friesland is home to low-lying grasslands, and thus has a cheese production in common with the Western cuisine. "Friese Nagelkaas" (Friesian Clove) is a notable example.The provinces of North Holland, South Holland, Zeeland, and Utrecht and the Gelderlandic area of Betuwe make up the region in which western Dutch cuisine is found. Because of the abundance of water and flat grasslands that are found here, the area is known for its many dairy products, which include prominent cheeses such as Gouda, Leyden (spiced cheese with cumin), and Edam (traditionally in small spheres) as well as Leerdammer and Beemster, while the adjacent Zaanstreek in North Holland has since the 16th century been known for its mayonnaise, typical whole-grain mustards, and chocolate industry. Zeeland and South Holland produce a lot of butter, which contains a larger amount of milkfat than most other European butter varieties. A by-product of the butter-making process, "karnemelk" (buttermilk), is also considered typical for this region. Seafood such as soused herring, mussels (called "Zeeuwse Mossels", since all Dutch mussels for consumption are cleaned in Zeeland's Oosterschelde), eels, oysters and shrimps are widely available and typical for the region. "", once a local delicacy consisting of small chunks of battered white fish, has become a national fast food, just as . Pastries in this area tend to be quite doughy, and often contain large amounts of sugar; either caramelised, powdered or crystallised. The "oliebol" (in its modern form) and "Zeeuwse bolus" are good examples. Cookies are also produced in great number and tend to contain a lot of butter and sugar, like "stroopwafel", as well as a filling of some kind, mostly almond, like "". The traditional alcoholic beverages of this region are beer (strong pale lager) and "Jenever", a high proof juniper-flavoured spirit, that came to be known in England as gin. A noted exception within the traditional Dutch alcoholic landscape, "Advocaat", a rich and creamy liqueur made from eggs, sugar and brandy, is also native to this region.The Southern Dutch cuisine consists of the cuisines of the Dutch provinces of North Brabant and Limburg and the Flemish Region in Belgium. It is renowned for its many rich pastries, soups, stews and vegetable dishes and is often called Burgundian which is a Dutch idiom invoking the rich Burgundian court which ruled the Low Countries in the Middle Ages, renowned for its splendor and great feasts. It is the only Dutch culinary region that developed an haute cuisine. Pastries are abundant, often with rich fillings of cream, custard or fruits. Cakes, such as the "Vlaai" from Limburg and the "Moorkop" and "Bossche Bol" from Brabant, are typical pastries. Savoury pastries also occur, with the (a roll with a sausage of ground beef, literally translates into sausage bread) being the most popular. The traditional alcoholic beverage of the region is beer. There are many local brands, ranging from "Trappist" to "Kriek". 5 of the 10 "International Trappist Association" recognised breweries in the world, are located in the Southern Dutch cultural area. Beer, like wine in French cuisine, is also used in cooking; often in stews.In early 2014, Oxfam ranked the Netherlands as the country with the most nutritious, plentiful and healthy food, in a comparison of 125 countries.From the exploitations in the Mughal Empire in the 17th century, to the colonisations in the 19th century, Dutch imperial possessions continued to expand, reaching their greatest extent by establishing a hegemony of the Dutch East Indies in the early 20th century. The Dutch East Indies, which later formed modern-day Indonesia, was one of the most valuable European colonies in the world and the most important one for the Netherlands. Over 350 years of mutual heritage has left a significant cultural mark on the Netherlands.In the Dutch Golden Age of the 17th century, the Netherlands urbanised considerably, mostly financed by corporate revenue from the Asian trade monopolies. Social status was based on merchants' income, which reduced feudalism and considerably changed the dynamics of Dutch society. When the Dutch royal family was established in 1815, much of its wealth came from Colonial trade.By the 17th century, the Dutch East India Company established their base in parts of Ceylon (modern-day Sri Lanka). Afterward, they established ports in Dutch occupied Malabar, leading to Dutch settlements and trading posts in India. However, their expansion into India was halted, after their defeat in the Battle of Colachel by the Kingdom of Travancore, during the Travancore-Dutch War. The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat to Bengal Subah.Universities such as the Leiden University, founded in the 16th century, have developed into leading knowledge centres for Southeast Asian and Indonesian studies. Leiden University has produced leading academics such as Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje, and still has academics who specialise in Indonesian languages and cultures. Leiden University and in particular KITLV are educational and scientific institutions that to this day share both an intellectual and historical interest in Indonesian studies. Other scientific institutions in the Netherlands include the Amsterdam Tropenmuseum, an anthropological museum with massive collections of Indonesian art, culture, ethnography and anthropology.The traditions of the Royal Dutch East Indies Army (KNIL) are maintained by the Regiment Van Heutsz of the modern Royal Netherlands Army. A dedicated "Bronbeek Museum", a former home for retired KNIL soldiers, exists in Arnhem to this day.A specific segment of Dutch literature called Dutch Indies literature still exists and includes established authors, such as Louis Couperus, the writer of "The Hidden Force", taking the colonial era as an important source of inspiration. One of the great masterpieces of Dutch literature is the book "Max Havelaar", written by Multatuli in 1860.The majority of Dutchmen that repatriated to the Netherlands after and during the Indonesian revolution are Indo (Eurasian), native to the islands of the Dutch East Indies. This relatively large Eurasian population had developed over a period of 400 years and were classified by colonial law as belonging to the European legal community. In Dutch they are referred to as "Indische Nederlanders" or as Indo (short for Indo-European).Including their second generation descendants, Indos are currently the largest foreign-born group in the Netherlands. In 2008, the Dutch Central Bureau for Statistics (CBS) registered 387,000 first- and second-generation Indos living in the Netherlands. Although considered fully assimilated into Dutch society, as the main ethnic minority in the Netherlands, these 'repatriants' have played a pivotal role in introducing elements of Indonesian culture into Dutch mainstream culture.Many Indonesian dishes and foodstuffs have become commonplace in the Netherlands. Rijsttafel, a colonial culinary concept, and dishes such as Nasi goreng and satay are very popular in the country. Practically any town of any size in the Netherlands has a "toko" (a Dutch Indonesian Shop) or a Chinese-Indonesian restaurant, and many 'Pasar Malam' (Night market in Malay/Indonesian) fairs are organised throughout the year. | [
"Piet de Jong",
"Hendrikus Colijn",
"Ruud Lubbers",
"Jan de Quay",
"Wim Schermerhorn",
"Jo Cals",
"Joop den Uyl",
"Wim Kok",
"Louis Beel",
"Dirk Jan de Geer",
"Dries van Agt",
"Willem Drees",
"Charles Ruijs de Beerenbrouck",
"Jelle Zijlstra",
"Jan Peter Balkenende",
"Mark Rutte",
"Pieter Sjoerds Gerbrandy",
"Barend Biesheuvel"
] |
|
Who was the head of Netherlands in 1964-01-24? | January 24, 1964 | {
"text": [
"Victor Marijnen"
]
} | L2_Q55_P6_8 | Jelle Zijlstra is the head of the government of Netherlands from Nov, 1966 to Apr, 1967.
Joop den Uyl is the head of the government of Netherlands from May, 1973 to Dec, 1977.
Wim Kok is the head of the government of Netherlands from Aug, 1994 to Jul, 2002.
Louis Beel is the head of the government of Netherlands from Jul, 1946 to Aug, 1948.
Victor Marijnen is the head of the government of Netherlands from Jul, 1963 to Apr, 1965.
Hendrikus Colijn is the head of the government of Netherlands from Aug, 1925 to Mar, 1926.
Ruud Lubbers is the head of the government of Netherlands from Nov, 1982 to Aug, 1994.
Willem Drees is the head of the government of Netherlands from Aug, 1948 to Dec, 1958.
Jan de Quay is the head of the government of Netherlands from May, 1959 to Jul, 1963.
Jo Cals is the head of the government of Netherlands from Apr, 1965 to Nov, 1966.
Piet de Jong is the head of the government of Netherlands from Apr, 1967 to Jul, 1971.
Jan Peter Balkenende is the head of the government of Netherlands from Jul, 2002 to Oct, 2010.
Barend Biesheuvel is the head of the government of Netherlands from Jul, 1971 to May, 1973.
Dirk Jan de Geer is the head of the government of Netherlands from Mar, 1926 to Aug, 1929.
Wim Schermerhorn is the head of the government of Netherlands from Jun, 1945 to Jul, 1946.
Pieter Sjoerds Gerbrandy is the head of the government of Netherlands from Sep, 1940 to Jun, 1945.
Dries van Agt is the head of the government of Netherlands from Dec, 1977 to Nov, 1982.
Mark Rutte is the head of the government of Netherlands from Oct, 2010 to Dec, 2022.
Charles Ruijs de Beerenbrouck is the head of the government of Netherlands from Sep, 1918 to Aug, 1925. | NetherlandsThe Netherlands ( ), sometimes informally Holland, is a country located in Western Europe with territories in the Caribbean. It is the largest of four constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. In Europe, the Netherlands consists of twelve provinces, bordering Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, with maritime borders in the North Sea with those countries and the United Kingdom. In the Caribbean, it consists of three special municipalities: the islands of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba. The country's official language is Dutch, with West Frisian as a secondary official language in the province of Friesland, and English and Papiamento as secondary official languages in the Caribbean Netherlands. Dutch Low Saxon and Limburgish are recognised regional languages (spoken in the east and southeast respectively), while Dutch Sign Language, Sinte Romani and Yiddish are recognised non-territorial languages.The four largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague and Utrecht. Amsterdam is the country's most populous city and nominal capital, while The Hague holds the seat of the States General, Cabinet and Supreme Court. The Port of Rotterdam is the busiest seaport in Europe, and the busiest in any country outside East Asia and Southeast Asia, behind only China and Singapore. Amsterdam Airport Schiphol is the busiest airport in the Netherlands, and the third busiest in Europe. The country is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. It hosts several intergovernmental organisations and international courts, many of which are centred in The Hague, which is consequently dubbed 'the world's legal capital'."Netherlands" literally means "lower countries" in reference to its low elevation and flat topography, with only about 50% of its land exceeding above sea level, and nearly 26% falling below sea level. Most of the areas below sea level, known as "polders", are the result of land reclamation that began in the 14th century. Colloquially or informally the Netherlands is occasionally referred to by the pars pro toto "Holland". With a population of 17.4 million people, all living within a total area of roughly —of which the land area is —the Netherlands is the 16th most densely populated country in the world and the 2nd most densely populated country in the European Union, with a density of . Nevertheless, it is the world's second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products by value, owing to its fertile soil, mild climate, intensive agriculture and inventiveness.The Netherlands has been a parliamentary constitutional monarchy with a unitary structure since 1848. The country has a tradition of pillarisation and a long record of social tolerance, having legalised abortion, prostitution and human euthanasia, along with maintaining a liberal drug policy. The Netherlands abolished the death penalty in Civil Law in 1870, though it was not completely removed until a new constitution was approved in 1983. The Netherlands allowed women's suffrage in 1919, before becoming the world's first country to legalise same-sex marriage in 2001. Its mixed-market advanced economy had the eleventh-highest per capita income globally. The Netherlands ranks among the highest in international indexes of press freedom, economic freedom, human development and quality of life, as well as happiness. In 2020, it ranked eighth on the human development index and fifth on the 2021 World Happiness Index.The Netherlands' turbulent history and shifts of power resulted in exceptionally many and widely varying names in different languages. There is diversity even within languages. In English, the Netherlands is also called Holland or (part of) the Low Countries, whereas the term ""Dutch"" is used as the demonym and adjectival form.The region called the Low Countries (comprising Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg) have the same toponymy. Place names with "Neder", "Nieder", "Nedre", "Nether", "Lage(r)" or "Low(er)" (in Germanic languages) and "Bas" or "Inferior" (in Romance languages) are in use in low-lying places all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a deictic relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as "Super(ior)", "Up(per)", "Op(per)", "Ober", "Boven", "High", "Haut" or "Hoch". In the case of the Low Countries / Netherlands the geographical location of the "lower" region has been more or less downstream and near the sea. The geographical location of the upper region, however, changed tremendously over time, depending on the location of the economic and military power governing the Low Countries area. The Romans made a distinction between the Roman provinces of downstream Germania Inferior (nowadays part of Belgium and the Netherlands) and upstream Germania Superior (nowadays part of Germany). The designation 'Low' to refer to the region returns again in the 10th century Duchy of Lower Lorraine, that covered much of the Low Countries. But this time the corresponding "Upper" region is Upper Lorraine, in nowadays Northern France.The Dukes of Burgundy, who ruled from their residence in the Low Countries in the 15th century, used the term "les pays de par deçà" ("the lands over here") for the Low Countries, as opposed to "les pays de par delà" ("the lands over there") for their original homeland: Burgundy in present-day east-central France. Under Habsburg rule, "Les pays de par deçà" developed in "pays d'embas" ("lands down-here"), a deictic expression in relation to other Habsburg possessions like Hungary and Austria. This was translated as "Neder-landen" in contemporary Dutch official documents. From a regional point of view, "Niderlant" was also the area between the Meuse and the lower Rhine in the late Middle Ages. The area known as "Oberland" (High country) was in this deictic context considered to begin approximately at the nearby higher located Cologne.From the mid-sixteenth century on, the "Low Countries" and the "Netherlands" lost their original deictic meaning. They were probably the most commonly used names, besides Flanders, a "pars pro toto" for the Low Countries, especially in Romance language-speaking Europe. The Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) divided the Low Countries into an independent northern Dutch Republic (or Latinised "Belgica Foederata", "Federated Netherlands", the precursor state of the Netherlands) and a Spanish controlled Southern Netherlands (Latinised "Belgica Regia", "Royal Netherlands", the precursor state of Belgium). The Low Countries today is a designation that includes the countries of the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg, although in most Romance languages, the term "Low Countries" is used as the name for the Netherlands specifically. It is used synonymously with the more neutral and geopolitical term Benelux.The Netherlands is also referred to as Holland in various languages, including English. However, Holland proper is only a region within the country that consists of North and South Holland, two of the nation's twelve provinces. Formerly they were a single province, and earlier the County of Holland, a remnant of the dissolved Frisian Kingdom which also included parts of present-day Utrecht. Following the decline of the Duchy of Brabant and the County of Flanders, Holland became the most economically and politically important county in the Low Countries region. The emphasis on Holland during the formation of the Dutch Republic, the Eighty Years' War, and the Anglo-Dutch Wars in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, made Holland serve as a "pars pro toto" for the entire country, which is now considered informal or incorrect. Nonetheless, the name "Holland" is still widely used for the Netherlands national football team, including in the Netherlands, and the Dutch government's international websites for tourism and trade are "holland.com" and "hollandtradeandinvest.com". In 2020, however, the Dutch government announced that it would only communicate and advertise under the name "the Netherlands" in the future.The term Dutch is used as the demonymic and adjectival form of the Netherlands in the English language. The origins of the word go back to Proto-Germanic "*þiudiskaz", Latinised into Theodiscus, meaning "popular" or "of the people"; akin to Old Dutch "Dietsch", Old High German "duitsch", and Old English "þeodisc", all meaning "(of) the common (Germanic) people". At first, the English language used (the contemporary form of) Dutch to refer to any or all speakers of West Germanic languages (e.g. the Dutch, the Frisians, and the Germans). Gradually its meaning shifted to the West Germanic people they had most contact with, because of their geographical proximity and for the rivalry in trade and overseas territories. The derivative of the Proto-Germanic word "*þiudiskaz" in modern Dutch, "Diets", can be found in Dutch literature as a poetic name for the Dutch people or language, but is considered very archaic. Although it had a short resurgence after World War II to avoid the reference to Germany. It is still used in the expression "diets maken" – to put it straight to him/her (as in a threat) or, more neutral, to make it clear, understandable, explain, say in the people's language (cf. the Vulgate (Bible not in Greek or Hebrew, but Latin; the folks' language) in meaning vulgar, though not in a pejorative sense).In Dutch, the names for the Netherlands, the Dutch language and a Dutch citizen are "Nederland", "Nederlands" and "Nederlander", respectively. Colloquially the country is also by the Dutch often referred to as Holland, although to lesser extent outside the two provinces North and South Holland, where it may even be used as a pejorative term, e.g. Hollènder (dialect) in Maastricht.The plural "Nederlanden" is used in many different connotations in the past, but since 1815 it has been used in the official name "Koninkrijk der Nederlanden" ("Kingdom of the Netherlands"). In many other languages the plural stuck, for example "Niederlande" (German), "Pays-Bas" (French) and "Países Bajos" (Spanish). In Indonesian (a former colony) the country is called "Belanda", a name derived from 'Holland'.The prehistory of the area that is now the Netherlands was largely shaped by the sea and the rivers that constantly shifted the low-lying geography. The oldest human (Neanderthal) traces were found in higher soils, near Maastricht, from what is believed to be about 250,000 years ago. At the end of the Ice Age, the nomadic late Upper Paleolithic Hamburg culture (c. 13.000–10.000 BC) hunted reindeer in the area, using spears, but the later Ahrensburg culture (c. 11.200–9500 BC) used bow and arrow. From Mesolithic Maglemosian-like tribes (c. 8000 BC) the oldest canoe in the world was found in Drenthe.Indigenous late Mesolithic hunter-gatherers from the Swifterbant culture (c. 5600 BC) were related to the southern Scandinavian Ertebølle culture and were strongly linked to rivers and open water. Between 4800 and 4500 BC, the Swifterbant people started to copy from the neighbouring Linear Pottery culture the practise of animal husbandry, and between 4300 and 4000 BC the practice of agriculture. The Funnelbeaker culture (c. 4300–2800 BC), which is related to the Swifterbant culture, erected the dolmens, large stone grave monuments found in Drenthe. There was a quick and smooth transition from the Funnelbeaker farming culture to the pan-European Corded Ware pastoralist culture (c. 2950 BC). In the southwest, the Seine-Oise-Marne culture — which was related to the Vlaardingen culture (c. 2600 BC), an apparently more primitive culture of hunter-gatherers — survived well into the Neolithic period, until it too was succeeded by the Corded Ware culture.Of the subsequent Bell Beaker culture (2700–2100 BC) several regions of origin have been postulated, notably the Iberian peninsula, the Netherlands and Central Europe. They introduced metalwork in copper, gold and later bronze and opened international trade routes not seen before, reflected in the discoveries of copper artifacts, as the metal is not normally found in Dutch soil. The many finds in Drenthe of rare bronze objects, suggest that it was even a trading centre in the Bronze Age (2000–800 BC). The Bell Beaker culture developed locally into the Barbed-Wire Beaker culture (2100–1800 BC) and later the Elp culture (c. 1800–800 BC), a Middle Bronze Age archaeological culture having earthenware pottery of low quality as a marker. The initial phase of the Elp culture was characterised by tumuli (1800–1200 BC) that were strongly tied to contemporary tumuli in northern Germany and Scandinavia and was apparently related to the Tumulus culture in central Europe. The subsequent phase was that of cremating the dead and placing their ashes in urns which were then buried in fields, following the customs of the Urnfield culture (1200–800 BC). The southern region became dominated by the related Hilversum culture (1800–800 BC), which apparently inherited cultural ties with Britain of the previous Barbed-Wire Beaker culture.From 800 BC onwards, the Iron Age Celtic Hallstatt culture became influential, replacing the Hilversum culture. Iron ore brought a measure of prosperity and was available throughout the country, including bog iron. Smiths travelled from settlement to settlement with bronze and iron, fabricating tools on demand. The King's grave of Oss (700 BC) was found in a burial mound, the largest of its kind in western Europe and containing an iron sword with an inlay of gold and coral.The deteriorating climate in Scandinavia around 850 BC further deteriorated around 650 BC and might have triggered migration of Germanic tribes from the North. By the time this migration was complete, around 250 BC, a few general cultural and linguistic groups had emerged. The North Sea Germanic Ingaevones inhabited the northern part of the Low Countries. They would later develop into the Frisii and the early Saxons. A second grouping, the Weser-Rhine Germanic (or Istvaeones), extended along the middle Rhine and Weser and inhabited the Low Countries south of the great rivers. This group consisted of tribes that would eventually develop into the Salian Franks. Also the Celtic La Tène culture (c. 450 BC up to the Roman conquest) had expanded over a wide range, including the southern area of the Low Countries. Some scholars have speculated that even a third ethnic identity and language, neither Germanic nor Celtic, survived in the Netherlands until the Roman period, the Iron Age Nordwestblock culture, that eventually was absorbed by the Celts to the south and the Germanic peoples from the east.The first author to describe the coast of Holland and Flanders was the Greek geographer Pytheas, who noted in c. 325 BC that in these regions, "more people died in the struggle against water than in the struggle against men." During the Gallic Wars, the area south and west of the Rhine was conquered by Roman forces under Julius Caesar from 57 BC to 53 BC. Caesar describes two main Celtic tribes living in what is now the southern Netherlands: the Menapii and the Eburones. The Rhine became fixed as Rome's northern frontier around 12 AD. Notable towns would arise along the Limes Germanicus: Nijmegen and Voorburg. In the first part of Gallia Belgica, the area south of the Limes became part of the Roman province of Germania Inferior. The area to the north of the Rhine, inhabited by the Frisii, remained outside Roman rule (but not its presence and control), while the Germanic border tribes of the Batavi and Cananefates served in the Roman cavalry. The Batavi rose against the Romans in the Batavian rebellion of 69 AD but were eventually defeated. The Batavi later merged with other tribes into the confederation of the Salian Franks, whose identity emerged at the first half of the third century. Salian Franks appear in Roman texts as both allies and enemies. They were forced by the confederation of the Saxons from the east to move over the Rhine into Roman territory in the fourth century. From their new base in West Flanders and the Southwest Netherlands, they were raiding the English Channel. Roman forces pacified the region, but did not expel the Franks, who continued to be feared at least until the time of Julian the Apostate (358) when Salian Franks were allowed to settle as "foederati" in Texandria. It has been postulated that after deteriorating climate conditions and the Romans' withdrawal, the Frisii disappeared as "laeti" in c. 296, leaving the coastal lands largely unpopulated for the next two centuries. However, recent excavations in Kennemerland show clear indication of a permanent habitation.After Roman government in the area collapsed, the Franks expanded their territories in numerous kingdoms. By the 490s, Clovis I had conquered and united all these territories in the southern Netherlands in one Frankish kingdom, and from there continued his conquests into Gaul. During this expansion, Franks migrating to the south eventually adopted the Vulgar Latin of the local population. A widening cultural divide grew with the Franks remaining in their original homeland in the north (i.e. the southern Netherlands and Flanders), who kept on speaking Old Frankish, which by the ninth century had evolved into Old Low Franconian or Old Dutch. A Dutch-French language boundary hence came into existence.To the north of the Franks, climatic conditions improved, and during the Migration Period Saxons, the closely related Angles, Jutes and Frisii settled the coastal land. Many moved on to England and came to be known as Anglo-Saxons, but those who stayed would be referred to as Frisians and their language as Frisian, named after the land that was once inhabited by Frisii. Frisian was spoken along the entire southern North Sea coast, and it is still the language most closely related to English among the living languages of continental Europe. By the seventh century a Frisian Kingdom (650–734) under King Aldegisel and King Redbad emerged with Traiectum (Utrecht) as its centre of power, while Dorestad was a flourishing trading place. Between 600 and around 719 the cities were often fought over between the Frisians and the Franks. In 734, at the Battle of the Boarn, the Frisians were defeated after a series of wars. With the approval of the Franks, the Anglo-Saxon missionary Willibrord converted the Frisian people to Christianity. He established the Archdiocese of Utrecht and became bishop of the Frisians. However, his successor Boniface was murdered by the Frisians in Dokkum, in 754.The Frankish Carolingian empire modelled itself on the Roman Empire and controlled much of Western Europe. However, in 843, it was divided into three parts—East, Middle, and West Francia. Most of present-day Netherlands became part of Middle Francia, which was a weak kingdom and subject of numerous partitions and annexation attempts by its stronger neighbours. It comprised territories from Frisia in the north to the Kingdom of Italy in the south. Around 850, Lothair I of Middle Francia acknowledged the Viking Rorik of Dorestad as ruler of most of Frisia. When the kingdom of Middle Francia was partitioned in 855, the lands north of the Alps passed to Lothair II and subsequently were named Lotharingia. After he died in 869, Lotharingia was partitioned, into Upper and Lower Lotharingia, the latter part comprising the Low Countries that technically became part of East Francia in 870, although it was effectively under the control of Vikings, who raided the largely defenceless Frisian and Frankish towns lying on the Frisian coast and along the rivers. Around 879, another Viking expedition led by Godfrid, Duke of Frisia, raided the Frisian lands. The Viking raids made the sway of French and German lords in the area weak. Resistance to the Vikings, if any, came from local nobles, who gained in stature as a result, and that laid the basis for the disintegration of Lower Lotharingia into semi-independent states. One of these local nobles was Gerolf of Holland, who assumed lordship in Frisia after he helped to assassinate Godfrid, and Viking rule came to an end.The Holy Roman Empire (the successor state of East Francia and then Lotharingia) ruled much of the Low Countries in the 10th and 11th century but was not able to maintain political unity. Powerful local nobles turned their cities, counties and duchies into private kingdoms that felt little sense of obligation to the emperor. Holland, Hainaut, Flanders, Gelre, Brabant, and Utrecht were in a state of almost continual war or in paradoxically formed personal unions. The language and culture of most of the people who lived in the County of Holland were originally Frisian. As Frankish settlement progressed from Flanders and Brabant, the area quickly became Old Low Franconian (or Old Dutch). The rest of Frisia in the north (now Friesland and Groningen) continued to maintain its independence and had its own institutions (collectively called the "Frisian freedom"), which resented the imposition of the feudal system.Around 1000 AD, due to several agricultural developments, the economy started to develop at a fast pace, and the higher productivity allowed workers to farm more land or to become tradesmen. Towns grew around monasteries and castles, and a mercantile middle class began to develop in these urban areas, especially in Flanders and later also Brabant. Wealthy cities started to buy certain privileges for themselves from the sovereign. In practice, this meant that Bruges and Antwerp became quasi-independent republics in their own right and would later develop into some of the most important cities and ports in Europe.Around 1100 AD, farmers from Flanders and Utrecht began draining and cultivating uninhabited swampy land in the western Netherlands, making the emergence of the County of Holland as the centre of power possible. The title of Count of Holland was fought over in the Hook and Cod Wars () between 1350 and 1490. The Cod faction consisted of the more progressive cities, while the Hook faction consisted of the conservative noblemen. These noblemen invited the Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy — who was also Count of Flanders — to conquer Holland.Most of the Imperial and French fiefs in what is now the Netherlands and Belgium were united in a personal union by Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, in 1433. The House of Valois-Burgundy and their Habsburg heirs would rule the Low Countries in the period from 1384 to 1581. Before the Burgundian union, the Dutch identified themselves by the town they lived in or their local duchy or county. The Burgundian period is when the road to nationhood began. The new rulers defended Dutch trading interests, which then developed rapidly. The fleets of the County of Holland defeated the fleets of the Hanseatic League several times. Amsterdam grew and in the 15th century became the primary trading port in Europe for grain from the Baltic region. Amsterdam distributed grain to the major cities of Belgium, Northern France and England. This trade was vital because Holland could no longer produce enough grain to feed itself. Land drainage had caused the peat of the former wetlands to reduce to a level that was too low for drainage to be maintained.Under Habsburg Charles V, ruler of the Holy Roman Empire and King of Spain, all fiefs in the current Netherlands region were united into the Seventeen Provinces, which also included most of present-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and some adjacent land in what is now France and Germany. In 1568, under Phillip II, the Eighty Years' War between the Provinces and their Spanish ruler began. The level of ferocity exhibited by both sides can be gleaned from a Dutch chronicler's report:The Duke of Alba ruthlessly attempted to suppress the Protestant movement in the Netherlands. Netherlanders were "burned, strangled, beheaded, or buried alive" by his "Blood Council" and his Spanish soldiers. Severed heads and decapitated corpses were displayed along streets and roads to terrorize the population into submission. Alba boasted of having executed 18,600, but this figure does not include those who perished by war and famine.The first great siege was Alba's effort to capture Haarlem and thereby cut Holland in half. It dragged on from December 1572 to the next summer, when Haarlemers finally surrendered on 13 July upon the promise that the city would be spared from being sacked. It was a stipulation Don Fadrique was unable to honour, when his soldiers mutinied, angered over pay owed and the miserable conditions they endured during the long, cold months of the campaign. On 4 November 1576, Spanish tercios seized Antwerp and subjected it to the worst pillage in the Netherlands' history. The citizens resisted, but were overcome; seven thousand of them were mowed down; a thousand buildings were torched; men, women, and children were slaughtered in a delirium of blood by soldiers crying, "Santiago! España! A sangre, a carne, a fuego, a sacco!" (Saint James! Spain! To blood, to the flesh, to fire, to sack!)Following the sack of Antwerp, delegates from Catholic Brabant, Protestant Holland and Zeeland agreed, at Ghent, to join Utrecht and William the Silent in driving out all Spanish troops and forming a new government for the Netherlands. Don Juan of Austria, the new Spanish governor, was forced to concede initially, but within months returned to active hostilities. As the fighting restarted, the Dutch began to look for help from the Queen of England, but she initially stood by her commitments to the Spanish in the Treaty of Bristol of 1574. The result was that when the next large-scale battle did occur at Gembloux in 1578, the Spanish forces easily won the day, killing at least 10,000 rebels, with the Spanish suffering few losses. In light of the defeat at Gembloux, the southern states of the Seventeen Provinces (today in northern France and Belgium) distanced themselves from the rebels in the north with the 1579 Union of Arras, which expressed their loyalty to Philip II of Spain. Opposing them, the northern half of the Seventeen Provinces forged the Union of Utrecht (also of 1579) in which they committed to support each other in their defence against the Spanish army. The Union of Utrecht is seen as the foundation of the modern Netherlands.Spanish troops sacked Maastricht in 1579, killing over 10,000 civilians and thereby ensuring the rebellion continued. In 1581, the northern provinces adopted the Act of Abjuration, the declaration of independence in which the provinces officially deposed Philip II as reigning monarch in the northern provinces. Against the rebels Philip could draw on the resources of Spain, Spanish America, Spanish Italy and the Spanish Netherlands. The Protestant Queen Elizabeth I of England sympathised with the Dutch struggle against the Spanish and sent an army of 7,600 soldiers to aid the Dutch in their war with the Catholic Spanish. English forces under the Earl of Leicester and then Lord Willoughby faced the Spanish in the Netherlands under the Duke of Parma in a series of largely indecisive actions that tied down significant numbers of Spanish troops and bought time for the Dutch to reorganise their defences. The war continued until 1648, when Spain under King Philip IV finally recognised the independence of the seven north-western provinces in the Peace of Münster. Parts of the southern provinces became "de facto" colonies of the new republican-mercantile empire.After declaring their independence, the provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Groningen, Friesland, Utrecht, Overijssel, and Gelderland formed a confederation. All these duchies, lordships and counties were autonomous and had their own government, the States-Provincial. The States General, the confederal government, were seated in The Hague and consisted of representatives from each of the seven provinces. The sparsely populated region of Drenthe was part of the republic too, although it was not considered one of the provinces. Moreover, the Republic had come to occupy during the Eighty Years' War a number of so-called Generality Lands in Flanders, Brabant and Limburg. Their population was mainly Roman Catholic, and these areas did not have a governmental structure of their own, and were used as a buffer zone between the Republic and the Spanish-controlled Southern Netherlands.In the Dutch Golden Age, spanning much of the 17th century, the Dutch Empire grew to become one of the major seafaring and economic powers, alongside Portugal, Spain, France and England. Science, military, and art (especially painting) were among the most acclaimed in the world. By 1650, the Dutch owned 16,000 merchant ships. The Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company established colonies and trading posts all over the world, including ruling the northern parts of Taiwan between 1624–1662 and 1664–1667. The Dutch settlement in North America began with the founding of New Amsterdam on the southern part of Manhattan in 1614. In South Africa, the Dutch settled the Cape Colony in 1652. Dutch colonies in South America were established along the many rivers in the fertile Guyana plains, among them Colony of Surinam (now Suriname). In Asia, the Dutch established the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia), and the only western trading post in Japan, Dejima.During the period of Proto-industrialization, the empire received 50% of textiles and 80% of silks import from the India's Mughal Empire, chiefly from its most developed region known as Bengal Subah.Many economic historians regard the Netherlands as the first thoroughly capitalist country in the world. In early modern Europe, it had the wealthiest trading city (Amsterdam) and the first full-time stock exchange. The inventiveness of the traders led to insurance and retirement funds as well as phenomena such as the boom-bust cycle, the world's first asset-inflation bubble, the tulip mania of 1636–1637, and the world's first bear raider, Isaac le Maire, who forced prices down by dumping stock and then buying it back at a discount. In 1672 – known in Dutch history as the Rampjaar (Disaster Year) – the Dutch Republic was at war with France, England and three German Bishoprics simultaneously. At sea, it could successfully prevent the English and French navy from entering the western shores. On land, however, it was almost taken over internally by the advancing French and German armies coming from the east. It managed to turn the tide by inundating parts of Holland but could never recover to its former glory again and went into a state of a general decline in the 18th century, with economic competition from England and long-standing rivalries between the two main factions in Dutch society, the republican "Staatsgezinden" and the supporters of the stadtholder the "Prinsgezinden" as main political factions.With the armed support of revolutionary France, Dutch republicans proclaimed the Batavian Republic, modelled after the French Republic and rendering the Netherlands a unitary state on 19 January 1795. The stadtholder William V of Orange had fled to England. But from 1806 to 1810, the Kingdom of Holland was set up by Napoleon Bonaparte as a puppet kingdom governed by his brother Louis Bonaparte to control the Netherlands more effectively. However, King Louis Bonaparte tried to serve Dutch interests instead of his brother's, and he was forced to abdicate on 1 July 1810. The Emperor sent in an army and the Netherlands became part of the French Empire until the autumn of 1813 when Napoleon was defeated in the Battle of Leipzig.William Frederick, son of the last stadtholder, returned to the Netherlands in 1813 and proclaimed himself Sovereign Prince of the Netherlands. Two years later, the Congress of Vienna added the southern Netherlands to the north to create a strong country on the northern border of France. William Frederick raised this United Netherlands to the status of a kingdom and proclaimed himself as King William I in 1815. In addition, William became hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg in exchange for his German possessions. However, the Southern Netherlands had been culturally separate from the north since 1581, and rebelled. The south gained independence in 1830 as Belgium (recognised by the Northern Netherlands in 1839 as the Kingdom of the Netherlands was created by decree), while the personal union between Luxembourg and the Netherlands was severed in 1890, when William III died with no surviving male heirs. Ascendancy laws prevented his daughter Queen Wilhelmina from becoming the next Grand Duchess.The Belgian Revolution at home and the Java War in the Dutch East Indies brought the Netherlands to the brink of bankruptcy. However, the Cultivation System was introduced in 1830; in the Dutch East Indies, 20% of village land had to be devoted to government crops for export. The policy brought the Dutch enormous wealth and made the colony self-sufficient.The Netherlands abolished slavery in its colonies in 1863. Slaves in Suriname would be fully free only in 1873, since the law stipulated that there was to be a mandatory 10-year transition.The Netherlands was able to remain neutral during World War I, in part because the import of goods through the Netherlands proved essential to German survival until the blockade by the British Royal Navy in 1916. That changed in World War II, when Nazi Germany invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940. The Rotterdam Blitz forced the main element of the Dutch army to surrender four days later. During the occupation, over 100,000 Dutch Jews were rounded up and transported to Nazi extermination camps; only a few of them survived. Dutch workers were conscripted for forced labour in Germany, civilians who resisted were killed in reprisal for attacks on German soldiers, and the countryside was plundered for food. Although there were thousands of Dutch who risked their lives by hiding Jews from the Germans, over 20,000 Dutch fascists joined the Waffen SS, fighting on the Eastern Front. Political collaborators were members of the fascist NSB, the only legal political party in the occupied Netherlands. On 8 December 1941, the Dutch government-in-exile in London declared war on Japan, but could not prevent the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia). In 1944–45, the First Canadian Army, which included Canadian, British and Polish troops, was responsible for liberating much of the Netherlands. Soon after VE Day, the Dutch fought a colonial war against the new Republic of Indonesia.In 1954, the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands reformed the political structure of the Netherlands, which was a result of international pressure to carry out decolonisation. The Dutch colonies of Surinam and Curaçao and Dependencies and the European country all became countries within the Kingdom, on a basis of equality. Indonesia had declared its independence in August 1945 (recognised in 1949), and thus was never part of the reformed Kingdom. Suriname followed in 1975. After the war, the Netherlands left behind an era of neutrality and gained closer ties with neighbouring states. The Netherlands was one of the founding members of the Benelux, the NATO, Euratom and the European Coal and Steel Community, which would evolve into the EEC (Common Market) and later the European Union.Government-encouraged emigration efforts to reduce population density prompted some 500,000 Dutch people to leave the country after the war. The 1960s and 1970s were a time of great social and cultural change, such as rapid de-pillarisation characterised by the decay of the old divisions along political and religious lines. Youths, and students in particular, rejected traditional mores and pushed for change in matters such as women's rights, sexuality, disarmament and environmental issues. In 2002 the euro was introduced as fiat money, and in 2010 the Netherlands Antilles was dissolved. Referendums were held on each island to determine their future status. As a result, the islands of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba (the BES islands) were to obtain closer ties with the Netherlands. This led to the incorporation of these three islands into the country of the Netherlands as "special municipalities" upon the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles. The special municipalities are collectively known as the Caribbean Netherlands.According to the Central Bureau of Statistics, the European Netherlands has a total area of , including water bodies; and a land area of . The Caribbean Netherlands has a total area of It lies between latitudes 50° and 54° N, and longitudes 3° and 8° E.The Netherlands is geographically very low relative to sea level and is considered a flat country, with about 26% of its area and 21% of its population located below sea level, and only about 50% of its land exceeding one metre above sea level. The European part of the country is for the most part flat, with the exception of foothills in the far southeast, up to a height of no more than 321 metres, and some low hill ranges in the central parts. Most of the areas below sea level are man-made, caused by peat extraction or achieved through land reclamation. Since the late 16th century, large polder areas are preserved through elaborate drainage systems that include dikes, canals and pumping stations. Nearly 17% of the country's land area is reclaimed from the sea and from lakes.Much of the country was originally formed by the estuaries of three large European rivers: the Rhine ("Rijn"), the Meuse ("Maas") and the Scheldt ("Schelde"), as well as their tributaries. The south-western part of the Netherlands is to this day a river delta of these three rivers, the Rhine-Meuse-Scheldt delta.The European Netherlands is divided into north and south parts by the Rhine, the Waal, its main tributary branch, and the Meuse. In the past, these rivers functioned as a natural barrier between fiefdoms and hence historically created a cultural divide, as is evident in some phonetic traits that are recognisable on either side of what the Dutch call their "Great Rivers" ("de Grote Rivieren"). Another significant branch of the Rhine, the IJssel river, discharges into Lake IJssel, the former Zuiderzee ('southern sea'). Just like the previous, this river forms a linguistic divide: people to the northeast of this river speak Dutch Low Saxon dialects (except for the province of Friesland, which has its own language).The modern Netherlands formed as a result of the interplay of the four main rivers (Rhine, Meuse, Schelde and IJssel) and the influence of the North Sea. The Netherlands is mostly composed of deltaic, coastal and eolian derived sediments during the Pleistocene glacial and interglacial periods.Almost the entire west Netherlands is composed of the Rhine-Meuse river estuary, but human intervention greatly modified the natural processes at work. Most of the western Netherlands is below sea level due to the human process of turning standing bodies of water into usable land, a polder.In the east of the Netherlands, remains are found of the last ice age, which ended approximately ten thousand years ago. As the continental ice sheet moved in from the north, it pushed moraine forward. The ice sheet halted as it covered the eastern half of the Netherlands. After the ice age ended, the moraine remained in the form of a long hill-line. The cities of Arnhem and Nijmegen are built upon these hills.Over the centuries, the Dutch coastline has changed considerably as a result of natural disasters and human intervention.On 14 December 1287, St. Lucia's flood affected the Netherlands and Germany, killing more than 50,000 people in one of the most destructive floods in recorded history. The St. Elizabeth flood of 1421 and the mismanagement in its aftermath destroyed a newly reclaimed polder, replacing it with the "Biesbosch" tidal floodplains in the south-centre. The huge North Sea flood of early February 1953 caused the collapse of several dikes in the south-west of the Netherlands; more than 1,800 people drowned in the flood. The Dutch government subsequently instituted a large-scale programme, the "Delta Works", to protect the country against future flooding, which was completed over a period of more than thirty years.The impact of disasters was, to an extent, increased through human activity. Relatively high-lying swampland was drained to be used as farmland. The drainage caused the fertile peat to contract and ground levels to drop, upon which groundwater levels were lowered to compensate for the drop in ground level, causing the underlying peat to contract further. Additionally, until the 19th-century peat was mined, dried, and used for fuel, further exacerbating the problem. Centuries of extensive and poorly controlled peat extraction lowered an already low land surface by several metres. Even in flooded areas, peat extraction continued through turf dredging.Because of the flooding, farming was difficult, which encouraged foreign trade, the result of which was that the Dutch were involved in world affairs since the early 14th/15th century.To guard against floods, a series of defences against the water were contrived. In the first millennium AD, villages and farmhouses were built on man-made hills called "terps". Later, these terps were connected by dikes. In the 12th century, local government agencies called ""waterschappen"" ("water boards") or ""hoogheemraadschappen"" ("high home councils") started to appear, whose job it was to maintain the water level and to protect a region from floods; these agencies continue to exist. As the ground level dropped, the dikes by necessity grew and merged into an integrated system. By the 13th century windmills had come into use to pump water out of areas below sea level. The windmills were later used to drain lakes, creating the famous polders.In 1932 the "Afsluitdijk" ("Closure Dike") was completed, blocking the former "Zuiderzee" (Southern Sea) from the North Sea and thus creating the IJsselmeer (IJssel Lake). It became part of the larger Zuiderzee Works in which four polders totalling were reclaimed from the sea.The Netherlands is one of the countries that may suffer most from climate change. Not only is the rising sea a problem, but erratic weather patterns may cause the rivers to overflow.After the 1953 disaster, the Delta Works was constructed, which is a comprehensive set of civil works throughout the Dutch coast. The project started in 1958 and was largely completed in 1997 with the completion of the Maeslantkering. Since then, new projects have been periodically started to renovate and renew the Delta Works. The main goal of the Delta project was to reduce the risk of flooding in South Holland and Zeeland to once per 10,000 years (compared to once per 4000 years for the rest of the country). This was achieved by raising of outer sea-dikes and of the inner, canal, and river dikes, and by closing off the sea estuaries of the Zeeland province. New risk assessments occasionally show problems requiring additional Delta project dike reinforcements. The Delta project is considered by the American Society of Civil Engineers as one of the seven wonders of the modern world.It is anticipated that global warming in the 21st century will result in a rise in sea level. The Netherlands is actively preparing for a sea-level rise. A politically neutral Delta Commission has formulated an action plan to cope with a sea-level rise of and a simultaneous land height decline of . The plan encompasses the reinforcement of the existing coastal defences like dikes and dunes with of additional flood protection. Climate change will not only threaten the Netherlands from the seaside but could also alter rainfall patterns and river run-off. To protect the country from river flooding, another programme is already being executed. The Room for the River plan grants more flow space to rivers, protects the major populated areas and allows for periodic flooding of indefensible lands. The few residents who lived in these so-called "overflow areas" have been moved to higher ground, with some of that ground having been raised above anticipated flood levels.The predominant wind direction in the European Netherlands is southwest, which causes a mild maritime climate, with moderately warm summers and cool winters, and typically high humidity. This is especially true close to the Dutch coastline, where the difference in temperature between summer and winter, as well as between day and night is noticeably smaller than it is in the southeast of the country.Ice days—maximum temperature below —usually occur from December until February, with the occasional rare ice day prior to or after that period. Freezing days—minimum temperature below —occur much more often, usually ranging from mid-November to late March, but not rarely measured as early as mid-October and as late as mid-May. If one chooses the height of measurement to be above ground instead of , one may even find such temperatures in the middle of the summer. On average, snow can occur from November to April but sometimes occurs in May or October too.Warm days—maximum temperature above —are usually found in April to October, but in some parts of the country these warm days can also occur in March, or even sometimes in November or February (usually not in , however). Summer days—maximum temperature above —are usually measured in from May until September, tropical days—maximum temperature above —are rare and usually occur only in June to August.Precipitation throughout the year is distributed relatively equally each month. Summer and autumn months tend to gather a little more precipitation than the other months, mainly because of the intensity of the rainfall rather than the frequency of rain days (this is especially the case in summer when lightning is also much more frequent).The number of sunshine hours is affected by the fact that because of the geographical latitude, the length of the days varies between barely eight hours in December and nearly 17 hours in June.The following table are based on mean measurements by the KNMI weather station in De Bilt between 1991 and 2020. The highest recorded temperature was reached on 25 July 2019 in Gilze-Rijen.The Netherlands has 20 national parks and hundreds of other nature reserves, that include lakes, heathland, woods, dunes, and other habitats. Most of these are owned by Staatsbosbeheer, the national department for forestry and nature conservation and Natuurmonumenten (literally 'Natures monuments'), a private organisation that buys, protects and manages nature reserves. The Dutch part of the Wadden Sea in the north, with its tidal flats and wetlands, is rich in biological diversity, and was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Nature Site in 2009.The Oosterschelde, formerly the northeast estuary of the river Scheldt was designated a national park in 2002, thereby making it the largest national park in the Netherlands at an area of . It consists primarily of the salt waters of the Oosterschelde but also includes mudflats, meadows, and shoals. Because of the large variety of sea life, including unique regional species, the park is popular with Scuba divers. Other activities include sailing, fishing, cycling, and bird watching.Phytogeographically, the European Netherlands is shared between the Atlantic European and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, the European territory of the Netherlands belongs to the ecoregion of Atlantic mixed forests. In 1871, the last old original natural woods were cut down, and most woods today are planted monocultures of trees like Scots pine and trees that are not native to the Netherlands. These woods were planted on anthropogenic heaths and sand-drifts (overgrazed heaths) (Veluwe). The Netherlands had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 0.6/10, ranking it 169th globally out of 172 countries.While Curaçao, Aruba and Sint Maarten have a constituent country status, the Caribbean Netherlands are three islands designated as special municipalities of the Netherlands. The islands are part of the Lesser Antilles and have land borders with France (Saint Martin) and maritime borders with Anguilla, Curaçao, France (Saint Barthélemy), Saint Kitts and Nevis, Sint Maarten, the U.S. Virgin Islands and Venezuela.Within this island group:The islands of the Caribbean Netherlands enjoy a tropical climate with warm weather all year round. The Leeward Antilles are warmer and drier than the Windward islands. In summer, the Windward Islands can be subject to hurricanes.The Netherlands has been a constitutional monarchy since 1815, and due to the efforts of Johan Rudolph Thorbecke became a parliamentary democracy in 1848. The Netherlands is described as a consociational state. Dutch politics and governance are characterised by an effort to achieve broad consensus on important issues, within both the political community and society as a whole. In 2017, "The Economist" ranked the Netherlands as the 11th most democratic country in the world.The monarch is the head of state, at present King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands. Constitutionally, the position is equipped with limited powers. By law, the King has the right to be periodically briefed and consulted on government affairs. Depending on the personalities and relationships of the King and the ministers, the monarch might have influence beyond the power granted by the Constitution of the Netherlands.The executive power is formed by the Council of Ministers, the deliberative organ of the Dutch cabinet. The cabinet usually consists of 13 to 16 ministers and a varying number of state secretaries. One to three ministers are ministers without portfolio. The head of government is the Prime Minister of the Netherlands, who often is the leader of the largest party of the coalition. The Prime Minister is a "primus inter pares", with no explicit powers beyond those of the other ministers. Mark Rutte has been Prime Minister since October 2010; the Prime Minister had been the leader of the largest party of the governing coalition continuously since 1973.The cabinet is responsible to the bicameral parliament, the States General, which also has legislative powers. The 150 members of the House of Representatives, the lower house, are elected in direct elections on the basis of party-list proportional representation. These are held every four years, or sooner in case the cabinet falls (for example: when one of the chambers carries a motion of no confidence, the cabinet offers its resignation to the monarch). The States-Provincial are directly elected every four years as well. The members of the provincial assemblies elect the 75 members of the Senate, the upper house, which has the power to reject laws, but not propose or amend them. Both houses send members to the Benelux Parliament, a consultative council.Both trade unions and employers organisations are consulted beforehand in policymaking in the financial, economic and social areas. They meet regularly with the government in the Social-Economic Council. This body advises government and its advice cannot be put aside easily.The Netherlands has a long tradition of social tolerance. In the 18th century, while the Dutch Reformed Church was the state religion, Catholicism, other forms of Protestantism, such as Baptists and Lutherans, as well as Judaism were tolerated but discriminated against.In the late 19th century this Dutch tradition of religious tolerance transformed into a system of pillarisation, in which religious groups coexisted separately and only interacted at the level of government. This tradition of tolerance influences Dutch criminal justice policies on recreational drugs, prostitution, LGBT rights, euthanasia, and abortion, which are among the most liberal in the world.Because of the multi-party system, no single party has held a majority in parliament since the 19th century, as a result, coalition cabinets had to be formed. Since suffrage became universal in 1917, the Dutch political system has been dominated by three families of political parties: the strongest of which were the Christian Democrats, currently represented by the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA); second were the Social Democrats, represented by the Labour Party (PvdA); and third were the Liberals, of which the right-wing People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD) is the main representative.These parties co-operated in coalition cabinets in which the Christian Democrats had always been a partner: so either a centre-left coalition of the Christian Democrats and Social Democrats was ruling or a centre-right coalition of Christian Democrats and Liberals. In the 1970s, the party system became more volatile: the Christian Democratic parties lost seats, while new parties became successful, such as the radical democrat and progressive liberal Democrats 66 (D66) or the ecologist party GroenLinks (GL).In the 1994 election, the CDA lost its dominant position. A "purple" cabinet was formed by the VVD, D66, and PvdA. In the 2002 elections, this cabinet lost its majority, because of an increased support for the CDA and the rise of the right-wing LPF, a new political party, around Pim Fortuyn, who was assassinated a week before the elections. A short-lived cabinet was formed by CDA, VVD, and LPF, which was led by the CDA Leader Jan Peter Balkenende. After the 2003 elections, in which the LPF lost most of its seats, a cabinet was formed by the CDA, VVD, and D66. The cabinet initiated an ambitious programme of reforming the welfare state, the healthcare system, and immigration policy.In June 2006, the cabinet fell after D66 voted in favour of a motion of no confidence against the Minister of Immigration and Integration, Rita Verdonk, who had instigated an investigation of the asylum procedure of Ayaan Hirsi Ali, a VVD MP. A caretaker cabinet was formed by the CDA and VVD, and general elections were held on 22 November 2006. In these elections, the CDA remained the largest party and the Socialist Party made the largest gains. The formation of a new cabinet took three months, resulting in a coalition of CDA, PvdA, and Christian Union.On 20 February 2010, the cabinet fell when the PvdA refused to prolong the involvement of the Dutch Army in Uruzgan, Afghanistan. Snap elections were held on 9 June 2010, with devastating results for the previously largest party, the CDA, which lost about half of its seats, resulting in 21 seats. The VVD became the largest party with 31 seats, closely followed by the PvdA with 30 seats. The big winner of the 2010 elections was Geert Wilders, whose right wing PVV, the ideological successor to the LPF, more than doubled its number of seats. Negotiation talks for a new government resulted in a minority government, led by VVD (a first) in coalition with CDA, which was sworn in on 14 October 2010. This unprecedented minority government was supported by PVV, but proved ultimately to be unstable, when on 21 April 2012, Wilders, leader of PVV, unexpectedly 'torpedoed seven weeks of austerity talks' on new austerity measures, paving the way for early elections.VVD and PvdA won a majority in the House of Representatives during the 2012 general election. On 5 November 2012 they formed the second Rutte cabinet. After the 2017 general election, VVD, Christian Democratic Appeal, Democrats 66 and ChristenUnie formed the third Rutte cabinet. This cabinet resigned in January 2021, two months before the general election, after a child welfare fraud scandal. In March 2021, centre-right VVD of Prime Minister Mark Rutte was the winner of the elections, securing 35 out of 150 seats. The second biggest party was the centre-left D66 with 24 seats. Geert Wilders' far-right party lost its support. Prime Minister Mark Rutte, in power since 2010, formed his fourth coalition government.The Netherlands is divided into twelve provinces, each under a King's Commissioner ("Commissaris van de Koning"). Informally in Limburg province this position is named Governor ("Gouverneur"). All provinces are divided into municipalities ("gemeenten"), of which there are 355 (2019).The country is also subdivided into 21 water districts, governed by a water board ("waterschap" or "hoogheemraadschap"), each having authority in matters concerning water management. The creation of water boards actually pre-dates that of the nation itself, the first appearing in 1196. The Dutch water boards are among the oldest democratic entities in the world still in existence. Direct elections of the water boards take place every four years.The administrative structure on the three BES islands, collectively known as the Caribbean Netherlands, is outside the twelve provinces. These islands have the status of "openbare lichamen (public bodies)". In the Netherlands these administrative units are often referred to as "special municipalities".The Netherlands has several Belgian exclaves and within those even several enclaves which are part of the province of North Brabant. Because the Netherlands and Belgium are both in the Benelux, and more recently in the Schengen Area, citizens of respective countries can travel through these enclaves without controls.The history of Dutch foreign policy has been characterised by its neutrality. Since World War II, the Netherlands has become a member of a large number of international organisations, most prominently the UN, NATO and the EU. The Dutch economy is very open and relies strongly on international trade.The foreign policy of the Netherlands is based on four basic commitments: to Atlantic co-operation, to European integration, to international development and to international law. One of the more controversial international issues surrounding the Netherlands is its liberal policy towards soft drugs.During and after the Dutch Golden Age, the Dutch people built up a commercial and colonial empire. The most important colonies were present-day Suriname and Indonesia. Indonesia became independent after the Indonesian National Revolution in the 1940s following a war of independence, international pressure and several United Nations Security Council resolutions. Suriname became independent in 1975. The historical ties inherited from its colonial past still influence the foreign relations of the Netherlands. In addition, many people from these countries are living permanently in the Netherlands.The Netherlands has one of the oldest standing armies in Europe; it was first established as such by Maurice of Nassau in the late 1500s. The Dutch army was used throughout the Dutch Empire. After the defeat of Napoleon, the Dutch army was transformed into a conscription army. The army was unsuccessfully deployed during the Belgian Revolution in 1830. After 1830, it was deployed mainly in the Dutch colonies, as the Netherlands remained neutral in European wars (including the First World War), until the Netherlands was invaded in World War II and defeated by the Wehrmacht in May 1940.The Netherlands abandoned its neutrality in 1948 when it signed the Treaty of Brussels, and became a founding member of NATO in 1949. The Dutch military was therefore part of the NATO strength in Cold War Europe, deploying its army to several bases in Germany. More than 3,000 Dutch soldiers were assigned to the 2nd Infantry Division of the United States Army during the Korean War. In 1996 conscription was suspended, and the Dutch army was once again transformed into a professional army. Since the 1990s the Dutch army has been involved in the Bosnian War and the Kosovo War, it held a province in Iraq after the defeat of Saddam Hussein, and it was engaged in Afghanistan.The military is composed of four branches, all of which carry the prefix "Koninklijke" (Royal):The submarine service opened to women on 1 January 2017. The Korps Commandotroepen, the Special Operations Force of the Netherlands Army, is open to women, but because of the extremely high physical demands for initial training, it is almost impossible for a woman to become a commando. The Dutch Ministry of Defence employs more than 70,000 personnel, including over 20,000 civilians and over 50,000 military personnel. In April 2011 the government announced a major reduction in its military because of a cut in government expenditure, including a decrease in the number of tanks, fighter aircraft, naval ships and senior officials.The Netherlands has ratified many international conventions concerning war law. The Netherlands decided not to sign the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.The Netherlands has a developed economy and has been playing a special role in the European economy for many centuries. Since the 16th century, shipping, fishing, agriculture, trade, and banking have been leading sectors of the Dutch economy. The Netherlands has a high level of economic freedom. The Netherlands is one of the top countries in the Global Enabling Trade Report (2nd in 2016), and was ranked the fifth most competitive economy in the world by the Swiss International Institute for Management Development in 2017. In addition, the country was ranked the second most innovative nation in the world in the 2018 Global Innovation Index., the key trading partners of the Netherlands were Germany, Belgium, the United Kingdom, the United States, France, Italy, China and Russia. The Netherlands is one of the world's 10 leading exporting countries. Foodstuffs form the largest industrial sector. Other major industries include chemicals, metallurgy, machinery, electrical goods, trade, services and tourism. Examples of international Dutch companies operating in Netherlands include Randstad, Unilever, Heineken, KLM, financial services (ING, ABN AMRO, Rabobank), chemicals (DSM, AKZO), petroleum refining (Royal Dutch Shell), electronical machinery (Philips, ASML), and satellite navigation (TomTom).The Netherlands has the 17th-largest economy in the world, and ranks 11th in GDP (nominal) per capita. Between 1997 and 2000 annual economic growth (GDP) averaged nearly 4%, well above the European average. Growth slowed considerably from 2001 to 2005 with the global economic slowdown, but accelerated to 4.1% in the third quarter of 2007. In May 2013, inflation was at 2.8% per year. In April 2013, unemployment was at 8.2% (or 6.7% following the ILO definition) of the labour force. In February 2019, this was reduced to 3.4%.In Q3 and Q4 2011, the Dutch economy contracted by 0.4% and 0.7%, respectively, because of European Debt Crisis, while in Q4 the Eurozone economy shrunk by 0.3%. The Netherlands also has a relatively low GINI coefficient of 0.326. Despite ranking 11th in GDP per capita, UNICEF ranked the Netherlands 1st in child well-being in rich countries, both in 2007 and in 2013. On the Index of Economic Freedom Netherlands is the 14th most free market capitalist economy out of 180 surveyed countries.Amsterdam is the financial and business capital of the Netherlands. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange (AEX), part of Euronext, is the world's oldest stock exchange and is one of Europe's largest bourses. It is situated near Dam Square in the city's centre. As a founding member of the euro, the Netherlands replaced (for accounting purposes) its former currency, the "gulden" (guilder), on 1 January 1999, along with 15 other adopters of the euro. Actual euro coins and banknotes followed on 1 January 2002. One euro was equivalent to 2.20371 Dutch guilders. In the Caribbean Netherlands, the United States dollar is used instead of the euro.The Dutch location gives it prime access to markets in the UK and Germany, with the Port of Rotterdam being the largest port in Europe. Other important parts of the economy are international trade (Dutch colonialism started with co-operative private enterprises such as the Dutch East India Company), banking and transport. The Netherlands successfully addressed the issue of public finances and stagnating job growth long before its European partners. Amsterdam is the 5th-busiest tourist destination in Europe with more than 4.2 million international visitors. Since the enlargement of the EU large numbers of migrant workers have arrived in the Netherlands from Central and Eastern Europe.The Netherlands continues to be one of the leading European nations for attracting foreign direct investment and is one of the five largest investors in the United States. The economy experienced a slowdown in 2005, but in 2006 recovered to the fastest pace in six years on the back of increased exports and strong investment. The pace of job growth reached 10-year highs in 2007. The Netherlands is the fourth-most competitive economy in the world, according to the World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report.Beginning in the 1950s, the Netherlands discovered huge natural gas resources. The sale of natural gas generated enormous revenues for the Netherlands for decades, adding hundreds of billions of euros to the government's budget. However, the unforeseen consequences of the country's huge energy wealth impacted the competitiveness of other sectors of the economy, leading to the theory of Dutch disease.Apart from coal and gas, the country has no mining resources. The last coal mine was closed in 1974. The Groningen gas field, one of the largest natural-gas fields in the world, is situated near Slochteren. The exploitation of this field has resulted in €159 billion in revenue since the mid-1970s. The field is operated by government-owned Gasunie and output is jointly exploited by the government, Royal Dutch Shell, and Exxon Mobil through NAM (Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij). "Gas extraction has resulted in increasingly strong earth tremors, some measuring as much as 3.6 on the Richter magnitude scale. The cost of damage repairs, structural improvements to buildings, and compensation for home value decreases has been estimated at €6.5 billion. Around 35,000 homes are said to be affected." The Netherlands has an estimated 25% of natural gas reserves in the EU. The energy sector accounted for almost 11% of the GDP in 2014. Netherlands' economy, mainly due to the large shares of natural gas reserves, is considered to have "very high" energy intensity rating.The Netherlands is faced with future challenges as the energy supply is forecasted to fall short of the demand by the year 2025 in the gas sector. This is attributed to the depletion of the Netherlands' major gas field, Groningen, and the earthquakes that have hit the Groningen region. In addition, there is ambiguity surrounding the feasibility of producing unconventional gas. The Netherlands relies heavily on natural gas to provide energy. Gas is the main source of heating for households in the Netherlands and represented 35% of the energy mix in 2014. Furthermore, The European Union 2020 package (20% reduction in GHG emissions, 20% renewables in the energy mix and 20% improvement in energy efficiency) enacted in 2009 has influenced the domestic energy politics of Netherlands and pressured non-state actors to give consent to more aggressive energy reforms that would reduce reliance on natural resources as a source of income to the economy. Therefore, a transition towards renewable energy has been a key objective by Netherlands in order to safeguard the energy security of the country from natural resources depletion, mainly gas. Netherlands has set a 14% renewable energy target of the total energy mix by the year 2020. However, the continuation of providing tax breaks to electricity generated by coal and gas, and to the exploration and extraction of gas from fields that are "insufficiently" profitable, renders a successful transition towards renewable energy more difficult to achieve due to inconsistencies in the policy mix. In 2011, it was estimated that the renewable energy sector received 31% (EUR 743MM), while the conventional energy sector received 69% (EUR 1.6B), of the total energy subsidies by the government. Furthermore, the energy market in the Netherlands remains to be dominated by few major corporations Nuon, RWE, E.ON, Eneco, and Delta that have significant influence over the energy policy. Renewable energy share in the energy mix is estimated to reach 12.4% by the year 2020, falling 1.6% short of the 14% target.From a biological resource perspective, the Netherlands has a low endowment: the Netherlands’ biocapacity adds up to only 0.8 global hectares in 2016, 0.2 of which are dedicated to agriculture. The Dutch biocapacity per person is just about half of the 1.6 global hectares of biocapacity per person available worldwide. In contrast, in 2016, the Dutch used on average 4.8 global hectares of biocapacity - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means the Dutch required nearly six times as much biocapacity as the Netherlands contains. As a result, the Netherlands was running a biocapacity deficit of 4.0 global hectares per person in 2016.The Dutch agricultural sector is highly mechanised, and has a strong focus on international exports. It employs about 4% of the Dutch labour force but produces large surpluses in the food-processing industry and accounts for 21% of the Dutch total export value. The Dutch rank first in the European Union and second worldwide in value of agricultural exports, behind only the United States, with agricultural exports earning €80.7 billion in 2014, up from €75.4 billion in 2012. In 2019 agricultural exports were worth €94.5 billion.One-third of the world's exports of chilis, tomatoes, and cucumbers goes through the country. The Netherlands also exports one-fifteenth of the world's apples.Aside from that, a significant portion of Dutch agricultural exports consists of fresh-cut plants, flowers, and flower bulbs, with the Netherlands exporting two-thirds of the world's total.The Netherlands had an estimated population of 17,493,969 as of 30 April 2021. It is the 5th most densely populated country in Europe, and except for the very small city-states like Monaco, Vatican City and San Marino it is the most densely populated country in Europe. And it is the 16th most densely populated country in the world with a density of . It is the 67th most populous country in the world. Between 1900 and 1950, the country's population almost doubled from 5.1 to 10 million. From 1950 to 2000, the population further increased, to 15.9 million, though this represented a lower rate of population growth. The estimated growth rate is 0.44%.The fertility rate in the Netherlands is 1.78 children per woman (2018 estimate), which is high compared with many other European countries, but below the rate of 2.1 children per woman required for natural population replacement, it remains considerably below the high of 5.39 children born per woman in 1879. Netherlands subsequently has one of the oldest populations in the world, with the average age of 42.7 years. Life expectancy is high in the Netherlands: 84.3 years for newborn girls and 79.7 for boys (2020 estimate). The country has a migration rate of 1.9 migrants per 1,000 inhabitants per year. The majority of the population of the Netherlands is ethnically Dutch. According to a 2005 estimate, the population was 80.9% Dutch, 2.4% Indonesian, 2.4% German, 2.2% Turkish, 2.0% Surinamese, 1.9% Moroccan, 0.8% Antillean and Aruban, and 7.4% others. Some 150,000 to 200,000 people living in the Netherlands are expatriates, mostly concentrated in and around Amsterdam and The Hague, now constituting almost 10% of the population of these cities.The Dutch are the tallest people in the world, by nationality, with an average height of for adult males and for adult females in 2009. People in the south are on average about shorter than those in the north.According to Eurostat, in 2010 there were 1.8 million foreign-born residents in the Netherlands, corresponding to 11.1% of the total population. Of these, 1.4 million (8.5%) were born outside the EU and 0.43 million (2.6%) were born in another EU Member State. On 21 November 2016, there were 3.8 million residents in the Netherlands with at least one foreign-born parent ("migration background"). Over half the young people in Amsterdam and Rotterdam have a non-western background. Dutch people, or descendants of Dutch people, are also found in migrant communities worldwide, notably in Canada, Australia, South Africa and the United States. According to the United States Census Bureau (2006), more than 5 million Americans claim total or partial Dutch ancestry. There are close to 3 million Dutch-descended Afrikaners living in South Africa. In 1940, there were 290,000 Europeans and Eurasians in Indonesia, but most have since left the country.The Randstad is the country's largest conurbation located in the west of the country and contains the four largest cities: Amsterdam in the province North Holland, Rotterdam and The Hague in the province South Holland, and Utrecht in the province Utrecht. The Randstad has a population of about 8.2 million inhabitants and is the 5th largest metropolitan area in Europe. According to Dutch Central Statistics Bureau, in 2015, 28 per cent of the Dutch population had a spendable income above 45,000 euros (which does not include spending on health care or education).The official language is Dutch, which is spoken by the vast majority of the inhabitants. Besides Dutch, West Frisian is recognised as a second official language in the northern province of Friesland ("Fryslân" in West Frisian). West Frisian has a formal status for government correspondence in that province. In the European part of the kingdom two other regional languages are recognised under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.The first of these recognised regional languages is Low Saxon ("Nedersaksisch" in Dutch). Low Saxon consists of several dialects spoken in the north and east, like Tweants in the region of Twente, and Drents in the province of Drenthe. Secondly, Limburgish is also recognised as a regional language. It consists of Dutch varieties of Meuse-Rhenish Franconian languages and is spoken in the south-eastern province of Limburg. The dialects most spoken in the Netherlands are the Brabantian-Hollandic dialects.Ripuarian language, which is spoken in Kerkrade and Vaals in the form of, respectively, the Kerkrade dialect and the Vaals dialect are legally treated as Limburgish as well - see Southeast Limburgish dialect.English has a formal status in the special municipalities of Saba and Sint Eustatius. It is widely spoken on these islands. Papiamento has a formal status in the special municipality of Bonaire. Yiddish and the Romani language were recognised in 1996 as non-territorial languages. The Netherlands has a tradition of learning foreign languages, formalised in Dutch education laws. Some 90% of the total population indicate they are able to converse in English, 70% in German, and 29% in French. English is a mandatory course in all secondary schools. In most lower level secondary school educations ("vmbo"), one additional modern foreign language is mandatory during the first two years.In higher level secondary schools (HAVO and VWO), the acquisition of two additional modern foreign language skills is mandatory during the first three years. Only during the last three years in VWO one foreign language is mandatory. Besides English, the standard modern languages are French and German, although schools can replace one of these modern languages with Chinese, Spanish, Russian, Italian, Turkish or Arabic. Additionally, schools in Friesland teach and have exams in West Frisian, and schools across the country teach and have exams in Ancient Greek and Latin for secondary school (called Gymnasium or VWO+).The population of the Netherlands was predominantly Christian until the late 20th century, divided into a number of denominations. Although significant religious diversity remains, there has been a decline of religious adherence. The Netherlands is now one of the most secular societies in the world.In 2019, Statistics Netherlands found that 54.1% of the total population declared itself to be non-religious. Groups that represent the non-religious in the Netherlands include Humanistisch Verbond. Roman Catholics comprised 20.1% of the total population, Protestants (14.8%). Muslims comprised 5.0% of the total population and followers of other Christian denominations and other religions (like Judaism, Buddhism and Hinduism) comprised the remaining 5.9%. A 2015 survey from another source found that Protestants outnumbered Catholics.The southern provinces of North Brabant and Limburg have historically been strongly Roman Catholic, and some residents consider the Catholic Church as a base for their cultural identity. Protestantism in the Netherlands consists of a number of churches within various traditions. The largest of these is the Protestant Church in the Netherlands (PKN), a United church which is Reformed and Lutheran in orientation. It was formed in 2004 as a merger of the Dutch Reformed Church, the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands and a smaller Lutheran Church. Several orthodox Reformed and liberal churches did not merge into the PKN. Although in the Netherlands as a whole Christianity has become a minority, the Netherlands contains a Bible Belt from Zeeland to the northern parts of the province Overijssel, in which Protestant (particularly Reformed) beliefs remain strong, and even has majorities in municipal councils.Islam is the second largest religion in the state. In 2012, there were about 825,000 Muslims in the Netherlands (5% of the population). The Muslim population increased from the 1960 as a result of large numbers of migrant workers. This included migrant workers from Turkey and Morocco, as well as migrants from former Dutch colonies, such as Surinam and Indonesia. During the 1990s, Muslim refugees arrived from countries like Bosnia and Herzegovina, Iran, Iraq, Somalia, and Afghanistan.Another religion practised is Hinduism, with around 215,000 adherents (slightly over 1% of the population). Most of these are Indo-Surinamese. There are also sizable populations of Hindu immigrants from India and Sri Lanka, and some Western adherents of Hinduism-oriented new religious movements such as Hare Krishnas. The Netherlands has an estimated 250,000 Buddhists or people strongly attracted to this religion, mainly ethnic Dutch people. In addition, there are about 45,000 Jews in the Netherlands.The Constitution of the Netherlands guarantees freedom of education, which means that all schools that adhere to general quality criteria receive the same government funding. This includes schools based on religious principles by religious groups (especially Roman Catholic and various Protestant). Three political parties in the Dutch parliament, (CDA, and two small parties, ChristianUnion and SGP) are based upon the Christian belief. Several Christian religious holidays are national holidays (Christmas, Easter, Pentecost and the Ascension of Jesus).Upon the country's independence, Protestants were predominant in most of the country, while Roman Catholics were dominant in the south, especially North Brabant and Limburg. In the late 19th century, secularism, atheism and pillarisation gained adherents. By 1960, Roman Catholics equalled Protestants in number; thereafter, both Christian branches began to decline. Conversely, Islam grew considerably as the result of immigration. Since 2000 there has been raised awareness of religion, mainly due to Muslim extremism.The Dutch royal family has been traditionally associated with Calvinism, specifically the Dutch Reformed Church, which has merged into the Protestant Church in the Netherlands. The Dutch Reformed Church was the only major Protestant church in the Netherlands from the Reformation until the 19th century. Denominational splits in 1834 and in 1886 diversified Dutch Calvinism. In 2013, a Roman Catholic became Queen consort.A survey in December 2014 concluded that for the first time there were more atheists (25%) than theists (17%) in the Netherlands, while the remainder of the population was agnostic (31%) or ietsistic (27%). In 2015, a vast majority of the inhabitants of the Netherlands (82%) said they had never or almost never visited a church, and 59% stated that they had never been to a church of any kind. Of all the people questioned, 24% saw themselves as atheist, an increase of 11% compared to the previous study done in 2006. The expected rise of spirituality (ietsism) has come to a halt according to research in 2015. In 2006, 40% of respondents considered themselves spiritual; in 2015 this has dropped to 31%. The number who believed in the existence of a higher power fell from 36% to 28% over the same period.Education in the Netherlands is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 16. If a child does not have a "starting qualification" (HAVO, VWO or MBO 2+ degree) they are still forced to attend classes until they achieve such a qualification or reach the age of 18.All children in the Netherlands usually attend elementary school from (on average) ages 4 to 12. It comprises eight grades, the first of which is facultative. Based on an aptitude test, the eighth grade teacher's recommendation and the opinion of the pupil's parents or caretakers, a choice is made for one of the three main streams of secondary education. After completing a particular stream, a pupil may still continue in the penultimate year of the next stream.The VMBO has four grades and is subdivided over several levels. Successfully completing the VMBO results in a low-level vocational degree that grants access to the MBO. The MBO (middle-level applied education) is a form of education that primarily focuses on teaching a practical trade or a vocational degree. With the MBO certification, a student can apply for the HBO. The HAVO has 5 grades and allows for admission to the HBO. The HBO (higher professional education) are universities of professional education (applied sciences) that award professional bachelor's degrees; similar to polytechnic degrees. An HBO degree gives access to the university system. The VWO (comprising atheneum and gymnasium) has 6 grades and prepares for studying at a research university. Universities offer a three-year bachelor's degree, followed by a one or two-year master's degree, which in turn can be followed by a four or five-year doctoral degree programme.Doctoral candidates in the Netherlands are generally non-tenured employees of a university. All Dutch schools and universities are publicly funded and managed with the exception of religious schools that are publicly funded but not managed by the state even though requirements are necessary for the funding to be authorised. Dutch universities have a tuition fee of about 2,000 euros a year for students from the Netherlands and the European Union. The amount is about 10,000 euros for non-EU students.In 2016, the Netherlands maintained its number one position at the top of the annual Euro health consumer index (EHCI), which compares healthcare systems in Europe, scoring 916 of a maximum 1,000 points. The Netherlands has been among the top three countries in each report published since 2005. On 48 indicators such as patient rights and information, accessibility, prevention and outcomes, the Netherlands secured its top position among 37 European countries for six years in a row.The Netherlands was ranked first in a study in 2009 comparing the health care systems of the United States, Australia, Canada, Germany and New Zealand.Ever since a major reform of the health care system in 2006, the Dutch system received more points in the Index each year. According to the HCP (Health Consumer Powerhouse), the Netherlands has 'a chaos system', meaning patients have a great degree of freedom from where to buy their health insurance, to where they get their healthcare service. The difference between the Netherlands and other countries is that the chaos is managed. Healthcare decisions are being made in a dialogue between the patients and healthcare professionals.Health insurance in the Netherlands is mandatory. Healthcare in the Netherlands is covered by two statutory forms of insurance:While Dutch residents are automatically insured by the government for AWBZ, everyone has to take out their own basic healthcare insurance (basisverzekering), except those under 18 who are automatically covered under their parents' premium. If a person decides not to carry out an insurance coverage, the person may be fined. Insurers have to offer a universal package for everyone over the age of 18 years, regardless of age or state of health – it's illegal to refuse an application or impose special conditions. In contrast to many other European systems, the Dutch government is responsible for the accessibility and quality of the healthcare system in the Netherlands, but not in charge of its management.Healthcare in the Netherlands can be divided in several ways: three echelons, in somatic and mental health care and in 'cure' (short term) and 'care' (long term). Home doctors ("huisartsen", comparable to general practitioners) form the largest part of the first echelon. Being referenced by a member of the first echelon is mandatory for access to the second and third echelon. The health care system is in comparison to other Western countries quite effective but not the most cost-effective.Healthcare in the Netherlands is financed by a dual system that came into effect in January 2006. Long-term treatments, especially those that involve semi-permanent hospitalisation, and also disability costs such as wheelchairs, are covered by a state-controlled mandatory insurance. This is laid down in the "Algemene Wet Bijzondere Ziektekosten" ("General Law on Exceptional Healthcare Costs") which first came into effect in 1968. In 2009 this insurance covered 27% of all health care expenses.For all regular (short-term) medical treatment, there is a system of obligatory health insurance, with private health insurance companies. These insurance companies are obliged to provide a package with a defined set of insured treatments. This insurance covers 41% of all health care expenses.Other sources of health care payment are taxes (14%), out of pocket payments (9%), additional optional health insurance packages (4%) and a range of other sources (4%). Affordability is guaranteed through a system of income-related allowances and individual and employer-paid income-related premiums.A key feature of the Dutch system is that premiums may not be related to health status or age. Risk variances between private health insurance companies due to the different risks presented by individual policy holders are compensated through risk equalisation and a common risk pool. The funding burden for all short-term health care coverage is carried 50% by employers, 45% by the insured person and 5% by the government. Children under 18 are covered for free. Those on low incomes receive compensation to help them pay their insurance. Premiums paid by the insured are about €100 per month (about US$127 in August 2010 and €150 or US$196 in 2012), with variation of about 5% between the various competing insurers, and a yearly deductible of €220 (US$288).Mobility on Dutch roads has grown continuously since the 1950s and now exceeds 200 billion km travelled per year, three quarters of which are done by car. Around half of all trips in the Netherlands are made by car, 25% by bicycle, 20% walking, and 5% by public transport.With a total road network of 139,295 km, which includes 2,758 km of expressways, the Netherlands has one of the densest road networks in the world—much denser than Germany and France, but still not as dense as Belgium.As part of its commitment to environmental sustainability, the Government of the Netherlands initiated a plan to establish over 200 recharging stations for electric vehicles across the country. The rollout will be undertaken by Switzerland-based power and automation company ABB and Dutch startup Fastned, and will aim to provide at least one station within a 50-kilometre radius (30 miles) from every home in the Netherlands. Currently, the Netherlands alone hosts more than a quarter of all recharging stations in the European Union. This share rises to 30% if Brexit is taken into account. Moreover, newly sold cars in the Netherlands have on average the lowest CO2 emissions in the EU.About 13% of all distance is travelled by public transport, the majority of which by train. Like in many other European countries, the Dutch rail network of 3,013 km route is also rather dense. The network is mostly focused on passenger rail services and connects all major towns and cities, with over 400 stations. Trains are frequent, with two trains per hour on lesser lines, two to four trains per hour on average, and up to eight trains an hour on the busiest lines. The Dutch national train network also includes the HSL-Zuid, a high-speed line between the Amsterdam metropolitan area and the Belgian border for trains running from Paris and London to the Netherlands.Cycling is a ubiquitous mode of transport in the Netherlands. Almost as many kilometres are covered by bicycle as by train. The Dutch are estimated to have at least 18 million bicycles, which makes more than one per capita, and twice as many as the circa 9 million motor vehicles on the road. In 2013, the European Cyclists' Federation ranked both the Netherlands and Denmark as the most bike-friendly countries in Europe, but more of the Dutch (36%) than of the Danes (23%) list the bike as their most frequent mode of transport on a typical day. Cycling infrastructure is comprehensive. Busy roads have received some 35,000 km of dedicated cycle tracks, physically segregated from motorised traffic. Busy junctions are often equipped with bicycle-specific traffic lights. There are large bicycle parking facilities, particularly in city centres and at train stations.Until the introduction of trains, ships were the primary mode of transport in the Netherlands. And shipping has remained crucial afterwards. The Port of Rotterdam is the largest port in Europe and the largest port in the world outside East-Asia, with the rivers Meuse and Rhine providing excellent access to the hinterland upstream reaching to Basel, Switzerland, and into Germany and France. , Rotterdam was the world's eighth largest container port handling 440.5 million metric tonnes of cargo annually. The port's main activities are petrochemical industries and general cargo handling and transshipment. The harbour functions as an important transit point for bulk materials and between the European continent and overseas. From Rotterdam goods are transported by ship, river barge, train or road. The Volkeraksluizen between Rotterdam and Antwerp are the biggest sluices for inland navigation in the world in terms of tonnage passing through them. In 2007, the Betuweroute, a new fast freight railway from Rotterdam to Germany, was completed. The Netherlands also hosts Europe's 4th largest port in Amsterdam. The inland shipping fleet of the Netherlands is the largest in Europe. The Netherlands also has the largest fleet of active historical ships in the world. Boats are used for passenger travel as well, such as the Watertaxies in Rotterdam. The ferry network in Amsterdam and the Waterbus network in Rotterdam are part of the public transport system.Schiphol Airport, just southwest of Amsterdam, is the main international airport in the Netherlands, and the third busiest airport in Europe in terms of passengers. Schiphol is the main hub for KLM, the nation's flag carrier and the world's oldest airline. In 2016, the Royal Schiphol Group airports handled 70 million passengers. All air traffic is international and Schiphol Airport is connected to over 300 destinations worldwide, more than any other European airport. The airport is a major freight hub as well, processing 1.44 million tonnes of cargo in 2020. Smaller international airports in the country include Eindhoven Airport, Rotterdam The Hague Airport, Maastricht Aachen Airport and Groningen Airport Eelde. Air transport is of vital significance for the Caribbean part of the Netherlands, with all islands having their own airport. This includes the shortest runway in the world on Saba.The Netherlands has had many well-known painters. In the Middle Ages Hieronymus Bosch, Petrus Christus, Lucas Gassel and Pieter Bruegel the Elder were leading Dutch pioneers.During the Dutch Golden Age, spanning much of the 17th century, the Dutch Republic was prosperous and witnessed a flourishing artistic movement. This was the age of the "Dutch Masters", such as Rembrandt van Rijn, Johannes Vermeer, Jan Steen, Jacob van Ruisdael, Gerard van Honthorst, Theodoor van Thulden and many others. Famous Dutch painters of the 19th and 20th century were Vincent van Gogh and the luminists Jan Sluijters, Leo Gestel, and Piet Mondrian. M. C. Escher is a well-known graphic artist. Willem de Kooning was born and trained in Rotterdam, although he is considered to have reached acclaim as an American artist. Literature flourished as well during the Dutch Golden Age, with Joost van den Vondel and P. C. Hooft as the two most famous writers. In the 19th century, Multatuli wrote about the poor treatment of the natives in the Dutch colony, the current Indonesia. Important 20th century authors include Godfried Bomans, Harry Mulisch, Jan Wolkers, Simon Vestdijk, Hella S. Haasse, Cees Nooteboom, Gerard Reve and Willem Frederik Hermans. Anne Frank's "Diary of a Young Girl" was published after she was murdered in the Holocaust and translated from Dutch to all major languages.Various architectural styles can be distinguished in the Netherlands. Over the years, various styles have been built and preserved.The Romanesque architecture was built between the years 950 and 1250. This architectural style is most concentrated in the provinces of Gelderland and Limburg. Limburg, in particular, differs greatly in architectural style from the rest of the Netherlands.The Gothic architecture came to in the Netherlands from about 1230. Gothic buildings often had large windows, pointed arches and were richly decorated.Brabantine Gothic originated with the rise of the Duchy of Brabant and spread throughout the Burgundian provinces.This architectural style is most concentrated in the province of North Brabant, such as St. John's Cathedral in 's-Hertogenbosch, The Church of Our Lady in Breda and the Margraves Palace in Bergen op Zoom.What many know as traditional Dutch architecture is the Dutch Baroque architecture (1525 – 1630) and classicism (1630 – 1700).These style of architecture is especially in evidence in the cities of North Holland, South Holland and Zeeland.Other architectural styles that are common in the Netherlands are Style Louis XIV, Art Nouveau, Rationalism, NeoclassicismExpressionism, De Stijl, Traditionalism and Brutalism.The Netherlands is the country of philosophers Erasmus, Rudolf Agricola and Spinoza. Much of Descartes' major work was done in the Netherlands, where he studied at Leiden University — as did geologist James Hutton, British Prime Minister John Stuart, U.S. President John Quincy Adams, Physics Nobel Prize laureate Hendrik Lorentz and Enrico Fermi. The Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) discovered Saturn's moon Titan, argued that light travelled as waves, invented the pendulum clock and was the first physicist to use mathematical formulae. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe and describe single-celled organisms with a microscope.Replicas of Dutch buildings can be found in Huis Ten Bosch, Nagasaki, Japan. A similar Holland Village is being built in Shenyang, China. Windmills, tulips, wooden shoes, cheese, Delftware pottery, and cannabis are among the items associated with the Netherlands by tourists.In the south of the Netherlands there are some festivals that rarely or never occur in the rest of the Netherlands. These celebrations grew out of Catholic traditions, including Carnival, lantern parades during the celebration of Three Kings, Brabantian Day and huge Bloemencorso. Bloemencorsos used to occur in many places in the Netherlands, but in the 21th century, Zundert and Valkenswaard in North Brabant have taken the lead.Dutch society is egalitarian and modern. The Dutch have an aversion to the non-essential. Ostentatious behaviour is to be avoided. The Dutch are proud of their cultural heritage, rich history in art and involvement in international affairs.Dutch manners are open and direct with a no-nonsense attitude—informality combined with adherence to basic behaviour. According to a humorous source on Dutch culture, "Their directness gives many the impression that they are rude and crude—attributes they prefer to call openness." A well known more serious source on Dutch etiquette is "Dealing with the Dutch" by Jacob Vossestein: "Dutch egalitarianism is the idea that people are equal, especially from a moral point of view, and accordingly, causes the somewhat ambiguous stance the Dutch have towards hierarchy and status." As always, manners differ between groups. Asking about basic rules will not be considered impolite. "What may strike you as being blatantly blunt topics and comments are no more embarrassing or unusual to the Dutch than discussing the weather."The Netherlands is one of the most secular countries of Europe, and religion in the Netherlands is generally considered as a personal matter which is not supposed to be propagated in public, although it often remains a discussion subject. For only 17% of the population religion is important and 14% goes to church weekly.The Netherlands has a long history of social tolerance and today is regarded as a liberal country, considering its drug policy and its legalisation of euthanasia. On 1 April 2001, the Netherlands became the first nation to legalise same-sex marriage.As of 2018 the Netherlands had one of the highest rates of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in the European Union, above those of Germany, France and Belgium. In addition, the Dutch waste more food than any other EU citizen, at over three times the EU average Despite this, the Netherlands has nonetheless the reputation of the leader country in environmental and population management. In 2015, Amsterdam and Rotterdam were ranked fourth and fifth, respectively, on the Arcadis Sustainable Cities Index.Sustainability is a concept important for the Dutch. The goal of the Dutch Government is to have a sustainable, reliable and affordable energy system, by 2050, in which emissions have been halved and 40 per cent of electricity is derived from sustainable sources.The government is investing billions of euros in energy efficiency, sustainable energy and reduction. The Kingdom also encourages Dutch companies to build sustainable business/projects/facilities, with financial aids from the state to the companies or individuals who are active in making the country more sustainable.The Netherlands has multiple music traditions. Traditional Dutch music is a genre known as "Levenslied", meaning "Song of life", to an extent comparable to a French Chanson or a German Schlager. These songs typically have a simple melody and rhythm, and a straightforward structure of verses and choruses. Themes can be light, but are often sentimental and include love, death and loneliness. Traditional musical instruments such as the accordion and the barrel organ are a staple of levenslied music, though in recent years many artists also use synthesisers and guitars. Artists in this genre include Jan Smit, Frans Bauer and André Hazes.Contemporary Dutch rock and pop music (Nederpop) originated in the 1960s, heavily influenced by popular music from the United States and Britain. In the 1960s and 1970s the lyrics were mostly in English, and some tracks were instrumental. Bands such as Shocking Blue, Golden Earring, Tee Set, George Baker Selection and Focus enjoyed international success. As of the 1980s, more and more pop musicians started working in the Dutch language, partly inspired by the huge success of the band Doe Maar. Today Dutch rock and pop music thrives in both languages, with some artists recording in both.Current symphonic metal bands Epica, Delain, ReVamp, The Gathering, Asrai, Autumn, Ayreon and Within Temptation as well as jazz and pop singer Caro Emerald are having international success. Also, metal bands like Hail of Bullets, God Dethroned, Izegrim, Asphyx, Textures, Present Danger, Heidevolk and Slechtvalk are popular guests at the biggest metal festivals in Europe. Contemporary local stars include pop singer Anouk, country pop singer Ilse DeLange, South Guelderish and Limburgish dialect singing folk band Rowwen Hèze, rock band BLØF and duo Nick & Simon. Trijntje Oosterhuis, one of the country's most well known and versatile singers, has made multiple albums with famous American composers Vince Mendoza and Burt Bacharach.Early 1990s Dutch and Belgian house music came together in Eurodance project 2 Unlimited. Selling 18 million records, the two singers in the band are the most successful Dutch music artists to this day. Tracks like "Get Ready for This" are still popular themes of U.S. sports events, like the NHL. In the mid 1990s Dutch language rap and hip hop ("Nederhop") also came to fruition and has become popular in the Netherlands and Belgium. Artists with North African, Caribbean or Middle Eastern origins have strongly influenced this genre.Since the 1990s, Dutch electronic dance music (EDM) gained widespread popularity in the world in many forms, from trance, techno and gabber to hardstyle. Some of the world's best known dance music DJs hail from the Netherlands, including Armin van Buuren, Tiësto, Hardwell, Martin Garrix, Dash Berlin, Julian Jordan, Nicky Romero, W&W, Don Diablo and Afrojack; the first four of which have been ranked as best in the world by DJ Mag Top 100 DJs. The Amsterdam Dance Event (ADE) is the world's leading electronic music conference and the biggest club festival for the many electronic subgenres on the planet. These DJs also contribute to the world's mainstream pop music, as they frequently collaborate and produce for high-profile international artists.The Netherlands have participated in the Eurovision Song Contest since its first edition in 1956, and have won five times. Their most recent win was in 2019.In classical music, Jan Sweelinck ranks as the Dutch most famous composer, with Louis Andriessen amongst the best known living Dutch classical composers. Ton Koopman is a Dutch conductor, organist and harpsichordist. He is also professor at the Royal Conservatory of The Hague. Notable violinists are Janine Jansen and André Rieu. The latter, together with his Johann Strauss Orchestra, has taken classical and waltz music on worldwide concert tours, the size and revenue of which are otherwise only seen from the world's biggest rock and pop music acts. The most famous Dutch classical composition is "Canto Ostinato" by Simeon ten Holt, a minimalistic composition for multiple instruments. Acclaimed harpist Lavinia Meijer in 2012 released an album with works from Philip Glass that she transcribed for harp, with approval of Glass himself. The Concertgebouw (completed in 1888) in Amsterdam is home to the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, considered one of the world's finest orchestras.Some Dutch films – mainly by director Paul Verhoeven – have received international distribution and recognition, such as "Turkish Delight" (""Turks Fruit"", 1973), "Soldier of Orange" (""Soldaat van Oranje"", 1977), "Spetters" (1980) and "The Fourth Man" (""De Vierde Man"", 1983). Verhoeven then went on to direct big Hollywood movies like "RoboCop" (1987), "Total Recall" (1990) and "Basic Instinct" (1992), and returned with Dutch film "Black Book" (""Zwartboek"", 2006).Other well-known Dutch film directors are Jan de Bont ("Speed"), Anton Corbijn ("A Most wanted Man"), Dick Maas ("De Lift"), Fons Rademakers ("The Assault"), and documentary makers Bert Haanstra and Joris Ivens. Film director Theo van Gogh achieved international notoriety in 2004 when he was murdered by Mohammed Bouyeri in the streets of Amsterdam after directing the short film "Submission".Internationally, successful directors of photography from the Netherlands are Hoyte van Hoytema ("Interstellar", "Spectre", "Dunkirk") and Theo van de Sande ("Wayne's World" and "Blade"). Van Hoytema went to the National Film School in Łódź (Poland) and Van de Sande went to the Netherlands Film Academy. Internationally successful Dutch actors include Famke Janssen ("X-Men"), Carice van Houten ("Game of Thrones"), Michiel Huisman ("Game of Thrones"), Rutger Hauer ("Blade Runner"), Jeroen Krabbé ("The Living Daylights") and Derek de Lint ("Three Men and a Baby").The Netherlands has a well developed television market, with both multiple commercial and public broadcasters. Imported TV programmes, as well as interviews with responses in a foreign language, are virtually always shown with the original sound and subtitled. Only foreign shows for children are dubbed.TV exports from the Netherlands mostly take the form of specific formats and franchises, most notably through internationally active TV production conglomerate Endemol, founded by Dutch media tycoons John de Mol and Joop van den Ende. Headquartered in Amsterdam, Endemol has around 90 companies in over 30 countries. Endemol and its subsidiaries create and run reality, talent, and game show franchises worldwide, including "Big Brother" and "Deal or No Deal". John de Mol later started his own company Talpa which created show franchises like "The Voice" and "Utopia".Approximately 4.5 million of the 16.8 million people in the Netherlands are registered to one of the 35,000 sports clubs in the country. About two-thirds of the population between 15 and 75 participates in sports weekly. Football is the most popular participant sport in the Netherlands, before field hockey and volleyball as the second and third most popular team sports. The Netherlands national football team is one of the most popular aspects of Dutch sports; especially since the 1970s when one of the greatest footballers of all time, Johan Cruyff, developed Total Football with coach Rinus Michels. Tennis, gymnastics and golf are the three most widely engaged in individual sports.Organisation of sports began at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. Federations for sports were established (such as the speed skating federation in 1882), rules were unified and sports clubs came into existence. A Dutch National Olympic Committee was established in 1912. Thus far, the nation has won 266 medals at the Summer Olympic Games and another 110 medals at the Winter Olympic Games. In international competition, Dutch national teams and athletes are dominant in several fields of sport. The Netherlands women's field hockey team is the most successful team in World Cup history. The Netherlands baseball team have won the European championship 20 times out of 32 events. Dutch K-1 kickboxers have won the K-1 World Grand Prix 15 times out of 19 tournaments. The Netherlands Women's handball team holds the record of the only team in the world that consecutively reached all six semifinals of major international tournaments since 2015, winning silver and bronze at the European Women's Handball Championship and silver, bronze and gold at the World Women's Handball Championship. They finished fourth at the 2016 Summer Olympics.The Dutch speed skaters' performance at the 2014 Winter Olympics, where they won 8 out of 12 events, 23 out of 36 medals, including 4 clean sweeps, is the most dominant performance in a single sport in Olympic history. Motorcycle racing at the TT Circuit Assen has a long history. Assen is the only venue to have held a round of the Motorcycle World Championship every year since its creation in 1949. The circuit was purpose-built for the Dutch TT in 1954, with previous events having been held on public roads.The Dutch have also had success in all three of cyclings Grand Tours with Jan Janssen winning the 1968 Tour de France, more recently with Tom Dumoulin winning the 2017 Giro d'Italia and legendary rider Joop Zoetemelk was the 1985 UCI World Champion, the winner of the 1979 Vuelta a Espana, the 1980 Tour de France and still holds or shares numerous Tour de France records including most Tours finished and most kilometres ridden.Limburger Max Verstappen currently races in Formula One, and was the first Dutchman to win a Grand Prix. The coastal resort of Zandvoort hosted the Dutch Grand Prix from 1958 to 1985, and has been announced to return in 2020. The volleyball national men's team has also been successful, winning the silver medal at the 1992 Summer Olympics and the gold medal four years later in Atlanta. The biggest success of the women's national team was winning the European Championship in 1995 and the World Grand Prix in 2007.Recently cricket has made a remarkable progress in the Netherlands. Netherlands have participated in 1996, 2003, 2007 and 2011 ODI cricket World Cup. They have also qualified for 2009 and 2014 T20 World Cup. In the 2009 T20 World Cup, Netherlands defeated England, the current World Champions and inventor of the game. Ryan ten Doeschate is the only Dutch player to have played in the IPL on the team Kolkata Knight Riders.Originally, the country's cuisine was shaped by the practices of fishing and farming, including the cultivation of the soil for growing crops and raising domesticated animals. Dutch cuisine is simple and straightforward, and contains many dairy products. Breakfast and lunch are typically bread with toppings, with cereal for breakfast as an alternative. Traditionally, dinner consists of potatoes, a portion of meat, and (seasonal) vegetables. The Dutch diet was relatively high in carbohydrates and fat, reflecting the dietary needs of the labourers whose culture moulded the country. Without many refinements, it is best described as rustic, though many holidays are still celebrated with special foods. In the course of the twentieth century this diet changed and became much more cosmopolitan, with most global cuisines being represented in the major cities.Modern culinary writers distinguish between three general regional forms of Dutch cuisine. The regions in the northeast of the Netherlands, roughly the provinces of Groningen, Friesland, Drenthe, Overijssel and Gelderland north of the great rivers are the least populated areas of the Netherlands. The late (18th century) introduction of large scale agriculture means that the cuisine is generally known for its many kinds of meats. The relative lack of farms allowed for an abundance of game and husbandry, though dishes near the coastal regions of Friesland, Groningen and the parts of Overijssel bordering the IJsselmeer also include a large amount of fish. The various dried sausages, belonging to the metworst-family of Dutch sausages are found throughout this region and are highly prized for their often very strong taste. Also smoked sausages are common, of which ("Gelderse") "rookworst" is the most renowned. The sausage contains a lot of fat and is very juicy. Larger sausages are often eaten alongside "stamppot", "hutspot" or "zuurkool" (sauerkraut); whereas smaller ones are often eaten as a street food. The provinces are also home to hard textured rye bread, pastries and cookies, the latter heavily spiced with ginger or succade or containing small bits of meat. Various kinds of "Kruidkoek" (such as ), "" and "" (small savoury pancakes cooked in a waffle iron) are considered typical. A notable characteristic of "Fries roggebrood" (Frisian rye bread) is its long baking time (up to 20 hours), resulting in a sweet taste and a deep dark colour. In terms of alcoholic beverages, the region is renowned for its many bitters (such as "Beerenburg") and other high-proof liquors rather than beer, which is, apart from "Jenever", typical for the rest of the country. As a coastal region, Friesland is home to low-lying grasslands, and thus has a cheese production in common with the Western cuisine. "Friese Nagelkaas" (Friesian Clove) is a notable example.The provinces of North Holland, South Holland, Zeeland, and Utrecht and the Gelderlandic area of Betuwe make up the region in which western Dutch cuisine is found. Because of the abundance of water and flat grasslands that are found here, the area is known for its many dairy products, which include prominent cheeses such as Gouda, Leyden (spiced cheese with cumin), and Edam (traditionally in small spheres) as well as Leerdammer and Beemster, while the adjacent Zaanstreek in North Holland has since the 16th century been known for its mayonnaise, typical whole-grain mustards, and chocolate industry. Zeeland and South Holland produce a lot of butter, which contains a larger amount of milkfat than most other European butter varieties. A by-product of the butter-making process, "karnemelk" (buttermilk), is also considered typical for this region. Seafood such as soused herring, mussels (called "Zeeuwse Mossels", since all Dutch mussels for consumption are cleaned in Zeeland's Oosterschelde), eels, oysters and shrimps are widely available and typical for the region. "", once a local delicacy consisting of small chunks of battered white fish, has become a national fast food, just as . Pastries in this area tend to be quite doughy, and often contain large amounts of sugar; either caramelised, powdered or crystallised. The "oliebol" (in its modern form) and "Zeeuwse bolus" are good examples. Cookies are also produced in great number and tend to contain a lot of butter and sugar, like "stroopwafel", as well as a filling of some kind, mostly almond, like "". The traditional alcoholic beverages of this region are beer (strong pale lager) and "Jenever", a high proof juniper-flavoured spirit, that came to be known in England as gin. A noted exception within the traditional Dutch alcoholic landscape, "Advocaat", a rich and creamy liqueur made from eggs, sugar and brandy, is also native to this region.The Southern Dutch cuisine consists of the cuisines of the Dutch provinces of North Brabant and Limburg and the Flemish Region in Belgium. It is renowned for its many rich pastries, soups, stews and vegetable dishes and is often called Burgundian which is a Dutch idiom invoking the rich Burgundian court which ruled the Low Countries in the Middle Ages, renowned for its splendor and great feasts. It is the only Dutch culinary region that developed an haute cuisine. Pastries are abundant, often with rich fillings of cream, custard or fruits. Cakes, such as the "Vlaai" from Limburg and the "Moorkop" and "Bossche Bol" from Brabant, are typical pastries. Savoury pastries also occur, with the (a roll with a sausage of ground beef, literally translates into sausage bread) being the most popular. The traditional alcoholic beverage of the region is beer. There are many local brands, ranging from "Trappist" to "Kriek". 5 of the 10 "International Trappist Association" recognised breweries in the world, are located in the Southern Dutch cultural area. Beer, like wine in French cuisine, is also used in cooking; often in stews.In early 2014, Oxfam ranked the Netherlands as the country with the most nutritious, plentiful and healthy food, in a comparison of 125 countries.From the exploitations in the Mughal Empire in the 17th century, to the colonisations in the 19th century, Dutch imperial possessions continued to expand, reaching their greatest extent by establishing a hegemony of the Dutch East Indies in the early 20th century. The Dutch East Indies, which later formed modern-day Indonesia, was one of the most valuable European colonies in the world and the most important one for the Netherlands. Over 350 years of mutual heritage has left a significant cultural mark on the Netherlands.In the Dutch Golden Age of the 17th century, the Netherlands urbanised considerably, mostly financed by corporate revenue from the Asian trade monopolies. Social status was based on merchants' income, which reduced feudalism and considerably changed the dynamics of Dutch society. When the Dutch royal family was established in 1815, much of its wealth came from Colonial trade.By the 17th century, the Dutch East India Company established their base in parts of Ceylon (modern-day Sri Lanka). Afterward, they established ports in Dutch occupied Malabar, leading to Dutch settlements and trading posts in India. However, their expansion into India was halted, after their defeat in the Battle of Colachel by the Kingdom of Travancore, during the Travancore-Dutch War. The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat to Bengal Subah.Universities such as the Leiden University, founded in the 16th century, have developed into leading knowledge centres for Southeast Asian and Indonesian studies. Leiden University has produced leading academics such as Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje, and still has academics who specialise in Indonesian languages and cultures. Leiden University and in particular KITLV are educational and scientific institutions that to this day share both an intellectual and historical interest in Indonesian studies. Other scientific institutions in the Netherlands include the Amsterdam Tropenmuseum, an anthropological museum with massive collections of Indonesian art, culture, ethnography and anthropology.The traditions of the Royal Dutch East Indies Army (KNIL) are maintained by the Regiment Van Heutsz of the modern Royal Netherlands Army. A dedicated "Bronbeek Museum", a former home for retired KNIL soldiers, exists in Arnhem to this day.A specific segment of Dutch literature called Dutch Indies literature still exists and includes established authors, such as Louis Couperus, the writer of "The Hidden Force", taking the colonial era as an important source of inspiration. One of the great masterpieces of Dutch literature is the book "Max Havelaar", written by Multatuli in 1860.The majority of Dutchmen that repatriated to the Netherlands after and during the Indonesian revolution are Indo (Eurasian), native to the islands of the Dutch East Indies. This relatively large Eurasian population had developed over a period of 400 years and were classified by colonial law as belonging to the European legal community. In Dutch they are referred to as "Indische Nederlanders" or as Indo (short for Indo-European).Including their second generation descendants, Indos are currently the largest foreign-born group in the Netherlands. In 2008, the Dutch Central Bureau for Statistics (CBS) registered 387,000 first- and second-generation Indos living in the Netherlands. Although considered fully assimilated into Dutch society, as the main ethnic minority in the Netherlands, these 'repatriants' have played a pivotal role in introducing elements of Indonesian culture into Dutch mainstream culture.Many Indonesian dishes and foodstuffs have become commonplace in the Netherlands. Rijsttafel, a colonial culinary concept, and dishes such as Nasi goreng and satay are very popular in the country. Practically any town of any size in the Netherlands has a "toko" (a Dutch Indonesian Shop) or a Chinese-Indonesian restaurant, and many 'Pasar Malam' (Night market in Malay/Indonesian) fairs are organised throughout the year. | [
"Piet de Jong",
"Hendrikus Colijn",
"Ruud Lubbers",
"Jan de Quay",
"Wim Schermerhorn",
"Jo Cals",
"Joop den Uyl",
"Wim Kok",
"Louis Beel",
"Dirk Jan de Geer",
"Dries van Agt",
"Willem Drees",
"Charles Ruijs de Beerenbrouck",
"Jelle Zijlstra",
"Jan Peter Balkenende",
"Mark Rutte",
"Pieter Sjoerds Gerbrandy",
"Barend Biesheuvel"
] |
|
Who was the head of Netherlands in 24/01/1964? | January 24, 1964 | {
"text": [
"Victor Marijnen"
]
} | L2_Q55_P6_8 | Jelle Zijlstra is the head of the government of Netherlands from Nov, 1966 to Apr, 1967.
Joop den Uyl is the head of the government of Netherlands from May, 1973 to Dec, 1977.
Wim Kok is the head of the government of Netherlands from Aug, 1994 to Jul, 2002.
Louis Beel is the head of the government of Netherlands from Jul, 1946 to Aug, 1948.
Victor Marijnen is the head of the government of Netherlands from Jul, 1963 to Apr, 1965.
Hendrikus Colijn is the head of the government of Netherlands from Aug, 1925 to Mar, 1926.
Ruud Lubbers is the head of the government of Netherlands from Nov, 1982 to Aug, 1994.
Willem Drees is the head of the government of Netherlands from Aug, 1948 to Dec, 1958.
Jan de Quay is the head of the government of Netherlands from May, 1959 to Jul, 1963.
Jo Cals is the head of the government of Netherlands from Apr, 1965 to Nov, 1966.
Piet de Jong is the head of the government of Netherlands from Apr, 1967 to Jul, 1971.
Jan Peter Balkenende is the head of the government of Netherlands from Jul, 2002 to Oct, 2010.
Barend Biesheuvel is the head of the government of Netherlands from Jul, 1971 to May, 1973.
Dirk Jan de Geer is the head of the government of Netherlands from Mar, 1926 to Aug, 1929.
Wim Schermerhorn is the head of the government of Netherlands from Jun, 1945 to Jul, 1946.
Pieter Sjoerds Gerbrandy is the head of the government of Netherlands from Sep, 1940 to Jun, 1945.
Dries van Agt is the head of the government of Netherlands from Dec, 1977 to Nov, 1982.
Mark Rutte is the head of the government of Netherlands from Oct, 2010 to Dec, 2022.
Charles Ruijs de Beerenbrouck is the head of the government of Netherlands from Sep, 1918 to Aug, 1925. | NetherlandsThe Netherlands ( ), sometimes informally Holland, is a country located in Western Europe with territories in the Caribbean. It is the largest of four constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. In Europe, the Netherlands consists of twelve provinces, bordering Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, with maritime borders in the North Sea with those countries and the United Kingdom. In the Caribbean, it consists of three special municipalities: the islands of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba. The country's official language is Dutch, with West Frisian as a secondary official language in the province of Friesland, and English and Papiamento as secondary official languages in the Caribbean Netherlands. Dutch Low Saxon and Limburgish are recognised regional languages (spoken in the east and southeast respectively), while Dutch Sign Language, Sinte Romani and Yiddish are recognised non-territorial languages.The four largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague and Utrecht. Amsterdam is the country's most populous city and nominal capital, while The Hague holds the seat of the States General, Cabinet and Supreme Court. The Port of Rotterdam is the busiest seaport in Europe, and the busiest in any country outside East Asia and Southeast Asia, behind only China and Singapore. Amsterdam Airport Schiphol is the busiest airport in the Netherlands, and the third busiest in Europe. The country is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. It hosts several intergovernmental organisations and international courts, many of which are centred in The Hague, which is consequently dubbed 'the world's legal capital'."Netherlands" literally means "lower countries" in reference to its low elevation and flat topography, with only about 50% of its land exceeding above sea level, and nearly 26% falling below sea level. Most of the areas below sea level, known as "polders", are the result of land reclamation that began in the 14th century. Colloquially or informally the Netherlands is occasionally referred to by the pars pro toto "Holland". With a population of 17.4 million people, all living within a total area of roughly —of which the land area is —the Netherlands is the 16th most densely populated country in the world and the 2nd most densely populated country in the European Union, with a density of . Nevertheless, it is the world's second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products by value, owing to its fertile soil, mild climate, intensive agriculture and inventiveness.The Netherlands has been a parliamentary constitutional monarchy with a unitary structure since 1848. The country has a tradition of pillarisation and a long record of social tolerance, having legalised abortion, prostitution and human euthanasia, along with maintaining a liberal drug policy. The Netherlands abolished the death penalty in Civil Law in 1870, though it was not completely removed until a new constitution was approved in 1983. The Netherlands allowed women's suffrage in 1919, before becoming the world's first country to legalise same-sex marriage in 2001. Its mixed-market advanced economy had the eleventh-highest per capita income globally. The Netherlands ranks among the highest in international indexes of press freedom, economic freedom, human development and quality of life, as well as happiness. In 2020, it ranked eighth on the human development index and fifth on the 2021 World Happiness Index.The Netherlands' turbulent history and shifts of power resulted in exceptionally many and widely varying names in different languages. There is diversity even within languages. In English, the Netherlands is also called Holland or (part of) the Low Countries, whereas the term ""Dutch"" is used as the demonym and adjectival form.The region called the Low Countries (comprising Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg) have the same toponymy. Place names with "Neder", "Nieder", "Nedre", "Nether", "Lage(r)" or "Low(er)" (in Germanic languages) and "Bas" or "Inferior" (in Romance languages) are in use in low-lying places all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a deictic relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as "Super(ior)", "Up(per)", "Op(per)", "Ober", "Boven", "High", "Haut" or "Hoch". In the case of the Low Countries / Netherlands the geographical location of the "lower" region has been more or less downstream and near the sea. The geographical location of the upper region, however, changed tremendously over time, depending on the location of the economic and military power governing the Low Countries area. The Romans made a distinction between the Roman provinces of downstream Germania Inferior (nowadays part of Belgium and the Netherlands) and upstream Germania Superior (nowadays part of Germany). The designation 'Low' to refer to the region returns again in the 10th century Duchy of Lower Lorraine, that covered much of the Low Countries. But this time the corresponding "Upper" region is Upper Lorraine, in nowadays Northern France.The Dukes of Burgundy, who ruled from their residence in the Low Countries in the 15th century, used the term "les pays de par deçà" ("the lands over here") for the Low Countries, as opposed to "les pays de par delà" ("the lands over there") for their original homeland: Burgundy in present-day east-central France. Under Habsburg rule, "Les pays de par deçà" developed in "pays d'embas" ("lands down-here"), a deictic expression in relation to other Habsburg possessions like Hungary and Austria. This was translated as "Neder-landen" in contemporary Dutch official documents. From a regional point of view, "Niderlant" was also the area between the Meuse and the lower Rhine in the late Middle Ages. The area known as "Oberland" (High country) was in this deictic context considered to begin approximately at the nearby higher located Cologne.From the mid-sixteenth century on, the "Low Countries" and the "Netherlands" lost their original deictic meaning. They were probably the most commonly used names, besides Flanders, a "pars pro toto" for the Low Countries, especially in Romance language-speaking Europe. The Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) divided the Low Countries into an independent northern Dutch Republic (or Latinised "Belgica Foederata", "Federated Netherlands", the precursor state of the Netherlands) and a Spanish controlled Southern Netherlands (Latinised "Belgica Regia", "Royal Netherlands", the precursor state of Belgium). The Low Countries today is a designation that includes the countries of the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg, although in most Romance languages, the term "Low Countries" is used as the name for the Netherlands specifically. It is used synonymously with the more neutral and geopolitical term Benelux.The Netherlands is also referred to as Holland in various languages, including English. However, Holland proper is only a region within the country that consists of North and South Holland, two of the nation's twelve provinces. Formerly they were a single province, and earlier the County of Holland, a remnant of the dissolved Frisian Kingdom which also included parts of present-day Utrecht. Following the decline of the Duchy of Brabant and the County of Flanders, Holland became the most economically and politically important county in the Low Countries region. The emphasis on Holland during the formation of the Dutch Republic, the Eighty Years' War, and the Anglo-Dutch Wars in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, made Holland serve as a "pars pro toto" for the entire country, which is now considered informal or incorrect. Nonetheless, the name "Holland" is still widely used for the Netherlands national football team, including in the Netherlands, and the Dutch government's international websites for tourism and trade are "holland.com" and "hollandtradeandinvest.com". In 2020, however, the Dutch government announced that it would only communicate and advertise under the name "the Netherlands" in the future.The term Dutch is used as the demonymic and adjectival form of the Netherlands in the English language. The origins of the word go back to Proto-Germanic "*þiudiskaz", Latinised into Theodiscus, meaning "popular" or "of the people"; akin to Old Dutch "Dietsch", Old High German "duitsch", and Old English "þeodisc", all meaning "(of) the common (Germanic) people". At first, the English language used (the contemporary form of) Dutch to refer to any or all speakers of West Germanic languages (e.g. the Dutch, the Frisians, and the Germans). Gradually its meaning shifted to the West Germanic people they had most contact with, because of their geographical proximity and for the rivalry in trade and overseas territories. The derivative of the Proto-Germanic word "*þiudiskaz" in modern Dutch, "Diets", can be found in Dutch literature as a poetic name for the Dutch people or language, but is considered very archaic. Although it had a short resurgence after World War II to avoid the reference to Germany. It is still used in the expression "diets maken" – to put it straight to him/her (as in a threat) or, more neutral, to make it clear, understandable, explain, say in the people's language (cf. the Vulgate (Bible not in Greek or Hebrew, but Latin; the folks' language) in meaning vulgar, though not in a pejorative sense).In Dutch, the names for the Netherlands, the Dutch language and a Dutch citizen are "Nederland", "Nederlands" and "Nederlander", respectively. Colloquially the country is also by the Dutch often referred to as Holland, although to lesser extent outside the two provinces North and South Holland, where it may even be used as a pejorative term, e.g. Hollènder (dialect) in Maastricht.The plural "Nederlanden" is used in many different connotations in the past, but since 1815 it has been used in the official name "Koninkrijk der Nederlanden" ("Kingdom of the Netherlands"). In many other languages the plural stuck, for example "Niederlande" (German), "Pays-Bas" (French) and "Países Bajos" (Spanish). In Indonesian (a former colony) the country is called "Belanda", a name derived from 'Holland'.The prehistory of the area that is now the Netherlands was largely shaped by the sea and the rivers that constantly shifted the low-lying geography. The oldest human (Neanderthal) traces were found in higher soils, near Maastricht, from what is believed to be about 250,000 years ago. At the end of the Ice Age, the nomadic late Upper Paleolithic Hamburg culture (c. 13.000–10.000 BC) hunted reindeer in the area, using spears, but the later Ahrensburg culture (c. 11.200–9500 BC) used bow and arrow. From Mesolithic Maglemosian-like tribes (c. 8000 BC) the oldest canoe in the world was found in Drenthe.Indigenous late Mesolithic hunter-gatherers from the Swifterbant culture (c. 5600 BC) were related to the southern Scandinavian Ertebølle culture and were strongly linked to rivers and open water. Between 4800 and 4500 BC, the Swifterbant people started to copy from the neighbouring Linear Pottery culture the practise of animal husbandry, and between 4300 and 4000 BC the practice of agriculture. The Funnelbeaker culture (c. 4300–2800 BC), which is related to the Swifterbant culture, erected the dolmens, large stone grave monuments found in Drenthe. There was a quick and smooth transition from the Funnelbeaker farming culture to the pan-European Corded Ware pastoralist culture (c. 2950 BC). In the southwest, the Seine-Oise-Marne culture — which was related to the Vlaardingen culture (c. 2600 BC), an apparently more primitive culture of hunter-gatherers — survived well into the Neolithic period, until it too was succeeded by the Corded Ware culture.Of the subsequent Bell Beaker culture (2700–2100 BC) several regions of origin have been postulated, notably the Iberian peninsula, the Netherlands and Central Europe. They introduced metalwork in copper, gold and later bronze and opened international trade routes not seen before, reflected in the discoveries of copper artifacts, as the metal is not normally found in Dutch soil. The many finds in Drenthe of rare bronze objects, suggest that it was even a trading centre in the Bronze Age (2000–800 BC). The Bell Beaker culture developed locally into the Barbed-Wire Beaker culture (2100–1800 BC) and later the Elp culture (c. 1800–800 BC), a Middle Bronze Age archaeological culture having earthenware pottery of low quality as a marker. The initial phase of the Elp culture was characterised by tumuli (1800–1200 BC) that were strongly tied to contemporary tumuli in northern Germany and Scandinavia and was apparently related to the Tumulus culture in central Europe. The subsequent phase was that of cremating the dead and placing their ashes in urns which were then buried in fields, following the customs of the Urnfield culture (1200–800 BC). The southern region became dominated by the related Hilversum culture (1800–800 BC), which apparently inherited cultural ties with Britain of the previous Barbed-Wire Beaker culture.From 800 BC onwards, the Iron Age Celtic Hallstatt culture became influential, replacing the Hilversum culture. Iron ore brought a measure of prosperity and was available throughout the country, including bog iron. Smiths travelled from settlement to settlement with bronze and iron, fabricating tools on demand. The King's grave of Oss (700 BC) was found in a burial mound, the largest of its kind in western Europe and containing an iron sword with an inlay of gold and coral.The deteriorating climate in Scandinavia around 850 BC further deteriorated around 650 BC and might have triggered migration of Germanic tribes from the North. By the time this migration was complete, around 250 BC, a few general cultural and linguistic groups had emerged. The North Sea Germanic Ingaevones inhabited the northern part of the Low Countries. They would later develop into the Frisii and the early Saxons. A second grouping, the Weser-Rhine Germanic (or Istvaeones), extended along the middle Rhine and Weser and inhabited the Low Countries south of the great rivers. This group consisted of tribes that would eventually develop into the Salian Franks. Also the Celtic La Tène culture (c. 450 BC up to the Roman conquest) had expanded over a wide range, including the southern area of the Low Countries. Some scholars have speculated that even a third ethnic identity and language, neither Germanic nor Celtic, survived in the Netherlands until the Roman period, the Iron Age Nordwestblock culture, that eventually was absorbed by the Celts to the south and the Germanic peoples from the east.The first author to describe the coast of Holland and Flanders was the Greek geographer Pytheas, who noted in c. 325 BC that in these regions, "more people died in the struggle against water than in the struggle against men." During the Gallic Wars, the area south and west of the Rhine was conquered by Roman forces under Julius Caesar from 57 BC to 53 BC. Caesar describes two main Celtic tribes living in what is now the southern Netherlands: the Menapii and the Eburones. The Rhine became fixed as Rome's northern frontier around 12 AD. Notable towns would arise along the Limes Germanicus: Nijmegen and Voorburg. In the first part of Gallia Belgica, the area south of the Limes became part of the Roman province of Germania Inferior. The area to the north of the Rhine, inhabited by the Frisii, remained outside Roman rule (but not its presence and control), while the Germanic border tribes of the Batavi and Cananefates served in the Roman cavalry. The Batavi rose against the Romans in the Batavian rebellion of 69 AD but were eventually defeated. The Batavi later merged with other tribes into the confederation of the Salian Franks, whose identity emerged at the first half of the third century. Salian Franks appear in Roman texts as both allies and enemies. They were forced by the confederation of the Saxons from the east to move over the Rhine into Roman territory in the fourth century. From their new base in West Flanders and the Southwest Netherlands, they were raiding the English Channel. Roman forces pacified the region, but did not expel the Franks, who continued to be feared at least until the time of Julian the Apostate (358) when Salian Franks were allowed to settle as "foederati" in Texandria. It has been postulated that after deteriorating climate conditions and the Romans' withdrawal, the Frisii disappeared as "laeti" in c. 296, leaving the coastal lands largely unpopulated for the next two centuries. However, recent excavations in Kennemerland show clear indication of a permanent habitation.After Roman government in the area collapsed, the Franks expanded their territories in numerous kingdoms. By the 490s, Clovis I had conquered and united all these territories in the southern Netherlands in one Frankish kingdom, and from there continued his conquests into Gaul. During this expansion, Franks migrating to the south eventually adopted the Vulgar Latin of the local population. A widening cultural divide grew with the Franks remaining in their original homeland in the north (i.e. the southern Netherlands and Flanders), who kept on speaking Old Frankish, which by the ninth century had evolved into Old Low Franconian or Old Dutch. A Dutch-French language boundary hence came into existence.To the north of the Franks, climatic conditions improved, and during the Migration Period Saxons, the closely related Angles, Jutes and Frisii settled the coastal land. Many moved on to England and came to be known as Anglo-Saxons, but those who stayed would be referred to as Frisians and their language as Frisian, named after the land that was once inhabited by Frisii. Frisian was spoken along the entire southern North Sea coast, and it is still the language most closely related to English among the living languages of continental Europe. By the seventh century a Frisian Kingdom (650–734) under King Aldegisel and King Redbad emerged with Traiectum (Utrecht) as its centre of power, while Dorestad was a flourishing trading place. Between 600 and around 719 the cities were often fought over between the Frisians and the Franks. In 734, at the Battle of the Boarn, the Frisians were defeated after a series of wars. With the approval of the Franks, the Anglo-Saxon missionary Willibrord converted the Frisian people to Christianity. He established the Archdiocese of Utrecht and became bishop of the Frisians. However, his successor Boniface was murdered by the Frisians in Dokkum, in 754.The Frankish Carolingian empire modelled itself on the Roman Empire and controlled much of Western Europe. However, in 843, it was divided into three parts—East, Middle, and West Francia. Most of present-day Netherlands became part of Middle Francia, which was a weak kingdom and subject of numerous partitions and annexation attempts by its stronger neighbours. It comprised territories from Frisia in the north to the Kingdom of Italy in the south. Around 850, Lothair I of Middle Francia acknowledged the Viking Rorik of Dorestad as ruler of most of Frisia. When the kingdom of Middle Francia was partitioned in 855, the lands north of the Alps passed to Lothair II and subsequently were named Lotharingia. After he died in 869, Lotharingia was partitioned, into Upper and Lower Lotharingia, the latter part comprising the Low Countries that technically became part of East Francia in 870, although it was effectively under the control of Vikings, who raided the largely defenceless Frisian and Frankish towns lying on the Frisian coast and along the rivers. Around 879, another Viking expedition led by Godfrid, Duke of Frisia, raided the Frisian lands. The Viking raids made the sway of French and German lords in the area weak. Resistance to the Vikings, if any, came from local nobles, who gained in stature as a result, and that laid the basis for the disintegration of Lower Lotharingia into semi-independent states. One of these local nobles was Gerolf of Holland, who assumed lordship in Frisia after he helped to assassinate Godfrid, and Viking rule came to an end.The Holy Roman Empire (the successor state of East Francia and then Lotharingia) ruled much of the Low Countries in the 10th and 11th century but was not able to maintain political unity. Powerful local nobles turned their cities, counties and duchies into private kingdoms that felt little sense of obligation to the emperor. Holland, Hainaut, Flanders, Gelre, Brabant, and Utrecht were in a state of almost continual war or in paradoxically formed personal unions. The language and culture of most of the people who lived in the County of Holland were originally Frisian. As Frankish settlement progressed from Flanders and Brabant, the area quickly became Old Low Franconian (or Old Dutch). The rest of Frisia in the north (now Friesland and Groningen) continued to maintain its independence and had its own institutions (collectively called the "Frisian freedom"), which resented the imposition of the feudal system.Around 1000 AD, due to several agricultural developments, the economy started to develop at a fast pace, and the higher productivity allowed workers to farm more land or to become tradesmen. Towns grew around monasteries and castles, and a mercantile middle class began to develop in these urban areas, especially in Flanders and later also Brabant. Wealthy cities started to buy certain privileges for themselves from the sovereign. In practice, this meant that Bruges and Antwerp became quasi-independent republics in their own right and would later develop into some of the most important cities and ports in Europe.Around 1100 AD, farmers from Flanders and Utrecht began draining and cultivating uninhabited swampy land in the western Netherlands, making the emergence of the County of Holland as the centre of power possible. The title of Count of Holland was fought over in the Hook and Cod Wars () between 1350 and 1490. The Cod faction consisted of the more progressive cities, while the Hook faction consisted of the conservative noblemen. These noblemen invited the Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy — who was also Count of Flanders — to conquer Holland.Most of the Imperial and French fiefs in what is now the Netherlands and Belgium were united in a personal union by Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, in 1433. The House of Valois-Burgundy and their Habsburg heirs would rule the Low Countries in the period from 1384 to 1581. Before the Burgundian union, the Dutch identified themselves by the town they lived in or their local duchy or county. The Burgundian period is when the road to nationhood began. The new rulers defended Dutch trading interests, which then developed rapidly. The fleets of the County of Holland defeated the fleets of the Hanseatic League several times. Amsterdam grew and in the 15th century became the primary trading port in Europe for grain from the Baltic region. Amsterdam distributed grain to the major cities of Belgium, Northern France and England. This trade was vital because Holland could no longer produce enough grain to feed itself. Land drainage had caused the peat of the former wetlands to reduce to a level that was too low for drainage to be maintained.Under Habsburg Charles V, ruler of the Holy Roman Empire and King of Spain, all fiefs in the current Netherlands region were united into the Seventeen Provinces, which also included most of present-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and some adjacent land in what is now France and Germany. In 1568, under Phillip II, the Eighty Years' War between the Provinces and their Spanish ruler began. The level of ferocity exhibited by both sides can be gleaned from a Dutch chronicler's report:The Duke of Alba ruthlessly attempted to suppress the Protestant movement in the Netherlands. Netherlanders were "burned, strangled, beheaded, or buried alive" by his "Blood Council" and his Spanish soldiers. Severed heads and decapitated corpses were displayed along streets and roads to terrorize the population into submission. Alba boasted of having executed 18,600, but this figure does not include those who perished by war and famine.The first great siege was Alba's effort to capture Haarlem and thereby cut Holland in half. It dragged on from December 1572 to the next summer, when Haarlemers finally surrendered on 13 July upon the promise that the city would be spared from being sacked. It was a stipulation Don Fadrique was unable to honour, when his soldiers mutinied, angered over pay owed and the miserable conditions they endured during the long, cold months of the campaign. On 4 November 1576, Spanish tercios seized Antwerp and subjected it to the worst pillage in the Netherlands' history. The citizens resisted, but were overcome; seven thousand of them were mowed down; a thousand buildings were torched; men, women, and children were slaughtered in a delirium of blood by soldiers crying, "Santiago! España! A sangre, a carne, a fuego, a sacco!" (Saint James! Spain! To blood, to the flesh, to fire, to sack!)Following the sack of Antwerp, delegates from Catholic Brabant, Protestant Holland and Zeeland agreed, at Ghent, to join Utrecht and William the Silent in driving out all Spanish troops and forming a new government for the Netherlands. Don Juan of Austria, the new Spanish governor, was forced to concede initially, but within months returned to active hostilities. As the fighting restarted, the Dutch began to look for help from the Queen of England, but she initially stood by her commitments to the Spanish in the Treaty of Bristol of 1574. The result was that when the next large-scale battle did occur at Gembloux in 1578, the Spanish forces easily won the day, killing at least 10,000 rebels, with the Spanish suffering few losses. In light of the defeat at Gembloux, the southern states of the Seventeen Provinces (today in northern France and Belgium) distanced themselves from the rebels in the north with the 1579 Union of Arras, which expressed their loyalty to Philip II of Spain. Opposing them, the northern half of the Seventeen Provinces forged the Union of Utrecht (also of 1579) in which they committed to support each other in their defence against the Spanish army. The Union of Utrecht is seen as the foundation of the modern Netherlands.Spanish troops sacked Maastricht in 1579, killing over 10,000 civilians and thereby ensuring the rebellion continued. In 1581, the northern provinces adopted the Act of Abjuration, the declaration of independence in which the provinces officially deposed Philip II as reigning monarch in the northern provinces. Against the rebels Philip could draw on the resources of Spain, Spanish America, Spanish Italy and the Spanish Netherlands. The Protestant Queen Elizabeth I of England sympathised with the Dutch struggle against the Spanish and sent an army of 7,600 soldiers to aid the Dutch in their war with the Catholic Spanish. English forces under the Earl of Leicester and then Lord Willoughby faced the Spanish in the Netherlands under the Duke of Parma in a series of largely indecisive actions that tied down significant numbers of Spanish troops and bought time for the Dutch to reorganise their defences. The war continued until 1648, when Spain under King Philip IV finally recognised the independence of the seven north-western provinces in the Peace of Münster. Parts of the southern provinces became "de facto" colonies of the new republican-mercantile empire.After declaring their independence, the provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Groningen, Friesland, Utrecht, Overijssel, and Gelderland formed a confederation. All these duchies, lordships and counties were autonomous and had their own government, the States-Provincial. The States General, the confederal government, were seated in The Hague and consisted of representatives from each of the seven provinces. The sparsely populated region of Drenthe was part of the republic too, although it was not considered one of the provinces. Moreover, the Republic had come to occupy during the Eighty Years' War a number of so-called Generality Lands in Flanders, Brabant and Limburg. Their population was mainly Roman Catholic, and these areas did not have a governmental structure of their own, and were used as a buffer zone between the Republic and the Spanish-controlled Southern Netherlands.In the Dutch Golden Age, spanning much of the 17th century, the Dutch Empire grew to become one of the major seafaring and economic powers, alongside Portugal, Spain, France and England. Science, military, and art (especially painting) were among the most acclaimed in the world. By 1650, the Dutch owned 16,000 merchant ships. The Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company established colonies and trading posts all over the world, including ruling the northern parts of Taiwan between 1624–1662 and 1664–1667. The Dutch settlement in North America began with the founding of New Amsterdam on the southern part of Manhattan in 1614. In South Africa, the Dutch settled the Cape Colony in 1652. Dutch colonies in South America were established along the many rivers in the fertile Guyana plains, among them Colony of Surinam (now Suriname). In Asia, the Dutch established the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia), and the only western trading post in Japan, Dejima.During the period of Proto-industrialization, the empire received 50% of textiles and 80% of silks import from the India's Mughal Empire, chiefly from its most developed region known as Bengal Subah.Many economic historians regard the Netherlands as the first thoroughly capitalist country in the world. In early modern Europe, it had the wealthiest trading city (Amsterdam) and the first full-time stock exchange. The inventiveness of the traders led to insurance and retirement funds as well as phenomena such as the boom-bust cycle, the world's first asset-inflation bubble, the tulip mania of 1636–1637, and the world's first bear raider, Isaac le Maire, who forced prices down by dumping stock and then buying it back at a discount. In 1672 – known in Dutch history as the Rampjaar (Disaster Year) – the Dutch Republic was at war with France, England and three German Bishoprics simultaneously. At sea, it could successfully prevent the English and French navy from entering the western shores. On land, however, it was almost taken over internally by the advancing French and German armies coming from the east. It managed to turn the tide by inundating parts of Holland but could never recover to its former glory again and went into a state of a general decline in the 18th century, with economic competition from England and long-standing rivalries between the two main factions in Dutch society, the republican "Staatsgezinden" and the supporters of the stadtholder the "Prinsgezinden" as main political factions.With the armed support of revolutionary France, Dutch republicans proclaimed the Batavian Republic, modelled after the French Republic and rendering the Netherlands a unitary state on 19 January 1795. The stadtholder William V of Orange had fled to England. But from 1806 to 1810, the Kingdom of Holland was set up by Napoleon Bonaparte as a puppet kingdom governed by his brother Louis Bonaparte to control the Netherlands more effectively. However, King Louis Bonaparte tried to serve Dutch interests instead of his brother's, and he was forced to abdicate on 1 July 1810. The Emperor sent in an army and the Netherlands became part of the French Empire until the autumn of 1813 when Napoleon was defeated in the Battle of Leipzig.William Frederick, son of the last stadtholder, returned to the Netherlands in 1813 and proclaimed himself Sovereign Prince of the Netherlands. Two years later, the Congress of Vienna added the southern Netherlands to the north to create a strong country on the northern border of France. William Frederick raised this United Netherlands to the status of a kingdom and proclaimed himself as King William I in 1815. In addition, William became hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg in exchange for his German possessions. However, the Southern Netherlands had been culturally separate from the north since 1581, and rebelled. The south gained independence in 1830 as Belgium (recognised by the Northern Netherlands in 1839 as the Kingdom of the Netherlands was created by decree), while the personal union between Luxembourg and the Netherlands was severed in 1890, when William III died with no surviving male heirs. Ascendancy laws prevented his daughter Queen Wilhelmina from becoming the next Grand Duchess.The Belgian Revolution at home and the Java War in the Dutch East Indies brought the Netherlands to the brink of bankruptcy. However, the Cultivation System was introduced in 1830; in the Dutch East Indies, 20% of village land had to be devoted to government crops for export. The policy brought the Dutch enormous wealth and made the colony self-sufficient.The Netherlands abolished slavery in its colonies in 1863. Slaves in Suriname would be fully free only in 1873, since the law stipulated that there was to be a mandatory 10-year transition.The Netherlands was able to remain neutral during World War I, in part because the import of goods through the Netherlands proved essential to German survival until the blockade by the British Royal Navy in 1916. That changed in World War II, when Nazi Germany invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940. The Rotterdam Blitz forced the main element of the Dutch army to surrender four days later. During the occupation, over 100,000 Dutch Jews were rounded up and transported to Nazi extermination camps; only a few of them survived. Dutch workers were conscripted for forced labour in Germany, civilians who resisted were killed in reprisal for attacks on German soldiers, and the countryside was plundered for food. Although there were thousands of Dutch who risked their lives by hiding Jews from the Germans, over 20,000 Dutch fascists joined the Waffen SS, fighting on the Eastern Front. Political collaborators were members of the fascist NSB, the only legal political party in the occupied Netherlands. On 8 December 1941, the Dutch government-in-exile in London declared war on Japan, but could not prevent the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia). In 1944–45, the First Canadian Army, which included Canadian, British and Polish troops, was responsible for liberating much of the Netherlands. Soon after VE Day, the Dutch fought a colonial war against the new Republic of Indonesia.In 1954, the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands reformed the political structure of the Netherlands, which was a result of international pressure to carry out decolonisation. The Dutch colonies of Surinam and Curaçao and Dependencies and the European country all became countries within the Kingdom, on a basis of equality. Indonesia had declared its independence in August 1945 (recognised in 1949), and thus was never part of the reformed Kingdom. Suriname followed in 1975. After the war, the Netherlands left behind an era of neutrality and gained closer ties with neighbouring states. The Netherlands was one of the founding members of the Benelux, the NATO, Euratom and the European Coal and Steel Community, which would evolve into the EEC (Common Market) and later the European Union.Government-encouraged emigration efforts to reduce population density prompted some 500,000 Dutch people to leave the country after the war. The 1960s and 1970s were a time of great social and cultural change, such as rapid de-pillarisation characterised by the decay of the old divisions along political and religious lines. Youths, and students in particular, rejected traditional mores and pushed for change in matters such as women's rights, sexuality, disarmament and environmental issues. In 2002 the euro was introduced as fiat money, and in 2010 the Netherlands Antilles was dissolved. Referendums were held on each island to determine their future status. As a result, the islands of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba (the BES islands) were to obtain closer ties with the Netherlands. This led to the incorporation of these three islands into the country of the Netherlands as "special municipalities" upon the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles. The special municipalities are collectively known as the Caribbean Netherlands.According to the Central Bureau of Statistics, the European Netherlands has a total area of , including water bodies; and a land area of . The Caribbean Netherlands has a total area of It lies between latitudes 50° and 54° N, and longitudes 3° and 8° E.The Netherlands is geographically very low relative to sea level and is considered a flat country, with about 26% of its area and 21% of its population located below sea level, and only about 50% of its land exceeding one metre above sea level. The European part of the country is for the most part flat, with the exception of foothills in the far southeast, up to a height of no more than 321 metres, and some low hill ranges in the central parts. Most of the areas below sea level are man-made, caused by peat extraction or achieved through land reclamation. Since the late 16th century, large polder areas are preserved through elaborate drainage systems that include dikes, canals and pumping stations. Nearly 17% of the country's land area is reclaimed from the sea and from lakes.Much of the country was originally formed by the estuaries of three large European rivers: the Rhine ("Rijn"), the Meuse ("Maas") and the Scheldt ("Schelde"), as well as their tributaries. The south-western part of the Netherlands is to this day a river delta of these three rivers, the Rhine-Meuse-Scheldt delta.The European Netherlands is divided into north and south parts by the Rhine, the Waal, its main tributary branch, and the Meuse. In the past, these rivers functioned as a natural barrier between fiefdoms and hence historically created a cultural divide, as is evident in some phonetic traits that are recognisable on either side of what the Dutch call their "Great Rivers" ("de Grote Rivieren"). Another significant branch of the Rhine, the IJssel river, discharges into Lake IJssel, the former Zuiderzee ('southern sea'). Just like the previous, this river forms a linguistic divide: people to the northeast of this river speak Dutch Low Saxon dialects (except for the province of Friesland, which has its own language).The modern Netherlands formed as a result of the interplay of the four main rivers (Rhine, Meuse, Schelde and IJssel) and the influence of the North Sea. The Netherlands is mostly composed of deltaic, coastal and eolian derived sediments during the Pleistocene glacial and interglacial periods.Almost the entire west Netherlands is composed of the Rhine-Meuse river estuary, but human intervention greatly modified the natural processes at work. Most of the western Netherlands is below sea level due to the human process of turning standing bodies of water into usable land, a polder.In the east of the Netherlands, remains are found of the last ice age, which ended approximately ten thousand years ago. As the continental ice sheet moved in from the north, it pushed moraine forward. The ice sheet halted as it covered the eastern half of the Netherlands. After the ice age ended, the moraine remained in the form of a long hill-line. The cities of Arnhem and Nijmegen are built upon these hills.Over the centuries, the Dutch coastline has changed considerably as a result of natural disasters and human intervention.On 14 December 1287, St. Lucia's flood affected the Netherlands and Germany, killing more than 50,000 people in one of the most destructive floods in recorded history. The St. Elizabeth flood of 1421 and the mismanagement in its aftermath destroyed a newly reclaimed polder, replacing it with the "Biesbosch" tidal floodplains in the south-centre. The huge North Sea flood of early February 1953 caused the collapse of several dikes in the south-west of the Netherlands; more than 1,800 people drowned in the flood. The Dutch government subsequently instituted a large-scale programme, the "Delta Works", to protect the country against future flooding, which was completed over a period of more than thirty years.The impact of disasters was, to an extent, increased through human activity. Relatively high-lying swampland was drained to be used as farmland. The drainage caused the fertile peat to contract and ground levels to drop, upon which groundwater levels were lowered to compensate for the drop in ground level, causing the underlying peat to contract further. Additionally, until the 19th-century peat was mined, dried, and used for fuel, further exacerbating the problem. Centuries of extensive and poorly controlled peat extraction lowered an already low land surface by several metres. Even in flooded areas, peat extraction continued through turf dredging.Because of the flooding, farming was difficult, which encouraged foreign trade, the result of which was that the Dutch were involved in world affairs since the early 14th/15th century.To guard against floods, a series of defences against the water were contrived. In the first millennium AD, villages and farmhouses were built on man-made hills called "terps". Later, these terps were connected by dikes. In the 12th century, local government agencies called ""waterschappen"" ("water boards") or ""hoogheemraadschappen"" ("high home councils") started to appear, whose job it was to maintain the water level and to protect a region from floods; these agencies continue to exist. As the ground level dropped, the dikes by necessity grew and merged into an integrated system. By the 13th century windmills had come into use to pump water out of areas below sea level. The windmills were later used to drain lakes, creating the famous polders.In 1932 the "Afsluitdijk" ("Closure Dike") was completed, blocking the former "Zuiderzee" (Southern Sea) from the North Sea and thus creating the IJsselmeer (IJssel Lake). It became part of the larger Zuiderzee Works in which four polders totalling were reclaimed from the sea.The Netherlands is one of the countries that may suffer most from climate change. Not only is the rising sea a problem, but erratic weather patterns may cause the rivers to overflow.After the 1953 disaster, the Delta Works was constructed, which is a comprehensive set of civil works throughout the Dutch coast. The project started in 1958 and was largely completed in 1997 with the completion of the Maeslantkering. Since then, new projects have been periodically started to renovate and renew the Delta Works. The main goal of the Delta project was to reduce the risk of flooding in South Holland and Zeeland to once per 10,000 years (compared to once per 4000 years for the rest of the country). This was achieved by raising of outer sea-dikes and of the inner, canal, and river dikes, and by closing off the sea estuaries of the Zeeland province. New risk assessments occasionally show problems requiring additional Delta project dike reinforcements. The Delta project is considered by the American Society of Civil Engineers as one of the seven wonders of the modern world.It is anticipated that global warming in the 21st century will result in a rise in sea level. The Netherlands is actively preparing for a sea-level rise. A politically neutral Delta Commission has formulated an action plan to cope with a sea-level rise of and a simultaneous land height decline of . The plan encompasses the reinforcement of the existing coastal defences like dikes and dunes with of additional flood protection. Climate change will not only threaten the Netherlands from the seaside but could also alter rainfall patterns and river run-off. To protect the country from river flooding, another programme is already being executed. The Room for the River plan grants more flow space to rivers, protects the major populated areas and allows for periodic flooding of indefensible lands. The few residents who lived in these so-called "overflow areas" have been moved to higher ground, with some of that ground having been raised above anticipated flood levels.The predominant wind direction in the European Netherlands is southwest, which causes a mild maritime climate, with moderately warm summers and cool winters, and typically high humidity. This is especially true close to the Dutch coastline, where the difference in temperature between summer and winter, as well as between day and night is noticeably smaller than it is in the southeast of the country.Ice days—maximum temperature below —usually occur from December until February, with the occasional rare ice day prior to or after that period. Freezing days—minimum temperature below —occur much more often, usually ranging from mid-November to late March, but not rarely measured as early as mid-October and as late as mid-May. If one chooses the height of measurement to be above ground instead of , one may even find such temperatures in the middle of the summer. On average, snow can occur from November to April but sometimes occurs in May or October too.Warm days—maximum temperature above —are usually found in April to October, but in some parts of the country these warm days can also occur in March, or even sometimes in November or February (usually not in , however). Summer days—maximum temperature above —are usually measured in from May until September, tropical days—maximum temperature above —are rare and usually occur only in June to August.Precipitation throughout the year is distributed relatively equally each month. Summer and autumn months tend to gather a little more precipitation than the other months, mainly because of the intensity of the rainfall rather than the frequency of rain days (this is especially the case in summer when lightning is also much more frequent).The number of sunshine hours is affected by the fact that because of the geographical latitude, the length of the days varies between barely eight hours in December and nearly 17 hours in June.The following table are based on mean measurements by the KNMI weather station in De Bilt between 1991 and 2020. The highest recorded temperature was reached on 25 July 2019 in Gilze-Rijen.The Netherlands has 20 national parks and hundreds of other nature reserves, that include lakes, heathland, woods, dunes, and other habitats. Most of these are owned by Staatsbosbeheer, the national department for forestry and nature conservation and Natuurmonumenten (literally 'Natures monuments'), a private organisation that buys, protects and manages nature reserves. The Dutch part of the Wadden Sea in the north, with its tidal flats and wetlands, is rich in biological diversity, and was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Nature Site in 2009.The Oosterschelde, formerly the northeast estuary of the river Scheldt was designated a national park in 2002, thereby making it the largest national park in the Netherlands at an area of . It consists primarily of the salt waters of the Oosterschelde but also includes mudflats, meadows, and shoals. Because of the large variety of sea life, including unique regional species, the park is popular with Scuba divers. Other activities include sailing, fishing, cycling, and bird watching.Phytogeographically, the European Netherlands is shared between the Atlantic European and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, the European territory of the Netherlands belongs to the ecoregion of Atlantic mixed forests. In 1871, the last old original natural woods were cut down, and most woods today are planted monocultures of trees like Scots pine and trees that are not native to the Netherlands. These woods were planted on anthropogenic heaths and sand-drifts (overgrazed heaths) (Veluwe). The Netherlands had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 0.6/10, ranking it 169th globally out of 172 countries.While Curaçao, Aruba and Sint Maarten have a constituent country status, the Caribbean Netherlands are three islands designated as special municipalities of the Netherlands. The islands are part of the Lesser Antilles and have land borders with France (Saint Martin) and maritime borders with Anguilla, Curaçao, France (Saint Barthélemy), Saint Kitts and Nevis, Sint Maarten, the U.S. Virgin Islands and Venezuela.Within this island group:The islands of the Caribbean Netherlands enjoy a tropical climate with warm weather all year round. The Leeward Antilles are warmer and drier than the Windward islands. In summer, the Windward Islands can be subject to hurricanes.The Netherlands has been a constitutional monarchy since 1815, and due to the efforts of Johan Rudolph Thorbecke became a parliamentary democracy in 1848. The Netherlands is described as a consociational state. Dutch politics and governance are characterised by an effort to achieve broad consensus on important issues, within both the political community and society as a whole. In 2017, "The Economist" ranked the Netherlands as the 11th most democratic country in the world.The monarch is the head of state, at present King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands. Constitutionally, the position is equipped with limited powers. By law, the King has the right to be periodically briefed and consulted on government affairs. Depending on the personalities and relationships of the King and the ministers, the monarch might have influence beyond the power granted by the Constitution of the Netherlands.The executive power is formed by the Council of Ministers, the deliberative organ of the Dutch cabinet. The cabinet usually consists of 13 to 16 ministers and a varying number of state secretaries. One to three ministers are ministers without portfolio. The head of government is the Prime Minister of the Netherlands, who often is the leader of the largest party of the coalition. The Prime Minister is a "primus inter pares", with no explicit powers beyond those of the other ministers. Mark Rutte has been Prime Minister since October 2010; the Prime Minister had been the leader of the largest party of the governing coalition continuously since 1973.The cabinet is responsible to the bicameral parliament, the States General, which also has legislative powers. The 150 members of the House of Representatives, the lower house, are elected in direct elections on the basis of party-list proportional representation. These are held every four years, or sooner in case the cabinet falls (for example: when one of the chambers carries a motion of no confidence, the cabinet offers its resignation to the monarch). The States-Provincial are directly elected every four years as well. The members of the provincial assemblies elect the 75 members of the Senate, the upper house, which has the power to reject laws, but not propose or amend them. Both houses send members to the Benelux Parliament, a consultative council.Both trade unions and employers organisations are consulted beforehand in policymaking in the financial, economic and social areas. They meet regularly with the government in the Social-Economic Council. This body advises government and its advice cannot be put aside easily.The Netherlands has a long tradition of social tolerance. In the 18th century, while the Dutch Reformed Church was the state religion, Catholicism, other forms of Protestantism, such as Baptists and Lutherans, as well as Judaism were tolerated but discriminated against.In the late 19th century this Dutch tradition of religious tolerance transformed into a system of pillarisation, in which religious groups coexisted separately and only interacted at the level of government. This tradition of tolerance influences Dutch criminal justice policies on recreational drugs, prostitution, LGBT rights, euthanasia, and abortion, which are among the most liberal in the world.Because of the multi-party system, no single party has held a majority in parliament since the 19th century, as a result, coalition cabinets had to be formed. Since suffrage became universal in 1917, the Dutch political system has been dominated by three families of political parties: the strongest of which were the Christian Democrats, currently represented by the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA); second were the Social Democrats, represented by the Labour Party (PvdA); and third were the Liberals, of which the right-wing People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD) is the main representative.These parties co-operated in coalition cabinets in which the Christian Democrats had always been a partner: so either a centre-left coalition of the Christian Democrats and Social Democrats was ruling or a centre-right coalition of Christian Democrats and Liberals. In the 1970s, the party system became more volatile: the Christian Democratic parties lost seats, while new parties became successful, such as the radical democrat and progressive liberal Democrats 66 (D66) or the ecologist party GroenLinks (GL).In the 1994 election, the CDA lost its dominant position. A "purple" cabinet was formed by the VVD, D66, and PvdA. In the 2002 elections, this cabinet lost its majority, because of an increased support for the CDA and the rise of the right-wing LPF, a new political party, around Pim Fortuyn, who was assassinated a week before the elections. A short-lived cabinet was formed by CDA, VVD, and LPF, which was led by the CDA Leader Jan Peter Balkenende. After the 2003 elections, in which the LPF lost most of its seats, a cabinet was formed by the CDA, VVD, and D66. The cabinet initiated an ambitious programme of reforming the welfare state, the healthcare system, and immigration policy.In June 2006, the cabinet fell after D66 voted in favour of a motion of no confidence against the Minister of Immigration and Integration, Rita Verdonk, who had instigated an investigation of the asylum procedure of Ayaan Hirsi Ali, a VVD MP. A caretaker cabinet was formed by the CDA and VVD, and general elections were held on 22 November 2006. In these elections, the CDA remained the largest party and the Socialist Party made the largest gains. The formation of a new cabinet took three months, resulting in a coalition of CDA, PvdA, and Christian Union.On 20 February 2010, the cabinet fell when the PvdA refused to prolong the involvement of the Dutch Army in Uruzgan, Afghanistan. Snap elections were held on 9 June 2010, with devastating results for the previously largest party, the CDA, which lost about half of its seats, resulting in 21 seats. The VVD became the largest party with 31 seats, closely followed by the PvdA with 30 seats. The big winner of the 2010 elections was Geert Wilders, whose right wing PVV, the ideological successor to the LPF, more than doubled its number of seats. Negotiation talks for a new government resulted in a minority government, led by VVD (a first) in coalition with CDA, which was sworn in on 14 October 2010. This unprecedented minority government was supported by PVV, but proved ultimately to be unstable, when on 21 April 2012, Wilders, leader of PVV, unexpectedly 'torpedoed seven weeks of austerity talks' on new austerity measures, paving the way for early elections.VVD and PvdA won a majority in the House of Representatives during the 2012 general election. On 5 November 2012 they formed the second Rutte cabinet. After the 2017 general election, VVD, Christian Democratic Appeal, Democrats 66 and ChristenUnie formed the third Rutte cabinet. This cabinet resigned in January 2021, two months before the general election, after a child welfare fraud scandal. In March 2021, centre-right VVD of Prime Minister Mark Rutte was the winner of the elections, securing 35 out of 150 seats. The second biggest party was the centre-left D66 with 24 seats. Geert Wilders' far-right party lost its support. Prime Minister Mark Rutte, in power since 2010, formed his fourth coalition government.The Netherlands is divided into twelve provinces, each under a King's Commissioner ("Commissaris van de Koning"). Informally in Limburg province this position is named Governor ("Gouverneur"). All provinces are divided into municipalities ("gemeenten"), of which there are 355 (2019).The country is also subdivided into 21 water districts, governed by a water board ("waterschap" or "hoogheemraadschap"), each having authority in matters concerning water management. The creation of water boards actually pre-dates that of the nation itself, the first appearing in 1196. The Dutch water boards are among the oldest democratic entities in the world still in existence. Direct elections of the water boards take place every four years.The administrative structure on the three BES islands, collectively known as the Caribbean Netherlands, is outside the twelve provinces. These islands have the status of "openbare lichamen (public bodies)". In the Netherlands these administrative units are often referred to as "special municipalities".The Netherlands has several Belgian exclaves and within those even several enclaves which are part of the province of North Brabant. Because the Netherlands and Belgium are both in the Benelux, and more recently in the Schengen Area, citizens of respective countries can travel through these enclaves without controls.The history of Dutch foreign policy has been characterised by its neutrality. Since World War II, the Netherlands has become a member of a large number of international organisations, most prominently the UN, NATO and the EU. The Dutch economy is very open and relies strongly on international trade.The foreign policy of the Netherlands is based on four basic commitments: to Atlantic co-operation, to European integration, to international development and to international law. One of the more controversial international issues surrounding the Netherlands is its liberal policy towards soft drugs.During and after the Dutch Golden Age, the Dutch people built up a commercial and colonial empire. The most important colonies were present-day Suriname and Indonesia. Indonesia became independent after the Indonesian National Revolution in the 1940s following a war of independence, international pressure and several United Nations Security Council resolutions. Suriname became independent in 1975. The historical ties inherited from its colonial past still influence the foreign relations of the Netherlands. In addition, many people from these countries are living permanently in the Netherlands.The Netherlands has one of the oldest standing armies in Europe; it was first established as such by Maurice of Nassau in the late 1500s. The Dutch army was used throughout the Dutch Empire. After the defeat of Napoleon, the Dutch army was transformed into a conscription army. The army was unsuccessfully deployed during the Belgian Revolution in 1830. After 1830, it was deployed mainly in the Dutch colonies, as the Netherlands remained neutral in European wars (including the First World War), until the Netherlands was invaded in World War II and defeated by the Wehrmacht in May 1940.The Netherlands abandoned its neutrality in 1948 when it signed the Treaty of Brussels, and became a founding member of NATO in 1949. The Dutch military was therefore part of the NATO strength in Cold War Europe, deploying its army to several bases in Germany. More than 3,000 Dutch soldiers were assigned to the 2nd Infantry Division of the United States Army during the Korean War. In 1996 conscription was suspended, and the Dutch army was once again transformed into a professional army. Since the 1990s the Dutch army has been involved in the Bosnian War and the Kosovo War, it held a province in Iraq after the defeat of Saddam Hussein, and it was engaged in Afghanistan.The military is composed of four branches, all of which carry the prefix "Koninklijke" (Royal):The submarine service opened to women on 1 January 2017. The Korps Commandotroepen, the Special Operations Force of the Netherlands Army, is open to women, but because of the extremely high physical demands for initial training, it is almost impossible for a woman to become a commando. The Dutch Ministry of Defence employs more than 70,000 personnel, including over 20,000 civilians and over 50,000 military personnel. In April 2011 the government announced a major reduction in its military because of a cut in government expenditure, including a decrease in the number of tanks, fighter aircraft, naval ships and senior officials.The Netherlands has ratified many international conventions concerning war law. The Netherlands decided not to sign the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.The Netherlands has a developed economy and has been playing a special role in the European economy for many centuries. Since the 16th century, shipping, fishing, agriculture, trade, and banking have been leading sectors of the Dutch economy. The Netherlands has a high level of economic freedom. The Netherlands is one of the top countries in the Global Enabling Trade Report (2nd in 2016), and was ranked the fifth most competitive economy in the world by the Swiss International Institute for Management Development in 2017. In addition, the country was ranked the second most innovative nation in the world in the 2018 Global Innovation Index., the key trading partners of the Netherlands were Germany, Belgium, the United Kingdom, the United States, France, Italy, China and Russia. The Netherlands is one of the world's 10 leading exporting countries. Foodstuffs form the largest industrial sector. Other major industries include chemicals, metallurgy, machinery, electrical goods, trade, services and tourism. Examples of international Dutch companies operating in Netherlands include Randstad, Unilever, Heineken, KLM, financial services (ING, ABN AMRO, Rabobank), chemicals (DSM, AKZO), petroleum refining (Royal Dutch Shell), electronical machinery (Philips, ASML), and satellite navigation (TomTom).The Netherlands has the 17th-largest economy in the world, and ranks 11th in GDP (nominal) per capita. Between 1997 and 2000 annual economic growth (GDP) averaged nearly 4%, well above the European average. Growth slowed considerably from 2001 to 2005 with the global economic slowdown, but accelerated to 4.1% in the third quarter of 2007. In May 2013, inflation was at 2.8% per year. In April 2013, unemployment was at 8.2% (or 6.7% following the ILO definition) of the labour force. In February 2019, this was reduced to 3.4%.In Q3 and Q4 2011, the Dutch economy contracted by 0.4% and 0.7%, respectively, because of European Debt Crisis, while in Q4 the Eurozone economy shrunk by 0.3%. The Netherlands also has a relatively low GINI coefficient of 0.326. Despite ranking 11th in GDP per capita, UNICEF ranked the Netherlands 1st in child well-being in rich countries, both in 2007 and in 2013. On the Index of Economic Freedom Netherlands is the 14th most free market capitalist economy out of 180 surveyed countries.Amsterdam is the financial and business capital of the Netherlands. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange (AEX), part of Euronext, is the world's oldest stock exchange and is one of Europe's largest bourses. It is situated near Dam Square in the city's centre. As a founding member of the euro, the Netherlands replaced (for accounting purposes) its former currency, the "gulden" (guilder), on 1 January 1999, along with 15 other adopters of the euro. Actual euro coins and banknotes followed on 1 January 2002. One euro was equivalent to 2.20371 Dutch guilders. In the Caribbean Netherlands, the United States dollar is used instead of the euro.The Dutch location gives it prime access to markets in the UK and Germany, with the Port of Rotterdam being the largest port in Europe. Other important parts of the economy are international trade (Dutch colonialism started with co-operative private enterprises such as the Dutch East India Company), banking and transport. The Netherlands successfully addressed the issue of public finances and stagnating job growth long before its European partners. Amsterdam is the 5th-busiest tourist destination in Europe with more than 4.2 million international visitors. Since the enlargement of the EU large numbers of migrant workers have arrived in the Netherlands from Central and Eastern Europe.The Netherlands continues to be one of the leading European nations for attracting foreign direct investment and is one of the five largest investors in the United States. The economy experienced a slowdown in 2005, but in 2006 recovered to the fastest pace in six years on the back of increased exports and strong investment. The pace of job growth reached 10-year highs in 2007. The Netherlands is the fourth-most competitive economy in the world, according to the World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report.Beginning in the 1950s, the Netherlands discovered huge natural gas resources. The sale of natural gas generated enormous revenues for the Netherlands for decades, adding hundreds of billions of euros to the government's budget. However, the unforeseen consequences of the country's huge energy wealth impacted the competitiveness of other sectors of the economy, leading to the theory of Dutch disease.Apart from coal and gas, the country has no mining resources. The last coal mine was closed in 1974. The Groningen gas field, one of the largest natural-gas fields in the world, is situated near Slochteren. The exploitation of this field has resulted in €159 billion in revenue since the mid-1970s. The field is operated by government-owned Gasunie and output is jointly exploited by the government, Royal Dutch Shell, and Exxon Mobil through NAM (Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij). "Gas extraction has resulted in increasingly strong earth tremors, some measuring as much as 3.6 on the Richter magnitude scale. The cost of damage repairs, structural improvements to buildings, and compensation for home value decreases has been estimated at €6.5 billion. Around 35,000 homes are said to be affected." The Netherlands has an estimated 25% of natural gas reserves in the EU. The energy sector accounted for almost 11% of the GDP in 2014. Netherlands' economy, mainly due to the large shares of natural gas reserves, is considered to have "very high" energy intensity rating.The Netherlands is faced with future challenges as the energy supply is forecasted to fall short of the demand by the year 2025 in the gas sector. This is attributed to the depletion of the Netherlands' major gas field, Groningen, and the earthquakes that have hit the Groningen region. In addition, there is ambiguity surrounding the feasibility of producing unconventional gas. The Netherlands relies heavily on natural gas to provide energy. Gas is the main source of heating for households in the Netherlands and represented 35% of the energy mix in 2014. Furthermore, The European Union 2020 package (20% reduction in GHG emissions, 20% renewables in the energy mix and 20% improvement in energy efficiency) enacted in 2009 has influenced the domestic energy politics of Netherlands and pressured non-state actors to give consent to more aggressive energy reforms that would reduce reliance on natural resources as a source of income to the economy. Therefore, a transition towards renewable energy has been a key objective by Netherlands in order to safeguard the energy security of the country from natural resources depletion, mainly gas. Netherlands has set a 14% renewable energy target of the total energy mix by the year 2020. However, the continuation of providing tax breaks to electricity generated by coal and gas, and to the exploration and extraction of gas from fields that are "insufficiently" profitable, renders a successful transition towards renewable energy more difficult to achieve due to inconsistencies in the policy mix. In 2011, it was estimated that the renewable energy sector received 31% (EUR 743MM), while the conventional energy sector received 69% (EUR 1.6B), of the total energy subsidies by the government. Furthermore, the energy market in the Netherlands remains to be dominated by few major corporations Nuon, RWE, E.ON, Eneco, and Delta that have significant influence over the energy policy. Renewable energy share in the energy mix is estimated to reach 12.4% by the year 2020, falling 1.6% short of the 14% target.From a biological resource perspective, the Netherlands has a low endowment: the Netherlands’ biocapacity adds up to only 0.8 global hectares in 2016, 0.2 of which are dedicated to agriculture. The Dutch biocapacity per person is just about half of the 1.6 global hectares of biocapacity per person available worldwide. In contrast, in 2016, the Dutch used on average 4.8 global hectares of biocapacity - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means the Dutch required nearly six times as much biocapacity as the Netherlands contains. As a result, the Netherlands was running a biocapacity deficit of 4.0 global hectares per person in 2016.The Dutch agricultural sector is highly mechanised, and has a strong focus on international exports. It employs about 4% of the Dutch labour force but produces large surpluses in the food-processing industry and accounts for 21% of the Dutch total export value. The Dutch rank first in the European Union and second worldwide in value of agricultural exports, behind only the United States, with agricultural exports earning €80.7 billion in 2014, up from €75.4 billion in 2012. In 2019 agricultural exports were worth €94.5 billion.One-third of the world's exports of chilis, tomatoes, and cucumbers goes through the country. The Netherlands also exports one-fifteenth of the world's apples.Aside from that, a significant portion of Dutch agricultural exports consists of fresh-cut plants, flowers, and flower bulbs, with the Netherlands exporting two-thirds of the world's total.The Netherlands had an estimated population of 17,493,969 as of 30 April 2021. It is the 5th most densely populated country in Europe, and except for the very small city-states like Monaco, Vatican City and San Marino it is the most densely populated country in Europe. And it is the 16th most densely populated country in the world with a density of . It is the 67th most populous country in the world. Between 1900 and 1950, the country's population almost doubled from 5.1 to 10 million. From 1950 to 2000, the population further increased, to 15.9 million, though this represented a lower rate of population growth. The estimated growth rate is 0.44%.The fertility rate in the Netherlands is 1.78 children per woman (2018 estimate), which is high compared with many other European countries, but below the rate of 2.1 children per woman required for natural population replacement, it remains considerably below the high of 5.39 children born per woman in 1879. Netherlands subsequently has one of the oldest populations in the world, with the average age of 42.7 years. Life expectancy is high in the Netherlands: 84.3 years for newborn girls and 79.7 for boys (2020 estimate). The country has a migration rate of 1.9 migrants per 1,000 inhabitants per year. The majority of the population of the Netherlands is ethnically Dutch. According to a 2005 estimate, the population was 80.9% Dutch, 2.4% Indonesian, 2.4% German, 2.2% Turkish, 2.0% Surinamese, 1.9% Moroccan, 0.8% Antillean and Aruban, and 7.4% others. Some 150,000 to 200,000 people living in the Netherlands are expatriates, mostly concentrated in and around Amsterdam and The Hague, now constituting almost 10% of the population of these cities.The Dutch are the tallest people in the world, by nationality, with an average height of for adult males and for adult females in 2009. People in the south are on average about shorter than those in the north.According to Eurostat, in 2010 there were 1.8 million foreign-born residents in the Netherlands, corresponding to 11.1% of the total population. Of these, 1.4 million (8.5%) were born outside the EU and 0.43 million (2.6%) were born in another EU Member State. On 21 November 2016, there were 3.8 million residents in the Netherlands with at least one foreign-born parent ("migration background"). Over half the young people in Amsterdam and Rotterdam have a non-western background. Dutch people, or descendants of Dutch people, are also found in migrant communities worldwide, notably in Canada, Australia, South Africa and the United States. According to the United States Census Bureau (2006), more than 5 million Americans claim total or partial Dutch ancestry. There are close to 3 million Dutch-descended Afrikaners living in South Africa. In 1940, there were 290,000 Europeans and Eurasians in Indonesia, but most have since left the country.The Randstad is the country's largest conurbation located in the west of the country and contains the four largest cities: Amsterdam in the province North Holland, Rotterdam and The Hague in the province South Holland, and Utrecht in the province Utrecht. The Randstad has a population of about 8.2 million inhabitants and is the 5th largest metropolitan area in Europe. According to Dutch Central Statistics Bureau, in 2015, 28 per cent of the Dutch population had a spendable income above 45,000 euros (which does not include spending on health care or education).The official language is Dutch, which is spoken by the vast majority of the inhabitants. Besides Dutch, West Frisian is recognised as a second official language in the northern province of Friesland ("Fryslân" in West Frisian). West Frisian has a formal status for government correspondence in that province. In the European part of the kingdom two other regional languages are recognised under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.The first of these recognised regional languages is Low Saxon ("Nedersaksisch" in Dutch). Low Saxon consists of several dialects spoken in the north and east, like Tweants in the region of Twente, and Drents in the province of Drenthe. Secondly, Limburgish is also recognised as a regional language. It consists of Dutch varieties of Meuse-Rhenish Franconian languages and is spoken in the south-eastern province of Limburg. The dialects most spoken in the Netherlands are the Brabantian-Hollandic dialects.Ripuarian language, which is spoken in Kerkrade and Vaals in the form of, respectively, the Kerkrade dialect and the Vaals dialect are legally treated as Limburgish as well - see Southeast Limburgish dialect.English has a formal status in the special municipalities of Saba and Sint Eustatius. It is widely spoken on these islands. Papiamento has a formal status in the special municipality of Bonaire. Yiddish and the Romani language were recognised in 1996 as non-territorial languages. The Netherlands has a tradition of learning foreign languages, formalised in Dutch education laws. Some 90% of the total population indicate they are able to converse in English, 70% in German, and 29% in French. English is a mandatory course in all secondary schools. In most lower level secondary school educations ("vmbo"), one additional modern foreign language is mandatory during the first two years.In higher level secondary schools (HAVO and VWO), the acquisition of two additional modern foreign language skills is mandatory during the first three years. Only during the last three years in VWO one foreign language is mandatory. Besides English, the standard modern languages are French and German, although schools can replace one of these modern languages with Chinese, Spanish, Russian, Italian, Turkish or Arabic. Additionally, schools in Friesland teach and have exams in West Frisian, and schools across the country teach and have exams in Ancient Greek and Latin for secondary school (called Gymnasium or VWO+).The population of the Netherlands was predominantly Christian until the late 20th century, divided into a number of denominations. Although significant religious diversity remains, there has been a decline of religious adherence. The Netherlands is now one of the most secular societies in the world.In 2019, Statistics Netherlands found that 54.1% of the total population declared itself to be non-religious. Groups that represent the non-religious in the Netherlands include Humanistisch Verbond. Roman Catholics comprised 20.1% of the total population, Protestants (14.8%). Muslims comprised 5.0% of the total population and followers of other Christian denominations and other religions (like Judaism, Buddhism and Hinduism) comprised the remaining 5.9%. A 2015 survey from another source found that Protestants outnumbered Catholics.The southern provinces of North Brabant and Limburg have historically been strongly Roman Catholic, and some residents consider the Catholic Church as a base for their cultural identity. Protestantism in the Netherlands consists of a number of churches within various traditions. The largest of these is the Protestant Church in the Netherlands (PKN), a United church which is Reformed and Lutheran in orientation. It was formed in 2004 as a merger of the Dutch Reformed Church, the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands and a smaller Lutheran Church. Several orthodox Reformed and liberal churches did not merge into the PKN. Although in the Netherlands as a whole Christianity has become a minority, the Netherlands contains a Bible Belt from Zeeland to the northern parts of the province Overijssel, in which Protestant (particularly Reformed) beliefs remain strong, and even has majorities in municipal councils.Islam is the second largest religion in the state. In 2012, there were about 825,000 Muslims in the Netherlands (5% of the population). The Muslim population increased from the 1960 as a result of large numbers of migrant workers. This included migrant workers from Turkey and Morocco, as well as migrants from former Dutch colonies, such as Surinam and Indonesia. During the 1990s, Muslim refugees arrived from countries like Bosnia and Herzegovina, Iran, Iraq, Somalia, and Afghanistan.Another religion practised is Hinduism, with around 215,000 adherents (slightly over 1% of the population). Most of these are Indo-Surinamese. There are also sizable populations of Hindu immigrants from India and Sri Lanka, and some Western adherents of Hinduism-oriented new religious movements such as Hare Krishnas. The Netherlands has an estimated 250,000 Buddhists or people strongly attracted to this religion, mainly ethnic Dutch people. In addition, there are about 45,000 Jews in the Netherlands.The Constitution of the Netherlands guarantees freedom of education, which means that all schools that adhere to general quality criteria receive the same government funding. This includes schools based on religious principles by religious groups (especially Roman Catholic and various Protestant). Three political parties in the Dutch parliament, (CDA, and two small parties, ChristianUnion and SGP) are based upon the Christian belief. Several Christian religious holidays are national holidays (Christmas, Easter, Pentecost and the Ascension of Jesus).Upon the country's independence, Protestants were predominant in most of the country, while Roman Catholics were dominant in the south, especially North Brabant and Limburg. In the late 19th century, secularism, atheism and pillarisation gained adherents. By 1960, Roman Catholics equalled Protestants in number; thereafter, both Christian branches began to decline. Conversely, Islam grew considerably as the result of immigration. Since 2000 there has been raised awareness of religion, mainly due to Muslim extremism.The Dutch royal family has been traditionally associated with Calvinism, specifically the Dutch Reformed Church, which has merged into the Protestant Church in the Netherlands. The Dutch Reformed Church was the only major Protestant church in the Netherlands from the Reformation until the 19th century. Denominational splits in 1834 and in 1886 diversified Dutch Calvinism. In 2013, a Roman Catholic became Queen consort.A survey in December 2014 concluded that for the first time there were more atheists (25%) than theists (17%) in the Netherlands, while the remainder of the population was agnostic (31%) or ietsistic (27%). In 2015, a vast majority of the inhabitants of the Netherlands (82%) said they had never or almost never visited a church, and 59% stated that they had never been to a church of any kind. Of all the people questioned, 24% saw themselves as atheist, an increase of 11% compared to the previous study done in 2006. The expected rise of spirituality (ietsism) has come to a halt according to research in 2015. In 2006, 40% of respondents considered themselves spiritual; in 2015 this has dropped to 31%. The number who believed in the existence of a higher power fell from 36% to 28% over the same period.Education in the Netherlands is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 16. If a child does not have a "starting qualification" (HAVO, VWO or MBO 2+ degree) they are still forced to attend classes until they achieve such a qualification or reach the age of 18.All children in the Netherlands usually attend elementary school from (on average) ages 4 to 12. It comprises eight grades, the first of which is facultative. Based on an aptitude test, the eighth grade teacher's recommendation and the opinion of the pupil's parents or caretakers, a choice is made for one of the three main streams of secondary education. After completing a particular stream, a pupil may still continue in the penultimate year of the next stream.The VMBO has four grades and is subdivided over several levels. Successfully completing the VMBO results in a low-level vocational degree that grants access to the MBO. The MBO (middle-level applied education) is a form of education that primarily focuses on teaching a practical trade or a vocational degree. With the MBO certification, a student can apply for the HBO. The HAVO has 5 grades and allows for admission to the HBO. The HBO (higher professional education) are universities of professional education (applied sciences) that award professional bachelor's degrees; similar to polytechnic degrees. An HBO degree gives access to the university system. The VWO (comprising atheneum and gymnasium) has 6 grades and prepares for studying at a research university. Universities offer a three-year bachelor's degree, followed by a one or two-year master's degree, which in turn can be followed by a four or five-year doctoral degree programme.Doctoral candidates in the Netherlands are generally non-tenured employees of a university. All Dutch schools and universities are publicly funded and managed with the exception of religious schools that are publicly funded but not managed by the state even though requirements are necessary for the funding to be authorised. Dutch universities have a tuition fee of about 2,000 euros a year for students from the Netherlands and the European Union. The amount is about 10,000 euros for non-EU students.In 2016, the Netherlands maintained its number one position at the top of the annual Euro health consumer index (EHCI), which compares healthcare systems in Europe, scoring 916 of a maximum 1,000 points. The Netherlands has been among the top three countries in each report published since 2005. On 48 indicators such as patient rights and information, accessibility, prevention and outcomes, the Netherlands secured its top position among 37 European countries for six years in a row.The Netherlands was ranked first in a study in 2009 comparing the health care systems of the United States, Australia, Canada, Germany and New Zealand.Ever since a major reform of the health care system in 2006, the Dutch system received more points in the Index each year. According to the HCP (Health Consumer Powerhouse), the Netherlands has 'a chaos system', meaning patients have a great degree of freedom from where to buy their health insurance, to where they get their healthcare service. The difference between the Netherlands and other countries is that the chaos is managed. Healthcare decisions are being made in a dialogue between the patients and healthcare professionals.Health insurance in the Netherlands is mandatory. Healthcare in the Netherlands is covered by two statutory forms of insurance:While Dutch residents are automatically insured by the government for AWBZ, everyone has to take out their own basic healthcare insurance (basisverzekering), except those under 18 who are automatically covered under their parents' premium. If a person decides not to carry out an insurance coverage, the person may be fined. Insurers have to offer a universal package for everyone over the age of 18 years, regardless of age or state of health – it's illegal to refuse an application or impose special conditions. In contrast to many other European systems, the Dutch government is responsible for the accessibility and quality of the healthcare system in the Netherlands, but not in charge of its management.Healthcare in the Netherlands can be divided in several ways: three echelons, in somatic and mental health care and in 'cure' (short term) and 'care' (long term). Home doctors ("huisartsen", comparable to general practitioners) form the largest part of the first echelon. Being referenced by a member of the first echelon is mandatory for access to the second and third echelon. The health care system is in comparison to other Western countries quite effective but not the most cost-effective.Healthcare in the Netherlands is financed by a dual system that came into effect in January 2006. Long-term treatments, especially those that involve semi-permanent hospitalisation, and also disability costs such as wheelchairs, are covered by a state-controlled mandatory insurance. This is laid down in the "Algemene Wet Bijzondere Ziektekosten" ("General Law on Exceptional Healthcare Costs") which first came into effect in 1968. In 2009 this insurance covered 27% of all health care expenses.For all regular (short-term) medical treatment, there is a system of obligatory health insurance, with private health insurance companies. These insurance companies are obliged to provide a package with a defined set of insured treatments. This insurance covers 41% of all health care expenses.Other sources of health care payment are taxes (14%), out of pocket payments (9%), additional optional health insurance packages (4%) and a range of other sources (4%). Affordability is guaranteed through a system of income-related allowances and individual and employer-paid income-related premiums.A key feature of the Dutch system is that premiums may not be related to health status or age. Risk variances between private health insurance companies due to the different risks presented by individual policy holders are compensated through risk equalisation and a common risk pool. The funding burden for all short-term health care coverage is carried 50% by employers, 45% by the insured person and 5% by the government. Children under 18 are covered for free. Those on low incomes receive compensation to help them pay their insurance. Premiums paid by the insured are about €100 per month (about US$127 in August 2010 and €150 or US$196 in 2012), with variation of about 5% between the various competing insurers, and a yearly deductible of €220 (US$288).Mobility on Dutch roads has grown continuously since the 1950s and now exceeds 200 billion km travelled per year, three quarters of which are done by car. Around half of all trips in the Netherlands are made by car, 25% by bicycle, 20% walking, and 5% by public transport.With a total road network of 139,295 km, which includes 2,758 km of expressways, the Netherlands has one of the densest road networks in the world—much denser than Germany and France, but still not as dense as Belgium.As part of its commitment to environmental sustainability, the Government of the Netherlands initiated a plan to establish over 200 recharging stations for electric vehicles across the country. The rollout will be undertaken by Switzerland-based power and automation company ABB and Dutch startup Fastned, and will aim to provide at least one station within a 50-kilometre radius (30 miles) from every home in the Netherlands. Currently, the Netherlands alone hosts more than a quarter of all recharging stations in the European Union. This share rises to 30% if Brexit is taken into account. Moreover, newly sold cars in the Netherlands have on average the lowest CO2 emissions in the EU.About 13% of all distance is travelled by public transport, the majority of which by train. Like in many other European countries, the Dutch rail network of 3,013 km route is also rather dense. The network is mostly focused on passenger rail services and connects all major towns and cities, with over 400 stations. Trains are frequent, with two trains per hour on lesser lines, two to four trains per hour on average, and up to eight trains an hour on the busiest lines. The Dutch national train network also includes the HSL-Zuid, a high-speed line between the Amsterdam metropolitan area and the Belgian border for trains running from Paris and London to the Netherlands.Cycling is a ubiquitous mode of transport in the Netherlands. Almost as many kilometres are covered by bicycle as by train. The Dutch are estimated to have at least 18 million bicycles, which makes more than one per capita, and twice as many as the circa 9 million motor vehicles on the road. In 2013, the European Cyclists' Federation ranked both the Netherlands and Denmark as the most bike-friendly countries in Europe, but more of the Dutch (36%) than of the Danes (23%) list the bike as their most frequent mode of transport on a typical day. Cycling infrastructure is comprehensive. Busy roads have received some 35,000 km of dedicated cycle tracks, physically segregated from motorised traffic. Busy junctions are often equipped with bicycle-specific traffic lights. There are large bicycle parking facilities, particularly in city centres and at train stations.Until the introduction of trains, ships were the primary mode of transport in the Netherlands. And shipping has remained crucial afterwards. The Port of Rotterdam is the largest port in Europe and the largest port in the world outside East-Asia, with the rivers Meuse and Rhine providing excellent access to the hinterland upstream reaching to Basel, Switzerland, and into Germany and France. , Rotterdam was the world's eighth largest container port handling 440.5 million metric tonnes of cargo annually. The port's main activities are petrochemical industries and general cargo handling and transshipment. The harbour functions as an important transit point for bulk materials and between the European continent and overseas. From Rotterdam goods are transported by ship, river barge, train or road. The Volkeraksluizen between Rotterdam and Antwerp are the biggest sluices for inland navigation in the world in terms of tonnage passing through them. In 2007, the Betuweroute, a new fast freight railway from Rotterdam to Germany, was completed. The Netherlands also hosts Europe's 4th largest port in Amsterdam. The inland shipping fleet of the Netherlands is the largest in Europe. The Netherlands also has the largest fleet of active historical ships in the world. Boats are used for passenger travel as well, such as the Watertaxies in Rotterdam. The ferry network in Amsterdam and the Waterbus network in Rotterdam are part of the public transport system.Schiphol Airport, just southwest of Amsterdam, is the main international airport in the Netherlands, and the third busiest airport in Europe in terms of passengers. Schiphol is the main hub for KLM, the nation's flag carrier and the world's oldest airline. In 2016, the Royal Schiphol Group airports handled 70 million passengers. All air traffic is international and Schiphol Airport is connected to over 300 destinations worldwide, more than any other European airport. The airport is a major freight hub as well, processing 1.44 million tonnes of cargo in 2020. Smaller international airports in the country include Eindhoven Airport, Rotterdam The Hague Airport, Maastricht Aachen Airport and Groningen Airport Eelde. Air transport is of vital significance for the Caribbean part of the Netherlands, with all islands having their own airport. This includes the shortest runway in the world on Saba.The Netherlands has had many well-known painters. In the Middle Ages Hieronymus Bosch, Petrus Christus, Lucas Gassel and Pieter Bruegel the Elder were leading Dutch pioneers.During the Dutch Golden Age, spanning much of the 17th century, the Dutch Republic was prosperous and witnessed a flourishing artistic movement. This was the age of the "Dutch Masters", such as Rembrandt van Rijn, Johannes Vermeer, Jan Steen, Jacob van Ruisdael, Gerard van Honthorst, Theodoor van Thulden and many others. Famous Dutch painters of the 19th and 20th century were Vincent van Gogh and the luminists Jan Sluijters, Leo Gestel, and Piet Mondrian. M. C. Escher is a well-known graphic artist. Willem de Kooning was born and trained in Rotterdam, although he is considered to have reached acclaim as an American artist. Literature flourished as well during the Dutch Golden Age, with Joost van den Vondel and P. C. Hooft as the two most famous writers. In the 19th century, Multatuli wrote about the poor treatment of the natives in the Dutch colony, the current Indonesia. Important 20th century authors include Godfried Bomans, Harry Mulisch, Jan Wolkers, Simon Vestdijk, Hella S. Haasse, Cees Nooteboom, Gerard Reve and Willem Frederik Hermans. Anne Frank's "Diary of a Young Girl" was published after she was murdered in the Holocaust and translated from Dutch to all major languages.Various architectural styles can be distinguished in the Netherlands. Over the years, various styles have been built and preserved.The Romanesque architecture was built between the years 950 and 1250. This architectural style is most concentrated in the provinces of Gelderland and Limburg. Limburg, in particular, differs greatly in architectural style from the rest of the Netherlands.The Gothic architecture came to in the Netherlands from about 1230. Gothic buildings often had large windows, pointed arches and were richly decorated.Brabantine Gothic originated with the rise of the Duchy of Brabant and spread throughout the Burgundian provinces.This architectural style is most concentrated in the province of North Brabant, such as St. John's Cathedral in 's-Hertogenbosch, The Church of Our Lady in Breda and the Margraves Palace in Bergen op Zoom.What many know as traditional Dutch architecture is the Dutch Baroque architecture (1525 – 1630) and classicism (1630 – 1700).These style of architecture is especially in evidence in the cities of North Holland, South Holland and Zeeland.Other architectural styles that are common in the Netherlands are Style Louis XIV, Art Nouveau, Rationalism, NeoclassicismExpressionism, De Stijl, Traditionalism and Brutalism.The Netherlands is the country of philosophers Erasmus, Rudolf Agricola and Spinoza. Much of Descartes' major work was done in the Netherlands, where he studied at Leiden University — as did geologist James Hutton, British Prime Minister John Stuart, U.S. President John Quincy Adams, Physics Nobel Prize laureate Hendrik Lorentz and Enrico Fermi. The Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) discovered Saturn's moon Titan, argued that light travelled as waves, invented the pendulum clock and was the first physicist to use mathematical formulae. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe and describe single-celled organisms with a microscope.Replicas of Dutch buildings can be found in Huis Ten Bosch, Nagasaki, Japan. A similar Holland Village is being built in Shenyang, China. Windmills, tulips, wooden shoes, cheese, Delftware pottery, and cannabis are among the items associated with the Netherlands by tourists.In the south of the Netherlands there are some festivals that rarely or never occur in the rest of the Netherlands. These celebrations grew out of Catholic traditions, including Carnival, lantern parades during the celebration of Three Kings, Brabantian Day and huge Bloemencorso. Bloemencorsos used to occur in many places in the Netherlands, but in the 21th century, Zundert and Valkenswaard in North Brabant have taken the lead.Dutch society is egalitarian and modern. The Dutch have an aversion to the non-essential. Ostentatious behaviour is to be avoided. The Dutch are proud of their cultural heritage, rich history in art and involvement in international affairs.Dutch manners are open and direct with a no-nonsense attitude—informality combined with adherence to basic behaviour. According to a humorous source on Dutch culture, "Their directness gives many the impression that they are rude and crude—attributes they prefer to call openness." A well known more serious source on Dutch etiquette is "Dealing with the Dutch" by Jacob Vossestein: "Dutch egalitarianism is the idea that people are equal, especially from a moral point of view, and accordingly, causes the somewhat ambiguous stance the Dutch have towards hierarchy and status." As always, manners differ between groups. Asking about basic rules will not be considered impolite. "What may strike you as being blatantly blunt topics and comments are no more embarrassing or unusual to the Dutch than discussing the weather."The Netherlands is one of the most secular countries of Europe, and religion in the Netherlands is generally considered as a personal matter which is not supposed to be propagated in public, although it often remains a discussion subject. For only 17% of the population religion is important and 14% goes to church weekly.The Netherlands has a long history of social tolerance and today is regarded as a liberal country, considering its drug policy and its legalisation of euthanasia. On 1 April 2001, the Netherlands became the first nation to legalise same-sex marriage.As of 2018 the Netherlands had one of the highest rates of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in the European Union, above those of Germany, France and Belgium. In addition, the Dutch waste more food than any other EU citizen, at over three times the EU average Despite this, the Netherlands has nonetheless the reputation of the leader country in environmental and population management. In 2015, Amsterdam and Rotterdam were ranked fourth and fifth, respectively, on the Arcadis Sustainable Cities Index.Sustainability is a concept important for the Dutch. The goal of the Dutch Government is to have a sustainable, reliable and affordable energy system, by 2050, in which emissions have been halved and 40 per cent of electricity is derived from sustainable sources.The government is investing billions of euros in energy efficiency, sustainable energy and reduction. The Kingdom also encourages Dutch companies to build sustainable business/projects/facilities, with financial aids from the state to the companies or individuals who are active in making the country more sustainable.The Netherlands has multiple music traditions. Traditional Dutch music is a genre known as "Levenslied", meaning "Song of life", to an extent comparable to a French Chanson or a German Schlager. These songs typically have a simple melody and rhythm, and a straightforward structure of verses and choruses. Themes can be light, but are often sentimental and include love, death and loneliness. Traditional musical instruments such as the accordion and the barrel organ are a staple of levenslied music, though in recent years many artists also use synthesisers and guitars. Artists in this genre include Jan Smit, Frans Bauer and André Hazes.Contemporary Dutch rock and pop music (Nederpop) originated in the 1960s, heavily influenced by popular music from the United States and Britain. In the 1960s and 1970s the lyrics were mostly in English, and some tracks were instrumental. Bands such as Shocking Blue, Golden Earring, Tee Set, George Baker Selection and Focus enjoyed international success. As of the 1980s, more and more pop musicians started working in the Dutch language, partly inspired by the huge success of the band Doe Maar. Today Dutch rock and pop music thrives in both languages, with some artists recording in both.Current symphonic metal bands Epica, Delain, ReVamp, The Gathering, Asrai, Autumn, Ayreon and Within Temptation as well as jazz and pop singer Caro Emerald are having international success. Also, metal bands like Hail of Bullets, God Dethroned, Izegrim, Asphyx, Textures, Present Danger, Heidevolk and Slechtvalk are popular guests at the biggest metal festivals in Europe. Contemporary local stars include pop singer Anouk, country pop singer Ilse DeLange, South Guelderish and Limburgish dialect singing folk band Rowwen Hèze, rock band BLØF and duo Nick & Simon. Trijntje Oosterhuis, one of the country's most well known and versatile singers, has made multiple albums with famous American composers Vince Mendoza and Burt Bacharach.Early 1990s Dutch and Belgian house music came together in Eurodance project 2 Unlimited. Selling 18 million records, the two singers in the band are the most successful Dutch music artists to this day. Tracks like "Get Ready for This" are still popular themes of U.S. sports events, like the NHL. In the mid 1990s Dutch language rap and hip hop ("Nederhop") also came to fruition and has become popular in the Netherlands and Belgium. Artists with North African, Caribbean or Middle Eastern origins have strongly influenced this genre.Since the 1990s, Dutch electronic dance music (EDM) gained widespread popularity in the world in many forms, from trance, techno and gabber to hardstyle. Some of the world's best known dance music DJs hail from the Netherlands, including Armin van Buuren, Tiësto, Hardwell, Martin Garrix, Dash Berlin, Julian Jordan, Nicky Romero, W&W, Don Diablo and Afrojack; the first four of which have been ranked as best in the world by DJ Mag Top 100 DJs. The Amsterdam Dance Event (ADE) is the world's leading electronic music conference and the biggest club festival for the many electronic subgenres on the planet. These DJs also contribute to the world's mainstream pop music, as they frequently collaborate and produce for high-profile international artists.The Netherlands have participated in the Eurovision Song Contest since its first edition in 1956, and have won five times. Their most recent win was in 2019.In classical music, Jan Sweelinck ranks as the Dutch most famous composer, with Louis Andriessen amongst the best known living Dutch classical composers. Ton Koopman is a Dutch conductor, organist and harpsichordist. He is also professor at the Royal Conservatory of The Hague. Notable violinists are Janine Jansen and André Rieu. The latter, together with his Johann Strauss Orchestra, has taken classical and waltz music on worldwide concert tours, the size and revenue of which are otherwise only seen from the world's biggest rock and pop music acts. The most famous Dutch classical composition is "Canto Ostinato" by Simeon ten Holt, a minimalistic composition for multiple instruments. Acclaimed harpist Lavinia Meijer in 2012 released an album with works from Philip Glass that she transcribed for harp, with approval of Glass himself. The Concertgebouw (completed in 1888) in Amsterdam is home to the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, considered one of the world's finest orchestras.Some Dutch films – mainly by director Paul Verhoeven – have received international distribution and recognition, such as "Turkish Delight" (""Turks Fruit"", 1973), "Soldier of Orange" (""Soldaat van Oranje"", 1977), "Spetters" (1980) and "The Fourth Man" (""De Vierde Man"", 1983). Verhoeven then went on to direct big Hollywood movies like "RoboCop" (1987), "Total Recall" (1990) and "Basic Instinct" (1992), and returned with Dutch film "Black Book" (""Zwartboek"", 2006).Other well-known Dutch film directors are Jan de Bont ("Speed"), Anton Corbijn ("A Most wanted Man"), Dick Maas ("De Lift"), Fons Rademakers ("The Assault"), and documentary makers Bert Haanstra and Joris Ivens. Film director Theo van Gogh achieved international notoriety in 2004 when he was murdered by Mohammed Bouyeri in the streets of Amsterdam after directing the short film "Submission".Internationally, successful directors of photography from the Netherlands are Hoyte van Hoytema ("Interstellar", "Spectre", "Dunkirk") and Theo van de Sande ("Wayne's World" and "Blade"). Van Hoytema went to the National Film School in Łódź (Poland) and Van de Sande went to the Netherlands Film Academy. Internationally successful Dutch actors include Famke Janssen ("X-Men"), Carice van Houten ("Game of Thrones"), Michiel Huisman ("Game of Thrones"), Rutger Hauer ("Blade Runner"), Jeroen Krabbé ("The Living Daylights") and Derek de Lint ("Three Men and a Baby").The Netherlands has a well developed television market, with both multiple commercial and public broadcasters. Imported TV programmes, as well as interviews with responses in a foreign language, are virtually always shown with the original sound and subtitled. Only foreign shows for children are dubbed.TV exports from the Netherlands mostly take the form of specific formats and franchises, most notably through internationally active TV production conglomerate Endemol, founded by Dutch media tycoons John de Mol and Joop van den Ende. Headquartered in Amsterdam, Endemol has around 90 companies in over 30 countries. Endemol and its subsidiaries create and run reality, talent, and game show franchises worldwide, including "Big Brother" and "Deal or No Deal". John de Mol later started his own company Talpa which created show franchises like "The Voice" and "Utopia".Approximately 4.5 million of the 16.8 million people in the Netherlands are registered to one of the 35,000 sports clubs in the country. About two-thirds of the population between 15 and 75 participates in sports weekly. Football is the most popular participant sport in the Netherlands, before field hockey and volleyball as the second and third most popular team sports. The Netherlands national football team is one of the most popular aspects of Dutch sports; especially since the 1970s when one of the greatest footballers of all time, Johan Cruyff, developed Total Football with coach Rinus Michels. Tennis, gymnastics and golf are the three most widely engaged in individual sports.Organisation of sports began at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. Federations for sports were established (such as the speed skating federation in 1882), rules were unified and sports clubs came into existence. A Dutch National Olympic Committee was established in 1912. Thus far, the nation has won 266 medals at the Summer Olympic Games and another 110 medals at the Winter Olympic Games. In international competition, Dutch national teams and athletes are dominant in several fields of sport. The Netherlands women's field hockey team is the most successful team in World Cup history. The Netherlands baseball team have won the European championship 20 times out of 32 events. Dutch K-1 kickboxers have won the K-1 World Grand Prix 15 times out of 19 tournaments. The Netherlands Women's handball team holds the record of the only team in the world that consecutively reached all six semifinals of major international tournaments since 2015, winning silver and bronze at the European Women's Handball Championship and silver, bronze and gold at the World Women's Handball Championship. They finished fourth at the 2016 Summer Olympics.The Dutch speed skaters' performance at the 2014 Winter Olympics, where they won 8 out of 12 events, 23 out of 36 medals, including 4 clean sweeps, is the most dominant performance in a single sport in Olympic history. Motorcycle racing at the TT Circuit Assen has a long history. Assen is the only venue to have held a round of the Motorcycle World Championship every year since its creation in 1949. The circuit was purpose-built for the Dutch TT in 1954, with previous events having been held on public roads.The Dutch have also had success in all three of cyclings Grand Tours with Jan Janssen winning the 1968 Tour de France, more recently with Tom Dumoulin winning the 2017 Giro d'Italia and legendary rider Joop Zoetemelk was the 1985 UCI World Champion, the winner of the 1979 Vuelta a Espana, the 1980 Tour de France and still holds or shares numerous Tour de France records including most Tours finished and most kilometres ridden.Limburger Max Verstappen currently races in Formula One, and was the first Dutchman to win a Grand Prix. The coastal resort of Zandvoort hosted the Dutch Grand Prix from 1958 to 1985, and has been announced to return in 2020. The volleyball national men's team has also been successful, winning the silver medal at the 1992 Summer Olympics and the gold medal four years later in Atlanta. The biggest success of the women's national team was winning the European Championship in 1995 and the World Grand Prix in 2007.Recently cricket has made a remarkable progress in the Netherlands. Netherlands have participated in 1996, 2003, 2007 and 2011 ODI cricket World Cup. They have also qualified for 2009 and 2014 T20 World Cup. In the 2009 T20 World Cup, Netherlands defeated England, the current World Champions and inventor of the game. Ryan ten Doeschate is the only Dutch player to have played in the IPL on the team Kolkata Knight Riders.Originally, the country's cuisine was shaped by the practices of fishing and farming, including the cultivation of the soil for growing crops and raising domesticated animals. Dutch cuisine is simple and straightforward, and contains many dairy products. Breakfast and lunch are typically bread with toppings, with cereal for breakfast as an alternative. Traditionally, dinner consists of potatoes, a portion of meat, and (seasonal) vegetables. The Dutch diet was relatively high in carbohydrates and fat, reflecting the dietary needs of the labourers whose culture moulded the country. Without many refinements, it is best described as rustic, though many holidays are still celebrated with special foods. In the course of the twentieth century this diet changed and became much more cosmopolitan, with most global cuisines being represented in the major cities.Modern culinary writers distinguish between three general regional forms of Dutch cuisine. The regions in the northeast of the Netherlands, roughly the provinces of Groningen, Friesland, Drenthe, Overijssel and Gelderland north of the great rivers are the least populated areas of the Netherlands. The late (18th century) introduction of large scale agriculture means that the cuisine is generally known for its many kinds of meats. The relative lack of farms allowed for an abundance of game and husbandry, though dishes near the coastal regions of Friesland, Groningen and the parts of Overijssel bordering the IJsselmeer also include a large amount of fish. The various dried sausages, belonging to the metworst-family of Dutch sausages are found throughout this region and are highly prized for their often very strong taste. Also smoked sausages are common, of which ("Gelderse") "rookworst" is the most renowned. The sausage contains a lot of fat and is very juicy. Larger sausages are often eaten alongside "stamppot", "hutspot" or "zuurkool" (sauerkraut); whereas smaller ones are often eaten as a street food. The provinces are also home to hard textured rye bread, pastries and cookies, the latter heavily spiced with ginger or succade or containing small bits of meat. Various kinds of "Kruidkoek" (such as ), "" and "" (small savoury pancakes cooked in a waffle iron) are considered typical. A notable characteristic of "Fries roggebrood" (Frisian rye bread) is its long baking time (up to 20 hours), resulting in a sweet taste and a deep dark colour. In terms of alcoholic beverages, the region is renowned for its many bitters (such as "Beerenburg") and other high-proof liquors rather than beer, which is, apart from "Jenever", typical for the rest of the country. As a coastal region, Friesland is home to low-lying grasslands, and thus has a cheese production in common with the Western cuisine. "Friese Nagelkaas" (Friesian Clove) is a notable example.The provinces of North Holland, South Holland, Zeeland, and Utrecht and the Gelderlandic area of Betuwe make up the region in which western Dutch cuisine is found. Because of the abundance of water and flat grasslands that are found here, the area is known for its many dairy products, which include prominent cheeses such as Gouda, Leyden (spiced cheese with cumin), and Edam (traditionally in small spheres) as well as Leerdammer and Beemster, while the adjacent Zaanstreek in North Holland has since the 16th century been known for its mayonnaise, typical whole-grain mustards, and chocolate industry. Zeeland and South Holland produce a lot of butter, which contains a larger amount of milkfat than most other European butter varieties. A by-product of the butter-making process, "karnemelk" (buttermilk), is also considered typical for this region. Seafood such as soused herring, mussels (called "Zeeuwse Mossels", since all Dutch mussels for consumption are cleaned in Zeeland's Oosterschelde), eels, oysters and shrimps are widely available and typical for the region. "", once a local delicacy consisting of small chunks of battered white fish, has become a national fast food, just as . Pastries in this area tend to be quite doughy, and often contain large amounts of sugar; either caramelised, powdered or crystallised. The "oliebol" (in its modern form) and "Zeeuwse bolus" are good examples. Cookies are also produced in great number and tend to contain a lot of butter and sugar, like "stroopwafel", as well as a filling of some kind, mostly almond, like "". The traditional alcoholic beverages of this region are beer (strong pale lager) and "Jenever", a high proof juniper-flavoured spirit, that came to be known in England as gin. A noted exception within the traditional Dutch alcoholic landscape, "Advocaat", a rich and creamy liqueur made from eggs, sugar and brandy, is also native to this region.The Southern Dutch cuisine consists of the cuisines of the Dutch provinces of North Brabant and Limburg and the Flemish Region in Belgium. It is renowned for its many rich pastries, soups, stews and vegetable dishes and is often called Burgundian which is a Dutch idiom invoking the rich Burgundian court which ruled the Low Countries in the Middle Ages, renowned for its splendor and great feasts. It is the only Dutch culinary region that developed an haute cuisine. Pastries are abundant, often with rich fillings of cream, custard or fruits. Cakes, such as the "Vlaai" from Limburg and the "Moorkop" and "Bossche Bol" from Brabant, are typical pastries. Savoury pastries also occur, with the (a roll with a sausage of ground beef, literally translates into sausage bread) being the most popular. The traditional alcoholic beverage of the region is beer. There are many local brands, ranging from "Trappist" to "Kriek". 5 of the 10 "International Trappist Association" recognised breweries in the world, are located in the Southern Dutch cultural area. Beer, like wine in French cuisine, is also used in cooking; often in stews.In early 2014, Oxfam ranked the Netherlands as the country with the most nutritious, plentiful and healthy food, in a comparison of 125 countries.From the exploitations in the Mughal Empire in the 17th century, to the colonisations in the 19th century, Dutch imperial possessions continued to expand, reaching their greatest extent by establishing a hegemony of the Dutch East Indies in the early 20th century. The Dutch East Indies, which later formed modern-day Indonesia, was one of the most valuable European colonies in the world and the most important one for the Netherlands. Over 350 years of mutual heritage has left a significant cultural mark on the Netherlands.In the Dutch Golden Age of the 17th century, the Netherlands urbanised considerably, mostly financed by corporate revenue from the Asian trade monopolies. Social status was based on merchants' income, which reduced feudalism and considerably changed the dynamics of Dutch society. When the Dutch royal family was established in 1815, much of its wealth came from Colonial trade.By the 17th century, the Dutch East India Company established their base in parts of Ceylon (modern-day Sri Lanka). Afterward, they established ports in Dutch occupied Malabar, leading to Dutch settlements and trading posts in India. However, their expansion into India was halted, after their defeat in the Battle of Colachel by the Kingdom of Travancore, during the Travancore-Dutch War. The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat to Bengal Subah.Universities such as the Leiden University, founded in the 16th century, have developed into leading knowledge centres for Southeast Asian and Indonesian studies. Leiden University has produced leading academics such as Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje, and still has academics who specialise in Indonesian languages and cultures. Leiden University and in particular KITLV are educational and scientific institutions that to this day share both an intellectual and historical interest in Indonesian studies. Other scientific institutions in the Netherlands include the Amsterdam Tropenmuseum, an anthropological museum with massive collections of Indonesian art, culture, ethnography and anthropology.The traditions of the Royal Dutch East Indies Army (KNIL) are maintained by the Regiment Van Heutsz of the modern Royal Netherlands Army. A dedicated "Bronbeek Museum", a former home for retired KNIL soldiers, exists in Arnhem to this day.A specific segment of Dutch literature called Dutch Indies literature still exists and includes established authors, such as Louis Couperus, the writer of "The Hidden Force", taking the colonial era as an important source of inspiration. One of the great masterpieces of Dutch literature is the book "Max Havelaar", written by Multatuli in 1860.The majority of Dutchmen that repatriated to the Netherlands after and during the Indonesian revolution are Indo (Eurasian), native to the islands of the Dutch East Indies. This relatively large Eurasian population had developed over a period of 400 years and were classified by colonial law as belonging to the European legal community. In Dutch they are referred to as "Indische Nederlanders" or as Indo (short for Indo-European).Including their second generation descendants, Indos are currently the largest foreign-born group in the Netherlands. In 2008, the Dutch Central Bureau for Statistics (CBS) registered 387,000 first- and second-generation Indos living in the Netherlands. Although considered fully assimilated into Dutch society, as the main ethnic minority in the Netherlands, these 'repatriants' have played a pivotal role in introducing elements of Indonesian culture into Dutch mainstream culture.Many Indonesian dishes and foodstuffs have become commonplace in the Netherlands. Rijsttafel, a colonial culinary concept, and dishes such as Nasi goreng and satay are very popular in the country. Practically any town of any size in the Netherlands has a "toko" (a Dutch Indonesian Shop) or a Chinese-Indonesian restaurant, and many 'Pasar Malam' (Night market in Malay/Indonesian) fairs are organised throughout the year. | [
"Piet de Jong",
"Hendrikus Colijn",
"Ruud Lubbers",
"Jan de Quay",
"Wim Schermerhorn",
"Jo Cals",
"Joop den Uyl",
"Wim Kok",
"Louis Beel",
"Dirk Jan de Geer",
"Dries van Agt",
"Willem Drees",
"Charles Ruijs de Beerenbrouck",
"Jelle Zijlstra",
"Jan Peter Balkenende",
"Mark Rutte",
"Pieter Sjoerds Gerbrandy",
"Barend Biesheuvel"
] |
|
Who was the head of Netherlands in Jan 24, 1964? | January 24, 1964 | {
"text": [
"Victor Marijnen"
]
} | L2_Q55_P6_8 | Jelle Zijlstra is the head of the government of Netherlands from Nov, 1966 to Apr, 1967.
Joop den Uyl is the head of the government of Netherlands from May, 1973 to Dec, 1977.
Wim Kok is the head of the government of Netherlands from Aug, 1994 to Jul, 2002.
Louis Beel is the head of the government of Netherlands from Jul, 1946 to Aug, 1948.
Victor Marijnen is the head of the government of Netherlands from Jul, 1963 to Apr, 1965.
Hendrikus Colijn is the head of the government of Netherlands from Aug, 1925 to Mar, 1926.
Ruud Lubbers is the head of the government of Netherlands from Nov, 1982 to Aug, 1994.
Willem Drees is the head of the government of Netherlands from Aug, 1948 to Dec, 1958.
Jan de Quay is the head of the government of Netherlands from May, 1959 to Jul, 1963.
Jo Cals is the head of the government of Netherlands from Apr, 1965 to Nov, 1966.
Piet de Jong is the head of the government of Netherlands from Apr, 1967 to Jul, 1971.
Jan Peter Balkenende is the head of the government of Netherlands from Jul, 2002 to Oct, 2010.
Barend Biesheuvel is the head of the government of Netherlands from Jul, 1971 to May, 1973.
Dirk Jan de Geer is the head of the government of Netherlands from Mar, 1926 to Aug, 1929.
Wim Schermerhorn is the head of the government of Netherlands from Jun, 1945 to Jul, 1946.
Pieter Sjoerds Gerbrandy is the head of the government of Netherlands from Sep, 1940 to Jun, 1945.
Dries van Agt is the head of the government of Netherlands from Dec, 1977 to Nov, 1982.
Mark Rutte is the head of the government of Netherlands from Oct, 2010 to Dec, 2022.
Charles Ruijs de Beerenbrouck is the head of the government of Netherlands from Sep, 1918 to Aug, 1925. | NetherlandsThe Netherlands ( ), sometimes informally Holland, is a country located in Western Europe with territories in the Caribbean. It is the largest of four constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. In Europe, the Netherlands consists of twelve provinces, bordering Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, with maritime borders in the North Sea with those countries and the United Kingdom. In the Caribbean, it consists of three special municipalities: the islands of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba. The country's official language is Dutch, with West Frisian as a secondary official language in the province of Friesland, and English and Papiamento as secondary official languages in the Caribbean Netherlands. Dutch Low Saxon and Limburgish are recognised regional languages (spoken in the east and southeast respectively), while Dutch Sign Language, Sinte Romani and Yiddish are recognised non-territorial languages.The four largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague and Utrecht. Amsterdam is the country's most populous city and nominal capital, while The Hague holds the seat of the States General, Cabinet and Supreme Court. The Port of Rotterdam is the busiest seaport in Europe, and the busiest in any country outside East Asia and Southeast Asia, behind only China and Singapore. Amsterdam Airport Schiphol is the busiest airport in the Netherlands, and the third busiest in Europe. The country is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. It hosts several intergovernmental organisations and international courts, many of which are centred in The Hague, which is consequently dubbed 'the world's legal capital'."Netherlands" literally means "lower countries" in reference to its low elevation and flat topography, with only about 50% of its land exceeding above sea level, and nearly 26% falling below sea level. Most of the areas below sea level, known as "polders", are the result of land reclamation that began in the 14th century. Colloquially or informally the Netherlands is occasionally referred to by the pars pro toto "Holland". With a population of 17.4 million people, all living within a total area of roughly —of which the land area is —the Netherlands is the 16th most densely populated country in the world and the 2nd most densely populated country in the European Union, with a density of . Nevertheless, it is the world's second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products by value, owing to its fertile soil, mild climate, intensive agriculture and inventiveness.The Netherlands has been a parliamentary constitutional monarchy with a unitary structure since 1848. The country has a tradition of pillarisation and a long record of social tolerance, having legalised abortion, prostitution and human euthanasia, along with maintaining a liberal drug policy. The Netherlands abolished the death penalty in Civil Law in 1870, though it was not completely removed until a new constitution was approved in 1983. The Netherlands allowed women's suffrage in 1919, before becoming the world's first country to legalise same-sex marriage in 2001. Its mixed-market advanced economy had the eleventh-highest per capita income globally. The Netherlands ranks among the highest in international indexes of press freedom, economic freedom, human development and quality of life, as well as happiness. In 2020, it ranked eighth on the human development index and fifth on the 2021 World Happiness Index.The Netherlands' turbulent history and shifts of power resulted in exceptionally many and widely varying names in different languages. There is diversity even within languages. In English, the Netherlands is also called Holland or (part of) the Low Countries, whereas the term ""Dutch"" is used as the demonym and adjectival form.The region called the Low Countries (comprising Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg) have the same toponymy. Place names with "Neder", "Nieder", "Nedre", "Nether", "Lage(r)" or "Low(er)" (in Germanic languages) and "Bas" or "Inferior" (in Romance languages) are in use in low-lying places all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a deictic relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as "Super(ior)", "Up(per)", "Op(per)", "Ober", "Boven", "High", "Haut" or "Hoch". In the case of the Low Countries / Netherlands the geographical location of the "lower" region has been more or less downstream and near the sea. The geographical location of the upper region, however, changed tremendously over time, depending on the location of the economic and military power governing the Low Countries area. The Romans made a distinction between the Roman provinces of downstream Germania Inferior (nowadays part of Belgium and the Netherlands) and upstream Germania Superior (nowadays part of Germany). The designation 'Low' to refer to the region returns again in the 10th century Duchy of Lower Lorraine, that covered much of the Low Countries. But this time the corresponding "Upper" region is Upper Lorraine, in nowadays Northern France.The Dukes of Burgundy, who ruled from their residence in the Low Countries in the 15th century, used the term "les pays de par deçà" ("the lands over here") for the Low Countries, as opposed to "les pays de par delà" ("the lands over there") for their original homeland: Burgundy in present-day east-central France. Under Habsburg rule, "Les pays de par deçà" developed in "pays d'embas" ("lands down-here"), a deictic expression in relation to other Habsburg possessions like Hungary and Austria. This was translated as "Neder-landen" in contemporary Dutch official documents. From a regional point of view, "Niderlant" was also the area between the Meuse and the lower Rhine in the late Middle Ages. The area known as "Oberland" (High country) was in this deictic context considered to begin approximately at the nearby higher located Cologne.From the mid-sixteenth century on, the "Low Countries" and the "Netherlands" lost their original deictic meaning. They were probably the most commonly used names, besides Flanders, a "pars pro toto" for the Low Countries, especially in Romance language-speaking Europe. The Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) divided the Low Countries into an independent northern Dutch Republic (or Latinised "Belgica Foederata", "Federated Netherlands", the precursor state of the Netherlands) and a Spanish controlled Southern Netherlands (Latinised "Belgica Regia", "Royal Netherlands", the precursor state of Belgium). The Low Countries today is a designation that includes the countries of the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg, although in most Romance languages, the term "Low Countries" is used as the name for the Netherlands specifically. It is used synonymously with the more neutral and geopolitical term Benelux.The Netherlands is also referred to as Holland in various languages, including English. However, Holland proper is only a region within the country that consists of North and South Holland, two of the nation's twelve provinces. Formerly they were a single province, and earlier the County of Holland, a remnant of the dissolved Frisian Kingdom which also included parts of present-day Utrecht. Following the decline of the Duchy of Brabant and the County of Flanders, Holland became the most economically and politically important county in the Low Countries region. The emphasis on Holland during the formation of the Dutch Republic, the Eighty Years' War, and the Anglo-Dutch Wars in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, made Holland serve as a "pars pro toto" for the entire country, which is now considered informal or incorrect. Nonetheless, the name "Holland" is still widely used for the Netherlands national football team, including in the Netherlands, and the Dutch government's international websites for tourism and trade are "holland.com" and "hollandtradeandinvest.com". In 2020, however, the Dutch government announced that it would only communicate and advertise under the name "the Netherlands" in the future.The term Dutch is used as the demonymic and adjectival form of the Netherlands in the English language. The origins of the word go back to Proto-Germanic "*þiudiskaz", Latinised into Theodiscus, meaning "popular" or "of the people"; akin to Old Dutch "Dietsch", Old High German "duitsch", and Old English "þeodisc", all meaning "(of) the common (Germanic) people". At first, the English language used (the contemporary form of) Dutch to refer to any or all speakers of West Germanic languages (e.g. the Dutch, the Frisians, and the Germans). Gradually its meaning shifted to the West Germanic people they had most contact with, because of their geographical proximity and for the rivalry in trade and overseas territories. The derivative of the Proto-Germanic word "*þiudiskaz" in modern Dutch, "Diets", can be found in Dutch literature as a poetic name for the Dutch people or language, but is considered very archaic. Although it had a short resurgence after World War II to avoid the reference to Germany. It is still used in the expression "diets maken" – to put it straight to him/her (as in a threat) or, more neutral, to make it clear, understandable, explain, say in the people's language (cf. the Vulgate (Bible not in Greek or Hebrew, but Latin; the folks' language) in meaning vulgar, though not in a pejorative sense).In Dutch, the names for the Netherlands, the Dutch language and a Dutch citizen are "Nederland", "Nederlands" and "Nederlander", respectively. Colloquially the country is also by the Dutch often referred to as Holland, although to lesser extent outside the two provinces North and South Holland, where it may even be used as a pejorative term, e.g. Hollènder (dialect) in Maastricht.The plural "Nederlanden" is used in many different connotations in the past, but since 1815 it has been used in the official name "Koninkrijk der Nederlanden" ("Kingdom of the Netherlands"). In many other languages the plural stuck, for example "Niederlande" (German), "Pays-Bas" (French) and "Países Bajos" (Spanish). In Indonesian (a former colony) the country is called "Belanda", a name derived from 'Holland'.The prehistory of the area that is now the Netherlands was largely shaped by the sea and the rivers that constantly shifted the low-lying geography. The oldest human (Neanderthal) traces were found in higher soils, near Maastricht, from what is believed to be about 250,000 years ago. At the end of the Ice Age, the nomadic late Upper Paleolithic Hamburg culture (c. 13.000–10.000 BC) hunted reindeer in the area, using spears, but the later Ahrensburg culture (c. 11.200–9500 BC) used bow and arrow. From Mesolithic Maglemosian-like tribes (c. 8000 BC) the oldest canoe in the world was found in Drenthe.Indigenous late Mesolithic hunter-gatherers from the Swifterbant culture (c. 5600 BC) were related to the southern Scandinavian Ertebølle culture and were strongly linked to rivers and open water. Between 4800 and 4500 BC, the Swifterbant people started to copy from the neighbouring Linear Pottery culture the practise of animal husbandry, and between 4300 and 4000 BC the practice of agriculture. The Funnelbeaker culture (c. 4300–2800 BC), which is related to the Swifterbant culture, erected the dolmens, large stone grave monuments found in Drenthe. There was a quick and smooth transition from the Funnelbeaker farming culture to the pan-European Corded Ware pastoralist culture (c. 2950 BC). In the southwest, the Seine-Oise-Marne culture — which was related to the Vlaardingen culture (c. 2600 BC), an apparently more primitive culture of hunter-gatherers — survived well into the Neolithic period, until it too was succeeded by the Corded Ware culture.Of the subsequent Bell Beaker culture (2700–2100 BC) several regions of origin have been postulated, notably the Iberian peninsula, the Netherlands and Central Europe. They introduced metalwork in copper, gold and later bronze and opened international trade routes not seen before, reflected in the discoveries of copper artifacts, as the metal is not normally found in Dutch soil. The many finds in Drenthe of rare bronze objects, suggest that it was even a trading centre in the Bronze Age (2000–800 BC). The Bell Beaker culture developed locally into the Barbed-Wire Beaker culture (2100–1800 BC) and later the Elp culture (c. 1800–800 BC), a Middle Bronze Age archaeological culture having earthenware pottery of low quality as a marker. The initial phase of the Elp culture was characterised by tumuli (1800–1200 BC) that were strongly tied to contemporary tumuli in northern Germany and Scandinavia and was apparently related to the Tumulus culture in central Europe. The subsequent phase was that of cremating the dead and placing their ashes in urns which were then buried in fields, following the customs of the Urnfield culture (1200–800 BC). The southern region became dominated by the related Hilversum culture (1800–800 BC), which apparently inherited cultural ties with Britain of the previous Barbed-Wire Beaker culture.From 800 BC onwards, the Iron Age Celtic Hallstatt culture became influential, replacing the Hilversum culture. Iron ore brought a measure of prosperity and was available throughout the country, including bog iron. Smiths travelled from settlement to settlement with bronze and iron, fabricating tools on demand. The King's grave of Oss (700 BC) was found in a burial mound, the largest of its kind in western Europe and containing an iron sword with an inlay of gold and coral.The deteriorating climate in Scandinavia around 850 BC further deteriorated around 650 BC and might have triggered migration of Germanic tribes from the North. By the time this migration was complete, around 250 BC, a few general cultural and linguistic groups had emerged. The North Sea Germanic Ingaevones inhabited the northern part of the Low Countries. They would later develop into the Frisii and the early Saxons. A second grouping, the Weser-Rhine Germanic (or Istvaeones), extended along the middle Rhine and Weser and inhabited the Low Countries south of the great rivers. This group consisted of tribes that would eventually develop into the Salian Franks. Also the Celtic La Tène culture (c. 450 BC up to the Roman conquest) had expanded over a wide range, including the southern area of the Low Countries. Some scholars have speculated that even a third ethnic identity and language, neither Germanic nor Celtic, survived in the Netherlands until the Roman period, the Iron Age Nordwestblock culture, that eventually was absorbed by the Celts to the south and the Germanic peoples from the east.The first author to describe the coast of Holland and Flanders was the Greek geographer Pytheas, who noted in c. 325 BC that in these regions, "more people died in the struggle against water than in the struggle against men." During the Gallic Wars, the area south and west of the Rhine was conquered by Roman forces under Julius Caesar from 57 BC to 53 BC. Caesar describes two main Celtic tribes living in what is now the southern Netherlands: the Menapii and the Eburones. The Rhine became fixed as Rome's northern frontier around 12 AD. Notable towns would arise along the Limes Germanicus: Nijmegen and Voorburg. In the first part of Gallia Belgica, the area south of the Limes became part of the Roman province of Germania Inferior. The area to the north of the Rhine, inhabited by the Frisii, remained outside Roman rule (but not its presence and control), while the Germanic border tribes of the Batavi and Cananefates served in the Roman cavalry. The Batavi rose against the Romans in the Batavian rebellion of 69 AD but were eventually defeated. The Batavi later merged with other tribes into the confederation of the Salian Franks, whose identity emerged at the first half of the third century. Salian Franks appear in Roman texts as both allies and enemies. They were forced by the confederation of the Saxons from the east to move over the Rhine into Roman territory in the fourth century. From their new base in West Flanders and the Southwest Netherlands, they were raiding the English Channel. Roman forces pacified the region, but did not expel the Franks, who continued to be feared at least until the time of Julian the Apostate (358) when Salian Franks were allowed to settle as "foederati" in Texandria. It has been postulated that after deteriorating climate conditions and the Romans' withdrawal, the Frisii disappeared as "laeti" in c. 296, leaving the coastal lands largely unpopulated for the next two centuries. However, recent excavations in Kennemerland show clear indication of a permanent habitation.After Roman government in the area collapsed, the Franks expanded their territories in numerous kingdoms. By the 490s, Clovis I had conquered and united all these territories in the southern Netherlands in one Frankish kingdom, and from there continued his conquests into Gaul. During this expansion, Franks migrating to the south eventually adopted the Vulgar Latin of the local population. A widening cultural divide grew with the Franks remaining in their original homeland in the north (i.e. the southern Netherlands and Flanders), who kept on speaking Old Frankish, which by the ninth century had evolved into Old Low Franconian or Old Dutch. A Dutch-French language boundary hence came into existence.To the north of the Franks, climatic conditions improved, and during the Migration Period Saxons, the closely related Angles, Jutes and Frisii settled the coastal land. Many moved on to England and came to be known as Anglo-Saxons, but those who stayed would be referred to as Frisians and their language as Frisian, named after the land that was once inhabited by Frisii. Frisian was spoken along the entire southern North Sea coast, and it is still the language most closely related to English among the living languages of continental Europe. By the seventh century a Frisian Kingdom (650–734) under King Aldegisel and King Redbad emerged with Traiectum (Utrecht) as its centre of power, while Dorestad was a flourishing trading place. Between 600 and around 719 the cities were often fought over between the Frisians and the Franks. In 734, at the Battle of the Boarn, the Frisians were defeated after a series of wars. With the approval of the Franks, the Anglo-Saxon missionary Willibrord converted the Frisian people to Christianity. He established the Archdiocese of Utrecht and became bishop of the Frisians. However, his successor Boniface was murdered by the Frisians in Dokkum, in 754.The Frankish Carolingian empire modelled itself on the Roman Empire and controlled much of Western Europe. However, in 843, it was divided into three parts—East, Middle, and West Francia. Most of present-day Netherlands became part of Middle Francia, which was a weak kingdom and subject of numerous partitions and annexation attempts by its stronger neighbours. It comprised territories from Frisia in the north to the Kingdom of Italy in the south. Around 850, Lothair I of Middle Francia acknowledged the Viking Rorik of Dorestad as ruler of most of Frisia. When the kingdom of Middle Francia was partitioned in 855, the lands north of the Alps passed to Lothair II and subsequently were named Lotharingia. After he died in 869, Lotharingia was partitioned, into Upper and Lower Lotharingia, the latter part comprising the Low Countries that technically became part of East Francia in 870, although it was effectively under the control of Vikings, who raided the largely defenceless Frisian and Frankish towns lying on the Frisian coast and along the rivers. Around 879, another Viking expedition led by Godfrid, Duke of Frisia, raided the Frisian lands. The Viking raids made the sway of French and German lords in the area weak. Resistance to the Vikings, if any, came from local nobles, who gained in stature as a result, and that laid the basis for the disintegration of Lower Lotharingia into semi-independent states. One of these local nobles was Gerolf of Holland, who assumed lordship in Frisia after he helped to assassinate Godfrid, and Viking rule came to an end.The Holy Roman Empire (the successor state of East Francia and then Lotharingia) ruled much of the Low Countries in the 10th and 11th century but was not able to maintain political unity. Powerful local nobles turned their cities, counties and duchies into private kingdoms that felt little sense of obligation to the emperor. Holland, Hainaut, Flanders, Gelre, Brabant, and Utrecht were in a state of almost continual war or in paradoxically formed personal unions. The language and culture of most of the people who lived in the County of Holland were originally Frisian. As Frankish settlement progressed from Flanders and Brabant, the area quickly became Old Low Franconian (or Old Dutch). The rest of Frisia in the north (now Friesland and Groningen) continued to maintain its independence and had its own institutions (collectively called the "Frisian freedom"), which resented the imposition of the feudal system.Around 1000 AD, due to several agricultural developments, the economy started to develop at a fast pace, and the higher productivity allowed workers to farm more land or to become tradesmen. Towns grew around monasteries and castles, and a mercantile middle class began to develop in these urban areas, especially in Flanders and later also Brabant. Wealthy cities started to buy certain privileges for themselves from the sovereign. In practice, this meant that Bruges and Antwerp became quasi-independent republics in their own right and would later develop into some of the most important cities and ports in Europe.Around 1100 AD, farmers from Flanders and Utrecht began draining and cultivating uninhabited swampy land in the western Netherlands, making the emergence of the County of Holland as the centre of power possible. The title of Count of Holland was fought over in the Hook and Cod Wars () between 1350 and 1490. The Cod faction consisted of the more progressive cities, while the Hook faction consisted of the conservative noblemen. These noblemen invited the Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy — who was also Count of Flanders — to conquer Holland.Most of the Imperial and French fiefs in what is now the Netherlands and Belgium were united in a personal union by Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, in 1433. The House of Valois-Burgundy and their Habsburg heirs would rule the Low Countries in the period from 1384 to 1581. Before the Burgundian union, the Dutch identified themselves by the town they lived in or their local duchy or county. The Burgundian period is when the road to nationhood began. The new rulers defended Dutch trading interests, which then developed rapidly. The fleets of the County of Holland defeated the fleets of the Hanseatic League several times. Amsterdam grew and in the 15th century became the primary trading port in Europe for grain from the Baltic region. Amsterdam distributed grain to the major cities of Belgium, Northern France and England. This trade was vital because Holland could no longer produce enough grain to feed itself. Land drainage had caused the peat of the former wetlands to reduce to a level that was too low for drainage to be maintained.Under Habsburg Charles V, ruler of the Holy Roman Empire and King of Spain, all fiefs in the current Netherlands region were united into the Seventeen Provinces, which also included most of present-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and some adjacent land in what is now France and Germany. In 1568, under Phillip II, the Eighty Years' War between the Provinces and their Spanish ruler began. The level of ferocity exhibited by both sides can be gleaned from a Dutch chronicler's report:The Duke of Alba ruthlessly attempted to suppress the Protestant movement in the Netherlands. Netherlanders were "burned, strangled, beheaded, or buried alive" by his "Blood Council" and his Spanish soldiers. Severed heads and decapitated corpses were displayed along streets and roads to terrorize the population into submission. Alba boasted of having executed 18,600, but this figure does not include those who perished by war and famine.The first great siege was Alba's effort to capture Haarlem and thereby cut Holland in half. It dragged on from December 1572 to the next summer, when Haarlemers finally surrendered on 13 July upon the promise that the city would be spared from being sacked. It was a stipulation Don Fadrique was unable to honour, when his soldiers mutinied, angered over pay owed and the miserable conditions they endured during the long, cold months of the campaign. On 4 November 1576, Spanish tercios seized Antwerp and subjected it to the worst pillage in the Netherlands' history. The citizens resisted, but were overcome; seven thousand of them were mowed down; a thousand buildings were torched; men, women, and children were slaughtered in a delirium of blood by soldiers crying, "Santiago! España! A sangre, a carne, a fuego, a sacco!" (Saint James! Spain! To blood, to the flesh, to fire, to sack!)Following the sack of Antwerp, delegates from Catholic Brabant, Protestant Holland and Zeeland agreed, at Ghent, to join Utrecht and William the Silent in driving out all Spanish troops and forming a new government for the Netherlands. Don Juan of Austria, the new Spanish governor, was forced to concede initially, but within months returned to active hostilities. As the fighting restarted, the Dutch began to look for help from the Queen of England, but she initially stood by her commitments to the Spanish in the Treaty of Bristol of 1574. The result was that when the next large-scale battle did occur at Gembloux in 1578, the Spanish forces easily won the day, killing at least 10,000 rebels, with the Spanish suffering few losses. In light of the defeat at Gembloux, the southern states of the Seventeen Provinces (today in northern France and Belgium) distanced themselves from the rebels in the north with the 1579 Union of Arras, which expressed their loyalty to Philip II of Spain. Opposing them, the northern half of the Seventeen Provinces forged the Union of Utrecht (also of 1579) in which they committed to support each other in their defence against the Spanish army. The Union of Utrecht is seen as the foundation of the modern Netherlands.Spanish troops sacked Maastricht in 1579, killing over 10,000 civilians and thereby ensuring the rebellion continued. In 1581, the northern provinces adopted the Act of Abjuration, the declaration of independence in which the provinces officially deposed Philip II as reigning monarch in the northern provinces. Against the rebels Philip could draw on the resources of Spain, Spanish America, Spanish Italy and the Spanish Netherlands. The Protestant Queen Elizabeth I of England sympathised with the Dutch struggle against the Spanish and sent an army of 7,600 soldiers to aid the Dutch in their war with the Catholic Spanish. English forces under the Earl of Leicester and then Lord Willoughby faced the Spanish in the Netherlands under the Duke of Parma in a series of largely indecisive actions that tied down significant numbers of Spanish troops and bought time for the Dutch to reorganise their defences. The war continued until 1648, when Spain under King Philip IV finally recognised the independence of the seven north-western provinces in the Peace of Münster. Parts of the southern provinces became "de facto" colonies of the new republican-mercantile empire.After declaring their independence, the provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Groningen, Friesland, Utrecht, Overijssel, and Gelderland formed a confederation. All these duchies, lordships and counties were autonomous and had their own government, the States-Provincial. The States General, the confederal government, were seated in The Hague and consisted of representatives from each of the seven provinces. The sparsely populated region of Drenthe was part of the republic too, although it was not considered one of the provinces. Moreover, the Republic had come to occupy during the Eighty Years' War a number of so-called Generality Lands in Flanders, Brabant and Limburg. Their population was mainly Roman Catholic, and these areas did not have a governmental structure of their own, and were used as a buffer zone between the Republic and the Spanish-controlled Southern Netherlands.In the Dutch Golden Age, spanning much of the 17th century, the Dutch Empire grew to become one of the major seafaring and economic powers, alongside Portugal, Spain, France and England. Science, military, and art (especially painting) were among the most acclaimed in the world. By 1650, the Dutch owned 16,000 merchant ships. The Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company established colonies and trading posts all over the world, including ruling the northern parts of Taiwan between 1624–1662 and 1664–1667. The Dutch settlement in North America began with the founding of New Amsterdam on the southern part of Manhattan in 1614. In South Africa, the Dutch settled the Cape Colony in 1652. Dutch colonies in South America were established along the many rivers in the fertile Guyana plains, among them Colony of Surinam (now Suriname). In Asia, the Dutch established the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia), and the only western trading post in Japan, Dejima.During the period of Proto-industrialization, the empire received 50% of textiles and 80% of silks import from the India's Mughal Empire, chiefly from its most developed region known as Bengal Subah.Many economic historians regard the Netherlands as the first thoroughly capitalist country in the world. In early modern Europe, it had the wealthiest trading city (Amsterdam) and the first full-time stock exchange. The inventiveness of the traders led to insurance and retirement funds as well as phenomena such as the boom-bust cycle, the world's first asset-inflation bubble, the tulip mania of 1636–1637, and the world's first bear raider, Isaac le Maire, who forced prices down by dumping stock and then buying it back at a discount. In 1672 – known in Dutch history as the Rampjaar (Disaster Year) – the Dutch Republic was at war with France, England and three German Bishoprics simultaneously. At sea, it could successfully prevent the English and French navy from entering the western shores. On land, however, it was almost taken over internally by the advancing French and German armies coming from the east. It managed to turn the tide by inundating parts of Holland but could never recover to its former glory again and went into a state of a general decline in the 18th century, with economic competition from England and long-standing rivalries between the two main factions in Dutch society, the republican "Staatsgezinden" and the supporters of the stadtholder the "Prinsgezinden" as main political factions.With the armed support of revolutionary France, Dutch republicans proclaimed the Batavian Republic, modelled after the French Republic and rendering the Netherlands a unitary state on 19 January 1795. The stadtholder William V of Orange had fled to England. But from 1806 to 1810, the Kingdom of Holland was set up by Napoleon Bonaparte as a puppet kingdom governed by his brother Louis Bonaparte to control the Netherlands more effectively. However, King Louis Bonaparte tried to serve Dutch interests instead of his brother's, and he was forced to abdicate on 1 July 1810. The Emperor sent in an army and the Netherlands became part of the French Empire until the autumn of 1813 when Napoleon was defeated in the Battle of Leipzig.William Frederick, son of the last stadtholder, returned to the Netherlands in 1813 and proclaimed himself Sovereign Prince of the Netherlands. Two years later, the Congress of Vienna added the southern Netherlands to the north to create a strong country on the northern border of France. William Frederick raised this United Netherlands to the status of a kingdom and proclaimed himself as King William I in 1815. In addition, William became hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg in exchange for his German possessions. However, the Southern Netherlands had been culturally separate from the north since 1581, and rebelled. The south gained independence in 1830 as Belgium (recognised by the Northern Netherlands in 1839 as the Kingdom of the Netherlands was created by decree), while the personal union between Luxembourg and the Netherlands was severed in 1890, when William III died with no surviving male heirs. Ascendancy laws prevented his daughter Queen Wilhelmina from becoming the next Grand Duchess.The Belgian Revolution at home and the Java War in the Dutch East Indies brought the Netherlands to the brink of bankruptcy. However, the Cultivation System was introduced in 1830; in the Dutch East Indies, 20% of village land had to be devoted to government crops for export. The policy brought the Dutch enormous wealth and made the colony self-sufficient.The Netherlands abolished slavery in its colonies in 1863. Slaves in Suriname would be fully free only in 1873, since the law stipulated that there was to be a mandatory 10-year transition.The Netherlands was able to remain neutral during World War I, in part because the import of goods through the Netherlands proved essential to German survival until the blockade by the British Royal Navy in 1916. That changed in World War II, when Nazi Germany invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940. The Rotterdam Blitz forced the main element of the Dutch army to surrender four days later. During the occupation, over 100,000 Dutch Jews were rounded up and transported to Nazi extermination camps; only a few of them survived. Dutch workers were conscripted for forced labour in Germany, civilians who resisted were killed in reprisal for attacks on German soldiers, and the countryside was plundered for food. Although there were thousands of Dutch who risked their lives by hiding Jews from the Germans, over 20,000 Dutch fascists joined the Waffen SS, fighting on the Eastern Front. Political collaborators were members of the fascist NSB, the only legal political party in the occupied Netherlands. On 8 December 1941, the Dutch government-in-exile in London declared war on Japan, but could not prevent the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia). In 1944–45, the First Canadian Army, which included Canadian, British and Polish troops, was responsible for liberating much of the Netherlands. Soon after VE Day, the Dutch fought a colonial war against the new Republic of Indonesia.In 1954, the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands reformed the political structure of the Netherlands, which was a result of international pressure to carry out decolonisation. The Dutch colonies of Surinam and Curaçao and Dependencies and the European country all became countries within the Kingdom, on a basis of equality. Indonesia had declared its independence in August 1945 (recognised in 1949), and thus was never part of the reformed Kingdom. Suriname followed in 1975. After the war, the Netherlands left behind an era of neutrality and gained closer ties with neighbouring states. The Netherlands was one of the founding members of the Benelux, the NATO, Euratom and the European Coal and Steel Community, which would evolve into the EEC (Common Market) and later the European Union.Government-encouraged emigration efforts to reduce population density prompted some 500,000 Dutch people to leave the country after the war. The 1960s and 1970s were a time of great social and cultural change, such as rapid de-pillarisation characterised by the decay of the old divisions along political and religious lines. Youths, and students in particular, rejected traditional mores and pushed for change in matters such as women's rights, sexuality, disarmament and environmental issues. In 2002 the euro was introduced as fiat money, and in 2010 the Netherlands Antilles was dissolved. Referendums were held on each island to determine their future status. As a result, the islands of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba (the BES islands) were to obtain closer ties with the Netherlands. This led to the incorporation of these three islands into the country of the Netherlands as "special municipalities" upon the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles. The special municipalities are collectively known as the Caribbean Netherlands.According to the Central Bureau of Statistics, the European Netherlands has a total area of , including water bodies; and a land area of . The Caribbean Netherlands has a total area of It lies between latitudes 50° and 54° N, and longitudes 3° and 8° E.The Netherlands is geographically very low relative to sea level and is considered a flat country, with about 26% of its area and 21% of its population located below sea level, and only about 50% of its land exceeding one metre above sea level. The European part of the country is for the most part flat, with the exception of foothills in the far southeast, up to a height of no more than 321 metres, and some low hill ranges in the central parts. Most of the areas below sea level are man-made, caused by peat extraction or achieved through land reclamation. Since the late 16th century, large polder areas are preserved through elaborate drainage systems that include dikes, canals and pumping stations. Nearly 17% of the country's land area is reclaimed from the sea and from lakes.Much of the country was originally formed by the estuaries of three large European rivers: the Rhine ("Rijn"), the Meuse ("Maas") and the Scheldt ("Schelde"), as well as their tributaries. The south-western part of the Netherlands is to this day a river delta of these three rivers, the Rhine-Meuse-Scheldt delta.The European Netherlands is divided into north and south parts by the Rhine, the Waal, its main tributary branch, and the Meuse. In the past, these rivers functioned as a natural barrier between fiefdoms and hence historically created a cultural divide, as is evident in some phonetic traits that are recognisable on either side of what the Dutch call their "Great Rivers" ("de Grote Rivieren"). Another significant branch of the Rhine, the IJssel river, discharges into Lake IJssel, the former Zuiderzee ('southern sea'). Just like the previous, this river forms a linguistic divide: people to the northeast of this river speak Dutch Low Saxon dialects (except for the province of Friesland, which has its own language).The modern Netherlands formed as a result of the interplay of the four main rivers (Rhine, Meuse, Schelde and IJssel) and the influence of the North Sea. The Netherlands is mostly composed of deltaic, coastal and eolian derived sediments during the Pleistocene glacial and interglacial periods.Almost the entire west Netherlands is composed of the Rhine-Meuse river estuary, but human intervention greatly modified the natural processes at work. Most of the western Netherlands is below sea level due to the human process of turning standing bodies of water into usable land, a polder.In the east of the Netherlands, remains are found of the last ice age, which ended approximately ten thousand years ago. As the continental ice sheet moved in from the north, it pushed moraine forward. The ice sheet halted as it covered the eastern half of the Netherlands. After the ice age ended, the moraine remained in the form of a long hill-line. The cities of Arnhem and Nijmegen are built upon these hills.Over the centuries, the Dutch coastline has changed considerably as a result of natural disasters and human intervention.On 14 December 1287, St. Lucia's flood affected the Netherlands and Germany, killing more than 50,000 people in one of the most destructive floods in recorded history. The St. Elizabeth flood of 1421 and the mismanagement in its aftermath destroyed a newly reclaimed polder, replacing it with the "Biesbosch" tidal floodplains in the south-centre. The huge North Sea flood of early February 1953 caused the collapse of several dikes in the south-west of the Netherlands; more than 1,800 people drowned in the flood. The Dutch government subsequently instituted a large-scale programme, the "Delta Works", to protect the country against future flooding, which was completed over a period of more than thirty years.The impact of disasters was, to an extent, increased through human activity. Relatively high-lying swampland was drained to be used as farmland. The drainage caused the fertile peat to contract and ground levels to drop, upon which groundwater levels were lowered to compensate for the drop in ground level, causing the underlying peat to contract further. Additionally, until the 19th-century peat was mined, dried, and used for fuel, further exacerbating the problem. Centuries of extensive and poorly controlled peat extraction lowered an already low land surface by several metres. Even in flooded areas, peat extraction continued through turf dredging.Because of the flooding, farming was difficult, which encouraged foreign trade, the result of which was that the Dutch were involved in world affairs since the early 14th/15th century.To guard against floods, a series of defences against the water were contrived. In the first millennium AD, villages and farmhouses were built on man-made hills called "terps". Later, these terps were connected by dikes. In the 12th century, local government agencies called ""waterschappen"" ("water boards") or ""hoogheemraadschappen"" ("high home councils") started to appear, whose job it was to maintain the water level and to protect a region from floods; these agencies continue to exist. As the ground level dropped, the dikes by necessity grew and merged into an integrated system. By the 13th century windmills had come into use to pump water out of areas below sea level. The windmills were later used to drain lakes, creating the famous polders.In 1932 the "Afsluitdijk" ("Closure Dike") was completed, blocking the former "Zuiderzee" (Southern Sea) from the North Sea and thus creating the IJsselmeer (IJssel Lake). It became part of the larger Zuiderzee Works in which four polders totalling were reclaimed from the sea.The Netherlands is one of the countries that may suffer most from climate change. Not only is the rising sea a problem, but erratic weather patterns may cause the rivers to overflow.After the 1953 disaster, the Delta Works was constructed, which is a comprehensive set of civil works throughout the Dutch coast. The project started in 1958 and was largely completed in 1997 with the completion of the Maeslantkering. Since then, new projects have been periodically started to renovate and renew the Delta Works. The main goal of the Delta project was to reduce the risk of flooding in South Holland and Zeeland to once per 10,000 years (compared to once per 4000 years for the rest of the country). This was achieved by raising of outer sea-dikes and of the inner, canal, and river dikes, and by closing off the sea estuaries of the Zeeland province. New risk assessments occasionally show problems requiring additional Delta project dike reinforcements. The Delta project is considered by the American Society of Civil Engineers as one of the seven wonders of the modern world.It is anticipated that global warming in the 21st century will result in a rise in sea level. The Netherlands is actively preparing for a sea-level rise. A politically neutral Delta Commission has formulated an action plan to cope with a sea-level rise of and a simultaneous land height decline of . The plan encompasses the reinforcement of the existing coastal defences like dikes and dunes with of additional flood protection. Climate change will not only threaten the Netherlands from the seaside but could also alter rainfall patterns and river run-off. To protect the country from river flooding, another programme is already being executed. The Room for the River plan grants more flow space to rivers, protects the major populated areas and allows for periodic flooding of indefensible lands. The few residents who lived in these so-called "overflow areas" have been moved to higher ground, with some of that ground having been raised above anticipated flood levels.The predominant wind direction in the European Netherlands is southwest, which causes a mild maritime climate, with moderately warm summers and cool winters, and typically high humidity. This is especially true close to the Dutch coastline, where the difference in temperature between summer and winter, as well as between day and night is noticeably smaller than it is in the southeast of the country.Ice days—maximum temperature below —usually occur from December until February, with the occasional rare ice day prior to or after that period. Freezing days—minimum temperature below —occur much more often, usually ranging from mid-November to late March, but not rarely measured as early as mid-October and as late as mid-May. If one chooses the height of measurement to be above ground instead of , one may even find such temperatures in the middle of the summer. On average, snow can occur from November to April but sometimes occurs in May or October too.Warm days—maximum temperature above —are usually found in April to October, but in some parts of the country these warm days can also occur in March, or even sometimes in November or February (usually not in , however). Summer days—maximum temperature above —are usually measured in from May until September, tropical days—maximum temperature above —are rare and usually occur only in June to August.Precipitation throughout the year is distributed relatively equally each month. Summer and autumn months tend to gather a little more precipitation than the other months, mainly because of the intensity of the rainfall rather than the frequency of rain days (this is especially the case in summer when lightning is also much more frequent).The number of sunshine hours is affected by the fact that because of the geographical latitude, the length of the days varies between barely eight hours in December and nearly 17 hours in June.The following table are based on mean measurements by the KNMI weather station in De Bilt between 1991 and 2020. The highest recorded temperature was reached on 25 July 2019 in Gilze-Rijen.The Netherlands has 20 national parks and hundreds of other nature reserves, that include lakes, heathland, woods, dunes, and other habitats. Most of these are owned by Staatsbosbeheer, the national department for forestry and nature conservation and Natuurmonumenten (literally 'Natures monuments'), a private organisation that buys, protects and manages nature reserves. The Dutch part of the Wadden Sea in the north, with its tidal flats and wetlands, is rich in biological diversity, and was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Nature Site in 2009.The Oosterschelde, formerly the northeast estuary of the river Scheldt was designated a national park in 2002, thereby making it the largest national park in the Netherlands at an area of . It consists primarily of the salt waters of the Oosterschelde but also includes mudflats, meadows, and shoals. Because of the large variety of sea life, including unique regional species, the park is popular with Scuba divers. Other activities include sailing, fishing, cycling, and bird watching.Phytogeographically, the European Netherlands is shared between the Atlantic European and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, the European territory of the Netherlands belongs to the ecoregion of Atlantic mixed forests. In 1871, the last old original natural woods were cut down, and most woods today are planted monocultures of trees like Scots pine and trees that are not native to the Netherlands. These woods were planted on anthropogenic heaths and sand-drifts (overgrazed heaths) (Veluwe). The Netherlands had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 0.6/10, ranking it 169th globally out of 172 countries.While Curaçao, Aruba and Sint Maarten have a constituent country status, the Caribbean Netherlands are three islands designated as special municipalities of the Netherlands. The islands are part of the Lesser Antilles and have land borders with France (Saint Martin) and maritime borders with Anguilla, Curaçao, France (Saint Barthélemy), Saint Kitts and Nevis, Sint Maarten, the U.S. Virgin Islands and Venezuela.Within this island group:The islands of the Caribbean Netherlands enjoy a tropical climate with warm weather all year round. The Leeward Antilles are warmer and drier than the Windward islands. In summer, the Windward Islands can be subject to hurricanes.The Netherlands has been a constitutional monarchy since 1815, and due to the efforts of Johan Rudolph Thorbecke became a parliamentary democracy in 1848. The Netherlands is described as a consociational state. Dutch politics and governance are characterised by an effort to achieve broad consensus on important issues, within both the political community and society as a whole. In 2017, "The Economist" ranked the Netherlands as the 11th most democratic country in the world.The monarch is the head of state, at present King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands. Constitutionally, the position is equipped with limited powers. By law, the King has the right to be periodically briefed and consulted on government affairs. Depending on the personalities and relationships of the King and the ministers, the monarch might have influence beyond the power granted by the Constitution of the Netherlands.The executive power is formed by the Council of Ministers, the deliberative organ of the Dutch cabinet. The cabinet usually consists of 13 to 16 ministers and a varying number of state secretaries. One to three ministers are ministers without portfolio. The head of government is the Prime Minister of the Netherlands, who often is the leader of the largest party of the coalition. The Prime Minister is a "primus inter pares", with no explicit powers beyond those of the other ministers. Mark Rutte has been Prime Minister since October 2010; the Prime Minister had been the leader of the largest party of the governing coalition continuously since 1973.The cabinet is responsible to the bicameral parliament, the States General, which also has legislative powers. The 150 members of the House of Representatives, the lower house, are elected in direct elections on the basis of party-list proportional representation. These are held every four years, or sooner in case the cabinet falls (for example: when one of the chambers carries a motion of no confidence, the cabinet offers its resignation to the monarch). The States-Provincial are directly elected every four years as well. The members of the provincial assemblies elect the 75 members of the Senate, the upper house, which has the power to reject laws, but not propose or amend them. Both houses send members to the Benelux Parliament, a consultative council.Both trade unions and employers organisations are consulted beforehand in policymaking in the financial, economic and social areas. They meet regularly with the government in the Social-Economic Council. This body advises government and its advice cannot be put aside easily.The Netherlands has a long tradition of social tolerance. In the 18th century, while the Dutch Reformed Church was the state religion, Catholicism, other forms of Protestantism, such as Baptists and Lutherans, as well as Judaism were tolerated but discriminated against.In the late 19th century this Dutch tradition of religious tolerance transformed into a system of pillarisation, in which religious groups coexisted separately and only interacted at the level of government. This tradition of tolerance influences Dutch criminal justice policies on recreational drugs, prostitution, LGBT rights, euthanasia, and abortion, which are among the most liberal in the world.Because of the multi-party system, no single party has held a majority in parliament since the 19th century, as a result, coalition cabinets had to be formed. Since suffrage became universal in 1917, the Dutch political system has been dominated by three families of political parties: the strongest of which were the Christian Democrats, currently represented by the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA); second were the Social Democrats, represented by the Labour Party (PvdA); and third were the Liberals, of which the right-wing People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD) is the main representative.These parties co-operated in coalition cabinets in which the Christian Democrats had always been a partner: so either a centre-left coalition of the Christian Democrats and Social Democrats was ruling or a centre-right coalition of Christian Democrats and Liberals. In the 1970s, the party system became more volatile: the Christian Democratic parties lost seats, while new parties became successful, such as the radical democrat and progressive liberal Democrats 66 (D66) or the ecologist party GroenLinks (GL).In the 1994 election, the CDA lost its dominant position. A "purple" cabinet was formed by the VVD, D66, and PvdA. In the 2002 elections, this cabinet lost its majority, because of an increased support for the CDA and the rise of the right-wing LPF, a new political party, around Pim Fortuyn, who was assassinated a week before the elections. A short-lived cabinet was formed by CDA, VVD, and LPF, which was led by the CDA Leader Jan Peter Balkenende. After the 2003 elections, in which the LPF lost most of its seats, a cabinet was formed by the CDA, VVD, and D66. The cabinet initiated an ambitious programme of reforming the welfare state, the healthcare system, and immigration policy.In June 2006, the cabinet fell after D66 voted in favour of a motion of no confidence against the Minister of Immigration and Integration, Rita Verdonk, who had instigated an investigation of the asylum procedure of Ayaan Hirsi Ali, a VVD MP. A caretaker cabinet was formed by the CDA and VVD, and general elections were held on 22 November 2006. In these elections, the CDA remained the largest party and the Socialist Party made the largest gains. The formation of a new cabinet took three months, resulting in a coalition of CDA, PvdA, and Christian Union.On 20 February 2010, the cabinet fell when the PvdA refused to prolong the involvement of the Dutch Army in Uruzgan, Afghanistan. Snap elections were held on 9 June 2010, with devastating results for the previously largest party, the CDA, which lost about half of its seats, resulting in 21 seats. The VVD became the largest party with 31 seats, closely followed by the PvdA with 30 seats. The big winner of the 2010 elections was Geert Wilders, whose right wing PVV, the ideological successor to the LPF, more than doubled its number of seats. Negotiation talks for a new government resulted in a minority government, led by VVD (a first) in coalition with CDA, which was sworn in on 14 October 2010. This unprecedented minority government was supported by PVV, but proved ultimately to be unstable, when on 21 April 2012, Wilders, leader of PVV, unexpectedly 'torpedoed seven weeks of austerity talks' on new austerity measures, paving the way for early elections.VVD and PvdA won a majority in the House of Representatives during the 2012 general election. On 5 November 2012 they formed the second Rutte cabinet. After the 2017 general election, VVD, Christian Democratic Appeal, Democrats 66 and ChristenUnie formed the third Rutte cabinet. This cabinet resigned in January 2021, two months before the general election, after a child welfare fraud scandal. In March 2021, centre-right VVD of Prime Minister Mark Rutte was the winner of the elections, securing 35 out of 150 seats. The second biggest party was the centre-left D66 with 24 seats. Geert Wilders' far-right party lost its support. Prime Minister Mark Rutte, in power since 2010, formed his fourth coalition government.The Netherlands is divided into twelve provinces, each under a King's Commissioner ("Commissaris van de Koning"). Informally in Limburg province this position is named Governor ("Gouverneur"). All provinces are divided into municipalities ("gemeenten"), of which there are 355 (2019).The country is also subdivided into 21 water districts, governed by a water board ("waterschap" or "hoogheemraadschap"), each having authority in matters concerning water management. The creation of water boards actually pre-dates that of the nation itself, the first appearing in 1196. The Dutch water boards are among the oldest democratic entities in the world still in existence. Direct elections of the water boards take place every four years.The administrative structure on the three BES islands, collectively known as the Caribbean Netherlands, is outside the twelve provinces. These islands have the status of "openbare lichamen (public bodies)". In the Netherlands these administrative units are often referred to as "special municipalities".The Netherlands has several Belgian exclaves and within those even several enclaves which are part of the province of North Brabant. Because the Netherlands and Belgium are both in the Benelux, and more recently in the Schengen Area, citizens of respective countries can travel through these enclaves without controls.The history of Dutch foreign policy has been characterised by its neutrality. Since World War II, the Netherlands has become a member of a large number of international organisations, most prominently the UN, NATO and the EU. The Dutch economy is very open and relies strongly on international trade.The foreign policy of the Netherlands is based on four basic commitments: to Atlantic co-operation, to European integration, to international development and to international law. One of the more controversial international issues surrounding the Netherlands is its liberal policy towards soft drugs.During and after the Dutch Golden Age, the Dutch people built up a commercial and colonial empire. The most important colonies were present-day Suriname and Indonesia. Indonesia became independent after the Indonesian National Revolution in the 1940s following a war of independence, international pressure and several United Nations Security Council resolutions. Suriname became independent in 1975. The historical ties inherited from its colonial past still influence the foreign relations of the Netherlands. In addition, many people from these countries are living permanently in the Netherlands.The Netherlands has one of the oldest standing armies in Europe; it was first established as such by Maurice of Nassau in the late 1500s. The Dutch army was used throughout the Dutch Empire. After the defeat of Napoleon, the Dutch army was transformed into a conscription army. The army was unsuccessfully deployed during the Belgian Revolution in 1830. After 1830, it was deployed mainly in the Dutch colonies, as the Netherlands remained neutral in European wars (including the First World War), until the Netherlands was invaded in World War II and defeated by the Wehrmacht in May 1940.The Netherlands abandoned its neutrality in 1948 when it signed the Treaty of Brussels, and became a founding member of NATO in 1949. The Dutch military was therefore part of the NATO strength in Cold War Europe, deploying its army to several bases in Germany. More than 3,000 Dutch soldiers were assigned to the 2nd Infantry Division of the United States Army during the Korean War. In 1996 conscription was suspended, and the Dutch army was once again transformed into a professional army. Since the 1990s the Dutch army has been involved in the Bosnian War and the Kosovo War, it held a province in Iraq after the defeat of Saddam Hussein, and it was engaged in Afghanistan.The military is composed of four branches, all of which carry the prefix "Koninklijke" (Royal):The submarine service opened to women on 1 January 2017. The Korps Commandotroepen, the Special Operations Force of the Netherlands Army, is open to women, but because of the extremely high physical demands for initial training, it is almost impossible for a woman to become a commando. The Dutch Ministry of Defence employs more than 70,000 personnel, including over 20,000 civilians and over 50,000 military personnel. In April 2011 the government announced a major reduction in its military because of a cut in government expenditure, including a decrease in the number of tanks, fighter aircraft, naval ships and senior officials.The Netherlands has ratified many international conventions concerning war law. The Netherlands decided not to sign the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.The Netherlands has a developed economy and has been playing a special role in the European economy for many centuries. Since the 16th century, shipping, fishing, agriculture, trade, and banking have been leading sectors of the Dutch economy. The Netherlands has a high level of economic freedom. The Netherlands is one of the top countries in the Global Enabling Trade Report (2nd in 2016), and was ranked the fifth most competitive economy in the world by the Swiss International Institute for Management Development in 2017. In addition, the country was ranked the second most innovative nation in the world in the 2018 Global Innovation Index., the key trading partners of the Netherlands were Germany, Belgium, the United Kingdom, the United States, France, Italy, China and Russia. The Netherlands is one of the world's 10 leading exporting countries. Foodstuffs form the largest industrial sector. Other major industries include chemicals, metallurgy, machinery, electrical goods, trade, services and tourism. Examples of international Dutch companies operating in Netherlands include Randstad, Unilever, Heineken, KLM, financial services (ING, ABN AMRO, Rabobank), chemicals (DSM, AKZO), petroleum refining (Royal Dutch Shell), electronical machinery (Philips, ASML), and satellite navigation (TomTom).The Netherlands has the 17th-largest economy in the world, and ranks 11th in GDP (nominal) per capita. Between 1997 and 2000 annual economic growth (GDP) averaged nearly 4%, well above the European average. Growth slowed considerably from 2001 to 2005 with the global economic slowdown, but accelerated to 4.1% in the third quarter of 2007. In May 2013, inflation was at 2.8% per year. In April 2013, unemployment was at 8.2% (or 6.7% following the ILO definition) of the labour force. In February 2019, this was reduced to 3.4%.In Q3 and Q4 2011, the Dutch economy contracted by 0.4% and 0.7%, respectively, because of European Debt Crisis, while in Q4 the Eurozone economy shrunk by 0.3%. The Netherlands also has a relatively low GINI coefficient of 0.326. Despite ranking 11th in GDP per capita, UNICEF ranked the Netherlands 1st in child well-being in rich countries, both in 2007 and in 2013. On the Index of Economic Freedom Netherlands is the 14th most free market capitalist economy out of 180 surveyed countries.Amsterdam is the financial and business capital of the Netherlands. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange (AEX), part of Euronext, is the world's oldest stock exchange and is one of Europe's largest bourses. It is situated near Dam Square in the city's centre. As a founding member of the euro, the Netherlands replaced (for accounting purposes) its former currency, the "gulden" (guilder), on 1 January 1999, along with 15 other adopters of the euro. Actual euro coins and banknotes followed on 1 January 2002. One euro was equivalent to 2.20371 Dutch guilders. In the Caribbean Netherlands, the United States dollar is used instead of the euro.The Dutch location gives it prime access to markets in the UK and Germany, with the Port of Rotterdam being the largest port in Europe. Other important parts of the economy are international trade (Dutch colonialism started with co-operative private enterprises such as the Dutch East India Company), banking and transport. The Netherlands successfully addressed the issue of public finances and stagnating job growth long before its European partners. Amsterdam is the 5th-busiest tourist destination in Europe with more than 4.2 million international visitors. Since the enlargement of the EU large numbers of migrant workers have arrived in the Netherlands from Central and Eastern Europe.The Netherlands continues to be one of the leading European nations for attracting foreign direct investment and is one of the five largest investors in the United States. The economy experienced a slowdown in 2005, but in 2006 recovered to the fastest pace in six years on the back of increased exports and strong investment. The pace of job growth reached 10-year highs in 2007. The Netherlands is the fourth-most competitive economy in the world, according to the World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report.Beginning in the 1950s, the Netherlands discovered huge natural gas resources. The sale of natural gas generated enormous revenues for the Netherlands for decades, adding hundreds of billions of euros to the government's budget. However, the unforeseen consequences of the country's huge energy wealth impacted the competitiveness of other sectors of the economy, leading to the theory of Dutch disease.Apart from coal and gas, the country has no mining resources. The last coal mine was closed in 1974. The Groningen gas field, one of the largest natural-gas fields in the world, is situated near Slochteren. The exploitation of this field has resulted in €159 billion in revenue since the mid-1970s. The field is operated by government-owned Gasunie and output is jointly exploited by the government, Royal Dutch Shell, and Exxon Mobil through NAM (Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij). "Gas extraction has resulted in increasingly strong earth tremors, some measuring as much as 3.6 on the Richter magnitude scale. The cost of damage repairs, structural improvements to buildings, and compensation for home value decreases has been estimated at €6.5 billion. Around 35,000 homes are said to be affected." The Netherlands has an estimated 25% of natural gas reserves in the EU. The energy sector accounted for almost 11% of the GDP in 2014. Netherlands' economy, mainly due to the large shares of natural gas reserves, is considered to have "very high" energy intensity rating.The Netherlands is faced with future challenges as the energy supply is forecasted to fall short of the demand by the year 2025 in the gas sector. This is attributed to the depletion of the Netherlands' major gas field, Groningen, and the earthquakes that have hit the Groningen region. In addition, there is ambiguity surrounding the feasibility of producing unconventional gas. The Netherlands relies heavily on natural gas to provide energy. Gas is the main source of heating for households in the Netherlands and represented 35% of the energy mix in 2014. Furthermore, The European Union 2020 package (20% reduction in GHG emissions, 20% renewables in the energy mix and 20% improvement in energy efficiency) enacted in 2009 has influenced the domestic energy politics of Netherlands and pressured non-state actors to give consent to more aggressive energy reforms that would reduce reliance on natural resources as a source of income to the economy. Therefore, a transition towards renewable energy has been a key objective by Netherlands in order to safeguard the energy security of the country from natural resources depletion, mainly gas. Netherlands has set a 14% renewable energy target of the total energy mix by the year 2020. However, the continuation of providing tax breaks to electricity generated by coal and gas, and to the exploration and extraction of gas from fields that are "insufficiently" profitable, renders a successful transition towards renewable energy more difficult to achieve due to inconsistencies in the policy mix. In 2011, it was estimated that the renewable energy sector received 31% (EUR 743MM), while the conventional energy sector received 69% (EUR 1.6B), of the total energy subsidies by the government. Furthermore, the energy market in the Netherlands remains to be dominated by few major corporations Nuon, RWE, E.ON, Eneco, and Delta that have significant influence over the energy policy. Renewable energy share in the energy mix is estimated to reach 12.4% by the year 2020, falling 1.6% short of the 14% target.From a biological resource perspective, the Netherlands has a low endowment: the Netherlands’ biocapacity adds up to only 0.8 global hectares in 2016, 0.2 of which are dedicated to agriculture. The Dutch biocapacity per person is just about half of the 1.6 global hectares of biocapacity per person available worldwide. In contrast, in 2016, the Dutch used on average 4.8 global hectares of biocapacity - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means the Dutch required nearly six times as much biocapacity as the Netherlands contains. As a result, the Netherlands was running a biocapacity deficit of 4.0 global hectares per person in 2016.The Dutch agricultural sector is highly mechanised, and has a strong focus on international exports. It employs about 4% of the Dutch labour force but produces large surpluses in the food-processing industry and accounts for 21% of the Dutch total export value. The Dutch rank first in the European Union and second worldwide in value of agricultural exports, behind only the United States, with agricultural exports earning €80.7 billion in 2014, up from €75.4 billion in 2012. In 2019 agricultural exports were worth €94.5 billion.One-third of the world's exports of chilis, tomatoes, and cucumbers goes through the country. The Netherlands also exports one-fifteenth of the world's apples.Aside from that, a significant portion of Dutch agricultural exports consists of fresh-cut plants, flowers, and flower bulbs, with the Netherlands exporting two-thirds of the world's total.The Netherlands had an estimated population of 17,493,969 as of 30 April 2021. It is the 5th most densely populated country in Europe, and except for the very small city-states like Monaco, Vatican City and San Marino it is the most densely populated country in Europe. And it is the 16th most densely populated country in the world with a density of . It is the 67th most populous country in the world. Between 1900 and 1950, the country's population almost doubled from 5.1 to 10 million. From 1950 to 2000, the population further increased, to 15.9 million, though this represented a lower rate of population growth. The estimated growth rate is 0.44%.The fertility rate in the Netherlands is 1.78 children per woman (2018 estimate), which is high compared with many other European countries, but below the rate of 2.1 children per woman required for natural population replacement, it remains considerably below the high of 5.39 children born per woman in 1879. Netherlands subsequently has one of the oldest populations in the world, with the average age of 42.7 years. Life expectancy is high in the Netherlands: 84.3 years for newborn girls and 79.7 for boys (2020 estimate). The country has a migration rate of 1.9 migrants per 1,000 inhabitants per year. The majority of the population of the Netherlands is ethnically Dutch. According to a 2005 estimate, the population was 80.9% Dutch, 2.4% Indonesian, 2.4% German, 2.2% Turkish, 2.0% Surinamese, 1.9% Moroccan, 0.8% Antillean and Aruban, and 7.4% others. Some 150,000 to 200,000 people living in the Netherlands are expatriates, mostly concentrated in and around Amsterdam and The Hague, now constituting almost 10% of the population of these cities.The Dutch are the tallest people in the world, by nationality, with an average height of for adult males and for adult females in 2009. People in the south are on average about shorter than those in the north.According to Eurostat, in 2010 there were 1.8 million foreign-born residents in the Netherlands, corresponding to 11.1% of the total population. Of these, 1.4 million (8.5%) were born outside the EU and 0.43 million (2.6%) were born in another EU Member State. On 21 November 2016, there were 3.8 million residents in the Netherlands with at least one foreign-born parent ("migration background"). Over half the young people in Amsterdam and Rotterdam have a non-western background. Dutch people, or descendants of Dutch people, are also found in migrant communities worldwide, notably in Canada, Australia, South Africa and the United States. According to the United States Census Bureau (2006), more than 5 million Americans claim total or partial Dutch ancestry. There are close to 3 million Dutch-descended Afrikaners living in South Africa. In 1940, there were 290,000 Europeans and Eurasians in Indonesia, but most have since left the country.The Randstad is the country's largest conurbation located in the west of the country and contains the four largest cities: Amsterdam in the province North Holland, Rotterdam and The Hague in the province South Holland, and Utrecht in the province Utrecht. The Randstad has a population of about 8.2 million inhabitants and is the 5th largest metropolitan area in Europe. According to Dutch Central Statistics Bureau, in 2015, 28 per cent of the Dutch population had a spendable income above 45,000 euros (which does not include spending on health care or education).The official language is Dutch, which is spoken by the vast majority of the inhabitants. Besides Dutch, West Frisian is recognised as a second official language in the northern province of Friesland ("Fryslân" in West Frisian). West Frisian has a formal status for government correspondence in that province. In the European part of the kingdom two other regional languages are recognised under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.The first of these recognised regional languages is Low Saxon ("Nedersaksisch" in Dutch). Low Saxon consists of several dialects spoken in the north and east, like Tweants in the region of Twente, and Drents in the province of Drenthe. Secondly, Limburgish is also recognised as a regional language. It consists of Dutch varieties of Meuse-Rhenish Franconian languages and is spoken in the south-eastern province of Limburg. The dialects most spoken in the Netherlands are the Brabantian-Hollandic dialects.Ripuarian language, which is spoken in Kerkrade and Vaals in the form of, respectively, the Kerkrade dialect and the Vaals dialect are legally treated as Limburgish as well - see Southeast Limburgish dialect.English has a formal status in the special municipalities of Saba and Sint Eustatius. It is widely spoken on these islands. Papiamento has a formal status in the special municipality of Bonaire. Yiddish and the Romani language were recognised in 1996 as non-territorial languages. The Netherlands has a tradition of learning foreign languages, formalised in Dutch education laws. Some 90% of the total population indicate they are able to converse in English, 70% in German, and 29% in French. English is a mandatory course in all secondary schools. In most lower level secondary school educations ("vmbo"), one additional modern foreign language is mandatory during the first two years.In higher level secondary schools (HAVO and VWO), the acquisition of two additional modern foreign language skills is mandatory during the first three years. Only during the last three years in VWO one foreign language is mandatory. Besides English, the standard modern languages are French and German, although schools can replace one of these modern languages with Chinese, Spanish, Russian, Italian, Turkish or Arabic. Additionally, schools in Friesland teach and have exams in West Frisian, and schools across the country teach and have exams in Ancient Greek and Latin for secondary school (called Gymnasium or VWO+).The population of the Netherlands was predominantly Christian until the late 20th century, divided into a number of denominations. Although significant religious diversity remains, there has been a decline of religious adherence. The Netherlands is now one of the most secular societies in the world.In 2019, Statistics Netherlands found that 54.1% of the total population declared itself to be non-religious. Groups that represent the non-religious in the Netherlands include Humanistisch Verbond. Roman Catholics comprised 20.1% of the total population, Protestants (14.8%). Muslims comprised 5.0% of the total population and followers of other Christian denominations and other religions (like Judaism, Buddhism and Hinduism) comprised the remaining 5.9%. A 2015 survey from another source found that Protestants outnumbered Catholics.The southern provinces of North Brabant and Limburg have historically been strongly Roman Catholic, and some residents consider the Catholic Church as a base for their cultural identity. Protestantism in the Netherlands consists of a number of churches within various traditions. The largest of these is the Protestant Church in the Netherlands (PKN), a United church which is Reformed and Lutheran in orientation. It was formed in 2004 as a merger of the Dutch Reformed Church, the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands and a smaller Lutheran Church. Several orthodox Reformed and liberal churches did not merge into the PKN. Although in the Netherlands as a whole Christianity has become a minority, the Netherlands contains a Bible Belt from Zeeland to the northern parts of the province Overijssel, in which Protestant (particularly Reformed) beliefs remain strong, and even has majorities in municipal councils.Islam is the second largest religion in the state. In 2012, there were about 825,000 Muslims in the Netherlands (5% of the population). The Muslim population increased from the 1960 as a result of large numbers of migrant workers. This included migrant workers from Turkey and Morocco, as well as migrants from former Dutch colonies, such as Surinam and Indonesia. During the 1990s, Muslim refugees arrived from countries like Bosnia and Herzegovina, Iran, Iraq, Somalia, and Afghanistan.Another religion practised is Hinduism, with around 215,000 adherents (slightly over 1% of the population). Most of these are Indo-Surinamese. There are also sizable populations of Hindu immigrants from India and Sri Lanka, and some Western adherents of Hinduism-oriented new religious movements such as Hare Krishnas. The Netherlands has an estimated 250,000 Buddhists or people strongly attracted to this religion, mainly ethnic Dutch people. In addition, there are about 45,000 Jews in the Netherlands.The Constitution of the Netherlands guarantees freedom of education, which means that all schools that adhere to general quality criteria receive the same government funding. This includes schools based on religious principles by religious groups (especially Roman Catholic and various Protestant). Three political parties in the Dutch parliament, (CDA, and two small parties, ChristianUnion and SGP) are based upon the Christian belief. Several Christian religious holidays are national holidays (Christmas, Easter, Pentecost and the Ascension of Jesus).Upon the country's independence, Protestants were predominant in most of the country, while Roman Catholics were dominant in the south, especially North Brabant and Limburg. In the late 19th century, secularism, atheism and pillarisation gained adherents. By 1960, Roman Catholics equalled Protestants in number; thereafter, both Christian branches began to decline. Conversely, Islam grew considerably as the result of immigration. Since 2000 there has been raised awareness of religion, mainly due to Muslim extremism.The Dutch royal family has been traditionally associated with Calvinism, specifically the Dutch Reformed Church, which has merged into the Protestant Church in the Netherlands. The Dutch Reformed Church was the only major Protestant church in the Netherlands from the Reformation until the 19th century. Denominational splits in 1834 and in 1886 diversified Dutch Calvinism. In 2013, a Roman Catholic became Queen consort.A survey in December 2014 concluded that for the first time there were more atheists (25%) than theists (17%) in the Netherlands, while the remainder of the population was agnostic (31%) or ietsistic (27%). In 2015, a vast majority of the inhabitants of the Netherlands (82%) said they had never or almost never visited a church, and 59% stated that they had never been to a church of any kind. Of all the people questioned, 24% saw themselves as atheist, an increase of 11% compared to the previous study done in 2006. The expected rise of spirituality (ietsism) has come to a halt according to research in 2015. In 2006, 40% of respondents considered themselves spiritual; in 2015 this has dropped to 31%. The number who believed in the existence of a higher power fell from 36% to 28% over the same period.Education in the Netherlands is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 16. If a child does not have a "starting qualification" (HAVO, VWO or MBO 2+ degree) they are still forced to attend classes until they achieve such a qualification or reach the age of 18.All children in the Netherlands usually attend elementary school from (on average) ages 4 to 12. It comprises eight grades, the first of which is facultative. Based on an aptitude test, the eighth grade teacher's recommendation and the opinion of the pupil's parents or caretakers, a choice is made for one of the three main streams of secondary education. After completing a particular stream, a pupil may still continue in the penultimate year of the next stream.The VMBO has four grades and is subdivided over several levels. Successfully completing the VMBO results in a low-level vocational degree that grants access to the MBO. The MBO (middle-level applied education) is a form of education that primarily focuses on teaching a practical trade or a vocational degree. With the MBO certification, a student can apply for the HBO. The HAVO has 5 grades and allows for admission to the HBO. The HBO (higher professional education) are universities of professional education (applied sciences) that award professional bachelor's degrees; similar to polytechnic degrees. An HBO degree gives access to the university system. The VWO (comprising atheneum and gymnasium) has 6 grades and prepares for studying at a research university. Universities offer a three-year bachelor's degree, followed by a one or two-year master's degree, which in turn can be followed by a four or five-year doctoral degree programme.Doctoral candidates in the Netherlands are generally non-tenured employees of a university. All Dutch schools and universities are publicly funded and managed with the exception of religious schools that are publicly funded but not managed by the state even though requirements are necessary for the funding to be authorised. Dutch universities have a tuition fee of about 2,000 euros a year for students from the Netherlands and the European Union. The amount is about 10,000 euros for non-EU students.In 2016, the Netherlands maintained its number one position at the top of the annual Euro health consumer index (EHCI), which compares healthcare systems in Europe, scoring 916 of a maximum 1,000 points. The Netherlands has been among the top three countries in each report published since 2005. On 48 indicators such as patient rights and information, accessibility, prevention and outcomes, the Netherlands secured its top position among 37 European countries for six years in a row.The Netherlands was ranked first in a study in 2009 comparing the health care systems of the United States, Australia, Canada, Germany and New Zealand.Ever since a major reform of the health care system in 2006, the Dutch system received more points in the Index each year. According to the HCP (Health Consumer Powerhouse), the Netherlands has 'a chaos system', meaning patients have a great degree of freedom from where to buy their health insurance, to where they get their healthcare service. The difference between the Netherlands and other countries is that the chaos is managed. Healthcare decisions are being made in a dialogue between the patients and healthcare professionals.Health insurance in the Netherlands is mandatory. Healthcare in the Netherlands is covered by two statutory forms of insurance:While Dutch residents are automatically insured by the government for AWBZ, everyone has to take out their own basic healthcare insurance (basisverzekering), except those under 18 who are automatically covered under their parents' premium. If a person decides not to carry out an insurance coverage, the person may be fined. Insurers have to offer a universal package for everyone over the age of 18 years, regardless of age or state of health – it's illegal to refuse an application or impose special conditions. In contrast to many other European systems, the Dutch government is responsible for the accessibility and quality of the healthcare system in the Netherlands, but not in charge of its management.Healthcare in the Netherlands can be divided in several ways: three echelons, in somatic and mental health care and in 'cure' (short term) and 'care' (long term). Home doctors ("huisartsen", comparable to general practitioners) form the largest part of the first echelon. Being referenced by a member of the first echelon is mandatory for access to the second and third echelon. The health care system is in comparison to other Western countries quite effective but not the most cost-effective.Healthcare in the Netherlands is financed by a dual system that came into effect in January 2006. Long-term treatments, especially those that involve semi-permanent hospitalisation, and also disability costs such as wheelchairs, are covered by a state-controlled mandatory insurance. This is laid down in the "Algemene Wet Bijzondere Ziektekosten" ("General Law on Exceptional Healthcare Costs") which first came into effect in 1968. In 2009 this insurance covered 27% of all health care expenses.For all regular (short-term) medical treatment, there is a system of obligatory health insurance, with private health insurance companies. These insurance companies are obliged to provide a package with a defined set of insured treatments. This insurance covers 41% of all health care expenses.Other sources of health care payment are taxes (14%), out of pocket payments (9%), additional optional health insurance packages (4%) and a range of other sources (4%). Affordability is guaranteed through a system of income-related allowances and individual and employer-paid income-related premiums.A key feature of the Dutch system is that premiums may not be related to health status or age. Risk variances between private health insurance companies due to the different risks presented by individual policy holders are compensated through risk equalisation and a common risk pool. The funding burden for all short-term health care coverage is carried 50% by employers, 45% by the insured person and 5% by the government. Children under 18 are covered for free. Those on low incomes receive compensation to help them pay their insurance. Premiums paid by the insured are about €100 per month (about US$127 in August 2010 and €150 or US$196 in 2012), with variation of about 5% between the various competing insurers, and a yearly deductible of €220 (US$288).Mobility on Dutch roads has grown continuously since the 1950s and now exceeds 200 billion km travelled per year, three quarters of which are done by car. Around half of all trips in the Netherlands are made by car, 25% by bicycle, 20% walking, and 5% by public transport.With a total road network of 139,295 km, which includes 2,758 km of expressways, the Netherlands has one of the densest road networks in the world—much denser than Germany and France, but still not as dense as Belgium.As part of its commitment to environmental sustainability, the Government of the Netherlands initiated a plan to establish over 200 recharging stations for electric vehicles across the country. The rollout will be undertaken by Switzerland-based power and automation company ABB and Dutch startup Fastned, and will aim to provide at least one station within a 50-kilometre radius (30 miles) from every home in the Netherlands. Currently, the Netherlands alone hosts more than a quarter of all recharging stations in the European Union. This share rises to 30% if Brexit is taken into account. Moreover, newly sold cars in the Netherlands have on average the lowest CO2 emissions in the EU.About 13% of all distance is travelled by public transport, the majority of which by train. Like in many other European countries, the Dutch rail network of 3,013 km route is also rather dense. The network is mostly focused on passenger rail services and connects all major towns and cities, with over 400 stations. Trains are frequent, with two trains per hour on lesser lines, two to four trains per hour on average, and up to eight trains an hour on the busiest lines. The Dutch national train network also includes the HSL-Zuid, a high-speed line between the Amsterdam metropolitan area and the Belgian border for trains running from Paris and London to the Netherlands.Cycling is a ubiquitous mode of transport in the Netherlands. Almost as many kilometres are covered by bicycle as by train. The Dutch are estimated to have at least 18 million bicycles, which makes more than one per capita, and twice as many as the circa 9 million motor vehicles on the road. In 2013, the European Cyclists' Federation ranked both the Netherlands and Denmark as the most bike-friendly countries in Europe, but more of the Dutch (36%) than of the Danes (23%) list the bike as their most frequent mode of transport on a typical day. Cycling infrastructure is comprehensive. Busy roads have received some 35,000 km of dedicated cycle tracks, physically segregated from motorised traffic. Busy junctions are often equipped with bicycle-specific traffic lights. There are large bicycle parking facilities, particularly in city centres and at train stations.Until the introduction of trains, ships were the primary mode of transport in the Netherlands. And shipping has remained crucial afterwards. The Port of Rotterdam is the largest port in Europe and the largest port in the world outside East-Asia, with the rivers Meuse and Rhine providing excellent access to the hinterland upstream reaching to Basel, Switzerland, and into Germany and France. , Rotterdam was the world's eighth largest container port handling 440.5 million metric tonnes of cargo annually. The port's main activities are petrochemical industries and general cargo handling and transshipment. The harbour functions as an important transit point for bulk materials and between the European continent and overseas. From Rotterdam goods are transported by ship, river barge, train or road. The Volkeraksluizen between Rotterdam and Antwerp are the biggest sluices for inland navigation in the world in terms of tonnage passing through them. In 2007, the Betuweroute, a new fast freight railway from Rotterdam to Germany, was completed. The Netherlands also hosts Europe's 4th largest port in Amsterdam. The inland shipping fleet of the Netherlands is the largest in Europe. The Netherlands also has the largest fleet of active historical ships in the world. Boats are used for passenger travel as well, such as the Watertaxies in Rotterdam. The ferry network in Amsterdam and the Waterbus network in Rotterdam are part of the public transport system.Schiphol Airport, just southwest of Amsterdam, is the main international airport in the Netherlands, and the third busiest airport in Europe in terms of passengers. Schiphol is the main hub for KLM, the nation's flag carrier and the world's oldest airline. In 2016, the Royal Schiphol Group airports handled 70 million passengers. All air traffic is international and Schiphol Airport is connected to over 300 destinations worldwide, more than any other European airport. The airport is a major freight hub as well, processing 1.44 million tonnes of cargo in 2020. Smaller international airports in the country include Eindhoven Airport, Rotterdam The Hague Airport, Maastricht Aachen Airport and Groningen Airport Eelde. Air transport is of vital significance for the Caribbean part of the Netherlands, with all islands having their own airport. This includes the shortest runway in the world on Saba.The Netherlands has had many well-known painters. In the Middle Ages Hieronymus Bosch, Petrus Christus, Lucas Gassel and Pieter Bruegel the Elder were leading Dutch pioneers.During the Dutch Golden Age, spanning much of the 17th century, the Dutch Republic was prosperous and witnessed a flourishing artistic movement. This was the age of the "Dutch Masters", such as Rembrandt van Rijn, Johannes Vermeer, Jan Steen, Jacob van Ruisdael, Gerard van Honthorst, Theodoor van Thulden and many others. Famous Dutch painters of the 19th and 20th century were Vincent van Gogh and the luminists Jan Sluijters, Leo Gestel, and Piet Mondrian. M. C. Escher is a well-known graphic artist. Willem de Kooning was born and trained in Rotterdam, although he is considered to have reached acclaim as an American artist. Literature flourished as well during the Dutch Golden Age, with Joost van den Vondel and P. C. Hooft as the two most famous writers. In the 19th century, Multatuli wrote about the poor treatment of the natives in the Dutch colony, the current Indonesia. Important 20th century authors include Godfried Bomans, Harry Mulisch, Jan Wolkers, Simon Vestdijk, Hella S. Haasse, Cees Nooteboom, Gerard Reve and Willem Frederik Hermans. Anne Frank's "Diary of a Young Girl" was published after she was murdered in the Holocaust and translated from Dutch to all major languages.Various architectural styles can be distinguished in the Netherlands. Over the years, various styles have been built and preserved.The Romanesque architecture was built between the years 950 and 1250. This architectural style is most concentrated in the provinces of Gelderland and Limburg. Limburg, in particular, differs greatly in architectural style from the rest of the Netherlands.The Gothic architecture came to in the Netherlands from about 1230. Gothic buildings often had large windows, pointed arches and were richly decorated.Brabantine Gothic originated with the rise of the Duchy of Brabant and spread throughout the Burgundian provinces.This architectural style is most concentrated in the province of North Brabant, such as St. John's Cathedral in 's-Hertogenbosch, The Church of Our Lady in Breda and the Margraves Palace in Bergen op Zoom.What many know as traditional Dutch architecture is the Dutch Baroque architecture (1525 – 1630) and classicism (1630 – 1700).These style of architecture is especially in evidence in the cities of North Holland, South Holland and Zeeland.Other architectural styles that are common in the Netherlands are Style Louis XIV, Art Nouveau, Rationalism, NeoclassicismExpressionism, De Stijl, Traditionalism and Brutalism.The Netherlands is the country of philosophers Erasmus, Rudolf Agricola and Spinoza. Much of Descartes' major work was done in the Netherlands, where he studied at Leiden University — as did geologist James Hutton, British Prime Minister John Stuart, U.S. President John Quincy Adams, Physics Nobel Prize laureate Hendrik Lorentz and Enrico Fermi. The Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) discovered Saturn's moon Titan, argued that light travelled as waves, invented the pendulum clock and was the first physicist to use mathematical formulae. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe and describe single-celled organisms with a microscope.Replicas of Dutch buildings can be found in Huis Ten Bosch, Nagasaki, Japan. A similar Holland Village is being built in Shenyang, China. Windmills, tulips, wooden shoes, cheese, Delftware pottery, and cannabis are among the items associated with the Netherlands by tourists.In the south of the Netherlands there are some festivals that rarely or never occur in the rest of the Netherlands. These celebrations grew out of Catholic traditions, including Carnival, lantern parades during the celebration of Three Kings, Brabantian Day and huge Bloemencorso. Bloemencorsos used to occur in many places in the Netherlands, but in the 21th century, Zundert and Valkenswaard in North Brabant have taken the lead.Dutch society is egalitarian and modern. The Dutch have an aversion to the non-essential. Ostentatious behaviour is to be avoided. The Dutch are proud of their cultural heritage, rich history in art and involvement in international affairs.Dutch manners are open and direct with a no-nonsense attitude—informality combined with adherence to basic behaviour. According to a humorous source on Dutch culture, "Their directness gives many the impression that they are rude and crude—attributes they prefer to call openness." A well known more serious source on Dutch etiquette is "Dealing with the Dutch" by Jacob Vossestein: "Dutch egalitarianism is the idea that people are equal, especially from a moral point of view, and accordingly, causes the somewhat ambiguous stance the Dutch have towards hierarchy and status." As always, manners differ between groups. Asking about basic rules will not be considered impolite. "What may strike you as being blatantly blunt topics and comments are no more embarrassing or unusual to the Dutch than discussing the weather."The Netherlands is one of the most secular countries of Europe, and religion in the Netherlands is generally considered as a personal matter which is not supposed to be propagated in public, although it often remains a discussion subject. For only 17% of the population religion is important and 14% goes to church weekly.The Netherlands has a long history of social tolerance and today is regarded as a liberal country, considering its drug policy and its legalisation of euthanasia. On 1 April 2001, the Netherlands became the first nation to legalise same-sex marriage.As of 2018 the Netherlands had one of the highest rates of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in the European Union, above those of Germany, France and Belgium. In addition, the Dutch waste more food than any other EU citizen, at over three times the EU average Despite this, the Netherlands has nonetheless the reputation of the leader country in environmental and population management. In 2015, Amsterdam and Rotterdam were ranked fourth and fifth, respectively, on the Arcadis Sustainable Cities Index.Sustainability is a concept important for the Dutch. The goal of the Dutch Government is to have a sustainable, reliable and affordable energy system, by 2050, in which emissions have been halved and 40 per cent of electricity is derived from sustainable sources.The government is investing billions of euros in energy efficiency, sustainable energy and reduction. The Kingdom also encourages Dutch companies to build sustainable business/projects/facilities, with financial aids from the state to the companies or individuals who are active in making the country more sustainable.The Netherlands has multiple music traditions. Traditional Dutch music is a genre known as "Levenslied", meaning "Song of life", to an extent comparable to a French Chanson or a German Schlager. These songs typically have a simple melody and rhythm, and a straightforward structure of verses and choruses. Themes can be light, but are often sentimental and include love, death and loneliness. Traditional musical instruments such as the accordion and the barrel organ are a staple of levenslied music, though in recent years many artists also use synthesisers and guitars. Artists in this genre include Jan Smit, Frans Bauer and André Hazes.Contemporary Dutch rock and pop music (Nederpop) originated in the 1960s, heavily influenced by popular music from the United States and Britain. In the 1960s and 1970s the lyrics were mostly in English, and some tracks were instrumental. Bands such as Shocking Blue, Golden Earring, Tee Set, George Baker Selection and Focus enjoyed international success. As of the 1980s, more and more pop musicians started working in the Dutch language, partly inspired by the huge success of the band Doe Maar. Today Dutch rock and pop music thrives in both languages, with some artists recording in both.Current symphonic metal bands Epica, Delain, ReVamp, The Gathering, Asrai, Autumn, Ayreon and Within Temptation as well as jazz and pop singer Caro Emerald are having international success. Also, metal bands like Hail of Bullets, God Dethroned, Izegrim, Asphyx, Textures, Present Danger, Heidevolk and Slechtvalk are popular guests at the biggest metal festivals in Europe. Contemporary local stars include pop singer Anouk, country pop singer Ilse DeLange, South Guelderish and Limburgish dialect singing folk band Rowwen Hèze, rock band BLØF and duo Nick & Simon. Trijntje Oosterhuis, one of the country's most well known and versatile singers, has made multiple albums with famous American composers Vince Mendoza and Burt Bacharach.Early 1990s Dutch and Belgian house music came together in Eurodance project 2 Unlimited. Selling 18 million records, the two singers in the band are the most successful Dutch music artists to this day. Tracks like "Get Ready for This" are still popular themes of U.S. sports events, like the NHL. In the mid 1990s Dutch language rap and hip hop ("Nederhop") also came to fruition and has become popular in the Netherlands and Belgium. Artists with North African, Caribbean or Middle Eastern origins have strongly influenced this genre.Since the 1990s, Dutch electronic dance music (EDM) gained widespread popularity in the world in many forms, from trance, techno and gabber to hardstyle. Some of the world's best known dance music DJs hail from the Netherlands, including Armin van Buuren, Tiësto, Hardwell, Martin Garrix, Dash Berlin, Julian Jordan, Nicky Romero, W&W, Don Diablo and Afrojack; the first four of which have been ranked as best in the world by DJ Mag Top 100 DJs. The Amsterdam Dance Event (ADE) is the world's leading electronic music conference and the biggest club festival for the many electronic subgenres on the planet. These DJs also contribute to the world's mainstream pop music, as they frequently collaborate and produce for high-profile international artists.The Netherlands have participated in the Eurovision Song Contest since its first edition in 1956, and have won five times. Their most recent win was in 2019.In classical music, Jan Sweelinck ranks as the Dutch most famous composer, with Louis Andriessen amongst the best known living Dutch classical composers. Ton Koopman is a Dutch conductor, organist and harpsichordist. He is also professor at the Royal Conservatory of The Hague. Notable violinists are Janine Jansen and André Rieu. The latter, together with his Johann Strauss Orchestra, has taken classical and waltz music on worldwide concert tours, the size and revenue of which are otherwise only seen from the world's biggest rock and pop music acts. The most famous Dutch classical composition is "Canto Ostinato" by Simeon ten Holt, a minimalistic composition for multiple instruments. Acclaimed harpist Lavinia Meijer in 2012 released an album with works from Philip Glass that she transcribed for harp, with approval of Glass himself. The Concertgebouw (completed in 1888) in Amsterdam is home to the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, considered one of the world's finest orchestras.Some Dutch films – mainly by director Paul Verhoeven – have received international distribution and recognition, such as "Turkish Delight" (""Turks Fruit"", 1973), "Soldier of Orange" (""Soldaat van Oranje"", 1977), "Spetters" (1980) and "The Fourth Man" (""De Vierde Man"", 1983). Verhoeven then went on to direct big Hollywood movies like "RoboCop" (1987), "Total Recall" (1990) and "Basic Instinct" (1992), and returned with Dutch film "Black Book" (""Zwartboek"", 2006).Other well-known Dutch film directors are Jan de Bont ("Speed"), Anton Corbijn ("A Most wanted Man"), Dick Maas ("De Lift"), Fons Rademakers ("The Assault"), and documentary makers Bert Haanstra and Joris Ivens. Film director Theo van Gogh achieved international notoriety in 2004 when he was murdered by Mohammed Bouyeri in the streets of Amsterdam after directing the short film "Submission".Internationally, successful directors of photography from the Netherlands are Hoyte van Hoytema ("Interstellar", "Spectre", "Dunkirk") and Theo van de Sande ("Wayne's World" and "Blade"). Van Hoytema went to the National Film School in Łódź (Poland) and Van de Sande went to the Netherlands Film Academy. Internationally successful Dutch actors include Famke Janssen ("X-Men"), Carice van Houten ("Game of Thrones"), Michiel Huisman ("Game of Thrones"), Rutger Hauer ("Blade Runner"), Jeroen Krabbé ("The Living Daylights") and Derek de Lint ("Three Men and a Baby").The Netherlands has a well developed television market, with both multiple commercial and public broadcasters. Imported TV programmes, as well as interviews with responses in a foreign language, are virtually always shown with the original sound and subtitled. Only foreign shows for children are dubbed.TV exports from the Netherlands mostly take the form of specific formats and franchises, most notably through internationally active TV production conglomerate Endemol, founded by Dutch media tycoons John de Mol and Joop van den Ende. Headquartered in Amsterdam, Endemol has around 90 companies in over 30 countries. Endemol and its subsidiaries create and run reality, talent, and game show franchises worldwide, including "Big Brother" and "Deal or No Deal". John de Mol later started his own company Talpa which created show franchises like "The Voice" and "Utopia".Approximately 4.5 million of the 16.8 million people in the Netherlands are registered to one of the 35,000 sports clubs in the country. About two-thirds of the population between 15 and 75 participates in sports weekly. Football is the most popular participant sport in the Netherlands, before field hockey and volleyball as the second and third most popular team sports. The Netherlands national football team is one of the most popular aspects of Dutch sports; especially since the 1970s when one of the greatest footballers of all time, Johan Cruyff, developed Total Football with coach Rinus Michels. Tennis, gymnastics and golf are the three most widely engaged in individual sports.Organisation of sports began at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. Federations for sports were established (such as the speed skating federation in 1882), rules were unified and sports clubs came into existence. A Dutch National Olympic Committee was established in 1912. Thus far, the nation has won 266 medals at the Summer Olympic Games and another 110 medals at the Winter Olympic Games. In international competition, Dutch national teams and athletes are dominant in several fields of sport. The Netherlands women's field hockey team is the most successful team in World Cup history. The Netherlands baseball team have won the European championship 20 times out of 32 events. Dutch K-1 kickboxers have won the K-1 World Grand Prix 15 times out of 19 tournaments. The Netherlands Women's handball team holds the record of the only team in the world that consecutively reached all six semifinals of major international tournaments since 2015, winning silver and bronze at the European Women's Handball Championship and silver, bronze and gold at the World Women's Handball Championship. They finished fourth at the 2016 Summer Olympics.The Dutch speed skaters' performance at the 2014 Winter Olympics, where they won 8 out of 12 events, 23 out of 36 medals, including 4 clean sweeps, is the most dominant performance in a single sport in Olympic history. Motorcycle racing at the TT Circuit Assen has a long history. Assen is the only venue to have held a round of the Motorcycle World Championship every year since its creation in 1949. The circuit was purpose-built for the Dutch TT in 1954, with previous events having been held on public roads.The Dutch have also had success in all three of cyclings Grand Tours with Jan Janssen winning the 1968 Tour de France, more recently with Tom Dumoulin winning the 2017 Giro d'Italia and legendary rider Joop Zoetemelk was the 1985 UCI World Champion, the winner of the 1979 Vuelta a Espana, the 1980 Tour de France and still holds or shares numerous Tour de France records including most Tours finished and most kilometres ridden.Limburger Max Verstappen currently races in Formula One, and was the first Dutchman to win a Grand Prix. The coastal resort of Zandvoort hosted the Dutch Grand Prix from 1958 to 1985, and has been announced to return in 2020. The volleyball national men's team has also been successful, winning the silver medal at the 1992 Summer Olympics and the gold medal four years later in Atlanta. The biggest success of the women's national team was winning the European Championship in 1995 and the World Grand Prix in 2007.Recently cricket has made a remarkable progress in the Netherlands. Netherlands have participated in 1996, 2003, 2007 and 2011 ODI cricket World Cup. They have also qualified for 2009 and 2014 T20 World Cup. In the 2009 T20 World Cup, Netherlands defeated England, the current World Champions and inventor of the game. Ryan ten Doeschate is the only Dutch player to have played in the IPL on the team Kolkata Knight Riders.Originally, the country's cuisine was shaped by the practices of fishing and farming, including the cultivation of the soil for growing crops and raising domesticated animals. Dutch cuisine is simple and straightforward, and contains many dairy products. Breakfast and lunch are typically bread with toppings, with cereal for breakfast as an alternative. Traditionally, dinner consists of potatoes, a portion of meat, and (seasonal) vegetables. The Dutch diet was relatively high in carbohydrates and fat, reflecting the dietary needs of the labourers whose culture moulded the country. Without many refinements, it is best described as rustic, though many holidays are still celebrated with special foods. In the course of the twentieth century this diet changed and became much more cosmopolitan, with most global cuisines being represented in the major cities.Modern culinary writers distinguish between three general regional forms of Dutch cuisine. The regions in the northeast of the Netherlands, roughly the provinces of Groningen, Friesland, Drenthe, Overijssel and Gelderland north of the great rivers are the least populated areas of the Netherlands. The late (18th century) introduction of large scale agriculture means that the cuisine is generally known for its many kinds of meats. The relative lack of farms allowed for an abundance of game and husbandry, though dishes near the coastal regions of Friesland, Groningen and the parts of Overijssel bordering the IJsselmeer also include a large amount of fish. The various dried sausages, belonging to the metworst-family of Dutch sausages are found throughout this region and are highly prized for their often very strong taste. Also smoked sausages are common, of which ("Gelderse") "rookworst" is the most renowned. The sausage contains a lot of fat and is very juicy. Larger sausages are often eaten alongside "stamppot", "hutspot" or "zuurkool" (sauerkraut); whereas smaller ones are often eaten as a street food. The provinces are also home to hard textured rye bread, pastries and cookies, the latter heavily spiced with ginger or succade or containing small bits of meat. Various kinds of "Kruidkoek" (such as ), "" and "" (small savoury pancakes cooked in a waffle iron) are considered typical. A notable characteristic of "Fries roggebrood" (Frisian rye bread) is its long baking time (up to 20 hours), resulting in a sweet taste and a deep dark colour. In terms of alcoholic beverages, the region is renowned for its many bitters (such as "Beerenburg") and other high-proof liquors rather than beer, which is, apart from "Jenever", typical for the rest of the country. As a coastal region, Friesland is home to low-lying grasslands, and thus has a cheese production in common with the Western cuisine. "Friese Nagelkaas" (Friesian Clove) is a notable example.The provinces of North Holland, South Holland, Zeeland, and Utrecht and the Gelderlandic area of Betuwe make up the region in which western Dutch cuisine is found. Because of the abundance of water and flat grasslands that are found here, the area is known for its many dairy products, which include prominent cheeses such as Gouda, Leyden (spiced cheese with cumin), and Edam (traditionally in small spheres) as well as Leerdammer and Beemster, while the adjacent Zaanstreek in North Holland has since the 16th century been known for its mayonnaise, typical whole-grain mustards, and chocolate industry. Zeeland and South Holland produce a lot of butter, which contains a larger amount of milkfat than most other European butter varieties. A by-product of the butter-making process, "karnemelk" (buttermilk), is also considered typical for this region. Seafood such as soused herring, mussels (called "Zeeuwse Mossels", since all Dutch mussels for consumption are cleaned in Zeeland's Oosterschelde), eels, oysters and shrimps are widely available and typical for the region. "", once a local delicacy consisting of small chunks of battered white fish, has become a national fast food, just as . Pastries in this area tend to be quite doughy, and often contain large amounts of sugar; either caramelised, powdered or crystallised. The "oliebol" (in its modern form) and "Zeeuwse bolus" are good examples. Cookies are also produced in great number and tend to contain a lot of butter and sugar, like "stroopwafel", as well as a filling of some kind, mostly almond, like "". The traditional alcoholic beverages of this region are beer (strong pale lager) and "Jenever", a high proof juniper-flavoured spirit, that came to be known in England as gin. A noted exception within the traditional Dutch alcoholic landscape, "Advocaat", a rich and creamy liqueur made from eggs, sugar and brandy, is also native to this region.The Southern Dutch cuisine consists of the cuisines of the Dutch provinces of North Brabant and Limburg and the Flemish Region in Belgium. It is renowned for its many rich pastries, soups, stews and vegetable dishes and is often called Burgundian which is a Dutch idiom invoking the rich Burgundian court which ruled the Low Countries in the Middle Ages, renowned for its splendor and great feasts. It is the only Dutch culinary region that developed an haute cuisine. Pastries are abundant, often with rich fillings of cream, custard or fruits. Cakes, such as the "Vlaai" from Limburg and the "Moorkop" and "Bossche Bol" from Brabant, are typical pastries. Savoury pastries also occur, with the (a roll with a sausage of ground beef, literally translates into sausage bread) being the most popular. The traditional alcoholic beverage of the region is beer. There are many local brands, ranging from "Trappist" to "Kriek". 5 of the 10 "International Trappist Association" recognised breweries in the world, are located in the Southern Dutch cultural area. Beer, like wine in French cuisine, is also used in cooking; often in stews.In early 2014, Oxfam ranked the Netherlands as the country with the most nutritious, plentiful and healthy food, in a comparison of 125 countries.From the exploitations in the Mughal Empire in the 17th century, to the colonisations in the 19th century, Dutch imperial possessions continued to expand, reaching their greatest extent by establishing a hegemony of the Dutch East Indies in the early 20th century. The Dutch East Indies, which later formed modern-day Indonesia, was one of the most valuable European colonies in the world and the most important one for the Netherlands. Over 350 years of mutual heritage has left a significant cultural mark on the Netherlands.In the Dutch Golden Age of the 17th century, the Netherlands urbanised considerably, mostly financed by corporate revenue from the Asian trade monopolies. Social status was based on merchants' income, which reduced feudalism and considerably changed the dynamics of Dutch society. When the Dutch royal family was established in 1815, much of its wealth came from Colonial trade.By the 17th century, the Dutch East India Company established their base in parts of Ceylon (modern-day Sri Lanka). Afterward, they established ports in Dutch occupied Malabar, leading to Dutch settlements and trading posts in India. However, their expansion into India was halted, after their defeat in the Battle of Colachel by the Kingdom of Travancore, during the Travancore-Dutch War. The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat to Bengal Subah.Universities such as the Leiden University, founded in the 16th century, have developed into leading knowledge centres for Southeast Asian and Indonesian studies. Leiden University has produced leading academics such as Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje, and still has academics who specialise in Indonesian languages and cultures. Leiden University and in particular KITLV are educational and scientific institutions that to this day share both an intellectual and historical interest in Indonesian studies. Other scientific institutions in the Netherlands include the Amsterdam Tropenmuseum, an anthropological museum with massive collections of Indonesian art, culture, ethnography and anthropology.The traditions of the Royal Dutch East Indies Army (KNIL) are maintained by the Regiment Van Heutsz of the modern Royal Netherlands Army. A dedicated "Bronbeek Museum", a former home for retired KNIL soldiers, exists in Arnhem to this day.A specific segment of Dutch literature called Dutch Indies literature still exists and includes established authors, such as Louis Couperus, the writer of "The Hidden Force", taking the colonial era as an important source of inspiration. One of the great masterpieces of Dutch literature is the book "Max Havelaar", written by Multatuli in 1860.The majority of Dutchmen that repatriated to the Netherlands after and during the Indonesian revolution are Indo (Eurasian), native to the islands of the Dutch East Indies. This relatively large Eurasian population had developed over a period of 400 years and were classified by colonial law as belonging to the European legal community. In Dutch they are referred to as "Indische Nederlanders" or as Indo (short for Indo-European).Including their second generation descendants, Indos are currently the largest foreign-born group in the Netherlands. In 2008, the Dutch Central Bureau for Statistics (CBS) registered 387,000 first- and second-generation Indos living in the Netherlands. Although considered fully assimilated into Dutch society, as the main ethnic minority in the Netherlands, these 'repatriants' have played a pivotal role in introducing elements of Indonesian culture into Dutch mainstream culture.Many Indonesian dishes and foodstuffs have become commonplace in the Netherlands. Rijsttafel, a colonial culinary concept, and dishes such as Nasi goreng and satay are very popular in the country. Practically any town of any size in the Netherlands has a "toko" (a Dutch Indonesian Shop) or a Chinese-Indonesian restaurant, and many 'Pasar Malam' (Night market in Malay/Indonesian) fairs are organised throughout the year. | [
"Piet de Jong",
"Hendrikus Colijn",
"Ruud Lubbers",
"Jan de Quay",
"Wim Schermerhorn",
"Jo Cals",
"Joop den Uyl",
"Wim Kok",
"Louis Beel",
"Dirk Jan de Geer",
"Dries van Agt",
"Willem Drees",
"Charles Ruijs de Beerenbrouck",
"Jelle Zijlstra",
"Jan Peter Balkenende",
"Mark Rutte",
"Pieter Sjoerds Gerbrandy",
"Barend Biesheuvel"
] |
|
Who was the head of Netherlands in 01/24/1964? | January 24, 1964 | {
"text": [
"Victor Marijnen"
]
} | L2_Q55_P6_8 | Jelle Zijlstra is the head of the government of Netherlands from Nov, 1966 to Apr, 1967.
Joop den Uyl is the head of the government of Netherlands from May, 1973 to Dec, 1977.
Wim Kok is the head of the government of Netherlands from Aug, 1994 to Jul, 2002.
Louis Beel is the head of the government of Netherlands from Jul, 1946 to Aug, 1948.
Victor Marijnen is the head of the government of Netherlands from Jul, 1963 to Apr, 1965.
Hendrikus Colijn is the head of the government of Netherlands from Aug, 1925 to Mar, 1926.
Ruud Lubbers is the head of the government of Netherlands from Nov, 1982 to Aug, 1994.
Willem Drees is the head of the government of Netherlands from Aug, 1948 to Dec, 1958.
Jan de Quay is the head of the government of Netherlands from May, 1959 to Jul, 1963.
Jo Cals is the head of the government of Netherlands from Apr, 1965 to Nov, 1966.
Piet de Jong is the head of the government of Netherlands from Apr, 1967 to Jul, 1971.
Jan Peter Balkenende is the head of the government of Netherlands from Jul, 2002 to Oct, 2010.
Barend Biesheuvel is the head of the government of Netherlands from Jul, 1971 to May, 1973.
Dirk Jan de Geer is the head of the government of Netherlands from Mar, 1926 to Aug, 1929.
Wim Schermerhorn is the head of the government of Netherlands from Jun, 1945 to Jul, 1946.
Pieter Sjoerds Gerbrandy is the head of the government of Netherlands from Sep, 1940 to Jun, 1945.
Dries van Agt is the head of the government of Netherlands from Dec, 1977 to Nov, 1982.
Mark Rutte is the head of the government of Netherlands from Oct, 2010 to Dec, 2022.
Charles Ruijs de Beerenbrouck is the head of the government of Netherlands from Sep, 1918 to Aug, 1925. | NetherlandsThe Netherlands ( ), sometimes informally Holland, is a country located in Western Europe with territories in the Caribbean. It is the largest of four constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. In Europe, the Netherlands consists of twelve provinces, bordering Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, with maritime borders in the North Sea with those countries and the United Kingdom. In the Caribbean, it consists of three special municipalities: the islands of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba. The country's official language is Dutch, with West Frisian as a secondary official language in the province of Friesland, and English and Papiamento as secondary official languages in the Caribbean Netherlands. Dutch Low Saxon and Limburgish are recognised regional languages (spoken in the east and southeast respectively), while Dutch Sign Language, Sinte Romani and Yiddish are recognised non-territorial languages.The four largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague and Utrecht. Amsterdam is the country's most populous city and nominal capital, while The Hague holds the seat of the States General, Cabinet and Supreme Court. The Port of Rotterdam is the busiest seaport in Europe, and the busiest in any country outside East Asia and Southeast Asia, behind only China and Singapore. Amsterdam Airport Schiphol is the busiest airport in the Netherlands, and the third busiest in Europe. The country is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. It hosts several intergovernmental organisations and international courts, many of which are centred in The Hague, which is consequently dubbed 'the world's legal capital'."Netherlands" literally means "lower countries" in reference to its low elevation and flat topography, with only about 50% of its land exceeding above sea level, and nearly 26% falling below sea level. Most of the areas below sea level, known as "polders", are the result of land reclamation that began in the 14th century. Colloquially or informally the Netherlands is occasionally referred to by the pars pro toto "Holland". With a population of 17.4 million people, all living within a total area of roughly —of which the land area is —the Netherlands is the 16th most densely populated country in the world and the 2nd most densely populated country in the European Union, with a density of . Nevertheless, it is the world's second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products by value, owing to its fertile soil, mild climate, intensive agriculture and inventiveness.The Netherlands has been a parliamentary constitutional monarchy with a unitary structure since 1848. The country has a tradition of pillarisation and a long record of social tolerance, having legalised abortion, prostitution and human euthanasia, along with maintaining a liberal drug policy. The Netherlands abolished the death penalty in Civil Law in 1870, though it was not completely removed until a new constitution was approved in 1983. The Netherlands allowed women's suffrage in 1919, before becoming the world's first country to legalise same-sex marriage in 2001. Its mixed-market advanced economy had the eleventh-highest per capita income globally. The Netherlands ranks among the highest in international indexes of press freedom, economic freedom, human development and quality of life, as well as happiness. In 2020, it ranked eighth on the human development index and fifth on the 2021 World Happiness Index.The Netherlands' turbulent history and shifts of power resulted in exceptionally many and widely varying names in different languages. There is diversity even within languages. In English, the Netherlands is also called Holland or (part of) the Low Countries, whereas the term ""Dutch"" is used as the demonym and adjectival form.The region called the Low Countries (comprising Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg) have the same toponymy. Place names with "Neder", "Nieder", "Nedre", "Nether", "Lage(r)" or "Low(er)" (in Germanic languages) and "Bas" or "Inferior" (in Romance languages) are in use in low-lying places all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a deictic relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as "Super(ior)", "Up(per)", "Op(per)", "Ober", "Boven", "High", "Haut" or "Hoch". In the case of the Low Countries / Netherlands the geographical location of the "lower" region has been more or less downstream and near the sea. The geographical location of the upper region, however, changed tremendously over time, depending on the location of the economic and military power governing the Low Countries area. The Romans made a distinction between the Roman provinces of downstream Germania Inferior (nowadays part of Belgium and the Netherlands) and upstream Germania Superior (nowadays part of Germany). The designation 'Low' to refer to the region returns again in the 10th century Duchy of Lower Lorraine, that covered much of the Low Countries. But this time the corresponding "Upper" region is Upper Lorraine, in nowadays Northern France.The Dukes of Burgundy, who ruled from their residence in the Low Countries in the 15th century, used the term "les pays de par deçà" ("the lands over here") for the Low Countries, as opposed to "les pays de par delà" ("the lands over there") for their original homeland: Burgundy in present-day east-central France. Under Habsburg rule, "Les pays de par deçà" developed in "pays d'embas" ("lands down-here"), a deictic expression in relation to other Habsburg possessions like Hungary and Austria. This was translated as "Neder-landen" in contemporary Dutch official documents. From a regional point of view, "Niderlant" was also the area between the Meuse and the lower Rhine in the late Middle Ages. The area known as "Oberland" (High country) was in this deictic context considered to begin approximately at the nearby higher located Cologne.From the mid-sixteenth century on, the "Low Countries" and the "Netherlands" lost their original deictic meaning. They were probably the most commonly used names, besides Flanders, a "pars pro toto" for the Low Countries, especially in Romance language-speaking Europe. The Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) divided the Low Countries into an independent northern Dutch Republic (or Latinised "Belgica Foederata", "Federated Netherlands", the precursor state of the Netherlands) and a Spanish controlled Southern Netherlands (Latinised "Belgica Regia", "Royal Netherlands", the precursor state of Belgium). The Low Countries today is a designation that includes the countries of the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg, although in most Romance languages, the term "Low Countries" is used as the name for the Netherlands specifically. It is used synonymously with the more neutral and geopolitical term Benelux.The Netherlands is also referred to as Holland in various languages, including English. However, Holland proper is only a region within the country that consists of North and South Holland, two of the nation's twelve provinces. Formerly they were a single province, and earlier the County of Holland, a remnant of the dissolved Frisian Kingdom which also included parts of present-day Utrecht. Following the decline of the Duchy of Brabant and the County of Flanders, Holland became the most economically and politically important county in the Low Countries region. The emphasis on Holland during the formation of the Dutch Republic, the Eighty Years' War, and the Anglo-Dutch Wars in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, made Holland serve as a "pars pro toto" for the entire country, which is now considered informal or incorrect. Nonetheless, the name "Holland" is still widely used for the Netherlands national football team, including in the Netherlands, and the Dutch government's international websites for tourism and trade are "holland.com" and "hollandtradeandinvest.com". In 2020, however, the Dutch government announced that it would only communicate and advertise under the name "the Netherlands" in the future.The term Dutch is used as the demonymic and adjectival form of the Netherlands in the English language. The origins of the word go back to Proto-Germanic "*þiudiskaz", Latinised into Theodiscus, meaning "popular" or "of the people"; akin to Old Dutch "Dietsch", Old High German "duitsch", and Old English "þeodisc", all meaning "(of) the common (Germanic) people". At first, the English language used (the contemporary form of) Dutch to refer to any or all speakers of West Germanic languages (e.g. the Dutch, the Frisians, and the Germans). Gradually its meaning shifted to the West Germanic people they had most contact with, because of their geographical proximity and for the rivalry in trade and overseas territories. The derivative of the Proto-Germanic word "*þiudiskaz" in modern Dutch, "Diets", can be found in Dutch literature as a poetic name for the Dutch people or language, but is considered very archaic. Although it had a short resurgence after World War II to avoid the reference to Germany. It is still used in the expression "diets maken" – to put it straight to him/her (as in a threat) or, more neutral, to make it clear, understandable, explain, say in the people's language (cf. the Vulgate (Bible not in Greek or Hebrew, but Latin; the folks' language) in meaning vulgar, though not in a pejorative sense).In Dutch, the names for the Netherlands, the Dutch language and a Dutch citizen are "Nederland", "Nederlands" and "Nederlander", respectively. Colloquially the country is also by the Dutch often referred to as Holland, although to lesser extent outside the two provinces North and South Holland, where it may even be used as a pejorative term, e.g. Hollènder (dialect) in Maastricht.The plural "Nederlanden" is used in many different connotations in the past, but since 1815 it has been used in the official name "Koninkrijk der Nederlanden" ("Kingdom of the Netherlands"). In many other languages the plural stuck, for example "Niederlande" (German), "Pays-Bas" (French) and "Países Bajos" (Spanish). In Indonesian (a former colony) the country is called "Belanda", a name derived from 'Holland'.The prehistory of the area that is now the Netherlands was largely shaped by the sea and the rivers that constantly shifted the low-lying geography. The oldest human (Neanderthal) traces were found in higher soils, near Maastricht, from what is believed to be about 250,000 years ago. At the end of the Ice Age, the nomadic late Upper Paleolithic Hamburg culture (c. 13.000–10.000 BC) hunted reindeer in the area, using spears, but the later Ahrensburg culture (c. 11.200–9500 BC) used bow and arrow. From Mesolithic Maglemosian-like tribes (c. 8000 BC) the oldest canoe in the world was found in Drenthe.Indigenous late Mesolithic hunter-gatherers from the Swifterbant culture (c. 5600 BC) were related to the southern Scandinavian Ertebølle culture and were strongly linked to rivers and open water. Between 4800 and 4500 BC, the Swifterbant people started to copy from the neighbouring Linear Pottery culture the practise of animal husbandry, and between 4300 and 4000 BC the practice of agriculture. The Funnelbeaker culture (c. 4300–2800 BC), which is related to the Swifterbant culture, erected the dolmens, large stone grave monuments found in Drenthe. There was a quick and smooth transition from the Funnelbeaker farming culture to the pan-European Corded Ware pastoralist culture (c. 2950 BC). In the southwest, the Seine-Oise-Marne culture — which was related to the Vlaardingen culture (c. 2600 BC), an apparently more primitive culture of hunter-gatherers — survived well into the Neolithic period, until it too was succeeded by the Corded Ware culture.Of the subsequent Bell Beaker culture (2700–2100 BC) several regions of origin have been postulated, notably the Iberian peninsula, the Netherlands and Central Europe. They introduced metalwork in copper, gold and later bronze and opened international trade routes not seen before, reflected in the discoveries of copper artifacts, as the metal is not normally found in Dutch soil. The many finds in Drenthe of rare bronze objects, suggest that it was even a trading centre in the Bronze Age (2000–800 BC). The Bell Beaker culture developed locally into the Barbed-Wire Beaker culture (2100–1800 BC) and later the Elp culture (c. 1800–800 BC), a Middle Bronze Age archaeological culture having earthenware pottery of low quality as a marker. The initial phase of the Elp culture was characterised by tumuli (1800–1200 BC) that were strongly tied to contemporary tumuli in northern Germany and Scandinavia and was apparently related to the Tumulus culture in central Europe. The subsequent phase was that of cremating the dead and placing their ashes in urns which were then buried in fields, following the customs of the Urnfield culture (1200–800 BC). The southern region became dominated by the related Hilversum culture (1800–800 BC), which apparently inherited cultural ties with Britain of the previous Barbed-Wire Beaker culture.From 800 BC onwards, the Iron Age Celtic Hallstatt culture became influential, replacing the Hilversum culture. Iron ore brought a measure of prosperity and was available throughout the country, including bog iron. Smiths travelled from settlement to settlement with bronze and iron, fabricating tools on demand. The King's grave of Oss (700 BC) was found in a burial mound, the largest of its kind in western Europe and containing an iron sword with an inlay of gold and coral.The deteriorating climate in Scandinavia around 850 BC further deteriorated around 650 BC and might have triggered migration of Germanic tribes from the North. By the time this migration was complete, around 250 BC, a few general cultural and linguistic groups had emerged. The North Sea Germanic Ingaevones inhabited the northern part of the Low Countries. They would later develop into the Frisii and the early Saxons. A second grouping, the Weser-Rhine Germanic (or Istvaeones), extended along the middle Rhine and Weser and inhabited the Low Countries south of the great rivers. This group consisted of tribes that would eventually develop into the Salian Franks. Also the Celtic La Tène culture (c. 450 BC up to the Roman conquest) had expanded over a wide range, including the southern area of the Low Countries. Some scholars have speculated that even a third ethnic identity and language, neither Germanic nor Celtic, survived in the Netherlands until the Roman period, the Iron Age Nordwestblock culture, that eventually was absorbed by the Celts to the south and the Germanic peoples from the east.The first author to describe the coast of Holland and Flanders was the Greek geographer Pytheas, who noted in c. 325 BC that in these regions, "more people died in the struggle against water than in the struggle against men." During the Gallic Wars, the area south and west of the Rhine was conquered by Roman forces under Julius Caesar from 57 BC to 53 BC. Caesar describes two main Celtic tribes living in what is now the southern Netherlands: the Menapii and the Eburones. The Rhine became fixed as Rome's northern frontier around 12 AD. Notable towns would arise along the Limes Germanicus: Nijmegen and Voorburg. In the first part of Gallia Belgica, the area south of the Limes became part of the Roman province of Germania Inferior. The area to the north of the Rhine, inhabited by the Frisii, remained outside Roman rule (but not its presence and control), while the Germanic border tribes of the Batavi and Cananefates served in the Roman cavalry. The Batavi rose against the Romans in the Batavian rebellion of 69 AD but were eventually defeated. The Batavi later merged with other tribes into the confederation of the Salian Franks, whose identity emerged at the first half of the third century. Salian Franks appear in Roman texts as both allies and enemies. They were forced by the confederation of the Saxons from the east to move over the Rhine into Roman territory in the fourth century. From their new base in West Flanders and the Southwest Netherlands, they were raiding the English Channel. Roman forces pacified the region, but did not expel the Franks, who continued to be feared at least until the time of Julian the Apostate (358) when Salian Franks were allowed to settle as "foederati" in Texandria. It has been postulated that after deteriorating climate conditions and the Romans' withdrawal, the Frisii disappeared as "laeti" in c. 296, leaving the coastal lands largely unpopulated for the next two centuries. However, recent excavations in Kennemerland show clear indication of a permanent habitation.After Roman government in the area collapsed, the Franks expanded their territories in numerous kingdoms. By the 490s, Clovis I had conquered and united all these territories in the southern Netherlands in one Frankish kingdom, and from there continued his conquests into Gaul. During this expansion, Franks migrating to the south eventually adopted the Vulgar Latin of the local population. A widening cultural divide grew with the Franks remaining in their original homeland in the north (i.e. the southern Netherlands and Flanders), who kept on speaking Old Frankish, which by the ninth century had evolved into Old Low Franconian or Old Dutch. A Dutch-French language boundary hence came into existence.To the north of the Franks, climatic conditions improved, and during the Migration Period Saxons, the closely related Angles, Jutes and Frisii settled the coastal land. Many moved on to England and came to be known as Anglo-Saxons, but those who stayed would be referred to as Frisians and their language as Frisian, named after the land that was once inhabited by Frisii. Frisian was spoken along the entire southern North Sea coast, and it is still the language most closely related to English among the living languages of continental Europe. By the seventh century a Frisian Kingdom (650–734) under King Aldegisel and King Redbad emerged with Traiectum (Utrecht) as its centre of power, while Dorestad was a flourishing trading place. Between 600 and around 719 the cities were often fought over between the Frisians and the Franks. In 734, at the Battle of the Boarn, the Frisians were defeated after a series of wars. With the approval of the Franks, the Anglo-Saxon missionary Willibrord converted the Frisian people to Christianity. He established the Archdiocese of Utrecht and became bishop of the Frisians. However, his successor Boniface was murdered by the Frisians in Dokkum, in 754.The Frankish Carolingian empire modelled itself on the Roman Empire and controlled much of Western Europe. However, in 843, it was divided into three parts—East, Middle, and West Francia. Most of present-day Netherlands became part of Middle Francia, which was a weak kingdom and subject of numerous partitions and annexation attempts by its stronger neighbours. It comprised territories from Frisia in the north to the Kingdom of Italy in the south. Around 850, Lothair I of Middle Francia acknowledged the Viking Rorik of Dorestad as ruler of most of Frisia. When the kingdom of Middle Francia was partitioned in 855, the lands north of the Alps passed to Lothair II and subsequently were named Lotharingia. After he died in 869, Lotharingia was partitioned, into Upper and Lower Lotharingia, the latter part comprising the Low Countries that technically became part of East Francia in 870, although it was effectively under the control of Vikings, who raided the largely defenceless Frisian and Frankish towns lying on the Frisian coast and along the rivers. Around 879, another Viking expedition led by Godfrid, Duke of Frisia, raided the Frisian lands. The Viking raids made the sway of French and German lords in the area weak. Resistance to the Vikings, if any, came from local nobles, who gained in stature as a result, and that laid the basis for the disintegration of Lower Lotharingia into semi-independent states. One of these local nobles was Gerolf of Holland, who assumed lordship in Frisia after he helped to assassinate Godfrid, and Viking rule came to an end.The Holy Roman Empire (the successor state of East Francia and then Lotharingia) ruled much of the Low Countries in the 10th and 11th century but was not able to maintain political unity. Powerful local nobles turned their cities, counties and duchies into private kingdoms that felt little sense of obligation to the emperor. Holland, Hainaut, Flanders, Gelre, Brabant, and Utrecht were in a state of almost continual war or in paradoxically formed personal unions. The language and culture of most of the people who lived in the County of Holland were originally Frisian. As Frankish settlement progressed from Flanders and Brabant, the area quickly became Old Low Franconian (or Old Dutch). The rest of Frisia in the north (now Friesland and Groningen) continued to maintain its independence and had its own institutions (collectively called the "Frisian freedom"), which resented the imposition of the feudal system.Around 1000 AD, due to several agricultural developments, the economy started to develop at a fast pace, and the higher productivity allowed workers to farm more land or to become tradesmen. Towns grew around monasteries and castles, and a mercantile middle class began to develop in these urban areas, especially in Flanders and later also Brabant. Wealthy cities started to buy certain privileges for themselves from the sovereign. In practice, this meant that Bruges and Antwerp became quasi-independent republics in their own right and would later develop into some of the most important cities and ports in Europe.Around 1100 AD, farmers from Flanders and Utrecht began draining and cultivating uninhabited swampy land in the western Netherlands, making the emergence of the County of Holland as the centre of power possible. The title of Count of Holland was fought over in the Hook and Cod Wars () between 1350 and 1490. The Cod faction consisted of the more progressive cities, while the Hook faction consisted of the conservative noblemen. These noblemen invited the Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy — who was also Count of Flanders — to conquer Holland.Most of the Imperial and French fiefs in what is now the Netherlands and Belgium were united in a personal union by Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, in 1433. The House of Valois-Burgundy and their Habsburg heirs would rule the Low Countries in the period from 1384 to 1581. Before the Burgundian union, the Dutch identified themselves by the town they lived in or their local duchy or county. The Burgundian period is when the road to nationhood began. The new rulers defended Dutch trading interests, which then developed rapidly. The fleets of the County of Holland defeated the fleets of the Hanseatic League several times. Amsterdam grew and in the 15th century became the primary trading port in Europe for grain from the Baltic region. Amsterdam distributed grain to the major cities of Belgium, Northern France and England. This trade was vital because Holland could no longer produce enough grain to feed itself. Land drainage had caused the peat of the former wetlands to reduce to a level that was too low for drainage to be maintained.Under Habsburg Charles V, ruler of the Holy Roman Empire and King of Spain, all fiefs in the current Netherlands region were united into the Seventeen Provinces, which also included most of present-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and some adjacent land in what is now France and Germany. In 1568, under Phillip II, the Eighty Years' War between the Provinces and their Spanish ruler began. The level of ferocity exhibited by both sides can be gleaned from a Dutch chronicler's report:The Duke of Alba ruthlessly attempted to suppress the Protestant movement in the Netherlands. Netherlanders were "burned, strangled, beheaded, or buried alive" by his "Blood Council" and his Spanish soldiers. Severed heads and decapitated corpses were displayed along streets and roads to terrorize the population into submission. Alba boasted of having executed 18,600, but this figure does not include those who perished by war and famine.The first great siege was Alba's effort to capture Haarlem and thereby cut Holland in half. It dragged on from December 1572 to the next summer, when Haarlemers finally surrendered on 13 July upon the promise that the city would be spared from being sacked. It was a stipulation Don Fadrique was unable to honour, when his soldiers mutinied, angered over pay owed and the miserable conditions they endured during the long, cold months of the campaign. On 4 November 1576, Spanish tercios seized Antwerp and subjected it to the worst pillage in the Netherlands' history. The citizens resisted, but were overcome; seven thousand of them were mowed down; a thousand buildings were torched; men, women, and children were slaughtered in a delirium of blood by soldiers crying, "Santiago! España! A sangre, a carne, a fuego, a sacco!" (Saint James! Spain! To blood, to the flesh, to fire, to sack!)Following the sack of Antwerp, delegates from Catholic Brabant, Protestant Holland and Zeeland agreed, at Ghent, to join Utrecht and William the Silent in driving out all Spanish troops and forming a new government for the Netherlands. Don Juan of Austria, the new Spanish governor, was forced to concede initially, but within months returned to active hostilities. As the fighting restarted, the Dutch began to look for help from the Queen of England, but she initially stood by her commitments to the Spanish in the Treaty of Bristol of 1574. The result was that when the next large-scale battle did occur at Gembloux in 1578, the Spanish forces easily won the day, killing at least 10,000 rebels, with the Spanish suffering few losses. In light of the defeat at Gembloux, the southern states of the Seventeen Provinces (today in northern France and Belgium) distanced themselves from the rebels in the north with the 1579 Union of Arras, which expressed their loyalty to Philip II of Spain. Opposing them, the northern half of the Seventeen Provinces forged the Union of Utrecht (also of 1579) in which they committed to support each other in their defence against the Spanish army. The Union of Utrecht is seen as the foundation of the modern Netherlands.Spanish troops sacked Maastricht in 1579, killing over 10,000 civilians and thereby ensuring the rebellion continued. In 1581, the northern provinces adopted the Act of Abjuration, the declaration of independence in which the provinces officially deposed Philip II as reigning monarch in the northern provinces. Against the rebels Philip could draw on the resources of Spain, Spanish America, Spanish Italy and the Spanish Netherlands. The Protestant Queen Elizabeth I of England sympathised with the Dutch struggle against the Spanish and sent an army of 7,600 soldiers to aid the Dutch in their war with the Catholic Spanish. English forces under the Earl of Leicester and then Lord Willoughby faced the Spanish in the Netherlands under the Duke of Parma in a series of largely indecisive actions that tied down significant numbers of Spanish troops and bought time for the Dutch to reorganise their defences. The war continued until 1648, when Spain under King Philip IV finally recognised the independence of the seven north-western provinces in the Peace of Münster. Parts of the southern provinces became "de facto" colonies of the new republican-mercantile empire.After declaring their independence, the provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Groningen, Friesland, Utrecht, Overijssel, and Gelderland formed a confederation. All these duchies, lordships and counties were autonomous and had their own government, the States-Provincial. The States General, the confederal government, were seated in The Hague and consisted of representatives from each of the seven provinces. The sparsely populated region of Drenthe was part of the republic too, although it was not considered one of the provinces. Moreover, the Republic had come to occupy during the Eighty Years' War a number of so-called Generality Lands in Flanders, Brabant and Limburg. Their population was mainly Roman Catholic, and these areas did not have a governmental structure of their own, and were used as a buffer zone between the Republic and the Spanish-controlled Southern Netherlands.In the Dutch Golden Age, spanning much of the 17th century, the Dutch Empire grew to become one of the major seafaring and economic powers, alongside Portugal, Spain, France and England. Science, military, and art (especially painting) were among the most acclaimed in the world. By 1650, the Dutch owned 16,000 merchant ships. The Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company established colonies and trading posts all over the world, including ruling the northern parts of Taiwan between 1624–1662 and 1664–1667. The Dutch settlement in North America began with the founding of New Amsterdam on the southern part of Manhattan in 1614. In South Africa, the Dutch settled the Cape Colony in 1652. Dutch colonies in South America were established along the many rivers in the fertile Guyana plains, among them Colony of Surinam (now Suriname). In Asia, the Dutch established the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia), and the only western trading post in Japan, Dejima.During the period of Proto-industrialization, the empire received 50% of textiles and 80% of silks import from the India's Mughal Empire, chiefly from its most developed region known as Bengal Subah.Many economic historians regard the Netherlands as the first thoroughly capitalist country in the world. In early modern Europe, it had the wealthiest trading city (Amsterdam) and the first full-time stock exchange. The inventiveness of the traders led to insurance and retirement funds as well as phenomena such as the boom-bust cycle, the world's first asset-inflation bubble, the tulip mania of 1636–1637, and the world's first bear raider, Isaac le Maire, who forced prices down by dumping stock and then buying it back at a discount. In 1672 – known in Dutch history as the Rampjaar (Disaster Year) – the Dutch Republic was at war with France, England and three German Bishoprics simultaneously. At sea, it could successfully prevent the English and French navy from entering the western shores. On land, however, it was almost taken over internally by the advancing French and German armies coming from the east. It managed to turn the tide by inundating parts of Holland but could never recover to its former glory again and went into a state of a general decline in the 18th century, with economic competition from England and long-standing rivalries between the two main factions in Dutch society, the republican "Staatsgezinden" and the supporters of the stadtholder the "Prinsgezinden" as main political factions.With the armed support of revolutionary France, Dutch republicans proclaimed the Batavian Republic, modelled after the French Republic and rendering the Netherlands a unitary state on 19 January 1795. The stadtholder William V of Orange had fled to England. But from 1806 to 1810, the Kingdom of Holland was set up by Napoleon Bonaparte as a puppet kingdom governed by his brother Louis Bonaparte to control the Netherlands more effectively. However, King Louis Bonaparte tried to serve Dutch interests instead of his brother's, and he was forced to abdicate on 1 July 1810. The Emperor sent in an army and the Netherlands became part of the French Empire until the autumn of 1813 when Napoleon was defeated in the Battle of Leipzig.William Frederick, son of the last stadtholder, returned to the Netherlands in 1813 and proclaimed himself Sovereign Prince of the Netherlands. Two years later, the Congress of Vienna added the southern Netherlands to the north to create a strong country on the northern border of France. William Frederick raised this United Netherlands to the status of a kingdom and proclaimed himself as King William I in 1815. In addition, William became hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg in exchange for his German possessions. However, the Southern Netherlands had been culturally separate from the north since 1581, and rebelled. The south gained independence in 1830 as Belgium (recognised by the Northern Netherlands in 1839 as the Kingdom of the Netherlands was created by decree), while the personal union between Luxembourg and the Netherlands was severed in 1890, when William III died with no surviving male heirs. Ascendancy laws prevented his daughter Queen Wilhelmina from becoming the next Grand Duchess.The Belgian Revolution at home and the Java War in the Dutch East Indies brought the Netherlands to the brink of bankruptcy. However, the Cultivation System was introduced in 1830; in the Dutch East Indies, 20% of village land had to be devoted to government crops for export. The policy brought the Dutch enormous wealth and made the colony self-sufficient.The Netherlands abolished slavery in its colonies in 1863. Slaves in Suriname would be fully free only in 1873, since the law stipulated that there was to be a mandatory 10-year transition.The Netherlands was able to remain neutral during World War I, in part because the import of goods through the Netherlands proved essential to German survival until the blockade by the British Royal Navy in 1916. That changed in World War II, when Nazi Germany invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940. The Rotterdam Blitz forced the main element of the Dutch army to surrender four days later. During the occupation, over 100,000 Dutch Jews were rounded up and transported to Nazi extermination camps; only a few of them survived. Dutch workers were conscripted for forced labour in Germany, civilians who resisted were killed in reprisal for attacks on German soldiers, and the countryside was plundered for food. Although there were thousands of Dutch who risked their lives by hiding Jews from the Germans, over 20,000 Dutch fascists joined the Waffen SS, fighting on the Eastern Front. Political collaborators were members of the fascist NSB, the only legal political party in the occupied Netherlands. On 8 December 1941, the Dutch government-in-exile in London declared war on Japan, but could not prevent the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia). In 1944–45, the First Canadian Army, which included Canadian, British and Polish troops, was responsible for liberating much of the Netherlands. Soon after VE Day, the Dutch fought a colonial war against the new Republic of Indonesia.In 1954, the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands reformed the political structure of the Netherlands, which was a result of international pressure to carry out decolonisation. The Dutch colonies of Surinam and Curaçao and Dependencies and the European country all became countries within the Kingdom, on a basis of equality. Indonesia had declared its independence in August 1945 (recognised in 1949), and thus was never part of the reformed Kingdom. Suriname followed in 1975. After the war, the Netherlands left behind an era of neutrality and gained closer ties with neighbouring states. The Netherlands was one of the founding members of the Benelux, the NATO, Euratom and the European Coal and Steel Community, which would evolve into the EEC (Common Market) and later the European Union.Government-encouraged emigration efforts to reduce population density prompted some 500,000 Dutch people to leave the country after the war. The 1960s and 1970s were a time of great social and cultural change, such as rapid de-pillarisation characterised by the decay of the old divisions along political and religious lines. Youths, and students in particular, rejected traditional mores and pushed for change in matters such as women's rights, sexuality, disarmament and environmental issues. In 2002 the euro was introduced as fiat money, and in 2010 the Netherlands Antilles was dissolved. Referendums were held on each island to determine their future status. As a result, the islands of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba (the BES islands) were to obtain closer ties with the Netherlands. This led to the incorporation of these three islands into the country of the Netherlands as "special municipalities" upon the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles. The special municipalities are collectively known as the Caribbean Netherlands.According to the Central Bureau of Statistics, the European Netherlands has a total area of , including water bodies; and a land area of . The Caribbean Netherlands has a total area of It lies between latitudes 50° and 54° N, and longitudes 3° and 8° E.The Netherlands is geographically very low relative to sea level and is considered a flat country, with about 26% of its area and 21% of its population located below sea level, and only about 50% of its land exceeding one metre above sea level. The European part of the country is for the most part flat, with the exception of foothills in the far southeast, up to a height of no more than 321 metres, and some low hill ranges in the central parts. Most of the areas below sea level are man-made, caused by peat extraction or achieved through land reclamation. Since the late 16th century, large polder areas are preserved through elaborate drainage systems that include dikes, canals and pumping stations. Nearly 17% of the country's land area is reclaimed from the sea and from lakes.Much of the country was originally formed by the estuaries of three large European rivers: the Rhine ("Rijn"), the Meuse ("Maas") and the Scheldt ("Schelde"), as well as their tributaries. The south-western part of the Netherlands is to this day a river delta of these three rivers, the Rhine-Meuse-Scheldt delta.The European Netherlands is divided into north and south parts by the Rhine, the Waal, its main tributary branch, and the Meuse. In the past, these rivers functioned as a natural barrier between fiefdoms and hence historically created a cultural divide, as is evident in some phonetic traits that are recognisable on either side of what the Dutch call their "Great Rivers" ("de Grote Rivieren"). Another significant branch of the Rhine, the IJssel river, discharges into Lake IJssel, the former Zuiderzee ('southern sea'). Just like the previous, this river forms a linguistic divide: people to the northeast of this river speak Dutch Low Saxon dialects (except for the province of Friesland, which has its own language).The modern Netherlands formed as a result of the interplay of the four main rivers (Rhine, Meuse, Schelde and IJssel) and the influence of the North Sea. The Netherlands is mostly composed of deltaic, coastal and eolian derived sediments during the Pleistocene glacial and interglacial periods.Almost the entire west Netherlands is composed of the Rhine-Meuse river estuary, but human intervention greatly modified the natural processes at work. Most of the western Netherlands is below sea level due to the human process of turning standing bodies of water into usable land, a polder.In the east of the Netherlands, remains are found of the last ice age, which ended approximately ten thousand years ago. As the continental ice sheet moved in from the north, it pushed moraine forward. The ice sheet halted as it covered the eastern half of the Netherlands. After the ice age ended, the moraine remained in the form of a long hill-line. The cities of Arnhem and Nijmegen are built upon these hills.Over the centuries, the Dutch coastline has changed considerably as a result of natural disasters and human intervention.On 14 December 1287, St. Lucia's flood affected the Netherlands and Germany, killing more than 50,000 people in one of the most destructive floods in recorded history. The St. Elizabeth flood of 1421 and the mismanagement in its aftermath destroyed a newly reclaimed polder, replacing it with the "Biesbosch" tidal floodplains in the south-centre. The huge North Sea flood of early February 1953 caused the collapse of several dikes in the south-west of the Netherlands; more than 1,800 people drowned in the flood. The Dutch government subsequently instituted a large-scale programme, the "Delta Works", to protect the country against future flooding, which was completed over a period of more than thirty years.The impact of disasters was, to an extent, increased through human activity. Relatively high-lying swampland was drained to be used as farmland. The drainage caused the fertile peat to contract and ground levels to drop, upon which groundwater levels were lowered to compensate for the drop in ground level, causing the underlying peat to contract further. Additionally, until the 19th-century peat was mined, dried, and used for fuel, further exacerbating the problem. Centuries of extensive and poorly controlled peat extraction lowered an already low land surface by several metres. Even in flooded areas, peat extraction continued through turf dredging.Because of the flooding, farming was difficult, which encouraged foreign trade, the result of which was that the Dutch were involved in world affairs since the early 14th/15th century.To guard against floods, a series of defences against the water were contrived. In the first millennium AD, villages and farmhouses were built on man-made hills called "terps". Later, these terps were connected by dikes. In the 12th century, local government agencies called ""waterschappen"" ("water boards") or ""hoogheemraadschappen"" ("high home councils") started to appear, whose job it was to maintain the water level and to protect a region from floods; these agencies continue to exist. As the ground level dropped, the dikes by necessity grew and merged into an integrated system. By the 13th century windmills had come into use to pump water out of areas below sea level. The windmills were later used to drain lakes, creating the famous polders.In 1932 the "Afsluitdijk" ("Closure Dike") was completed, blocking the former "Zuiderzee" (Southern Sea) from the North Sea and thus creating the IJsselmeer (IJssel Lake). It became part of the larger Zuiderzee Works in which four polders totalling were reclaimed from the sea.The Netherlands is one of the countries that may suffer most from climate change. Not only is the rising sea a problem, but erratic weather patterns may cause the rivers to overflow.After the 1953 disaster, the Delta Works was constructed, which is a comprehensive set of civil works throughout the Dutch coast. The project started in 1958 and was largely completed in 1997 with the completion of the Maeslantkering. Since then, new projects have been periodically started to renovate and renew the Delta Works. The main goal of the Delta project was to reduce the risk of flooding in South Holland and Zeeland to once per 10,000 years (compared to once per 4000 years for the rest of the country). This was achieved by raising of outer sea-dikes and of the inner, canal, and river dikes, and by closing off the sea estuaries of the Zeeland province. New risk assessments occasionally show problems requiring additional Delta project dike reinforcements. The Delta project is considered by the American Society of Civil Engineers as one of the seven wonders of the modern world.It is anticipated that global warming in the 21st century will result in a rise in sea level. The Netherlands is actively preparing for a sea-level rise. A politically neutral Delta Commission has formulated an action plan to cope with a sea-level rise of and a simultaneous land height decline of . The plan encompasses the reinforcement of the existing coastal defences like dikes and dunes with of additional flood protection. Climate change will not only threaten the Netherlands from the seaside but could also alter rainfall patterns and river run-off. To protect the country from river flooding, another programme is already being executed. The Room for the River plan grants more flow space to rivers, protects the major populated areas and allows for periodic flooding of indefensible lands. The few residents who lived in these so-called "overflow areas" have been moved to higher ground, with some of that ground having been raised above anticipated flood levels.The predominant wind direction in the European Netherlands is southwest, which causes a mild maritime climate, with moderately warm summers and cool winters, and typically high humidity. This is especially true close to the Dutch coastline, where the difference in temperature between summer and winter, as well as between day and night is noticeably smaller than it is in the southeast of the country.Ice days—maximum temperature below —usually occur from December until February, with the occasional rare ice day prior to or after that period. Freezing days—minimum temperature below —occur much more often, usually ranging from mid-November to late March, but not rarely measured as early as mid-October and as late as mid-May. If one chooses the height of measurement to be above ground instead of , one may even find such temperatures in the middle of the summer. On average, snow can occur from November to April but sometimes occurs in May or October too.Warm days—maximum temperature above —are usually found in April to October, but in some parts of the country these warm days can also occur in March, or even sometimes in November or February (usually not in , however). Summer days—maximum temperature above —are usually measured in from May until September, tropical days—maximum temperature above —are rare and usually occur only in June to August.Precipitation throughout the year is distributed relatively equally each month. Summer and autumn months tend to gather a little more precipitation than the other months, mainly because of the intensity of the rainfall rather than the frequency of rain days (this is especially the case in summer when lightning is also much more frequent).The number of sunshine hours is affected by the fact that because of the geographical latitude, the length of the days varies between barely eight hours in December and nearly 17 hours in June.The following table are based on mean measurements by the KNMI weather station in De Bilt between 1991 and 2020. The highest recorded temperature was reached on 25 July 2019 in Gilze-Rijen.The Netherlands has 20 national parks and hundreds of other nature reserves, that include lakes, heathland, woods, dunes, and other habitats. Most of these are owned by Staatsbosbeheer, the national department for forestry and nature conservation and Natuurmonumenten (literally 'Natures monuments'), a private organisation that buys, protects and manages nature reserves. The Dutch part of the Wadden Sea in the north, with its tidal flats and wetlands, is rich in biological diversity, and was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Nature Site in 2009.The Oosterschelde, formerly the northeast estuary of the river Scheldt was designated a national park in 2002, thereby making it the largest national park in the Netherlands at an area of . It consists primarily of the salt waters of the Oosterschelde but also includes mudflats, meadows, and shoals. Because of the large variety of sea life, including unique regional species, the park is popular with Scuba divers. Other activities include sailing, fishing, cycling, and bird watching.Phytogeographically, the European Netherlands is shared between the Atlantic European and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, the European territory of the Netherlands belongs to the ecoregion of Atlantic mixed forests. In 1871, the last old original natural woods were cut down, and most woods today are planted monocultures of trees like Scots pine and trees that are not native to the Netherlands. These woods were planted on anthropogenic heaths and sand-drifts (overgrazed heaths) (Veluwe). The Netherlands had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 0.6/10, ranking it 169th globally out of 172 countries.While Curaçao, Aruba and Sint Maarten have a constituent country status, the Caribbean Netherlands are three islands designated as special municipalities of the Netherlands. The islands are part of the Lesser Antilles and have land borders with France (Saint Martin) and maritime borders with Anguilla, Curaçao, France (Saint Barthélemy), Saint Kitts and Nevis, Sint Maarten, the U.S. Virgin Islands and Venezuela.Within this island group:The islands of the Caribbean Netherlands enjoy a tropical climate with warm weather all year round. The Leeward Antilles are warmer and drier than the Windward islands. In summer, the Windward Islands can be subject to hurricanes.The Netherlands has been a constitutional monarchy since 1815, and due to the efforts of Johan Rudolph Thorbecke became a parliamentary democracy in 1848. The Netherlands is described as a consociational state. Dutch politics and governance are characterised by an effort to achieve broad consensus on important issues, within both the political community and society as a whole. In 2017, "The Economist" ranked the Netherlands as the 11th most democratic country in the world.The monarch is the head of state, at present King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands. Constitutionally, the position is equipped with limited powers. By law, the King has the right to be periodically briefed and consulted on government affairs. Depending on the personalities and relationships of the King and the ministers, the monarch might have influence beyond the power granted by the Constitution of the Netherlands.The executive power is formed by the Council of Ministers, the deliberative organ of the Dutch cabinet. The cabinet usually consists of 13 to 16 ministers and a varying number of state secretaries. One to three ministers are ministers without portfolio. The head of government is the Prime Minister of the Netherlands, who often is the leader of the largest party of the coalition. The Prime Minister is a "primus inter pares", with no explicit powers beyond those of the other ministers. Mark Rutte has been Prime Minister since October 2010; the Prime Minister had been the leader of the largest party of the governing coalition continuously since 1973.The cabinet is responsible to the bicameral parliament, the States General, which also has legislative powers. The 150 members of the House of Representatives, the lower house, are elected in direct elections on the basis of party-list proportional representation. These are held every four years, or sooner in case the cabinet falls (for example: when one of the chambers carries a motion of no confidence, the cabinet offers its resignation to the monarch). The States-Provincial are directly elected every four years as well. The members of the provincial assemblies elect the 75 members of the Senate, the upper house, which has the power to reject laws, but not propose or amend them. Both houses send members to the Benelux Parliament, a consultative council.Both trade unions and employers organisations are consulted beforehand in policymaking in the financial, economic and social areas. They meet regularly with the government in the Social-Economic Council. This body advises government and its advice cannot be put aside easily.The Netherlands has a long tradition of social tolerance. In the 18th century, while the Dutch Reformed Church was the state religion, Catholicism, other forms of Protestantism, such as Baptists and Lutherans, as well as Judaism were tolerated but discriminated against.In the late 19th century this Dutch tradition of religious tolerance transformed into a system of pillarisation, in which religious groups coexisted separately and only interacted at the level of government. This tradition of tolerance influences Dutch criminal justice policies on recreational drugs, prostitution, LGBT rights, euthanasia, and abortion, which are among the most liberal in the world.Because of the multi-party system, no single party has held a majority in parliament since the 19th century, as a result, coalition cabinets had to be formed. Since suffrage became universal in 1917, the Dutch political system has been dominated by three families of political parties: the strongest of which were the Christian Democrats, currently represented by the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA); second were the Social Democrats, represented by the Labour Party (PvdA); and third were the Liberals, of which the right-wing People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD) is the main representative.These parties co-operated in coalition cabinets in which the Christian Democrats had always been a partner: so either a centre-left coalition of the Christian Democrats and Social Democrats was ruling or a centre-right coalition of Christian Democrats and Liberals. In the 1970s, the party system became more volatile: the Christian Democratic parties lost seats, while new parties became successful, such as the radical democrat and progressive liberal Democrats 66 (D66) or the ecologist party GroenLinks (GL).In the 1994 election, the CDA lost its dominant position. A "purple" cabinet was formed by the VVD, D66, and PvdA. In the 2002 elections, this cabinet lost its majority, because of an increased support for the CDA and the rise of the right-wing LPF, a new political party, around Pim Fortuyn, who was assassinated a week before the elections. A short-lived cabinet was formed by CDA, VVD, and LPF, which was led by the CDA Leader Jan Peter Balkenende. After the 2003 elections, in which the LPF lost most of its seats, a cabinet was formed by the CDA, VVD, and D66. The cabinet initiated an ambitious programme of reforming the welfare state, the healthcare system, and immigration policy.In June 2006, the cabinet fell after D66 voted in favour of a motion of no confidence against the Minister of Immigration and Integration, Rita Verdonk, who had instigated an investigation of the asylum procedure of Ayaan Hirsi Ali, a VVD MP. A caretaker cabinet was formed by the CDA and VVD, and general elections were held on 22 November 2006. In these elections, the CDA remained the largest party and the Socialist Party made the largest gains. The formation of a new cabinet took three months, resulting in a coalition of CDA, PvdA, and Christian Union.On 20 February 2010, the cabinet fell when the PvdA refused to prolong the involvement of the Dutch Army in Uruzgan, Afghanistan. Snap elections were held on 9 June 2010, with devastating results for the previously largest party, the CDA, which lost about half of its seats, resulting in 21 seats. The VVD became the largest party with 31 seats, closely followed by the PvdA with 30 seats. The big winner of the 2010 elections was Geert Wilders, whose right wing PVV, the ideological successor to the LPF, more than doubled its number of seats. Negotiation talks for a new government resulted in a minority government, led by VVD (a first) in coalition with CDA, which was sworn in on 14 October 2010. This unprecedented minority government was supported by PVV, but proved ultimately to be unstable, when on 21 April 2012, Wilders, leader of PVV, unexpectedly 'torpedoed seven weeks of austerity talks' on new austerity measures, paving the way for early elections.VVD and PvdA won a majority in the House of Representatives during the 2012 general election. On 5 November 2012 they formed the second Rutte cabinet. After the 2017 general election, VVD, Christian Democratic Appeal, Democrats 66 and ChristenUnie formed the third Rutte cabinet. This cabinet resigned in January 2021, two months before the general election, after a child welfare fraud scandal. In March 2021, centre-right VVD of Prime Minister Mark Rutte was the winner of the elections, securing 35 out of 150 seats. The second biggest party was the centre-left D66 with 24 seats. Geert Wilders' far-right party lost its support. Prime Minister Mark Rutte, in power since 2010, formed his fourth coalition government.The Netherlands is divided into twelve provinces, each under a King's Commissioner ("Commissaris van de Koning"). Informally in Limburg province this position is named Governor ("Gouverneur"). All provinces are divided into municipalities ("gemeenten"), of which there are 355 (2019).The country is also subdivided into 21 water districts, governed by a water board ("waterschap" or "hoogheemraadschap"), each having authority in matters concerning water management. The creation of water boards actually pre-dates that of the nation itself, the first appearing in 1196. The Dutch water boards are among the oldest democratic entities in the world still in existence. Direct elections of the water boards take place every four years.The administrative structure on the three BES islands, collectively known as the Caribbean Netherlands, is outside the twelve provinces. These islands have the status of "openbare lichamen (public bodies)". In the Netherlands these administrative units are often referred to as "special municipalities".The Netherlands has several Belgian exclaves and within those even several enclaves which are part of the province of North Brabant. Because the Netherlands and Belgium are both in the Benelux, and more recently in the Schengen Area, citizens of respective countries can travel through these enclaves without controls.The history of Dutch foreign policy has been characterised by its neutrality. Since World War II, the Netherlands has become a member of a large number of international organisations, most prominently the UN, NATO and the EU. The Dutch economy is very open and relies strongly on international trade.The foreign policy of the Netherlands is based on four basic commitments: to Atlantic co-operation, to European integration, to international development and to international law. One of the more controversial international issues surrounding the Netherlands is its liberal policy towards soft drugs.During and after the Dutch Golden Age, the Dutch people built up a commercial and colonial empire. The most important colonies were present-day Suriname and Indonesia. Indonesia became independent after the Indonesian National Revolution in the 1940s following a war of independence, international pressure and several United Nations Security Council resolutions. Suriname became independent in 1975. The historical ties inherited from its colonial past still influence the foreign relations of the Netherlands. In addition, many people from these countries are living permanently in the Netherlands.The Netherlands has one of the oldest standing armies in Europe; it was first established as such by Maurice of Nassau in the late 1500s. The Dutch army was used throughout the Dutch Empire. After the defeat of Napoleon, the Dutch army was transformed into a conscription army. The army was unsuccessfully deployed during the Belgian Revolution in 1830. After 1830, it was deployed mainly in the Dutch colonies, as the Netherlands remained neutral in European wars (including the First World War), until the Netherlands was invaded in World War II and defeated by the Wehrmacht in May 1940.The Netherlands abandoned its neutrality in 1948 when it signed the Treaty of Brussels, and became a founding member of NATO in 1949. The Dutch military was therefore part of the NATO strength in Cold War Europe, deploying its army to several bases in Germany. More than 3,000 Dutch soldiers were assigned to the 2nd Infantry Division of the United States Army during the Korean War. In 1996 conscription was suspended, and the Dutch army was once again transformed into a professional army. Since the 1990s the Dutch army has been involved in the Bosnian War and the Kosovo War, it held a province in Iraq after the defeat of Saddam Hussein, and it was engaged in Afghanistan.The military is composed of four branches, all of which carry the prefix "Koninklijke" (Royal):The submarine service opened to women on 1 January 2017. The Korps Commandotroepen, the Special Operations Force of the Netherlands Army, is open to women, but because of the extremely high physical demands for initial training, it is almost impossible for a woman to become a commando. The Dutch Ministry of Defence employs more than 70,000 personnel, including over 20,000 civilians and over 50,000 military personnel. In April 2011 the government announced a major reduction in its military because of a cut in government expenditure, including a decrease in the number of tanks, fighter aircraft, naval ships and senior officials.The Netherlands has ratified many international conventions concerning war law. The Netherlands decided not to sign the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.The Netherlands has a developed economy and has been playing a special role in the European economy for many centuries. Since the 16th century, shipping, fishing, agriculture, trade, and banking have been leading sectors of the Dutch economy. The Netherlands has a high level of economic freedom. The Netherlands is one of the top countries in the Global Enabling Trade Report (2nd in 2016), and was ranked the fifth most competitive economy in the world by the Swiss International Institute for Management Development in 2017. In addition, the country was ranked the second most innovative nation in the world in the 2018 Global Innovation Index., the key trading partners of the Netherlands were Germany, Belgium, the United Kingdom, the United States, France, Italy, China and Russia. The Netherlands is one of the world's 10 leading exporting countries. Foodstuffs form the largest industrial sector. Other major industries include chemicals, metallurgy, machinery, electrical goods, trade, services and tourism. Examples of international Dutch companies operating in Netherlands include Randstad, Unilever, Heineken, KLM, financial services (ING, ABN AMRO, Rabobank), chemicals (DSM, AKZO), petroleum refining (Royal Dutch Shell), electronical machinery (Philips, ASML), and satellite navigation (TomTom).The Netherlands has the 17th-largest economy in the world, and ranks 11th in GDP (nominal) per capita. Between 1997 and 2000 annual economic growth (GDP) averaged nearly 4%, well above the European average. Growth slowed considerably from 2001 to 2005 with the global economic slowdown, but accelerated to 4.1% in the third quarter of 2007. In May 2013, inflation was at 2.8% per year. In April 2013, unemployment was at 8.2% (or 6.7% following the ILO definition) of the labour force. In February 2019, this was reduced to 3.4%.In Q3 and Q4 2011, the Dutch economy contracted by 0.4% and 0.7%, respectively, because of European Debt Crisis, while in Q4 the Eurozone economy shrunk by 0.3%. The Netherlands also has a relatively low GINI coefficient of 0.326. Despite ranking 11th in GDP per capita, UNICEF ranked the Netherlands 1st in child well-being in rich countries, both in 2007 and in 2013. On the Index of Economic Freedom Netherlands is the 14th most free market capitalist economy out of 180 surveyed countries.Amsterdam is the financial and business capital of the Netherlands. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange (AEX), part of Euronext, is the world's oldest stock exchange and is one of Europe's largest bourses. It is situated near Dam Square in the city's centre. As a founding member of the euro, the Netherlands replaced (for accounting purposes) its former currency, the "gulden" (guilder), on 1 January 1999, along with 15 other adopters of the euro. Actual euro coins and banknotes followed on 1 January 2002. One euro was equivalent to 2.20371 Dutch guilders. In the Caribbean Netherlands, the United States dollar is used instead of the euro.The Dutch location gives it prime access to markets in the UK and Germany, with the Port of Rotterdam being the largest port in Europe. Other important parts of the economy are international trade (Dutch colonialism started with co-operative private enterprises such as the Dutch East India Company), banking and transport. The Netherlands successfully addressed the issue of public finances and stagnating job growth long before its European partners. Amsterdam is the 5th-busiest tourist destination in Europe with more than 4.2 million international visitors. Since the enlargement of the EU large numbers of migrant workers have arrived in the Netherlands from Central and Eastern Europe.The Netherlands continues to be one of the leading European nations for attracting foreign direct investment and is one of the five largest investors in the United States. The economy experienced a slowdown in 2005, but in 2006 recovered to the fastest pace in six years on the back of increased exports and strong investment. The pace of job growth reached 10-year highs in 2007. The Netherlands is the fourth-most competitive economy in the world, according to the World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report.Beginning in the 1950s, the Netherlands discovered huge natural gas resources. The sale of natural gas generated enormous revenues for the Netherlands for decades, adding hundreds of billions of euros to the government's budget. However, the unforeseen consequences of the country's huge energy wealth impacted the competitiveness of other sectors of the economy, leading to the theory of Dutch disease.Apart from coal and gas, the country has no mining resources. The last coal mine was closed in 1974. The Groningen gas field, one of the largest natural-gas fields in the world, is situated near Slochteren. The exploitation of this field has resulted in €159 billion in revenue since the mid-1970s. The field is operated by government-owned Gasunie and output is jointly exploited by the government, Royal Dutch Shell, and Exxon Mobil through NAM (Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij). "Gas extraction has resulted in increasingly strong earth tremors, some measuring as much as 3.6 on the Richter magnitude scale. The cost of damage repairs, structural improvements to buildings, and compensation for home value decreases has been estimated at €6.5 billion. Around 35,000 homes are said to be affected." The Netherlands has an estimated 25% of natural gas reserves in the EU. The energy sector accounted for almost 11% of the GDP in 2014. Netherlands' economy, mainly due to the large shares of natural gas reserves, is considered to have "very high" energy intensity rating.The Netherlands is faced with future challenges as the energy supply is forecasted to fall short of the demand by the year 2025 in the gas sector. This is attributed to the depletion of the Netherlands' major gas field, Groningen, and the earthquakes that have hit the Groningen region. In addition, there is ambiguity surrounding the feasibility of producing unconventional gas. The Netherlands relies heavily on natural gas to provide energy. Gas is the main source of heating for households in the Netherlands and represented 35% of the energy mix in 2014. Furthermore, The European Union 2020 package (20% reduction in GHG emissions, 20% renewables in the energy mix and 20% improvement in energy efficiency) enacted in 2009 has influenced the domestic energy politics of Netherlands and pressured non-state actors to give consent to more aggressive energy reforms that would reduce reliance on natural resources as a source of income to the economy. Therefore, a transition towards renewable energy has been a key objective by Netherlands in order to safeguard the energy security of the country from natural resources depletion, mainly gas. Netherlands has set a 14% renewable energy target of the total energy mix by the year 2020. However, the continuation of providing tax breaks to electricity generated by coal and gas, and to the exploration and extraction of gas from fields that are "insufficiently" profitable, renders a successful transition towards renewable energy more difficult to achieve due to inconsistencies in the policy mix. In 2011, it was estimated that the renewable energy sector received 31% (EUR 743MM), while the conventional energy sector received 69% (EUR 1.6B), of the total energy subsidies by the government. Furthermore, the energy market in the Netherlands remains to be dominated by few major corporations Nuon, RWE, E.ON, Eneco, and Delta that have significant influence over the energy policy. Renewable energy share in the energy mix is estimated to reach 12.4% by the year 2020, falling 1.6% short of the 14% target.From a biological resource perspective, the Netherlands has a low endowment: the Netherlands’ biocapacity adds up to only 0.8 global hectares in 2016, 0.2 of which are dedicated to agriculture. The Dutch biocapacity per person is just about half of the 1.6 global hectares of biocapacity per person available worldwide. In contrast, in 2016, the Dutch used on average 4.8 global hectares of biocapacity - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means the Dutch required nearly six times as much biocapacity as the Netherlands contains. As a result, the Netherlands was running a biocapacity deficit of 4.0 global hectares per person in 2016.The Dutch agricultural sector is highly mechanised, and has a strong focus on international exports. It employs about 4% of the Dutch labour force but produces large surpluses in the food-processing industry and accounts for 21% of the Dutch total export value. The Dutch rank first in the European Union and second worldwide in value of agricultural exports, behind only the United States, with agricultural exports earning €80.7 billion in 2014, up from €75.4 billion in 2012. In 2019 agricultural exports were worth €94.5 billion.One-third of the world's exports of chilis, tomatoes, and cucumbers goes through the country. The Netherlands also exports one-fifteenth of the world's apples.Aside from that, a significant portion of Dutch agricultural exports consists of fresh-cut plants, flowers, and flower bulbs, with the Netherlands exporting two-thirds of the world's total.The Netherlands had an estimated population of 17,493,969 as of 30 April 2021. It is the 5th most densely populated country in Europe, and except for the very small city-states like Monaco, Vatican City and San Marino it is the most densely populated country in Europe. And it is the 16th most densely populated country in the world with a density of . It is the 67th most populous country in the world. Between 1900 and 1950, the country's population almost doubled from 5.1 to 10 million. From 1950 to 2000, the population further increased, to 15.9 million, though this represented a lower rate of population growth. The estimated growth rate is 0.44%.The fertility rate in the Netherlands is 1.78 children per woman (2018 estimate), which is high compared with many other European countries, but below the rate of 2.1 children per woman required for natural population replacement, it remains considerably below the high of 5.39 children born per woman in 1879. Netherlands subsequently has one of the oldest populations in the world, with the average age of 42.7 years. Life expectancy is high in the Netherlands: 84.3 years for newborn girls and 79.7 for boys (2020 estimate). The country has a migration rate of 1.9 migrants per 1,000 inhabitants per year. The majority of the population of the Netherlands is ethnically Dutch. According to a 2005 estimate, the population was 80.9% Dutch, 2.4% Indonesian, 2.4% German, 2.2% Turkish, 2.0% Surinamese, 1.9% Moroccan, 0.8% Antillean and Aruban, and 7.4% others. Some 150,000 to 200,000 people living in the Netherlands are expatriates, mostly concentrated in and around Amsterdam and The Hague, now constituting almost 10% of the population of these cities.The Dutch are the tallest people in the world, by nationality, with an average height of for adult males and for adult females in 2009. People in the south are on average about shorter than those in the north.According to Eurostat, in 2010 there were 1.8 million foreign-born residents in the Netherlands, corresponding to 11.1% of the total population. Of these, 1.4 million (8.5%) were born outside the EU and 0.43 million (2.6%) were born in another EU Member State. On 21 November 2016, there were 3.8 million residents in the Netherlands with at least one foreign-born parent ("migration background"). Over half the young people in Amsterdam and Rotterdam have a non-western background. Dutch people, or descendants of Dutch people, are also found in migrant communities worldwide, notably in Canada, Australia, South Africa and the United States. According to the United States Census Bureau (2006), more than 5 million Americans claim total or partial Dutch ancestry. There are close to 3 million Dutch-descended Afrikaners living in South Africa. In 1940, there were 290,000 Europeans and Eurasians in Indonesia, but most have since left the country.The Randstad is the country's largest conurbation located in the west of the country and contains the four largest cities: Amsterdam in the province North Holland, Rotterdam and The Hague in the province South Holland, and Utrecht in the province Utrecht. The Randstad has a population of about 8.2 million inhabitants and is the 5th largest metropolitan area in Europe. According to Dutch Central Statistics Bureau, in 2015, 28 per cent of the Dutch population had a spendable income above 45,000 euros (which does not include spending on health care or education).The official language is Dutch, which is spoken by the vast majority of the inhabitants. Besides Dutch, West Frisian is recognised as a second official language in the northern province of Friesland ("Fryslân" in West Frisian). West Frisian has a formal status for government correspondence in that province. In the European part of the kingdom two other regional languages are recognised under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.The first of these recognised regional languages is Low Saxon ("Nedersaksisch" in Dutch). Low Saxon consists of several dialects spoken in the north and east, like Tweants in the region of Twente, and Drents in the province of Drenthe. Secondly, Limburgish is also recognised as a regional language. It consists of Dutch varieties of Meuse-Rhenish Franconian languages and is spoken in the south-eastern province of Limburg. The dialects most spoken in the Netherlands are the Brabantian-Hollandic dialects.Ripuarian language, which is spoken in Kerkrade and Vaals in the form of, respectively, the Kerkrade dialect and the Vaals dialect are legally treated as Limburgish as well - see Southeast Limburgish dialect.English has a formal status in the special municipalities of Saba and Sint Eustatius. It is widely spoken on these islands. Papiamento has a formal status in the special municipality of Bonaire. Yiddish and the Romani language were recognised in 1996 as non-territorial languages. The Netherlands has a tradition of learning foreign languages, formalised in Dutch education laws. Some 90% of the total population indicate they are able to converse in English, 70% in German, and 29% in French. English is a mandatory course in all secondary schools. In most lower level secondary school educations ("vmbo"), one additional modern foreign language is mandatory during the first two years.In higher level secondary schools (HAVO and VWO), the acquisition of two additional modern foreign language skills is mandatory during the first three years. Only during the last three years in VWO one foreign language is mandatory. Besides English, the standard modern languages are French and German, although schools can replace one of these modern languages with Chinese, Spanish, Russian, Italian, Turkish or Arabic. Additionally, schools in Friesland teach and have exams in West Frisian, and schools across the country teach and have exams in Ancient Greek and Latin for secondary school (called Gymnasium or VWO+).The population of the Netherlands was predominantly Christian until the late 20th century, divided into a number of denominations. Although significant religious diversity remains, there has been a decline of religious adherence. The Netherlands is now one of the most secular societies in the world.In 2019, Statistics Netherlands found that 54.1% of the total population declared itself to be non-religious. Groups that represent the non-religious in the Netherlands include Humanistisch Verbond. Roman Catholics comprised 20.1% of the total population, Protestants (14.8%). Muslims comprised 5.0% of the total population and followers of other Christian denominations and other religions (like Judaism, Buddhism and Hinduism) comprised the remaining 5.9%. A 2015 survey from another source found that Protestants outnumbered Catholics.The southern provinces of North Brabant and Limburg have historically been strongly Roman Catholic, and some residents consider the Catholic Church as a base for their cultural identity. Protestantism in the Netherlands consists of a number of churches within various traditions. The largest of these is the Protestant Church in the Netherlands (PKN), a United church which is Reformed and Lutheran in orientation. It was formed in 2004 as a merger of the Dutch Reformed Church, the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands and a smaller Lutheran Church. Several orthodox Reformed and liberal churches did not merge into the PKN. Although in the Netherlands as a whole Christianity has become a minority, the Netherlands contains a Bible Belt from Zeeland to the northern parts of the province Overijssel, in which Protestant (particularly Reformed) beliefs remain strong, and even has majorities in municipal councils.Islam is the second largest religion in the state. In 2012, there were about 825,000 Muslims in the Netherlands (5% of the population). The Muslim population increased from the 1960 as a result of large numbers of migrant workers. This included migrant workers from Turkey and Morocco, as well as migrants from former Dutch colonies, such as Surinam and Indonesia. During the 1990s, Muslim refugees arrived from countries like Bosnia and Herzegovina, Iran, Iraq, Somalia, and Afghanistan.Another religion practised is Hinduism, with around 215,000 adherents (slightly over 1% of the population). Most of these are Indo-Surinamese. There are also sizable populations of Hindu immigrants from India and Sri Lanka, and some Western adherents of Hinduism-oriented new religious movements such as Hare Krishnas. The Netherlands has an estimated 250,000 Buddhists or people strongly attracted to this religion, mainly ethnic Dutch people. In addition, there are about 45,000 Jews in the Netherlands.The Constitution of the Netherlands guarantees freedom of education, which means that all schools that adhere to general quality criteria receive the same government funding. This includes schools based on religious principles by religious groups (especially Roman Catholic and various Protestant). Three political parties in the Dutch parliament, (CDA, and two small parties, ChristianUnion and SGP) are based upon the Christian belief. Several Christian religious holidays are national holidays (Christmas, Easter, Pentecost and the Ascension of Jesus).Upon the country's independence, Protestants were predominant in most of the country, while Roman Catholics were dominant in the south, especially North Brabant and Limburg. In the late 19th century, secularism, atheism and pillarisation gained adherents. By 1960, Roman Catholics equalled Protestants in number; thereafter, both Christian branches began to decline. Conversely, Islam grew considerably as the result of immigration. Since 2000 there has been raised awareness of religion, mainly due to Muslim extremism.The Dutch royal family has been traditionally associated with Calvinism, specifically the Dutch Reformed Church, which has merged into the Protestant Church in the Netherlands. The Dutch Reformed Church was the only major Protestant church in the Netherlands from the Reformation until the 19th century. Denominational splits in 1834 and in 1886 diversified Dutch Calvinism. In 2013, a Roman Catholic became Queen consort.A survey in December 2014 concluded that for the first time there were more atheists (25%) than theists (17%) in the Netherlands, while the remainder of the population was agnostic (31%) or ietsistic (27%). In 2015, a vast majority of the inhabitants of the Netherlands (82%) said they had never or almost never visited a church, and 59% stated that they had never been to a church of any kind. Of all the people questioned, 24% saw themselves as atheist, an increase of 11% compared to the previous study done in 2006. The expected rise of spirituality (ietsism) has come to a halt according to research in 2015. In 2006, 40% of respondents considered themselves spiritual; in 2015 this has dropped to 31%. The number who believed in the existence of a higher power fell from 36% to 28% over the same period.Education in the Netherlands is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 16. If a child does not have a "starting qualification" (HAVO, VWO or MBO 2+ degree) they are still forced to attend classes until they achieve such a qualification or reach the age of 18.All children in the Netherlands usually attend elementary school from (on average) ages 4 to 12. It comprises eight grades, the first of which is facultative. Based on an aptitude test, the eighth grade teacher's recommendation and the opinion of the pupil's parents or caretakers, a choice is made for one of the three main streams of secondary education. After completing a particular stream, a pupil may still continue in the penultimate year of the next stream.The VMBO has four grades and is subdivided over several levels. Successfully completing the VMBO results in a low-level vocational degree that grants access to the MBO. The MBO (middle-level applied education) is a form of education that primarily focuses on teaching a practical trade or a vocational degree. With the MBO certification, a student can apply for the HBO. The HAVO has 5 grades and allows for admission to the HBO. The HBO (higher professional education) are universities of professional education (applied sciences) that award professional bachelor's degrees; similar to polytechnic degrees. An HBO degree gives access to the university system. The VWO (comprising atheneum and gymnasium) has 6 grades and prepares for studying at a research university. Universities offer a three-year bachelor's degree, followed by a one or two-year master's degree, which in turn can be followed by a four or five-year doctoral degree programme.Doctoral candidates in the Netherlands are generally non-tenured employees of a university. All Dutch schools and universities are publicly funded and managed with the exception of religious schools that are publicly funded but not managed by the state even though requirements are necessary for the funding to be authorised. Dutch universities have a tuition fee of about 2,000 euros a year for students from the Netherlands and the European Union. The amount is about 10,000 euros for non-EU students.In 2016, the Netherlands maintained its number one position at the top of the annual Euro health consumer index (EHCI), which compares healthcare systems in Europe, scoring 916 of a maximum 1,000 points. The Netherlands has been among the top three countries in each report published since 2005. On 48 indicators such as patient rights and information, accessibility, prevention and outcomes, the Netherlands secured its top position among 37 European countries for six years in a row.The Netherlands was ranked first in a study in 2009 comparing the health care systems of the United States, Australia, Canada, Germany and New Zealand.Ever since a major reform of the health care system in 2006, the Dutch system received more points in the Index each year. According to the HCP (Health Consumer Powerhouse), the Netherlands has 'a chaos system', meaning patients have a great degree of freedom from where to buy their health insurance, to where they get their healthcare service. The difference between the Netherlands and other countries is that the chaos is managed. Healthcare decisions are being made in a dialogue between the patients and healthcare professionals.Health insurance in the Netherlands is mandatory. Healthcare in the Netherlands is covered by two statutory forms of insurance:While Dutch residents are automatically insured by the government for AWBZ, everyone has to take out their own basic healthcare insurance (basisverzekering), except those under 18 who are automatically covered under their parents' premium. If a person decides not to carry out an insurance coverage, the person may be fined. Insurers have to offer a universal package for everyone over the age of 18 years, regardless of age or state of health – it's illegal to refuse an application or impose special conditions. In contrast to many other European systems, the Dutch government is responsible for the accessibility and quality of the healthcare system in the Netherlands, but not in charge of its management.Healthcare in the Netherlands can be divided in several ways: three echelons, in somatic and mental health care and in 'cure' (short term) and 'care' (long term). Home doctors ("huisartsen", comparable to general practitioners) form the largest part of the first echelon. Being referenced by a member of the first echelon is mandatory for access to the second and third echelon. The health care system is in comparison to other Western countries quite effective but not the most cost-effective.Healthcare in the Netherlands is financed by a dual system that came into effect in January 2006. Long-term treatments, especially those that involve semi-permanent hospitalisation, and also disability costs such as wheelchairs, are covered by a state-controlled mandatory insurance. This is laid down in the "Algemene Wet Bijzondere Ziektekosten" ("General Law on Exceptional Healthcare Costs") which first came into effect in 1968. In 2009 this insurance covered 27% of all health care expenses.For all regular (short-term) medical treatment, there is a system of obligatory health insurance, with private health insurance companies. These insurance companies are obliged to provide a package with a defined set of insured treatments. This insurance covers 41% of all health care expenses.Other sources of health care payment are taxes (14%), out of pocket payments (9%), additional optional health insurance packages (4%) and a range of other sources (4%). Affordability is guaranteed through a system of income-related allowances and individual and employer-paid income-related premiums.A key feature of the Dutch system is that premiums may not be related to health status or age. Risk variances between private health insurance companies due to the different risks presented by individual policy holders are compensated through risk equalisation and a common risk pool. The funding burden for all short-term health care coverage is carried 50% by employers, 45% by the insured person and 5% by the government. Children under 18 are covered for free. Those on low incomes receive compensation to help them pay their insurance. Premiums paid by the insured are about €100 per month (about US$127 in August 2010 and €150 or US$196 in 2012), with variation of about 5% between the various competing insurers, and a yearly deductible of €220 (US$288).Mobility on Dutch roads has grown continuously since the 1950s and now exceeds 200 billion km travelled per year, three quarters of which are done by car. Around half of all trips in the Netherlands are made by car, 25% by bicycle, 20% walking, and 5% by public transport.With a total road network of 139,295 km, which includes 2,758 km of expressways, the Netherlands has one of the densest road networks in the world—much denser than Germany and France, but still not as dense as Belgium.As part of its commitment to environmental sustainability, the Government of the Netherlands initiated a plan to establish over 200 recharging stations for electric vehicles across the country. The rollout will be undertaken by Switzerland-based power and automation company ABB and Dutch startup Fastned, and will aim to provide at least one station within a 50-kilometre radius (30 miles) from every home in the Netherlands. Currently, the Netherlands alone hosts more than a quarter of all recharging stations in the European Union. This share rises to 30% if Brexit is taken into account. Moreover, newly sold cars in the Netherlands have on average the lowest CO2 emissions in the EU.About 13% of all distance is travelled by public transport, the majority of which by train. Like in many other European countries, the Dutch rail network of 3,013 km route is also rather dense. The network is mostly focused on passenger rail services and connects all major towns and cities, with over 400 stations. Trains are frequent, with two trains per hour on lesser lines, two to four trains per hour on average, and up to eight trains an hour on the busiest lines. The Dutch national train network also includes the HSL-Zuid, a high-speed line between the Amsterdam metropolitan area and the Belgian border for trains running from Paris and London to the Netherlands.Cycling is a ubiquitous mode of transport in the Netherlands. Almost as many kilometres are covered by bicycle as by train. The Dutch are estimated to have at least 18 million bicycles, which makes more than one per capita, and twice as many as the circa 9 million motor vehicles on the road. In 2013, the European Cyclists' Federation ranked both the Netherlands and Denmark as the most bike-friendly countries in Europe, but more of the Dutch (36%) than of the Danes (23%) list the bike as their most frequent mode of transport on a typical day. Cycling infrastructure is comprehensive. Busy roads have received some 35,000 km of dedicated cycle tracks, physically segregated from motorised traffic. Busy junctions are often equipped with bicycle-specific traffic lights. There are large bicycle parking facilities, particularly in city centres and at train stations.Until the introduction of trains, ships were the primary mode of transport in the Netherlands. And shipping has remained crucial afterwards. The Port of Rotterdam is the largest port in Europe and the largest port in the world outside East-Asia, with the rivers Meuse and Rhine providing excellent access to the hinterland upstream reaching to Basel, Switzerland, and into Germany and France. , Rotterdam was the world's eighth largest container port handling 440.5 million metric tonnes of cargo annually. The port's main activities are petrochemical industries and general cargo handling and transshipment. The harbour functions as an important transit point for bulk materials and between the European continent and overseas. From Rotterdam goods are transported by ship, river barge, train or road. The Volkeraksluizen between Rotterdam and Antwerp are the biggest sluices for inland navigation in the world in terms of tonnage passing through them. In 2007, the Betuweroute, a new fast freight railway from Rotterdam to Germany, was completed. The Netherlands also hosts Europe's 4th largest port in Amsterdam. The inland shipping fleet of the Netherlands is the largest in Europe. The Netherlands also has the largest fleet of active historical ships in the world. Boats are used for passenger travel as well, such as the Watertaxies in Rotterdam. The ferry network in Amsterdam and the Waterbus network in Rotterdam are part of the public transport system.Schiphol Airport, just southwest of Amsterdam, is the main international airport in the Netherlands, and the third busiest airport in Europe in terms of passengers. Schiphol is the main hub for KLM, the nation's flag carrier and the world's oldest airline. In 2016, the Royal Schiphol Group airports handled 70 million passengers. All air traffic is international and Schiphol Airport is connected to over 300 destinations worldwide, more than any other European airport. The airport is a major freight hub as well, processing 1.44 million tonnes of cargo in 2020. Smaller international airports in the country include Eindhoven Airport, Rotterdam The Hague Airport, Maastricht Aachen Airport and Groningen Airport Eelde. Air transport is of vital significance for the Caribbean part of the Netherlands, with all islands having their own airport. This includes the shortest runway in the world on Saba.The Netherlands has had many well-known painters. In the Middle Ages Hieronymus Bosch, Petrus Christus, Lucas Gassel and Pieter Bruegel the Elder were leading Dutch pioneers.During the Dutch Golden Age, spanning much of the 17th century, the Dutch Republic was prosperous and witnessed a flourishing artistic movement. This was the age of the "Dutch Masters", such as Rembrandt van Rijn, Johannes Vermeer, Jan Steen, Jacob van Ruisdael, Gerard van Honthorst, Theodoor van Thulden and many others. Famous Dutch painters of the 19th and 20th century were Vincent van Gogh and the luminists Jan Sluijters, Leo Gestel, and Piet Mondrian. M. C. Escher is a well-known graphic artist. Willem de Kooning was born and trained in Rotterdam, although he is considered to have reached acclaim as an American artist. Literature flourished as well during the Dutch Golden Age, with Joost van den Vondel and P. C. Hooft as the two most famous writers. In the 19th century, Multatuli wrote about the poor treatment of the natives in the Dutch colony, the current Indonesia. Important 20th century authors include Godfried Bomans, Harry Mulisch, Jan Wolkers, Simon Vestdijk, Hella S. Haasse, Cees Nooteboom, Gerard Reve and Willem Frederik Hermans. Anne Frank's "Diary of a Young Girl" was published after she was murdered in the Holocaust and translated from Dutch to all major languages.Various architectural styles can be distinguished in the Netherlands. Over the years, various styles have been built and preserved.The Romanesque architecture was built between the years 950 and 1250. This architectural style is most concentrated in the provinces of Gelderland and Limburg. Limburg, in particular, differs greatly in architectural style from the rest of the Netherlands.The Gothic architecture came to in the Netherlands from about 1230. Gothic buildings often had large windows, pointed arches and were richly decorated.Brabantine Gothic originated with the rise of the Duchy of Brabant and spread throughout the Burgundian provinces.This architectural style is most concentrated in the province of North Brabant, such as St. John's Cathedral in 's-Hertogenbosch, The Church of Our Lady in Breda and the Margraves Palace in Bergen op Zoom.What many know as traditional Dutch architecture is the Dutch Baroque architecture (1525 – 1630) and classicism (1630 – 1700).These style of architecture is especially in evidence in the cities of North Holland, South Holland and Zeeland.Other architectural styles that are common in the Netherlands are Style Louis XIV, Art Nouveau, Rationalism, NeoclassicismExpressionism, De Stijl, Traditionalism and Brutalism.The Netherlands is the country of philosophers Erasmus, Rudolf Agricola and Spinoza. Much of Descartes' major work was done in the Netherlands, where he studied at Leiden University — as did geologist James Hutton, British Prime Minister John Stuart, U.S. President John Quincy Adams, Physics Nobel Prize laureate Hendrik Lorentz and Enrico Fermi. The Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) discovered Saturn's moon Titan, argued that light travelled as waves, invented the pendulum clock and was the first physicist to use mathematical formulae. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe and describe single-celled organisms with a microscope.Replicas of Dutch buildings can be found in Huis Ten Bosch, Nagasaki, Japan. A similar Holland Village is being built in Shenyang, China. Windmills, tulips, wooden shoes, cheese, Delftware pottery, and cannabis are among the items associated with the Netherlands by tourists.In the south of the Netherlands there are some festivals that rarely or never occur in the rest of the Netherlands. These celebrations grew out of Catholic traditions, including Carnival, lantern parades during the celebration of Three Kings, Brabantian Day and huge Bloemencorso. Bloemencorsos used to occur in many places in the Netherlands, but in the 21th century, Zundert and Valkenswaard in North Brabant have taken the lead.Dutch society is egalitarian and modern. The Dutch have an aversion to the non-essential. Ostentatious behaviour is to be avoided. The Dutch are proud of their cultural heritage, rich history in art and involvement in international affairs.Dutch manners are open and direct with a no-nonsense attitude—informality combined with adherence to basic behaviour. According to a humorous source on Dutch culture, "Their directness gives many the impression that they are rude and crude—attributes they prefer to call openness." A well known more serious source on Dutch etiquette is "Dealing with the Dutch" by Jacob Vossestein: "Dutch egalitarianism is the idea that people are equal, especially from a moral point of view, and accordingly, causes the somewhat ambiguous stance the Dutch have towards hierarchy and status." As always, manners differ between groups. Asking about basic rules will not be considered impolite. "What may strike you as being blatantly blunt topics and comments are no more embarrassing or unusual to the Dutch than discussing the weather."The Netherlands is one of the most secular countries of Europe, and religion in the Netherlands is generally considered as a personal matter which is not supposed to be propagated in public, although it often remains a discussion subject. For only 17% of the population religion is important and 14% goes to church weekly.The Netherlands has a long history of social tolerance and today is regarded as a liberal country, considering its drug policy and its legalisation of euthanasia. On 1 April 2001, the Netherlands became the first nation to legalise same-sex marriage.As of 2018 the Netherlands had one of the highest rates of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in the European Union, above those of Germany, France and Belgium. In addition, the Dutch waste more food than any other EU citizen, at over three times the EU average Despite this, the Netherlands has nonetheless the reputation of the leader country in environmental and population management. In 2015, Amsterdam and Rotterdam were ranked fourth and fifth, respectively, on the Arcadis Sustainable Cities Index.Sustainability is a concept important for the Dutch. The goal of the Dutch Government is to have a sustainable, reliable and affordable energy system, by 2050, in which emissions have been halved and 40 per cent of electricity is derived from sustainable sources.The government is investing billions of euros in energy efficiency, sustainable energy and reduction. The Kingdom also encourages Dutch companies to build sustainable business/projects/facilities, with financial aids from the state to the companies or individuals who are active in making the country more sustainable.The Netherlands has multiple music traditions. Traditional Dutch music is a genre known as "Levenslied", meaning "Song of life", to an extent comparable to a French Chanson or a German Schlager. These songs typically have a simple melody and rhythm, and a straightforward structure of verses and choruses. Themes can be light, but are often sentimental and include love, death and loneliness. Traditional musical instruments such as the accordion and the barrel organ are a staple of levenslied music, though in recent years many artists also use synthesisers and guitars. Artists in this genre include Jan Smit, Frans Bauer and André Hazes.Contemporary Dutch rock and pop music (Nederpop) originated in the 1960s, heavily influenced by popular music from the United States and Britain. In the 1960s and 1970s the lyrics were mostly in English, and some tracks were instrumental. Bands such as Shocking Blue, Golden Earring, Tee Set, George Baker Selection and Focus enjoyed international success. As of the 1980s, more and more pop musicians started working in the Dutch language, partly inspired by the huge success of the band Doe Maar. Today Dutch rock and pop music thrives in both languages, with some artists recording in both.Current symphonic metal bands Epica, Delain, ReVamp, The Gathering, Asrai, Autumn, Ayreon and Within Temptation as well as jazz and pop singer Caro Emerald are having international success. Also, metal bands like Hail of Bullets, God Dethroned, Izegrim, Asphyx, Textures, Present Danger, Heidevolk and Slechtvalk are popular guests at the biggest metal festivals in Europe. Contemporary local stars include pop singer Anouk, country pop singer Ilse DeLange, South Guelderish and Limburgish dialect singing folk band Rowwen Hèze, rock band BLØF and duo Nick & Simon. Trijntje Oosterhuis, one of the country's most well known and versatile singers, has made multiple albums with famous American composers Vince Mendoza and Burt Bacharach.Early 1990s Dutch and Belgian house music came together in Eurodance project 2 Unlimited. Selling 18 million records, the two singers in the band are the most successful Dutch music artists to this day. Tracks like "Get Ready for This" are still popular themes of U.S. sports events, like the NHL. In the mid 1990s Dutch language rap and hip hop ("Nederhop") also came to fruition and has become popular in the Netherlands and Belgium. Artists with North African, Caribbean or Middle Eastern origins have strongly influenced this genre.Since the 1990s, Dutch electronic dance music (EDM) gained widespread popularity in the world in many forms, from trance, techno and gabber to hardstyle. Some of the world's best known dance music DJs hail from the Netherlands, including Armin van Buuren, Tiësto, Hardwell, Martin Garrix, Dash Berlin, Julian Jordan, Nicky Romero, W&W, Don Diablo and Afrojack; the first four of which have been ranked as best in the world by DJ Mag Top 100 DJs. The Amsterdam Dance Event (ADE) is the world's leading electronic music conference and the biggest club festival for the many electronic subgenres on the planet. These DJs also contribute to the world's mainstream pop music, as they frequently collaborate and produce for high-profile international artists.The Netherlands have participated in the Eurovision Song Contest since its first edition in 1956, and have won five times. Their most recent win was in 2019.In classical music, Jan Sweelinck ranks as the Dutch most famous composer, with Louis Andriessen amongst the best known living Dutch classical composers. Ton Koopman is a Dutch conductor, organist and harpsichordist. He is also professor at the Royal Conservatory of The Hague. Notable violinists are Janine Jansen and André Rieu. The latter, together with his Johann Strauss Orchestra, has taken classical and waltz music on worldwide concert tours, the size and revenue of which are otherwise only seen from the world's biggest rock and pop music acts. The most famous Dutch classical composition is "Canto Ostinato" by Simeon ten Holt, a minimalistic composition for multiple instruments. Acclaimed harpist Lavinia Meijer in 2012 released an album with works from Philip Glass that she transcribed for harp, with approval of Glass himself. The Concertgebouw (completed in 1888) in Amsterdam is home to the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, considered one of the world's finest orchestras.Some Dutch films – mainly by director Paul Verhoeven – have received international distribution and recognition, such as "Turkish Delight" (""Turks Fruit"", 1973), "Soldier of Orange" (""Soldaat van Oranje"", 1977), "Spetters" (1980) and "The Fourth Man" (""De Vierde Man"", 1983). Verhoeven then went on to direct big Hollywood movies like "RoboCop" (1987), "Total Recall" (1990) and "Basic Instinct" (1992), and returned with Dutch film "Black Book" (""Zwartboek"", 2006).Other well-known Dutch film directors are Jan de Bont ("Speed"), Anton Corbijn ("A Most wanted Man"), Dick Maas ("De Lift"), Fons Rademakers ("The Assault"), and documentary makers Bert Haanstra and Joris Ivens. Film director Theo van Gogh achieved international notoriety in 2004 when he was murdered by Mohammed Bouyeri in the streets of Amsterdam after directing the short film "Submission".Internationally, successful directors of photography from the Netherlands are Hoyte van Hoytema ("Interstellar", "Spectre", "Dunkirk") and Theo van de Sande ("Wayne's World" and "Blade"). Van Hoytema went to the National Film School in Łódź (Poland) and Van de Sande went to the Netherlands Film Academy. Internationally successful Dutch actors include Famke Janssen ("X-Men"), Carice van Houten ("Game of Thrones"), Michiel Huisman ("Game of Thrones"), Rutger Hauer ("Blade Runner"), Jeroen Krabbé ("The Living Daylights") and Derek de Lint ("Three Men and a Baby").The Netherlands has a well developed television market, with both multiple commercial and public broadcasters. Imported TV programmes, as well as interviews with responses in a foreign language, are virtually always shown with the original sound and subtitled. Only foreign shows for children are dubbed.TV exports from the Netherlands mostly take the form of specific formats and franchises, most notably through internationally active TV production conglomerate Endemol, founded by Dutch media tycoons John de Mol and Joop van den Ende. Headquartered in Amsterdam, Endemol has around 90 companies in over 30 countries. Endemol and its subsidiaries create and run reality, talent, and game show franchises worldwide, including "Big Brother" and "Deal or No Deal". John de Mol later started his own company Talpa which created show franchises like "The Voice" and "Utopia".Approximately 4.5 million of the 16.8 million people in the Netherlands are registered to one of the 35,000 sports clubs in the country. About two-thirds of the population between 15 and 75 participates in sports weekly. Football is the most popular participant sport in the Netherlands, before field hockey and volleyball as the second and third most popular team sports. The Netherlands national football team is one of the most popular aspects of Dutch sports; especially since the 1970s when one of the greatest footballers of all time, Johan Cruyff, developed Total Football with coach Rinus Michels. Tennis, gymnastics and golf are the three most widely engaged in individual sports.Organisation of sports began at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. Federations for sports were established (such as the speed skating federation in 1882), rules were unified and sports clubs came into existence. A Dutch National Olympic Committee was established in 1912. Thus far, the nation has won 266 medals at the Summer Olympic Games and another 110 medals at the Winter Olympic Games. In international competition, Dutch national teams and athletes are dominant in several fields of sport. The Netherlands women's field hockey team is the most successful team in World Cup history. The Netherlands baseball team have won the European championship 20 times out of 32 events. Dutch K-1 kickboxers have won the K-1 World Grand Prix 15 times out of 19 tournaments. The Netherlands Women's handball team holds the record of the only team in the world that consecutively reached all six semifinals of major international tournaments since 2015, winning silver and bronze at the European Women's Handball Championship and silver, bronze and gold at the World Women's Handball Championship. They finished fourth at the 2016 Summer Olympics.The Dutch speed skaters' performance at the 2014 Winter Olympics, where they won 8 out of 12 events, 23 out of 36 medals, including 4 clean sweeps, is the most dominant performance in a single sport in Olympic history. Motorcycle racing at the TT Circuit Assen has a long history. Assen is the only venue to have held a round of the Motorcycle World Championship every year since its creation in 1949. The circuit was purpose-built for the Dutch TT in 1954, with previous events having been held on public roads.The Dutch have also had success in all three of cyclings Grand Tours with Jan Janssen winning the 1968 Tour de France, more recently with Tom Dumoulin winning the 2017 Giro d'Italia and legendary rider Joop Zoetemelk was the 1985 UCI World Champion, the winner of the 1979 Vuelta a Espana, the 1980 Tour de France and still holds or shares numerous Tour de France records including most Tours finished and most kilometres ridden.Limburger Max Verstappen currently races in Formula One, and was the first Dutchman to win a Grand Prix. The coastal resort of Zandvoort hosted the Dutch Grand Prix from 1958 to 1985, and has been announced to return in 2020. The volleyball national men's team has also been successful, winning the silver medal at the 1992 Summer Olympics and the gold medal four years later in Atlanta. The biggest success of the women's national team was winning the European Championship in 1995 and the World Grand Prix in 2007.Recently cricket has made a remarkable progress in the Netherlands. Netherlands have participated in 1996, 2003, 2007 and 2011 ODI cricket World Cup. They have also qualified for 2009 and 2014 T20 World Cup. In the 2009 T20 World Cup, Netherlands defeated England, the current World Champions and inventor of the game. Ryan ten Doeschate is the only Dutch player to have played in the IPL on the team Kolkata Knight Riders.Originally, the country's cuisine was shaped by the practices of fishing and farming, including the cultivation of the soil for growing crops and raising domesticated animals. Dutch cuisine is simple and straightforward, and contains many dairy products. Breakfast and lunch are typically bread with toppings, with cereal for breakfast as an alternative. Traditionally, dinner consists of potatoes, a portion of meat, and (seasonal) vegetables. The Dutch diet was relatively high in carbohydrates and fat, reflecting the dietary needs of the labourers whose culture moulded the country. Without many refinements, it is best described as rustic, though many holidays are still celebrated with special foods. In the course of the twentieth century this diet changed and became much more cosmopolitan, with most global cuisines being represented in the major cities.Modern culinary writers distinguish between three general regional forms of Dutch cuisine. The regions in the northeast of the Netherlands, roughly the provinces of Groningen, Friesland, Drenthe, Overijssel and Gelderland north of the great rivers are the least populated areas of the Netherlands. The late (18th century) introduction of large scale agriculture means that the cuisine is generally known for its many kinds of meats. The relative lack of farms allowed for an abundance of game and husbandry, though dishes near the coastal regions of Friesland, Groningen and the parts of Overijssel bordering the IJsselmeer also include a large amount of fish. The various dried sausages, belonging to the metworst-family of Dutch sausages are found throughout this region and are highly prized for their often very strong taste. Also smoked sausages are common, of which ("Gelderse") "rookworst" is the most renowned. The sausage contains a lot of fat and is very juicy. Larger sausages are often eaten alongside "stamppot", "hutspot" or "zuurkool" (sauerkraut); whereas smaller ones are often eaten as a street food. The provinces are also home to hard textured rye bread, pastries and cookies, the latter heavily spiced with ginger or succade or containing small bits of meat. Various kinds of "Kruidkoek" (such as ), "" and "" (small savoury pancakes cooked in a waffle iron) are considered typical. A notable characteristic of "Fries roggebrood" (Frisian rye bread) is its long baking time (up to 20 hours), resulting in a sweet taste and a deep dark colour. In terms of alcoholic beverages, the region is renowned for its many bitters (such as "Beerenburg") and other high-proof liquors rather than beer, which is, apart from "Jenever", typical for the rest of the country. As a coastal region, Friesland is home to low-lying grasslands, and thus has a cheese production in common with the Western cuisine. "Friese Nagelkaas" (Friesian Clove) is a notable example.The provinces of North Holland, South Holland, Zeeland, and Utrecht and the Gelderlandic area of Betuwe make up the region in which western Dutch cuisine is found. Because of the abundance of water and flat grasslands that are found here, the area is known for its many dairy products, which include prominent cheeses such as Gouda, Leyden (spiced cheese with cumin), and Edam (traditionally in small spheres) as well as Leerdammer and Beemster, while the adjacent Zaanstreek in North Holland has since the 16th century been known for its mayonnaise, typical whole-grain mustards, and chocolate industry. Zeeland and South Holland produce a lot of butter, which contains a larger amount of milkfat than most other European butter varieties. A by-product of the butter-making process, "karnemelk" (buttermilk), is also considered typical for this region. Seafood such as soused herring, mussels (called "Zeeuwse Mossels", since all Dutch mussels for consumption are cleaned in Zeeland's Oosterschelde), eels, oysters and shrimps are widely available and typical for the region. "", once a local delicacy consisting of small chunks of battered white fish, has become a national fast food, just as . Pastries in this area tend to be quite doughy, and often contain large amounts of sugar; either caramelised, powdered or crystallised. The "oliebol" (in its modern form) and "Zeeuwse bolus" are good examples. Cookies are also produced in great number and tend to contain a lot of butter and sugar, like "stroopwafel", as well as a filling of some kind, mostly almond, like "". The traditional alcoholic beverages of this region are beer (strong pale lager) and "Jenever", a high proof juniper-flavoured spirit, that came to be known in England as gin. A noted exception within the traditional Dutch alcoholic landscape, "Advocaat", a rich and creamy liqueur made from eggs, sugar and brandy, is also native to this region.The Southern Dutch cuisine consists of the cuisines of the Dutch provinces of North Brabant and Limburg and the Flemish Region in Belgium. It is renowned for its many rich pastries, soups, stews and vegetable dishes and is often called Burgundian which is a Dutch idiom invoking the rich Burgundian court which ruled the Low Countries in the Middle Ages, renowned for its splendor and great feasts. It is the only Dutch culinary region that developed an haute cuisine. Pastries are abundant, often with rich fillings of cream, custard or fruits. Cakes, such as the "Vlaai" from Limburg and the "Moorkop" and "Bossche Bol" from Brabant, are typical pastries. Savoury pastries also occur, with the (a roll with a sausage of ground beef, literally translates into sausage bread) being the most popular. The traditional alcoholic beverage of the region is beer. There are many local brands, ranging from "Trappist" to "Kriek". 5 of the 10 "International Trappist Association" recognised breweries in the world, are located in the Southern Dutch cultural area. Beer, like wine in French cuisine, is also used in cooking; often in stews.In early 2014, Oxfam ranked the Netherlands as the country with the most nutritious, plentiful and healthy food, in a comparison of 125 countries.From the exploitations in the Mughal Empire in the 17th century, to the colonisations in the 19th century, Dutch imperial possessions continued to expand, reaching their greatest extent by establishing a hegemony of the Dutch East Indies in the early 20th century. The Dutch East Indies, which later formed modern-day Indonesia, was one of the most valuable European colonies in the world and the most important one for the Netherlands. Over 350 years of mutual heritage has left a significant cultural mark on the Netherlands.In the Dutch Golden Age of the 17th century, the Netherlands urbanised considerably, mostly financed by corporate revenue from the Asian trade monopolies. Social status was based on merchants' income, which reduced feudalism and considerably changed the dynamics of Dutch society. When the Dutch royal family was established in 1815, much of its wealth came from Colonial trade.By the 17th century, the Dutch East India Company established their base in parts of Ceylon (modern-day Sri Lanka). Afterward, they established ports in Dutch occupied Malabar, leading to Dutch settlements and trading posts in India. However, their expansion into India was halted, after their defeat in the Battle of Colachel by the Kingdom of Travancore, during the Travancore-Dutch War. The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat to Bengal Subah.Universities such as the Leiden University, founded in the 16th century, have developed into leading knowledge centres for Southeast Asian and Indonesian studies. Leiden University has produced leading academics such as Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje, and still has academics who specialise in Indonesian languages and cultures. Leiden University and in particular KITLV are educational and scientific institutions that to this day share both an intellectual and historical interest in Indonesian studies. Other scientific institutions in the Netherlands include the Amsterdam Tropenmuseum, an anthropological museum with massive collections of Indonesian art, culture, ethnography and anthropology.The traditions of the Royal Dutch East Indies Army (KNIL) are maintained by the Regiment Van Heutsz of the modern Royal Netherlands Army. A dedicated "Bronbeek Museum", a former home for retired KNIL soldiers, exists in Arnhem to this day.A specific segment of Dutch literature called Dutch Indies literature still exists and includes established authors, such as Louis Couperus, the writer of "The Hidden Force", taking the colonial era as an important source of inspiration. One of the great masterpieces of Dutch literature is the book "Max Havelaar", written by Multatuli in 1860.The majority of Dutchmen that repatriated to the Netherlands after and during the Indonesian revolution are Indo (Eurasian), native to the islands of the Dutch East Indies. This relatively large Eurasian population had developed over a period of 400 years and were classified by colonial law as belonging to the European legal community. In Dutch they are referred to as "Indische Nederlanders" or as Indo (short for Indo-European).Including their second generation descendants, Indos are currently the largest foreign-born group in the Netherlands. In 2008, the Dutch Central Bureau for Statistics (CBS) registered 387,000 first- and second-generation Indos living in the Netherlands. Although considered fully assimilated into Dutch society, as the main ethnic minority in the Netherlands, these 'repatriants' have played a pivotal role in introducing elements of Indonesian culture into Dutch mainstream culture.Many Indonesian dishes and foodstuffs have become commonplace in the Netherlands. Rijsttafel, a colonial culinary concept, and dishes such as Nasi goreng and satay are very popular in the country. Practically any town of any size in the Netherlands has a "toko" (a Dutch Indonesian Shop) or a Chinese-Indonesian restaurant, and many 'Pasar Malam' (Night market in Malay/Indonesian) fairs are organised throughout the year. | [
"Piet de Jong",
"Hendrikus Colijn",
"Ruud Lubbers",
"Jan de Quay",
"Wim Schermerhorn",
"Jo Cals",
"Joop den Uyl",
"Wim Kok",
"Louis Beel",
"Dirk Jan de Geer",
"Dries van Agt",
"Willem Drees",
"Charles Ruijs de Beerenbrouck",
"Jelle Zijlstra",
"Jan Peter Balkenende",
"Mark Rutte",
"Pieter Sjoerds Gerbrandy",
"Barend Biesheuvel"
] |
|
Who was the head of Netherlands in 24-Jan-196424-January-1964? | January 24, 1964 | {
"text": [
"Victor Marijnen"
]
} | L2_Q55_P6_8 | Jelle Zijlstra is the head of the government of Netherlands from Nov, 1966 to Apr, 1967.
Joop den Uyl is the head of the government of Netherlands from May, 1973 to Dec, 1977.
Wim Kok is the head of the government of Netherlands from Aug, 1994 to Jul, 2002.
Louis Beel is the head of the government of Netherlands from Jul, 1946 to Aug, 1948.
Victor Marijnen is the head of the government of Netherlands from Jul, 1963 to Apr, 1965.
Hendrikus Colijn is the head of the government of Netherlands from Aug, 1925 to Mar, 1926.
Ruud Lubbers is the head of the government of Netherlands from Nov, 1982 to Aug, 1994.
Willem Drees is the head of the government of Netherlands from Aug, 1948 to Dec, 1958.
Jan de Quay is the head of the government of Netherlands from May, 1959 to Jul, 1963.
Jo Cals is the head of the government of Netherlands from Apr, 1965 to Nov, 1966.
Piet de Jong is the head of the government of Netherlands from Apr, 1967 to Jul, 1971.
Jan Peter Balkenende is the head of the government of Netherlands from Jul, 2002 to Oct, 2010.
Barend Biesheuvel is the head of the government of Netherlands from Jul, 1971 to May, 1973.
Dirk Jan de Geer is the head of the government of Netherlands from Mar, 1926 to Aug, 1929.
Wim Schermerhorn is the head of the government of Netherlands from Jun, 1945 to Jul, 1946.
Pieter Sjoerds Gerbrandy is the head of the government of Netherlands from Sep, 1940 to Jun, 1945.
Dries van Agt is the head of the government of Netherlands from Dec, 1977 to Nov, 1982.
Mark Rutte is the head of the government of Netherlands from Oct, 2010 to Dec, 2022.
Charles Ruijs de Beerenbrouck is the head of the government of Netherlands from Sep, 1918 to Aug, 1925. | NetherlandsThe Netherlands ( ), sometimes informally Holland, is a country located in Western Europe with territories in the Caribbean. It is the largest of four constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. In Europe, the Netherlands consists of twelve provinces, bordering Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, with maritime borders in the North Sea with those countries and the United Kingdom. In the Caribbean, it consists of three special municipalities: the islands of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba. The country's official language is Dutch, with West Frisian as a secondary official language in the province of Friesland, and English and Papiamento as secondary official languages in the Caribbean Netherlands. Dutch Low Saxon and Limburgish are recognised regional languages (spoken in the east and southeast respectively), while Dutch Sign Language, Sinte Romani and Yiddish are recognised non-territorial languages.The four largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague and Utrecht. Amsterdam is the country's most populous city and nominal capital, while The Hague holds the seat of the States General, Cabinet and Supreme Court. The Port of Rotterdam is the busiest seaport in Europe, and the busiest in any country outside East Asia and Southeast Asia, behind only China and Singapore. Amsterdam Airport Schiphol is the busiest airport in the Netherlands, and the third busiest in Europe. The country is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. It hosts several intergovernmental organisations and international courts, many of which are centred in The Hague, which is consequently dubbed 'the world's legal capital'."Netherlands" literally means "lower countries" in reference to its low elevation and flat topography, with only about 50% of its land exceeding above sea level, and nearly 26% falling below sea level. Most of the areas below sea level, known as "polders", are the result of land reclamation that began in the 14th century. Colloquially or informally the Netherlands is occasionally referred to by the pars pro toto "Holland". With a population of 17.4 million people, all living within a total area of roughly —of which the land area is —the Netherlands is the 16th most densely populated country in the world and the 2nd most densely populated country in the European Union, with a density of . Nevertheless, it is the world's second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products by value, owing to its fertile soil, mild climate, intensive agriculture and inventiveness.The Netherlands has been a parliamentary constitutional monarchy with a unitary structure since 1848. The country has a tradition of pillarisation and a long record of social tolerance, having legalised abortion, prostitution and human euthanasia, along with maintaining a liberal drug policy. The Netherlands abolished the death penalty in Civil Law in 1870, though it was not completely removed until a new constitution was approved in 1983. The Netherlands allowed women's suffrage in 1919, before becoming the world's first country to legalise same-sex marriage in 2001. Its mixed-market advanced economy had the eleventh-highest per capita income globally. The Netherlands ranks among the highest in international indexes of press freedom, economic freedom, human development and quality of life, as well as happiness. In 2020, it ranked eighth on the human development index and fifth on the 2021 World Happiness Index.The Netherlands' turbulent history and shifts of power resulted in exceptionally many and widely varying names in different languages. There is diversity even within languages. In English, the Netherlands is also called Holland or (part of) the Low Countries, whereas the term ""Dutch"" is used as the demonym and adjectival form.The region called the Low Countries (comprising Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg) have the same toponymy. Place names with "Neder", "Nieder", "Nedre", "Nether", "Lage(r)" or "Low(er)" (in Germanic languages) and "Bas" or "Inferior" (in Romance languages) are in use in low-lying places all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a deictic relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as "Super(ior)", "Up(per)", "Op(per)", "Ober", "Boven", "High", "Haut" or "Hoch". In the case of the Low Countries / Netherlands the geographical location of the "lower" region has been more or less downstream and near the sea. The geographical location of the upper region, however, changed tremendously over time, depending on the location of the economic and military power governing the Low Countries area. The Romans made a distinction between the Roman provinces of downstream Germania Inferior (nowadays part of Belgium and the Netherlands) and upstream Germania Superior (nowadays part of Germany). The designation 'Low' to refer to the region returns again in the 10th century Duchy of Lower Lorraine, that covered much of the Low Countries. But this time the corresponding "Upper" region is Upper Lorraine, in nowadays Northern France.The Dukes of Burgundy, who ruled from their residence in the Low Countries in the 15th century, used the term "les pays de par deçà" ("the lands over here") for the Low Countries, as opposed to "les pays de par delà" ("the lands over there") for their original homeland: Burgundy in present-day east-central France. Under Habsburg rule, "Les pays de par deçà" developed in "pays d'embas" ("lands down-here"), a deictic expression in relation to other Habsburg possessions like Hungary and Austria. This was translated as "Neder-landen" in contemporary Dutch official documents. From a regional point of view, "Niderlant" was also the area between the Meuse and the lower Rhine in the late Middle Ages. The area known as "Oberland" (High country) was in this deictic context considered to begin approximately at the nearby higher located Cologne.From the mid-sixteenth century on, the "Low Countries" and the "Netherlands" lost their original deictic meaning. They were probably the most commonly used names, besides Flanders, a "pars pro toto" for the Low Countries, especially in Romance language-speaking Europe. The Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) divided the Low Countries into an independent northern Dutch Republic (or Latinised "Belgica Foederata", "Federated Netherlands", the precursor state of the Netherlands) and a Spanish controlled Southern Netherlands (Latinised "Belgica Regia", "Royal Netherlands", the precursor state of Belgium). The Low Countries today is a designation that includes the countries of the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg, although in most Romance languages, the term "Low Countries" is used as the name for the Netherlands specifically. It is used synonymously with the more neutral and geopolitical term Benelux.The Netherlands is also referred to as Holland in various languages, including English. However, Holland proper is only a region within the country that consists of North and South Holland, two of the nation's twelve provinces. Formerly they were a single province, and earlier the County of Holland, a remnant of the dissolved Frisian Kingdom which also included parts of present-day Utrecht. Following the decline of the Duchy of Brabant and the County of Flanders, Holland became the most economically and politically important county in the Low Countries region. The emphasis on Holland during the formation of the Dutch Republic, the Eighty Years' War, and the Anglo-Dutch Wars in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, made Holland serve as a "pars pro toto" for the entire country, which is now considered informal or incorrect. Nonetheless, the name "Holland" is still widely used for the Netherlands national football team, including in the Netherlands, and the Dutch government's international websites for tourism and trade are "holland.com" and "hollandtradeandinvest.com". In 2020, however, the Dutch government announced that it would only communicate and advertise under the name "the Netherlands" in the future.The term Dutch is used as the demonymic and adjectival form of the Netherlands in the English language. The origins of the word go back to Proto-Germanic "*þiudiskaz", Latinised into Theodiscus, meaning "popular" or "of the people"; akin to Old Dutch "Dietsch", Old High German "duitsch", and Old English "þeodisc", all meaning "(of) the common (Germanic) people". At first, the English language used (the contemporary form of) Dutch to refer to any or all speakers of West Germanic languages (e.g. the Dutch, the Frisians, and the Germans). Gradually its meaning shifted to the West Germanic people they had most contact with, because of their geographical proximity and for the rivalry in trade and overseas territories. The derivative of the Proto-Germanic word "*þiudiskaz" in modern Dutch, "Diets", can be found in Dutch literature as a poetic name for the Dutch people or language, but is considered very archaic. Although it had a short resurgence after World War II to avoid the reference to Germany. It is still used in the expression "diets maken" – to put it straight to him/her (as in a threat) or, more neutral, to make it clear, understandable, explain, say in the people's language (cf. the Vulgate (Bible not in Greek or Hebrew, but Latin; the folks' language) in meaning vulgar, though not in a pejorative sense).In Dutch, the names for the Netherlands, the Dutch language and a Dutch citizen are "Nederland", "Nederlands" and "Nederlander", respectively. Colloquially the country is also by the Dutch often referred to as Holland, although to lesser extent outside the two provinces North and South Holland, where it may even be used as a pejorative term, e.g. Hollènder (dialect) in Maastricht.The plural "Nederlanden" is used in many different connotations in the past, but since 1815 it has been used in the official name "Koninkrijk der Nederlanden" ("Kingdom of the Netherlands"). In many other languages the plural stuck, for example "Niederlande" (German), "Pays-Bas" (French) and "Países Bajos" (Spanish). In Indonesian (a former colony) the country is called "Belanda", a name derived from 'Holland'.The prehistory of the area that is now the Netherlands was largely shaped by the sea and the rivers that constantly shifted the low-lying geography. The oldest human (Neanderthal) traces were found in higher soils, near Maastricht, from what is believed to be about 250,000 years ago. At the end of the Ice Age, the nomadic late Upper Paleolithic Hamburg culture (c. 13.000–10.000 BC) hunted reindeer in the area, using spears, but the later Ahrensburg culture (c. 11.200–9500 BC) used bow and arrow. From Mesolithic Maglemosian-like tribes (c. 8000 BC) the oldest canoe in the world was found in Drenthe.Indigenous late Mesolithic hunter-gatherers from the Swifterbant culture (c. 5600 BC) were related to the southern Scandinavian Ertebølle culture and were strongly linked to rivers and open water. Between 4800 and 4500 BC, the Swifterbant people started to copy from the neighbouring Linear Pottery culture the practise of animal husbandry, and between 4300 and 4000 BC the practice of agriculture. The Funnelbeaker culture (c. 4300–2800 BC), which is related to the Swifterbant culture, erected the dolmens, large stone grave monuments found in Drenthe. There was a quick and smooth transition from the Funnelbeaker farming culture to the pan-European Corded Ware pastoralist culture (c. 2950 BC). In the southwest, the Seine-Oise-Marne culture — which was related to the Vlaardingen culture (c. 2600 BC), an apparently more primitive culture of hunter-gatherers — survived well into the Neolithic period, until it too was succeeded by the Corded Ware culture.Of the subsequent Bell Beaker culture (2700–2100 BC) several regions of origin have been postulated, notably the Iberian peninsula, the Netherlands and Central Europe. They introduced metalwork in copper, gold and later bronze and opened international trade routes not seen before, reflected in the discoveries of copper artifacts, as the metal is not normally found in Dutch soil. The many finds in Drenthe of rare bronze objects, suggest that it was even a trading centre in the Bronze Age (2000–800 BC). The Bell Beaker culture developed locally into the Barbed-Wire Beaker culture (2100–1800 BC) and later the Elp culture (c. 1800–800 BC), a Middle Bronze Age archaeological culture having earthenware pottery of low quality as a marker. The initial phase of the Elp culture was characterised by tumuli (1800–1200 BC) that were strongly tied to contemporary tumuli in northern Germany and Scandinavia and was apparently related to the Tumulus culture in central Europe. The subsequent phase was that of cremating the dead and placing their ashes in urns which were then buried in fields, following the customs of the Urnfield culture (1200–800 BC). The southern region became dominated by the related Hilversum culture (1800–800 BC), which apparently inherited cultural ties with Britain of the previous Barbed-Wire Beaker culture.From 800 BC onwards, the Iron Age Celtic Hallstatt culture became influential, replacing the Hilversum culture. Iron ore brought a measure of prosperity and was available throughout the country, including bog iron. Smiths travelled from settlement to settlement with bronze and iron, fabricating tools on demand. The King's grave of Oss (700 BC) was found in a burial mound, the largest of its kind in western Europe and containing an iron sword with an inlay of gold and coral.The deteriorating climate in Scandinavia around 850 BC further deteriorated around 650 BC and might have triggered migration of Germanic tribes from the North. By the time this migration was complete, around 250 BC, a few general cultural and linguistic groups had emerged. The North Sea Germanic Ingaevones inhabited the northern part of the Low Countries. They would later develop into the Frisii and the early Saxons. A second grouping, the Weser-Rhine Germanic (or Istvaeones), extended along the middle Rhine and Weser and inhabited the Low Countries south of the great rivers. This group consisted of tribes that would eventually develop into the Salian Franks. Also the Celtic La Tène culture (c. 450 BC up to the Roman conquest) had expanded over a wide range, including the southern area of the Low Countries. Some scholars have speculated that even a third ethnic identity and language, neither Germanic nor Celtic, survived in the Netherlands until the Roman period, the Iron Age Nordwestblock culture, that eventually was absorbed by the Celts to the south and the Germanic peoples from the east.The first author to describe the coast of Holland and Flanders was the Greek geographer Pytheas, who noted in c. 325 BC that in these regions, "more people died in the struggle against water than in the struggle against men." During the Gallic Wars, the area south and west of the Rhine was conquered by Roman forces under Julius Caesar from 57 BC to 53 BC. Caesar describes two main Celtic tribes living in what is now the southern Netherlands: the Menapii and the Eburones. The Rhine became fixed as Rome's northern frontier around 12 AD. Notable towns would arise along the Limes Germanicus: Nijmegen and Voorburg. In the first part of Gallia Belgica, the area south of the Limes became part of the Roman province of Germania Inferior. The area to the north of the Rhine, inhabited by the Frisii, remained outside Roman rule (but not its presence and control), while the Germanic border tribes of the Batavi and Cananefates served in the Roman cavalry. The Batavi rose against the Romans in the Batavian rebellion of 69 AD but were eventually defeated. The Batavi later merged with other tribes into the confederation of the Salian Franks, whose identity emerged at the first half of the third century. Salian Franks appear in Roman texts as both allies and enemies. They were forced by the confederation of the Saxons from the east to move over the Rhine into Roman territory in the fourth century. From their new base in West Flanders and the Southwest Netherlands, they were raiding the English Channel. Roman forces pacified the region, but did not expel the Franks, who continued to be feared at least until the time of Julian the Apostate (358) when Salian Franks were allowed to settle as "foederati" in Texandria. It has been postulated that after deteriorating climate conditions and the Romans' withdrawal, the Frisii disappeared as "laeti" in c. 296, leaving the coastal lands largely unpopulated for the next two centuries. However, recent excavations in Kennemerland show clear indication of a permanent habitation.After Roman government in the area collapsed, the Franks expanded their territories in numerous kingdoms. By the 490s, Clovis I had conquered and united all these territories in the southern Netherlands in one Frankish kingdom, and from there continued his conquests into Gaul. During this expansion, Franks migrating to the south eventually adopted the Vulgar Latin of the local population. A widening cultural divide grew with the Franks remaining in their original homeland in the north (i.e. the southern Netherlands and Flanders), who kept on speaking Old Frankish, which by the ninth century had evolved into Old Low Franconian or Old Dutch. A Dutch-French language boundary hence came into existence.To the north of the Franks, climatic conditions improved, and during the Migration Period Saxons, the closely related Angles, Jutes and Frisii settled the coastal land. Many moved on to England and came to be known as Anglo-Saxons, but those who stayed would be referred to as Frisians and their language as Frisian, named after the land that was once inhabited by Frisii. Frisian was spoken along the entire southern North Sea coast, and it is still the language most closely related to English among the living languages of continental Europe. By the seventh century a Frisian Kingdom (650–734) under King Aldegisel and King Redbad emerged with Traiectum (Utrecht) as its centre of power, while Dorestad was a flourishing trading place. Between 600 and around 719 the cities were often fought over between the Frisians and the Franks. In 734, at the Battle of the Boarn, the Frisians were defeated after a series of wars. With the approval of the Franks, the Anglo-Saxon missionary Willibrord converted the Frisian people to Christianity. He established the Archdiocese of Utrecht and became bishop of the Frisians. However, his successor Boniface was murdered by the Frisians in Dokkum, in 754.The Frankish Carolingian empire modelled itself on the Roman Empire and controlled much of Western Europe. However, in 843, it was divided into three parts—East, Middle, and West Francia. Most of present-day Netherlands became part of Middle Francia, which was a weak kingdom and subject of numerous partitions and annexation attempts by its stronger neighbours. It comprised territories from Frisia in the north to the Kingdom of Italy in the south. Around 850, Lothair I of Middle Francia acknowledged the Viking Rorik of Dorestad as ruler of most of Frisia. When the kingdom of Middle Francia was partitioned in 855, the lands north of the Alps passed to Lothair II and subsequently were named Lotharingia. After he died in 869, Lotharingia was partitioned, into Upper and Lower Lotharingia, the latter part comprising the Low Countries that technically became part of East Francia in 870, although it was effectively under the control of Vikings, who raided the largely defenceless Frisian and Frankish towns lying on the Frisian coast and along the rivers. Around 879, another Viking expedition led by Godfrid, Duke of Frisia, raided the Frisian lands. The Viking raids made the sway of French and German lords in the area weak. Resistance to the Vikings, if any, came from local nobles, who gained in stature as a result, and that laid the basis for the disintegration of Lower Lotharingia into semi-independent states. One of these local nobles was Gerolf of Holland, who assumed lordship in Frisia after he helped to assassinate Godfrid, and Viking rule came to an end.The Holy Roman Empire (the successor state of East Francia and then Lotharingia) ruled much of the Low Countries in the 10th and 11th century but was not able to maintain political unity. Powerful local nobles turned their cities, counties and duchies into private kingdoms that felt little sense of obligation to the emperor. Holland, Hainaut, Flanders, Gelre, Brabant, and Utrecht were in a state of almost continual war or in paradoxically formed personal unions. The language and culture of most of the people who lived in the County of Holland were originally Frisian. As Frankish settlement progressed from Flanders and Brabant, the area quickly became Old Low Franconian (or Old Dutch). The rest of Frisia in the north (now Friesland and Groningen) continued to maintain its independence and had its own institutions (collectively called the "Frisian freedom"), which resented the imposition of the feudal system.Around 1000 AD, due to several agricultural developments, the economy started to develop at a fast pace, and the higher productivity allowed workers to farm more land or to become tradesmen. Towns grew around monasteries and castles, and a mercantile middle class began to develop in these urban areas, especially in Flanders and later also Brabant. Wealthy cities started to buy certain privileges for themselves from the sovereign. In practice, this meant that Bruges and Antwerp became quasi-independent republics in their own right and would later develop into some of the most important cities and ports in Europe.Around 1100 AD, farmers from Flanders and Utrecht began draining and cultivating uninhabited swampy land in the western Netherlands, making the emergence of the County of Holland as the centre of power possible. The title of Count of Holland was fought over in the Hook and Cod Wars () between 1350 and 1490. The Cod faction consisted of the more progressive cities, while the Hook faction consisted of the conservative noblemen. These noblemen invited the Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy — who was also Count of Flanders — to conquer Holland.Most of the Imperial and French fiefs in what is now the Netherlands and Belgium were united in a personal union by Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, in 1433. The House of Valois-Burgundy and their Habsburg heirs would rule the Low Countries in the period from 1384 to 1581. Before the Burgundian union, the Dutch identified themselves by the town they lived in or their local duchy or county. The Burgundian period is when the road to nationhood began. The new rulers defended Dutch trading interests, which then developed rapidly. The fleets of the County of Holland defeated the fleets of the Hanseatic League several times. Amsterdam grew and in the 15th century became the primary trading port in Europe for grain from the Baltic region. Amsterdam distributed grain to the major cities of Belgium, Northern France and England. This trade was vital because Holland could no longer produce enough grain to feed itself. Land drainage had caused the peat of the former wetlands to reduce to a level that was too low for drainage to be maintained.Under Habsburg Charles V, ruler of the Holy Roman Empire and King of Spain, all fiefs in the current Netherlands region were united into the Seventeen Provinces, which also included most of present-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and some adjacent land in what is now France and Germany. In 1568, under Phillip II, the Eighty Years' War between the Provinces and their Spanish ruler began. The level of ferocity exhibited by both sides can be gleaned from a Dutch chronicler's report:The Duke of Alba ruthlessly attempted to suppress the Protestant movement in the Netherlands. Netherlanders were "burned, strangled, beheaded, or buried alive" by his "Blood Council" and his Spanish soldiers. Severed heads and decapitated corpses were displayed along streets and roads to terrorize the population into submission. Alba boasted of having executed 18,600, but this figure does not include those who perished by war and famine.The first great siege was Alba's effort to capture Haarlem and thereby cut Holland in half. It dragged on from December 1572 to the next summer, when Haarlemers finally surrendered on 13 July upon the promise that the city would be spared from being sacked. It was a stipulation Don Fadrique was unable to honour, when his soldiers mutinied, angered over pay owed and the miserable conditions they endured during the long, cold months of the campaign. On 4 November 1576, Spanish tercios seized Antwerp and subjected it to the worst pillage in the Netherlands' history. The citizens resisted, but were overcome; seven thousand of them were mowed down; a thousand buildings were torched; men, women, and children were slaughtered in a delirium of blood by soldiers crying, "Santiago! España! A sangre, a carne, a fuego, a sacco!" (Saint James! Spain! To blood, to the flesh, to fire, to sack!)Following the sack of Antwerp, delegates from Catholic Brabant, Protestant Holland and Zeeland agreed, at Ghent, to join Utrecht and William the Silent in driving out all Spanish troops and forming a new government for the Netherlands. Don Juan of Austria, the new Spanish governor, was forced to concede initially, but within months returned to active hostilities. As the fighting restarted, the Dutch began to look for help from the Queen of England, but she initially stood by her commitments to the Spanish in the Treaty of Bristol of 1574. The result was that when the next large-scale battle did occur at Gembloux in 1578, the Spanish forces easily won the day, killing at least 10,000 rebels, with the Spanish suffering few losses. In light of the defeat at Gembloux, the southern states of the Seventeen Provinces (today in northern France and Belgium) distanced themselves from the rebels in the north with the 1579 Union of Arras, which expressed their loyalty to Philip II of Spain. Opposing them, the northern half of the Seventeen Provinces forged the Union of Utrecht (also of 1579) in which they committed to support each other in their defence against the Spanish army. The Union of Utrecht is seen as the foundation of the modern Netherlands.Spanish troops sacked Maastricht in 1579, killing over 10,000 civilians and thereby ensuring the rebellion continued. In 1581, the northern provinces adopted the Act of Abjuration, the declaration of independence in which the provinces officially deposed Philip II as reigning monarch in the northern provinces. Against the rebels Philip could draw on the resources of Spain, Spanish America, Spanish Italy and the Spanish Netherlands. The Protestant Queen Elizabeth I of England sympathised with the Dutch struggle against the Spanish and sent an army of 7,600 soldiers to aid the Dutch in their war with the Catholic Spanish. English forces under the Earl of Leicester and then Lord Willoughby faced the Spanish in the Netherlands under the Duke of Parma in a series of largely indecisive actions that tied down significant numbers of Spanish troops and bought time for the Dutch to reorganise their defences. The war continued until 1648, when Spain under King Philip IV finally recognised the independence of the seven north-western provinces in the Peace of Münster. Parts of the southern provinces became "de facto" colonies of the new republican-mercantile empire.After declaring their independence, the provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Groningen, Friesland, Utrecht, Overijssel, and Gelderland formed a confederation. All these duchies, lordships and counties were autonomous and had their own government, the States-Provincial. The States General, the confederal government, were seated in The Hague and consisted of representatives from each of the seven provinces. The sparsely populated region of Drenthe was part of the republic too, although it was not considered one of the provinces. Moreover, the Republic had come to occupy during the Eighty Years' War a number of so-called Generality Lands in Flanders, Brabant and Limburg. Their population was mainly Roman Catholic, and these areas did not have a governmental structure of their own, and were used as a buffer zone between the Republic and the Spanish-controlled Southern Netherlands.In the Dutch Golden Age, spanning much of the 17th century, the Dutch Empire grew to become one of the major seafaring and economic powers, alongside Portugal, Spain, France and England. Science, military, and art (especially painting) were among the most acclaimed in the world. By 1650, the Dutch owned 16,000 merchant ships. The Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company established colonies and trading posts all over the world, including ruling the northern parts of Taiwan between 1624–1662 and 1664–1667. The Dutch settlement in North America began with the founding of New Amsterdam on the southern part of Manhattan in 1614. In South Africa, the Dutch settled the Cape Colony in 1652. Dutch colonies in South America were established along the many rivers in the fertile Guyana plains, among them Colony of Surinam (now Suriname). In Asia, the Dutch established the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia), and the only western trading post in Japan, Dejima.During the period of Proto-industrialization, the empire received 50% of textiles and 80% of silks import from the India's Mughal Empire, chiefly from its most developed region known as Bengal Subah.Many economic historians regard the Netherlands as the first thoroughly capitalist country in the world. In early modern Europe, it had the wealthiest trading city (Amsterdam) and the first full-time stock exchange. The inventiveness of the traders led to insurance and retirement funds as well as phenomena such as the boom-bust cycle, the world's first asset-inflation bubble, the tulip mania of 1636–1637, and the world's first bear raider, Isaac le Maire, who forced prices down by dumping stock and then buying it back at a discount. In 1672 – known in Dutch history as the Rampjaar (Disaster Year) – the Dutch Republic was at war with France, England and three German Bishoprics simultaneously. At sea, it could successfully prevent the English and French navy from entering the western shores. On land, however, it was almost taken over internally by the advancing French and German armies coming from the east. It managed to turn the tide by inundating parts of Holland but could never recover to its former glory again and went into a state of a general decline in the 18th century, with economic competition from England and long-standing rivalries between the two main factions in Dutch society, the republican "Staatsgezinden" and the supporters of the stadtholder the "Prinsgezinden" as main political factions.With the armed support of revolutionary France, Dutch republicans proclaimed the Batavian Republic, modelled after the French Republic and rendering the Netherlands a unitary state on 19 January 1795. The stadtholder William V of Orange had fled to England. But from 1806 to 1810, the Kingdom of Holland was set up by Napoleon Bonaparte as a puppet kingdom governed by his brother Louis Bonaparte to control the Netherlands more effectively. However, King Louis Bonaparte tried to serve Dutch interests instead of his brother's, and he was forced to abdicate on 1 July 1810. The Emperor sent in an army and the Netherlands became part of the French Empire until the autumn of 1813 when Napoleon was defeated in the Battle of Leipzig.William Frederick, son of the last stadtholder, returned to the Netherlands in 1813 and proclaimed himself Sovereign Prince of the Netherlands. Two years later, the Congress of Vienna added the southern Netherlands to the north to create a strong country on the northern border of France. William Frederick raised this United Netherlands to the status of a kingdom and proclaimed himself as King William I in 1815. In addition, William became hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg in exchange for his German possessions. However, the Southern Netherlands had been culturally separate from the north since 1581, and rebelled. The south gained independence in 1830 as Belgium (recognised by the Northern Netherlands in 1839 as the Kingdom of the Netherlands was created by decree), while the personal union between Luxembourg and the Netherlands was severed in 1890, when William III died with no surviving male heirs. Ascendancy laws prevented his daughter Queen Wilhelmina from becoming the next Grand Duchess.The Belgian Revolution at home and the Java War in the Dutch East Indies brought the Netherlands to the brink of bankruptcy. However, the Cultivation System was introduced in 1830; in the Dutch East Indies, 20% of village land had to be devoted to government crops for export. The policy brought the Dutch enormous wealth and made the colony self-sufficient.The Netherlands abolished slavery in its colonies in 1863. Slaves in Suriname would be fully free only in 1873, since the law stipulated that there was to be a mandatory 10-year transition.The Netherlands was able to remain neutral during World War I, in part because the import of goods through the Netherlands proved essential to German survival until the blockade by the British Royal Navy in 1916. That changed in World War II, when Nazi Germany invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940. The Rotterdam Blitz forced the main element of the Dutch army to surrender four days later. During the occupation, over 100,000 Dutch Jews were rounded up and transported to Nazi extermination camps; only a few of them survived. Dutch workers were conscripted for forced labour in Germany, civilians who resisted were killed in reprisal for attacks on German soldiers, and the countryside was plundered for food. Although there were thousands of Dutch who risked their lives by hiding Jews from the Germans, over 20,000 Dutch fascists joined the Waffen SS, fighting on the Eastern Front. Political collaborators were members of the fascist NSB, the only legal political party in the occupied Netherlands. On 8 December 1941, the Dutch government-in-exile in London declared war on Japan, but could not prevent the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia). In 1944–45, the First Canadian Army, which included Canadian, British and Polish troops, was responsible for liberating much of the Netherlands. Soon after VE Day, the Dutch fought a colonial war against the new Republic of Indonesia.In 1954, the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands reformed the political structure of the Netherlands, which was a result of international pressure to carry out decolonisation. The Dutch colonies of Surinam and Curaçao and Dependencies and the European country all became countries within the Kingdom, on a basis of equality. Indonesia had declared its independence in August 1945 (recognised in 1949), and thus was never part of the reformed Kingdom. Suriname followed in 1975. After the war, the Netherlands left behind an era of neutrality and gained closer ties with neighbouring states. The Netherlands was one of the founding members of the Benelux, the NATO, Euratom and the European Coal and Steel Community, which would evolve into the EEC (Common Market) and later the European Union.Government-encouraged emigration efforts to reduce population density prompted some 500,000 Dutch people to leave the country after the war. The 1960s and 1970s were a time of great social and cultural change, such as rapid de-pillarisation characterised by the decay of the old divisions along political and religious lines. Youths, and students in particular, rejected traditional mores and pushed for change in matters such as women's rights, sexuality, disarmament and environmental issues. In 2002 the euro was introduced as fiat money, and in 2010 the Netherlands Antilles was dissolved. Referendums were held on each island to determine their future status. As a result, the islands of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba (the BES islands) were to obtain closer ties with the Netherlands. This led to the incorporation of these three islands into the country of the Netherlands as "special municipalities" upon the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles. The special municipalities are collectively known as the Caribbean Netherlands.According to the Central Bureau of Statistics, the European Netherlands has a total area of , including water bodies; and a land area of . The Caribbean Netherlands has a total area of It lies between latitudes 50° and 54° N, and longitudes 3° and 8° E.The Netherlands is geographically very low relative to sea level and is considered a flat country, with about 26% of its area and 21% of its population located below sea level, and only about 50% of its land exceeding one metre above sea level. The European part of the country is for the most part flat, with the exception of foothills in the far southeast, up to a height of no more than 321 metres, and some low hill ranges in the central parts. Most of the areas below sea level are man-made, caused by peat extraction or achieved through land reclamation. Since the late 16th century, large polder areas are preserved through elaborate drainage systems that include dikes, canals and pumping stations. Nearly 17% of the country's land area is reclaimed from the sea and from lakes.Much of the country was originally formed by the estuaries of three large European rivers: the Rhine ("Rijn"), the Meuse ("Maas") and the Scheldt ("Schelde"), as well as their tributaries. The south-western part of the Netherlands is to this day a river delta of these three rivers, the Rhine-Meuse-Scheldt delta.The European Netherlands is divided into north and south parts by the Rhine, the Waal, its main tributary branch, and the Meuse. In the past, these rivers functioned as a natural barrier between fiefdoms and hence historically created a cultural divide, as is evident in some phonetic traits that are recognisable on either side of what the Dutch call their "Great Rivers" ("de Grote Rivieren"). Another significant branch of the Rhine, the IJssel river, discharges into Lake IJssel, the former Zuiderzee ('southern sea'). Just like the previous, this river forms a linguistic divide: people to the northeast of this river speak Dutch Low Saxon dialects (except for the province of Friesland, which has its own language).The modern Netherlands formed as a result of the interplay of the four main rivers (Rhine, Meuse, Schelde and IJssel) and the influence of the North Sea. The Netherlands is mostly composed of deltaic, coastal and eolian derived sediments during the Pleistocene glacial and interglacial periods.Almost the entire west Netherlands is composed of the Rhine-Meuse river estuary, but human intervention greatly modified the natural processes at work. Most of the western Netherlands is below sea level due to the human process of turning standing bodies of water into usable land, a polder.In the east of the Netherlands, remains are found of the last ice age, which ended approximately ten thousand years ago. As the continental ice sheet moved in from the north, it pushed moraine forward. The ice sheet halted as it covered the eastern half of the Netherlands. After the ice age ended, the moraine remained in the form of a long hill-line. The cities of Arnhem and Nijmegen are built upon these hills.Over the centuries, the Dutch coastline has changed considerably as a result of natural disasters and human intervention.On 14 December 1287, St. Lucia's flood affected the Netherlands and Germany, killing more than 50,000 people in one of the most destructive floods in recorded history. The St. Elizabeth flood of 1421 and the mismanagement in its aftermath destroyed a newly reclaimed polder, replacing it with the "Biesbosch" tidal floodplains in the south-centre. The huge North Sea flood of early February 1953 caused the collapse of several dikes in the south-west of the Netherlands; more than 1,800 people drowned in the flood. The Dutch government subsequently instituted a large-scale programme, the "Delta Works", to protect the country against future flooding, which was completed over a period of more than thirty years.The impact of disasters was, to an extent, increased through human activity. Relatively high-lying swampland was drained to be used as farmland. The drainage caused the fertile peat to contract and ground levels to drop, upon which groundwater levels were lowered to compensate for the drop in ground level, causing the underlying peat to contract further. Additionally, until the 19th-century peat was mined, dried, and used for fuel, further exacerbating the problem. Centuries of extensive and poorly controlled peat extraction lowered an already low land surface by several metres. Even in flooded areas, peat extraction continued through turf dredging.Because of the flooding, farming was difficult, which encouraged foreign trade, the result of which was that the Dutch were involved in world affairs since the early 14th/15th century.To guard against floods, a series of defences against the water were contrived. In the first millennium AD, villages and farmhouses were built on man-made hills called "terps". Later, these terps were connected by dikes. In the 12th century, local government agencies called ""waterschappen"" ("water boards") or ""hoogheemraadschappen"" ("high home councils") started to appear, whose job it was to maintain the water level and to protect a region from floods; these agencies continue to exist. As the ground level dropped, the dikes by necessity grew and merged into an integrated system. By the 13th century windmills had come into use to pump water out of areas below sea level. The windmills were later used to drain lakes, creating the famous polders.In 1932 the "Afsluitdijk" ("Closure Dike") was completed, blocking the former "Zuiderzee" (Southern Sea) from the North Sea and thus creating the IJsselmeer (IJssel Lake). It became part of the larger Zuiderzee Works in which four polders totalling were reclaimed from the sea.The Netherlands is one of the countries that may suffer most from climate change. Not only is the rising sea a problem, but erratic weather patterns may cause the rivers to overflow.After the 1953 disaster, the Delta Works was constructed, which is a comprehensive set of civil works throughout the Dutch coast. The project started in 1958 and was largely completed in 1997 with the completion of the Maeslantkering. Since then, new projects have been periodically started to renovate and renew the Delta Works. The main goal of the Delta project was to reduce the risk of flooding in South Holland and Zeeland to once per 10,000 years (compared to once per 4000 years for the rest of the country). This was achieved by raising of outer sea-dikes and of the inner, canal, and river dikes, and by closing off the sea estuaries of the Zeeland province. New risk assessments occasionally show problems requiring additional Delta project dike reinforcements. The Delta project is considered by the American Society of Civil Engineers as one of the seven wonders of the modern world.It is anticipated that global warming in the 21st century will result in a rise in sea level. The Netherlands is actively preparing for a sea-level rise. A politically neutral Delta Commission has formulated an action plan to cope with a sea-level rise of and a simultaneous land height decline of . The plan encompasses the reinforcement of the existing coastal defences like dikes and dunes with of additional flood protection. Climate change will not only threaten the Netherlands from the seaside but could also alter rainfall patterns and river run-off. To protect the country from river flooding, another programme is already being executed. The Room for the River plan grants more flow space to rivers, protects the major populated areas and allows for periodic flooding of indefensible lands. The few residents who lived in these so-called "overflow areas" have been moved to higher ground, with some of that ground having been raised above anticipated flood levels.The predominant wind direction in the European Netherlands is southwest, which causes a mild maritime climate, with moderately warm summers and cool winters, and typically high humidity. This is especially true close to the Dutch coastline, where the difference in temperature between summer and winter, as well as between day and night is noticeably smaller than it is in the southeast of the country.Ice days—maximum temperature below —usually occur from December until February, with the occasional rare ice day prior to or after that period. Freezing days—minimum temperature below —occur much more often, usually ranging from mid-November to late March, but not rarely measured as early as mid-October and as late as mid-May. If one chooses the height of measurement to be above ground instead of , one may even find such temperatures in the middle of the summer. On average, snow can occur from November to April but sometimes occurs in May or October too.Warm days—maximum temperature above —are usually found in April to October, but in some parts of the country these warm days can also occur in March, or even sometimes in November or February (usually not in , however). Summer days—maximum temperature above —are usually measured in from May until September, tropical days—maximum temperature above —are rare and usually occur only in June to August.Precipitation throughout the year is distributed relatively equally each month. Summer and autumn months tend to gather a little more precipitation than the other months, mainly because of the intensity of the rainfall rather than the frequency of rain days (this is especially the case in summer when lightning is also much more frequent).The number of sunshine hours is affected by the fact that because of the geographical latitude, the length of the days varies between barely eight hours in December and nearly 17 hours in June.The following table are based on mean measurements by the KNMI weather station in De Bilt between 1991 and 2020. The highest recorded temperature was reached on 25 July 2019 in Gilze-Rijen.The Netherlands has 20 national parks and hundreds of other nature reserves, that include lakes, heathland, woods, dunes, and other habitats. Most of these are owned by Staatsbosbeheer, the national department for forestry and nature conservation and Natuurmonumenten (literally 'Natures monuments'), a private organisation that buys, protects and manages nature reserves. The Dutch part of the Wadden Sea in the north, with its tidal flats and wetlands, is rich in biological diversity, and was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Nature Site in 2009.The Oosterschelde, formerly the northeast estuary of the river Scheldt was designated a national park in 2002, thereby making it the largest national park in the Netherlands at an area of . It consists primarily of the salt waters of the Oosterschelde but also includes mudflats, meadows, and shoals. Because of the large variety of sea life, including unique regional species, the park is popular with Scuba divers. Other activities include sailing, fishing, cycling, and bird watching.Phytogeographically, the European Netherlands is shared between the Atlantic European and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, the European territory of the Netherlands belongs to the ecoregion of Atlantic mixed forests. In 1871, the last old original natural woods were cut down, and most woods today are planted monocultures of trees like Scots pine and trees that are not native to the Netherlands. These woods were planted on anthropogenic heaths and sand-drifts (overgrazed heaths) (Veluwe). The Netherlands had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 0.6/10, ranking it 169th globally out of 172 countries.While Curaçao, Aruba and Sint Maarten have a constituent country status, the Caribbean Netherlands are three islands designated as special municipalities of the Netherlands. The islands are part of the Lesser Antilles and have land borders with France (Saint Martin) and maritime borders with Anguilla, Curaçao, France (Saint Barthélemy), Saint Kitts and Nevis, Sint Maarten, the U.S. Virgin Islands and Venezuela.Within this island group:The islands of the Caribbean Netherlands enjoy a tropical climate with warm weather all year round. The Leeward Antilles are warmer and drier than the Windward islands. In summer, the Windward Islands can be subject to hurricanes.The Netherlands has been a constitutional monarchy since 1815, and due to the efforts of Johan Rudolph Thorbecke became a parliamentary democracy in 1848. The Netherlands is described as a consociational state. Dutch politics and governance are characterised by an effort to achieve broad consensus on important issues, within both the political community and society as a whole. In 2017, "The Economist" ranked the Netherlands as the 11th most democratic country in the world.The monarch is the head of state, at present King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands. Constitutionally, the position is equipped with limited powers. By law, the King has the right to be periodically briefed and consulted on government affairs. Depending on the personalities and relationships of the King and the ministers, the monarch might have influence beyond the power granted by the Constitution of the Netherlands.The executive power is formed by the Council of Ministers, the deliberative organ of the Dutch cabinet. The cabinet usually consists of 13 to 16 ministers and a varying number of state secretaries. One to three ministers are ministers without portfolio. The head of government is the Prime Minister of the Netherlands, who often is the leader of the largest party of the coalition. The Prime Minister is a "primus inter pares", with no explicit powers beyond those of the other ministers. Mark Rutte has been Prime Minister since October 2010; the Prime Minister had been the leader of the largest party of the governing coalition continuously since 1973.The cabinet is responsible to the bicameral parliament, the States General, which also has legislative powers. The 150 members of the House of Representatives, the lower house, are elected in direct elections on the basis of party-list proportional representation. These are held every four years, or sooner in case the cabinet falls (for example: when one of the chambers carries a motion of no confidence, the cabinet offers its resignation to the monarch). The States-Provincial are directly elected every four years as well. The members of the provincial assemblies elect the 75 members of the Senate, the upper house, which has the power to reject laws, but not propose or amend them. Both houses send members to the Benelux Parliament, a consultative council.Both trade unions and employers organisations are consulted beforehand in policymaking in the financial, economic and social areas. They meet regularly with the government in the Social-Economic Council. This body advises government and its advice cannot be put aside easily.The Netherlands has a long tradition of social tolerance. In the 18th century, while the Dutch Reformed Church was the state religion, Catholicism, other forms of Protestantism, such as Baptists and Lutherans, as well as Judaism were tolerated but discriminated against.In the late 19th century this Dutch tradition of religious tolerance transformed into a system of pillarisation, in which religious groups coexisted separately and only interacted at the level of government. This tradition of tolerance influences Dutch criminal justice policies on recreational drugs, prostitution, LGBT rights, euthanasia, and abortion, which are among the most liberal in the world.Because of the multi-party system, no single party has held a majority in parliament since the 19th century, as a result, coalition cabinets had to be formed. Since suffrage became universal in 1917, the Dutch political system has been dominated by three families of political parties: the strongest of which were the Christian Democrats, currently represented by the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA); second were the Social Democrats, represented by the Labour Party (PvdA); and third were the Liberals, of which the right-wing People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD) is the main representative.These parties co-operated in coalition cabinets in which the Christian Democrats had always been a partner: so either a centre-left coalition of the Christian Democrats and Social Democrats was ruling or a centre-right coalition of Christian Democrats and Liberals. In the 1970s, the party system became more volatile: the Christian Democratic parties lost seats, while new parties became successful, such as the radical democrat and progressive liberal Democrats 66 (D66) or the ecologist party GroenLinks (GL).In the 1994 election, the CDA lost its dominant position. A "purple" cabinet was formed by the VVD, D66, and PvdA. In the 2002 elections, this cabinet lost its majority, because of an increased support for the CDA and the rise of the right-wing LPF, a new political party, around Pim Fortuyn, who was assassinated a week before the elections. A short-lived cabinet was formed by CDA, VVD, and LPF, which was led by the CDA Leader Jan Peter Balkenende. After the 2003 elections, in which the LPF lost most of its seats, a cabinet was formed by the CDA, VVD, and D66. The cabinet initiated an ambitious programme of reforming the welfare state, the healthcare system, and immigration policy.In June 2006, the cabinet fell after D66 voted in favour of a motion of no confidence against the Minister of Immigration and Integration, Rita Verdonk, who had instigated an investigation of the asylum procedure of Ayaan Hirsi Ali, a VVD MP. A caretaker cabinet was formed by the CDA and VVD, and general elections were held on 22 November 2006. In these elections, the CDA remained the largest party and the Socialist Party made the largest gains. The formation of a new cabinet took three months, resulting in a coalition of CDA, PvdA, and Christian Union.On 20 February 2010, the cabinet fell when the PvdA refused to prolong the involvement of the Dutch Army in Uruzgan, Afghanistan. Snap elections were held on 9 June 2010, with devastating results for the previously largest party, the CDA, which lost about half of its seats, resulting in 21 seats. The VVD became the largest party with 31 seats, closely followed by the PvdA with 30 seats. The big winner of the 2010 elections was Geert Wilders, whose right wing PVV, the ideological successor to the LPF, more than doubled its number of seats. Negotiation talks for a new government resulted in a minority government, led by VVD (a first) in coalition with CDA, which was sworn in on 14 October 2010. This unprecedented minority government was supported by PVV, but proved ultimately to be unstable, when on 21 April 2012, Wilders, leader of PVV, unexpectedly 'torpedoed seven weeks of austerity talks' on new austerity measures, paving the way for early elections.VVD and PvdA won a majority in the House of Representatives during the 2012 general election. On 5 November 2012 they formed the second Rutte cabinet. After the 2017 general election, VVD, Christian Democratic Appeal, Democrats 66 and ChristenUnie formed the third Rutte cabinet. This cabinet resigned in January 2021, two months before the general election, after a child welfare fraud scandal. In March 2021, centre-right VVD of Prime Minister Mark Rutte was the winner of the elections, securing 35 out of 150 seats. The second biggest party was the centre-left D66 with 24 seats. Geert Wilders' far-right party lost its support. Prime Minister Mark Rutte, in power since 2010, formed his fourth coalition government.The Netherlands is divided into twelve provinces, each under a King's Commissioner ("Commissaris van de Koning"). Informally in Limburg province this position is named Governor ("Gouverneur"). All provinces are divided into municipalities ("gemeenten"), of which there are 355 (2019).The country is also subdivided into 21 water districts, governed by a water board ("waterschap" or "hoogheemraadschap"), each having authority in matters concerning water management. The creation of water boards actually pre-dates that of the nation itself, the first appearing in 1196. The Dutch water boards are among the oldest democratic entities in the world still in existence. Direct elections of the water boards take place every four years.The administrative structure on the three BES islands, collectively known as the Caribbean Netherlands, is outside the twelve provinces. These islands have the status of "openbare lichamen (public bodies)". In the Netherlands these administrative units are often referred to as "special municipalities".The Netherlands has several Belgian exclaves and within those even several enclaves which are part of the province of North Brabant. Because the Netherlands and Belgium are both in the Benelux, and more recently in the Schengen Area, citizens of respective countries can travel through these enclaves without controls.The history of Dutch foreign policy has been characterised by its neutrality. Since World War II, the Netherlands has become a member of a large number of international organisations, most prominently the UN, NATO and the EU. The Dutch economy is very open and relies strongly on international trade.The foreign policy of the Netherlands is based on four basic commitments: to Atlantic co-operation, to European integration, to international development and to international law. One of the more controversial international issues surrounding the Netherlands is its liberal policy towards soft drugs.During and after the Dutch Golden Age, the Dutch people built up a commercial and colonial empire. The most important colonies were present-day Suriname and Indonesia. Indonesia became independent after the Indonesian National Revolution in the 1940s following a war of independence, international pressure and several United Nations Security Council resolutions. Suriname became independent in 1975. The historical ties inherited from its colonial past still influence the foreign relations of the Netherlands. In addition, many people from these countries are living permanently in the Netherlands.The Netherlands has one of the oldest standing armies in Europe; it was first established as such by Maurice of Nassau in the late 1500s. The Dutch army was used throughout the Dutch Empire. After the defeat of Napoleon, the Dutch army was transformed into a conscription army. The army was unsuccessfully deployed during the Belgian Revolution in 1830. After 1830, it was deployed mainly in the Dutch colonies, as the Netherlands remained neutral in European wars (including the First World War), until the Netherlands was invaded in World War II and defeated by the Wehrmacht in May 1940.The Netherlands abandoned its neutrality in 1948 when it signed the Treaty of Brussels, and became a founding member of NATO in 1949. The Dutch military was therefore part of the NATO strength in Cold War Europe, deploying its army to several bases in Germany. More than 3,000 Dutch soldiers were assigned to the 2nd Infantry Division of the United States Army during the Korean War. In 1996 conscription was suspended, and the Dutch army was once again transformed into a professional army. Since the 1990s the Dutch army has been involved in the Bosnian War and the Kosovo War, it held a province in Iraq after the defeat of Saddam Hussein, and it was engaged in Afghanistan.The military is composed of four branches, all of which carry the prefix "Koninklijke" (Royal):The submarine service opened to women on 1 January 2017. The Korps Commandotroepen, the Special Operations Force of the Netherlands Army, is open to women, but because of the extremely high physical demands for initial training, it is almost impossible for a woman to become a commando. The Dutch Ministry of Defence employs more than 70,000 personnel, including over 20,000 civilians and over 50,000 military personnel. In April 2011 the government announced a major reduction in its military because of a cut in government expenditure, including a decrease in the number of tanks, fighter aircraft, naval ships and senior officials.The Netherlands has ratified many international conventions concerning war law. The Netherlands decided not to sign the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.The Netherlands has a developed economy and has been playing a special role in the European economy for many centuries. Since the 16th century, shipping, fishing, agriculture, trade, and banking have been leading sectors of the Dutch economy. The Netherlands has a high level of economic freedom. The Netherlands is one of the top countries in the Global Enabling Trade Report (2nd in 2016), and was ranked the fifth most competitive economy in the world by the Swiss International Institute for Management Development in 2017. In addition, the country was ranked the second most innovative nation in the world in the 2018 Global Innovation Index., the key trading partners of the Netherlands were Germany, Belgium, the United Kingdom, the United States, France, Italy, China and Russia. The Netherlands is one of the world's 10 leading exporting countries. Foodstuffs form the largest industrial sector. Other major industries include chemicals, metallurgy, machinery, electrical goods, trade, services and tourism. Examples of international Dutch companies operating in Netherlands include Randstad, Unilever, Heineken, KLM, financial services (ING, ABN AMRO, Rabobank), chemicals (DSM, AKZO), petroleum refining (Royal Dutch Shell), electronical machinery (Philips, ASML), and satellite navigation (TomTom).The Netherlands has the 17th-largest economy in the world, and ranks 11th in GDP (nominal) per capita. Between 1997 and 2000 annual economic growth (GDP) averaged nearly 4%, well above the European average. Growth slowed considerably from 2001 to 2005 with the global economic slowdown, but accelerated to 4.1% in the third quarter of 2007. In May 2013, inflation was at 2.8% per year. In April 2013, unemployment was at 8.2% (or 6.7% following the ILO definition) of the labour force. In February 2019, this was reduced to 3.4%.In Q3 and Q4 2011, the Dutch economy contracted by 0.4% and 0.7%, respectively, because of European Debt Crisis, while in Q4 the Eurozone economy shrunk by 0.3%. The Netherlands also has a relatively low GINI coefficient of 0.326. Despite ranking 11th in GDP per capita, UNICEF ranked the Netherlands 1st in child well-being in rich countries, both in 2007 and in 2013. On the Index of Economic Freedom Netherlands is the 14th most free market capitalist economy out of 180 surveyed countries.Amsterdam is the financial and business capital of the Netherlands. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange (AEX), part of Euronext, is the world's oldest stock exchange and is one of Europe's largest bourses. It is situated near Dam Square in the city's centre. As a founding member of the euro, the Netherlands replaced (for accounting purposes) its former currency, the "gulden" (guilder), on 1 January 1999, along with 15 other adopters of the euro. Actual euro coins and banknotes followed on 1 January 2002. One euro was equivalent to 2.20371 Dutch guilders. In the Caribbean Netherlands, the United States dollar is used instead of the euro.The Dutch location gives it prime access to markets in the UK and Germany, with the Port of Rotterdam being the largest port in Europe. Other important parts of the economy are international trade (Dutch colonialism started with co-operative private enterprises such as the Dutch East India Company), banking and transport. The Netherlands successfully addressed the issue of public finances and stagnating job growth long before its European partners. Amsterdam is the 5th-busiest tourist destination in Europe with more than 4.2 million international visitors. Since the enlargement of the EU large numbers of migrant workers have arrived in the Netherlands from Central and Eastern Europe.The Netherlands continues to be one of the leading European nations for attracting foreign direct investment and is one of the five largest investors in the United States. The economy experienced a slowdown in 2005, but in 2006 recovered to the fastest pace in six years on the back of increased exports and strong investment. The pace of job growth reached 10-year highs in 2007. The Netherlands is the fourth-most competitive economy in the world, according to the World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report.Beginning in the 1950s, the Netherlands discovered huge natural gas resources. The sale of natural gas generated enormous revenues for the Netherlands for decades, adding hundreds of billions of euros to the government's budget. However, the unforeseen consequences of the country's huge energy wealth impacted the competitiveness of other sectors of the economy, leading to the theory of Dutch disease.Apart from coal and gas, the country has no mining resources. The last coal mine was closed in 1974. The Groningen gas field, one of the largest natural-gas fields in the world, is situated near Slochteren. The exploitation of this field has resulted in €159 billion in revenue since the mid-1970s. The field is operated by government-owned Gasunie and output is jointly exploited by the government, Royal Dutch Shell, and Exxon Mobil through NAM (Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij). "Gas extraction has resulted in increasingly strong earth tremors, some measuring as much as 3.6 on the Richter magnitude scale. The cost of damage repairs, structural improvements to buildings, and compensation for home value decreases has been estimated at €6.5 billion. Around 35,000 homes are said to be affected." The Netherlands has an estimated 25% of natural gas reserves in the EU. The energy sector accounted for almost 11% of the GDP in 2014. Netherlands' economy, mainly due to the large shares of natural gas reserves, is considered to have "very high" energy intensity rating.The Netherlands is faced with future challenges as the energy supply is forecasted to fall short of the demand by the year 2025 in the gas sector. This is attributed to the depletion of the Netherlands' major gas field, Groningen, and the earthquakes that have hit the Groningen region. In addition, there is ambiguity surrounding the feasibility of producing unconventional gas. The Netherlands relies heavily on natural gas to provide energy. Gas is the main source of heating for households in the Netherlands and represented 35% of the energy mix in 2014. Furthermore, The European Union 2020 package (20% reduction in GHG emissions, 20% renewables in the energy mix and 20% improvement in energy efficiency) enacted in 2009 has influenced the domestic energy politics of Netherlands and pressured non-state actors to give consent to more aggressive energy reforms that would reduce reliance on natural resources as a source of income to the economy. Therefore, a transition towards renewable energy has been a key objective by Netherlands in order to safeguard the energy security of the country from natural resources depletion, mainly gas. Netherlands has set a 14% renewable energy target of the total energy mix by the year 2020. However, the continuation of providing tax breaks to electricity generated by coal and gas, and to the exploration and extraction of gas from fields that are "insufficiently" profitable, renders a successful transition towards renewable energy more difficult to achieve due to inconsistencies in the policy mix. In 2011, it was estimated that the renewable energy sector received 31% (EUR 743MM), while the conventional energy sector received 69% (EUR 1.6B), of the total energy subsidies by the government. Furthermore, the energy market in the Netherlands remains to be dominated by few major corporations Nuon, RWE, E.ON, Eneco, and Delta that have significant influence over the energy policy. Renewable energy share in the energy mix is estimated to reach 12.4% by the year 2020, falling 1.6% short of the 14% target.From a biological resource perspective, the Netherlands has a low endowment: the Netherlands’ biocapacity adds up to only 0.8 global hectares in 2016, 0.2 of which are dedicated to agriculture. The Dutch biocapacity per person is just about half of the 1.6 global hectares of biocapacity per person available worldwide. In contrast, in 2016, the Dutch used on average 4.8 global hectares of biocapacity - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means the Dutch required nearly six times as much biocapacity as the Netherlands contains. As a result, the Netherlands was running a biocapacity deficit of 4.0 global hectares per person in 2016.The Dutch agricultural sector is highly mechanised, and has a strong focus on international exports. It employs about 4% of the Dutch labour force but produces large surpluses in the food-processing industry and accounts for 21% of the Dutch total export value. The Dutch rank first in the European Union and second worldwide in value of agricultural exports, behind only the United States, with agricultural exports earning €80.7 billion in 2014, up from €75.4 billion in 2012. In 2019 agricultural exports were worth €94.5 billion.One-third of the world's exports of chilis, tomatoes, and cucumbers goes through the country. The Netherlands also exports one-fifteenth of the world's apples.Aside from that, a significant portion of Dutch agricultural exports consists of fresh-cut plants, flowers, and flower bulbs, with the Netherlands exporting two-thirds of the world's total.The Netherlands had an estimated population of 17,493,969 as of 30 April 2021. It is the 5th most densely populated country in Europe, and except for the very small city-states like Monaco, Vatican City and San Marino it is the most densely populated country in Europe. And it is the 16th most densely populated country in the world with a density of . It is the 67th most populous country in the world. Between 1900 and 1950, the country's population almost doubled from 5.1 to 10 million. From 1950 to 2000, the population further increased, to 15.9 million, though this represented a lower rate of population growth. The estimated growth rate is 0.44%.The fertility rate in the Netherlands is 1.78 children per woman (2018 estimate), which is high compared with many other European countries, but below the rate of 2.1 children per woman required for natural population replacement, it remains considerably below the high of 5.39 children born per woman in 1879. Netherlands subsequently has one of the oldest populations in the world, with the average age of 42.7 years. Life expectancy is high in the Netherlands: 84.3 years for newborn girls and 79.7 for boys (2020 estimate). The country has a migration rate of 1.9 migrants per 1,000 inhabitants per year. The majority of the population of the Netherlands is ethnically Dutch. According to a 2005 estimate, the population was 80.9% Dutch, 2.4% Indonesian, 2.4% German, 2.2% Turkish, 2.0% Surinamese, 1.9% Moroccan, 0.8% Antillean and Aruban, and 7.4% others. Some 150,000 to 200,000 people living in the Netherlands are expatriates, mostly concentrated in and around Amsterdam and The Hague, now constituting almost 10% of the population of these cities.The Dutch are the tallest people in the world, by nationality, with an average height of for adult males and for adult females in 2009. People in the south are on average about shorter than those in the north.According to Eurostat, in 2010 there were 1.8 million foreign-born residents in the Netherlands, corresponding to 11.1% of the total population. Of these, 1.4 million (8.5%) were born outside the EU and 0.43 million (2.6%) were born in another EU Member State. On 21 November 2016, there were 3.8 million residents in the Netherlands with at least one foreign-born parent ("migration background"). Over half the young people in Amsterdam and Rotterdam have a non-western background. Dutch people, or descendants of Dutch people, are also found in migrant communities worldwide, notably in Canada, Australia, South Africa and the United States. According to the United States Census Bureau (2006), more than 5 million Americans claim total or partial Dutch ancestry. There are close to 3 million Dutch-descended Afrikaners living in South Africa. In 1940, there were 290,000 Europeans and Eurasians in Indonesia, but most have since left the country.The Randstad is the country's largest conurbation located in the west of the country and contains the four largest cities: Amsterdam in the province North Holland, Rotterdam and The Hague in the province South Holland, and Utrecht in the province Utrecht. The Randstad has a population of about 8.2 million inhabitants and is the 5th largest metropolitan area in Europe. According to Dutch Central Statistics Bureau, in 2015, 28 per cent of the Dutch population had a spendable income above 45,000 euros (which does not include spending on health care or education).The official language is Dutch, which is spoken by the vast majority of the inhabitants. Besides Dutch, West Frisian is recognised as a second official language in the northern province of Friesland ("Fryslân" in West Frisian). West Frisian has a formal status for government correspondence in that province. In the European part of the kingdom two other regional languages are recognised under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.The first of these recognised regional languages is Low Saxon ("Nedersaksisch" in Dutch). Low Saxon consists of several dialects spoken in the north and east, like Tweants in the region of Twente, and Drents in the province of Drenthe. Secondly, Limburgish is also recognised as a regional language. It consists of Dutch varieties of Meuse-Rhenish Franconian languages and is spoken in the south-eastern province of Limburg. The dialects most spoken in the Netherlands are the Brabantian-Hollandic dialects.Ripuarian language, which is spoken in Kerkrade and Vaals in the form of, respectively, the Kerkrade dialect and the Vaals dialect are legally treated as Limburgish as well - see Southeast Limburgish dialect.English has a formal status in the special municipalities of Saba and Sint Eustatius. It is widely spoken on these islands. Papiamento has a formal status in the special municipality of Bonaire. Yiddish and the Romani language were recognised in 1996 as non-territorial languages. The Netherlands has a tradition of learning foreign languages, formalised in Dutch education laws. Some 90% of the total population indicate they are able to converse in English, 70% in German, and 29% in French. English is a mandatory course in all secondary schools. In most lower level secondary school educations ("vmbo"), one additional modern foreign language is mandatory during the first two years.In higher level secondary schools (HAVO and VWO), the acquisition of two additional modern foreign language skills is mandatory during the first three years. Only during the last three years in VWO one foreign language is mandatory. Besides English, the standard modern languages are French and German, although schools can replace one of these modern languages with Chinese, Spanish, Russian, Italian, Turkish or Arabic. Additionally, schools in Friesland teach and have exams in West Frisian, and schools across the country teach and have exams in Ancient Greek and Latin for secondary school (called Gymnasium or VWO+).The population of the Netherlands was predominantly Christian until the late 20th century, divided into a number of denominations. Although significant religious diversity remains, there has been a decline of religious adherence. The Netherlands is now one of the most secular societies in the world.In 2019, Statistics Netherlands found that 54.1% of the total population declared itself to be non-religious. Groups that represent the non-religious in the Netherlands include Humanistisch Verbond. Roman Catholics comprised 20.1% of the total population, Protestants (14.8%). Muslims comprised 5.0% of the total population and followers of other Christian denominations and other religions (like Judaism, Buddhism and Hinduism) comprised the remaining 5.9%. A 2015 survey from another source found that Protestants outnumbered Catholics.The southern provinces of North Brabant and Limburg have historically been strongly Roman Catholic, and some residents consider the Catholic Church as a base for their cultural identity. Protestantism in the Netherlands consists of a number of churches within various traditions. The largest of these is the Protestant Church in the Netherlands (PKN), a United church which is Reformed and Lutheran in orientation. It was formed in 2004 as a merger of the Dutch Reformed Church, the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands and a smaller Lutheran Church. Several orthodox Reformed and liberal churches did not merge into the PKN. Although in the Netherlands as a whole Christianity has become a minority, the Netherlands contains a Bible Belt from Zeeland to the northern parts of the province Overijssel, in which Protestant (particularly Reformed) beliefs remain strong, and even has majorities in municipal councils.Islam is the second largest religion in the state. In 2012, there were about 825,000 Muslims in the Netherlands (5% of the population). The Muslim population increased from the 1960 as a result of large numbers of migrant workers. This included migrant workers from Turkey and Morocco, as well as migrants from former Dutch colonies, such as Surinam and Indonesia. During the 1990s, Muslim refugees arrived from countries like Bosnia and Herzegovina, Iran, Iraq, Somalia, and Afghanistan.Another religion practised is Hinduism, with around 215,000 adherents (slightly over 1% of the population). Most of these are Indo-Surinamese. There are also sizable populations of Hindu immigrants from India and Sri Lanka, and some Western adherents of Hinduism-oriented new religious movements such as Hare Krishnas. The Netherlands has an estimated 250,000 Buddhists or people strongly attracted to this religion, mainly ethnic Dutch people. In addition, there are about 45,000 Jews in the Netherlands.The Constitution of the Netherlands guarantees freedom of education, which means that all schools that adhere to general quality criteria receive the same government funding. This includes schools based on religious principles by religious groups (especially Roman Catholic and various Protestant). Three political parties in the Dutch parliament, (CDA, and two small parties, ChristianUnion and SGP) are based upon the Christian belief. Several Christian religious holidays are national holidays (Christmas, Easter, Pentecost and the Ascension of Jesus).Upon the country's independence, Protestants were predominant in most of the country, while Roman Catholics were dominant in the south, especially North Brabant and Limburg. In the late 19th century, secularism, atheism and pillarisation gained adherents. By 1960, Roman Catholics equalled Protestants in number; thereafter, both Christian branches began to decline. Conversely, Islam grew considerably as the result of immigration. Since 2000 there has been raised awareness of religion, mainly due to Muslim extremism.The Dutch royal family has been traditionally associated with Calvinism, specifically the Dutch Reformed Church, which has merged into the Protestant Church in the Netherlands. The Dutch Reformed Church was the only major Protestant church in the Netherlands from the Reformation until the 19th century. Denominational splits in 1834 and in 1886 diversified Dutch Calvinism. In 2013, a Roman Catholic became Queen consort.A survey in December 2014 concluded that for the first time there were more atheists (25%) than theists (17%) in the Netherlands, while the remainder of the population was agnostic (31%) or ietsistic (27%). In 2015, a vast majority of the inhabitants of the Netherlands (82%) said they had never or almost never visited a church, and 59% stated that they had never been to a church of any kind. Of all the people questioned, 24% saw themselves as atheist, an increase of 11% compared to the previous study done in 2006. The expected rise of spirituality (ietsism) has come to a halt according to research in 2015. In 2006, 40% of respondents considered themselves spiritual; in 2015 this has dropped to 31%. The number who believed in the existence of a higher power fell from 36% to 28% over the same period.Education in the Netherlands is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 16. If a child does not have a "starting qualification" (HAVO, VWO or MBO 2+ degree) they are still forced to attend classes until they achieve such a qualification or reach the age of 18.All children in the Netherlands usually attend elementary school from (on average) ages 4 to 12. It comprises eight grades, the first of which is facultative. Based on an aptitude test, the eighth grade teacher's recommendation and the opinion of the pupil's parents or caretakers, a choice is made for one of the three main streams of secondary education. After completing a particular stream, a pupil may still continue in the penultimate year of the next stream.The VMBO has four grades and is subdivided over several levels. Successfully completing the VMBO results in a low-level vocational degree that grants access to the MBO. The MBO (middle-level applied education) is a form of education that primarily focuses on teaching a practical trade or a vocational degree. With the MBO certification, a student can apply for the HBO. The HAVO has 5 grades and allows for admission to the HBO. The HBO (higher professional education) are universities of professional education (applied sciences) that award professional bachelor's degrees; similar to polytechnic degrees. An HBO degree gives access to the university system. The VWO (comprising atheneum and gymnasium) has 6 grades and prepares for studying at a research university. Universities offer a three-year bachelor's degree, followed by a one or two-year master's degree, which in turn can be followed by a four or five-year doctoral degree programme.Doctoral candidates in the Netherlands are generally non-tenured employees of a university. All Dutch schools and universities are publicly funded and managed with the exception of religious schools that are publicly funded but not managed by the state even though requirements are necessary for the funding to be authorised. Dutch universities have a tuition fee of about 2,000 euros a year for students from the Netherlands and the European Union. The amount is about 10,000 euros for non-EU students.In 2016, the Netherlands maintained its number one position at the top of the annual Euro health consumer index (EHCI), which compares healthcare systems in Europe, scoring 916 of a maximum 1,000 points. The Netherlands has been among the top three countries in each report published since 2005. On 48 indicators such as patient rights and information, accessibility, prevention and outcomes, the Netherlands secured its top position among 37 European countries for six years in a row.The Netherlands was ranked first in a study in 2009 comparing the health care systems of the United States, Australia, Canada, Germany and New Zealand.Ever since a major reform of the health care system in 2006, the Dutch system received more points in the Index each year. According to the HCP (Health Consumer Powerhouse), the Netherlands has 'a chaos system', meaning patients have a great degree of freedom from where to buy their health insurance, to where they get their healthcare service. The difference between the Netherlands and other countries is that the chaos is managed. Healthcare decisions are being made in a dialogue between the patients and healthcare professionals.Health insurance in the Netherlands is mandatory. Healthcare in the Netherlands is covered by two statutory forms of insurance:While Dutch residents are automatically insured by the government for AWBZ, everyone has to take out their own basic healthcare insurance (basisverzekering), except those under 18 who are automatically covered under their parents' premium. If a person decides not to carry out an insurance coverage, the person may be fined. Insurers have to offer a universal package for everyone over the age of 18 years, regardless of age or state of health – it's illegal to refuse an application or impose special conditions. In contrast to many other European systems, the Dutch government is responsible for the accessibility and quality of the healthcare system in the Netherlands, but not in charge of its management.Healthcare in the Netherlands can be divided in several ways: three echelons, in somatic and mental health care and in 'cure' (short term) and 'care' (long term). Home doctors ("huisartsen", comparable to general practitioners) form the largest part of the first echelon. Being referenced by a member of the first echelon is mandatory for access to the second and third echelon. The health care system is in comparison to other Western countries quite effective but not the most cost-effective.Healthcare in the Netherlands is financed by a dual system that came into effect in January 2006. Long-term treatments, especially those that involve semi-permanent hospitalisation, and also disability costs such as wheelchairs, are covered by a state-controlled mandatory insurance. This is laid down in the "Algemene Wet Bijzondere Ziektekosten" ("General Law on Exceptional Healthcare Costs") which first came into effect in 1968. In 2009 this insurance covered 27% of all health care expenses.For all regular (short-term) medical treatment, there is a system of obligatory health insurance, with private health insurance companies. These insurance companies are obliged to provide a package with a defined set of insured treatments. This insurance covers 41% of all health care expenses.Other sources of health care payment are taxes (14%), out of pocket payments (9%), additional optional health insurance packages (4%) and a range of other sources (4%). Affordability is guaranteed through a system of income-related allowances and individual and employer-paid income-related premiums.A key feature of the Dutch system is that premiums may not be related to health status or age. Risk variances between private health insurance companies due to the different risks presented by individual policy holders are compensated through risk equalisation and a common risk pool. The funding burden for all short-term health care coverage is carried 50% by employers, 45% by the insured person and 5% by the government. Children under 18 are covered for free. Those on low incomes receive compensation to help them pay their insurance. Premiums paid by the insured are about €100 per month (about US$127 in August 2010 and €150 or US$196 in 2012), with variation of about 5% between the various competing insurers, and a yearly deductible of €220 (US$288).Mobility on Dutch roads has grown continuously since the 1950s and now exceeds 200 billion km travelled per year, three quarters of which are done by car. Around half of all trips in the Netherlands are made by car, 25% by bicycle, 20% walking, and 5% by public transport.With a total road network of 139,295 km, which includes 2,758 km of expressways, the Netherlands has one of the densest road networks in the world—much denser than Germany and France, but still not as dense as Belgium.As part of its commitment to environmental sustainability, the Government of the Netherlands initiated a plan to establish over 200 recharging stations for electric vehicles across the country. The rollout will be undertaken by Switzerland-based power and automation company ABB and Dutch startup Fastned, and will aim to provide at least one station within a 50-kilometre radius (30 miles) from every home in the Netherlands. Currently, the Netherlands alone hosts more than a quarter of all recharging stations in the European Union. This share rises to 30% if Brexit is taken into account. Moreover, newly sold cars in the Netherlands have on average the lowest CO2 emissions in the EU.About 13% of all distance is travelled by public transport, the majority of which by train. Like in many other European countries, the Dutch rail network of 3,013 km route is also rather dense. The network is mostly focused on passenger rail services and connects all major towns and cities, with over 400 stations. Trains are frequent, with two trains per hour on lesser lines, two to four trains per hour on average, and up to eight trains an hour on the busiest lines. The Dutch national train network also includes the HSL-Zuid, a high-speed line between the Amsterdam metropolitan area and the Belgian border for trains running from Paris and London to the Netherlands.Cycling is a ubiquitous mode of transport in the Netherlands. Almost as many kilometres are covered by bicycle as by train. The Dutch are estimated to have at least 18 million bicycles, which makes more than one per capita, and twice as many as the circa 9 million motor vehicles on the road. In 2013, the European Cyclists' Federation ranked both the Netherlands and Denmark as the most bike-friendly countries in Europe, but more of the Dutch (36%) than of the Danes (23%) list the bike as their most frequent mode of transport on a typical day. Cycling infrastructure is comprehensive. Busy roads have received some 35,000 km of dedicated cycle tracks, physically segregated from motorised traffic. Busy junctions are often equipped with bicycle-specific traffic lights. There are large bicycle parking facilities, particularly in city centres and at train stations.Until the introduction of trains, ships were the primary mode of transport in the Netherlands. And shipping has remained crucial afterwards. The Port of Rotterdam is the largest port in Europe and the largest port in the world outside East-Asia, with the rivers Meuse and Rhine providing excellent access to the hinterland upstream reaching to Basel, Switzerland, and into Germany and France. , Rotterdam was the world's eighth largest container port handling 440.5 million metric tonnes of cargo annually. The port's main activities are petrochemical industries and general cargo handling and transshipment. The harbour functions as an important transit point for bulk materials and between the European continent and overseas. From Rotterdam goods are transported by ship, river barge, train or road. The Volkeraksluizen between Rotterdam and Antwerp are the biggest sluices for inland navigation in the world in terms of tonnage passing through them. In 2007, the Betuweroute, a new fast freight railway from Rotterdam to Germany, was completed. The Netherlands also hosts Europe's 4th largest port in Amsterdam. The inland shipping fleet of the Netherlands is the largest in Europe. The Netherlands also has the largest fleet of active historical ships in the world. Boats are used for passenger travel as well, such as the Watertaxies in Rotterdam. The ferry network in Amsterdam and the Waterbus network in Rotterdam are part of the public transport system.Schiphol Airport, just southwest of Amsterdam, is the main international airport in the Netherlands, and the third busiest airport in Europe in terms of passengers. Schiphol is the main hub for KLM, the nation's flag carrier and the world's oldest airline. In 2016, the Royal Schiphol Group airports handled 70 million passengers. All air traffic is international and Schiphol Airport is connected to over 300 destinations worldwide, more than any other European airport. The airport is a major freight hub as well, processing 1.44 million tonnes of cargo in 2020. Smaller international airports in the country include Eindhoven Airport, Rotterdam The Hague Airport, Maastricht Aachen Airport and Groningen Airport Eelde. Air transport is of vital significance for the Caribbean part of the Netherlands, with all islands having their own airport. This includes the shortest runway in the world on Saba.The Netherlands has had many well-known painters. In the Middle Ages Hieronymus Bosch, Petrus Christus, Lucas Gassel and Pieter Bruegel the Elder were leading Dutch pioneers.During the Dutch Golden Age, spanning much of the 17th century, the Dutch Republic was prosperous and witnessed a flourishing artistic movement. This was the age of the "Dutch Masters", such as Rembrandt van Rijn, Johannes Vermeer, Jan Steen, Jacob van Ruisdael, Gerard van Honthorst, Theodoor van Thulden and many others. Famous Dutch painters of the 19th and 20th century were Vincent van Gogh and the luminists Jan Sluijters, Leo Gestel, and Piet Mondrian. M. C. Escher is a well-known graphic artist. Willem de Kooning was born and trained in Rotterdam, although he is considered to have reached acclaim as an American artist. Literature flourished as well during the Dutch Golden Age, with Joost van den Vondel and P. C. Hooft as the two most famous writers. In the 19th century, Multatuli wrote about the poor treatment of the natives in the Dutch colony, the current Indonesia. Important 20th century authors include Godfried Bomans, Harry Mulisch, Jan Wolkers, Simon Vestdijk, Hella S. Haasse, Cees Nooteboom, Gerard Reve and Willem Frederik Hermans. Anne Frank's "Diary of a Young Girl" was published after she was murdered in the Holocaust and translated from Dutch to all major languages.Various architectural styles can be distinguished in the Netherlands. Over the years, various styles have been built and preserved.The Romanesque architecture was built between the years 950 and 1250. This architectural style is most concentrated in the provinces of Gelderland and Limburg. Limburg, in particular, differs greatly in architectural style from the rest of the Netherlands.The Gothic architecture came to in the Netherlands from about 1230. Gothic buildings often had large windows, pointed arches and were richly decorated.Brabantine Gothic originated with the rise of the Duchy of Brabant and spread throughout the Burgundian provinces.This architectural style is most concentrated in the province of North Brabant, such as St. John's Cathedral in 's-Hertogenbosch, The Church of Our Lady in Breda and the Margraves Palace in Bergen op Zoom.What many know as traditional Dutch architecture is the Dutch Baroque architecture (1525 – 1630) and classicism (1630 – 1700).These style of architecture is especially in evidence in the cities of North Holland, South Holland and Zeeland.Other architectural styles that are common in the Netherlands are Style Louis XIV, Art Nouveau, Rationalism, NeoclassicismExpressionism, De Stijl, Traditionalism and Brutalism.The Netherlands is the country of philosophers Erasmus, Rudolf Agricola and Spinoza. Much of Descartes' major work was done in the Netherlands, where he studied at Leiden University — as did geologist James Hutton, British Prime Minister John Stuart, U.S. President John Quincy Adams, Physics Nobel Prize laureate Hendrik Lorentz and Enrico Fermi. The Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) discovered Saturn's moon Titan, argued that light travelled as waves, invented the pendulum clock and was the first physicist to use mathematical formulae. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe and describe single-celled organisms with a microscope.Replicas of Dutch buildings can be found in Huis Ten Bosch, Nagasaki, Japan. A similar Holland Village is being built in Shenyang, China. Windmills, tulips, wooden shoes, cheese, Delftware pottery, and cannabis are among the items associated with the Netherlands by tourists.In the south of the Netherlands there are some festivals that rarely or never occur in the rest of the Netherlands. These celebrations grew out of Catholic traditions, including Carnival, lantern parades during the celebration of Three Kings, Brabantian Day and huge Bloemencorso. Bloemencorsos used to occur in many places in the Netherlands, but in the 21th century, Zundert and Valkenswaard in North Brabant have taken the lead.Dutch society is egalitarian and modern. The Dutch have an aversion to the non-essential. Ostentatious behaviour is to be avoided. The Dutch are proud of their cultural heritage, rich history in art and involvement in international affairs.Dutch manners are open and direct with a no-nonsense attitude—informality combined with adherence to basic behaviour. According to a humorous source on Dutch culture, "Their directness gives many the impression that they are rude and crude—attributes they prefer to call openness." A well known more serious source on Dutch etiquette is "Dealing with the Dutch" by Jacob Vossestein: "Dutch egalitarianism is the idea that people are equal, especially from a moral point of view, and accordingly, causes the somewhat ambiguous stance the Dutch have towards hierarchy and status." As always, manners differ between groups. Asking about basic rules will not be considered impolite. "What may strike you as being blatantly blunt topics and comments are no more embarrassing or unusual to the Dutch than discussing the weather."The Netherlands is one of the most secular countries of Europe, and religion in the Netherlands is generally considered as a personal matter which is not supposed to be propagated in public, although it often remains a discussion subject. For only 17% of the population religion is important and 14% goes to church weekly.The Netherlands has a long history of social tolerance and today is regarded as a liberal country, considering its drug policy and its legalisation of euthanasia. On 1 April 2001, the Netherlands became the first nation to legalise same-sex marriage.As of 2018 the Netherlands had one of the highest rates of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in the European Union, above those of Germany, France and Belgium. In addition, the Dutch waste more food than any other EU citizen, at over three times the EU average Despite this, the Netherlands has nonetheless the reputation of the leader country in environmental and population management. In 2015, Amsterdam and Rotterdam were ranked fourth and fifth, respectively, on the Arcadis Sustainable Cities Index.Sustainability is a concept important for the Dutch. The goal of the Dutch Government is to have a sustainable, reliable and affordable energy system, by 2050, in which emissions have been halved and 40 per cent of electricity is derived from sustainable sources.The government is investing billions of euros in energy efficiency, sustainable energy and reduction. The Kingdom also encourages Dutch companies to build sustainable business/projects/facilities, with financial aids from the state to the companies or individuals who are active in making the country more sustainable.The Netherlands has multiple music traditions. Traditional Dutch music is a genre known as "Levenslied", meaning "Song of life", to an extent comparable to a French Chanson or a German Schlager. These songs typically have a simple melody and rhythm, and a straightforward structure of verses and choruses. Themes can be light, but are often sentimental and include love, death and loneliness. Traditional musical instruments such as the accordion and the barrel organ are a staple of levenslied music, though in recent years many artists also use synthesisers and guitars. Artists in this genre include Jan Smit, Frans Bauer and André Hazes.Contemporary Dutch rock and pop music (Nederpop) originated in the 1960s, heavily influenced by popular music from the United States and Britain. In the 1960s and 1970s the lyrics were mostly in English, and some tracks were instrumental. Bands such as Shocking Blue, Golden Earring, Tee Set, George Baker Selection and Focus enjoyed international success. As of the 1980s, more and more pop musicians started working in the Dutch language, partly inspired by the huge success of the band Doe Maar. Today Dutch rock and pop music thrives in both languages, with some artists recording in both.Current symphonic metal bands Epica, Delain, ReVamp, The Gathering, Asrai, Autumn, Ayreon and Within Temptation as well as jazz and pop singer Caro Emerald are having international success. Also, metal bands like Hail of Bullets, God Dethroned, Izegrim, Asphyx, Textures, Present Danger, Heidevolk and Slechtvalk are popular guests at the biggest metal festivals in Europe. Contemporary local stars include pop singer Anouk, country pop singer Ilse DeLange, South Guelderish and Limburgish dialect singing folk band Rowwen Hèze, rock band BLØF and duo Nick & Simon. Trijntje Oosterhuis, one of the country's most well known and versatile singers, has made multiple albums with famous American composers Vince Mendoza and Burt Bacharach.Early 1990s Dutch and Belgian house music came together in Eurodance project 2 Unlimited. Selling 18 million records, the two singers in the band are the most successful Dutch music artists to this day. Tracks like "Get Ready for This" are still popular themes of U.S. sports events, like the NHL. In the mid 1990s Dutch language rap and hip hop ("Nederhop") also came to fruition and has become popular in the Netherlands and Belgium. Artists with North African, Caribbean or Middle Eastern origins have strongly influenced this genre.Since the 1990s, Dutch electronic dance music (EDM) gained widespread popularity in the world in many forms, from trance, techno and gabber to hardstyle. Some of the world's best known dance music DJs hail from the Netherlands, including Armin van Buuren, Tiësto, Hardwell, Martin Garrix, Dash Berlin, Julian Jordan, Nicky Romero, W&W, Don Diablo and Afrojack; the first four of which have been ranked as best in the world by DJ Mag Top 100 DJs. The Amsterdam Dance Event (ADE) is the world's leading electronic music conference and the biggest club festival for the many electronic subgenres on the planet. These DJs also contribute to the world's mainstream pop music, as they frequently collaborate and produce for high-profile international artists.The Netherlands have participated in the Eurovision Song Contest since its first edition in 1956, and have won five times. Their most recent win was in 2019.In classical music, Jan Sweelinck ranks as the Dutch most famous composer, with Louis Andriessen amongst the best known living Dutch classical composers. Ton Koopman is a Dutch conductor, organist and harpsichordist. He is also professor at the Royal Conservatory of The Hague. Notable violinists are Janine Jansen and André Rieu. The latter, together with his Johann Strauss Orchestra, has taken classical and waltz music on worldwide concert tours, the size and revenue of which are otherwise only seen from the world's biggest rock and pop music acts. The most famous Dutch classical composition is "Canto Ostinato" by Simeon ten Holt, a minimalistic composition for multiple instruments. Acclaimed harpist Lavinia Meijer in 2012 released an album with works from Philip Glass that she transcribed for harp, with approval of Glass himself. The Concertgebouw (completed in 1888) in Amsterdam is home to the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, considered one of the world's finest orchestras.Some Dutch films – mainly by director Paul Verhoeven – have received international distribution and recognition, such as "Turkish Delight" (""Turks Fruit"", 1973), "Soldier of Orange" (""Soldaat van Oranje"", 1977), "Spetters" (1980) and "The Fourth Man" (""De Vierde Man"", 1983). Verhoeven then went on to direct big Hollywood movies like "RoboCop" (1987), "Total Recall" (1990) and "Basic Instinct" (1992), and returned with Dutch film "Black Book" (""Zwartboek"", 2006).Other well-known Dutch film directors are Jan de Bont ("Speed"), Anton Corbijn ("A Most wanted Man"), Dick Maas ("De Lift"), Fons Rademakers ("The Assault"), and documentary makers Bert Haanstra and Joris Ivens. Film director Theo van Gogh achieved international notoriety in 2004 when he was murdered by Mohammed Bouyeri in the streets of Amsterdam after directing the short film "Submission".Internationally, successful directors of photography from the Netherlands are Hoyte van Hoytema ("Interstellar", "Spectre", "Dunkirk") and Theo van de Sande ("Wayne's World" and "Blade"). Van Hoytema went to the National Film School in Łódź (Poland) and Van de Sande went to the Netherlands Film Academy. Internationally successful Dutch actors include Famke Janssen ("X-Men"), Carice van Houten ("Game of Thrones"), Michiel Huisman ("Game of Thrones"), Rutger Hauer ("Blade Runner"), Jeroen Krabbé ("The Living Daylights") and Derek de Lint ("Three Men and a Baby").The Netherlands has a well developed television market, with both multiple commercial and public broadcasters. Imported TV programmes, as well as interviews with responses in a foreign language, are virtually always shown with the original sound and subtitled. Only foreign shows for children are dubbed.TV exports from the Netherlands mostly take the form of specific formats and franchises, most notably through internationally active TV production conglomerate Endemol, founded by Dutch media tycoons John de Mol and Joop van den Ende. Headquartered in Amsterdam, Endemol has around 90 companies in over 30 countries. Endemol and its subsidiaries create and run reality, talent, and game show franchises worldwide, including "Big Brother" and "Deal or No Deal". John de Mol later started his own company Talpa which created show franchises like "The Voice" and "Utopia".Approximately 4.5 million of the 16.8 million people in the Netherlands are registered to one of the 35,000 sports clubs in the country. About two-thirds of the population between 15 and 75 participates in sports weekly. Football is the most popular participant sport in the Netherlands, before field hockey and volleyball as the second and third most popular team sports. The Netherlands national football team is one of the most popular aspects of Dutch sports; especially since the 1970s when one of the greatest footballers of all time, Johan Cruyff, developed Total Football with coach Rinus Michels. Tennis, gymnastics and golf are the three most widely engaged in individual sports.Organisation of sports began at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. Federations for sports were established (such as the speed skating federation in 1882), rules were unified and sports clubs came into existence. A Dutch National Olympic Committee was established in 1912. Thus far, the nation has won 266 medals at the Summer Olympic Games and another 110 medals at the Winter Olympic Games. In international competition, Dutch national teams and athletes are dominant in several fields of sport. The Netherlands women's field hockey team is the most successful team in World Cup history. The Netherlands baseball team have won the European championship 20 times out of 32 events. Dutch K-1 kickboxers have won the K-1 World Grand Prix 15 times out of 19 tournaments. The Netherlands Women's handball team holds the record of the only team in the world that consecutively reached all six semifinals of major international tournaments since 2015, winning silver and bronze at the European Women's Handball Championship and silver, bronze and gold at the World Women's Handball Championship. They finished fourth at the 2016 Summer Olympics.The Dutch speed skaters' performance at the 2014 Winter Olympics, where they won 8 out of 12 events, 23 out of 36 medals, including 4 clean sweeps, is the most dominant performance in a single sport in Olympic history. Motorcycle racing at the TT Circuit Assen has a long history. Assen is the only venue to have held a round of the Motorcycle World Championship every year since its creation in 1949. The circuit was purpose-built for the Dutch TT in 1954, with previous events having been held on public roads.The Dutch have also had success in all three of cyclings Grand Tours with Jan Janssen winning the 1968 Tour de France, more recently with Tom Dumoulin winning the 2017 Giro d'Italia and legendary rider Joop Zoetemelk was the 1985 UCI World Champion, the winner of the 1979 Vuelta a Espana, the 1980 Tour de France and still holds or shares numerous Tour de France records including most Tours finished and most kilometres ridden.Limburger Max Verstappen currently races in Formula One, and was the first Dutchman to win a Grand Prix. The coastal resort of Zandvoort hosted the Dutch Grand Prix from 1958 to 1985, and has been announced to return in 2020. The volleyball national men's team has also been successful, winning the silver medal at the 1992 Summer Olympics and the gold medal four years later in Atlanta. The biggest success of the women's national team was winning the European Championship in 1995 and the World Grand Prix in 2007.Recently cricket has made a remarkable progress in the Netherlands. Netherlands have participated in 1996, 2003, 2007 and 2011 ODI cricket World Cup. They have also qualified for 2009 and 2014 T20 World Cup. In the 2009 T20 World Cup, Netherlands defeated England, the current World Champions and inventor of the game. Ryan ten Doeschate is the only Dutch player to have played in the IPL on the team Kolkata Knight Riders.Originally, the country's cuisine was shaped by the practices of fishing and farming, including the cultivation of the soil for growing crops and raising domesticated animals. Dutch cuisine is simple and straightforward, and contains many dairy products. Breakfast and lunch are typically bread with toppings, with cereal for breakfast as an alternative. Traditionally, dinner consists of potatoes, a portion of meat, and (seasonal) vegetables. The Dutch diet was relatively high in carbohydrates and fat, reflecting the dietary needs of the labourers whose culture moulded the country. Without many refinements, it is best described as rustic, though many holidays are still celebrated with special foods. In the course of the twentieth century this diet changed and became much more cosmopolitan, with most global cuisines being represented in the major cities.Modern culinary writers distinguish between three general regional forms of Dutch cuisine. The regions in the northeast of the Netherlands, roughly the provinces of Groningen, Friesland, Drenthe, Overijssel and Gelderland north of the great rivers are the least populated areas of the Netherlands. The late (18th century) introduction of large scale agriculture means that the cuisine is generally known for its many kinds of meats. The relative lack of farms allowed for an abundance of game and husbandry, though dishes near the coastal regions of Friesland, Groningen and the parts of Overijssel bordering the IJsselmeer also include a large amount of fish. The various dried sausages, belonging to the metworst-family of Dutch sausages are found throughout this region and are highly prized for their often very strong taste. Also smoked sausages are common, of which ("Gelderse") "rookworst" is the most renowned. The sausage contains a lot of fat and is very juicy. Larger sausages are often eaten alongside "stamppot", "hutspot" or "zuurkool" (sauerkraut); whereas smaller ones are often eaten as a street food. The provinces are also home to hard textured rye bread, pastries and cookies, the latter heavily spiced with ginger or succade or containing small bits of meat. Various kinds of "Kruidkoek" (such as ), "" and "" (small savoury pancakes cooked in a waffle iron) are considered typical. A notable characteristic of "Fries roggebrood" (Frisian rye bread) is its long baking time (up to 20 hours), resulting in a sweet taste and a deep dark colour. In terms of alcoholic beverages, the region is renowned for its many bitters (such as "Beerenburg") and other high-proof liquors rather than beer, which is, apart from "Jenever", typical for the rest of the country. As a coastal region, Friesland is home to low-lying grasslands, and thus has a cheese production in common with the Western cuisine. "Friese Nagelkaas" (Friesian Clove) is a notable example.The provinces of North Holland, South Holland, Zeeland, and Utrecht and the Gelderlandic area of Betuwe make up the region in which western Dutch cuisine is found. Because of the abundance of water and flat grasslands that are found here, the area is known for its many dairy products, which include prominent cheeses such as Gouda, Leyden (spiced cheese with cumin), and Edam (traditionally in small spheres) as well as Leerdammer and Beemster, while the adjacent Zaanstreek in North Holland has since the 16th century been known for its mayonnaise, typical whole-grain mustards, and chocolate industry. Zeeland and South Holland produce a lot of butter, which contains a larger amount of milkfat than most other European butter varieties. A by-product of the butter-making process, "karnemelk" (buttermilk), is also considered typical for this region. Seafood such as soused herring, mussels (called "Zeeuwse Mossels", since all Dutch mussels for consumption are cleaned in Zeeland's Oosterschelde), eels, oysters and shrimps are widely available and typical for the region. "", once a local delicacy consisting of small chunks of battered white fish, has become a national fast food, just as . Pastries in this area tend to be quite doughy, and often contain large amounts of sugar; either caramelised, powdered or crystallised. The "oliebol" (in its modern form) and "Zeeuwse bolus" are good examples. Cookies are also produced in great number and tend to contain a lot of butter and sugar, like "stroopwafel", as well as a filling of some kind, mostly almond, like "". The traditional alcoholic beverages of this region are beer (strong pale lager) and "Jenever", a high proof juniper-flavoured spirit, that came to be known in England as gin. A noted exception within the traditional Dutch alcoholic landscape, "Advocaat", a rich and creamy liqueur made from eggs, sugar and brandy, is also native to this region.The Southern Dutch cuisine consists of the cuisines of the Dutch provinces of North Brabant and Limburg and the Flemish Region in Belgium. It is renowned for its many rich pastries, soups, stews and vegetable dishes and is often called Burgundian which is a Dutch idiom invoking the rich Burgundian court which ruled the Low Countries in the Middle Ages, renowned for its splendor and great feasts. It is the only Dutch culinary region that developed an haute cuisine. Pastries are abundant, often with rich fillings of cream, custard or fruits. Cakes, such as the "Vlaai" from Limburg and the "Moorkop" and "Bossche Bol" from Brabant, are typical pastries. Savoury pastries also occur, with the (a roll with a sausage of ground beef, literally translates into sausage bread) being the most popular. The traditional alcoholic beverage of the region is beer. There are many local brands, ranging from "Trappist" to "Kriek". 5 of the 10 "International Trappist Association" recognised breweries in the world, are located in the Southern Dutch cultural area. Beer, like wine in French cuisine, is also used in cooking; often in stews.In early 2014, Oxfam ranked the Netherlands as the country with the most nutritious, plentiful and healthy food, in a comparison of 125 countries.From the exploitations in the Mughal Empire in the 17th century, to the colonisations in the 19th century, Dutch imperial possessions continued to expand, reaching their greatest extent by establishing a hegemony of the Dutch East Indies in the early 20th century. The Dutch East Indies, which later formed modern-day Indonesia, was one of the most valuable European colonies in the world and the most important one for the Netherlands. Over 350 years of mutual heritage has left a significant cultural mark on the Netherlands.In the Dutch Golden Age of the 17th century, the Netherlands urbanised considerably, mostly financed by corporate revenue from the Asian trade monopolies. Social status was based on merchants' income, which reduced feudalism and considerably changed the dynamics of Dutch society. When the Dutch royal family was established in 1815, much of its wealth came from Colonial trade.By the 17th century, the Dutch East India Company established their base in parts of Ceylon (modern-day Sri Lanka). Afterward, they established ports in Dutch occupied Malabar, leading to Dutch settlements and trading posts in India. However, their expansion into India was halted, after their defeat in the Battle of Colachel by the Kingdom of Travancore, during the Travancore-Dutch War. The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat to Bengal Subah.Universities such as the Leiden University, founded in the 16th century, have developed into leading knowledge centres for Southeast Asian and Indonesian studies. Leiden University has produced leading academics such as Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje, and still has academics who specialise in Indonesian languages and cultures. Leiden University and in particular KITLV are educational and scientific institutions that to this day share both an intellectual and historical interest in Indonesian studies. Other scientific institutions in the Netherlands include the Amsterdam Tropenmuseum, an anthropological museum with massive collections of Indonesian art, culture, ethnography and anthropology.The traditions of the Royal Dutch East Indies Army (KNIL) are maintained by the Regiment Van Heutsz of the modern Royal Netherlands Army. A dedicated "Bronbeek Museum", a former home for retired KNIL soldiers, exists in Arnhem to this day.A specific segment of Dutch literature called Dutch Indies literature still exists and includes established authors, such as Louis Couperus, the writer of "The Hidden Force", taking the colonial era as an important source of inspiration. One of the great masterpieces of Dutch literature is the book "Max Havelaar", written by Multatuli in 1860.The majority of Dutchmen that repatriated to the Netherlands after and during the Indonesian revolution are Indo (Eurasian), native to the islands of the Dutch East Indies. This relatively large Eurasian population had developed over a period of 400 years and were classified by colonial law as belonging to the European legal community. In Dutch they are referred to as "Indische Nederlanders" or as Indo (short for Indo-European).Including their second generation descendants, Indos are currently the largest foreign-born group in the Netherlands. In 2008, the Dutch Central Bureau for Statistics (CBS) registered 387,000 first- and second-generation Indos living in the Netherlands. Although considered fully assimilated into Dutch society, as the main ethnic minority in the Netherlands, these 'repatriants' have played a pivotal role in introducing elements of Indonesian culture into Dutch mainstream culture.Many Indonesian dishes and foodstuffs have become commonplace in the Netherlands. Rijsttafel, a colonial culinary concept, and dishes such as Nasi goreng and satay are very popular in the country. Practically any town of any size in the Netherlands has a "toko" (a Dutch Indonesian Shop) or a Chinese-Indonesian restaurant, and many 'Pasar Malam' (Night market in Malay/Indonesian) fairs are organised throughout the year. | [
"Piet de Jong",
"Hendrikus Colijn",
"Ruud Lubbers",
"Jan de Quay",
"Wim Schermerhorn",
"Jo Cals",
"Joop den Uyl",
"Wim Kok",
"Louis Beel",
"Dirk Jan de Geer",
"Dries van Agt",
"Willem Drees",
"Charles Ruijs de Beerenbrouck",
"Jelle Zijlstra",
"Jan Peter Balkenende",
"Mark Rutte",
"Pieter Sjoerds Gerbrandy",
"Barend Biesheuvel"
] |
|
Which position did Andrew Robathan hold in Jan, 1998? | January 20, 1998 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 52nd Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q501089_P39_1 | Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the 53rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 2001 to Apr, 2005.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the 54th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 2005 to Apr, 2010.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the House of Lords from Oct, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Minister of State for the Armed Forces from Sep, 2012 to Oct, 2013.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the 52nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1997 to May, 2001.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Minister of State for Northern Ireland from Oct, 2013 to Jul, 2014.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the 55th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 2010 to Mar, 2015.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the 51st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1992 to Apr, 1997. | Andrew RobathanAndrew Robert George Robathan, Baron Robathan, (born 17 July 1951) is a British Conservative politician, who served as Member of Parliament (MP) for South Leicestershire (previously Blaby) in Leicestershire as well as a government minister.In September 2014 Robathan announced he would stand down at the 2015 general election, and was nominated for a life peerage in 2015 Dissolution Honours, being created Baron Robathan, of Poultney in the County of Leicestershire, on 13 October 2015.Robathan was born on 17 July 1951. He was educated at Merchant Taylors' School, an all-boys public school in Northwood, London. He went up to read Modern History at Oriel College, University of Oxford, where he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts (BA) in 1973, later proceeding Master of Arts.Robathan was commissioned into the Coldstream Guards as a Second Lieutenant (on probation) (University Candidate) on 6 October 1974. He was given the service number 498738. His commission was confirmed and he was given seniority as a Second Lieutenant from 6 April 1971. He was promoted to Lieutenant, back dated to 6 October 1974, with seniority from 6 April 1973. Having attended the Staff College, Camberley, he was promoted to Major on 30 September 1984. He served for a period of time with the Special Air Service (SAS), and retired on 27 August 1989 being appointed to the Reserve of Officers.He worked for BP from 1991–92, but volunteered to return to the Army between January and April 1991 during the First Gulf War, serving as Chief of Staff of the Prisoner of War Guard Force in Saudi Arabia, Iraq and Kuwait.Robathan was elected to Hammersmith and Fulham Council in May 1990, defeating the then-Labour Mayor in the Eel Brook Ward.He resigned as a Councillor in late 1991 to fight the 1992 general election, elected as MP for Blaby in 1992 succeeding Nigel Lawson, the former Chancellor of the Exchequer. Blaby had a 37% Conservative majority in 1992, but it was considerably reduced by the national swing against the Conservatives and major boundary changes in 1997, creating a rise in Labour support within the constituency. Following a public enquiry by the Electoral Commission and submissions from the public including Robathan, the Blaby constituency was reconfigured as South Leicestershire.Robathan served four years on the Defence Select Committee between 1997 and 2001; he was also Chairman of the All-Party Cycling Group, and Vice-Chairman of the All-Party Renewable and Sustainable Energy Group, whilst an MP.Robathan was John Redwood's Parliamentary Private Secretary to Iain Sproat, Minister for Sport, in the Major administration before returning to the backbenches when the Conservatives lost the 1997 general election. He returned to the front-bench as Trade and Industry Spokesman in 2002.In the 2001 Conservative Party leadership election, Robathan was a notable supporter of Michael Portillo. After six months on the backbenches, Robathan was appointed Commons Liaison to the Lords and then a Defence Spokesman in which capacity he fought the 2005 general election.In the 2005 Conservative leadership election, Robathan was one of the first MPs to declare his support for David Cameron being rewarded with one of only five paid posts as Opposition Deputy Chief Whip.In May 2010, he was appointed Parliamentary Under Secretary of State at the Ministry of Defence with responsibility for Welfare and Veterans.In 2011, he was a member of the Special Select Committee set up to scrutinise the Bill that became the Armed Forces Act 2011.In December 2011, campaigners called for him to be sacked after he compared the medal claims of 66,500 veterans of the Arctic convoys of World War II to the proliferation of honours made by "authoritarian regimes" and "dictators":Some 3000 sailors died on the convoys - which Winston Churchill described as the "worst journey in the world." Portsmouth MPs described his behaviour as "shameful" and "sickening."In October 2012 Robathan was told to calm down by Lindsay Hoyle, the Deputy Speaker, after complaining about noise levels from the public gallery. Soldiers from the "historic" 2nd Battalion Royal Regiment of Fusiliers who face being disbanded were "politely applauding MPs who spoke up on their behalf". A former captain contrasted MoD advice that they went to Afghanistan and Iraq to help democracy with the reality of their own threatened ejection from Parliament.Robathan claimed the maximum second home entitlement of £24,006 in the period 2008–09 though he was not one of the 343 MPs required to repay money by the Legg Report. He was one of 177 MPs listed by "The Daily Telegraph" who employed family members. The Independent Parliamentary Standards Authority report published two years later, whilst tightening the rules, confirmed that a member may employ one relative subject to general conditions relating to expenses. Robathan's expenses were generally in the bottom half of all MPs.On 24 August 2009, he was quoted in "The Times" newspaper suggesting that MP's salaries be increased to £110,000. These comments were heavily frowned upon by his colleagues in Parliament and the media.On 4 November 2013, it was reported in "The Leicester Mercury" newspaper and on "BBC Radio Leicester" that Robathan had claimed £4,587 expenses to pay for energy bills for his second home.He married Rachael Maunder in December 1991 in Westminster. They have a son (born December 1996) and daughter (born July 1999). Rachael has been a Conservative councillor on Westminster City Council since 2010, representing Knightsbridge and Belgravia ward. In 2020, she became Leader of the Council.Robathan speaks French and German, and has been admitted as a Freeman of the City of London. | [
"Member of the 51st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the House of Lords",
"Member of the 55th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Minister of State for Northern Ireland",
"Member of the 53rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 54th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Minister of State for the Armed Forces"
] |
|
Which position did Andrew Robathan hold in 1998-01-20? | January 20, 1998 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 52nd Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q501089_P39_1 | Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the 53rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 2001 to Apr, 2005.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the 54th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 2005 to Apr, 2010.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the House of Lords from Oct, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Minister of State for the Armed Forces from Sep, 2012 to Oct, 2013.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the 52nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1997 to May, 2001.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Minister of State for Northern Ireland from Oct, 2013 to Jul, 2014.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the 55th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 2010 to Mar, 2015.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the 51st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1992 to Apr, 1997. | Andrew RobathanAndrew Robert George Robathan, Baron Robathan, (born 17 July 1951) is a British Conservative politician, who served as Member of Parliament (MP) for South Leicestershire (previously Blaby) in Leicestershire as well as a government minister.In September 2014 Robathan announced he would stand down at the 2015 general election, and was nominated for a life peerage in 2015 Dissolution Honours, being created Baron Robathan, of Poultney in the County of Leicestershire, on 13 October 2015.Robathan was born on 17 July 1951. He was educated at Merchant Taylors' School, an all-boys public school in Northwood, London. He went up to read Modern History at Oriel College, University of Oxford, where he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts (BA) in 1973, later proceeding Master of Arts.Robathan was commissioned into the Coldstream Guards as a Second Lieutenant (on probation) (University Candidate) on 6 October 1974. He was given the service number 498738. His commission was confirmed and he was given seniority as a Second Lieutenant from 6 April 1971. He was promoted to Lieutenant, back dated to 6 October 1974, with seniority from 6 April 1973. Having attended the Staff College, Camberley, he was promoted to Major on 30 September 1984. He served for a period of time with the Special Air Service (SAS), and retired on 27 August 1989 being appointed to the Reserve of Officers.He worked for BP from 1991–92, but volunteered to return to the Army between January and April 1991 during the First Gulf War, serving as Chief of Staff of the Prisoner of War Guard Force in Saudi Arabia, Iraq and Kuwait.Robathan was elected to Hammersmith and Fulham Council in May 1990, defeating the then-Labour Mayor in the Eel Brook Ward.He resigned as a Councillor in late 1991 to fight the 1992 general election, elected as MP for Blaby in 1992 succeeding Nigel Lawson, the former Chancellor of the Exchequer. Blaby had a 37% Conservative majority in 1992, but it was considerably reduced by the national swing against the Conservatives and major boundary changes in 1997, creating a rise in Labour support within the constituency. Following a public enquiry by the Electoral Commission and submissions from the public including Robathan, the Blaby constituency was reconfigured as South Leicestershire.Robathan served four years on the Defence Select Committee between 1997 and 2001; he was also Chairman of the All-Party Cycling Group, and Vice-Chairman of the All-Party Renewable and Sustainable Energy Group, whilst an MP.Robathan was John Redwood's Parliamentary Private Secretary to Iain Sproat, Minister for Sport, in the Major administration before returning to the backbenches when the Conservatives lost the 1997 general election. He returned to the front-bench as Trade and Industry Spokesman in 2002.In the 2001 Conservative Party leadership election, Robathan was a notable supporter of Michael Portillo. After six months on the backbenches, Robathan was appointed Commons Liaison to the Lords and then a Defence Spokesman in which capacity he fought the 2005 general election.In the 2005 Conservative leadership election, Robathan was one of the first MPs to declare his support for David Cameron being rewarded with one of only five paid posts as Opposition Deputy Chief Whip.In May 2010, he was appointed Parliamentary Under Secretary of State at the Ministry of Defence with responsibility for Welfare and Veterans.In 2011, he was a member of the Special Select Committee set up to scrutinise the Bill that became the Armed Forces Act 2011.In December 2011, campaigners called for him to be sacked after he compared the medal claims of 66,500 veterans of the Arctic convoys of World War II to the proliferation of honours made by "authoritarian regimes" and "dictators":Some 3000 sailors died on the convoys - which Winston Churchill described as the "worst journey in the world." Portsmouth MPs described his behaviour as "shameful" and "sickening."In October 2012 Robathan was told to calm down by Lindsay Hoyle, the Deputy Speaker, after complaining about noise levels from the public gallery. Soldiers from the "historic" 2nd Battalion Royal Regiment of Fusiliers who face being disbanded were "politely applauding MPs who spoke up on their behalf". A former captain contrasted MoD advice that they went to Afghanistan and Iraq to help democracy with the reality of their own threatened ejection from Parliament.Robathan claimed the maximum second home entitlement of £24,006 in the period 2008–09 though he was not one of the 343 MPs required to repay money by the Legg Report. He was one of 177 MPs listed by "The Daily Telegraph" who employed family members. The Independent Parliamentary Standards Authority report published two years later, whilst tightening the rules, confirmed that a member may employ one relative subject to general conditions relating to expenses. Robathan's expenses were generally in the bottom half of all MPs.On 24 August 2009, he was quoted in "The Times" newspaper suggesting that MP's salaries be increased to £110,000. These comments were heavily frowned upon by his colleagues in Parliament and the media.On 4 November 2013, it was reported in "The Leicester Mercury" newspaper and on "BBC Radio Leicester" that Robathan had claimed £4,587 expenses to pay for energy bills for his second home.He married Rachael Maunder in December 1991 in Westminster. They have a son (born December 1996) and daughter (born July 1999). Rachael has been a Conservative councillor on Westminster City Council since 2010, representing Knightsbridge and Belgravia ward. In 2020, she became Leader of the Council.Robathan speaks French and German, and has been admitted as a Freeman of the City of London. | [
"Member of the 51st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the House of Lords",
"Member of the 55th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Minister of State for Northern Ireland",
"Member of the 53rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 54th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Minister of State for the Armed Forces"
] |
|
Which position did Andrew Robathan hold in 20/01/1998? | January 20, 1998 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 52nd Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q501089_P39_1 | Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the 53rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 2001 to Apr, 2005.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the 54th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 2005 to Apr, 2010.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the House of Lords from Oct, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Minister of State for the Armed Forces from Sep, 2012 to Oct, 2013.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the 52nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1997 to May, 2001.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Minister of State for Northern Ireland from Oct, 2013 to Jul, 2014.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the 55th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 2010 to Mar, 2015.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the 51st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1992 to Apr, 1997. | Andrew RobathanAndrew Robert George Robathan, Baron Robathan, (born 17 July 1951) is a British Conservative politician, who served as Member of Parliament (MP) for South Leicestershire (previously Blaby) in Leicestershire as well as a government minister.In September 2014 Robathan announced he would stand down at the 2015 general election, and was nominated for a life peerage in 2015 Dissolution Honours, being created Baron Robathan, of Poultney in the County of Leicestershire, on 13 October 2015.Robathan was born on 17 July 1951. He was educated at Merchant Taylors' School, an all-boys public school in Northwood, London. He went up to read Modern History at Oriel College, University of Oxford, where he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts (BA) in 1973, later proceeding Master of Arts.Robathan was commissioned into the Coldstream Guards as a Second Lieutenant (on probation) (University Candidate) on 6 October 1974. He was given the service number 498738. His commission was confirmed and he was given seniority as a Second Lieutenant from 6 April 1971. He was promoted to Lieutenant, back dated to 6 October 1974, with seniority from 6 April 1973. Having attended the Staff College, Camberley, he was promoted to Major on 30 September 1984. He served for a period of time with the Special Air Service (SAS), and retired on 27 August 1989 being appointed to the Reserve of Officers.He worked for BP from 1991–92, but volunteered to return to the Army between January and April 1991 during the First Gulf War, serving as Chief of Staff of the Prisoner of War Guard Force in Saudi Arabia, Iraq and Kuwait.Robathan was elected to Hammersmith and Fulham Council in May 1990, defeating the then-Labour Mayor in the Eel Brook Ward.He resigned as a Councillor in late 1991 to fight the 1992 general election, elected as MP for Blaby in 1992 succeeding Nigel Lawson, the former Chancellor of the Exchequer. Blaby had a 37% Conservative majority in 1992, but it was considerably reduced by the national swing against the Conservatives and major boundary changes in 1997, creating a rise in Labour support within the constituency. Following a public enquiry by the Electoral Commission and submissions from the public including Robathan, the Blaby constituency was reconfigured as South Leicestershire.Robathan served four years on the Defence Select Committee between 1997 and 2001; he was also Chairman of the All-Party Cycling Group, and Vice-Chairman of the All-Party Renewable and Sustainable Energy Group, whilst an MP.Robathan was John Redwood's Parliamentary Private Secretary to Iain Sproat, Minister for Sport, in the Major administration before returning to the backbenches when the Conservatives lost the 1997 general election. He returned to the front-bench as Trade and Industry Spokesman in 2002.In the 2001 Conservative Party leadership election, Robathan was a notable supporter of Michael Portillo. After six months on the backbenches, Robathan was appointed Commons Liaison to the Lords and then a Defence Spokesman in which capacity he fought the 2005 general election.In the 2005 Conservative leadership election, Robathan was one of the first MPs to declare his support for David Cameron being rewarded with one of only five paid posts as Opposition Deputy Chief Whip.In May 2010, he was appointed Parliamentary Under Secretary of State at the Ministry of Defence with responsibility for Welfare and Veterans.In 2011, he was a member of the Special Select Committee set up to scrutinise the Bill that became the Armed Forces Act 2011.In December 2011, campaigners called for him to be sacked after he compared the medal claims of 66,500 veterans of the Arctic convoys of World War II to the proliferation of honours made by "authoritarian regimes" and "dictators":Some 3000 sailors died on the convoys - which Winston Churchill described as the "worst journey in the world." Portsmouth MPs described his behaviour as "shameful" and "sickening."In October 2012 Robathan was told to calm down by Lindsay Hoyle, the Deputy Speaker, after complaining about noise levels from the public gallery. Soldiers from the "historic" 2nd Battalion Royal Regiment of Fusiliers who face being disbanded were "politely applauding MPs who spoke up on their behalf". A former captain contrasted MoD advice that they went to Afghanistan and Iraq to help democracy with the reality of their own threatened ejection from Parliament.Robathan claimed the maximum second home entitlement of £24,006 in the period 2008–09 though he was not one of the 343 MPs required to repay money by the Legg Report. He was one of 177 MPs listed by "The Daily Telegraph" who employed family members. The Independent Parliamentary Standards Authority report published two years later, whilst tightening the rules, confirmed that a member may employ one relative subject to general conditions relating to expenses. Robathan's expenses were generally in the bottom half of all MPs.On 24 August 2009, he was quoted in "The Times" newspaper suggesting that MP's salaries be increased to £110,000. These comments were heavily frowned upon by his colleagues in Parliament and the media.On 4 November 2013, it was reported in "The Leicester Mercury" newspaper and on "BBC Radio Leicester" that Robathan had claimed £4,587 expenses to pay for energy bills for his second home.He married Rachael Maunder in December 1991 in Westminster. They have a son (born December 1996) and daughter (born July 1999). Rachael has been a Conservative councillor on Westminster City Council since 2010, representing Knightsbridge and Belgravia ward. In 2020, she became Leader of the Council.Robathan speaks French and German, and has been admitted as a Freeman of the City of London. | [
"Member of the 51st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the House of Lords",
"Member of the 55th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Minister of State for Northern Ireland",
"Member of the 53rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 54th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Minister of State for the Armed Forces"
] |
|
Which position did Andrew Robathan hold in Jan 20, 1998? | January 20, 1998 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 52nd Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q501089_P39_1 | Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the 53rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 2001 to Apr, 2005.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the 54th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 2005 to Apr, 2010.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the House of Lords from Oct, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Minister of State for the Armed Forces from Sep, 2012 to Oct, 2013.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the 52nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1997 to May, 2001.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Minister of State for Northern Ireland from Oct, 2013 to Jul, 2014.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the 55th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 2010 to Mar, 2015.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the 51st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1992 to Apr, 1997. | Andrew RobathanAndrew Robert George Robathan, Baron Robathan, (born 17 July 1951) is a British Conservative politician, who served as Member of Parliament (MP) for South Leicestershire (previously Blaby) in Leicestershire as well as a government minister.In September 2014 Robathan announced he would stand down at the 2015 general election, and was nominated for a life peerage in 2015 Dissolution Honours, being created Baron Robathan, of Poultney in the County of Leicestershire, on 13 October 2015.Robathan was born on 17 July 1951. He was educated at Merchant Taylors' School, an all-boys public school in Northwood, London. He went up to read Modern History at Oriel College, University of Oxford, where he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts (BA) in 1973, later proceeding Master of Arts.Robathan was commissioned into the Coldstream Guards as a Second Lieutenant (on probation) (University Candidate) on 6 October 1974. He was given the service number 498738. His commission was confirmed and he was given seniority as a Second Lieutenant from 6 April 1971. He was promoted to Lieutenant, back dated to 6 October 1974, with seniority from 6 April 1973. Having attended the Staff College, Camberley, he was promoted to Major on 30 September 1984. He served for a period of time with the Special Air Service (SAS), and retired on 27 August 1989 being appointed to the Reserve of Officers.He worked for BP from 1991–92, but volunteered to return to the Army between January and April 1991 during the First Gulf War, serving as Chief of Staff of the Prisoner of War Guard Force in Saudi Arabia, Iraq and Kuwait.Robathan was elected to Hammersmith and Fulham Council in May 1990, defeating the then-Labour Mayor in the Eel Brook Ward.He resigned as a Councillor in late 1991 to fight the 1992 general election, elected as MP for Blaby in 1992 succeeding Nigel Lawson, the former Chancellor of the Exchequer. Blaby had a 37% Conservative majority in 1992, but it was considerably reduced by the national swing against the Conservatives and major boundary changes in 1997, creating a rise in Labour support within the constituency. Following a public enquiry by the Electoral Commission and submissions from the public including Robathan, the Blaby constituency was reconfigured as South Leicestershire.Robathan served four years on the Defence Select Committee between 1997 and 2001; he was also Chairman of the All-Party Cycling Group, and Vice-Chairman of the All-Party Renewable and Sustainable Energy Group, whilst an MP.Robathan was John Redwood's Parliamentary Private Secretary to Iain Sproat, Minister for Sport, in the Major administration before returning to the backbenches when the Conservatives lost the 1997 general election. He returned to the front-bench as Trade and Industry Spokesman in 2002.In the 2001 Conservative Party leadership election, Robathan was a notable supporter of Michael Portillo. After six months on the backbenches, Robathan was appointed Commons Liaison to the Lords and then a Defence Spokesman in which capacity he fought the 2005 general election.In the 2005 Conservative leadership election, Robathan was one of the first MPs to declare his support for David Cameron being rewarded with one of only five paid posts as Opposition Deputy Chief Whip.In May 2010, he was appointed Parliamentary Under Secretary of State at the Ministry of Defence with responsibility for Welfare and Veterans.In 2011, he was a member of the Special Select Committee set up to scrutinise the Bill that became the Armed Forces Act 2011.In December 2011, campaigners called for him to be sacked after he compared the medal claims of 66,500 veterans of the Arctic convoys of World War II to the proliferation of honours made by "authoritarian regimes" and "dictators":Some 3000 sailors died on the convoys - which Winston Churchill described as the "worst journey in the world." Portsmouth MPs described his behaviour as "shameful" and "sickening."In October 2012 Robathan was told to calm down by Lindsay Hoyle, the Deputy Speaker, after complaining about noise levels from the public gallery. Soldiers from the "historic" 2nd Battalion Royal Regiment of Fusiliers who face being disbanded were "politely applauding MPs who spoke up on their behalf". A former captain contrasted MoD advice that they went to Afghanistan and Iraq to help democracy with the reality of their own threatened ejection from Parliament.Robathan claimed the maximum second home entitlement of £24,006 in the period 2008–09 though he was not one of the 343 MPs required to repay money by the Legg Report. He was one of 177 MPs listed by "The Daily Telegraph" who employed family members. The Independent Parliamentary Standards Authority report published two years later, whilst tightening the rules, confirmed that a member may employ one relative subject to general conditions relating to expenses. Robathan's expenses were generally in the bottom half of all MPs.On 24 August 2009, he was quoted in "The Times" newspaper suggesting that MP's salaries be increased to £110,000. These comments were heavily frowned upon by his colleagues in Parliament and the media.On 4 November 2013, it was reported in "The Leicester Mercury" newspaper and on "BBC Radio Leicester" that Robathan had claimed £4,587 expenses to pay for energy bills for his second home.He married Rachael Maunder in December 1991 in Westminster. They have a son (born December 1996) and daughter (born July 1999). Rachael has been a Conservative councillor on Westminster City Council since 2010, representing Knightsbridge and Belgravia ward. In 2020, she became Leader of the Council.Robathan speaks French and German, and has been admitted as a Freeman of the City of London. | [
"Member of the 51st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the House of Lords",
"Member of the 55th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Minister of State for Northern Ireland",
"Member of the 53rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 54th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Minister of State for the Armed Forces"
] |
|
Which position did Andrew Robathan hold in 01/20/1998? | January 20, 1998 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 52nd Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q501089_P39_1 | Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the 53rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 2001 to Apr, 2005.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the 54th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 2005 to Apr, 2010.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the House of Lords from Oct, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Minister of State for the Armed Forces from Sep, 2012 to Oct, 2013.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the 52nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1997 to May, 2001.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Minister of State for Northern Ireland from Oct, 2013 to Jul, 2014.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the 55th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 2010 to Mar, 2015.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the 51st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1992 to Apr, 1997. | Andrew RobathanAndrew Robert George Robathan, Baron Robathan, (born 17 July 1951) is a British Conservative politician, who served as Member of Parliament (MP) for South Leicestershire (previously Blaby) in Leicestershire as well as a government minister.In September 2014 Robathan announced he would stand down at the 2015 general election, and was nominated for a life peerage in 2015 Dissolution Honours, being created Baron Robathan, of Poultney in the County of Leicestershire, on 13 October 2015.Robathan was born on 17 July 1951. He was educated at Merchant Taylors' School, an all-boys public school in Northwood, London. He went up to read Modern History at Oriel College, University of Oxford, where he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts (BA) in 1973, later proceeding Master of Arts.Robathan was commissioned into the Coldstream Guards as a Second Lieutenant (on probation) (University Candidate) on 6 October 1974. He was given the service number 498738. His commission was confirmed and he was given seniority as a Second Lieutenant from 6 April 1971. He was promoted to Lieutenant, back dated to 6 October 1974, with seniority from 6 April 1973. Having attended the Staff College, Camberley, he was promoted to Major on 30 September 1984. He served for a period of time with the Special Air Service (SAS), and retired on 27 August 1989 being appointed to the Reserve of Officers.He worked for BP from 1991–92, but volunteered to return to the Army between January and April 1991 during the First Gulf War, serving as Chief of Staff of the Prisoner of War Guard Force in Saudi Arabia, Iraq and Kuwait.Robathan was elected to Hammersmith and Fulham Council in May 1990, defeating the then-Labour Mayor in the Eel Brook Ward.He resigned as a Councillor in late 1991 to fight the 1992 general election, elected as MP for Blaby in 1992 succeeding Nigel Lawson, the former Chancellor of the Exchequer. Blaby had a 37% Conservative majority in 1992, but it was considerably reduced by the national swing against the Conservatives and major boundary changes in 1997, creating a rise in Labour support within the constituency. Following a public enquiry by the Electoral Commission and submissions from the public including Robathan, the Blaby constituency was reconfigured as South Leicestershire.Robathan served four years on the Defence Select Committee between 1997 and 2001; he was also Chairman of the All-Party Cycling Group, and Vice-Chairman of the All-Party Renewable and Sustainable Energy Group, whilst an MP.Robathan was John Redwood's Parliamentary Private Secretary to Iain Sproat, Minister for Sport, in the Major administration before returning to the backbenches when the Conservatives lost the 1997 general election. He returned to the front-bench as Trade and Industry Spokesman in 2002.In the 2001 Conservative Party leadership election, Robathan was a notable supporter of Michael Portillo. After six months on the backbenches, Robathan was appointed Commons Liaison to the Lords and then a Defence Spokesman in which capacity he fought the 2005 general election.In the 2005 Conservative leadership election, Robathan was one of the first MPs to declare his support for David Cameron being rewarded with one of only five paid posts as Opposition Deputy Chief Whip.In May 2010, he was appointed Parliamentary Under Secretary of State at the Ministry of Defence with responsibility for Welfare and Veterans.In 2011, he was a member of the Special Select Committee set up to scrutinise the Bill that became the Armed Forces Act 2011.In December 2011, campaigners called for him to be sacked after he compared the medal claims of 66,500 veterans of the Arctic convoys of World War II to the proliferation of honours made by "authoritarian regimes" and "dictators":Some 3000 sailors died on the convoys - which Winston Churchill described as the "worst journey in the world." Portsmouth MPs described his behaviour as "shameful" and "sickening."In October 2012 Robathan was told to calm down by Lindsay Hoyle, the Deputy Speaker, after complaining about noise levels from the public gallery. Soldiers from the "historic" 2nd Battalion Royal Regiment of Fusiliers who face being disbanded were "politely applauding MPs who spoke up on their behalf". A former captain contrasted MoD advice that they went to Afghanistan and Iraq to help democracy with the reality of their own threatened ejection from Parliament.Robathan claimed the maximum second home entitlement of £24,006 in the period 2008–09 though he was not one of the 343 MPs required to repay money by the Legg Report. He was one of 177 MPs listed by "The Daily Telegraph" who employed family members. The Independent Parliamentary Standards Authority report published two years later, whilst tightening the rules, confirmed that a member may employ one relative subject to general conditions relating to expenses. Robathan's expenses were generally in the bottom half of all MPs.On 24 August 2009, he was quoted in "The Times" newspaper suggesting that MP's salaries be increased to £110,000. These comments were heavily frowned upon by his colleagues in Parliament and the media.On 4 November 2013, it was reported in "The Leicester Mercury" newspaper and on "BBC Radio Leicester" that Robathan had claimed £4,587 expenses to pay for energy bills for his second home.He married Rachael Maunder in December 1991 in Westminster. They have a son (born December 1996) and daughter (born July 1999). Rachael has been a Conservative councillor on Westminster City Council since 2010, representing Knightsbridge and Belgravia ward. In 2020, she became Leader of the Council.Robathan speaks French and German, and has been admitted as a Freeman of the City of London. | [
"Member of the 51st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the House of Lords",
"Member of the 55th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Minister of State for Northern Ireland",
"Member of the 53rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 54th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Minister of State for the Armed Forces"
] |
|
Which position did Andrew Robathan hold in 20-Jan-199820-January-1998? | January 20, 1998 | {
"text": [
"Member of the 52nd Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
} | L2_Q501089_P39_1 | Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the 53rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 2001 to Apr, 2005.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the 54th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 2005 to Apr, 2010.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the House of Lords from Oct, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Minister of State for the Armed Forces from Sep, 2012 to Oct, 2013.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the 52nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1997 to May, 2001.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Minister of State for Northern Ireland from Oct, 2013 to Jul, 2014.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the 55th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 2010 to Mar, 2015.
Andrew Robathan holds the position of Member of the 51st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Apr, 1992 to Apr, 1997. | Andrew RobathanAndrew Robert George Robathan, Baron Robathan, (born 17 July 1951) is a British Conservative politician, who served as Member of Parliament (MP) for South Leicestershire (previously Blaby) in Leicestershire as well as a government minister.In September 2014 Robathan announced he would stand down at the 2015 general election, and was nominated for a life peerage in 2015 Dissolution Honours, being created Baron Robathan, of Poultney in the County of Leicestershire, on 13 October 2015.Robathan was born on 17 July 1951. He was educated at Merchant Taylors' School, an all-boys public school in Northwood, London. He went up to read Modern History at Oriel College, University of Oxford, where he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts (BA) in 1973, later proceeding Master of Arts.Robathan was commissioned into the Coldstream Guards as a Second Lieutenant (on probation) (University Candidate) on 6 October 1974. He was given the service number 498738. His commission was confirmed and he was given seniority as a Second Lieutenant from 6 April 1971. He was promoted to Lieutenant, back dated to 6 October 1974, with seniority from 6 April 1973. Having attended the Staff College, Camberley, he was promoted to Major on 30 September 1984. He served for a period of time with the Special Air Service (SAS), and retired on 27 August 1989 being appointed to the Reserve of Officers.He worked for BP from 1991–92, but volunteered to return to the Army between January and April 1991 during the First Gulf War, serving as Chief of Staff of the Prisoner of War Guard Force in Saudi Arabia, Iraq and Kuwait.Robathan was elected to Hammersmith and Fulham Council in May 1990, defeating the then-Labour Mayor in the Eel Brook Ward.He resigned as a Councillor in late 1991 to fight the 1992 general election, elected as MP for Blaby in 1992 succeeding Nigel Lawson, the former Chancellor of the Exchequer. Blaby had a 37% Conservative majority in 1992, but it was considerably reduced by the national swing against the Conservatives and major boundary changes in 1997, creating a rise in Labour support within the constituency. Following a public enquiry by the Electoral Commission and submissions from the public including Robathan, the Blaby constituency was reconfigured as South Leicestershire.Robathan served four years on the Defence Select Committee between 1997 and 2001; he was also Chairman of the All-Party Cycling Group, and Vice-Chairman of the All-Party Renewable and Sustainable Energy Group, whilst an MP.Robathan was John Redwood's Parliamentary Private Secretary to Iain Sproat, Minister for Sport, in the Major administration before returning to the backbenches when the Conservatives lost the 1997 general election. He returned to the front-bench as Trade and Industry Spokesman in 2002.In the 2001 Conservative Party leadership election, Robathan was a notable supporter of Michael Portillo. After six months on the backbenches, Robathan was appointed Commons Liaison to the Lords and then a Defence Spokesman in which capacity he fought the 2005 general election.In the 2005 Conservative leadership election, Robathan was one of the first MPs to declare his support for David Cameron being rewarded with one of only five paid posts as Opposition Deputy Chief Whip.In May 2010, he was appointed Parliamentary Under Secretary of State at the Ministry of Defence with responsibility for Welfare and Veterans.In 2011, he was a member of the Special Select Committee set up to scrutinise the Bill that became the Armed Forces Act 2011.In December 2011, campaigners called for him to be sacked after he compared the medal claims of 66,500 veterans of the Arctic convoys of World War II to the proliferation of honours made by "authoritarian regimes" and "dictators":Some 3000 sailors died on the convoys - which Winston Churchill described as the "worst journey in the world." Portsmouth MPs described his behaviour as "shameful" and "sickening."In October 2012 Robathan was told to calm down by Lindsay Hoyle, the Deputy Speaker, after complaining about noise levels from the public gallery. Soldiers from the "historic" 2nd Battalion Royal Regiment of Fusiliers who face being disbanded were "politely applauding MPs who spoke up on their behalf". A former captain contrasted MoD advice that they went to Afghanistan and Iraq to help democracy with the reality of their own threatened ejection from Parliament.Robathan claimed the maximum second home entitlement of £24,006 in the period 2008–09 though he was not one of the 343 MPs required to repay money by the Legg Report. He was one of 177 MPs listed by "The Daily Telegraph" who employed family members. The Independent Parliamentary Standards Authority report published two years later, whilst tightening the rules, confirmed that a member may employ one relative subject to general conditions relating to expenses. Robathan's expenses were generally in the bottom half of all MPs.On 24 August 2009, he was quoted in "The Times" newspaper suggesting that MP's salaries be increased to £110,000. These comments were heavily frowned upon by his colleagues in Parliament and the media.On 4 November 2013, it was reported in "The Leicester Mercury" newspaper and on "BBC Radio Leicester" that Robathan had claimed £4,587 expenses to pay for energy bills for his second home.He married Rachael Maunder in December 1991 in Westminster. They have a son (born December 1996) and daughter (born July 1999). Rachael has been a Conservative councillor on Westminster City Council since 2010, representing Knightsbridge and Belgravia ward. In 2020, she became Leader of the Council.Robathan speaks French and German, and has been admitted as a Freeman of the City of London. | [
"Member of the 51st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the House of Lords",
"Member of the 55th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Minister of State for Northern Ireland",
"Member of the 53rd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 54th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Minister of State for the Armed Forces"
] |
|
Who was the head coach of the team Atalanta B.C. in Oct, 2011? | October 01, 2011 | {
"text": [
"Stefano Colantuono"
]
} | L2_Q1886_P286_9 | Valter Bonacina is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2010.
Gian Piero Gasperini is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jun, 2016 to Dec, 2022.
Edoardo Reja is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Mar, 2015 to Jun, 2016.
Emiliano Mondonico is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 1987 to Jun, 1990.
Stefano Colantuono is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jun, 2010 to Mar, 2015.
Ottavio Bianchi is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 1981 to Jun, 1983.
Angelo Gregucci is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 2009 to Sep, 2009.
Marcello Lippi is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 1992 to Jun, 1993.
Nedo Sonetti is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 1983 to Jun, 1987.
Luigi Delneri is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 2007 to Jun, 2009.
Bortolo Mutti is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jun, 2010.
Antonio Conte is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Sep, 2009 to Jan, 2010. | Atalanta B.C.Atalanta Bergamasca Calcio, commonly referred to as Atalanta, is a professional football club based in Bergamo, Lombardy, Italy. The club plays in Serie A, having gained promotion from Serie B in 2010–11.Atalanta was founded in 1907 by Liceo Classico Paolo Sarpi students and is nicknamed "La Dea", the "Nerazzurri" and the "Orobici". The club plays in blue-and-black vertically striped shirts, black shorts and black socks. The club plays its home matches at the 21,300 seat Gewiss Stadium. In Italy, Atalanta is sometimes called "Regina delle provinciali" (queen of the provincial clubs) to mark the fact that the club is the most consistent among Italian clubs not based in a regional capital, having played 60 seasons in Serie A, 28 seasons in Serie B, and only one in Serie C. Atalanta has a long-standing rivalry with nearby club Brescia.The club is also famed for its Youth Academy which has produced several notable talents who have played in the top leagues of Europe. The club won the Coppa Italia in 1963 and reached the semi-finals of the Cup Winners' Cup in 1988, when it was still competing in Serie B. This is still the best ever performance by a non-first division club in a major UEFA competition (together with Cardiff City). Atalanta also participated in four seasons of the UEFA Europa League (previously known as the UEFA Cup), reaching the quarter-finals in the 1990–91 season. Atalanta also participated in the UEFA Champions League, reaching the quarter-finals in the 2019–20 season.Atalanta was founded on 17 October 1907 by students of the Liceo Classico Paolo Sarpi and was named after the female athlete of the same name from Greek mythology. Though it immediately established a football sector, it was not the first football association based in Bergamo: "Football Club Bergamo" was founded by Swiss emigrants in 1904, and was absorbed into another club, "Bergamasca", in 1911. The Italian Football Federation did not recognize Atalanta until 1914, and in 1919 announced that it would only allow one club from Bergamo to compete in the highest national league (then called the Prima Categoria). As Atalanta and Bergamasca were rivals and did not come to an agreement, admission to the Prima Categoria was decided by a playoff match; Atalanta won this match 2–0. A merger between the two clubs nevertheless occurred in 1920, forming the new club "Atalanta Bergamasca di Ginnastica e Scherma 1907" (shortened to "Atalanta Bergamasca Calcio") and establishing its black and blue ("nerazzurri") colors.Atalanta participated in the Seconda Divisione, the second tier, during the early 1920s. In the 1927–28 season, the club won its group and subsequently defeated Pistoiese in the playoffs to win promotion and its first second division league triumph. The club inaugurated its current home stadium in the Borgo Santa Caterina neighborhood in 1928, and was admitted to Serie B, the second tier of the restructured Italian league, in 1929. After almost a decade in Serie B, Atalanta achieved its first promotion to Serie A in 1937 under coach Ottavio Barbieri, though was relegated at the end of the season. The club returned to Serie A in 1940 as Serie B champions.During the 1940s, Atalanta performed consistently in the top flight, though the league was halted between 1943 and 1945 due to World War II. Atalanta achieved a fifth-place finish in the 1947–48 Serie A under coach Ivo Fiorentini, its highest league finish until 2017. The club earned a reputation as the "provinciale terribile" (terrible provincial team) during this time as a result of its successes against well-known metropolitan teams such as the "Grande Torino", who won Serie A five times during the 1940s. Atalanta achieved mid-table finishes during much of the 1950s and remained in Serie A until 1958, when it was relegated due to accusations of match fixing. These accusations were found to be false a year later, after the club returned to Serie A by winning its second Serie B title.Atalanta won the Coppa Italia in 1963, defeating Torino 3–1 in the final thanks to a hat-trick by striker Angelo Domenghini. This was the senior team's first (and so far only) major trophy. During the early 1960s, the club made its debut in European competitions, among them the 1961–62 Mitropa Cup, the Coppa dell'Amicizia, and the Coppa delle Alpi. As domestic cup winners, the club qualified for the 1963–64 European Cup Winners' Cup, its first major UEFA competition, though was eliminated by Portuguese club Sporting CP in the first round. The club made a few more appearances in international (though not UEFA) cups during the 1960s, though was relegated in 1969 after a decade in the top flight.During the 1970s, the club experienced several movements between Serie A and Serie B, and fell into Serie C1 in 1981. For the first time in its history, the club would play outside the top two tiers; this was a blow that revitalized the club. Under new management, it returned to Serie B the next season and to Serie A in 1984, where it would remain until 1987. Atalanta reached its second Coppa Italia final in 1987, though lost 4–0 to Napoli over two legs. As Napoli also won Serie A that season and therefore qualified for the European Cup, Atalanta qualified for its second European Cup Winners' Cup. This was a turning point for the club; Emiliano Mondonico was appointed as coach and the club would achieve promotion after only one season in Serie B. In the Cup Winners' Cup, Atalanta lost its first match against Welsh club Merthyr Tydfil, but won the return fixture and went on to reach the semi-finals, where it would be eliminated 4–2 on aggregate by Belgian club Mechelen, who would eventually win the tournament. In doing so, Atalanta achieved the best finish in a UEFA competition of a club playing outside its country's top flight league.With a sixth-place finish in the 1988–89 Serie A, Atalanta qualified for its first UEFA Cup, though was eliminated by Russian club Spartak Moscow in the first round. Atalanta then finished seventh in the 1989–90 Serie A and reached the quarterfinals of the 1990–91 UEFA Cup, losing to local rivals and eventual winners Internazionale. After several mid-table finishes, the club was relegated in 1994, though would return to Serie A in 1995. In the 1996–97 season, striker Filippo Inzaghi scored 24 league goals and became the first (and so far only) Atalanta player to be named "capocannoniere" (Serie A top scorer).In the 2000s, Atalanta experienced more divisional movements: it was relegated in 2002–03 and 2004–05, but achieved promotion to Serie A after only one season in Serie B both times, winning the 2005–06 edition. After a tumultuous 2009–10 season, the club was once again relegated; after this relegation, entrepreneur Antonio Percassi became the club's new president, and Stefano Colantuono returned as coach. The club won Serie B in 2011 and thus immediately returned to Serie A. Despite this success, club captain Cristiano Doni was named among the suspects in a match-fixing scandal (also known as "Calcioscommesse"); Doni was handed a three-and-a-half-year ban from football and the club was docked six points in the league table. Nevertheless, the club managed to secure another year in Serie A by obtaining 52 points (46 after the six-point penalty), its highest Serie A point total at the time. The following year, for the same reasons (after further investigation), the club was docked two points in the league, but avoided relegation upon finishing in 15th place. In the 2013–14 season, Atalanta finished eleventh in Serie A, but struggled during the 2014–15 season. After a poor run of form which left Atalanta only three points above the relegation zone, Colantuono was sacked in March 2015. He was replaced by Edoardo Reja, who secured Serie A safety that season, and led the club to a 13th-place finish in 2016.Former Genoa coach Gian Piero Gasperini was appointed before the 2016–17 season. Despite initial difficulties, the club's results steadily improved throughout the season. Gasperini integrated players from the club's youth sector and led the club to a fourth-place league finish with 72 points, besting its previous records and qualifying for the 2017–18 UEFA Europa League after a 26-year absence from UEFA competitions. In the Europa League, the club reached the round of 32, losing 4–3 on aggregate to Borussia Dortmund. In 2017–18, Atalanta finished seventh in the league, entering the qualifying rounds for 2018–19 UEFA Europa League, though was eliminated in a penalty shootout by Danish club Copenhagen. Despite a difficult start to the 2018–19 season, Atalanta achieved many positive results and finished third in Serie A, its best ever league finish; with this result, the club qualified for the UEFA Champions League group stage for the first time in its history. Atalanta also reached the Coppa Italia final, though lost 2–0 to Lazio.In the 2019–20 season, Atalanta lost its first three Champions League matches, but went on to qualify for the round of 16. Atalanta then defeated Spanish club Valencia in both legs of the round of 16, reaching the quarterfinals, where it would be eliminated by French champions Paris Saint-Germain. The club also repeated its third-place finish in Serie A and achieved a second consecutive Champions League qualification, breaking several club records. In the 2020–21 season, Atalanta reached the round of 16 in the Champions League for the second time, following an away victory over Ajax. They later finished the 2020–21 season in third place in Serie A for the third consecutive time.12 – Dedication to fans, in particularly for Pisani Curve ones14 – Federico Pisani, Forward (1991–97) – "posthumous honour."80 – , radio journalist.The Atalanta youth system consists of four men's teams that participate in separate national leagues (Primavera, Allievi Nazionali A and B, and Giovanissimi Nazionali) and two that participate at a regional level (Giovanissimi Regionali A and B).The first person who was committed to set up the Atalanta youth teams was Giuseppe Ciatto. Every organisational aspect was dealt with and resolved by him, and he also took care to train the various teams. In 1949 Atalanta won the "Campionato Ragazzi".In the late 1950s former Atalanta player Luigi Tentorio (then Special Commissioner of the club) felt the need to start investing more systematically in youth: he decided to create a real youth sector, with its own independent structure from the first team. The youth sector was entrusted to Giuseppe Brolis, who created a partnership with various clubs in the Veneto and Friuli regions, building a network of scouts and young coaches.A crucial step in the history of the Bergamo youth sector took place in the early 1990s when the president Antonio Percassi implemented a new investment policy, especially at the youth level. He managed to convince Fermo Favini to leave Como and entrusted him with the responsibility of the youth sector.The Atalanta youth system not only continued to increase the production of players for the first team, but began to win several honours in the most important national leagues. From 1991 to 2014, the various youth teams have won 17 national titles.Apart from successes at youth level, the Atalanta youth system is also one of the most highly regarded in Europe: according to a ranking by the study centre in Coverciano, Atalanta have the top youth system in Italy and the sixth in Europe, behind Real Madrid, Barcelona and three French teams. The parameters used were the number of first division players produced by the club. In the 2007–08 season, 22 players from Atalanta's youth played in Serie A, 32 in Serie B and 3 abroad.In 2014, a global study of the "CIES Football Observatory", placed the Atalanta youth system eighth place in the world, with 25 former youth players who play in the top 5 European leagues.Atalanta have had several presidents (chairmen) ( or ) over the course of their history. Some of them have been the main shareholder of the club. The longest-serving chairman is Ivan Ruggeri, who was relieved of his duties after he suffered a stroke in January 2008, being replaced by his son Alessandrowho was named chairman of Atalanta in September 2008. Alessandro's father was unable to manage the team due to the consequences of the stroke.In June 2010, after another relegation to Serie B, Alessandro Ruggeri sold his share of the club to Antonio Percassi, who became the new chairman of Atalanta.Atalanta have had many managers and head coaches throughout their history, below is a chronological list of them from when Serie A was changed into a league format, from 1929–30 onwards.The biggest rivalry is with the neighbouring supporters of Brescia, and there are strong rivalries also with supporters of Verona, Genoa, Fiorentina, Roma, Lazio, Napoli, Milan, Internazionale, Torino; while there has been a long-standing friendship with Ternana, fans of German club Eintracht Frankfurt and fans of the Austrian club Wacker Innsbruck. | [
"Luigi Delneri",
"Valter Bonacina",
"Antonio Conte",
"Ottavio Bianchi",
"Angelo Gregucci",
"Gian Piero Gasperini",
"Emiliano Mondonico",
"Bortolo Mutti",
"Edoardo Reja",
"Nedo Sonetti",
"Marcello Lippi"
] |
|
Who was the head coach of the team Atalanta B.C. in 2011-10-01? | October 01, 2011 | {
"text": [
"Stefano Colantuono"
]
} | L2_Q1886_P286_9 | Valter Bonacina is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2010.
Gian Piero Gasperini is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jun, 2016 to Dec, 2022.
Edoardo Reja is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Mar, 2015 to Jun, 2016.
Emiliano Mondonico is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 1987 to Jun, 1990.
Stefano Colantuono is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jun, 2010 to Mar, 2015.
Ottavio Bianchi is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 1981 to Jun, 1983.
Angelo Gregucci is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 2009 to Sep, 2009.
Marcello Lippi is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 1992 to Jun, 1993.
Nedo Sonetti is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 1983 to Jun, 1987.
Luigi Delneri is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 2007 to Jun, 2009.
Bortolo Mutti is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jun, 2010.
Antonio Conte is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Sep, 2009 to Jan, 2010. | Atalanta B.C.Atalanta Bergamasca Calcio, commonly referred to as Atalanta, is a professional football club based in Bergamo, Lombardy, Italy. The club plays in Serie A, having gained promotion from Serie B in 2010–11.Atalanta was founded in 1907 by Liceo Classico Paolo Sarpi students and is nicknamed "La Dea", the "Nerazzurri" and the "Orobici". The club plays in blue-and-black vertically striped shirts, black shorts and black socks. The club plays its home matches at the 21,300 seat Gewiss Stadium. In Italy, Atalanta is sometimes called "Regina delle provinciali" (queen of the provincial clubs) to mark the fact that the club is the most consistent among Italian clubs not based in a regional capital, having played 60 seasons in Serie A, 28 seasons in Serie B, and only one in Serie C. Atalanta has a long-standing rivalry with nearby club Brescia.The club is also famed for its Youth Academy which has produced several notable talents who have played in the top leagues of Europe. The club won the Coppa Italia in 1963 and reached the semi-finals of the Cup Winners' Cup in 1988, when it was still competing in Serie B. This is still the best ever performance by a non-first division club in a major UEFA competition (together with Cardiff City). Atalanta also participated in four seasons of the UEFA Europa League (previously known as the UEFA Cup), reaching the quarter-finals in the 1990–91 season. Atalanta also participated in the UEFA Champions League, reaching the quarter-finals in the 2019–20 season.Atalanta was founded on 17 October 1907 by students of the Liceo Classico Paolo Sarpi and was named after the female athlete of the same name from Greek mythology. Though it immediately established a football sector, it was not the first football association based in Bergamo: "Football Club Bergamo" was founded by Swiss emigrants in 1904, and was absorbed into another club, "Bergamasca", in 1911. The Italian Football Federation did not recognize Atalanta until 1914, and in 1919 announced that it would only allow one club from Bergamo to compete in the highest national league (then called the Prima Categoria). As Atalanta and Bergamasca were rivals and did not come to an agreement, admission to the Prima Categoria was decided by a playoff match; Atalanta won this match 2–0. A merger between the two clubs nevertheless occurred in 1920, forming the new club "Atalanta Bergamasca di Ginnastica e Scherma 1907" (shortened to "Atalanta Bergamasca Calcio") and establishing its black and blue ("nerazzurri") colors.Atalanta participated in the Seconda Divisione, the second tier, during the early 1920s. In the 1927–28 season, the club won its group and subsequently defeated Pistoiese in the playoffs to win promotion and its first second division league triumph. The club inaugurated its current home stadium in the Borgo Santa Caterina neighborhood in 1928, and was admitted to Serie B, the second tier of the restructured Italian league, in 1929. After almost a decade in Serie B, Atalanta achieved its first promotion to Serie A in 1937 under coach Ottavio Barbieri, though was relegated at the end of the season. The club returned to Serie A in 1940 as Serie B champions.During the 1940s, Atalanta performed consistently in the top flight, though the league was halted between 1943 and 1945 due to World War II. Atalanta achieved a fifth-place finish in the 1947–48 Serie A under coach Ivo Fiorentini, its highest league finish until 2017. The club earned a reputation as the "provinciale terribile" (terrible provincial team) during this time as a result of its successes against well-known metropolitan teams such as the "Grande Torino", who won Serie A five times during the 1940s. Atalanta achieved mid-table finishes during much of the 1950s and remained in Serie A until 1958, when it was relegated due to accusations of match fixing. These accusations were found to be false a year later, after the club returned to Serie A by winning its second Serie B title.Atalanta won the Coppa Italia in 1963, defeating Torino 3–1 in the final thanks to a hat-trick by striker Angelo Domenghini. This was the senior team's first (and so far only) major trophy. During the early 1960s, the club made its debut in European competitions, among them the 1961–62 Mitropa Cup, the Coppa dell'Amicizia, and the Coppa delle Alpi. As domestic cup winners, the club qualified for the 1963–64 European Cup Winners' Cup, its first major UEFA competition, though was eliminated by Portuguese club Sporting CP in the first round. The club made a few more appearances in international (though not UEFA) cups during the 1960s, though was relegated in 1969 after a decade in the top flight.During the 1970s, the club experienced several movements between Serie A and Serie B, and fell into Serie C1 in 1981. For the first time in its history, the club would play outside the top two tiers; this was a blow that revitalized the club. Under new management, it returned to Serie B the next season and to Serie A in 1984, where it would remain until 1987. Atalanta reached its second Coppa Italia final in 1987, though lost 4–0 to Napoli over two legs. As Napoli also won Serie A that season and therefore qualified for the European Cup, Atalanta qualified for its second European Cup Winners' Cup. This was a turning point for the club; Emiliano Mondonico was appointed as coach and the club would achieve promotion after only one season in Serie B. In the Cup Winners' Cup, Atalanta lost its first match against Welsh club Merthyr Tydfil, but won the return fixture and went on to reach the semi-finals, where it would be eliminated 4–2 on aggregate by Belgian club Mechelen, who would eventually win the tournament. In doing so, Atalanta achieved the best finish in a UEFA competition of a club playing outside its country's top flight league.With a sixth-place finish in the 1988–89 Serie A, Atalanta qualified for its first UEFA Cup, though was eliminated by Russian club Spartak Moscow in the first round. Atalanta then finished seventh in the 1989–90 Serie A and reached the quarterfinals of the 1990–91 UEFA Cup, losing to local rivals and eventual winners Internazionale. After several mid-table finishes, the club was relegated in 1994, though would return to Serie A in 1995. In the 1996–97 season, striker Filippo Inzaghi scored 24 league goals and became the first (and so far only) Atalanta player to be named "capocannoniere" (Serie A top scorer).In the 2000s, Atalanta experienced more divisional movements: it was relegated in 2002–03 and 2004–05, but achieved promotion to Serie A after only one season in Serie B both times, winning the 2005–06 edition. After a tumultuous 2009–10 season, the club was once again relegated; after this relegation, entrepreneur Antonio Percassi became the club's new president, and Stefano Colantuono returned as coach. The club won Serie B in 2011 and thus immediately returned to Serie A. Despite this success, club captain Cristiano Doni was named among the suspects in a match-fixing scandal (also known as "Calcioscommesse"); Doni was handed a three-and-a-half-year ban from football and the club was docked six points in the league table. Nevertheless, the club managed to secure another year in Serie A by obtaining 52 points (46 after the six-point penalty), its highest Serie A point total at the time. The following year, for the same reasons (after further investigation), the club was docked two points in the league, but avoided relegation upon finishing in 15th place. In the 2013–14 season, Atalanta finished eleventh in Serie A, but struggled during the 2014–15 season. After a poor run of form which left Atalanta only three points above the relegation zone, Colantuono was sacked in March 2015. He was replaced by Edoardo Reja, who secured Serie A safety that season, and led the club to a 13th-place finish in 2016.Former Genoa coach Gian Piero Gasperini was appointed before the 2016–17 season. Despite initial difficulties, the club's results steadily improved throughout the season. Gasperini integrated players from the club's youth sector and led the club to a fourth-place league finish with 72 points, besting its previous records and qualifying for the 2017–18 UEFA Europa League after a 26-year absence from UEFA competitions. In the Europa League, the club reached the round of 32, losing 4–3 on aggregate to Borussia Dortmund. In 2017–18, Atalanta finished seventh in the league, entering the qualifying rounds for 2018–19 UEFA Europa League, though was eliminated in a penalty shootout by Danish club Copenhagen. Despite a difficult start to the 2018–19 season, Atalanta achieved many positive results and finished third in Serie A, its best ever league finish; with this result, the club qualified for the UEFA Champions League group stage for the first time in its history. Atalanta also reached the Coppa Italia final, though lost 2–0 to Lazio.In the 2019–20 season, Atalanta lost its first three Champions League matches, but went on to qualify for the round of 16. Atalanta then defeated Spanish club Valencia in both legs of the round of 16, reaching the quarterfinals, where it would be eliminated by French champions Paris Saint-Germain. The club also repeated its third-place finish in Serie A and achieved a second consecutive Champions League qualification, breaking several club records. In the 2020–21 season, Atalanta reached the round of 16 in the Champions League for the second time, following an away victory over Ajax. They later finished the 2020–21 season in third place in Serie A for the third consecutive time.12 – Dedication to fans, in particularly for Pisani Curve ones14 – Federico Pisani, Forward (1991–97) – "posthumous honour."80 – , radio journalist.The Atalanta youth system consists of four men's teams that participate in separate national leagues (Primavera, Allievi Nazionali A and B, and Giovanissimi Nazionali) and two that participate at a regional level (Giovanissimi Regionali A and B).The first person who was committed to set up the Atalanta youth teams was Giuseppe Ciatto. Every organisational aspect was dealt with and resolved by him, and he also took care to train the various teams. In 1949 Atalanta won the "Campionato Ragazzi".In the late 1950s former Atalanta player Luigi Tentorio (then Special Commissioner of the club) felt the need to start investing more systematically in youth: he decided to create a real youth sector, with its own independent structure from the first team. The youth sector was entrusted to Giuseppe Brolis, who created a partnership with various clubs in the Veneto and Friuli regions, building a network of scouts and young coaches.A crucial step in the history of the Bergamo youth sector took place in the early 1990s when the president Antonio Percassi implemented a new investment policy, especially at the youth level. He managed to convince Fermo Favini to leave Como and entrusted him with the responsibility of the youth sector.The Atalanta youth system not only continued to increase the production of players for the first team, but began to win several honours in the most important national leagues. From 1991 to 2014, the various youth teams have won 17 national titles.Apart from successes at youth level, the Atalanta youth system is also one of the most highly regarded in Europe: according to a ranking by the study centre in Coverciano, Atalanta have the top youth system in Italy and the sixth in Europe, behind Real Madrid, Barcelona and three French teams. The parameters used were the number of first division players produced by the club. In the 2007–08 season, 22 players from Atalanta's youth played in Serie A, 32 in Serie B and 3 abroad.In 2014, a global study of the "CIES Football Observatory", placed the Atalanta youth system eighth place in the world, with 25 former youth players who play in the top 5 European leagues.Atalanta have had several presidents (chairmen) ( or ) over the course of their history. Some of them have been the main shareholder of the club. The longest-serving chairman is Ivan Ruggeri, who was relieved of his duties after he suffered a stroke in January 2008, being replaced by his son Alessandrowho was named chairman of Atalanta in September 2008. Alessandro's father was unable to manage the team due to the consequences of the stroke.In June 2010, after another relegation to Serie B, Alessandro Ruggeri sold his share of the club to Antonio Percassi, who became the new chairman of Atalanta.Atalanta have had many managers and head coaches throughout their history, below is a chronological list of them from when Serie A was changed into a league format, from 1929–30 onwards.The biggest rivalry is with the neighbouring supporters of Brescia, and there are strong rivalries also with supporters of Verona, Genoa, Fiorentina, Roma, Lazio, Napoli, Milan, Internazionale, Torino; while there has been a long-standing friendship with Ternana, fans of German club Eintracht Frankfurt and fans of the Austrian club Wacker Innsbruck. | [
"Luigi Delneri",
"Valter Bonacina",
"Antonio Conte",
"Ottavio Bianchi",
"Angelo Gregucci",
"Gian Piero Gasperini",
"Emiliano Mondonico",
"Bortolo Mutti",
"Edoardo Reja",
"Nedo Sonetti",
"Marcello Lippi"
] |
|
Who was the head coach of the team Atalanta B.C. in 01/10/2011? | October 01, 2011 | {
"text": [
"Stefano Colantuono"
]
} | L2_Q1886_P286_9 | Valter Bonacina is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2010.
Gian Piero Gasperini is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jun, 2016 to Dec, 2022.
Edoardo Reja is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Mar, 2015 to Jun, 2016.
Emiliano Mondonico is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 1987 to Jun, 1990.
Stefano Colantuono is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jun, 2010 to Mar, 2015.
Ottavio Bianchi is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 1981 to Jun, 1983.
Angelo Gregucci is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 2009 to Sep, 2009.
Marcello Lippi is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 1992 to Jun, 1993.
Nedo Sonetti is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 1983 to Jun, 1987.
Luigi Delneri is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 2007 to Jun, 2009.
Bortolo Mutti is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jun, 2010.
Antonio Conte is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Sep, 2009 to Jan, 2010. | Atalanta B.C.Atalanta Bergamasca Calcio, commonly referred to as Atalanta, is a professional football club based in Bergamo, Lombardy, Italy. The club plays in Serie A, having gained promotion from Serie B in 2010–11.Atalanta was founded in 1907 by Liceo Classico Paolo Sarpi students and is nicknamed "La Dea", the "Nerazzurri" and the "Orobici". The club plays in blue-and-black vertically striped shirts, black shorts and black socks. The club plays its home matches at the 21,300 seat Gewiss Stadium. In Italy, Atalanta is sometimes called "Regina delle provinciali" (queen of the provincial clubs) to mark the fact that the club is the most consistent among Italian clubs not based in a regional capital, having played 60 seasons in Serie A, 28 seasons in Serie B, and only one in Serie C. Atalanta has a long-standing rivalry with nearby club Brescia.The club is also famed for its Youth Academy which has produced several notable talents who have played in the top leagues of Europe. The club won the Coppa Italia in 1963 and reached the semi-finals of the Cup Winners' Cup in 1988, when it was still competing in Serie B. This is still the best ever performance by a non-first division club in a major UEFA competition (together with Cardiff City). Atalanta also participated in four seasons of the UEFA Europa League (previously known as the UEFA Cup), reaching the quarter-finals in the 1990–91 season. Atalanta also participated in the UEFA Champions League, reaching the quarter-finals in the 2019–20 season.Atalanta was founded on 17 October 1907 by students of the Liceo Classico Paolo Sarpi and was named after the female athlete of the same name from Greek mythology. Though it immediately established a football sector, it was not the first football association based in Bergamo: "Football Club Bergamo" was founded by Swiss emigrants in 1904, and was absorbed into another club, "Bergamasca", in 1911. The Italian Football Federation did not recognize Atalanta until 1914, and in 1919 announced that it would only allow one club from Bergamo to compete in the highest national league (then called the Prima Categoria). As Atalanta and Bergamasca were rivals and did not come to an agreement, admission to the Prima Categoria was decided by a playoff match; Atalanta won this match 2–0. A merger between the two clubs nevertheless occurred in 1920, forming the new club "Atalanta Bergamasca di Ginnastica e Scherma 1907" (shortened to "Atalanta Bergamasca Calcio") and establishing its black and blue ("nerazzurri") colors.Atalanta participated in the Seconda Divisione, the second tier, during the early 1920s. In the 1927–28 season, the club won its group and subsequently defeated Pistoiese in the playoffs to win promotion and its first second division league triumph. The club inaugurated its current home stadium in the Borgo Santa Caterina neighborhood in 1928, and was admitted to Serie B, the second tier of the restructured Italian league, in 1929. After almost a decade in Serie B, Atalanta achieved its first promotion to Serie A in 1937 under coach Ottavio Barbieri, though was relegated at the end of the season. The club returned to Serie A in 1940 as Serie B champions.During the 1940s, Atalanta performed consistently in the top flight, though the league was halted between 1943 and 1945 due to World War II. Atalanta achieved a fifth-place finish in the 1947–48 Serie A under coach Ivo Fiorentini, its highest league finish until 2017. The club earned a reputation as the "provinciale terribile" (terrible provincial team) during this time as a result of its successes against well-known metropolitan teams such as the "Grande Torino", who won Serie A five times during the 1940s. Atalanta achieved mid-table finishes during much of the 1950s and remained in Serie A until 1958, when it was relegated due to accusations of match fixing. These accusations were found to be false a year later, after the club returned to Serie A by winning its second Serie B title.Atalanta won the Coppa Italia in 1963, defeating Torino 3–1 in the final thanks to a hat-trick by striker Angelo Domenghini. This was the senior team's first (and so far only) major trophy. During the early 1960s, the club made its debut in European competitions, among them the 1961–62 Mitropa Cup, the Coppa dell'Amicizia, and the Coppa delle Alpi. As domestic cup winners, the club qualified for the 1963–64 European Cup Winners' Cup, its first major UEFA competition, though was eliminated by Portuguese club Sporting CP in the first round. The club made a few more appearances in international (though not UEFA) cups during the 1960s, though was relegated in 1969 after a decade in the top flight.During the 1970s, the club experienced several movements between Serie A and Serie B, and fell into Serie C1 in 1981. For the first time in its history, the club would play outside the top two tiers; this was a blow that revitalized the club. Under new management, it returned to Serie B the next season and to Serie A in 1984, where it would remain until 1987. Atalanta reached its second Coppa Italia final in 1987, though lost 4–0 to Napoli over two legs. As Napoli also won Serie A that season and therefore qualified for the European Cup, Atalanta qualified for its second European Cup Winners' Cup. This was a turning point for the club; Emiliano Mondonico was appointed as coach and the club would achieve promotion after only one season in Serie B. In the Cup Winners' Cup, Atalanta lost its first match against Welsh club Merthyr Tydfil, but won the return fixture and went on to reach the semi-finals, where it would be eliminated 4–2 on aggregate by Belgian club Mechelen, who would eventually win the tournament. In doing so, Atalanta achieved the best finish in a UEFA competition of a club playing outside its country's top flight league.With a sixth-place finish in the 1988–89 Serie A, Atalanta qualified for its first UEFA Cup, though was eliminated by Russian club Spartak Moscow in the first round. Atalanta then finished seventh in the 1989–90 Serie A and reached the quarterfinals of the 1990–91 UEFA Cup, losing to local rivals and eventual winners Internazionale. After several mid-table finishes, the club was relegated in 1994, though would return to Serie A in 1995. In the 1996–97 season, striker Filippo Inzaghi scored 24 league goals and became the first (and so far only) Atalanta player to be named "capocannoniere" (Serie A top scorer).In the 2000s, Atalanta experienced more divisional movements: it was relegated in 2002–03 and 2004–05, but achieved promotion to Serie A after only one season in Serie B both times, winning the 2005–06 edition. After a tumultuous 2009–10 season, the club was once again relegated; after this relegation, entrepreneur Antonio Percassi became the club's new president, and Stefano Colantuono returned as coach. The club won Serie B in 2011 and thus immediately returned to Serie A. Despite this success, club captain Cristiano Doni was named among the suspects in a match-fixing scandal (also known as "Calcioscommesse"); Doni was handed a three-and-a-half-year ban from football and the club was docked six points in the league table. Nevertheless, the club managed to secure another year in Serie A by obtaining 52 points (46 after the six-point penalty), its highest Serie A point total at the time. The following year, for the same reasons (after further investigation), the club was docked two points in the league, but avoided relegation upon finishing in 15th place. In the 2013–14 season, Atalanta finished eleventh in Serie A, but struggled during the 2014–15 season. After a poor run of form which left Atalanta only three points above the relegation zone, Colantuono was sacked in March 2015. He was replaced by Edoardo Reja, who secured Serie A safety that season, and led the club to a 13th-place finish in 2016.Former Genoa coach Gian Piero Gasperini was appointed before the 2016–17 season. Despite initial difficulties, the club's results steadily improved throughout the season. Gasperini integrated players from the club's youth sector and led the club to a fourth-place league finish with 72 points, besting its previous records and qualifying for the 2017–18 UEFA Europa League after a 26-year absence from UEFA competitions. In the Europa League, the club reached the round of 32, losing 4–3 on aggregate to Borussia Dortmund. In 2017–18, Atalanta finished seventh in the league, entering the qualifying rounds for 2018–19 UEFA Europa League, though was eliminated in a penalty shootout by Danish club Copenhagen. Despite a difficult start to the 2018–19 season, Atalanta achieved many positive results and finished third in Serie A, its best ever league finish; with this result, the club qualified for the UEFA Champions League group stage for the first time in its history. Atalanta also reached the Coppa Italia final, though lost 2–0 to Lazio.In the 2019–20 season, Atalanta lost its first three Champions League matches, but went on to qualify for the round of 16. Atalanta then defeated Spanish club Valencia in both legs of the round of 16, reaching the quarterfinals, where it would be eliminated by French champions Paris Saint-Germain. The club also repeated its third-place finish in Serie A and achieved a second consecutive Champions League qualification, breaking several club records. In the 2020–21 season, Atalanta reached the round of 16 in the Champions League for the second time, following an away victory over Ajax. They later finished the 2020–21 season in third place in Serie A for the third consecutive time.12 – Dedication to fans, in particularly for Pisani Curve ones14 – Federico Pisani, Forward (1991–97) – "posthumous honour."80 – , radio journalist.The Atalanta youth system consists of four men's teams that participate in separate national leagues (Primavera, Allievi Nazionali A and B, and Giovanissimi Nazionali) and two that participate at a regional level (Giovanissimi Regionali A and B).The first person who was committed to set up the Atalanta youth teams was Giuseppe Ciatto. Every organisational aspect was dealt with and resolved by him, and he also took care to train the various teams. In 1949 Atalanta won the "Campionato Ragazzi".In the late 1950s former Atalanta player Luigi Tentorio (then Special Commissioner of the club) felt the need to start investing more systematically in youth: he decided to create a real youth sector, with its own independent structure from the first team. The youth sector was entrusted to Giuseppe Brolis, who created a partnership with various clubs in the Veneto and Friuli regions, building a network of scouts and young coaches.A crucial step in the history of the Bergamo youth sector took place in the early 1990s when the president Antonio Percassi implemented a new investment policy, especially at the youth level. He managed to convince Fermo Favini to leave Como and entrusted him with the responsibility of the youth sector.The Atalanta youth system not only continued to increase the production of players for the first team, but began to win several honours in the most important national leagues. From 1991 to 2014, the various youth teams have won 17 national titles.Apart from successes at youth level, the Atalanta youth system is also one of the most highly regarded in Europe: according to a ranking by the study centre in Coverciano, Atalanta have the top youth system in Italy and the sixth in Europe, behind Real Madrid, Barcelona and three French teams. The parameters used were the number of first division players produced by the club. In the 2007–08 season, 22 players from Atalanta's youth played in Serie A, 32 in Serie B and 3 abroad.In 2014, a global study of the "CIES Football Observatory", placed the Atalanta youth system eighth place in the world, with 25 former youth players who play in the top 5 European leagues.Atalanta have had several presidents (chairmen) ( or ) over the course of their history. Some of them have been the main shareholder of the club. The longest-serving chairman is Ivan Ruggeri, who was relieved of his duties after he suffered a stroke in January 2008, being replaced by his son Alessandrowho was named chairman of Atalanta in September 2008. Alessandro's father was unable to manage the team due to the consequences of the stroke.In June 2010, after another relegation to Serie B, Alessandro Ruggeri sold his share of the club to Antonio Percassi, who became the new chairman of Atalanta.Atalanta have had many managers and head coaches throughout their history, below is a chronological list of them from when Serie A was changed into a league format, from 1929–30 onwards.The biggest rivalry is with the neighbouring supporters of Brescia, and there are strong rivalries also with supporters of Verona, Genoa, Fiorentina, Roma, Lazio, Napoli, Milan, Internazionale, Torino; while there has been a long-standing friendship with Ternana, fans of German club Eintracht Frankfurt and fans of the Austrian club Wacker Innsbruck. | [
"Luigi Delneri",
"Valter Bonacina",
"Antonio Conte",
"Ottavio Bianchi",
"Angelo Gregucci",
"Gian Piero Gasperini",
"Emiliano Mondonico",
"Bortolo Mutti",
"Edoardo Reja",
"Nedo Sonetti",
"Marcello Lippi"
] |
|
Who was the head coach of the team Atalanta B.C. in Oct 01, 2011? | October 01, 2011 | {
"text": [
"Stefano Colantuono"
]
} | L2_Q1886_P286_9 | Valter Bonacina is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2010.
Gian Piero Gasperini is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jun, 2016 to Dec, 2022.
Edoardo Reja is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Mar, 2015 to Jun, 2016.
Emiliano Mondonico is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 1987 to Jun, 1990.
Stefano Colantuono is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jun, 2010 to Mar, 2015.
Ottavio Bianchi is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 1981 to Jun, 1983.
Angelo Gregucci is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 2009 to Sep, 2009.
Marcello Lippi is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 1992 to Jun, 1993.
Nedo Sonetti is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 1983 to Jun, 1987.
Luigi Delneri is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 2007 to Jun, 2009.
Bortolo Mutti is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jun, 2010.
Antonio Conte is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Sep, 2009 to Jan, 2010. | Atalanta B.C.Atalanta Bergamasca Calcio, commonly referred to as Atalanta, is a professional football club based in Bergamo, Lombardy, Italy. The club plays in Serie A, having gained promotion from Serie B in 2010–11.Atalanta was founded in 1907 by Liceo Classico Paolo Sarpi students and is nicknamed "La Dea", the "Nerazzurri" and the "Orobici". The club plays in blue-and-black vertically striped shirts, black shorts and black socks. The club plays its home matches at the 21,300 seat Gewiss Stadium. In Italy, Atalanta is sometimes called "Regina delle provinciali" (queen of the provincial clubs) to mark the fact that the club is the most consistent among Italian clubs not based in a regional capital, having played 60 seasons in Serie A, 28 seasons in Serie B, and only one in Serie C. Atalanta has a long-standing rivalry with nearby club Brescia.The club is also famed for its Youth Academy which has produced several notable talents who have played in the top leagues of Europe. The club won the Coppa Italia in 1963 and reached the semi-finals of the Cup Winners' Cup in 1988, when it was still competing in Serie B. This is still the best ever performance by a non-first division club in a major UEFA competition (together with Cardiff City). Atalanta also participated in four seasons of the UEFA Europa League (previously known as the UEFA Cup), reaching the quarter-finals in the 1990–91 season. Atalanta also participated in the UEFA Champions League, reaching the quarter-finals in the 2019–20 season.Atalanta was founded on 17 October 1907 by students of the Liceo Classico Paolo Sarpi and was named after the female athlete of the same name from Greek mythology. Though it immediately established a football sector, it was not the first football association based in Bergamo: "Football Club Bergamo" was founded by Swiss emigrants in 1904, and was absorbed into another club, "Bergamasca", in 1911. The Italian Football Federation did not recognize Atalanta until 1914, and in 1919 announced that it would only allow one club from Bergamo to compete in the highest national league (then called the Prima Categoria). As Atalanta and Bergamasca were rivals and did not come to an agreement, admission to the Prima Categoria was decided by a playoff match; Atalanta won this match 2–0. A merger between the two clubs nevertheless occurred in 1920, forming the new club "Atalanta Bergamasca di Ginnastica e Scherma 1907" (shortened to "Atalanta Bergamasca Calcio") and establishing its black and blue ("nerazzurri") colors.Atalanta participated in the Seconda Divisione, the second tier, during the early 1920s. In the 1927–28 season, the club won its group and subsequently defeated Pistoiese in the playoffs to win promotion and its first second division league triumph. The club inaugurated its current home stadium in the Borgo Santa Caterina neighborhood in 1928, and was admitted to Serie B, the second tier of the restructured Italian league, in 1929. After almost a decade in Serie B, Atalanta achieved its first promotion to Serie A in 1937 under coach Ottavio Barbieri, though was relegated at the end of the season. The club returned to Serie A in 1940 as Serie B champions.During the 1940s, Atalanta performed consistently in the top flight, though the league was halted between 1943 and 1945 due to World War II. Atalanta achieved a fifth-place finish in the 1947–48 Serie A under coach Ivo Fiorentini, its highest league finish until 2017. The club earned a reputation as the "provinciale terribile" (terrible provincial team) during this time as a result of its successes against well-known metropolitan teams such as the "Grande Torino", who won Serie A five times during the 1940s. Atalanta achieved mid-table finishes during much of the 1950s and remained in Serie A until 1958, when it was relegated due to accusations of match fixing. These accusations were found to be false a year later, after the club returned to Serie A by winning its second Serie B title.Atalanta won the Coppa Italia in 1963, defeating Torino 3–1 in the final thanks to a hat-trick by striker Angelo Domenghini. This was the senior team's first (and so far only) major trophy. During the early 1960s, the club made its debut in European competitions, among them the 1961–62 Mitropa Cup, the Coppa dell'Amicizia, and the Coppa delle Alpi. As domestic cup winners, the club qualified for the 1963–64 European Cup Winners' Cup, its first major UEFA competition, though was eliminated by Portuguese club Sporting CP in the first round. The club made a few more appearances in international (though not UEFA) cups during the 1960s, though was relegated in 1969 after a decade in the top flight.During the 1970s, the club experienced several movements between Serie A and Serie B, and fell into Serie C1 in 1981. For the first time in its history, the club would play outside the top two tiers; this was a blow that revitalized the club. Under new management, it returned to Serie B the next season and to Serie A in 1984, where it would remain until 1987. Atalanta reached its second Coppa Italia final in 1987, though lost 4–0 to Napoli over two legs. As Napoli also won Serie A that season and therefore qualified for the European Cup, Atalanta qualified for its second European Cup Winners' Cup. This was a turning point for the club; Emiliano Mondonico was appointed as coach and the club would achieve promotion after only one season in Serie B. In the Cup Winners' Cup, Atalanta lost its first match against Welsh club Merthyr Tydfil, but won the return fixture and went on to reach the semi-finals, where it would be eliminated 4–2 on aggregate by Belgian club Mechelen, who would eventually win the tournament. In doing so, Atalanta achieved the best finish in a UEFA competition of a club playing outside its country's top flight league.With a sixth-place finish in the 1988–89 Serie A, Atalanta qualified for its first UEFA Cup, though was eliminated by Russian club Spartak Moscow in the first round. Atalanta then finished seventh in the 1989–90 Serie A and reached the quarterfinals of the 1990–91 UEFA Cup, losing to local rivals and eventual winners Internazionale. After several mid-table finishes, the club was relegated in 1994, though would return to Serie A in 1995. In the 1996–97 season, striker Filippo Inzaghi scored 24 league goals and became the first (and so far only) Atalanta player to be named "capocannoniere" (Serie A top scorer).In the 2000s, Atalanta experienced more divisional movements: it was relegated in 2002–03 and 2004–05, but achieved promotion to Serie A after only one season in Serie B both times, winning the 2005–06 edition. After a tumultuous 2009–10 season, the club was once again relegated; after this relegation, entrepreneur Antonio Percassi became the club's new president, and Stefano Colantuono returned as coach. The club won Serie B in 2011 and thus immediately returned to Serie A. Despite this success, club captain Cristiano Doni was named among the suspects in a match-fixing scandal (also known as "Calcioscommesse"); Doni was handed a three-and-a-half-year ban from football and the club was docked six points in the league table. Nevertheless, the club managed to secure another year in Serie A by obtaining 52 points (46 after the six-point penalty), its highest Serie A point total at the time. The following year, for the same reasons (after further investigation), the club was docked two points in the league, but avoided relegation upon finishing in 15th place. In the 2013–14 season, Atalanta finished eleventh in Serie A, but struggled during the 2014–15 season. After a poor run of form which left Atalanta only three points above the relegation zone, Colantuono was sacked in March 2015. He was replaced by Edoardo Reja, who secured Serie A safety that season, and led the club to a 13th-place finish in 2016.Former Genoa coach Gian Piero Gasperini was appointed before the 2016–17 season. Despite initial difficulties, the club's results steadily improved throughout the season. Gasperini integrated players from the club's youth sector and led the club to a fourth-place league finish with 72 points, besting its previous records and qualifying for the 2017–18 UEFA Europa League after a 26-year absence from UEFA competitions. In the Europa League, the club reached the round of 32, losing 4–3 on aggregate to Borussia Dortmund. In 2017–18, Atalanta finished seventh in the league, entering the qualifying rounds for 2018–19 UEFA Europa League, though was eliminated in a penalty shootout by Danish club Copenhagen. Despite a difficult start to the 2018–19 season, Atalanta achieved many positive results and finished third in Serie A, its best ever league finish; with this result, the club qualified for the UEFA Champions League group stage for the first time in its history. Atalanta also reached the Coppa Italia final, though lost 2–0 to Lazio.In the 2019–20 season, Atalanta lost its first three Champions League matches, but went on to qualify for the round of 16. Atalanta then defeated Spanish club Valencia in both legs of the round of 16, reaching the quarterfinals, where it would be eliminated by French champions Paris Saint-Germain. The club also repeated its third-place finish in Serie A and achieved a second consecutive Champions League qualification, breaking several club records. In the 2020–21 season, Atalanta reached the round of 16 in the Champions League for the second time, following an away victory over Ajax. They later finished the 2020–21 season in third place in Serie A for the third consecutive time.12 – Dedication to fans, in particularly for Pisani Curve ones14 – Federico Pisani, Forward (1991–97) – "posthumous honour."80 – , radio journalist.The Atalanta youth system consists of four men's teams that participate in separate national leagues (Primavera, Allievi Nazionali A and B, and Giovanissimi Nazionali) and two that participate at a regional level (Giovanissimi Regionali A and B).The first person who was committed to set up the Atalanta youth teams was Giuseppe Ciatto. Every organisational aspect was dealt with and resolved by him, and he also took care to train the various teams. In 1949 Atalanta won the "Campionato Ragazzi".In the late 1950s former Atalanta player Luigi Tentorio (then Special Commissioner of the club) felt the need to start investing more systematically in youth: he decided to create a real youth sector, with its own independent structure from the first team. The youth sector was entrusted to Giuseppe Brolis, who created a partnership with various clubs in the Veneto and Friuli regions, building a network of scouts and young coaches.A crucial step in the history of the Bergamo youth sector took place in the early 1990s when the president Antonio Percassi implemented a new investment policy, especially at the youth level. He managed to convince Fermo Favini to leave Como and entrusted him with the responsibility of the youth sector.The Atalanta youth system not only continued to increase the production of players for the first team, but began to win several honours in the most important national leagues. From 1991 to 2014, the various youth teams have won 17 national titles.Apart from successes at youth level, the Atalanta youth system is also one of the most highly regarded in Europe: according to a ranking by the study centre in Coverciano, Atalanta have the top youth system in Italy and the sixth in Europe, behind Real Madrid, Barcelona and three French teams. The parameters used were the number of first division players produced by the club. In the 2007–08 season, 22 players from Atalanta's youth played in Serie A, 32 in Serie B and 3 abroad.In 2014, a global study of the "CIES Football Observatory", placed the Atalanta youth system eighth place in the world, with 25 former youth players who play in the top 5 European leagues.Atalanta have had several presidents (chairmen) ( or ) over the course of their history. Some of them have been the main shareholder of the club. The longest-serving chairman is Ivan Ruggeri, who was relieved of his duties after he suffered a stroke in January 2008, being replaced by his son Alessandrowho was named chairman of Atalanta in September 2008. Alessandro's father was unable to manage the team due to the consequences of the stroke.In June 2010, after another relegation to Serie B, Alessandro Ruggeri sold his share of the club to Antonio Percassi, who became the new chairman of Atalanta.Atalanta have had many managers and head coaches throughout their history, below is a chronological list of them from when Serie A was changed into a league format, from 1929–30 onwards.The biggest rivalry is with the neighbouring supporters of Brescia, and there are strong rivalries also with supporters of Verona, Genoa, Fiorentina, Roma, Lazio, Napoli, Milan, Internazionale, Torino; while there has been a long-standing friendship with Ternana, fans of German club Eintracht Frankfurt and fans of the Austrian club Wacker Innsbruck. | [
"Luigi Delneri",
"Valter Bonacina",
"Antonio Conte",
"Ottavio Bianchi",
"Angelo Gregucci",
"Gian Piero Gasperini",
"Emiliano Mondonico",
"Bortolo Mutti",
"Edoardo Reja",
"Nedo Sonetti",
"Marcello Lippi"
] |
|
Who was the head coach of the team Atalanta B.C. in 10/01/2011? | October 01, 2011 | {
"text": [
"Stefano Colantuono"
]
} | L2_Q1886_P286_9 | Valter Bonacina is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2010.
Gian Piero Gasperini is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jun, 2016 to Dec, 2022.
Edoardo Reja is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Mar, 2015 to Jun, 2016.
Emiliano Mondonico is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 1987 to Jun, 1990.
Stefano Colantuono is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jun, 2010 to Mar, 2015.
Ottavio Bianchi is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 1981 to Jun, 1983.
Angelo Gregucci is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 2009 to Sep, 2009.
Marcello Lippi is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 1992 to Jun, 1993.
Nedo Sonetti is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 1983 to Jun, 1987.
Luigi Delneri is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 2007 to Jun, 2009.
Bortolo Mutti is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jun, 2010.
Antonio Conte is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Sep, 2009 to Jan, 2010. | Atalanta B.C.Atalanta Bergamasca Calcio, commonly referred to as Atalanta, is a professional football club based in Bergamo, Lombardy, Italy. The club plays in Serie A, having gained promotion from Serie B in 2010–11.Atalanta was founded in 1907 by Liceo Classico Paolo Sarpi students and is nicknamed "La Dea", the "Nerazzurri" and the "Orobici". The club plays in blue-and-black vertically striped shirts, black shorts and black socks. The club plays its home matches at the 21,300 seat Gewiss Stadium. In Italy, Atalanta is sometimes called "Regina delle provinciali" (queen of the provincial clubs) to mark the fact that the club is the most consistent among Italian clubs not based in a regional capital, having played 60 seasons in Serie A, 28 seasons in Serie B, and only one in Serie C. Atalanta has a long-standing rivalry with nearby club Brescia.The club is also famed for its Youth Academy which has produced several notable talents who have played in the top leagues of Europe. The club won the Coppa Italia in 1963 and reached the semi-finals of the Cup Winners' Cup in 1988, when it was still competing in Serie B. This is still the best ever performance by a non-first division club in a major UEFA competition (together with Cardiff City). Atalanta also participated in four seasons of the UEFA Europa League (previously known as the UEFA Cup), reaching the quarter-finals in the 1990–91 season. Atalanta also participated in the UEFA Champions League, reaching the quarter-finals in the 2019–20 season.Atalanta was founded on 17 October 1907 by students of the Liceo Classico Paolo Sarpi and was named after the female athlete of the same name from Greek mythology. Though it immediately established a football sector, it was not the first football association based in Bergamo: "Football Club Bergamo" was founded by Swiss emigrants in 1904, and was absorbed into another club, "Bergamasca", in 1911. The Italian Football Federation did not recognize Atalanta until 1914, and in 1919 announced that it would only allow one club from Bergamo to compete in the highest national league (then called the Prima Categoria). As Atalanta and Bergamasca were rivals and did not come to an agreement, admission to the Prima Categoria was decided by a playoff match; Atalanta won this match 2–0. A merger between the two clubs nevertheless occurred in 1920, forming the new club "Atalanta Bergamasca di Ginnastica e Scherma 1907" (shortened to "Atalanta Bergamasca Calcio") and establishing its black and blue ("nerazzurri") colors.Atalanta participated in the Seconda Divisione, the second tier, during the early 1920s. In the 1927–28 season, the club won its group and subsequently defeated Pistoiese in the playoffs to win promotion and its first second division league triumph. The club inaugurated its current home stadium in the Borgo Santa Caterina neighborhood in 1928, and was admitted to Serie B, the second tier of the restructured Italian league, in 1929. After almost a decade in Serie B, Atalanta achieved its first promotion to Serie A in 1937 under coach Ottavio Barbieri, though was relegated at the end of the season. The club returned to Serie A in 1940 as Serie B champions.During the 1940s, Atalanta performed consistently in the top flight, though the league was halted between 1943 and 1945 due to World War II. Atalanta achieved a fifth-place finish in the 1947–48 Serie A under coach Ivo Fiorentini, its highest league finish until 2017. The club earned a reputation as the "provinciale terribile" (terrible provincial team) during this time as a result of its successes against well-known metropolitan teams such as the "Grande Torino", who won Serie A five times during the 1940s. Atalanta achieved mid-table finishes during much of the 1950s and remained in Serie A until 1958, when it was relegated due to accusations of match fixing. These accusations were found to be false a year later, after the club returned to Serie A by winning its second Serie B title.Atalanta won the Coppa Italia in 1963, defeating Torino 3–1 in the final thanks to a hat-trick by striker Angelo Domenghini. This was the senior team's first (and so far only) major trophy. During the early 1960s, the club made its debut in European competitions, among them the 1961–62 Mitropa Cup, the Coppa dell'Amicizia, and the Coppa delle Alpi. As domestic cup winners, the club qualified for the 1963–64 European Cup Winners' Cup, its first major UEFA competition, though was eliminated by Portuguese club Sporting CP in the first round. The club made a few more appearances in international (though not UEFA) cups during the 1960s, though was relegated in 1969 after a decade in the top flight.During the 1970s, the club experienced several movements between Serie A and Serie B, and fell into Serie C1 in 1981. For the first time in its history, the club would play outside the top two tiers; this was a blow that revitalized the club. Under new management, it returned to Serie B the next season and to Serie A in 1984, where it would remain until 1987. Atalanta reached its second Coppa Italia final in 1987, though lost 4–0 to Napoli over two legs. As Napoli also won Serie A that season and therefore qualified for the European Cup, Atalanta qualified for its second European Cup Winners' Cup. This was a turning point for the club; Emiliano Mondonico was appointed as coach and the club would achieve promotion after only one season in Serie B. In the Cup Winners' Cup, Atalanta lost its first match against Welsh club Merthyr Tydfil, but won the return fixture and went on to reach the semi-finals, where it would be eliminated 4–2 on aggregate by Belgian club Mechelen, who would eventually win the tournament. In doing so, Atalanta achieved the best finish in a UEFA competition of a club playing outside its country's top flight league.With a sixth-place finish in the 1988–89 Serie A, Atalanta qualified for its first UEFA Cup, though was eliminated by Russian club Spartak Moscow in the first round. Atalanta then finished seventh in the 1989–90 Serie A and reached the quarterfinals of the 1990–91 UEFA Cup, losing to local rivals and eventual winners Internazionale. After several mid-table finishes, the club was relegated in 1994, though would return to Serie A in 1995. In the 1996–97 season, striker Filippo Inzaghi scored 24 league goals and became the first (and so far only) Atalanta player to be named "capocannoniere" (Serie A top scorer).In the 2000s, Atalanta experienced more divisional movements: it was relegated in 2002–03 and 2004–05, but achieved promotion to Serie A after only one season in Serie B both times, winning the 2005–06 edition. After a tumultuous 2009–10 season, the club was once again relegated; after this relegation, entrepreneur Antonio Percassi became the club's new president, and Stefano Colantuono returned as coach. The club won Serie B in 2011 and thus immediately returned to Serie A. Despite this success, club captain Cristiano Doni was named among the suspects in a match-fixing scandal (also known as "Calcioscommesse"); Doni was handed a three-and-a-half-year ban from football and the club was docked six points in the league table. Nevertheless, the club managed to secure another year in Serie A by obtaining 52 points (46 after the six-point penalty), its highest Serie A point total at the time. The following year, for the same reasons (after further investigation), the club was docked two points in the league, but avoided relegation upon finishing in 15th place. In the 2013–14 season, Atalanta finished eleventh in Serie A, but struggled during the 2014–15 season. After a poor run of form which left Atalanta only three points above the relegation zone, Colantuono was sacked in March 2015. He was replaced by Edoardo Reja, who secured Serie A safety that season, and led the club to a 13th-place finish in 2016.Former Genoa coach Gian Piero Gasperini was appointed before the 2016–17 season. Despite initial difficulties, the club's results steadily improved throughout the season. Gasperini integrated players from the club's youth sector and led the club to a fourth-place league finish with 72 points, besting its previous records and qualifying for the 2017–18 UEFA Europa League after a 26-year absence from UEFA competitions. In the Europa League, the club reached the round of 32, losing 4–3 on aggregate to Borussia Dortmund. In 2017–18, Atalanta finished seventh in the league, entering the qualifying rounds for 2018–19 UEFA Europa League, though was eliminated in a penalty shootout by Danish club Copenhagen. Despite a difficult start to the 2018–19 season, Atalanta achieved many positive results and finished third in Serie A, its best ever league finish; with this result, the club qualified for the UEFA Champions League group stage for the first time in its history. Atalanta also reached the Coppa Italia final, though lost 2–0 to Lazio.In the 2019–20 season, Atalanta lost its first three Champions League matches, but went on to qualify for the round of 16. Atalanta then defeated Spanish club Valencia in both legs of the round of 16, reaching the quarterfinals, where it would be eliminated by French champions Paris Saint-Germain. The club also repeated its third-place finish in Serie A and achieved a second consecutive Champions League qualification, breaking several club records. In the 2020–21 season, Atalanta reached the round of 16 in the Champions League for the second time, following an away victory over Ajax. They later finished the 2020–21 season in third place in Serie A for the third consecutive time.12 – Dedication to fans, in particularly for Pisani Curve ones14 – Federico Pisani, Forward (1991–97) – "posthumous honour."80 – , radio journalist.The Atalanta youth system consists of four men's teams that participate in separate national leagues (Primavera, Allievi Nazionali A and B, and Giovanissimi Nazionali) and two that participate at a regional level (Giovanissimi Regionali A and B).The first person who was committed to set up the Atalanta youth teams was Giuseppe Ciatto. Every organisational aspect was dealt with and resolved by him, and he also took care to train the various teams. In 1949 Atalanta won the "Campionato Ragazzi".In the late 1950s former Atalanta player Luigi Tentorio (then Special Commissioner of the club) felt the need to start investing more systematically in youth: he decided to create a real youth sector, with its own independent structure from the first team. The youth sector was entrusted to Giuseppe Brolis, who created a partnership with various clubs in the Veneto and Friuli regions, building a network of scouts and young coaches.A crucial step in the history of the Bergamo youth sector took place in the early 1990s when the president Antonio Percassi implemented a new investment policy, especially at the youth level. He managed to convince Fermo Favini to leave Como and entrusted him with the responsibility of the youth sector.The Atalanta youth system not only continued to increase the production of players for the first team, but began to win several honours in the most important national leagues. From 1991 to 2014, the various youth teams have won 17 national titles.Apart from successes at youth level, the Atalanta youth system is also one of the most highly regarded in Europe: according to a ranking by the study centre in Coverciano, Atalanta have the top youth system in Italy and the sixth in Europe, behind Real Madrid, Barcelona and three French teams. The parameters used were the number of first division players produced by the club. In the 2007–08 season, 22 players from Atalanta's youth played in Serie A, 32 in Serie B and 3 abroad.In 2014, a global study of the "CIES Football Observatory", placed the Atalanta youth system eighth place in the world, with 25 former youth players who play in the top 5 European leagues.Atalanta have had several presidents (chairmen) ( or ) over the course of their history. Some of them have been the main shareholder of the club. The longest-serving chairman is Ivan Ruggeri, who was relieved of his duties after he suffered a stroke in January 2008, being replaced by his son Alessandrowho was named chairman of Atalanta in September 2008. Alessandro's father was unable to manage the team due to the consequences of the stroke.In June 2010, after another relegation to Serie B, Alessandro Ruggeri sold his share of the club to Antonio Percassi, who became the new chairman of Atalanta.Atalanta have had many managers and head coaches throughout their history, below is a chronological list of them from when Serie A was changed into a league format, from 1929–30 onwards.The biggest rivalry is with the neighbouring supporters of Brescia, and there are strong rivalries also with supporters of Verona, Genoa, Fiorentina, Roma, Lazio, Napoli, Milan, Internazionale, Torino; while there has been a long-standing friendship with Ternana, fans of German club Eintracht Frankfurt and fans of the Austrian club Wacker Innsbruck. | [
"Luigi Delneri",
"Valter Bonacina",
"Antonio Conte",
"Ottavio Bianchi",
"Angelo Gregucci",
"Gian Piero Gasperini",
"Emiliano Mondonico",
"Bortolo Mutti",
"Edoardo Reja",
"Nedo Sonetti",
"Marcello Lippi"
] |
|
Who was the head coach of the team Atalanta B.C. in 01-Oct-201101-October-2011? | October 01, 2011 | {
"text": [
"Stefano Colantuono"
]
} | L2_Q1886_P286_9 | Valter Bonacina is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2010.
Gian Piero Gasperini is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jun, 2016 to Dec, 2022.
Edoardo Reja is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Mar, 2015 to Jun, 2016.
Emiliano Mondonico is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 1987 to Jun, 1990.
Stefano Colantuono is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jun, 2010 to Mar, 2015.
Ottavio Bianchi is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 1981 to Jun, 1983.
Angelo Gregucci is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 2009 to Sep, 2009.
Marcello Lippi is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 1992 to Jun, 1993.
Nedo Sonetti is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 1983 to Jun, 1987.
Luigi Delneri is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jul, 2007 to Jun, 2009.
Bortolo Mutti is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jun, 2010.
Antonio Conte is the head coach of Atalanta B.C. from Sep, 2009 to Jan, 2010. | Atalanta B.C.Atalanta Bergamasca Calcio, commonly referred to as Atalanta, is a professional football club based in Bergamo, Lombardy, Italy. The club plays in Serie A, having gained promotion from Serie B in 2010–11.Atalanta was founded in 1907 by Liceo Classico Paolo Sarpi students and is nicknamed "La Dea", the "Nerazzurri" and the "Orobici". The club plays in blue-and-black vertically striped shirts, black shorts and black socks. The club plays its home matches at the 21,300 seat Gewiss Stadium. In Italy, Atalanta is sometimes called "Regina delle provinciali" (queen of the provincial clubs) to mark the fact that the club is the most consistent among Italian clubs not based in a regional capital, having played 60 seasons in Serie A, 28 seasons in Serie B, and only one in Serie C. Atalanta has a long-standing rivalry with nearby club Brescia.The club is also famed for its Youth Academy which has produced several notable talents who have played in the top leagues of Europe. The club won the Coppa Italia in 1963 and reached the semi-finals of the Cup Winners' Cup in 1988, when it was still competing in Serie B. This is still the best ever performance by a non-first division club in a major UEFA competition (together with Cardiff City). Atalanta also participated in four seasons of the UEFA Europa League (previously known as the UEFA Cup), reaching the quarter-finals in the 1990–91 season. Atalanta also participated in the UEFA Champions League, reaching the quarter-finals in the 2019–20 season.Atalanta was founded on 17 October 1907 by students of the Liceo Classico Paolo Sarpi and was named after the female athlete of the same name from Greek mythology. Though it immediately established a football sector, it was not the first football association based in Bergamo: "Football Club Bergamo" was founded by Swiss emigrants in 1904, and was absorbed into another club, "Bergamasca", in 1911. The Italian Football Federation did not recognize Atalanta until 1914, and in 1919 announced that it would only allow one club from Bergamo to compete in the highest national league (then called the Prima Categoria). As Atalanta and Bergamasca were rivals and did not come to an agreement, admission to the Prima Categoria was decided by a playoff match; Atalanta won this match 2–0. A merger between the two clubs nevertheless occurred in 1920, forming the new club "Atalanta Bergamasca di Ginnastica e Scherma 1907" (shortened to "Atalanta Bergamasca Calcio") and establishing its black and blue ("nerazzurri") colors.Atalanta participated in the Seconda Divisione, the second tier, during the early 1920s. In the 1927–28 season, the club won its group and subsequently defeated Pistoiese in the playoffs to win promotion and its first second division league triumph. The club inaugurated its current home stadium in the Borgo Santa Caterina neighborhood in 1928, and was admitted to Serie B, the second tier of the restructured Italian league, in 1929. After almost a decade in Serie B, Atalanta achieved its first promotion to Serie A in 1937 under coach Ottavio Barbieri, though was relegated at the end of the season. The club returned to Serie A in 1940 as Serie B champions.During the 1940s, Atalanta performed consistently in the top flight, though the league was halted between 1943 and 1945 due to World War II. Atalanta achieved a fifth-place finish in the 1947–48 Serie A under coach Ivo Fiorentini, its highest league finish until 2017. The club earned a reputation as the "provinciale terribile" (terrible provincial team) during this time as a result of its successes against well-known metropolitan teams such as the "Grande Torino", who won Serie A five times during the 1940s. Atalanta achieved mid-table finishes during much of the 1950s and remained in Serie A until 1958, when it was relegated due to accusations of match fixing. These accusations were found to be false a year later, after the club returned to Serie A by winning its second Serie B title.Atalanta won the Coppa Italia in 1963, defeating Torino 3–1 in the final thanks to a hat-trick by striker Angelo Domenghini. This was the senior team's first (and so far only) major trophy. During the early 1960s, the club made its debut in European competitions, among them the 1961–62 Mitropa Cup, the Coppa dell'Amicizia, and the Coppa delle Alpi. As domestic cup winners, the club qualified for the 1963–64 European Cup Winners' Cup, its first major UEFA competition, though was eliminated by Portuguese club Sporting CP in the first round. The club made a few more appearances in international (though not UEFA) cups during the 1960s, though was relegated in 1969 after a decade in the top flight.During the 1970s, the club experienced several movements between Serie A and Serie B, and fell into Serie C1 in 1981. For the first time in its history, the club would play outside the top two tiers; this was a blow that revitalized the club. Under new management, it returned to Serie B the next season and to Serie A in 1984, where it would remain until 1987. Atalanta reached its second Coppa Italia final in 1987, though lost 4–0 to Napoli over two legs. As Napoli also won Serie A that season and therefore qualified for the European Cup, Atalanta qualified for its second European Cup Winners' Cup. This was a turning point for the club; Emiliano Mondonico was appointed as coach and the club would achieve promotion after only one season in Serie B. In the Cup Winners' Cup, Atalanta lost its first match against Welsh club Merthyr Tydfil, but won the return fixture and went on to reach the semi-finals, where it would be eliminated 4–2 on aggregate by Belgian club Mechelen, who would eventually win the tournament. In doing so, Atalanta achieved the best finish in a UEFA competition of a club playing outside its country's top flight league.With a sixth-place finish in the 1988–89 Serie A, Atalanta qualified for its first UEFA Cup, though was eliminated by Russian club Spartak Moscow in the first round. Atalanta then finished seventh in the 1989–90 Serie A and reached the quarterfinals of the 1990–91 UEFA Cup, losing to local rivals and eventual winners Internazionale. After several mid-table finishes, the club was relegated in 1994, though would return to Serie A in 1995. In the 1996–97 season, striker Filippo Inzaghi scored 24 league goals and became the first (and so far only) Atalanta player to be named "capocannoniere" (Serie A top scorer).In the 2000s, Atalanta experienced more divisional movements: it was relegated in 2002–03 and 2004–05, but achieved promotion to Serie A after only one season in Serie B both times, winning the 2005–06 edition. After a tumultuous 2009–10 season, the club was once again relegated; after this relegation, entrepreneur Antonio Percassi became the club's new president, and Stefano Colantuono returned as coach. The club won Serie B in 2011 and thus immediately returned to Serie A. Despite this success, club captain Cristiano Doni was named among the suspects in a match-fixing scandal (also known as "Calcioscommesse"); Doni was handed a three-and-a-half-year ban from football and the club was docked six points in the league table. Nevertheless, the club managed to secure another year in Serie A by obtaining 52 points (46 after the six-point penalty), its highest Serie A point total at the time. The following year, for the same reasons (after further investigation), the club was docked two points in the league, but avoided relegation upon finishing in 15th place. In the 2013–14 season, Atalanta finished eleventh in Serie A, but struggled during the 2014–15 season. After a poor run of form which left Atalanta only three points above the relegation zone, Colantuono was sacked in March 2015. He was replaced by Edoardo Reja, who secured Serie A safety that season, and led the club to a 13th-place finish in 2016.Former Genoa coach Gian Piero Gasperini was appointed before the 2016–17 season. Despite initial difficulties, the club's results steadily improved throughout the season. Gasperini integrated players from the club's youth sector and led the club to a fourth-place league finish with 72 points, besting its previous records and qualifying for the 2017–18 UEFA Europa League after a 26-year absence from UEFA competitions. In the Europa League, the club reached the round of 32, losing 4–3 on aggregate to Borussia Dortmund. In 2017–18, Atalanta finished seventh in the league, entering the qualifying rounds for 2018–19 UEFA Europa League, though was eliminated in a penalty shootout by Danish club Copenhagen. Despite a difficult start to the 2018–19 season, Atalanta achieved many positive results and finished third in Serie A, its best ever league finish; with this result, the club qualified for the UEFA Champions League group stage for the first time in its history. Atalanta also reached the Coppa Italia final, though lost 2–0 to Lazio.In the 2019–20 season, Atalanta lost its first three Champions League matches, but went on to qualify for the round of 16. Atalanta then defeated Spanish club Valencia in both legs of the round of 16, reaching the quarterfinals, where it would be eliminated by French champions Paris Saint-Germain. The club also repeated its third-place finish in Serie A and achieved a second consecutive Champions League qualification, breaking several club records. In the 2020–21 season, Atalanta reached the round of 16 in the Champions League for the second time, following an away victory over Ajax. They later finished the 2020–21 season in third place in Serie A for the third consecutive time.12 – Dedication to fans, in particularly for Pisani Curve ones14 – Federico Pisani, Forward (1991–97) – "posthumous honour."80 – , radio journalist.The Atalanta youth system consists of four men's teams that participate in separate national leagues (Primavera, Allievi Nazionali A and B, and Giovanissimi Nazionali) and two that participate at a regional level (Giovanissimi Regionali A and B).The first person who was committed to set up the Atalanta youth teams was Giuseppe Ciatto. Every organisational aspect was dealt with and resolved by him, and he also took care to train the various teams. In 1949 Atalanta won the "Campionato Ragazzi".In the late 1950s former Atalanta player Luigi Tentorio (then Special Commissioner of the club) felt the need to start investing more systematically in youth: he decided to create a real youth sector, with its own independent structure from the first team. The youth sector was entrusted to Giuseppe Brolis, who created a partnership with various clubs in the Veneto and Friuli regions, building a network of scouts and young coaches.A crucial step in the history of the Bergamo youth sector took place in the early 1990s when the president Antonio Percassi implemented a new investment policy, especially at the youth level. He managed to convince Fermo Favini to leave Como and entrusted him with the responsibility of the youth sector.The Atalanta youth system not only continued to increase the production of players for the first team, but began to win several honours in the most important national leagues. From 1991 to 2014, the various youth teams have won 17 national titles.Apart from successes at youth level, the Atalanta youth system is also one of the most highly regarded in Europe: according to a ranking by the study centre in Coverciano, Atalanta have the top youth system in Italy and the sixth in Europe, behind Real Madrid, Barcelona and three French teams. The parameters used were the number of first division players produced by the club. In the 2007–08 season, 22 players from Atalanta's youth played in Serie A, 32 in Serie B and 3 abroad.In 2014, a global study of the "CIES Football Observatory", placed the Atalanta youth system eighth place in the world, with 25 former youth players who play in the top 5 European leagues.Atalanta have had several presidents (chairmen) ( or ) over the course of their history. Some of them have been the main shareholder of the club. The longest-serving chairman is Ivan Ruggeri, who was relieved of his duties after he suffered a stroke in January 2008, being replaced by his son Alessandrowho was named chairman of Atalanta in September 2008. Alessandro's father was unable to manage the team due to the consequences of the stroke.In June 2010, after another relegation to Serie B, Alessandro Ruggeri sold his share of the club to Antonio Percassi, who became the new chairman of Atalanta.Atalanta have had many managers and head coaches throughout their history, below is a chronological list of them from when Serie A was changed into a league format, from 1929–30 onwards.The biggest rivalry is with the neighbouring supporters of Brescia, and there are strong rivalries also with supporters of Verona, Genoa, Fiorentina, Roma, Lazio, Napoli, Milan, Internazionale, Torino; while there has been a long-standing friendship with Ternana, fans of German club Eintracht Frankfurt and fans of the Austrian club Wacker Innsbruck. | [
"Luigi Delneri",
"Valter Bonacina",
"Antonio Conte",
"Ottavio Bianchi",
"Angelo Gregucci",
"Gian Piero Gasperini",
"Emiliano Mondonico",
"Bortolo Mutti",
"Edoardo Reja",
"Nedo Sonetti",
"Marcello Lippi"
] |
|
Which team did Marcello Possenti play for in May, 2011? | May 30, 2011 | {
"text": [
"Tritium Calcio 1908",
"Atalanta B.C."
]
} | L2_Q6756428_P54_2 | Marcello Possenti plays for A.C. Lumezzane from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2013.
Marcello Possenti plays for Tritium Calcio 1908 from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2012.
Marcello Possenti plays for Italy national under-19 football team from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2010.
Marcello Possenti plays for Atalanta B.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2013.
Marcello Possenti plays for A.C. Reggiana 1919 from Jan, 2013 to Dec, 2022. | Marcello PossentiMarcello Possenti (born 6 July 1992) is an Italian footballer who plays as a left defender. He plays for Renate.Possenti made his debut for "Nerazzurri" on 27 October 2010, on Coppa Italia, against Livorno, and he played the whole match.In July 2011, he was loaned to S.S. Tritium 1908, alongside Emanuele Suagher, Jurgen Pandiani and Christian Monacizzo.He made his debut for Tritium on 7 August 2011, against Benevento.On 5 July 2019, he signed with Renate.He represented Italy at the under-19 level, in a friendly against Romania. | [
"Italy national under-19 football team",
"A.C. Lumezzane",
"A.C. Reggiana 1919"
] |
|
Which team did Marcello Possenti play for in 2011-05-30? | May 30, 2011 | {
"text": [
"Tritium Calcio 1908",
"Atalanta B.C."
]
} | L2_Q6756428_P54_2 | Marcello Possenti plays for A.C. Lumezzane from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2013.
Marcello Possenti plays for Tritium Calcio 1908 from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2012.
Marcello Possenti plays for Italy national under-19 football team from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2010.
Marcello Possenti plays for Atalanta B.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2013.
Marcello Possenti plays for A.C. Reggiana 1919 from Jan, 2013 to Dec, 2022. | Marcello PossentiMarcello Possenti (born 6 July 1992) is an Italian footballer who plays as a left defender. He plays for Renate.Possenti made his debut for "Nerazzurri" on 27 October 2010, on Coppa Italia, against Livorno, and he played the whole match.In July 2011, he was loaned to S.S. Tritium 1908, alongside Emanuele Suagher, Jurgen Pandiani and Christian Monacizzo.He made his debut for Tritium on 7 August 2011, against Benevento.On 5 July 2019, he signed with Renate.He represented Italy at the under-19 level, in a friendly against Romania. | [
"Italy national under-19 football team",
"A.C. Lumezzane",
"A.C. Reggiana 1919"
] |
|
Which team did Marcello Possenti play for in 30/05/2011? | May 30, 2011 | {
"text": [
"Tritium Calcio 1908",
"Atalanta B.C."
]
} | L2_Q6756428_P54_2 | Marcello Possenti plays for A.C. Lumezzane from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2013.
Marcello Possenti plays for Tritium Calcio 1908 from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2012.
Marcello Possenti plays for Italy national under-19 football team from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2010.
Marcello Possenti plays for Atalanta B.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2013.
Marcello Possenti plays for A.C. Reggiana 1919 from Jan, 2013 to Dec, 2022. | Marcello PossentiMarcello Possenti (born 6 July 1992) is an Italian footballer who plays as a left defender. He plays for Renate.Possenti made his debut for "Nerazzurri" on 27 October 2010, on Coppa Italia, against Livorno, and he played the whole match.In July 2011, he was loaned to S.S. Tritium 1908, alongside Emanuele Suagher, Jurgen Pandiani and Christian Monacizzo.He made his debut for Tritium on 7 August 2011, against Benevento.On 5 July 2019, he signed with Renate.He represented Italy at the under-19 level, in a friendly against Romania. | [
"Italy national under-19 football team",
"A.C. Lumezzane",
"A.C. Reggiana 1919"
] |
|
Which team did Marcello Possenti play for in May 30, 2011? | May 30, 2011 | {
"text": [
"Tritium Calcio 1908",
"Atalanta B.C."
]
} | L2_Q6756428_P54_2 | Marcello Possenti plays for A.C. Lumezzane from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2013.
Marcello Possenti plays for Tritium Calcio 1908 from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2012.
Marcello Possenti plays for Italy national under-19 football team from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2010.
Marcello Possenti plays for Atalanta B.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2013.
Marcello Possenti plays for A.C. Reggiana 1919 from Jan, 2013 to Dec, 2022. | Marcello PossentiMarcello Possenti (born 6 July 1992) is an Italian footballer who plays as a left defender. He plays for Renate.Possenti made his debut for "Nerazzurri" on 27 October 2010, on Coppa Italia, against Livorno, and he played the whole match.In July 2011, he was loaned to S.S. Tritium 1908, alongside Emanuele Suagher, Jurgen Pandiani and Christian Monacizzo.He made his debut for Tritium on 7 August 2011, against Benevento.On 5 July 2019, he signed with Renate.He represented Italy at the under-19 level, in a friendly against Romania. | [
"Italy national under-19 football team",
"A.C. Lumezzane",
"A.C. Reggiana 1919"
] |
|
Which team did Marcello Possenti play for in 05/30/2011? | May 30, 2011 | {
"text": [
"Tritium Calcio 1908",
"Atalanta B.C."
]
} | L2_Q6756428_P54_2 | Marcello Possenti plays for A.C. Lumezzane from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2013.
Marcello Possenti plays for Tritium Calcio 1908 from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2012.
Marcello Possenti plays for Italy national under-19 football team from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2010.
Marcello Possenti plays for Atalanta B.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2013.
Marcello Possenti plays for A.C. Reggiana 1919 from Jan, 2013 to Dec, 2022. | Marcello PossentiMarcello Possenti (born 6 July 1992) is an Italian footballer who plays as a left defender. He plays for Renate.Possenti made his debut for "Nerazzurri" on 27 October 2010, on Coppa Italia, against Livorno, and he played the whole match.In July 2011, he was loaned to S.S. Tritium 1908, alongside Emanuele Suagher, Jurgen Pandiani and Christian Monacizzo.He made his debut for Tritium on 7 August 2011, against Benevento.On 5 July 2019, he signed with Renate.He represented Italy at the under-19 level, in a friendly against Romania. | [
"Italy national under-19 football team",
"A.C. Lumezzane",
"A.C. Reggiana 1919"
] |
|
Which team did Marcello Possenti play for in 30-May-201130-May-2011? | May 30, 2011 | {
"text": [
"Tritium Calcio 1908",
"Atalanta B.C."
]
} | L2_Q6756428_P54_2 | Marcello Possenti plays for A.C. Lumezzane from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2013.
Marcello Possenti plays for Tritium Calcio 1908 from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2012.
Marcello Possenti plays for Italy national under-19 football team from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2010.
Marcello Possenti plays for Atalanta B.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2013.
Marcello Possenti plays for A.C. Reggiana 1919 from Jan, 2013 to Dec, 2022. | Marcello PossentiMarcello Possenti (born 6 July 1992) is an Italian footballer who plays as a left defender. He plays for Renate.Possenti made his debut for "Nerazzurri" on 27 October 2010, on Coppa Italia, against Livorno, and he played the whole match.In July 2011, he was loaned to S.S. Tritium 1908, alongside Emanuele Suagher, Jurgen Pandiani and Christian Monacizzo.He made his debut for Tritium on 7 August 2011, against Benevento.On 5 July 2019, he signed with Renate.He represented Italy at the under-19 level, in a friendly against Romania. | [
"Italy national under-19 football team",
"A.C. Lumezzane",
"A.C. Reggiana 1919"
] |
|
Where was Sydney Chapman educated in May, 1903? | May 10, 1903 | {
"text": [
"University of Salford"
]
} | L2_Q711256_P69_0 | Sydney Chapman attended Victoria University of Manchester from Jan, 1904 to Jan, 1908.
Sydney Chapman attended Trinity College from Jan, 1908 to Jan, 1910.
Sydney Chapman attended University of Salford from Jan, 1902 to Jan, 1904. | Sydney Chapman (mathematician)Sydney Chapman (29 January 1888 – 16 June 1970) was a British mathematician and geophysicist. His work on the kinetic theory of gases, solar-terrestrial physics, and the Earth's ozone layer has inspired a broad range of research over many decades.Chapman was born in Eccles, near Salford in England and began his advanced studies at a technical institute, now the University of Salford, in 1902. In 1904 at age 16, Chapman entered the University of Manchester. He competed for a scholarship to the university offered by his home county, and was the last student selected. Chapman later reflected, "I sometimes wonder what would have happened if I'd hit one place lower." He initially studied engineering in the department headed by Osborne Reynolds. Chapman was taught mathematics by Horace Lamb, the Beyer professor of mathematics, and J. E. Littlewood, who came from Cambridge in Chapman's final year at Manchester. Although he graduated with an engineering degree, Chapman had become so enthusiastic for mathematics that he stayed for one further year to take a mathematics degree. Following Lamb's suggestion, Chapman applied for a scholarship to Trinity College, Cambridge. He was at first awarded only a partial scholarship as a sizar (meaning that he obtained financial support by acting as a servant to other students), but from his second year onwards he received a full scholarship. He graduated as a wrangler in 1910. He began his research in pure mathematics under G. H. Hardy, but later that year was asked by Sir Frank Dyson to be his chief assistant at the Royal Greenwich Observatory.From 1914 to 1919, Chapman returned to Cambridge as a lecturer in mathematics and a fellow of Trinity. He held the Beyer Chair of Applied Mathematics at Manchester from 1919 to 1924, the same position as had been held by Lamb, and then moved to Imperial College London. During the Second World War he was Deputy Scientific Advisor to the Army Council.In 1946, Chapman was elected to the Sedleian Chair of Natural Philosophy at Oxford, and was appointed fellow of The Queen's College, Oxford. In 1953, on his retirement from Oxford, Chapman took research and teaching opportunities all over the world, including at the University of Alaska and the University of Colorado, but also as far afield as Istanbul, Cairo, Prague, and Tokyo. As the Advisory Scientific Director of the University of Alaska Geophysical Institute from 1951 to 1970, he spent three months of the year in Alaska, usually during winter for research into auroras. Much of the remainder of the year he spent at the High Altitude Observatory in Boulder, Colorado.Chapman's most noted mathematical accomplishments were in the field of stochastic processes (random processes), especially Markov processes. In his study of Markovian stochastic processes and their generalizations, Chapman and the Russian Andrey Kolmogorov independently developed the pivotal set of equations in the field, the Chapman–Kolmogorov equations. Chapman is credited with working out, in 1930, the photochemical mechanisms that give rise to the ozone layer.Chapman is recognised as one of the pioneers of solar-terrestrial physics. This interest stemmed from his early work on the kinetic theory of gases. Chapman studied magnetic storms and aurorae, developing theories to explain their relation to the interaction of the Earth's magnetic field with the solar wind. He disputed and ridiculed the work of Kristian Birkeland and Hannes Alfvén, later adopting Birkeland's theories as his own. Chapman and his first graduate student, V. C. A. Ferraro, predicted the presence of the magnetosphere in the early 1930s. They also predicted characteristics of the magnetosphere that were confirmed 30 years later by the Explorer 12 satellite.In 1940, Chapman and a German colleague Julius Bartels published a book in two volumes on geomagnetism, which was to become the standard text book for the next two decades. In 1946 Chapman coined the term: Aeronomy, which is used today to describe the scientific field of high-altitude research into atmosphere/space interaction.From 1951 to 1954, Chapman was President of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG).Chapman was President of the Special Committee for the International Geophysical Year (IGY). The idea of the IGY stemmed from a discussion in 1950 between Chapman and scientists including James Van Allen. The IGY was held in 1957–58, and resulted in great progress in fields including Earth and space sciences, as well as leading to the first satellite launches.Chapman was bestowed many honours over his career including Smith's Prize in 1913, election as a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1919, Invited Speaker of the ICM in 1924, Royal Society Bakerian lecturer in 1931, Royal Society Royal Medal in 1934, London Mathematical Society De Morgan Medal in 1944. In 1949, he was awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society and was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1953. In 1964, he was awarded the Copley Medal of the Royal Society and in 1965 the Symons Gold Medal of the Royal Meteorological Society. He was elected to the National Academies of Science of the United States, Norway, Sweden and Finland. He served as President of the London Mathematical Society during 1929–1931 and the Royal Meteorological Society 1932–1933.The lunar Crater Chapman is named in his honour, as is the Sydney Chapman Building on the campus of the University of Alaska Fairbanks. This building served as the first permanent home of the University of Alaska Geophysical Institute, and it now contains the Department of Computer Science and the Department of Mathematics and Statistics. The American Geophysical Union organises "Chapman Conferences," which are small, topical meetings intended to foster innovative research in key areas. The Royal Astronomical Society founded the Chapman Medal in his memory.In 1970, Chapman died in Boulder, Colorado, at the age of 82. | [
"Trinity College",
"Victoria University of Manchester"
] |
|
Where was Sydney Chapman educated in 1903-05-10? | May 10, 1903 | {
"text": [
"University of Salford"
]
} | L2_Q711256_P69_0 | Sydney Chapman attended Victoria University of Manchester from Jan, 1904 to Jan, 1908.
Sydney Chapman attended Trinity College from Jan, 1908 to Jan, 1910.
Sydney Chapman attended University of Salford from Jan, 1902 to Jan, 1904. | Sydney Chapman (mathematician)Sydney Chapman (29 January 1888 – 16 June 1970) was a British mathematician and geophysicist. His work on the kinetic theory of gases, solar-terrestrial physics, and the Earth's ozone layer has inspired a broad range of research over many decades.Chapman was born in Eccles, near Salford in England and began his advanced studies at a technical institute, now the University of Salford, in 1902. In 1904 at age 16, Chapman entered the University of Manchester. He competed for a scholarship to the university offered by his home county, and was the last student selected. Chapman later reflected, "I sometimes wonder what would have happened if I'd hit one place lower." He initially studied engineering in the department headed by Osborne Reynolds. Chapman was taught mathematics by Horace Lamb, the Beyer professor of mathematics, and J. E. Littlewood, who came from Cambridge in Chapman's final year at Manchester. Although he graduated with an engineering degree, Chapman had become so enthusiastic for mathematics that he stayed for one further year to take a mathematics degree. Following Lamb's suggestion, Chapman applied for a scholarship to Trinity College, Cambridge. He was at first awarded only a partial scholarship as a sizar (meaning that he obtained financial support by acting as a servant to other students), but from his second year onwards he received a full scholarship. He graduated as a wrangler in 1910. He began his research in pure mathematics under G. H. Hardy, but later that year was asked by Sir Frank Dyson to be his chief assistant at the Royal Greenwich Observatory.From 1914 to 1919, Chapman returned to Cambridge as a lecturer in mathematics and a fellow of Trinity. He held the Beyer Chair of Applied Mathematics at Manchester from 1919 to 1924, the same position as had been held by Lamb, and then moved to Imperial College London. During the Second World War he was Deputy Scientific Advisor to the Army Council.In 1946, Chapman was elected to the Sedleian Chair of Natural Philosophy at Oxford, and was appointed fellow of The Queen's College, Oxford. In 1953, on his retirement from Oxford, Chapman took research and teaching opportunities all over the world, including at the University of Alaska and the University of Colorado, but also as far afield as Istanbul, Cairo, Prague, and Tokyo. As the Advisory Scientific Director of the University of Alaska Geophysical Institute from 1951 to 1970, he spent three months of the year in Alaska, usually during winter for research into auroras. Much of the remainder of the year he spent at the High Altitude Observatory in Boulder, Colorado.Chapman's most noted mathematical accomplishments were in the field of stochastic processes (random processes), especially Markov processes. In his study of Markovian stochastic processes and their generalizations, Chapman and the Russian Andrey Kolmogorov independently developed the pivotal set of equations in the field, the Chapman–Kolmogorov equations. Chapman is credited with working out, in 1930, the photochemical mechanisms that give rise to the ozone layer.Chapman is recognised as one of the pioneers of solar-terrestrial physics. This interest stemmed from his early work on the kinetic theory of gases. Chapman studied magnetic storms and aurorae, developing theories to explain their relation to the interaction of the Earth's magnetic field with the solar wind. He disputed and ridiculed the work of Kristian Birkeland and Hannes Alfvén, later adopting Birkeland's theories as his own. Chapman and his first graduate student, V. C. A. Ferraro, predicted the presence of the magnetosphere in the early 1930s. They also predicted characteristics of the magnetosphere that were confirmed 30 years later by the Explorer 12 satellite.In 1940, Chapman and a German colleague Julius Bartels published a book in two volumes on geomagnetism, which was to become the standard text book for the next two decades. In 1946 Chapman coined the term: Aeronomy, which is used today to describe the scientific field of high-altitude research into atmosphere/space interaction.From 1951 to 1954, Chapman was President of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG).Chapman was President of the Special Committee for the International Geophysical Year (IGY). The idea of the IGY stemmed from a discussion in 1950 between Chapman and scientists including James Van Allen. The IGY was held in 1957–58, and resulted in great progress in fields including Earth and space sciences, as well as leading to the first satellite launches.Chapman was bestowed many honours over his career including Smith's Prize in 1913, election as a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1919, Invited Speaker of the ICM in 1924, Royal Society Bakerian lecturer in 1931, Royal Society Royal Medal in 1934, London Mathematical Society De Morgan Medal in 1944. In 1949, he was awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society and was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1953. In 1964, he was awarded the Copley Medal of the Royal Society and in 1965 the Symons Gold Medal of the Royal Meteorological Society. He was elected to the National Academies of Science of the United States, Norway, Sweden and Finland. He served as President of the London Mathematical Society during 1929–1931 and the Royal Meteorological Society 1932–1933.The lunar Crater Chapman is named in his honour, as is the Sydney Chapman Building on the campus of the University of Alaska Fairbanks. This building served as the first permanent home of the University of Alaska Geophysical Institute, and it now contains the Department of Computer Science and the Department of Mathematics and Statistics. The American Geophysical Union organises "Chapman Conferences," which are small, topical meetings intended to foster innovative research in key areas. The Royal Astronomical Society founded the Chapman Medal in his memory.In 1970, Chapman died in Boulder, Colorado, at the age of 82. | [
"Trinity College",
"Victoria University of Manchester"
] |
|
Where was Sydney Chapman educated in 10/05/1903? | May 10, 1903 | {
"text": [
"University of Salford"
]
} | L2_Q711256_P69_0 | Sydney Chapman attended Victoria University of Manchester from Jan, 1904 to Jan, 1908.
Sydney Chapman attended Trinity College from Jan, 1908 to Jan, 1910.
Sydney Chapman attended University of Salford from Jan, 1902 to Jan, 1904. | Sydney Chapman (mathematician)Sydney Chapman (29 January 1888 – 16 June 1970) was a British mathematician and geophysicist. His work on the kinetic theory of gases, solar-terrestrial physics, and the Earth's ozone layer has inspired a broad range of research over many decades.Chapman was born in Eccles, near Salford in England and began his advanced studies at a technical institute, now the University of Salford, in 1902. In 1904 at age 16, Chapman entered the University of Manchester. He competed for a scholarship to the university offered by his home county, and was the last student selected. Chapman later reflected, "I sometimes wonder what would have happened if I'd hit one place lower." He initially studied engineering in the department headed by Osborne Reynolds. Chapman was taught mathematics by Horace Lamb, the Beyer professor of mathematics, and J. E. Littlewood, who came from Cambridge in Chapman's final year at Manchester. Although he graduated with an engineering degree, Chapman had become so enthusiastic for mathematics that he stayed for one further year to take a mathematics degree. Following Lamb's suggestion, Chapman applied for a scholarship to Trinity College, Cambridge. He was at first awarded only a partial scholarship as a sizar (meaning that he obtained financial support by acting as a servant to other students), but from his second year onwards he received a full scholarship. He graduated as a wrangler in 1910. He began his research in pure mathematics under G. H. Hardy, but later that year was asked by Sir Frank Dyson to be his chief assistant at the Royal Greenwich Observatory.From 1914 to 1919, Chapman returned to Cambridge as a lecturer in mathematics and a fellow of Trinity. He held the Beyer Chair of Applied Mathematics at Manchester from 1919 to 1924, the same position as had been held by Lamb, and then moved to Imperial College London. During the Second World War he was Deputy Scientific Advisor to the Army Council.In 1946, Chapman was elected to the Sedleian Chair of Natural Philosophy at Oxford, and was appointed fellow of The Queen's College, Oxford. In 1953, on his retirement from Oxford, Chapman took research and teaching opportunities all over the world, including at the University of Alaska and the University of Colorado, but also as far afield as Istanbul, Cairo, Prague, and Tokyo. As the Advisory Scientific Director of the University of Alaska Geophysical Institute from 1951 to 1970, he spent three months of the year in Alaska, usually during winter for research into auroras. Much of the remainder of the year he spent at the High Altitude Observatory in Boulder, Colorado.Chapman's most noted mathematical accomplishments were in the field of stochastic processes (random processes), especially Markov processes. In his study of Markovian stochastic processes and their generalizations, Chapman and the Russian Andrey Kolmogorov independently developed the pivotal set of equations in the field, the Chapman–Kolmogorov equations. Chapman is credited with working out, in 1930, the photochemical mechanisms that give rise to the ozone layer.Chapman is recognised as one of the pioneers of solar-terrestrial physics. This interest stemmed from his early work on the kinetic theory of gases. Chapman studied magnetic storms and aurorae, developing theories to explain their relation to the interaction of the Earth's magnetic field with the solar wind. He disputed and ridiculed the work of Kristian Birkeland and Hannes Alfvén, later adopting Birkeland's theories as his own. Chapman and his first graduate student, V. C. A. Ferraro, predicted the presence of the magnetosphere in the early 1930s. They also predicted characteristics of the magnetosphere that were confirmed 30 years later by the Explorer 12 satellite.In 1940, Chapman and a German colleague Julius Bartels published a book in two volumes on geomagnetism, which was to become the standard text book for the next two decades. In 1946 Chapman coined the term: Aeronomy, which is used today to describe the scientific field of high-altitude research into atmosphere/space interaction.From 1951 to 1954, Chapman was President of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG).Chapman was President of the Special Committee for the International Geophysical Year (IGY). The idea of the IGY stemmed from a discussion in 1950 between Chapman and scientists including James Van Allen. The IGY was held in 1957–58, and resulted in great progress in fields including Earth and space sciences, as well as leading to the first satellite launches.Chapman was bestowed many honours over his career including Smith's Prize in 1913, election as a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1919, Invited Speaker of the ICM in 1924, Royal Society Bakerian lecturer in 1931, Royal Society Royal Medal in 1934, London Mathematical Society De Morgan Medal in 1944. In 1949, he was awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society and was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1953. In 1964, he was awarded the Copley Medal of the Royal Society and in 1965 the Symons Gold Medal of the Royal Meteorological Society. He was elected to the National Academies of Science of the United States, Norway, Sweden and Finland. He served as President of the London Mathematical Society during 1929–1931 and the Royal Meteorological Society 1932–1933.The lunar Crater Chapman is named in his honour, as is the Sydney Chapman Building on the campus of the University of Alaska Fairbanks. This building served as the first permanent home of the University of Alaska Geophysical Institute, and it now contains the Department of Computer Science and the Department of Mathematics and Statistics. The American Geophysical Union organises "Chapman Conferences," which are small, topical meetings intended to foster innovative research in key areas. The Royal Astronomical Society founded the Chapman Medal in his memory.In 1970, Chapman died in Boulder, Colorado, at the age of 82. | [
"Trinity College",
"Victoria University of Manchester"
] |
|
Where was Sydney Chapman educated in May 10, 1903? | May 10, 1903 | {
"text": [
"University of Salford"
]
} | L2_Q711256_P69_0 | Sydney Chapman attended Victoria University of Manchester from Jan, 1904 to Jan, 1908.
Sydney Chapman attended Trinity College from Jan, 1908 to Jan, 1910.
Sydney Chapman attended University of Salford from Jan, 1902 to Jan, 1904. | Sydney Chapman (mathematician)Sydney Chapman (29 January 1888 – 16 June 1970) was a British mathematician and geophysicist. His work on the kinetic theory of gases, solar-terrestrial physics, and the Earth's ozone layer has inspired a broad range of research over many decades.Chapman was born in Eccles, near Salford in England and began his advanced studies at a technical institute, now the University of Salford, in 1902. In 1904 at age 16, Chapman entered the University of Manchester. He competed for a scholarship to the university offered by his home county, and was the last student selected. Chapman later reflected, "I sometimes wonder what would have happened if I'd hit one place lower." He initially studied engineering in the department headed by Osborne Reynolds. Chapman was taught mathematics by Horace Lamb, the Beyer professor of mathematics, and J. E. Littlewood, who came from Cambridge in Chapman's final year at Manchester. Although he graduated with an engineering degree, Chapman had become so enthusiastic for mathematics that he stayed for one further year to take a mathematics degree. Following Lamb's suggestion, Chapman applied for a scholarship to Trinity College, Cambridge. He was at first awarded only a partial scholarship as a sizar (meaning that he obtained financial support by acting as a servant to other students), but from his second year onwards he received a full scholarship. He graduated as a wrangler in 1910. He began his research in pure mathematics under G. H. Hardy, but later that year was asked by Sir Frank Dyson to be his chief assistant at the Royal Greenwich Observatory.From 1914 to 1919, Chapman returned to Cambridge as a lecturer in mathematics and a fellow of Trinity. He held the Beyer Chair of Applied Mathematics at Manchester from 1919 to 1924, the same position as had been held by Lamb, and then moved to Imperial College London. During the Second World War he was Deputy Scientific Advisor to the Army Council.In 1946, Chapman was elected to the Sedleian Chair of Natural Philosophy at Oxford, and was appointed fellow of The Queen's College, Oxford. In 1953, on his retirement from Oxford, Chapman took research and teaching opportunities all over the world, including at the University of Alaska and the University of Colorado, but also as far afield as Istanbul, Cairo, Prague, and Tokyo. As the Advisory Scientific Director of the University of Alaska Geophysical Institute from 1951 to 1970, he spent three months of the year in Alaska, usually during winter for research into auroras. Much of the remainder of the year he spent at the High Altitude Observatory in Boulder, Colorado.Chapman's most noted mathematical accomplishments were in the field of stochastic processes (random processes), especially Markov processes. In his study of Markovian stochastic processes and their generalizations, Chapman and the Russian Andrey Kolmogorov independently developed the pivotal set of equations in the field, the Chapman–Kolmogorov equations. Chapman is credited with working out, in 1930, the photochemical mechanisms that give rise to the ozone layer.Chapman is recognised as one of the pioneers of solar-terrestrial physics. This interest stemmed from his early work on the kinetic theory of gases. Chapman studied magnetic storms and aurorae, developing theories to explain their relation to the interaction of the Earth's magnetic field with the solar wind. He disputed and ridiculed the work of Kristian Birkeland and Hannes Alfvén, later adopting Birkeland's theories as his own. Chapman and his first graduate student, V. C. A. Ferraro, predicted the presence of the magnetosphere in the early 1930s. They also predicted characteristics of the magnetosphere that were confirmed 30 years later by the Explorer 12 satellite.In 1940, Chapman and a German colleague Julius Bartels published a book in two volumes on geomagnetism, which was to become the standard text book for the next two decades. In 1946 Chapman coined the term: Aeronomy, which is used today to describe the scientific field of high-altitude research into atmosphere/space interaction.From 1951 to 1954, Chapman was President of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG).Chapman was President of the Special Committee for the International Geophysical Year (IGY). The idea of the IGY stemmed from a discussion in 1950 between Chapman and scientists including James Van Allen. The IGY was held in 1957–58, and resulted in great progress in fields including Earth and space sciences, as well as leading to the first satellite launches.Chapman was bestowed many honours over his career including Smith's Prize in 1913, election as a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1919, Invited Speaker of the ICM in 1924, Royal Society Bakerian lecturer in 1931, Royal Society Royal Medal in 1934, London Mathematical Society De Morgan Medal in 1944. In 1949, he was awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society and was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1953. In 1964, he was awarded the Copley Medal of the Royal Society and in 1965 the Symons Gold Medal of the Royal Meteorological Society. He was elected to the National Academies of Science of the United States, Norway, Sweden and Finland. He served as President of the London Mathematical Society during 1929–1931 and the Royal Meteorological Society 1932–1933.The lunar Crater Chapman is named in his honour, as is the Sydney Chapman Building on the campus of the University of Alaska Fairbanks. This building served as the first permanent home of the University of Alaska Geophysical Institute, and it now contains the Department of Computer Science and the Department of Mathematics and Statistics. The American Geophysical Union organises "Chapman Conferences," which are small, topical meetings intended to foster innovative research in key areas. The Royal Astronomical Society founded the Chapman Medal in his memory.In 1970, Chapman died in Boulder, Colorado, at the age of 82. | [
"Trinity College",
"Victoria University of Manchester"
] |
|
Where was Sydney Chapman educated in 05/10/1903? | May 10, 1903 | {
"text": [
"University of Salford"
]
} | L2_Q711256_P69_0 | Sydney Chapman attended Victoria University of Manchester from Jan, 1904 to Jan, 1908.
Sydney Chapman attended Trinity College from Jan, 1908 to Jan, 1910.
Sydney Chapman attended University of Salford from Jan, 1902 to Jan, 1904. | Sydney Chapman (mathematician)Sydney Chapman (29 January 1888 – 16 June 1970) was a British mathematician and geophysicist. His work on the kinetic theory of gases, solar-terrestrial physics, and the Earth's ozone layer has inspired a broad range of research over many decades.Chapman was born in Eccles, near Salford in England and began his advanced studies at a technical institute, now the University of Salford, in 1902. In 1904 at age 16, Chapman entered the University of Manchester. He competed for a scholarship to the university offered by his home county, and was the last student selected. Chapman later reflected, "I sometimes wonder what would have happened if I'd hit one place lower." He initially studied engineering in the department headed by Osborne Reynolds. Chapman was taught mathematics by Horace Lamb, the Beyer professor of mathematics, and J. E. Littlewood, who came from Cambridge in Chapman's final year at Manchester. Although he graduated with an engineering degree, Chapman had become so enthusiastic for mathematics that he stayed for one further year to take a mathematics degree. Following Lamb's suggestion, Chapman applied for a scholarship to Trinity College, Cambridge. He was at first awarded only a partial scholarship as a sizar (meaning that he obtained financial support by acting as a servant to other students), but from his second year onwards he received a full scholarship. He graduated as a wrangler in 1910. He began his research in pure mathematics under G. H. Hardy, but later that year was asked by Sir Frank Dyson to be his chief assistant at the Royal Greenwich Observatory.From 1914 to 1919, Chapman returned to Cambridge as a lecturer in mathematics and a fellow of Trinity. He held the Beyer Chair of Applied Mathematics at Manchester from 1919 to 1924, the same position as had been held by Lamb, and then moved to Imperial College London. During the Second World War he was Deputy Scientific Advisor to the Army Council.In 1946, Chapman was elected to the Sedleian Chair of Natural Philosophy at Oxford, and was appointed fellow of The Queen's College, Oxford. In 1953, on his retirement from Oxford, Chapman took research and teaching opportunities all over the world, including at the University of Alaska and the University of Colorado, but also as far afield as Istanbul, Cairo, Prague, and Tokyo. As the Advisory Scientific Director of the University of Alaska Geophysical Institute from 1951 to 1970, he spent three months of the year in Alaska, usually during winter for research into auroras. Much of the remainder of the year he spent at the High Altitude Observatory in Boulder, Colorado.Chapman's most noted mathematical accomplishments were in the field of stochastic processes (random processes), especially Markov processes. In his study of Markovian stochastic processes and their generalizations, Chapman and the Russian Andrey Kolmogorov independently developed the pivotal set of equations in the field, the Chapman–Kolmogorov equations. Chapman is credited with working out, in 1930, the photochemical mechanisms that give rise to the ozone layer.Chapman is recognised as one of the pioneers of solar-terrestrial physics. This interest stemmed from his early work on the kinetic theory of gases. Chapman studied magnetic storms and aurorae, developing theories to explain their relation to the interaction of the Earth's magnetic field with the solar wind. He disputed and ridiculed the work of Kristian Birkeland and Hannes Alfvén, later adopting Birkeland's theories as his own. Chapman and his first graduate student, V. C. A. Ferraro, predicted the presence of the magnetosphere in the early 1930s. They also predicted characteristics of the magnetosphere that were confirmed 30 years later by the Explorer 12 satellite.In 1940, Chapman and a German colleague Julius Bartels published a book in two volumes on geomagnetism, which was to become the standard text book for the next two decades. In 1946 Chapman coined the term: Aeronomy, which is used today to describe the scientific field of high-altitude research into atmosphere/space interaction.From 1951 to 1954, Chapman was President of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG).Chapman was President of the Special Committee for the International Geophysical Year (IGY). The idea of the IGY stemmed from a discussion in 1950 between Chapman and scientists including James Van Allen. The IGY was held in 1957–58, and resulted in great progress in fields including Earth and space sciences, as well as leading to the first satellite launches.Chapman was bestowed many honours over his career including Smith's Prize in 1913, election as a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1919, Invited Speaker of the ICM in 1924, Royal Society Bakerian lecturer in 1931, Royal Society Royal Medal in 1934, London Mathematical Society De Morgan Medal in 1944. In 1949, he was awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society and was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1953. In 1964, he was awarded the Copley Medal of the Royal Society and in 1965 the Symons Gold Medal of the Royal Meteorological Society. He was elected to the National Academies of Science of the United States, Norway, Sweden and Finland. He served as President of the London Mathematical Society during 1929–1931 and the Royal Meteorological Society 1932–1933.The lunar Crater Chapman is named in his honour, as is the Sydney Chapman Building on the campus of the University of Alaska Fairbanks. This building served as the first permanent home of the University of Alaska Geophysical Institute, and it now contains the Department of Computer Science and the Department of Mathematics and Statistics. The American Geophysical Union organises "Chapman Conferences," which are small, topical meetings intended to foster innovative research in key areas. The Royal Astronomical Society founded the Chapman Medal in his memory.In 1970, Chapman died in Boulder, Colorado, at the age of 82. | [
"Trinity College",
"Victoria University of Manchester"
] |
|
Where was Sydney Chapman educated in 10-May-190310-May-1903? | May 10, 1903 | {
"text": [
"University of Salford"
]
} | L2_Q711256_P69_0 | Sydney Chapman attended Victoria University of Manchester from Jan, 1904 to Jan, 1908.
Sydney Chapman attended Trinity College from Jan, 1908 to Jan, 1910.
Sydney Chapman attended University of Salford from Jan, 1902 to Jan, 1904. | Sydney Chapman (mathematician)Sydney Chapman (29 January 1888 – 16 June 1970) was a British mathematician and geophysicist. His work on the kinetic theory of gases, solar-terrestrial physics, and the Earth's ozone layer has inspired a broad range of research over many decades.Chapman was born in Eccles, near Salford in England and began his advanced studies at a technical institute, now the University of Salford, in 1902. In 1904 at age 16, Chapman entered the University of Manchester. He competed for a scholarship to the university offered by his home county, and was the last student selected. Chapman later reflected, "I sometimes wonder what would have happened if I'd hit one place lower." He initially studied engineering in the department headed by Osborne Reynolds. Chapman was taught mathematics by Horace Lamb, the Beyer professor of mathematics, and J. E. Littlewood, who came from Cambridge in Chapman's final year at Manchester. Although he graduated with an engineering degree, Chapman had become so enthusiastic for mathematics that he stayed for one further year to take a mathematics degree. Following Lamb's suggestion, Chapman applied for a scholarship to Trinity College, Cambridge. He was at first awarded only a partial scholarship as a sizar (meaning that he obtained financial support by acting as a servant to other students), but from his second year onwards he received a full scholarship. He graduated as a wrangler in 1910. He began his research in pure mathematics under G. H. Hardy, but later that year was asked by Sir Frank Dyson to be his chief assistant at the Royal Greenwich Observatory.From 1914 to 1919, Chapman returned to Cambridge as a lecturer in mathematics and a fellow of Trinity. He held the Beyer Chair of Applied Mathematics at Manchester from 1919 to 1924, the same position as had been held by Lamb, and then moved to Imperial College London. During the Second World War he was Deputy Scientific Advisor to the Army Council.In 1946, Chapman was elected to the Sedleian Chair of Natural Philosophy at Oxford, and was appointed fellow of The Queen's College, Oxford. In 1953, on his retirement from Oxford, Chapman took research and teaching opportunities all over the world, including at the University of Alaska and the University of Colorado, but also as far afield as Istanbul, Cairo, Prague, and Tokyo. As the Advisory Scientific Director of the University of Alaska Geophysical Institute from 1951 to 1970, he spent three months of the year in Alaska, usually during winter for research into auroras. Much of the remainder of the year he spent at the High Altitude Observatory in Boulder, Colorado.Chapman's most noted mathematical accomplishments were in the field of stochastic processes (random processes), especially Markov processes. In his study of Markovian stochastic processes and their generalizations, Chapman and the Russian Andrey Kolmogorov independently developed the pivotal set of equations in the field, the Chapman–Kolmogorov equations. Chapman is credited with working out, in 1930, the photochemical mechanisms that give rise to the ozone layer.Chapman is recognised as one of the pioneers of solar-terrestrial physics. This interest stemmed from his early work on the kinetic theory of gases. Chapman studied magnetic storms and aurorae, developing theories to explain their relation to the interaction of the Earth's magnetic field with the solar wind. He disputed and ridiculed the work of Kristian Birkeland and Hannes Alfvén, later adopting Birkeland's theories as his own. Chapman and his first graduate student, V. C. A. Ferraro, predicted the presence of the magnetosphere in the early 1930s. They also predicted characteristics of the magnetosphere that were confirmed 30 years later by the Explorer 12 satellite.In 1940, Chapman and a German colleague Julius Bartels published a book in two volumes on geomagnetism, which was to become the standard text book for the next two decades. In 1946 Chapman coined the term: Aeronomy, which is used today to describe the scientific field of high-altitude research into atmosphere/space interaction.From 1951 to 1954, Chapman was President of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG).Chapman was President of the Special Committee for the International Geophysical Year (IGY). The idea of the IGY stemmed from a discussion in 1950 between Chapman and scientists including James Van Allen. The IGY was held in 1957–58, and resulted in great progress in fields including Earth and space sciences, as well as leading to the first satellite launches.Chapman was bestowed many honours over his career including Smith's Prize in 1913, election as a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1919, Invited Speaker of the ICM in 1924, Royal Society Bakerian lecturer in 1931, Royal Society Royal Medal in 1934, London Mathematical Society De Morgan Medal in 1944. In 1949, he was awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society and was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1953. In 1964, he was awarded the Copley Medal of the Royal Society and in 1965 the Symons Gold Medal of the Royal Meteorological Society. He was elected to the National Academies of Science of the United States, Norway, Sweden and Finland. He served as President of the London Mathematical Society during 1929–1931 and the Royal Meteorological Society 1932–1933.The lunar Crater Chapman is named in his honour, as is the Sydney Chapman Building on the campus of the University of Alaska Fairbanks. This building served as the first permanent home of the University of Alaska Geophysical Institute, and it now contains the Department of Computer Science and the Department of Mathematics and Statistics. The American Geophysical Union organises "Chapman Conferences," which are small, topical meetings intended to foster innovative research in key areas. The Royal Astronomical Society founded the Chapman Medal in his memory.In 1970, Chapman died in Boulder, Colorado, at the age of 82. | [
"Trinity College",
"Victoria University of Manchester"
] |
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