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4o0iik | What are the significance of The Schwarzschild Radius and The Dirac Equation? | This may be a bit odd, but recently a major gaming figure (known for being very cryptic) released a picture of a character for his new game (Norman Reedus) that character has "dog tag" like things on his necklace with equations on them [here is a picture](_URL_0_)
The top equation is clearly The Schwarzschild Radius and the second appears to be The Dirac Equation.
I am no physicist and can only grasp so much without someone explaining it. Is there any significance to these equations? Either separate or when looked at together? | askscience | {
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"The Dirac equation is particularly interesting because it started out as an attempt to find a first order quantum wave equation that included special relativity (previous attempts were second order and weren't terribly useful) and ended up as an equation that fully accounted for spin effects and predicted antiparticles, purely from the mathematics.\n\nBasically, Dirac realised that the only way for his formulation to work was if the solutions had components beyond spatial position. This beautifully lined up with the concept of spin, which hadn't been rigorously justified until that point.",
"Every object has a Schwarzschild Radius, it's basically just the size at which an object collapses under its own gravity and becomes a black hole. For example: if the Earth was compressed to the size of a peanut, a black hole would form."
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} | What are the significance of The Schwarzschild Radius and The Dirac Equation?
This may be a bit odd, but recently a major gaming figure (known for being very cryptic) released a picture of a character for his new game (Norman Reedus) that character has "dog tag" like things on his necklace with equations on them [here is a picture](_URL_0_) The top equation is clearly The Schwarzschild Radius and the second appears to be The Dirac Equation. I am no physicist and can only grasp so much without someone explaining it. Is there any significance to these equations? Either separate or when looked at together? | [
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4lz87f | Is the success of the Lebesgue integral related to the vertical line test? | At risk of oversimplifying, Riemann integration uses vertical rectangles (partitioning the domain) to approximate area, whereas Lebesgue integration uses horizontal rectangles (partitioning the range). It seems odd to me that such a difference would have any effect at all, and yet Lebesgue integration is much more powerful. As far as I know, the only inherent asymmetry in the domain vs. range of a function comes from the vertical line test. Are these two things related? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d3rdxjv"
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"text": [
"The vertical line test is a rule taught in pre-caclulus that is used to determine if a graph is a function of *x*. This has nothing to do with its Riemann- or Lebesgue-integrability.\n\n*Now for some math aimed toward those who have seen the Lebesgue integral...*\n\nWhen you say that Lebesgue integration \"partitions the range\", that's not really true. The building blocks of integration of real-valued measurable functions (w.r.t. general measures) are the so-called [*simple functions*](_URL_0_). These functions are very similar to step functions. Whereas step functions are linear combinations of indicator functions of *intervals*, simple functions are linear combinations of indicator functions of *measurable sets*. A proposition commonly proved early in integration theory is that *any* measurable function is the pointwise limit of simple functions. The standard proof of this statement is constructive: the range of *f* is divided up into 2^(2n) intervals each of which has length 2^(-n), and the *n*th simple function in the approximation sequence is a linear combination of the inverse images of those intervals. That is probably what you are referring to when you say that Lebesgue integration \"partitions the range\".\n\nThe *integral* of a simple function is defined, and then the integral of (non-negative) *f* is defined as the supremum of all integrals of simple functions pointwise less than or equal to *f*. Note though that the integral is not defined in terms of those simple functions in the previous paragraph. We only partitioned the range in that one proof to show that there exists at least one sequence of simple functions that pointwise converge to *f*. (Otherwise our definition of integral would not be very good.) We have no obligation to define the integral of *f* in terms of that specifically constructed approximating sequence of simple functions.\n\nThe real power of Lebesgue integration ultimately comes from how we define measures, specifically their countable additivity. The real advantage of Lebesgue integration though is not so much that we can integrate nastier functions than with Riemann integration, but that we get a more powerful *theory of integration*. For instance, we can consider the space of continuous functions on a compact set, with the uniform topology. This metric space is not complete in the L^(1) metric, but it turns out that its completion is the space of integrable functions (i.e., L^(1) itself). The completion of the L^(p) spaces is extremely useful and powerful; it forms the basis of essentially all of Fourier analysis."
],
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10
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_function"
]
} | Is the success of the Lebesgue integral related to the vertical line test?
At risk of oversimplifying, Riemann integration uses vertical rectangles (partitioning the domain) to approximate area, whereas Lebesgue integration uses horizontal rectangles (partitioning the range). It seems odd to me that such a difference would have any effect at all, and yet Lebesgue integration is much more powerful. As far as I know, the only inherent asymmetry in the domain vs. range of a function comes from the vertical line test. Are these two things related? | [
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|
pbidr | This is probably an easy one to answer: When calculating work done, why do you need the angle in the equation W=F*d*cos(theta)? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3o1t1v",
"c3o2068"
],
"text": [
"Theta is the angle between the force and the displacement vector. Basically what you are trying to figure out is how much of that force is applied to the distance the object moved. \n\nYou can think of it as two men pushing their own box across an equal distance. One applies a force parallel to the displacement vector while the other man pushes at a sort of angle. Both forces are equal in magnitude but which one does more work?\n\nThe angle between parallel lines is zero, cos(0)=1, which turns out to be the max value cos can produce. Any other angle will produce a number less than zero, therefore less work.",
"Work isn't just force times distance, it's the dot product of force and distance, which means only the force applied *in the direction of the motion*. So the cos(theta) term gives you the component of force in the direction of the motion. In the example of doing work in a gravitational field like darth-tom used, walking across the room means the gravitational force is perpendicular to your motion, so you've done no work (ignoring friction). But if you walk up or down the stairs the gravitational force is parallel to one of the components of your motion, and work is done. If you climb a rope, now the gravitational force is completely parallel to your motion, so theta, the angle between your motion and the force, is zero. cos(0)=1, and the equation is just W=F*d"
],
"score": [
19,
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | This is probably an easy one to answer: When calculating work done, why do you need the angle in the equation W=F*d*cos(theta)?
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pvtgv | Is there a logical explanation for the effects of Sheldrake's experiments with Morphogenetic Fields? | [1] _URL_0_
[2] _URL_1_
I've been looking into these after I played a video game where they were a main part of the plot. I don't agree with the conclusions Sheldrake made, but I don't know what another reason for his results could be.
Was it because of poor testing protocol? Has anyone repeated these experiments and gotten similar results?
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3uhltn"
],
"text": [
"Sheldrake's experimental protocols are very rigorous, IMHO. I have examined the folks who tried to debunk Sheldrake; in my opinion, they were illogical and question-begging. I have also looked into some of the folks who checked Sheldrake's work; they seem to be solid. \n\nSheldrake worked with Trinity College of Cambridge up to 2010, and they are known for their attention to detail; we can be certain that there are quite a few folks reproducing his tests, but many of them won't get published.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nNow, Radin and Emoto put out some similar work at:\n_URL_1_\n\nBut perhaps what Radin and Emoto found was not exactly what Sheldrake found."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.co-intelligence.org/P-moreonmorphgnicflds.html",
"http://www.physicsforums.com/archive/index.php/t-56167.html"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.sheldrake.org/Articles&Papers/papers/morphic/index.html",
"http://www.scientificexploration.org/journal/jse_22_4_radin.pdf"
]
} | Is there a logical explanation for the effects of Sheldrake's experiments with Morphogenetic Fields?
[1] _URL_0_ [2] _URL_1_ I've been looking into these after I played a video game where they were a main part of the plot. I don't agree with the conclusions Sheldrake made, but I don't know what another reason for his results could be. Was it because of poor testing protocol? Has anyone repeated these experiments and gotten similar results? | [
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|
10bvrq | Is there a limit to the amount of information a person can know? | I know there is not enough time in a lifetime to learn everything, but would there be a point where a person knows so much that they need to forget something to learn more? Kind of like a computer? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c6c4ext",
"c6cgdnj",
"c6c3z9j"
],
"text": [
"Probably, but the good thing is you don't have to learn as much as you think you do. [Constructivism](_URL_0_) suggests that you adapt what you already know to new experiences. For example, if your favorite beverage is Pepsi in a cold 12oz can, you would learn to operate a Pepsi vending machine. That would be learned. Suppose you went somewhere that only had a Coke vending machine. You would not have to learn how to operate the machine all over again, but you would instead use the learning you already had to obtain the foul product. \n\nIt comes down to this, you only add connections to what you already know and experience the world in the context of what you can adapt what you know to the new experience. \n\nI have grossly oversimplified the concept, but check out the link if you are truly interested.",
"Given our current understanding of memory this question hinges on the nature of synaptic modulation. Basically it comes down to if the neurotransmitter acts on the post synaptic neuron in a continuous or discrete fashion. If the network can have a continuous modulation - like speed, taking on any of an infinite possible values - then the memory capacity is essentially infinite but as new memories are added the ability to recall old ones becomes harder. If the modulation is indeed discrete - having only k levels - then there is a hard memory bound upon reaching would imply that new memories completely overwrite old ones. These results are a consequence of the number of states a system of N neurons could have given their connection topology.\n\nWhich one is more applicable to the brain is somewhat unresolved, though there is increasing evidence that lean towards the discrete case.\n\n[Here](_URL_1_) is a paper that explains some of the newer results when working with a discrete model of synaptic modulation.",
"There is a limit, just at the physical level, in that we can only make so many connections. Now, that number is in the billions (i think), so you don't have to worry about it realistically."
],
"score": [
3,
2,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_%28learning_theory%29",
"http://www.ploscompbiol.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.1000230"
]
} | Is there a limit to the amount of information a person can know?
I know there is not enough time in a lifetime to learn everything, but would there be a point where a person knows so much that they need to forget something to learn more? Kind of like a computer? | [
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|
1kwhmz | What is the largest distance between a point within a muscle and the nearest blood vessel/capillary? | Since muscles need a ready supply of oxygen to function, it would make sense that they would have that oxygen delivered *very* nearby so that it would be able to diffuse into the cells that need it and have waste products diffuse out fairly quickly. I was reading an (old) paper about the [diffusion of water in frog muscle](_URL_0_) and the diffusion coefficient seemed to imply that it would take 5.2 minutes for water to diffuse even 1mm. (maybe oxygen moves faster?) That seems like a long time given how fast muscle can burn oxygen. This led me to wonder what the distances generally are between muscle tissue and their oxygen delivery system. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cbtehvb"
],
"text": [
"Cells have ways of telling blood vessels to start growing toward them, so it varies. The point of having the blood flow come near tissues is to deliver oxygen and take carbon dioxide and waste away (I just simplified that process by a ton), so if someone here knows the maximum distance that can occur, then you'll have your answer. Normally it's not very far (just a few cells from a capillary, which can be as small as accommodating just one red blood cell through it). There are so many capillaries in the body that are so small, you can't see them without an expert dissection (or imaging, of course)."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1328613/"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | What is the largest distance between a point within a muscle and the nearest blood vessel/capillary?
Since muscles need a ready supply of oxygen to function, it would make sense that they would have that oxygen delivered *very* nearby so that it would be able to diffuse into the cells that need it and have waste products diffuse out fairly quickly. I was reading an (old) paper about the [diffusion of water in frog muscle](_URL_0_) and the diffusion coefficient seemed to imply that it would take 5.2 minutes for water to diffuse even 1mm. (maybe oxygen moves faster?) That seems like a long time given how fast muscle can burn oxygen. This led me to wonder what the distances generally are between muscle tissue and their oxygen delivery system. | [
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|
109h9y | In the Bill Nye TSG intro, Bill fogs up the screen with his breath and then blows off the condensation. I have never been able to reproduce this. Under what circumstances is this possible? | [Here is the clip](_URL_0_) | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c6bp39y"
],
"text": [
"When you breathe onto a surface like a piece of glass you apply moisture to the surface. Now depending on how volatile the molecule or solvent is, the rate of evaporation will differ. In terms of water (what comes out when you breathe), the volatility is relatively low compared to a lot of other solvents. One reason for this is that since there is already so much moisture in the air, it takes a bit more energy to put more water molecules in the vapor phase opposed to other solvents which the air has minimal amounts of.\n\nOnce the condensation is on the glass, what circumstances would allow someone to blow it off?\nFirstly, hot air is preferable as it gives the water more thermal energy which promotes the ejection of water molecules at the surface of the liquid (you know like when you boil stuff, more heat = more bubbles! :P).\n\nSecondly, you would have to make sure your blowing was as dry as possible, adding more moisture to the situation will obviously set you back in the other direction.\n\nThirdly, the force at which you blow can cause molecules in the air to collide with the water on the glass surface, physically breaking the surface tension and aiding in the evaporation of water molecules. The harder you blow, the more disruption you cause and the better chance you have of the water evaporating.\n\nOf course, you could always set up a nitrogen pack to blow on the condensation. This introduces a localised atmosphere which is very dry, because of the reasons outlined above, this will greatly increase the rate of evaporation.\n\nTo sum up, best conditions are a dry hot day, where you blow on the window as dryly as you possibly can with as much force."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UXyYbQ0SmDQ&feature=player_detailpage#t=21s"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | In the Bill Nye TSG intro, Bill fogs up the screen with his breath and then blows off the condensation. I have never been able to reproduce this. Under what circumstances is this possible?
[Here is the clip](_URL_0_) | [
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|
ymjct | I have a question (or 2) about the human body. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c5wx6rs"
],
"text": [
"My guess is yes. The dissymetry is relatively equal left to right.\n\nThe most massive organ in the body is the liver, and it is decidedly laterally located to the right. As is the appendix (that was a joke, it is negligible).\n\nTo offset that, your other two organs that are not symetrical and also \"heavy\" (ie dense) are your heart and spleen. Your heart is slightly left of center, Your spleen is decidedly contra-lateral to your liver, albeit smaller. In addition your pancreas is slightly left of center.\n\nYour digestive tract, including your stomach and both large and small intestines, just occupy the remaining space withing the cavity, and overall density wise I would consider a wash regarding laterality."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | I have a question (or 2) about the human body.
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||
1c5gf9 | What causes Frizziness? | Hello,
Since I hit puberty my hair has changed from wavy/curly and thick to frizziness and thin. Now since I'm 19 this change has not been turned back. I was wondering how the process for this works, is it genetics or does it have to do with hormones? And is there a genetic cure?
Thanks | askscience | {
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"text": [
"I am not an expert in this field, and I am not answering the OPs question. But I would like to add my own related question for whichever panelist does come to answer this...\n\nI had surgery, and during recovery my hair changed from curly/wavy to pretty flat and straight (it has gone back now). Is it just hormones produced in these different situations that cause this?",
"Hair texture (straight, wavy, curly, kinky) is not the same thing as frizziness. Hair of any texture can be frizzy. Frizzy hair is the result of a lack of moisture. Each hair strand has an outer layer called a cuticle which locks in moisture. Exposure to UV light, mechanical stress of brushing, heat styling, and chemical treatments such as hair coloring or relaxing can damage the cuticle resulting in frizziness. Once hair is damaged, there isn't much you can do but cut off the damaged hair and start taking care of your hair.\n\n\nIf there isn't much damage to the hair, hair can be frizzy due to underconditioning. This is why many women don't shampoo their hair every day and apply leave-in conditioners.\n\n\nIf you do an image search for \"hair electron microscope,\" you can see many images of healthy hair and hair with a damaged cuticle."
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} | What causes Frizziness?
Hello, Since I hit puberty my hair has changed from wavy/curly and thick to frizziness and thin. Now since I'm 19 this change has not been turned back. I was wondering how the process for this works, is it genetics or does it have to do with hormones? And is there a genetic cure? Thanks | [
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|
quxpv | Voltage irregularity - take a voltmeter to your hands | Setting your voltmeter to DCV 200m, try putting one lead on the pad of each thumb. It registers "-10.xx" (roughly, I know we're all different). When you try the side of your thumbs, it comes up with a positive number, usually about equal to the negative number.
I've tried this on 5 people now with similar results. What gives? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c40oq7g"
],
"text": [
"I don't know the exact answer to your question. When you use a DVM or oscilloscope to probe your body, what you are generally picking up are \"stray\" EM fields in your environment. Your body is acting like an antenna and coupling those fields to the instrument. If you use an oscilloscope, you will see that you are picking up mostly 60 Hz from the power distribution in your home/workplace. \n \nWhy you get different values on different parts of your body I can't say, but I would guess that it has to do with how many blood vessels are close to the surface of the skin, and possibly to how sweaty/oily the skin is, which will effect its conductivity."
],
"score": [
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Voltage irregularity - take a voltmeter to your hands
Setting your voltmeter to DCV 200m, try putting one lead on the pad of each thumb. It registers "-10.xx" (roughly, I know we're all different). When you try the side of your thumbs, it comes up with a positive number, usually about equal to the negative number. I've tried this on 5 people now with similar results. What gives? | [
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|
1sfrk0 | What is the the purpose of the little red bit on a seagull's beak? | [Picture for reference](_URL_0_) | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cdx6fs9"
],
"text": [
"The Nobel Laureate Nikolaas Tinbergen studied this in the 1950's. He showed that the red spot is a critical visual cue for the chicks during feeding."
],
"score": [
11
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Seagull_005.jpg"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | What is the the purpose of the little red bit on a seagull's beak?
[Picture for reference](_URL_0_) | [
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|
3n9d3e | Can someone explain gel to liquid crystal phase transitions and DSC? | In the context of a lipid bilayer. Here is what I understand:
If you were to take a gel phase lipid bilayer and heat it, it would eventually reach a temperature at which it undergoes a phase change (melting) into the liquid crystalline phase.
This temperature can be measured using Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). On the output, you'd get a peak at this melting temperature (Tm). Why do you get a peak? Is it because as you increase the temperature of the lipid and your control, upon reaching its melting temperature, your sample will stop increasing in temperature until all molecules are in the new liquid crystalline phase (since it's a first order phase transition from my understanding), and the increase in heat (energy) applied to the sample (as noted by the peak) happens so as to speed up the transition, so that it may continue increasing at the same rate as the reference sample (which is the whole goal of DSC)?
Or, is it because the sample absorbs heat in order to melt (why?) and DSC picks this up? And therefore the increase in heat (energy) applied to the sample at the melting temperature is to melt the sample, in contrast to representing an increase to keep the rate of temperature increase constant?
As you can see, my understanding of this is a mess. Anyone got any explanations or links that explain it?
I found the following link: _URL_0_ explaining DSC, but I'm still confused. Any clearer links out there?
Thanks. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cvm3j7c",
"cvm4jvz"
],
"text": [
"DSC, as I understand it, is not directly measuring heat, it is measuring the current needed to keep two samples at the same temperature. \n\nWhen you run a DSC measurement, you set up two samples. One has the substance you are interested in, the other is a blank. You place these on to separate heating elements and then begin to heat them at a predetermined rate. What you are measuring in the current difference between the two samples needed to keep them at the same temperature. \n\nThink of it like this, as you add heat the temperature should rise, when something starts to melt, the temperature stays the same until all of the sample has melted. HOWEVER since the blank has nothing it it, the temperature will still be rising and the DSC will note this and attempt to keep the temperature constant in the other sample holder by increasing the current to that heating element. This is what you are seeing",
"The peak occurs because of [latent heat](_URL_0_) - the energy required to induce a phase change."
],
"score": [
5,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://pslc.ws/macrog/dsc.htm"
]
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latent_heat"
]
} | Can someone explain gel to liquid crystal phase transitions and DSC?
In the context of a lipid bilayer. Here is what I understand: If you were to take a gel phase lipid bilayer and heat it, it would eventually reach a temperature at which it undergoes a phase change (melting) into the liquid crystalline phase. This temperature can be measured using Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). On the output, you'd get a peak at this melting temperature (Tm). Why do you get a peak? Is it because as you increase the temperature of the lipid and your control, upon reaching its melting temperature, your sample will stop increasing in temperature until all molecules are in the new liquid crystalline phase (since it's a first order phase transition from my understanding), and the increase in heat (energy) applied to the sample (as noted by the peak) happens so as to speed up the transition, so that it may continue increasing at the same rate as the reference sample (which is the whole goal of DSC)? Or, is it because the sample absorbs heat in order to melt (why?) and DSC picks this up? And therefore the increase in heat (energy) applied to the sample at the melting temperature is to melt the sample, in contrast to representing an increase to keep the rate of temperature increase constant? As you can see, my understanding of this is a mess. Anyone got any explanations or links that explain it? I found the following link: _URL_0_ explaining DSC, but I'm still confused. Any clearer links out there? Thanks. | [
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|
3c9dq9 | IS there a scientific explanation behind why we can't seem to find certain things, even though they're right in front of us or in our hands? | We've all done it, it's almost like deja vu. Usually someone else points it out or you figure it out within a few seconds or minutes of searching, but shouldn't our brain be at least subconsciously aware of everything within our visual range or that we are holding? Or is this simply a case-to-case forgetfulness thing? | askscience | {
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"Vision works by taking lots of snapshots as your eyes move around and then stitching them together into an image that you can understand (this is because your eyes can't see when they move and the area actually in focus at any given time is quite small).\n\nThe eyes won't actually succeed in covering everything you can see, so the brain fills in the blank areas as best it can. In an unfamiliar area this effect is fairly small as you'll spend more time looking at things and concentrating on detail.\n\nIn familiar surroundings however, the brain already has a lot of information to go on, so it starts filling in blanks all over the place with what it remembers. So if you've got a table full of things that rarely move, and put your keys down without thinking, when you come back you'll see an image of a table constructed somewhat of memory - if you don't look directly at the keys you probably won't see them.\n\n*At least, this is how it was explained to me when I asked a similar question at uni.*"
],
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} | {
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} | {
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} | {
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} | IS there a scientific explanation behind why we can't seem to find certain things, even though they're right in front of us or in our hands?
We've all done it, it's almost like deja vu. Usually someone else points it out or you figure it out within a few seconds or minutes of searching, but shouldn't our brain be at least subconsciously aware of everything within our visual range or that we are holding? Or is this simply a case-to-case forgetfulness thing? | [
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|
2ci25v | How much voltage would it take to overcome the resistance of air? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cjfovtr"
],
"text": [
"It depends on the distance and the pressure, which you can read about here: _URL_0_\n\nFor one meter of air, it's about 3.4 megavolts."
],
"score": [
11
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paschen's_law"
]
} | How much voltage would it take to overcome the resistance of air?
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1ovs0g | How does the brain regulate flow of CSF and ICF through the interstitial space? What signals cause changes in local extracellular space volume? | The new Science paper by Lulu Xie etl al. ["Sleep Drives Metabolite Clearance from the Adult Brain"](_URL_1_) posted in /r/science earlier today shows that during sleep, the paraarterial flow rate of CSF into the interstitial space increases dramatically during sleep, the total interstitial volume of the brain increases, and that these changes were associated with faster clearance of interstitial amyloid beta.
This is news to me, and seems like it might fit in to the two process model of homeostatic sleep pressure, as the build up of something(s) in the ECS could necessitate flushing, but I don't really know anything about how ICF physiology works. I feel like all my neuroscience and neurology classes have focused more on CSF flow in the ventricles etc.
The article talks about the extracellular fraction, meaning the fraction of brain volume where they are recording that is extracellular vs intracellular. How dynamic is that fraction during waking activity? What accounts for the changes in that volume? How different is it across different regions of the brain? Does the ECS expansion that happens when you inhibit adrenergic activity have anything to do with the CNS side effects of beta-blockers?
I found [this review](_URL_0_) which is very extensive and will probably answer some of my questions but as I go through it, I was wondering if anyone could weigh in on what the findings of this paper mean in the context of what is known about ECS flow.
Thanks! | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cd00e5g"
],
"text": [
"How is difficult to answer because there are many different levels to address the question. The short answer, by my understanding, is that astrocytes regulate interstitial space in response to local neuronal activity which in turn may be synchronized globally. If you are asking how exactly an astrocyte regulates housekeeping functions then we are in for a long discussion and would be better served through a more specific question."
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2785730/",
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/342/6156/373"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | How does the brain regulate flow of CSF and ICF through the interstitial space? What signals cause changes in local extracellular space volume?
The new Science paper by Lulu Xie etl al. ["Sleep Drives Metabolite Clearance from the Adult Brain"](_URL_1_) posted in /r/science earlier today shows that during sleep, the paraarterial flow rate of CSF into the interstitial space increases dramatically during sleep, the total interstitial volume of the brain increases, and that these changes were associated with faster clearance of interstitial amyloid beta. This is news to me, and seems like it might fit in to the two process model of homeostatic sleep pressure, as the build up of something(s) in the ECS could necessitate flushing, but I don't really know anything about how ICF physiology works. I feel like all my neuroscience and neurology classes have focused more on CSF flow in the ventricles etc. The article talks about the extracellular fraction, meaning the fraction of brain volume where they are recording that is extracellular vs intracellular. How dynamic is that fraction during waking activity? What accounts for the changes in that volume? How different is it across different regions of the brain? Does the ECS expansion that happens when you inhibit adrenergic activity have anything to do with the CNS side effects of beta-blockers? I found [this review](_URL_0_) which is very extensive and will probably answer some of my questions but as I go through it, I was wondering if anyone could weigh in on what the findings of this paper mean in the context of what is known about ECS flow. Thanks! | [
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|
kmo4u | Has distributed computing projects such as folding@home and BOINC's rosetta actually produced real results? | I thought /r/askscience would be the perfect place for this discussion as a part of "doing science" is investigating conclusions and building research models.
One of the most successful, as we're told, has been the distributed computing effort.
I'd like to know what has distributed computing actually achieved not just for the two projects in particular, but for the research community in general, and for the man in the street. Have new drugs been tested on animals as a result of protein folding, or have we got new ideas on the proteins to target with drugs? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2ljjsc"
],
"text": [
"Sort of distributed computing: _URL_0_\n\n > Online gamers have achieved a feat beyond the realm of Second Life or Dungeons and Dragons: they have deciphered the structure of an enzyme of an AIDS-like virus that had thwarted scientists for a decade.\n\n...\n\n > Developed in 2008 by the University of Washington, it is a fun-for-purpose video game in which gamers, divided into competing groups, compete to unfold chains of amino acids -- the building blocks of proteins -- using a set of online tools.\n\n > To the astonishment of the scientists, the gamers produced an accurate model of the enzyme in just three weeks."
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://games.yahoo.com/blogs/plugged-in/online-gamers-crack-aids-enzyme-puzzle-161920724.html"
]
} | Has distributed computing projects such as folding@home and BOINC's rosetta actually produced real results?
I thought /r/askscience would be the perfect place for this discussion as a part of "doing science" is investigating conclusions and building research models. One of the most successful, as we're told, has been the distributed computing effort. I'd like to know what has distributed computing actually achieved not just for the two projects in particular, but for the research community in general, and for the man in the street. Have new drugs been tested on animals as a result of protein folding, or have we got new ideas on the proteins to target with drugs? | [
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|
51t00c | Can you use Red/Blueshift to determine the instantaneous velocity of an object? | It was presented to me in physics today that instantaneous velocity can't be measured, you have to "time" the moving object over a very short distance, and use that. However, what if you were in a car moving fast enough that the shift was noticeable, and shined a laser with a known frequency at a detector? Could you use that to determine instantaneous velocity?
Could it be a something to do with quarantined light, or am I missing something else?
Thanks, it's really been bugging me. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d7feg34"
],
"text": [
"In order to estimate the frequency of a wave you need a sample of finite duration - frequency after all is the change in phase over time. So in the end you need to measure for a finite amount of time and therefore get a time average instead of an instantaneous velocity."
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Can you use Red/Blueshift to determine the instantaneous velocity of an object?
It was presented to me in physics today that instantaneous velocity can't be measured, you have to "time" the moving object over a very short distance, and use that. However, what if you were in a car moving fast enough that the shift was noticeable, and shined a laser with a known frequency at a detector? Could you use that to determine instantaneous velocity? Could it be a something to do with quarantined light, or am I missing something else? Thanks, it's really been bugging me. | [
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|
1cft8b | Can we see Action Potentials as they happen? | I can't seem to find anything on the subject. Has anyone every tried to observe them? Is it possible? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c9g3c91",
"c9g33cg",
"c9g74z2"
],
"text": [
"We can indirectly observe the firing of neurons by measuring the voltage change caused by ion channels opening. \n\nThis technique can be done fairly simply - it is called [electrophysiology](_URL_0_) - and it forms the foundation of modern neuroscience.",
"I myself have never done any techniques to measure action potentials but have discussed them in paper discussions.\n\nSee this wiki article for more info:\n_URL_1_\n\nEssentially you can measure electrical changes in the membrane using different techniques all with advantages and disadvantages. For example killing the cell after use or being able to test multiple times etc.\n\nHope that points you in the right direction atleast.",
"Patch clamps can be used to measure the electrical signal. This is a well-established technique. \n\nThere are fluorescent probes that can be used to observe the change in redox potential inside the cells, too."
],
"score": [
3,
2,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrophysiology",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patch_clamp"
]
} | Can we see Action Potentials as they happen?
I can't seem to find anything on the subject. Has anyone every tried to observe them? Is it possible? | [
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|
68oz61 | How do Dirac or Majorana fermions act as signal carriers? | Yesterday I read this article on _URL_1_:
_URL_0_
that describes using Dirac or Majorana fermions as charge carriers in 2-D materials and I have a few questions for someone with more knowledge in the field:
I am under the impression that a Majorana fermion would be a Majorana neutrino, which hasn't actually been demonstrated yet. Does this study assume their existence? How exactly would a charge neutral particle act as a signal carrier as it says in the article? The article also mentions a superconductor that breaks time-reversal symmetry, does this supply evidence that neutrinos are their own anti-particles?
Any help is greatly appreciated. Thanks! | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dh04ohw"
],
"text": [
"> I am under the impression that a Majorana fermion would be a Majorana neutrino, which hasn't actually been demonstrated yet.\n\nA Majorana fermion is any fermion which is its own antiparticles. Neutrinos *may* fall under this category, but they would not necessarily be the only Majorana fermions.\n\n > Does this study assume their existence? How exactly would a charge neutral particle act as a signal carrier as it says in the article? The article also mentions a superconductor that breaks time-reversal symmetry, does this supply evidence that neutrinos are their own anti-particles?\n\nThere are no neutrinos in this paper. They're talking about strange behavior of normal condensed matter under unusual circumstances. In other words, Majorana fermions which are not neutrinos."
],
"score": [
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://phys.org/news/2017-04-physicists-d-materials-electricity.html",
"phys.org"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | How do Dirac or Majorana fermions act as signal carriers?
Yesterday I read this article on _URL_1_: _URL_0_ that describes using Dirac or Majorana fermions as charge carriers in 2-D materials and I have a few questions for someone with more knowledge in the field: I am under the impression that a Majorana fermion would be a Majorana neutrino, which hasn't actually been demonstrated yet. Does this study assume their existence? How exactly would a charge neutral particle act as a signal carrier as it says in the article? The article also mentions a superconductor that breaks time-reversal symmetry, does this supply evidence that neutrinos are their own anti-particles? Any help is greatly appreciated. Thanks! | [
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|
k9ocg | How the hell does press & seal wrap work? | What sort of sorcery is that stuff made from?
EDIT: To clarify, I am not talking about saran/plastic wrap. It is a unique product that has little bubble things all over it and it actually sticks to stuff. You can do it over and over. If you press it between your fingers it feels like scotch tape when you pull it off.
Check out this video here: _URL_0_ | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2ik1qi"
],
"text": [
"*“Glass, as well as some plastics, has a net negative charge on its surface, so a wrap that has an opposite charge is going to cling quite well to these surfaces,”* [SOURCE](_URL_1_)\n\nAnother site has a more chemical approach:\n\n*\"I found that most kitchen plastic wrap is made of low density polyethylene, also known as LDPE. This plastic makes a good barrier to water and air, but it does not stick to itself. To make it cling, they add another chemical, such as polyisobutylene or poly[ethylene-vinylacetate]. These chemicals do not mix totally with the LDPE. Instead, they act like the adhesive on tape, only not as sticky, and it only sticks to certain things.\"* [SOURCE\n](_URL_0_)\n\nHope this helps."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tWxMuO1UfCY"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://nicholasacademy.com/scienceexperiment269staticcling.html",
"http://www.chow.com/food-news/54464/how-does-plastic-wrap-cling/"
]
} | How the hell does press & seal wrap work?
What sort of sorcery is that stuff made from? EDIT: To clarify, I am not talking about saran/plastic wrap. It is a unique product that has little bubble things all over it and it actually sticks to stuff. You can do it over and over. If you press it between your fingers it feels like scotch tape when you pull it off. Check out this video here: _URL_0_ | [
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|
2ha9ns | What does ^-/- symbolize in genetics? For example Suz12^-/- | Hi, I am reading a paper (Gene Silencing Triggers Polycomb Repressive Complex 2 Recruitment to CpG Islands Genome Wide _URL_0_) and I see this ^-/- symbol or ^-/+ or the like a lot in reference to specific cell lines. I don't have much of a background with genetics but we have to discuss this paper and I'd like to at least have my terminology correct. From the context I believe this means the specific gene is knocked out in that cell line, is that correct. I've tried googling the symbol but all I get is gobbleygook.
If you can help a lowly first-year grad student out I'd greatly appreciate it. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ckqtxuu"
],
"text": [
"Your inference is correct, it's a way of designating knockout strains. In this case it's addressing the fact that diploid species have two copies of the gene in question. \"+\" is shorthand for wild type, so -/+ strains are heterozygous knockouts, and -/- are homozygous knockouts."
],
"score": [
36
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molcel.2014.06.005"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | What does ^-/- symbolize in genetics? For example Suz12^-/-
Hi, I am reading a paper (Gene Silencing Triggers Polycomb Repressive Complex 2 Recruitment to CpG Islands Genome Wide _URL_0_) and I see this ^-/- symbol or ^-/+ or the like a lot in reference to specific cell lines. I don't have much of a background with genetics but we have to discuss this paper and I'd like to at least have my terminology correct. From the context I believe this means the specific gene is knocked out in that cell line, is that correct. I've tried googling the symbol but all I get is gobbleygook. If you can help a lowly first-year grad student out I'd greatly appreciate it. | [
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|
417xd9 | How many tuples can you construct from a multiset? | Say I have the multiset {1,2,3,4,5,6,6,7,7,8,8}. How many distinct tuples (order matters) can be constructed using elements of the multiset? (for a tuple in this example the 1 can be used 0 or 1 time, the 6 can be used 0, 1 or 2 times) | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cz0nnz9"
],
"text": [
"1. Do your own homework.\n\n2. If you're saying the numbers in each tuple are ordered from least to greatest, then 864 = 2x2x2x2x2x3x3x3.\n\nThe numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 have 2 states (either 0 or 1 of that number appear in each tuple) and the numbers 6, 7, 8 have 3 states (0, 1, or 2 of that number appear in each tuple). Multiply the potential states of each value together and that is your solution.\n\nIf you're saying that tuple (1,2) is different than (2,1), then you there's more work to the solution that I don't have time to get into at the moment, but it likely involves using factorials."
],
"score": [
8
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | How many tuples can you construct from a multiset?
Say I have the multiset {1,2,3,4,5,6,6,7,7,8,8}. How many distinct tuples (order matters) can be constructed using elements of the multiset? (for a tuple in this example the 1 can be used 0 or 1 time, the 6 can be used 0, 1 or 2 times) | [
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|
ueq0r | Where do we get Hours/Minutes/Seconds from? Were there alternative systems? | Being european, I am accustomed to & enjoy base-10 units. I understand that there are cases where natural reasons force us to break with that system, eg. having 365+ days for a year. But I can see no such reason for hours, minutes & seconds being arbitrarily 24-60-60.
After spending some time on wiki, I only gathered that even early sundials in egypt had 12 hours (daytime, e.g. length not correlating to our hours, and in fact not even of absolute length), but I find no info on:
.) Why 12/24? Did Egyptians use base12? (I thought Sumerians did?) Does it relate to sundials- > (partial) circles- > degrees? (though that would probably work with base10 as well?!)
.) Who came up with (60) minutes? When/where? Why?
.) How about alternative approaches? Lots of info on sundials, waterclocks, hourglasses, early mechanical devices - but how long were the "hours" for each of those devices? (in the case of absolute, not temporal hours) Did e.g. chinese, persian and roman waterclocks divide a day in similar fashions?
.) When was the current system widely adopted? First mechanical clocks used by monks? Earlier? Were there "competing" standards?
.) Any info on timekeeping (not calendar!) in pre-columbian America? Or sub-Saharan Africa?
TIA :-) | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c4uqp77",
"c4urrx9"
],
"text": [
"> Who came up with (60) minutes? When/where? Why?\n\nThe Babylonians did: _URL_1_\n\nThere was an alternative system some years ago called [\"internet time\"](_URL_0_). The idea was that it would be the same all over the internet, thus solving the problem of ambiguity due to local time zones. I had a watch that could display this time when i was ~12 years old. It never once used it.",
"[This video Explains it quite well.](_URL_2_)\n\nThe Gist: The Babylonians used to count to sixty by counting the three segments of one set of fingers with their thumb, and with the other hand used each finger for a set of twelve. 12 x 5 = 60. 60 is also the smallest number that is divisible by 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. Very handy for a culture that had to do all calculations in their head."
],
"score": [
5,
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Time",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonian_numerals",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R9m2jck1f90"
]
} | Where do we get Hours/Minutes/Seconds from? Were there alternative systems?
Being european, I am accustomed to & enjoy base-10 units. I understand that there are cases where natural reasons force us to break with that system, eg. having 365+ days for a year. But I can see no such reason for hours, minutes & seconds being arbitrarily 24-60-60. After spending some time on wiki, I only gathered that even early sundials in egypt had 12 hours (daytime, e.g. length not correlating to our hours, and in fact not even of absolute length), but I find no info on: .) Why 12/24? Did Egyptians use base12? (I thought Sumerians did?) Does it relate to sundials- > (partial) circles- > degrees? (though that would probably work with base10 as well?!) .) Who came up with (60) minutes? When/where? Why? .) How about alternative approaches? Lots of info on sundials, waterclocks, hourglasses, early mechanical devices - but how long were the "hours" for each of those devices? (in the case of absolute, not temporal hours) Did e.g. chinese, persian and roman waterclocks divide a day in similar fashions? .) When was the current system widely adopted? First mechanical clocks used by monks? Earlier? Were there "competing" standards? .) Any info on timekeeping (not calendar!) in pre-columbian America? Or sub-Saharan Africa? TIA :-) | [
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|
62xsny | Why science isn't able to resurrect a person? what biologically speaking makes it impossible to start the human engine again? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dfrwkoz"
],
"text": [
"Because your body starts to decompose, in various ways, and on many levels, the moment death occurs. Even if you in some way reverse that entropy, and kickstart brain functions, we dont really know if \"you\" is linked only to the physical body, or also to the continuity of the brain process itself."
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Why science isn't able to resurrect a person? what biologically speaking makes it impossible to start the human engine again?
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kvlr8 | Where do you get free scientific peer-reviewed study results on a broad range of topics? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2nla9y"
],
"text": [
"For anything biological or medical, use [Pubmed](_URL_0_), and search with \"Links to free full text\" checked on the 'Limits' options page."
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/"
]
} | Where do you get free scientific peer-reviewed study results on a broad range of topics?
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qyftm | A random guy marked a number wrong and I turned out to be a close friend to her daughter. What is the probabilty? | So I received a call today, typical "sorry wrong number" call, except for the fact that in order to identify himself he gave me his name and location. He apparently marked the number wrong, since he had it written down on paper.
After that, I made the connection of the name and location and asked a friend with the same last name who lives in the place (which is only a few miles away from where I live), and it turned out her father was the one who called me. What are the odds of this?
I'll throw in some more information:
-My country (Spain) uses a nine digit number, being the first one always six.
-He saved the contact wrong
-There exist currently 56.189.478 telephone numbers in Spain
Tell me what more you need and I'll provide. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c41h0vc"
],
"text": [
"There is a lot more to this than it seems. There are area codes for different regions which would narrow it down to an extent, then prefixes and what not that are reserved, etc [Wiki Source](_URL_0_). You could narrow it down to an extent. Sorry to rain on your parade, but realistically it would be impossible to find the actual provability."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_numbers_in_Spain"
]
} | A random guy marked a number wrong and I turned out to be a close friend to her daughter. What is the probabilty?
So I received a call today, typical "sorry wrong number" call, except for the fact that in order to identify himself he gave me his name and location. He apparently marked the number wrong, since he had it written down on paper. After that, I made the connection of the name and location and asked a friend with the same last name who lives in the place (which is only a few miles away from where I live), and it turned out her father was the one who called me. What are the odds of this? I'll throw in some more information: -My country (Spain) uses a nine digit number, being the first one always six. -He saved the contact wrong -There exist currently 56.189.478 telephone numbers in Spain Tell me what more you need and I'll provide. | [
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|
qclgk | What causes the magnet/iron files experiment to have well-defined lines? | Hi. I've been wondering about the classical middle-school physics experiment involving haphazardly scattering magnetic files over a surface only to bring in a magnet and have the files align themselves along certain field lines ([example](_URL_1_)). I understand the basic idea of what's going on, but what I don't get is why these lines appear to be pretty defined. That is, why do there happen to be no files falling on certain reasonably well-defined regions (ex. the red lines [here](_URL_0_)). Is this by random chance, or is there a deeper explanation?
I can't imagine there being interference patterns, so I'd like to hear what explanations you all can come up with :). | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3wj0yv",
"c3wkdpz",
"c3wj5ov"
],
"text": [
"The rotational ordering arises because the filings are polarized by the magnetic field and align themselves with the magnetic field lines. The positional ordering likely arises from interactions between filings -the N of a given filing is attracted to the S of the next filing, etc, so the lowest energy state is for them to be lined up rather than evenly distributed.",
"Iron has a high [magnetic permeability](_URL_0_). It gets magnetized and you end up with a locally-stronger fields around the filings. \n\nSo an evenly-distributed dust of filings will attract and lump together until the the point where the closest filings are too far away for its field to pull them over.",
"I'll preface this by saying that I am a senior in Electrical Engineering studying electric motors currently. So if I am off on anything in my explanation, I'd appreciate someone helping me to deepen my understanding.\n\nThere is a thing called magnetic flux, that by definition is leaving the north end of the magnet and entering the south end. This can be thought of as creating a [magnetic circuit](_URL_2_) with the north as a high potential and the south as the low potential. The magnetic flux in this instance is the \"current\" of the circuit. The next thing to be understood is [reluctance](_URL_2_). It is analogous to the resistance in an electrical circuit. \n\nStarting with the poles as boundary conditions, the filings line up with the field lines (not discrete but continuous in number) because this is the lowest energy state as iron has a much lower magnetic reluctance compared to air. This is similar to how current follows the path of least resistance. This is also the reason a compass lines up pointing to north. There is also a maximum packing concentration around the poles based on the cross sectional area of the filings.\n\nThe next step is to see that the lowest energy state for the other iron filings is to line up with these initial packings on the poles. This creates continuous paths for the magnetic flux to follow. This also creates the gaps you are seeing as the iron filings are limited in amount in a particular area and tend to clump into lines to create continuous paths.\n\nAs another note, gaps in the lines displayed by filings usually occur in this experiment as there is a certain amount of friction between the iron and the surface it's resting on. Sometimes this is enough to counteract the magnetic pull."
],
"score": [
16,
3,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://imgur.com/LAKFN",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Magnet0873.png"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permeability_%28electromagnetism%29",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_reluctance",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_circuit"
]
} | What causes the magnet/iron files experiment to have well-defined lines?
Hi. I've been wondering about the classical middle-school physics experiment involving haphazardly scattering magnetic files over a surface only to bring in a magnet and have the files align themselves along certain field lines ([example](_URL_1_)). I understand the basic idea of what's going on, but what I don't get is why these lines appear to be pretty defined. That is, why do there happen to be no files falling on certain reasonably well-defined regions (ex. the red lines [here](_URL_0_)). Is this by random chance, or is there a deeper explanation? I can't imagine there being interference patterns, so I'd like to hear what explanations you all can come up with :). | [
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|
usra7 | When you are born, is what you end up looking like inevitable? | Well I know the sun can tan you, give you freckles/spots but are there no other factors? Is it 100% genes?
You can also gain weight, look tired from lack of sleep etc. But eventually you could go back to what you looked like before with those factors.
Are there any factors that can change you permanently?
Is how you end up looking (naturally, without plastic surgery) set in stone?
Excluding deliberate neck elongation, ear holes etc. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c4y7gzw"
],
"text": [
"Yes. However, there's also epigenetics that can account for some subtle differences in appearances in identical twins. Here's a [decent video](_URL_0_)."
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xjq5eEslJhw"
]
} | When you are born, is what you end up looking like inevitable?
Well I know the sun can tan you, give you freckles/spots but are there no other factors? Is it 100% genes? You can also gain weight, look tired from lack of sleep etc. But eventually you could go back to what you looked like before with those factors. Are there any factors that can change you permanently? Is how you end up looking (naturally, without plastic surgery) set in stone? Excluding deliberate neck elongation, ear holes etc. | [
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|
3d44sr | [Meteorology] Why doesn't it hail basketballs for days at a time? | While it sometimes rains for several days, it never hails more than maybe half an hour in my experience. And while I remember one occurrence in the early nineties, where hailstones as big as tennis ball damaged tens of thousands of cars in my home town, I don't think they can get any bigger than that. So... I'm not complaining, just wondering why it never hails stones as big as basketballs for several days. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ct2opjb"
],
"text": [
"The basic reason why hail falls is because the updrafts are not strong enough to lift them up anymore, so they plummet to the ground. You would have to have insanely powerful updrafts to get a hailstone that large. There was one officially documented hailstone that was just under 4 cm short of the mean diameter of a basketball (~24.3 cm). Considering that's the largest recorded hailstone, and it only occurred once (that we know of), you would need to have those conditions present, but amplified and sustained for quite some time. \n\nAnother aspect is that there are variations in factors like humidity throughout the cloud, so conditions are not only going to spatially vary within the storm, but also from storm to storm. \n\nFinally, once the hailstone enters the layer of warmer air, it's going to melt some. The magnitude of melting just depends on atmospheric conditions as well. \n\nHope that was a pretty straightforward answer. It's late, so sorry if it's not. \n\nEdit: I forgot to throw this in. [Here](_URL_0_) is an interesting thesis done on determining hail size based on models of vertical velocity. I came across it late last week, and at the right time, it seems."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a479787.pdf"
]
} | [Meteorology] Why doesn't it hail basketballs for days at a time?
While it sometimes rains for several days, it never hails more than maybe half an hour in my experience. And while I remember one occurrence in the early nineties, where hailstones as big as tennis ball damaged tens of thousands of cars in my home town, I don't think they can get any bigger than that. So... I'm not complaining, just wondering why it never hails stones as big as basketballs for several days. | [
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|
5dm9d3 | AskScience AMA Series: I am a former Senior VP of Knowledge at Google who broke the world record for highest free-fall jump in 2014. Ask me anything! | Hi, reddit! I'm Alan Eustace and I'm here with Jerry Kolber. We're the subject and director, respectively, of the documentary **14 MINUTES FROM EARTH**, which premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival in April of this year and was released On Demand this past Tuesday. Jerry's film documented the process by which I broke the world record for high-altitude jump in 2014 at the age of 57 when I dropped from a gas-powered balloon 135,000 feet above the earth. Check out the film's [trailer](_URL_1_)!
The plan began as a scribble on a paper napkin and took three years of working in secrecy to come to fruition. In 2011 I began working with Taber MacCallum and Jane Poynter, co-founders of [Paragon Space Development Corporation](_URL_8_), to bring the plan to life. Because a private citizen cannot simply purchase a space suit from NASA, we also worked with [ILC Dover](_URL_5_), outfitters of every United States astronaut in the Apollo program.
Jerry Kolber, the film's Executive Producer and Director, is the co-creator and show runner of the Emmy-nominated series "Brain Games" on National Geographic, and has created, produced, and served as showrunner on many other award-winning scripted and un-scripted series. [Learn more about his work](_URL_9_).
Ask us anything about the jump or the film! We'll be online at 2:00pm EST to answer your questions.
-----
Edit: Thanks for all of your great questions! To learn more about the mission, check out 14 MINUTES FROM EARTH on any of these VOD platforms:
* Google Play: _URL_7_
* iTunes: _URL_6_
* Amazon Video: _URL_4_
* Microsoft Movies & TV: _URL_0_
* PlayStation: _URL_3_
* Vudu: _URL_2_ | askscience | {
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"What does being the Senior VP of knowledge at Google entail? What is something interesting you learned from holding that position?",
"At the time of the redbull jump, there was discussion as to whether he would break the sound barrier during his fall. My recollection is that it was concluded after the fact that he did. Your jump was a few weeks later. Presumably you also broke the sound barrier. Visually or physically, what was your perception of this? Could you see a shockwave coming off the top of your helmet? In the movies of Chuck Yeager's first supersonic flight there was very high turbulence just before breaking the sound barrier, then an abrupt cessation of the turbulence after the shock wave was established. Did you experience anything like that as a free falling body? Did you have any controls or devices to keep yourself from tumbling or losing control of your trajectory at the maximum speed?",
"Hello!\n\nFirst for Alan: How much of your experience and background at Google helped in the planning and design of the project? I guess put another way: did any of your work with computers and technology get applied in preparation to perform such an incredible feat of science/technology/engineering?\n\nSecond for Jerry: I've seen a few episodes of Brain Games and its really well done. Scientific outreach is something that a lot of us are interested in here and in our professional lives. What is the process by which you've come up with a topic to present in the show? It seems like you end up focusing on really narrow areas of cognitive science and then immensely expanding that for the show. How do you then take that idea of \"let's do a show specifically about X\" and then convert that into a ~30 minute show?",
"What food did you eat before the jump? As it could have been your last meal, i was curious about this after 2012 Bombgartner's jump and yours.",
"Very cool, I'll be sure to check out the doco. How did your jump differ from the Redbull \"Space Dive\"?",
"In recent years tech companies have come under scrutiny due to the Snowden releases, does Google still operate according to its \"do no evil\" mantra with regard to user security and privacy?",
"What did you think about on the way down?",
"Here's a morbid question, but I always wonder this about death defying stunts. As part of the preparation, did you \"put your affairs in order\", as they say? Your will updated, plans in place to support your family if you were incapacitated or killed, and arrangements to pay for your medical bills and/or burial fees? Did you record a goodbye note? I can't imagine that you can get insurance for this kind of thing.",
"Hi Alan, I'm a skydiver and try to make a few jumps at least every other weekend. How many jumps did you accumulate before the record and what kind of equipment did you use (container, canopies, special equipment, etc)? Do you have any plans to continue skydiving?",
"Hello, Alan! What does a VP of knowledge do?",
"Did you have to pee durring the fall? Did you have a plan for if you did have to pee?",
"Have you ever been challenged and needed to defend your title of Senior VP of Knowledge? How does/would a challenge like that work? Would you have to win an academic decathlon to be crowned the victor?",
"That is incredible! You could see the curvature of the earth from that height I assume. The earth IS round, correct?",
"Your plan was inherently extremely risky. How did you motivate or persuade your team to go along with it? Was there more to gain from the jump than simply breaking a record?",
"Why the secrecy? This is an amazing achievement, but I only heard about it well after the fact, and that was only because I read a lot of science oriented internet.",
"GREETINGS! What was the last thing you thought about, right before you jumped?",
"Hi!\nI'd assume the endgame for extremely high altitude jumps is to eventually be able to bail out of a failing spaceship that is in orbit around the planet, with that in mind what kind of research is being done to develop systems that allow humans to jump from even higher altitudes and what are the current problems that are preventing people from breaking your record?",
"What was your preparation like just before leaving the ground? What did you do to be ready to take that massive step? The whole prospect of getting ready for these dangerous events must be a daunting mental task",
"Hi there Alan! What were some of your most notable concerns in dropping someone from that height? Were those concerns actually as important as you thought they were then, looking back now?",
"Hi there, Alan!\nWould you like or dislike it if your record was beaten by someone in the future? And why?",
"What was your biggest fear before you ended up doing this?",
"What ended up being the biggest challenge in planning?",
"After the red bull jump did you know you were going to be able to beat that record or did it give you a benchmark?",
"Hi Alan! Ballpark, what did this cost in total?",
"I was a consultant at Google and was part of a 200 person meeting where you were set to be a guest speaker. Before your name was called up, you walked in and rather than sitting in a chair, you copied up against a wall and sat on the floor with everyone else and just seemed incredibly genuine and down to earth. My question is: is there any wisdom or advice you can share about staying so humble despite your extraordinary success ?",
"What was the most challenging problem your team solved, and how did you respond to a 'no' or 'it can't be done' answer?",
"It seems Google's objective with search is no longer making information accessible to the world, but to return the results that generate the most ad revenue. Or at best, return what's most popular. Were you and fellow Googlers aware of this and primarily working towards greater ad revenue, or is this the result of hidden policies, or simply unintentional / emergent behavior?",
"Do you have and will you release any full-length POV video from the jump? That's my favorite video from the Redbull Stratos jump, but yours was higher, so it will be even better!",
"What did you hear as you were falling? If you could have been listening to a song as you fell which one would you pick?",
"What was your career path like from your first job till now?",
"I've always had difficulties with school, and try to figure out habits of successful Individuals.\n\n1. Could you talk about your aptitudes/difficulties at Valencia College/FTU/UCF?\n\n2. Were you good from the start or did you have any obstacles you had to overcome?\n\n3. Did you break the world record on the same day you skydived to Ronys' GPS coordinates?\n\n4. Did you ever check out Biosphere 2?\n\n5. What On-demand Providers could I check out the Documentary?",
"Hi Mr. Eustace, thank you for doing this AMA. I have two questions: If it's not too private, what was it like before the jump, when talking to your family and friend's about it? \n\nAlternatively, HOW COOL WAS IT IN THE STRATOSPHERE? Can you describe that feeling of looking over Earth? (if you could, the suit didn't look too flexible, so hopefully you could crane your neck to see a bit).",
"Hello Allen, First off - that was soooo cool. I cant imagine what rush that was. - what was you max terminal velocity you reached - speedwise plummeting to earth? Did you break that record too?\nBest to you,\nThe Broadcaster",
"Why was Felix Baumgartner's jump in 2012 so publicized but I had never heard of your record breaking jump until now? Was it the publicity surrounding the red bull sponsorship?",
"Hi Alan,\n\nDid you have any experience skydiving before you began planning this jump? What level of expertise did you need to be able to accomplish something like this? I'm curious because of the obvious comparisons between Baumgartner, who is basically a professional daredevil, and someone like you who also has many professional accomplishments in a wildly different area to your name. Anyways, that is an amazing accomplishment, congratulations.",
"Is there any way a system like the one you used could be adapted to be used as an emergency return procedure for astronauts at the ISS? (Assuming they could somehow reduce their orbital speed enough to fall back to earth?) I've long been curious if this could be possible.",
"With an organization as large as Google, how do you manage knowledge such that one engineer from one part of the company learns from the successes and failures of past engineers in other parts of the company? Do you use any tools/SW to help with this and, if so, which?",
"What is your opinion on private companies like Google and their executives getting involved in politics and funding campaigns, even strategizing for them with big data. Is this a concern for you as it relates to democracy and money in politics, nepotism etc. Thanks for answering !",
"Was there any point that you seriously considered backing out for fear of it not working properly? Were you scared you were going to die at any point during the fall?",
"What is next on your list of recreational projects? I'm highly curious as to know what other challenges you want to take on and puzzles you want to solve.",
"What is that moment like? You're at the edge of space. The Earth is curved away below you. That moment before you jump has to be amazing.",
"What was the approximate composition of the air mixture Mr. Eustace was breathing at those high altitudes? Congrats on the successful jump, quite a feat!",
"What is a \"Senior VP\"? Do you have so many VPs that you need some senior ones to corral them all?",
"Wish it had been covered in the media as Felix' descent...I just first heard about this 2 years later",
"Wasn't there a guy in 1960 who did basically the same thing in a lawn chair?",
"Hi Alan!\n\nAbsolutely amazing jump.\n\nHow many expletives did you get through on your way down?",
"Was your suit designed to change the amount of oxygen you were breathing as altitude decreased?",
"Felix Baumgartner seems to suffer from brain damage since the jump. How about you?",
"What was the total cost to you for the jump?",
"What keeps you dedicated to this line of work?"
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} | AskScience AMA Series: I am a former Senior VP of Knowledge at Google who broke the world record for highest free-fall jump in 2014. Ask me anything!
Hi, reddit! I'm Alan Eustace and I'm here with Jerry Kolber. We're the subject and director, respectively, of the documentary **14 MINUTES FROM EARTH**, which premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival in April of this year and was released On Demand this past Tuesday. Jerry's film documented the process by which I broke the world record for high-altitude jump in 2014 at the age of 57 when I dropped from a gas-powered balloon 135,000 feet above the earth. Check out the film's [trailer](_URL_1_)! The plan began as a scribble on a paper napkin and took three years of working in secrecy to come to fruition. In 2011 I began working with Taber MacCallum and Jane Poynter, co-founders of [Paragon Space Development Corporation](_URL_8_), to bring the plan to life. Because a private citizen cannot simply purchase a space suit from NASA, we also worked with [ILC Dover](_URL_5_), outfitters of every United States astronaut in the Apollo program. Jerry Kolber, the film's Executive Producer and Director, is the co-creator and show runner of the Emmy-nominated series "Brain Games" on National Geographic, and has created, produced, and served as showrunner on many other award-winning scripted and un-scripted series. [Learn more about his work](_URL_9_). Ask us anything about the jump or the film! We'll be online at 2:00pm EST to answer your questions. ----- Edit: Thanks for all of your great questions! To learn more about the mission, check out 14 MINUTES FROM EARTH on any of these VOD platforms: * Google Play: _URL_7_ * iTunes: _URL_6_ * Amazon Video: _URL_4_ * Microsoft Movies & TV: _URL_0_ * PlayStation: _URL_3_ * Vudu: _URL_2_ | [
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|
mld10 | What are some of the more humorous scientific papers you have read? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c31ucl8"
],
"text": [
"[the Ig Noble awards](_URL_0_) are given for such papers. For instance, one of the 2011 winners was given to a team researching the phenomenon of contagious yawning in the red-footed tortoise."
],
"score": [
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.improbable.com/"
]
} | What are some of the more humorous scientific papers you have read?
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aj4wp7 | How to describe Spark Gaps? | How is it possible to describe a spark gap mathematically?
I found nowhere a Description how you can put the relevant sizes in relationship.
Thankyou for response. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"eeszqw8"
],
"text": [
"The breakdown voltage of a gas is determined by its [Paschen curve](_URL_0_), if you know the type of gas and its pressure you can use the curve to determine the voltage needed for a given gap distance."
],
"score": [
8
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paschen%27s_law"
]
} | How to describe Spark Gaps?
How is it possible to describe a spark gap mathematically? I found nowhere a Description how you can put the relevant sizes in relationship. Thankyou for response. | [
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apqpa4 | Does swallowing prey alive ever cause problems for predatory animals? | So a lot of animals like birds, snakes some types of fish don’t really kill their prey right away. They just go and swallow it whole. Does this ever cause harm to the predator? I mean the prey might continue struggling while in the stomach of the predator and so on. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"egef7mo"
],
"text": [
"It is quit rare for animals to really eat living creatures because it is dangerous. Even animals who swallow their prey as a whole either smash or chew or poison the food, or it dyes quickly in the gastric acid. \n\nSome preying insects, mantis for example, catch their pray alive, if they don’t catch it properly that can cause a problem when the pray bites back. That is why they usually start to eat the ganglia first to kill the prey quickly.\n\nSome wasps sometimes eat living prey but it is paralyzed.\n\nSnakes usually either strangle they prey to death or use poison to either kill the pray. It is very rare that a snake eats its pray alive because they usually wait until the heart stops beating. In rare cases pray can damage the snake from within but rather by accident then intentionally because the process of been eaten by a snake should crush the Prey.\n\nWhales usually swallow tiny organisms (plankton) that can barely cause any harm. Whales with tooth like orca or sperm whales usually kill their prey with their bites or by shaking the prey to death."
],
"score": [
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Does swallowing prey alive ever cause problems for predatory animals?
So a lot of animals like birds, snakes some types of fish don’t really kill their prey right away. They just go and swallow it whole. Does this ever cause harm to the predator? I mean the prey might continue struggling while in the stomach of the predator and so on. | [
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|
5idz9z | What exactly is a BEC? | ([Advanced](_URL_1_)) ([simple](_URL_0_)) The BEC is a abundance of material which is condensed down. The atoms lost its particles and compacted. We know things at absolute 0 stop moving. With the observed behavior of the elements (fast gas, fast liquid, slow solid, almost still BEC), you could assume the next step would be negative movement or the consumption/repulsion of energy, like a magnet.
What about if the particles lose mass at absolute zero? Wouldn't all be able to fit in one place because they would then be massless? What about this in respect to the big bang theory? Wouldn't that explain why everything exploded 'in the beginning of time'? Everything somehow got energy and exploded? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"db7r8aj",
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"text": [
"Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC) = macroscopic (many particle) occupation of a single quantum state. \n \nmust be bosons (integer spin) as Pauli exclusion principle prevents more than one fermion occupying the same state.\n\nDoesn't necessarily have to be the lowest energy state. Metastable helium for example is condensed in a state which is about 20ev above the ground state. (This is a huge energy compared to the thermal energy kB T)\n \n > We know things at absolute 0 stop moving\n\nThis is false. Contrary to popular (pop-sci) opinion the atoms do not all stop moving in a BEC. There is usually a small bulk motion of the fluid relative to the confining potential. But even ignoring this, due to the trapping potential there is also curvature of the wave-function even at T=0, so there is an associated kinetic energy so it is not accurate to say the atoms stop moving.\n \n > The atoms lost its particles and compacted\n\nThis is not even wrong\n \n > next step would be negative movement\n \nnegative movement would just be movement in the opposite direction. velocity is a vector -ve means backward. Speed is a scalar there is no meaning to having negative speed.\n\n > or the consumption/repulsion of energy, like a magnet. What about if the particles lose mass at absolute zero? Wouldn't all be able to fit in one place because they would then be massless? What about this in respect to the big bang theory?\n \nAgain this just makes no sense whatsoever. I'm not even sure what you're asking. \n\n > Wouldn't that explain why everything exploded 'in the beginning of time'? Everything somehow got energy and exploded?\n\nno absolutely not. because it makes exactly zero sense.\n\nThere's so much nonsense here that it's impossible to know where to start trying to correct it. My advice would be to stop reading hyped up pop-science and go take a course somewhere if you're interested. Alternatively if you haven't got the interest/commitment/time/money for that you could talk to these people:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nI hear they are super patient and will give you a layman's understanding of some of the core concepts without all the math. Sorry if this comes across as a little mean. It's not meant to be, just honest.\n\nEDIT: As an aside, there are already `good' theories about the origin of the big bang, it's not just a \"magic moment\". These are extremely high level though and require advanced understanding of quantum field theory.",
"It's a collection of particles, like a really cold gas, where none of the particles have excess energy. Experimentally these are realized with atoms in electromagnetic traps, where the particles tend to be found at the centre of the traps because they lack the excess thermal energy that would make them likely to be found farther away from the center. This can only happen with certain types of particles called bosons, the other kind (fermions) can't all occupy the same energy state (even if it's the lowest)."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.livescience.com/54667-bose-einstein-condensate.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_condensate"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://backreaction.blogspot.com.au/p/talk-to-physicist_27.html"
]
} | What exactly is a BEC?
([Advanced](_URL_1_)) ([simple](_URL_0_)) The BEC is a abundance of material which is condensed down. The atoms lost its particles and compacted. We know things at absolute 0 stop moving. With the observed behavior of the elements (fast gas, fast liquid, slow solid, almost still BEC), you could assume the next step would be negative movement or the consumption/repulsion of energy, like a magnet. What about if the particles lose mass at absolute zero? Wouldn't all be able to fit in one place because they would then be massless? What about this in respect to the big bang theory? Wouldn't that explain why everything exploded 'in the beginning of time'? Everything somehow got energy and exploded? | [
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|
1orlh6 | How do chrysalises avoid predators? | It seems as though a chrysalis would be pretty vulnerable to predators, being immobile and stuff. I would assume that if the protective layer were an issue, predators could have evolved ways around it. So how do species that form chrysalises avoid being preyed upon during that stage of their life-cycle? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ccv08rd"
],
"text": [
"In addition to what /u/JimmyGroove mentioned, some moths (ex. tobacco hornworm and other sphinx moths) will burrow underground before pupating. This way unless a predator is willing to dig a lot they won't be found. Moths that are hairy will sometimes remove their setae and incorporate them into the cocoon that they spin before pupating. This also will deter predators. Also a lot of pupae are not as stationary as they seem. The pupae of some sphinx and tiger moths can rotate their abdomen. So if you pick them up they begin wiggling which is a way to startle the predator in the hopes they will lose interest. As a side note, chrysalis is a term specific to butterflies."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | How do chrysalises avoid predators?
It seems as though a chrysalis would be pretty vulnerable to predators, being immobile and stuff. I would assume that if the protective layer were an issue, predators could have evolved ways around it. So how do species that form chrysalises avoid being preyed upon during that stage of their life-cycle? | [
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1bn30v | Are there any studies of long term effects of vasectomies? | I once asked a doctor friend what happens, after a vasectomy, to the sperm that body produces, if they can never "get out". He said the body just re-absorbs them.
This made me wonder if there were any long-term effects of vasectomies, perhaps in terms of hormonal balance, testosterone production or whatnot - since, under normal circumstances, the body seems inclined to get rid of manufactured sperm, if not consciously then unconsciously.
Secondary question - if the option is there for the body to re-absorb unutilised sperm, what is the purpose of "wet dreams" - isn't it a waste of energy/nutrients?
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c989saa",
"c988bcj",
"c98i548"
],
"text": [
"There are certain health advantages to ejaculation, but none I can think of that are negated by a vasectomy. Ejaculation still occurs, but without sperm^1 . For example, studies have suggested that ejaculation decreases the risk of prostate cancer^2 , but a vasectomy has no effect on the function of the prostate.\n\nSperm cells do build up behind the vasectomy, and the body must dispose of them. This usually causes a man to produce antibodies against his own sperm, which can cause infertility in men who have had their vasectomies reversed.\n\n1. I am using \"sperm\" to refer to the actual tadpole-shaped cells, though it colloqiually refers to semen as a whole.\n2. It's tempting to assume that this provides an evolutionary-biological explanation for nocturnal emissions, but one should also remember that not all traits are of adaptive significance, i.e. it could simply be a harmless side-effect of some more important trait.",
"_URL_0_\n\nI no longer have access to the university library, so can't get to the text of the cited study, but this summarizes it. Freaks me out, because I got a vasectomy 6 years ago...",
"Longer life is what I've heard. [These](_URL_2_) [are] (_URL_2_) the only things a quick search turned up, suggesting correlation rather than causation. [Web md] (_URL_2_) has a good article on it."
],
"score": [
26,
12,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://men.webmd.com/news/20070222/study-suggests-vasectomy-dementia-link",
"http://www.webmd.com/sex/birth-control/vasectomy-14387",
"http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1734&dat=19831116&id=YpobAAAAIBAJ&sjid=rlIEAAAAIBAJ&pg=6846,2002946"
]
} | Are there any studies of long term effects of vasectomies?
I once asked a doctor friend what happens, after a vasectomy, to the sperm that body produces, if they can never "get out". He said the body just re-absorbs them. This made me wonder if there were any long-term effects of vasectomies, perhaps in terms of hormonal balance, testosterone production or whatnot - since, under normal circumstances, the body seems inclined to get rid of manufactured sperm, if not consciously then unconsciously. Secondary question - if the option is there for the body to re-absorb unutilised sperm, what is the purpose of "wet dreams" - isn't it a waste of energy/nutrients? | [
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|
133dj2 | AMA; What would you like to ask entomologists | I'm at the Entomological Society of America meeting this week. I've got the opportunity to talk to a bunch of different people this week and actually film them answering questions. So, what would you love to hear an entomologist answer? I'll take your questions and film actual entomologist answering them.
Edit: And if you'd like to see people live tweeting the conference, follow #Entomology2012. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Has there been any successful eradication of invasive insects? I live on Guam and we are attempting to control the [coconut rhinoceros beetle](_URL_0_). They are incredibly damaging to many species of palm trees. All attempts have failed. They were first noticed 5 years ago in the hotel district, but have now spread to cover most, if not all, the island. The agriculture department has tried pheromone traps and even introducing a species specific virus. But nothing has seemed to slow them down. Is it just hopeless to try to control creatures that are so incredibly hardy and have such high reproductive rates?",
"Asked this [before](_URL_1_) on AskScience, this might be a good question - has any insect displayed evidence of self-awareness or the ability to learn? Or are insects all on \"autopilot\" (all actions just predictable and consistent reactions to stimuli)?",
"Why are there no insects in the ocean? (from QI)",
"What are the three most fascinating insects that they've encountered/studied?",
"Is it true that it's mainly the products like Round Up that are killing the bees?",
"How do I keep bugs out of my house without resorting to poison?",
"Is there a reason for what J.B.S. Haldane whimsically deduced to be the creator's \"inordinate fondness for beetles\"? Why have they speciated so much more than other families of insects, never mind other animals?",
"What would happen if two ants from separate colonies met?",
"Why do bees become so docile when they're looking for a new location for their hive (after they abandoned their original hive)? \n\nHow often do ants get trapped in a death-spiral?\n\nWhy do some insects have such strange and brutal methods of reproduction? For example, sexual cannibalism, traumatic insemination, and specifically the bruchid beetle's (Callosobruchus maculatus) spined penis and the lovebug’s (Plecia nearctica) nearly-permanent physical attachment.",
"How will increasing global temperature affect invasive species/move distribution of current species?\n\nWhich southern species will shift north? Will northern species dwindle or increase as food supplies shift, and by extension, how will that interact with other organisms (predators, the insects' prey, plants, etc)"
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiatic_rhinoceros_beetle",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1022yp/has_any_species_of_insect_displayed_traits_of/"
]
} | AMA; What would you like to ask entomologists
I'm at the Entomological Society of America meeting this week. I've got the opportunity to talk to a bunch of different people this week and actually film them answering questions. So, what would you love to hear an entomologist answer? I'll take your questions and film actual entomologist answering them. Edit: And if you'd like to see people live tweeting the conference, follow #Entomology2012. | [
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|
3lwyqx | Can someone eplain to me the solution Terrence Tao published for the Erdos problem (and the problem itself also)? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cvaamat"
],
"text": [
"**The Problem**\n\nIf you take any sequence of +1s and -1s, such as S= < -1,1,1,-1,1,1,-1,1,1,-1,1,1,-1,1,1,... > with two 1s in between every -1, then we can look at certain finite sums of them as follows: Choose fixed numbers N and D and add together every Dth term in the sequence until you've added up N numbers.\n\n\n\n* In our example, we can take D=4, N= 7 and so we start with the 4th entry in the sequence and add every 4th after it until we've added together 7 numbers. The seven bold numbers are the ones we add: < -1,1,1,**-1**,1,1,-1,**1**,1,-1,1,**1**,-1,1,1,**-1**,1,1,-1,**1**,1,-1,1,**1**,-1,1,1,**-1**,1,1,-1,1,1,-1,1,1,-1,1,1,-1,1,1,-1... > . We get:\n\n -1+1+1-1+1+1-1 = 1\n\n* If we take D=2 and N=8 then we add together < -1,**1**,1,**-1**,1,**1**,-1,**1**,1,**-1**,1,**1**,-1,**1**,1,**-1**,1,1,-1,1,1,-1,1,1,-1,1,1,-1,1,1,-1,1,1,-1,1,1,-1... > to get\n \n 1-1+1+1-1+1+1-1 = 2\n\nThe Erdos Discrepancy Problem says that if I choose *any* sequence S of +1s and -1s, and *any* positive integer C, no matter how big, then there will always be some N and some D so that the size of the corresponding sum is bigger than C. If C=50, then you can check that D=2 and N=153 will make it so that our sequence adds up to more than 50. the Erdos Discrepancy Problem says that you can make any such sequence grow however big you like in this way.\n\nEssentially, you can't always have the +1s and -1s cancel out, you'll always have runaway portions of your sequence that can get arbitrarily large. These kinds of sums, and the more generalized ones that Tao works with that allows for any complex number of length 1, are particularly important in number theory. If, say, we want to find a formula for a particular quantity A, then we usually get expressions like \n A = (Growth Term) + (Error Term that approaches zero) + (Oscillatory Term)\nWe can control the (Growth Term) and the (Error Term) relatively easily, but the (Oscillatory Term) is essentially a bunch of +1s and -1s that we're adding together. Knowing how to control the behavior of the (Oscillatory Term) can be a major barrier in some of these big proof and problems. The [Riemann Hypothesis](_URL_1_) is a question about controlling one of these Oscillatory Terms. The Erdos Discrepancy Problem is way to understand these kinds of terms.\n\n---------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n**The Proof**\n\nThe proof is still relatively new and it's not particularly simple, so I don't really understand all of it yet, but let me say what I can. I'm basically going to outline what Tao says he does and explain a little bit on what each ingredient is.\n\n1.) There are a lot of sequences of 1s and -1s. Almost all of them aren't particularly nice, in contrast to the one I gave as an example. But there is a class of sequences that work really nicely: [Completely Multiplicative Sequences](_URL_3_). These are ones that satisfy S(nm)=S(n)S(m) for any n and m. These pop up a lot in math and are easier to work with because you really only need to know what S(p) for every prime and the rest follow. Contrary to this an arbitrary sequence will be pretty random, what S(n) is has no bearing on what any other number is. The first step of Tao's proof is to use [Fourier Analysis](_URL_2_), one of Number Theory's most powerful tools, to show that we only need to be able to find a proof when our sequence is Completely Multiplicative. So the first step reduces the class of sequences that we need to worry about to a much smaller subcollection of functions that happen to behave really well.\n\n2.) If our sequence in completely multiplicative, then we only need to know what values it takes on the primes. The next step then talks about what happens at the primes. Tao uses the \"Logarithmically Averaged Elliott-Conjecture\" to show that these kinds of sequences must behave in a specific way at prime values. This doesn't immediately talk about the Erdos Discrepancy Problem, it just tells us how things grow when we look at the primes. Using this, it can be shown that the only possible place that a counterexample of the Erdos Discrepancy Problem can live is in a very tiny corner of the sequence room. This step shows that we only need to concern ourselves with a comparatively small class of sequences that have very specific properties and tools that we can use.\n\n3.) This is the final piece that fills in the gap. It says that even in this tiny corner, there are no counterexamples to the Problem. The way this works if by slowly taking apart the terms that the problem deals with. After stripping away all the fluff in the equations what's leftover is something like log(H) < 1, where H > e. This is a contradiction. So there can't be any counterexamples to the Erdos Discrepancy Problem, so it must be true.\n\nYou can find the proof [Here](_URL_0_)."
],
"score": [
14
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://arxiv.org/pdf/1509.05363v1.pdf",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_analysis",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplicative_function"
]
} | Can someone eplain to me the solution Terrence Tao published for the Erdos problem (and the problem itself also)?
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27ag6z | Could someone explain what it means for something to oscillate on a tiny level? Also, Restorative Force? | Taken from _URL_0_
> The spring-mass system illustrates some common features of oscillation, namely the existence of an equilibrium and the presence of a** restoring force which grows stronger the further the system deviates from equilibrium*
Does this mean that when the big bang occurred, there was such a strong disruption from a state of equilibrium, everything in the universe, on the smallest level, was brought to the same rate of oscillation?
Also, could this mean that all matter did not actually spring out of a tiny point, but rather that point being the starting place of an ultra strong disruption of equilibrium? All the building blocks were already out in space/void but the big bang set them at the same oscillation level. | askscience | {
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"Restorative forces just mean that the force pulls back to some equilibrium state. Obviously, the essential example here is a spring. Push on a spring and the force pushes back to be its relaxed length. Pull on the spring and it pulls back to be its relaxed length. Compare to, say, electrostatic charge. If I push a negative charge toward a negative charge, it's going to push back. But if I pull a negative charge away from a negative charge, it's still going to push away from that other negative charge (ie, at least somewhat in the direction I'm pulling).\n\nSo what happens in an oscillation? I pull my spring out and let it go. The restorative force pulls it back to relaxed length. But it's in motion still so it shoots past relaxed length and continues to compress. Now it pushes itself until it slows down... then pushes back out... it's in motion at relaxed length, so it keeps expanding and as it expands it pulls back and slows down. A pendulum is another kind of oscillation, using gravitation as a restorative force. It falls down, but the tension on the string pulls it along an arc, so when it reaches the bottom of its swing, it still has speed, so it travels back \"up\" and back and forth so on and so forth.\n\n---\nNow imagine I have two springs. They're fixed at opposite ends, and joined together at a point. I can push and pull this point around, but the spring on the left will push back and the spring on the right will pull back too. Now imagine, not just these two springs, but a mass connected to a spring connected to another mass to another spring and so on in an infinite line of masses and springs. I could move a mass a little to the left, and it compresses/stretches its neighboring springs. But those springs push on the next masses out, which compress/stretch their neighboring springs and so on down the line. My tiny motion on this mass has pushed everything around a bit. And when I let go, the restorative forces are going to bounce my mass... and all the other masses around. They'll all be oscillating back and forth, just like the single mass on a spring did.\n\nAnd what if it wasn't just 1 line, but each mass had a spring in each of the 3 dimensions? the oscillations are a bit more complicated, but still reasonable. This is the basic kind of model of how atoms in a solid are. Little masses at the end of little \"springs\" (though the springs in this case are electromagnetic bonds between the atoms). Sound through the solid? That's pushing on some masses and then that push travelling throughout the \"springs and masses\" of the rest of the material.\n\nBut it doesn't just stop there... we can continue by saying \"let's pretend all the springs have zero length\" and replacing point masses with a kind of density. This is what's meant by a \"field theory.\" Every point in this \"springy-mass-stuff\" is pushing and pulling on its neighboring points. It ends up being a pretty useful place to start to describe a lot of physics.\n\nBut we don't just stop there. We can also additionally add... \"now what if only *certain* kinds of oscillations are stable?\" There's a lot of mathematics here I'm skipping/containing in the word \"certain.\" In a sense, these \"certain\" oscillations are \"particles.\" They're quanta, little packets of travelling energy in the field of springy-stuff. (the mass of the springy stuff doesn't really need to be \"mass\" now, it's kind of an abstract idea at this point; we're just using the same kinds of maths to describe both cases). So in this field theory with quanta... a \"quantum field theory\" we actually find we're able to describe a tremendously rich set of observations with surprising simplicity. \n\nIt's as if the whole universe is just layers of these \"springy-stuff\" (fields), with various excited oscillations travelling through them (particles). \n\n---\nNow I'm not sure what you're asking about the big bang. Which is why I tried to go into some detail about field theory and quantum field theory. But it's true that after the big bang, when there's some material in the universe, this material is \"ringing\" like a bell. There are vibrations in the material, areas that are more or less dense, and these vibrations are travelling through the material. They are, quite literally, the sound of the big bang itself. We see the last remnants of this sound in the cosmic microwave background radiation, through an effect called \"Baryonic Acoustic Oscillation.\" (fancy way of saying \"sound waves in stuff made of normal-ish matter\"). \n\nFurthermore, no, the universe did not spring out of a tiny point. Common misconception. It could have, of course, but that's not a guarantee. All we can say for sure with physics is that very very very shortly after the big bang, the universe was either infinitely large (and very very very dense) or very very very small. Personally, the data seem to favor the infinitely large but very dense universe, but we don't know yet.\n\nSo yes, when the big bang happened, what happened was that these fields that make up the whole universe... they had tons of energy in their vibrations. A lot of that energy cancelled out (particle-antiparticle collisions) of one field to go into another (say, the electromagnetic field). And as space grew, the fields' energy density diminished (since more energy was being spread over more space). And various interactions changed between these fields as the energy density dropped until we got electrons and protons and neutrons which over time led to atoms and then everything else (modulo dark matter and cosmological constant energy)"
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5
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscillation"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | Could someone explain what it means for something to oscillate on a tiny level? Also, Restorative Force?
Taken from _URL_0_ > The spring-mass system illustrates some common features of oscillation, namely the existence of an equilibrium and the presence of a** restoring force which grows stronger the further the system deviates from equilibrium* Does this mean that when the big bang occurred, there was such a strong disruption from a state of equilibrium, everything in the universe, on the smallest level, was brought to the same rate of oscillation? Also, could this mean that all matter did not actually spring out of a tiny point, but rather that point being the starting place of an ultra strong disruption of equilibrium? All the building blocks were already out in space/void but the big bang set them at the same oscillation level. | [
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|
12trp3 | Could the idea about AI's (such as Cortana) deteriorating after seven years actually be a "thing" or is it totally fictitious? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c6y1pww",
"c6y3g8k",
"c6y3sac"
],
"text": [
"We don't have AI, nor do we have a reasonable basis for how AI will work, if it will work at all. \n\nConsidering this, the answer seems inherently based on how the future progresses, and tentative (perhaps even speculative) based on how technology develops.\n\nIn other words: the question is currently unanswerable, as it requires technology that doesn't exist.",
"Current question answering systems using logical deduction will start to become slow not from a whole bunch of individual facts, but from facts that have a lot of interdependencies on other facts. \n\nIt's not difficult to prune out facts that have no bearing on the current question being asked. However, even if you are left with only a few facts, the worst case running time of a theorem proving algorithm is exponential in the number of variables to be considered. In practice, however, it usually doesn't take that long because there are a lot of useful heuristics for avoiding that complexity.\n\nIn the typical course of a machine that is taking in information, simply storing more facts won't add to the complexity unless you are adding complicated facts - that is, facts that have a large number of interdependencies. \n\nDefragging is different. Although files appear contiguous to you, they are actually spread out across the disk in various locations because they can't fit all in one spot. You're deleting some areas of the disk some times, and writing in new areas other times. It's like, if you had a box set of a tv series, and you didn't want to move any of the movies you already have, but there are some spaces in your bookshelf that could fit the DVDs as long as you take them out of the boxset. Well, that works fine, and saves you the time of rearranging your bookshelf, but now when you want to find a particular episode you have to look through your entire bookshelf. When you defrag, you rearrange the data on your disk so that every thing is in a box set and that makes it easier to find.",
"Corruption/degradation of data over time is a real thing. At the very least, due to thermodynamic degradation of the storage medium. So your AI or whatever could totally go crazy after some expectation period where X% of their logic blocks are degraded/non-functional. That could be 7 years or 100 years or however long.\n\nFor example, in modern SiO2 NAND flash, there is a consideration of dopant leakage after excessive write/erase cycles."
],
"score": [
6,
2,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Could the idea about AI's (such as Cortana) deteriorating after seven years actually be a "thing" or is it totally fictitious?
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||
70xxek | Can someone explain what a typical MD simulation of a protein would look like and what you get from this? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dn6tr6j"
],
"text": [
"If you have two billiard balls colliding, you can set up a computer program that runs a loop that every time interval re-calculates their position (by multiplying their speed by the time interval) and uses Newton's laws of motion to calculate how the speed changes when the balls collide, such that the position that it calculates for each ball deflects at the location of the collision. You could also do this for [10 balls in a box colliding](_URL_2_), although it would take more computational power. You can also do this if, instead of the balls being free, where all connected by springs, although now you'd need to incorporate Hooke's law of elasticity as well.\n\nWith just two balls colliding, you can solve this by hand (you may have done so in a physics class), but with ten balls, it would be too complicated, so a computer solution becomes desirable.\n\nMolecular dynamics is basically just simulating a lot of things interacting according to Newton's laws. For a protein you can define a \"ball\" to be each individual atom or each individual amino acid or even each subdomain of the protein, depending on how precise you want to be, with interactions such as electrostatics programmed in. You also need to simulate the water molecules and salt ions of the solution that the protein is in, and this becomes computationally challenging.\n\nA shortcut is to use Langevin dynamics, which replaces all the water molecules with a random force that acts as an \"average temperature\" that causes everything to vibrate *as if* it were in an aqueous solution with some temperature.\n\nFor proteins specifically it can tell you (theoretically) what structure a given sequence of amino acids will fold into, which is useful for understanding protein function. Or, you can use it to figure out how proteins change structure when the pH of a solution changes. It can also be used to predict how proteins will look under x-ray crystallography, which is useful for interpreting data.\n\n[Here is a simpler example of an MD simulation](_URL_0_) of a polymer going through a hole. They initially show the water, then remove it to show just the polymer dynamics. [Here](_URL_1_) is a much more complicated one of a protein jiggling."
],
"score": [
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v4T2Qu2Qtig",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fggqPtaZj8g",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lr9oSJR_5tY"
]
} | Can someone explain what a typical MD simulation of a protein would look like and what you get from this?
| [
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7qtzna | How do the relative lengths of intermolecular forces and intramolecular forces compare? | I would assume that intermolecular forces would usually operate over a larger distance, but wouldn't London dispersion forces have to happen at a short enough distance for the molecules involved to induce dipoles? So are all intermolecular forces over a larger distance except for LDFs? And since ion-ion interactions are the same as ionic bonds, it also wouldn't make sense to say that ion-ion interactions are over a longer distance than ionic bonds... | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dsryqd8"
],
"text": [
"Its not really possible to give exact numbers as the forces exist to infinity. Instead when what is commonly done is to compare how each different force is related to distance. Below is a link to a picture that shows the relationship between electro static forces (actually energy not force, edit) and distance. Some forces have a wider/longer interaction such ion-ion which has a r^-1 relation while Van der Waal forces have a very small range, r^-6, relationship. The Van der Waal forces decay very rapidly while the ion-ion (ionic bond) force slowly decays with distance. \n\n_URL_0_"
],
"score": [
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://slideplayer.com/slide/9372608/28/images/3/Pairwise+electrostatic+interaction+energies.jpg"
]
} | How do the relative lengths of intermolecular forces and intramolecular forces compare?
I would assume that intermolecular forces would usually operate over a larger distance, but wouldn't London dispersion forces have to happen at a short enough distance for the molecules involved to induce dipoles? So are all intermolecular forces over a larger distance except for LDFs? And since ion-ion interactions are the same as ionic bonds, it also wouldn't make sense to say that ion-ion interactions are over a longer distance than ionic bonds... | [
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|
7j8iaz | How did the Russian Woodpecker receiver work? | So I (roughly) understand how the Russian Woodpecker’s OTH radar worked. Bouncing radio waves over the horizon, interpreting the bounce back, and extrapolating moving objects therein. But I’ve always wondered about the enormous array at Chernobyl, which I only found out today was just the receiver, with the transmitter about 50km away. How did the enormous receiver work to catch signals? Why all the crazy trapezoids/funky shapes? What actually ‘caught’ the signal and what was just support? If this was an effective design, why don’t we see it elsewhere? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dr54xlb"
],
"text": [
"I don't know enough about the system to say why it was shaped the way it was, but the receiver essentially functioned the same as a regular radar receiver. One difference, though, is that the object signature from OTH radar is very, very weak so the receivers had to be sensitive and operate with very low noise to detect the small perturbations in the return signal. The Doppler effect was used to help boost the signature because moving objects would reflect the waves back to the receiver at a slightly different frequency than was originally transmitted. I don't understand what you mean what caught the signal and what was \"support,\" however.\n\nAs for why it never caught on, it sort of did, for awhile. The US developed a couple OTH radar systems, but they were expensive, complex, inaccurate, and immobile. They were ultimately abandoned in favor of satellites and aircraft-based early warning systems (AEW/AWACS). Wikipedia says OTH radar is still somewhat in use today for drug interdiction, but as far as military applications go, I think it's more or less obsolete."
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | How did the Russian Woodpecker receiver work?
So I (roughly) understand how the Russian Woodpecker’s OTH radar worked. Bouncing radio waves over the horizon, interpreting the bounce back, and extrapolating moving objects therein. But I’ve always wondered about the enormous array at Chernobyl, which I only found out today was just the receiver, with the transmitter about 50km away. How did the enormous receiver work to catch signals? Why all the crazy trapezoids/funky shapes? What actually ‘caught’ the signal and what was just support? If this was an effective design, why don’t we see it elsewhere? | [
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|
xsygy | [Earth and Planetary Sciences] - Are there Hadley/Ferrel/Polar-like cells ABOVE the Tropopause? | As far as I can deduce, Hadley, Ferrel and Polar cells are all located below the Tropopause - the Trop being their upper limit.
Want I want to know is whether cells exist above the Tropopause.
I'm assuming that there must be because there always seems to be some sort of "gear" action going on in the atmosphere - where a circular motion of air is balanced out by an opposing circular motion. High pressure systems are balanced out by low pressure systems, and Hadley's are balanced out by the adjoining Hadley and a Ferrel.
So is there a balance above the Troposphere? I mean, if there is a wind blowing below the Trop, then surely there would be a wind blowing the same direction above the Trop? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c5pax1t"
],
"text": [
"As far as I understand, there are no such organised large-scale circulation cells above the tropopause.\n\nTo understand why, think of the three cells we have. If the Earth is not rotating, we would have one giant cell, rising at the tropics (due to intense solar heating) and sinking at the poles. But because the Earth is spinning, this cell breaks up into three separate cells (there are three because of the rate of rotation of the Earth; if it was faster, there would be more cells).\n\nSo why does the rising air stop at the tropopause? At the tropopause, there is a strong temperature inversion. That is to say, temperature increases as we go up in altitude. This inversion cap inhibits any rising parcel of air to penetrate far into the stratosphere (in general, any air parcel reaching that height does not have much energy to go further anyway). That is why the circulation is limited to the troposphere."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | [Earth and Planetary Sciences] - Are there Hadley/Ferrel/Polar-like cells ABOVE the Tropopause?
As far as I can deduce, Hadley, Ferrel and Polar cells are all located below the Tropopause - the Trop being their upper limit. Want I want to know is whether cells exist above the Tropopause. I'm assuming that there must be because there always seems to be some sort of "gear" action going on in the atmosphere - where a circular motion of air is balanced out by an opposing circular motion. High pressure systems are balanced out by low pressure systems, and Hadley's are balanced out by the adjoining Hadley and a Ferrel. So is there a balance above the Troposphere? I mean, if there is a wind blowing below the Trop, then surely there would be a wind blowing the same direction above the Trop? | [
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|
jfeeq | Hypothetical question on the speed of tension | Suppose I had a tight rope km's long, and somebody was standing in the center balancing on the rope. If I were to cut the rope at one of its fixed end points, how long would it take for the tightrope walker to feel this loss of tension and fall? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2bn3uy"
],
"text": [
"It would travel through the rope at the speed at which sound does. Which is something like 1 km/s in a rope, I think."
],
"score": [
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Hypothetical question on the speed of tension
Suppose I had a tight rope km's long, and somebody was standing in the center balancing on the rope. If I were to cut the rope at one of its fixed end points, how long would it take for the tightrope walker to feel this loss of tension and fall? | [
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|
3tpvmq | Why do falling mortars seem to defy the Doppler effect? | In this video: [@0:35](_URL_1_), [@0:56](_URL_3_), [@1:24](_URL_0_). [@2:21](_URL_2_) the pitch of the dropping mortars sound lower as they fall closer to the soldiers. What exactly is going on here? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cx8drku",
"cx89fe5",
"cx8896n"
],
"text": [
"The Doppler effect is not present when the sound source is moving perpendicular to the line between the sound source and the observer.\n\nLook at the waves propagating up or down in this gif:\n\n_URL_1_\n\nYou can hear a similar effect with an ambulance. You'll hear a decrease in pitch in the last few meters before it passes right in front of you *even if it is still approaching*. Doppler shift must drop to zero in these few meters before being shifted to the other side of the spectrum as the ambulance starts moving away.\n\nThis is roughly equivalent to saying that the angle between the ambulance's velocity and your line of sight smoothly approaches 90º.\n\nEdit: found a video that makes it evident with a siren. _URL_0_",
"I thought about it for a second, and I have a theory which does include the Doppler effect.\n\nMortar falling straight down causes a compression of waves, thus a higher pitch, but the sound waves to the side are not compressed. As the mortar comes closer to the ground you start to hear the 'side' waves.\n\nHere is a crude example\n\n_URL_2_",
"To the best of my knowledge, it has nothing to do with the Doppler effect at all, though without knowing anything about the round being fired I can't say anything for sure. \n\nDuring WWII, the Axis powers deliberately attached whistles to falling bombs, such as on the German *Stuka* dive bomber. The whistle consists of a small propeller driven siren - if you could hear it coming it was too late to get to cover anyway. Its purpose was to decrease enemy moral through fear and intimidation. Some bombs were fitted with them, others weren't. \n\nThat said, I expect the same mechanism is at work in the mortars in those videos. As you point out, an an accelerating descent you should expect the Doppler effect to increase the pitch. \n\nIf it's not a whistle attached to the mortar bomb, then perhaps there is something about the aerodynamics that causes it to whistle, and the physics causing the decrease in pitch of the whistling (perhaps for some aerodynamic reason) simply dominates over the Doppler effect."
],
"score": [
12,
5,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://youtu.be/6dXJmZnEWqg?t=84",
"https://youtu.be/6dXJmZnEWqg?t=35",
"https://youtu.be/6dXJmZnEWqg?t=140",
"https://youtu.be/6dXJmZnEWqg?t=56"
]
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=imoxDcn2Sgo",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Dopplereffectsourcemovingrightatmach0.7.gif",
"http://i.imgur.com/oesFOEu.jpg"
]
} | Why do falling mortars seem to defy the Doppler effect?
In this video: [@0:35](_URL_1_), [@0:56](_URL_3_), [@1:24](_URL_0_). [@2:21](_URL_2_) the pitch of the dropping mortars sound lower as they fall closer to the soldiers. What exactly is going on here? | [
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|
9dg58k | Does the Doppler Effect apply to objects that are simply reflecting waves, or do they have to be specifically emitting the waves? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"e5krfgi",
"e5j5ewl"
],
"text": [
"If the object reflecting the waves is moving? Then you get the Doppler effect as well. You even get it twice: Once to calculate the frequency the reflecting object sees, and again to calculate the frequency we see for the reflected waves.",
"It applies to the waves coming at you, no matter the source (reflected or not). The Doppler effect is is relation to the perceiver. \nThe man in the ambulance hears the siren at the same pitch because he is a fixed point compared to the source. \nThe pedestrian would hear a raising, then lowering pitch from the ambulance as it passes, no matter whether it is bouncing off of buildings or not. The pedestrian is a moving point compared to the wave pattern of the ambulance. \nThe effect would be the same if there was a police car following the ambulance (fixed point in the system- > no change), or for a pedestrian standing 1 block away on a parallel avenue (moving point compared to the pattern- > effect perceived), even if it is coming from different “sources”/reflections."
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Does the Doppler Effect apply to objects that are simply reflecting waves, or do they have to be specifically emitting the waves?
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2rhk4i | Is sitting bad for you because of the position or being sedentary? | I was thinking about how sitting is now said to be bad for you but sleep is considered to be very good for you.
It made me wonder if sitting is bad for you because it indicates a lack of activity or because of the particular position you're in when sitting? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cng8be2",
"cng2tqt"
],
"text": [
"It's both. The lack of activity in a bad position creates a very poor environment for the body to adapt to.\n\nHere are 2 concepts that can help explain it:\n\n1) Creep - the time–dependant elongation of a tissue under constant load (Garret et al., 2000)\n* Creep occurs after 20 minutes\n* You joints, muscles, and ligaments start to “stretch out”\n* _URL_2_\n\n2) Pressure\n* Sitting with poor posture puts a ton of stress on your back\n* _URL_0_\n* _URL_1_",
"It seems like the position of sitting for long periods of time causes circulation problems. [This article](_URL_3_) (which cites and paraphrases an Indiana University study) talks about the problems that come from sitting, and how taking a short walk after sitting for a few hours can negate those problems."
],
"score": [
3,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://jbjs.org/content/46/5/1077",
"http://donsnotes.com/health/spine/loads.html",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1315282/",
"http://consumer.healthday.com/fitness-information-14/walking-health-news-288/short-walks-can-counteract-effects-of-prolonged-sitting-691539.html"
]
} | Is sitting bad for you because of the position or being sedentary?
I was thinking about how sitting is now said to be bad for you but sleep is considered to be very good for you. It made me wonder if sitting is bad for you because it indicates a lack of activity or because of the particular position you're in when sitting? | [
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|
4h7df9 | Can architecture influence (human) decisions/behavior? | For example: Can we design bridge which will make people change their mind if they decide to commit suicide? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d2rm06f"
],
"text": [
"Yes, and I can think back to a NYTimes article where they mention how the architecture of two bridges affected suicide rates. It wasn't visual/psychological like you'd expect, it was a difference in the height of the fences. You can climb over both and expect to die but one was slightly higher and the difference in height caused a suicidal person to take a few seconds longer to climb and jump over but those few seconds caused them to think a little bit longer about what they were doing and that would cause many of them to change their minds. I know this isn't the answer you were looking for, but maybe it's a start.\n\n_URL_0_"
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/06/magazine/06suicide-t.html?_r=0"
]
} | Can architecture influence (human) decisions/behavior?
For example: Can we design bridge which will make people change their mind if they decide to commit suicide? | [
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|
2v981e | What would happen if you applied a lot of pressure but no heat to a piece of graphite? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cofmsit",
"coflymy"
],
"text": [
"It should turn into diamond, although you might need a lot of pressure and/or a lot of time. See the temperature/pressure phase diagram for solid carbon referenced in [this page](_URL_1_) or [this page](_URL_0_).",
"That should be relatively easy to discern. If you were to compress graphite at constant temperature then it's molar volume would follow one the the blue lines on [this](_URL_2_) P-V phase diagram. Because it is already a solid no phase change would occur. At least to my knowledge."
],
"score": [
15,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.ch.ic.ac.uk/rzepa/mim/century/html/diamond_text.htm",
"http://www.ceramicindustry.com/articles/86719-new-diamond-options",
"https://www.e-education.psu.edu/files/png520/graphics/figure0306.gif"
]
} | What would happen if you applied a lot of pressure but no heat to a piece of graphite?
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21rdia | Can someone please explain to me substrate level phosphorylation in the Krebs cycle? | At the moment I know it's the formation of ATP directly via the conversion of one substrate to another, but I don't really know what that means...I think it's that one reaction is causing another to happen but I really don't know. Thankyou! | askscience | {
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"Edit: I got ahead of myself and just went ahead and described energy metabolism. I think I'll go back and format it a bit so it's not just a block of text, but I think this should help you with more than just that particular concept of \"what is phosphate\".\n\n----------------------------\n\nI'm not sure how well you need to know the complicated biochem of the whole process, but a lot of biochem can be made conceptually a lot simpler if you just notice the *theme* of the process.\n\nI'd follow along with this wiki pic or a similar one:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nBut first, let's contextualize.\n\n**General idea behind metabolism**\n\nThe whole idea behind energy metabolism is to take high energy bonds that exist within certain molecules in the environment and convert them into high energy bonds that the body can use. \n\nSort of like seeing a Euro on the ground -- for it to be used in the US, it needs to be converted to dollars. Similarly, we can't use sugars for energy right away; we need to have ways to convert glucose to the energy currencies our body uses. Generally, our body's currencies are ATP and GTP (i.e. \"high energy phosphate bonds\"), although there are other ones too.\n\n----------------------\n\n**Glycolysis and Krebs cycle's role: eating all the carbons**\n\nThe easy way to do understand the roles of the different pieces of metabolism (at least how they relate to glucose) is to split them into their roles.\n\nGlycolysis and the Krebs cycle are the way the body converts a high energy, 6 carbon ring of glucose into carbon dioxide (CO2) and energy that we can use. The best way to understand these processes, therefore, is to **follow the carbons**. In other words, the breakdown of glucose generates energy for us to synthesize ATP.\n\nIn glycolysis, we broke down a 6 carbon glucose into 2 3-carbon pyruvates. We got some energy, but not much (2 ATP, 2 NADH).\n\nTo shift the pyruvate into the Krebs cycle, we have to first feed it through the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (that gets rid of a carbon and generates an NADH per pyruvate), so then we have an **acetyl CoA** that then feeds into the citric acid cycle (2 carbons).\n\nThe Krebs cycle, in each turn, gets rid of 2 carbons. You'll notice that oxaloacetate (4 carbons) accepts the acetyl CoA (2 carbons) and becomes a 6 carbon structure called citrate. Then we do some organic chemistry magic to convert the energy from those carbon bonds into our currency as we at the same time convert citrate back to oxaloacetate. You'll notice that two carbons fly off (one from isocitrate to a-kg, and the other from a-kg to succinyl CoA). Those are the ones we got from the acetyl CoA! And in the process, one turn of the cycle, we're generating 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 1 GTP.\n\n----------------------------------\n\n**Energy yields of Glycolysis and the Krebs Cycle**\n\nSo, by now we've completely degraded glucose (all the carbons are gone), and we've made 2 ATP and 2 NADH (from glycolysis), and then *per pyruvate*, we've made 4 NADH (1 from the pyruvate DH complex), 1 FADH2, and 1 GTP. So we need to multiply that by two, because each glucose generates 2 pyruvates, so per glucose molecule, that's\n\n- 2 ATP\n\n- 2 NADH\n\nand\n\n- 8 NADH\n\n- 2 FADH2\n\n- 2 GTP\n\n------------------------------\n\n**What happens to NADH and FADH2**\n\nI haven't really talked about what the heck NADH and FADH2 are yet. These are also carrier molecules of energy, but they carry their energy in the form of electrons. We want to convert that to phosphate form, so we need one final machine called the \"Electron Transport Chain.\" It's a little less easy to explain but the general concept there is: feed NADH and FADH2 into the machine and ATP pops out. It's highly efficient, and you get something like 2.5 ATP per NADH and 1.5 ATP per FADH2 that you feed into it.\n\nAnd since we had 10 NADH and 2 FADH2 from earlier, that gives us something like 25 ATP from NADH, and 5 ATP from FADH, for a total of 30 ATP from the electron transport chain. Add that to the ATP and GTP we already made, and we have something like 32 ATP and 2 GTP (real world varies a little more than that).\n\n\nHope I didn't lose you in all that. Let me know if parts of that were too confusing!"
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"url": [
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} | Can someone please explain to me substrate level phosphorylation in the Krebs cycle?
At the moment I know it's the formation of ATP directly via the conversion of one substrate to another, but I don't really know what that means...I think it's that one reaction is causing another to happen but I really don't know. Thankyou! | [
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|
4bg16q | Why is it a joke to ask someone to explain where layer 6 of the OSI model is? | I was reading [this old thread](_URL_0_) and wasn't able to follow the joke. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d18x5uj",
"d18y3b5"
],
"text": [
"It's not a particularly funny joke.\n\nEven though the OSI model specifies 7 layers, generally in practice only 5 layers are used; 5 & 6 are rarely used. 5 is used in some special cases, however 6 is barely seen outside of research papers or new tech examples. \n\nThis is because the first 4 layers are implemented by the physical cabling and Operating System, meaning 5th layer is generally when the applications take over. Programmers are lazy and use their application communication right in 5th, even though its 7th in the model.",
"To be fair, I don't think it's a particularly funny joke either. It highlights the fact that the OSI layers are often conflated or indistinguishable in production code.\n\nFor instance, we often hear about a \"TCP/IP\" stack - while in OSI parlance this involves two layers (3, 4) it is rare to see one without the other. The presentation layer is similarly hard to see (pun unintended) as it is often considered an application-specific thing: [MIME](_URL_2_) encoding, [XDR](_URL_0_), and even [TLS](_URL_3_) build on top of sessions, and their interdependence makes the two hard to distinguish.\n\nAmusingly, the \"rant about multihoming\" is equally hard to get right (interview questions which can only frustrate): one can make both the argument that [it](_URL_1_) builds upon sessions, and that it is so tightly coupled with the session layer that is indistinguishable from it."
],
"score": [
14,
12
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/networking/comments/1wghsf/the_osi_model/cf1zpzz?context=1"
]
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/External_Data_Representation",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_Control_Transmission_Protocol#Multi_homing",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIME",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_Layer_Security"
]
} | Why is it a joke to ask someone to explain where layer 6 of the OSI model is?
I was reading [this old thread](_URL_0_) and wasn't able to follow the joke. | [
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|
7adpzi | What does "n. oss." mean? | Very trivial, but I was reading a paper on freshwater lenses and the table has "n. oss." in it.
Quick google search didn't turn anything up, and it's not mentioned anywhere else in the paper.
Anyone know what it means?
For context, it's in Table 2 of [this paper](_URL_0_), title of the second column. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dp97xsr"
],
"text": [
"In context, I'm guessing it's \"number of observations\", which in Italian is \"osservazioni\"."
],
"score": [
7
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022169417302597"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | What does "n. oss." mean?
Very trivial, but I was reading a paper on freshwater lenses and the table has "n. oss." in it. Quick google search didn't turn anything up, and it's not mentioned anywhere else in the paper. Anyone know what it means? For context, it's in Table 2 of [this paper](_URL_0_), title of the second column. | [
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|
7bdeis | ［Neuroscience］A recent paper showed weak correlations between hemodynamic signals and neural activity during resting state. Does this mean all the work on the default mode network is invalidated? | Sorry for the long title, but I felt the context was needed. A recent paper by Winder et al. in Nature Neuroscience showed that ongoing neural activity and hemodynamic signals are weakly correlated during resting state in mouse, and that the origin of the hemodynamic signal may not have anything to do with the neural activity.
Because the work on the default mode network in humans is mostly based on fMRI studies, does this mean that many, if not most, of this findings are not relevant anymore? Or am I just overinterpreting the situation? If I am, what does this study imply for the future research on the DMN?
Thanks! | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"drjklae"
],
"text": [
"A little late here, hope this is still helpful. \n\nThe article states in the discussion that it is not refuting resting-state connectivity since rsConnectivity has been validated using direct measurements of neural activity: \"However, we note that these results do not refute the existence of functional connectivity, which has been validated using direct assays of neural activity[50]\". \n\nAlso, Figures 2c-e are showing that the authors observed correlations between neural activity and cerebral blood volume during rest. Thus, they actually further validate that hemodynamics and neural activity are correlated, even when the animal is not performing slight movements (and which they monitored and removed from the resting state analysis). \n\nThe main claim of the paper is that the relationship between neural activity and the hemodynamic signals appear to co-exist with another \"putatively non-neural\" source of hemodynamic fluctuations (vasomotion???). This agrees well with the Neuron paper from Kleinfeld's lab that points to neural-driven vasomotion. The main disagreement between them (and other papers) is how strong the correlation at rest is. This is probably down to how the neural activity is measured."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | ［Neuroscience］A recent paper showed weak correlations between hemodynamic signals and neural activity during resting state. Does this mean all the work on the default mode network is invalidated?
Sorry for the long title, but I felt the context was needed. A recent paper by Winder et al. in Nature Neuroscience showed that ongoing neural activity and hemodynamic signals are weakly correlated during resting state in mouse, and that the origin of the hemodynamic signal may not have anything to do with the neural activity. Because the work on the default mode network in humans is mostly based on fMRI studies, does this mean that many, if not most, of this findings are not relevant anymore? Or am I just overinterpreting the situation? If I am, what does this study imply for the future research on the DMN? Thanks! | [
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|
tlwy4 | Why doesn't the (temporal) styloid process get injured very often, when it looks so superficially fragile? | I'm a premedical student, so I know about this from my undergraduate anatomy course. For the uninitiated, the [styloid process](_URL_0_) is a small, pointed bony projection on the underside of the skull. It would appear to me that it'd be fairly easy to damage, sitting exposed as it is in order to serve as an attachment for muscles. It may be that I wasn't looking closely enough, but it might make sense that the reason I hadn't even heard of it until college was that it may commonly snap off of any model or specimen under display.
I hear about larger and (I would think) more solidly attached processes, like the xiphoid, being injured much more frequently, and of course the mandible, teeth, and orbit can be fractured by strong enough a blow. How often does the fragile styloid process also fracture or break in these cases? Why aren't forces transmitted effectively to it? What type of blow is most likely to harm it? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c4nsox1",
"c4nsol3"
],
"text": [
"The temporal styloid, as compared to the other structures you mentioned, is situated quite deep and is protected from damage by the mandibular ramus and the mastoid process, both of which would absorb any blunt trauma. The density of other soft tissue in that area like muscle (particularly the sternocleidomastoid), tendons, and ligaments also help protect the styloid. \n\nIf you wanted to damage the styloid process you would need an instrument thin enough to pass between the ramus and the mastoid, but strong enough to penetrate through multiple layers of soft tissue. Given the location of the styloid process though (it's practically on the same plane as the lateral processes of the atlas), this would no doubt result in severe trauma or even death. In the latter case, I refer you to this [helpful post](_URL_0_).",
"You need to think of it as it exists in the body, not on a skeleton. \n\nThe temporal styloid process is situated quite deep and has some bony protection from both the mastoid process and the zygomatic arch. Further, both the parotid gland and the sternocleidomastoid muscle sit superficially nearby, in addition to the many muscles of the tongue and throat that directly attach.\n\nIt would be quite a rare combination of events that would deliver enough force through these protections to break that bone without quite a bit of associated trauma."
],
"score": [
5,
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporal_styloid_process"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://ask.metafilter.com/7921/If-you-killed-somebody-how-would-you-dispose-of-the-body-without-getting-caught#155715"
]
} | Why doesn't the (temporal) styloid process get injured very often, when it looks so superficially fragile?
I'm a premedical student, so I know about this from my undergraduate anatomy course. For the uninitiated, the [styloid process](_URL_0_) is a small, pointed bony projection on the underside of the skull. It would appear to me that it'd be fairly easy to damage, sitting exposed as it is in order to serve as an attachment for muscles. It may be that I wasn't looking closely enough, but it might make sense that the reason I hadn't even heard of it until college was that it may commonly snap off of any model or specimen under display. I hear about larger and (I would think) more solidly attached processes, like the xiphoid, being injured much more frequently, and of course the mandible, teeth, and orbit can be fractured by strong enough a blow. How often does the fragile styloid process also fracture or break in these cases? Why aren't forces transmitted effectively to it? What type of blow is most likely to harm it? | [
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|
1v6nsa | What is meant by - life started only once | Does this mean a gathering of molecules at one particular location, at one particular time?
Or simply that it was only one process, (that may have been occurring here, and a few inches, or feet away - or in a different ocean) that took hold?
I'm not sure I'm being clear.
Are we all descended from one process, or one individual pre-eukaryote cell?
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cepdgdy"
],
"text": [
"All living things are descended from one original cell. I'm not sure we can say definitively that life only started once, though. Other cells may have formed and never reproduced (but is that life?) or maybe even reproduced but then all descendants from that cell eventually died. But that would have occurred very early in the formation of life on Earth. For almost all of the history of life, all life has been descended from a single organism."
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | What is meant by - life started only once
Does this mean a gathering of molecules at one particular location, at one particular time? Or simply that it was only one process, (that may have been occurring here, and a few inches, or feet away - or in a different ocean) that took hold? I'm not sure I'm being clear. Are we all descended from one process, or one individual pre-eukaryote cell? | [
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|
bz80s8 | How are plumbing and drains designed for a mountain? | On vacation in a cabin on a big mountain in the Smokies. Curious how they get water pressure to be available and reasonably constant for structures located at all different heights on the same mountain. Bonus: If the soil is full of boulders, I assume septic systems are out? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"eqr4ff9",
"eqt98cl"
],
"text": [
"In places with a gravity fed system via a large overhead reservoir, the water pressure at the house on top of the mountain is lowest and increases as you go down. \nIntermediate pumps can be placed in between levels of houses if the reservoir is downhill and water is pumped up to the houses. \nMost low cost houses will have their own overhead tank to maintain a constant head while the water is pumped by the municipality or extracted from the ground at a different pressure, rate and time.",
"Most places in rural areas are going to be on their own private wells, so water pressure is maintained by their own pump. In places with municipal water supplies, street pressure will vary, but each house will have a PRV (Pressure Reducing Valve) that drops the pressure to a specific value. If there's a lot of variation you'll have large PRVs that will keep the pressure in check for the entire neighborhood."
],
"score": [
13,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | How are plumbing and drains designed for a mountain?
On vacation in a cabin on a big mountain in the Smokies. Curious how they get water pressure to be available and reasonably constant for structures located at all different heights on the same mountain. Bonus: If the soil is full of boulders, I assume septic systems are out? | [
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|
b9kwfs | What is the effect of resellers on the economy? | I'm not refering to retailers per se, because I can understand the effect they play: grouping the products in a physical location.
These resellers end up raising the prices of a product that wouldn't cost that much otherwise. I'm not talking about speculating that a product will become valuable at a later date, I'm talking about products in established markets (proven to be stable, people have been buying it for years) being bought at a lower price and then resold for a small profit.
**What would happen to an economy where these people didn't exist? Would prices keep going down if the demand was low?** Because these people create a fake demand for the products.
Is there more I can read about this subject?
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ek611tx",
"ek60ta4",
"ek6bkas"
],
"text": [
"Economics degree here... funny enough it's not remotely related to my profession. \n\nIn most cases Resellers exist because a manufacturer doesn't want to deal with the trouble (and ultimately cost) of selling directly to John Q Public. The other dimension (there are a few but im skipping them for now) of this is simple efficiency and economies of scale. If you have a toilet paper factory your primary goal is making toilet paper. Worrying about retail space, customer service, etc only adds to the complexity/price of toilet paper in the end. \n\nThis same idea works on the other end as a consumer. John Q Public needs toilet paper, if the toilet paper factory is the only place you can get it.... it might cost a lot more time/money to acquire it without a reseller. \n\nBulk ordering is a part of this equation as well. Toilet paper factory would rather sell a lot of toilet paper to a few distributors/resellers. Economies of scale tie into this as well. The more you order the cheaper it gets, it's more efficient for a reseller to buy several pallets of it, tack on their margin and have a store setup vs you driving across town and trying to buy some directly from the manufacturer in any reasonable quantity. \n\nUnless a retailer was engaged in some kind of fraud or scheme... they don't create fake demand for a product. The amount of product they order to resell is based on what they think the market can bear. Of course they don't hit the mark 100% of the time and if demand for toilet paper goes down, they lower the price to get rid of it, and re-evaluate how much to order next time. \n\nThere are cases where manufacturers sell directly, if they can make a profit doing it that's great. For the large majority though it's simply more efficient for a manufacturer to sell in bulk and let the retail market deal with the smaller scale stuff. \n\nEdit (addition) - the perfect example is a quickie mart/corner store/gas station: The actual cost to make a Twix bar is hilariously low at the scale with which they are pumped out. A quickie mart buys them by the case because it's easier/faster for a customer to stop in for a snack at a corner store instead of having to drive to the Twix plant to get one. Even though it might only cost $0.30 to manufacture (probably way less), by the time it gets to the shelf at the Quickie mart, it's totally worth $1 because of the convenience. I know you mentioned resellers specifically and already have the retail aspect of it down, but at the end of the day they both are still are the same (resellers)\n\nEven though it's not my job, I do enjoy economics/spreadsheets/efficiency in general and getting a degree in it was kinda fun towards the end. At the end of the day they keyword is efficiencies. You can deep dive into this more, keywords to lookup and read on: economies of scale, supply chain economics, manufacturing specialization. \n\nI call safety on any weird typos or grammar though. :)",
"As you indicate, there are several ones available;\n\n* a reseller provides a service to both the original seller and the new buyer by bringing the product closer to the customer. A combined effect of advertising (you would not know about the product otherwise) and ease of use for all parties.\n* resellers that buy low based on a contract and sell with a minor gain. \n\nThis seems to be the one you are aiming at. The best example of this are supermarket-chains, for instance with bread they buy and sell under the price of what your local baker can produce.\n\nThe supermarkets have the reach and thus can demand a lower price based on a promise of selling more, as such the price of each bread goes down (and the per-item profit of the original creator does too) but they replace it with two important conveniences.\n\n* The producer gets more sales, much in the same way that the first point I wrote all the way at the top of my reply.\n* It is an exclusive contract. A supermarket won't change providers every month and as such the producer can be certain of volume.\n\nA producer certain of volume and relatively higher profit (mostly based on volume) can invest in more machines and other such which will give him a lower cost of producing. Many of those machines take a certain amount of volume before they become profitable, so this is an avenue he could not have taken.\n\nThe consumer in the end benefits since he gets more products for the same price. At the same time the economy is stimulated in other areas, for instance those companies shipping those machines the producer could now buy. And last, the producer has a higher profit which is money he will somehow spend elsewhere, buying products that again stimulate the economy.\n\nThe main downside of this is that too much specialization can limit consumer choice. If the supermarkets drive all the local bakers out of business then the supermarket can lower quality without consumers having an alternative.\n\nEdit; recommended reading: \"Economics in One Lesson\" from Henry Hazlitt",
"You're really asking about speculators, based on some of your responses. Someone who buys on the way up simply to hold and resell for higher. \n\nThe answer to what value that brings is liquidity, which benefits both buyers and sellers in general. \n\nLet's say you are a farmer and have 1000 kg of pork bellies to sell. You have to sell them before they go rotten. But because things are slow this time of year, there are no actual buyers of pork bellies. Your product spoils and the losses cause the bank to foreclose on your farm. You lose everything.\n\nNow same scenario as above except you pre-sold the pork bellies to a speculator before they were even ready. You get your money and the speculator loses his entire investment because there are still no actual buyers. However if the market had gone well the speculator might have profited. Both parties would have been happy. The end buyer might pay a little more than buying direct, but for the farmer that option carries too much risk. \n\nThe system as it is now is setup to create the most amount of wins for everyone. It is setup to smooth out the risks inherent in delivering goods and services. Those activities cost money, and therefore need to provide a return for the risk. \n\n_URL_0_"
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} | What is the effect of resellers on the economy?
I'm not refering to retailers per se, because I can understand the effect they play: grouping the products in a physical location. These resellers end up raising the prices of a product that wouldn't cost that much otherwise. I'm not talking about speculating that a product will become valuable at a later date, I'm talking about products in established markets (proven to be stable, people have been buying it for years) being bought at a lower price and then resold for a small profit. **What would happen to an economy where these people didn't exist? Would prices keep going down if the demand was low?** Because these people create a fake demand for the products. Is there more I can read about this subject? | [
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|
1m2uq5 | Saltatory conduction | In saltatory conduction in neurons, to depolarize the membrane at the next node of ranvier in the direction of action potential propogation, don't the Sodium ions let in by a previous node need to travel by diffusion to the next node to depolarize it?
If so, as I understand it, diffusion becomes exponentially slow over distance, so wouldnt relying on diffusion to carry an action potential severely slow things down? yet the signal speeds up, why?
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cc5arfn"
],
"text": [
"Unmyelinated axons essentially leak current out along their whole axon. Due to this loss, the sodium ions can't actually diffuse very far without the electrical gradient becoming too weak to set off the next voltage-gated sodium channel along the axon. Therefore, the voltage-gated sodium channels must be located very close to each other along the unmyelinated axon. Each voltage-gated sodium channel gets activated and propagates the action potential only a very short distance to the next voltage-gated sodium channel. This is SLOW. The action potential must propagate as a slow, almost continuous wave. You have to wait for all the channels to activate in turn.\n\nIn contrast, myelinated axons are protected from this current loss. Therefore, the voltage-gated sodium channels can be spaced much further apart along the axon at the nodes of Ranvier, because the ions can diffuse farther without the risk that so much current will leak that the current will become too weak to activate the next voltage-gated channel. This is FAST. The action potential can jump from channel to channel (node to node) with very little traveling time in between while the ions diffuse between the nodes.\n\nOne of the problems you might have with this concept is the illustrations which most Neuroscience textbooks contain, such as [this one](_URL_3_). These illustrations make it appear that it would take a lot of sodium ions diffusing along a big distance to create a current. The size of the cytoplasm within the axon seems very big, and I, as a student, imagined that the whole thing needed to fill up with sodium ions which would then slowly diffuse to the next node. \n\n**The reality, which very few neuroscience textbook illustrations show, is that the electrochemical gradient across these membranes is mostly localized at the region within about 1 nanometer of the membrane. It takes a much smaller amount of ions than expected from the typical misleading illustrations to change the membrane potential; see [here](_URL_1_), [here](_URL_2_), and [here](_URL_0_). So diffusion of the ions is much more efficient than you'd expect, and it now makes sense why an action potential propagating down an axon by jumping between further-spaced channels using diffusion is faster than having to activate many times more channels in turn in order to propagate the potential over the same distance.**"
],
"score": [
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/i6s7zLR.png",
"http://i.imgur.com/agzkA3C.png",
"http://i.imgur.com/0bdwYno.png",
"http://i.imgur.com/dvQV5Yg.png"
]
} | Saltatory conduction
In saltatory conduction in neurons, to depolarize the membrane at the next node of ranvier in the direction of action potential propogation, don't the Sodium ions let in by a previous node need to travel by diffusion to the next node to depolarize it? If so, as I understand it, diffusion becomes exponentially slow over distance, so wouldnt relying on diffusion to carry an action potential severely slow things down? yet the signal speeds up, why? | [
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|
396mdv | C in all reference frames? | I'm aware that the speed of light is the same in all reference frames, but, what would a passing photon look like to another photon travelling in the opposite direction? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cs0v1uz"
],
"text": [
"Sadly, special relativity does not define reference frames for photons or anything else propagating at ~~zero~~ c. So we cannot answer what a photon sees. This manifests in the mathematics of a spacetime interval, \n\n > ds^2 = (cdt)^2 - dr^2\n\nwhich for light, the null interval has ds=0, \n\n > 0 = (cdt)^2 - dr^2 \n\nwhich reveals, \n\n > dr/dt = c\n\nHere we can interpret ds=0 as dτ=0 or the proper time of the trajectory. We we directly see that time is not defined for light. We can describe the motion of light in relativity, but we cannot describe the motion of the universe while sitting on a light beam."
],
"score": [
18
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | C in all reference frames?
I'm aware that the speed of light is the same in all reference frames, but, what would a passing photon look like to another photon travelling in the opposite direction? | [
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|
1j1aa4 | If I were to reduce a whole meal into a tiny square and eat it, would I feel like I had eaten a whole meal or not? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cba2lty"
],
"text": [
"If you ate it and it expanded in your stomach, yes. Otherwise, not really. Your body would have the nutrients necessary so in that regard, you wouldn't be starving, but it would feel like you were. For example, there was a man who was on a controlled fast for 350+ days and he lost over 400 pounds. Normally this would kill anyone, but he was being supplied the nutrients needed intravenously. Same idea to some extent.\n\nEdit: You feel full not from calories or nutrients, but by how much your stomach has expanded while eating."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | If I were to reduce a whole meal into a tiny square and eat it, would I feel like I had eaten a whole meal or not?
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||
16ymqb | What is the maximum PSI for a ducks bite? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c80ypgm"
],
"text": [
"This does not seem to have a simple answer because the experiments have not been done. Bote-o-meter studies are common in animals that use biting as a form of defense or for fighting or feeding on hard prey. However ducks are largely filter feeders and terrestrial grazers which i guess puts them low on the list of priorities for this type of study. \n\nCan you refine your question?"
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | What is the maximum PSI for a ducks bite?
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k2kxx | Live Forever | From what I've learned of the subject, living forever (not immortal, mind you, just not aging) is impossible because of timer-type things in our bodies that eventually expire. There isn't much information that I've found on WHY humans die [of age] but if I'm correct, why can't scientists in the foreseeable future turn off these timers at a certain age? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2h19lw",
"c2h2e9x"
],
"text": [
"Not an expert. The timers you are referring to are called telomeres. They are located at the ends of chromosomes (picture the hard parts of shoelaces) and they do indeed shorten as your cells replicate (a process that occurs while you are aging). If a cell has divided to many times, the telomere will be shortened all the way (cutting the end of the shoelace off) and the chromosomes and the information inside them will start to be shortened. This leads to the cell detecting that its instructions are being corrupted and committing cellular suicide (apoptosis).\n\nTelomerase is an enzyme that re-lengthens the telomeres. It is possible to turn off the timers, but our bodies *will* continue to age. This is due to the wear and tear of time on our bodies: pieces break so many times that they eventually can't be put back together (for now). The telomeres are actually a defense mechanism to prevent a cell that has undergone too much wear and tear from dividing too many times. One of the reasons many cancers are hard to destroy is in fact due to the presence of telomerase in the cancer cells, rebuilding the telomeres and letting the cell live its broken life instead of letting the timer run out.",
"From all the knowledge I have I will personally say that the jury is still slightly out on this. Sure there are multiple ageing mechanisms that are going on in our body, but none of them are because of any physical limit. Our bodies are IMO from whatever I know about it more than capable of repairing themselves faster than normal wear-and-tear. We age simply because our bodies are designed to do so, because evolution is better off with faster generation times. Anyone who says otherwise can please point out the reasons why they think this is not true and I will try my level best to reason why I think this is so.\n\nSo yes, there is still a possibility we *can* turn off or at least hit snooze on these timers in our foreseeable future, once we have a complete understanding of the stuff that goes within us."
],
"score": [
6,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Live Forever
From what I've learned of the subject, living forever (not immortal, mind you, just not aging) is impossible because of timer-type things in our bodies that eventually expire. There isn't much information that I've found on WHY humans die [of age] but if I'm correct, why can't scientists in the foreseeable future turn off these timers at a certain age? | [
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|
jafku | Art major here... Can anyone explain to a complete newbie how chemical reactions in the brain work? | I'm thinking about doing an art series about chemical reactions in the brain, but so far wikipedia is just confusing me. The only chemistry class I took was a a sophomore in highschool, but since reading a few mathematics and science books lately I've been extremely interested in taking a scientific approach to art.
Can anyone give me a crash course in brain-chemical vocabulary, or how certain substances like alchohol and cigarettes disrupt normal brain function? I'm especially interested in how the molecular chemical reactions work.
If you have any suggestions for books on this topic that a newbie could understand, that would be extremely helpful as well.
Thanks! | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2ak0n2"
],
"text": [
"Hey Lamest, I should start by suggesting you pick up any intro neuroscience textbook for a more detailed overview of the brain and its neurotransmitters. I'll give you a very general crash-course in how the brain operates with respect to neuroactive compounds though. :)\n\nOn the most general levels, the brain operates through a very careful and tightly- I can't stress this enough- interplay between excitability and inhibition. That is, controlling how active brain cells are. If for example brain cells receive too little inhibitory signals, the brain risks going through seizures and even cell death - called 'Excitotoxic shock'. Now how does the brain control this careful balance? Through a mind-boggling series of different systems of neurotransmitters. These are the chemicals in your brain that influence individual brain cells in different ways. At the level of a brain cell it's not a simple \"ON-excite, OFF-inhibit\", but rather different degrees of excitability at different durations. \n\nThe godfather of inhibitory chemicals in the brain is called GABA- or gamma-Aminobutyric acid. This chemical is housed in specialized neurons whose sole purpose is to slow down and regulate other neurons. To do this they release the chemical at the synaptic cleft- the space between where two brain cells interact- and these GABA molecules attach to the other target cell through receptors. These are proteins sticking out of the target neuron that bind selectively to GABA. Once bound, they open up to let in ions floating around the space outside of brain cells, that effectively lower the probability of that brain cell firing. Now there's all different sort of GABA receptors that do this in different ways. Some let in a lot of ions for some time, and some only let in ions for a quick amount of time. \n\nSo why am I ranting about this? Well alcohol, nicotine, and every other neuroactive compound work by exploiting how this beautiful mechanism works. Ethanol enters the brain and has a very very strong attraction to these GABA receptors. But they don't compete with GABA molecules. What they do is attach themselves to the side of the receptor to make it stay open for longer once GABA sticks to the receptor. Now imagine this happening to hundreds of thousands of neurons at once. We have a general depression of general brain activity. This is why people act sedated when they drink- fun fact: This is very similar to anesthesia, and technically alcohol can loosely be seen as a crude anaesthetic.\n\nOther drugs work differently though. Nicotine for example doesn't bind to GABA but to \"nicotine receptors\". We don't have any nicotine naturally in our brain though, but scientists named the receptor after what nicotine binds to. The brain makes something called acetylcholine, which nicotine competes with to bind to these nicotine receptors. Thus I hope you are starting to understand that the different effects different drugs have are mediated by there different effects on the brain, and where they interact. \n\nOnce in the brain though these drugs don't linger forever. The brain has other compounds in the synaptic cleft- remember that area between neurons- that break these compounds down. This prevents a lethal build up of chemicals and overstimulation of your brain cells. Your brain also doesn't take drugs passively. If you become an alcoholic lets say, your brain will begin to active *remove* the GABA receptors from neurons so they don't get so inhibited. This is why it's so dangerous for an alcoholic to quit alcohol cold-turkey. Your brain will all of a sudden be starved of normal GABA- since there's so much alcohol in its place- and your brian risks over-excitation, and seizures. Hoped this helped! Goodluck!"
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Art major here... Can anyone explain to a complete newbie how chemical reactions in the brain work?
I'm thinking about doing an art series about chemical reactions in the brain, but so far wikipedia is just confusing me. The only chemistry class I took was a a sophomore in highschool, but since reading a few mathematics and science books lately I've been extremely interested in taking a scientific approach to art. Can anyone give me a crash course in brain-chemical vocabulary, or how certain substances like alchohol and cigarettes disrupt normal brain function? I'm especially interested in how the molecular chemical reactions work. If you have any suggestions for books on this topic that a newbie could understand, that would be extremely helpful as well. Thanks! | [
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|
76scj6 | How serious of an issue is radon in basements? | I always see advertisements for costly radon mitigation systems for basements. Is this a serious issue? Do certain parts of the world have a higher rate of it? If it is an issue for a basement, why wouldn't it be an issue in the rest of the house or for houses without basements ? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dogp66x",
"dogwfl2",
"dogkt16"
],
"text": [
"Radon is radioactive with a fairly short half-life, and it's denser than air. It's produced when heavier radioactive materials with a long half-life slowly decay. Because it is denser than air, it can accumulate to fairly significant concentrations. Since it's a gas, you can inhale it, which means that the alpha radiation which otherwise wouldn't penetrate skin can directly affect your lungs, [raising your cancer risk](_URL_0_).\n\nSome parts of the world have higher concentrations of radioactive materials which decay into radon than others. In the US, you can find a map showing relative risk [here](_URL_1_).\n\nIt's an issue in basements because radon is denser than air, and can accumulate in the basement to fairly high concentrations. It's usually less of an issue on higher floors and in houses without basements because it tends to flow out of the house, keeping the concentration (and hence risk) down.\n\nIf you want to know whether you've got an issue, the only way to be sure is to get your home tested.",
"Honestly, I think the danger is highly overstated.\n\nRadon emits alpha particles which are identical to helium atoms with no electrons, and also they are moving fast. Alpha particles are unable to pass through skin or paper. Thus the theory is that the radon might be burning your lung tissue. Nobody, however, has been affirmatively shown to have such tissue damage.\n\nBecause it is boring (for researchers), expensive, and time-consuming to try to figure out exactly what small amounts of radiation do to an animal, it has become prevalent in the US to use the Linear No-Threshold (LNT) model for determining likely radiation-caused damage.\n\nThe LNT model works like this: we figure out how much radiation it takes to kill you (about 400,000 mrem/day will kill 50% of people [i think that's correct]) and then we draw a straight line down to zero. So this model suggests a linear response. With this model we arrive at the conclusion that 400 mrem/day kills 0.05% of people. This means that in a country of 3million people, everyday 300 people or so would drop dead from background radiation (which doesn't seem to be happening). This linear model is also how we arrive at the idea that thousands of people are dying from radon every year even though not a single person has ever been shown to have the lung scarring I mentioned earlier.\n\nNow, most reactions to things are not linear. Heat, for example can kill you, but you also need some to be healthy. And there are other things are are beneficial in low amounts and toxic in higher amounts. Certainly we evolved to withstand a certain amount of background radiation and removing that radiation may be harmful. For example, rats deprived of background radiation have been shown to be less healthy than rats with it. \n\nSo obviously the LNT method is not quite accurate. However, It is a valuable model when it comes to regulations because if we regulated to the actual numbers that caused harm, every accident would involve much more dangerous exposures. So by setting an artificially low limit, we can save lives.\n\nData also shows that places with high radon do not have higher cancer rates. Many argue that low radon levels are possibly beneficial.\n\nThus I believe the threat is highly exaggerated to promote sales of radon mitigating equipment.\n\nI must admit though that I am told there are recent skin-tissue experiments that support the anti-radon arguments but I haven't had a chance to review them.\n\nAlso I'm sorry if my numbers are off, I'm on my phone on a bus.",
"In UK, one of the legal requirements during house-sale legal proceedings is a Radon measure.\n\nUltimately, nothing is ever actually done if the rate is higher than a given areas' mean, you just take out (yet another) £50 Liability Insurance or similar."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.epa.gov/radon/health-risk-radon",
"https://www.epa.gov/radon/find-information-about-local-radon-zones-and-state-contact-information#radonmap"
]
} | How serious of an issue is radon in basements?
I always see advertisements for costly radon mitigation systems for basements. Is this a serious issue? Do certain parts of the world have a higher rate of it? If it is an issue for a basement, why wouldn't it be an issue in the rest of the house or for houses without basements ? | [
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|
18wknu | What local physiological changes are associated with focusing one's attention on a particle part of the body? (i.e. blood vessel dilation, skin conductance, chemical concentrations, etc) | Say you were to focus your attention on your hand; that is to say, you ask yourself whether it is warm or cold, what does the air feel like around it, is it in good condition, and basically you just "feel" your hands, for lack of a better word. What physiological changes are associated with that focusing of attention? Are there any sources that link information to skin conductance, blood vessel dilation, blood flow, or chemical signatures? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c8iqzr0"
],
"text": [
"I think the answer to this is going to lie more in the realm of neuro science and most likely is akin to the phenomena we experience everyday where repetive stimulation of sensory fibers will over time dampen the response. That was messy non tecnical way of describing how you can wear a shirt all day and not really think about it too much, or how you don't notice the way your tongue feels in your mouth all the time. Of course, if we think about it, we can go back to feeling our clothes or appendages. It is less of a local effect and more so a central effect. After a while our brains and nervous system just don't react as briskly to repetitive stimuli unless we want it too."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | What local physiological changes are associated with focusing one's attention on a particle part of the body? (i.e. blood vessel dilation, skin conductance, chemical concentrations, etc)
Say you were to focus your attention on your hand; that is to say, you ask yourself whether it is warm or cold, what does the air feel like around it, is it in good condition, and basically you just "feel" your hands, for lack of a better word. What physiological changes are associated with that focusing of attention? Are there any sources that link information to skin conductance, blood vessel dilation, blood flow, or chemical signatures? | [
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|
14eh6l | Understanding Sarin. | Somewhat recently, US news has reported that Syria "has loaded the precursor chemicals for sarin, a deadly nerve gas, into aerial bombs."
To better understand the severity, can someone please explain the biological/chemical interactions with "nerve gas" and the molecular reactions?
- This is **not** a post for opinions on current events
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c7ccn3a"
],
"text": [
"Sarin is a cholinesterase inhibitor.\n\nNormally, muscles are given the signal to contract by neurons. These neurons convey the signal by releasing acetylcholine (ACh), which acts on receptors on the muscle cells and induce contraction. However, to prevent continuous signalling, ACh is quickly degraded (within milliseconds) by the enzyme cholinesterase. What Sarin does is it blocks the effect of cholinesterase. This prevents ACh from being broken down and, thus, it continues to exhibit a constant contractile effect on the muscle. As long as the ACh works the muscles cannot relax again, so Sarin works by causing permanent contraction of muscles and, in effect, paralysis."
],
"score": [
10
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Understanding Sarin.
Somewhat recently, US news has reported that Syria "has loaded the precursor chemicals for sarin, a deadly nerve gas, into aerial bombs." To better understand the severity, can someone please explain the biological/chemical interactions with "nerve gas" and the molecular reactions? - This is **not** a post for opinions on current events | [
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1aajr8 | What exactly are Local Field Potentials (LFPs), and how do I interpret analyses of them? | I've done a lot of work with in vivo single cell electrophysiology, but have never utilized the nearby LFP signals. In my previous lab we simultaneously recorded LFPs while doing single cell recordings but never did anything with them.
My general understanding of the situation is that while single cell recordings are recording the electrical changes from an isolated, LFPs is the recording of electrical changes of a population of neurons. It makes sense to me that within an area of cortex all neurons that are generally similarly tuned will be responding at the same time. For example, when visual stimuli are presented on a screen, visual cortical neurons will respond and you will see an increase in responses in the LFP signal. I'm not sure this is really the whole story there (I'm sure it's not), and what I don't know about it.
Furthermore, in reading papers that are reporting LFP data, I don't know how to parse the information they're presenting. Currently, I'm reading a hippocampal paper that recorded LFPs, and they're talking about fluctuations in different bands of oscillations. This is where LFPs seem to really diverge from my understanding of single cell recordings.
Can anyone either give me a brief overview of LFP, and/or recommend a good paper that I can learn this from? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c8vt0xj"
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"text": [
"Mistress,\n\nThe two best introductions to LFP that I've seen are *Extracellular Single Unit Recording Methods* by Donald Humphrey and *Generation and Analysis of Extracellular Field Potentials* by Charles Nicholson. Google will lead you to the first one (it's from one of the NeuroMethods books - you may or may not get past the Springer firewall). Unfortunately I can't find the Nicholson one on-line (I think it's from an old SFN short course). But you may have better Google luck then I did. Stay away from Nicholson's IEEE paper with a similar name - the math in it will kill most mortals. \n\nAnother source you might try for a nice introduction is Wu and Johnston's textbook. Kandel is no help here. \n\nThe paper you linked was firewalled (for me, at least) so I don't know exactly what you need to know. Since it's hippocampus, I assume they talk about current source density analysis - which is mostly just a pain-in-the-ass way to extract high(er) resolution synaptic currents from the LFP. CSD is technically unnecessary - it won't tell you anything about oscillations that the LFP won't - but reviewers get uppity if you don't present it in a field-potential paper (CSD is like telling your wife she looks nice before going out to dinner). \n\nThe oscillation papers JohnShaft gave you might not be the best way into the oscillation literature, simply because they are in cortex (at least the ones I looked at). As soon as you're in cortex, you immediately run into gyri and sulci which complicate field potential interpretation because you have no idea of the spatial orientation of the sources. This leads to \"the inverse problem\" and \"spatial deconvolution\" and all sorts of other hateful math (see e.g., Paul Nunez's textbook) most of which can be summed up in two words: *wank wank* (just kidding, Paul. You're aces in our book).\n\nThe good news is that I'm guessing source localization is irrelevant for you. You say the paper is in hippocampus; I'm guessing it's hippocampus *slices* so you already know the orientation of the field generators (hint: radially up the apical dendrites of the big pyramids). That's why you use hippocampal slices in the first place.\n\nFurthermore, if the paper is hippocampal slices and oscillations, I'm going to go ahead and guess it's Georgy Buzsaki (or \"Berserky\" as we affectionately call him, albeit never within earshot). If so, be aware they might also talk about high-frequency oscillations in addition to the classical theta- and gamma-band stuff. Warning: these aren't really oscillations at all - they're population spikes. There are similar high-frequency oscillations in cortex (and perhaps in cerebellum) and everybody calls them something different. I think hippocampus jocks call their version \"ripple\" - named, of course, after the cheap wine, or so we were led to believe.\n\n**TL;DR:** Google: \"Analysis of Extracellular Field Potentials Charles Nicholson\" and hope for the best."
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} | What exactly are Local Field Potentials (LFPs), and how do I interpret analyses of them?
I've done a lot of work with in vivo single cell electrophysiology, but have never utilized the nearby LFP signals. In my previous lab we simultaneously recorded LFPs while doing single cell recordings but never did anything with them. My general understanding of the situation is that while single cell recordings are recording the electrical changes from an isolated, LFPs is the recording of electrical changes of a population of neurons. It makes sense to me that within an area of cortex all neurons that are generally similarly tuned will be responding at the same time. For example, when visual stimuli are presented on a screen, visual cortical neurons will respond and you will see an increase in responses in the LFP signal. I'm not sure this is really the whole story there (I'm sure it's not), and what I don't know about it. Furthermore, in reading papers that are reporting LFP data, I don't know how to parse the information they're presenting. Currently, I'm reading a hippocampal paper that recorded LFPs, and they're talking about fluctuations in different bands of oscillations. This is where LFPs seem to really diverge from my understanding of single cell recordings. Can anyone either give me a brief overview of LFP, and/or recommend a good paper that I can learn this from? | [
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pgqqb | Fluid mechanics and aerospace engineering: Do Prandtl–Glauert singularities exist? | I frequently see people calling the [vapor cone visible around aircraft at transonic speeds](_URL_1_) a Prandtl–Glauert singularity. While this is a step up from calling it a "sonic boom" (which it certainly is not) I believe this is still in error. It is my understanding that a Prandtl–Glauert singularity is essentially a mathematical artifact of the [Prandtl–Glauert transformation](_URL_0_), indicating that infinite lift and drag forces would act on a body travelling at the speed of sound. This contributed to engineers' concerns that there was a "sound barrier" which could not be broken.
Can anyone weigh in on this? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3p9kp8",
"c3pbpc7"
],
"text": [
"The Prandtl Glauert singularity is just a mathematical phenomenon, and is not \"manifested\" in physical flow conditions. The vapor cone does indicate locations of shock wave formation, but I don't think that in any way it is appropriate to call it a Prandtl-Grauert singularity. I'm going to go with you on that one. It's a strong possibility the term for this was coined by a pilot or airshow announcer with a knowledge of the lingo, but no knowledge of the magic.\n\nIn real life, the drag is not infinite, but it rounds off at some finite amount and continues to drop after Mach 1. Even then, this is a mathematical approximation, and it becomes more inaccurate at transonic speeds.",
"Ok, first of all, the vapor cone does not show a shock, but an expansion. A shock would cause an increase in temperature (and pressure), but would lower the relative humidity. An expansion lowers the pressure (and temperature), raising the relative humidity, and causing condensation (hence the visible cone). This can be further verified by noting the location of the cone... it is on the back side of the aircraft, where you'll see an expansion, and not on the front where you'd see a shock wave.\n\nAs for the [Prandtl-Glauert transformation](_URL_0_), it is a linear approximation of the inviscid, compressible flow. The singularity is averted in real situations due to nonlinearities in the equation, and thus the prandtl-glauert transformation isn't applicable at a mach number of 1. [Bulk viscosity](_URL_1_) probably is non-negligible at or near the \"singularity\", further reducing the applicability of the Prandtl-Glauert transformation near mach 1 which has an inviscid assumption."
],
"score": [
5,
4
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/c/0/b/c0b8c222b958cea942ff4dce8eafefc6.png",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/FA-18_Hornet_breaking_sound_barrier_%287_July_1999%29.jpg"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prandtl-Glauert_transformation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulk_viscosity"
]
} | Fluid mechanics and aerospace engineering: Do Prandtl–Glauert singularities exist?
I frequently see people calling the [vapor cone visible around aircraft at transonic speeds](_URL_1_) a Prandtl–Glauert singularity. While this is a step up from calling it a "sonic boom" (which it certainly is not) I believe this is still in error. It is my understanding that a Prandtl–Glauert singularity is essentially a mathematical artifact of the [Prandtl–Glauert transformation](_URL_0_), indicating that infinite lift and drag forces would act on a body travelling at the speed of sound. This contributed to engineers' concerns that there was a "sound barrier" which could not be broken. Can anyone weigh in on this? | [
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|
vjwa6 | Punctuated Equilibrium or Gradualism, which does the evidence really support? | I had a professor (a paleontologist for what it's worth) who seemed pretty convinced that evolution probably occurred both gradually, as well as in a manner similar to punctuated equilibrium. He taught that major changes in the environment (like mass extinction events and etc) would cause new species to crop up quite rapidly (well rapidly from a geological perspective) but also that gradualism had it's place as well.
Basically he thought that both sides were clinging to dogmatic views and evolution probably occurred according to both theories depending on the environment and selection pressures.
What is the latest and greatest on this. Has there been any more research done that pushes the theory of evolution closer to one side or the other, or are we still unclear and fighting it out among ourselves?
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c5555fl"
],
"text": [
"As far as I know there hasn't been any hard research pushing the community one way or the other. [Punctuated gradualism](_URL_0_) was put forth a little while back, but as far as I know it hasn't gained of ton of traction either.\n\nPersonally I'd actually agree with your professor for the most part. I think punctuated equilibrium overall was overblown when it was first put forth, and was way too dismissive of the fact that gradualism has been observed first hand on countless occasions in microevolution and with respect to molecular data despite its lack of support in the fossil record (which is notorious for gaps in data sampling)."
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2400580?uid=3739920&uid=2129&uid=2&uid=70&uid=4&uid=3739256&sid=56275009253"
]
} | Punctuated Equilibrium or Gradualism, which does the evidence really support?
I had a professor (a paleontologist for what it's worth) who seemed pretty convinced that evolution probably occurred both gradually, as well as in a manner similar to punctuated equilibrium. He taught that major changes in the environment (like mass extinction events and etc) would cause new species to crop up quite rapidly (well rapidly from a geological perspective) but also that gradualism had it's place as well. Basically he thought that both sides were clinging to dogmatic views and evolution probably occurred according to both theories depending on the environment and selection pressures. What is the latest and greatest on this. Has there been any more research done that pushes the theory of evolution closer to one side or the other, or are we still unclear and fighting it out among ourselves? | [
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|
5ar5gm | Can someone please explain ICP-OES? | As the title suggests, I am looking for a fairly simple explanation of ICP-OES (inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry). | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d9jzct2"
],
"text": [
"ICP (inductively coupled plasma) first ionises (edit: or just atomises) the sample. The ionised sample then emits light at wavelengths characteristic of the elements present in the sample. Collecting the light and determining the wavelengths then allows you to determine which elements are present in the sample. That's the OES (optical emission spectroscopy) part. The intensity of the light at the specific wavelengths also gives you information about the amount of that element so you can work out concentrations/ relative amounts. \n\nOES/ AES can be used with other 'preparation' techniques such as flame instead of plasma (sample dependent).\n\nI believe it's particularly useful when you have trace amounts of a sample but I don't know why that is the case sorry."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Can someone please explain ICP-OES?
As the title suggests, I am looking for a fairly simple explanation of ICP-OES (inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry). | [
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|
ort9u | Are people who suffer from capgras delusion able to form new emotional bonds to things/people? | I have heard that [capgras delusion](_URL_0_) occurs when the neural connection between vision and emotion is cut. As a result, people who suffer from this think that their family members, friends, pets, etc are imposters.
However, are they able to form new emotional bonds with anything or anyone? And what would their reaction be to a broad category of things that would have once caused them an emotional response (such as babies, or cute animals)? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3jk8l7"
],
"text": [
"This is just a [bloody interesting case study,](_URL_0_) so obviously it's not representative, but it would seem to suggest that one can certainly develop friendly attachments to those they barely know while completely eschewing their family in the event of Capgras delusion."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capgras_delusion"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1525505003000817"
]
} | Are people who suffer from capgras delusion able to form new emotional bonds to things/people?
I have heard that [capgras delusion](_URL_0_) occurs when the neural connection between vision and emotion is cut. As a result, people who suffer from this think that their family members, friends, pets, etc are imposters. However, are they able to form new emotional bonds with anything or anyone? And what would their reaction be to a broad category of things that would have once caused them an emotional response (such as babies, or cute animals)? | [
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7dn9fk | Physically, how does a Bode analyzer measure phase? | To clarify, I know what a bode analyzer does, at least as far as gain but I would just like to know how modern bode plots accomplish the phase shift per frequency measurement in terms of what is physically being sampled within the device?
Also, if anyone knows any good texts or online sources, please share. Technical is fine. I am a physicist trying to learn more about circuits and devices. Being a theorist though, much of this is foreign or new to me. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Many applications calculate BODE (FRF) plots through DFTs. The DFT decomposes any finite, uniformly sampled time signal into its corresponding frequency components. This includes a magnitude and a phase for each frequency.\n\nDruving a circuut with a random block of data and using the DFT, you can calculate the BODE with phase.\n\nYou can also use single frequency sine tones one at a time and measure phase lag between the input and output of the circuit for each frequency."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Physically, how does a Bode analyzer measure phase?
To clarify, I know what a bode analyzer does, at least as far as gain but I would just like to know how modern bode plots accomplish the phase shift per frequency measurement in terms of what is physically being sampled within the device? Also, if anyone knows any good texts or online sources, please share. Technical is fine. I am a physicist trying to learn more about circuits and devices. Being a theorist though, much of this is foreign or new to me. | [
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|
s6i86 | Do any other organisms show evidence of possessing morals? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c4bhbwc"
],
"text": [
"[Monkey Morality: Can Evolution Explain Ethics?](_URL_2_)\n\n[Why We Care about Chimpanzees: The Origins of Human Morality](_URL_0_)\n\n[Chimpanzees Have Their Own Police, and They Enforce Morality](_URL_1_)\n\n[Frans de Waal - Morals Without God](_URL_3_)"
],
"score": [
10
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/2011/08/18/why-we-care-about-chimpanzees-the-origins-of-human-morality/",
"http://motherboard.vice.com/2012/3/7/chimpanzees-have-their-own-police-and-they-enforce-morality",
"http://www.str.org/site/News2?page=NewsArticle&id=6221",
"http://www.huffingtonpost.com/frans-de-waal/morals-without-god_b_316473.html"
]
} | Do any other organisms show evidence of possessing morals?
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17jsxb | A question about the loneliest whale 52hz | Here's a link for the story:
_URL_0_
In summary there is a baleen whale that follows its own unique migratory route and sings at 52hz, the problem is most baleen whales communicate in the 10-25hz range.
However this got me thinking, why does that baleen whale not hear the other whales?
The only two possible reasons I can come up with my limited knowledge of marine biology is she either is deaf or her own singing has confused it to what a whale is suppose to sound like. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c86a70b"
],
"text": [
"Actually from what I have read, it seems everyone is able to hear each other, it's just that other whales don't respond to it because they don't think it's a whale...they think it might be something else, and this whale then thinks he's being ignored.\n\nLike the article said, \n > It's as if he speaks his own language-- a language of one"
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://blogs.discovery.com/animal_news/2012/05/52-hertz-the-loneliest-whale-in-the-world.html"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | A question about the loneliest whale 52hz
Here's a link for the story: _URL_0_ In summary there is a baleen whale that follows its own unique migratory route and sings at 52hz, the problem is most baleen whales communicate in the 10-25hz range. However this got me thinking, why does that baleen whale not hear the other whales? The only two possible reasons I can come up with my limited knowledge of marine biology is she either is deaf or her own singing has confused it to what a whale is suppose to sound like. | [
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|
12mv54 | Barr bodies help | hi, can someone explain to me exactly what Barr bodies are, in the simplest way possible? does it mean that female cells can inactivate one x chromosome? is it different for each cell, and random? if a female was heterozygous for a recessive disease, would it be possible for the dominant gene to be inactivated, and then they get the disease? does this have to happen for many cells, or if just one cell deactivates the dominant x-linked trait, the woman would get the recessive disease?
thanks | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c6wftl6"
],
"text": [
"The X chromosome has lots of important genes that are unrelated to sex and needed by both men and women. If female cells didn't inactivate one X per cell, women would have twice the amount of these proteins per cell, which would either leave men deficient for some proteins or women with an excess. X inactivation is nature's solution to this dilemma.\n\nX inactivation is random in most mammals (marsupials are an exception), occurs during embryonic development, and different for each cell. The best example to illustrate this is [Calico/Tortiseshell cats](_URL_2_). One gene for cat coat color, which makes either reddish or brownish, is on the X chromosome. Calico cats are heterozygotes for this gene, and the patchy coloration is due to random X inactivation affecting either the brown or red allele of this gene. Accordingly, a male cat cannot be Calico unless he has a a disorder which makes his genotype XXY ([Klinefelter's syndrome](_URL_1_)). Because it's random, a cloned Calico cat will have a different coat pattern than her mother. \n\nHow it[ affects expression of X-linked diseases](_URL_0_) will depend on the disease. Usually, a female heterozygous for a disease gene will be spared the clinical manifestations. Imagine a female heterozygous for a mutated allele of an X chromosome gene that causes an important enzyme to be nonfunctional. While cells with an active mutant allele cannot make this enzyme, there should be enough cells with the opposite allele activated to overcome this. Yes, the amount of enzyme produced will be less, but this is often not a problem since most enzymes are needed in smaller amounts than they are produced."
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199801293380611",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klinefelter's_syndrome",
"https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSkWQYzFb_eT0JwTMYXrTxPZHpb8NS1N3GiZZofi4NkrH0ssKuL"
]
} | Barr bodies help
hi, can someone explain to me exactly what Barr bodies are, in the simplest way possible? does it mean that female cells can inactivate one x chromosome? is it different for each cell, and random? if a female was heterozygous for a recessive disease, would it be possible for the dominant gene to be inactivated, and then they get the disease? does this have to happen for many cells, or if just one cell deactivates the dominant x-linked trait, the woman would get the recessive disease? thanks | [
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|
108yvy | The Dirac model of the positron | So I'm reading Dirac's biography and I'm at the part where it talks about his model that there is a sea of electrons filling up all the negative energy states that his equation/theory predicts.
And that a hole in this sea behaves like an anti-electron, when the hole and the electron meet they annihilate i.e the electron falls into this sea and drops from a positive energy level to negative one giving out twice its energy in photons.
But there is two property's of the model I don't understand.
1.First is the charge, From what I understand the electron wants to drop down to the lower energy configuration, so the hole appears as if it has a positive charge but how was it predicted that the charge would be the exact same magnitude as the charge of the electron.
Also if they knew about other negatively charged particles back then(say the muon), what would that say about the hole model?.
2.How did they explain how the hole propagated through space, which matched with the fact the first positron was detected by its trail left in a bubble/cloud chamber? | askscience | {
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"> 1.First is the charge, From what I understand the electron wants to drop down to the lower energy configuration, so the hole appears as if it has a positive charge but how was it predicted that the charge would be the exact same magnitude as the charge of the electron.\n\nSo I have this sea of filled negative energy states, and I pop up a single electron with some charge -e. That electron is no longer in the sea. So the current charge of the sea minus the initial charge of the sea is -(-e) = +e.\n\n > Also if they knew about other negatively charged particles back then(say the muon), what would that say about the hole model?.\n\nI don't understand what you mean by this.\n\n > 2.How did they explain how the hole propagated through space, which matched with the fact the first positron was detected by its trail left in a bubble/cloud chamber?\n\nThere is a symmetry between the positive and negative solutions of the Dirac equation, so that positive and negative energy solutions behave the same way. From there the idea is that the hole behaves like the negative energy solutions. In a handwavy way you can think of a ripple in a water tank: a ripple downwards behaves the same as a ripple upwards.\n\nWould be nice to get a condensed matter person in here. They can talk more about the hole states that propagate in semiconductors and maybe explain this better at this level.\n\nKeep in mind that the Dirac sea is an idea that has been long-since superseded by Quantum Field Theory, in which it is clear that the \"negative energy\" solutions have positive energy but the phase e^iE/hbar rotates backwards relative to the \"positive energy\" solutions."
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} | The Dirac model of the positron
So I'm reading Dirac's biography and I'm at the part where it talks about his model that there is a sea of electrons filling up all the negative energy states that his equation/theory predicts. And that a hole in this sea behaves like an anti-electron, when the hole and the electron meet they annihilate i.e the electron falls into this sea and drops from a positive energy level to negative one giving out twice its energy in photons. But there is two property's of the model I don't understand. 1.First is the charge, From what I understand the electron wants to drop down to the lower energy configuration, so the hole appears as if it has a positive charge but how was it predicted that the charge would be the exact same magnitude as the charge of the electron. Also if they knew about other negatively charged particles back then(say the muon), what would that say about the hole model?. 2.How did they explain how the hole propagated through space, which matched with the fact the first positron was detected by its trail left in a bubble/cloud chamber? | [
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|
3d8s8d | Why don't Epimetheus and Prometheus collide? | I just don't conceptually understand why they don't collide. Reading about it, it seems to say they deflect each other and head back around there horse shoe orbits. But that makes no sense to me! I thought gravity means objects attract each other! | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ct2yu35"
],
"text": [
"I assume you mean **Janus** and Epimetheus. Prometheus is an unrelated moon.\n\nThey're also being attracted by a definitely dominant body, so the situation is pretty complex.\n\nYou can cancel Saturn's gravity by moving to a corotating frame. In this frame, there is a centrifugal and coriolis force, in addition to the gravity fields of Saturn and the two moons themselves.\n\nBasically the combined effect of these three **small** forces:\n\n- mutual gravity of the moons\n- coriolis force\n- difference of saturn gravity and centrifugal force\n\ndrives the moons *in the corotating frame* in those peculiar horseshoe orbits. Note that in the absence of these perturbations the moons would be stationary in this frame.\n\nWhen the first is in the part of the horseshoe closer to Saturn the second is in the farthest, and vice versa. Still, the horseshoes don't even intersect, so there is no chance of collision.\n\nSo, in the Saturn frame, the two moons seem to swap orbits. These transformed orbits do intersect, but the above considerations allow us to deduce they won't ever both be simultaneously at an intersection."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Why don't Epimetheus and Prometheus collide?
I just don't conceptually understand why they don't collide. Reading about it, it seems to say they deflect each other and head back around there horse shoe orbits. But that makes no sense to me! I thought gravity means objects attract each other! | [
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|
r8yuu | What do you believe but cannot prove? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c43vh9y",
"c43vlsy"
],
"text": [
"I believe that our current model of physics is a reasonably accurate approximation of the universe, but I can't prove it.",
"My moderator hat is completely off in replying to this post. But let me say that science is a specific branch of philosophy. What makes it a distinct branch of philosophy are the initial axioms that enter into the system. We choose to believe in things like experiments are accurate reflections of reality; a system of parsimony where the explanation that requires the minimum amount of axioms is likely to be the \"correct\" explanation (for certain meanings of correct). \n\nThen on top of these philosophical principles, we have some basic metaphysical axioms. For instance: the cosmological principle, that the universe, on sufficiently large scales, is homogenous (same in any random large volume) and isotropic (any direction is equivalent to any other direction in space). We can't prove that's true, but that follows from parsimony and our observations. We see a portion of the universe, and it does seem to behave in this manner on scales at least as large as a fraction of our universe, so we assume it continues to hold outside our observable portion. In a similar manner, we assume that our local understanding of physics is equally true everywhere else in the universe. As we don't have any evidence disproving this point either, we assume that it's a reasonable assumption.\n\nAnd finally, we end up having \"beliefs\" in the kind of conventional sense as well. I believe the universe is infinite in size at this moment. The data support this notion, but not exclusively so, it is merely a philosophical choice of mine to pick the infinite universe as the \"more likely to be true\" answer. But unlike other belief systems, should a sufficient amount of data arise to rule out an infinite universe, I would certainly change my belief to fit the new data.\n\nAnyway, for a better discussion of this [/r/PhilosophyofScience](/r/PhilosophyofScience) may be more up your alley"
],
"score": [
11,
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | What do you believe but cannot prove?
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||
10nok0 | Einstein was asked if the Universe was a friendly place. He said yes. Decades later, are we still of the same opinion? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c6f1m7s"
],
"text": [
"Well, what do you mean by friendly?\n\nOne thing we know that Einstein didn't is that planets are fairly common around stars."
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Einstein was asked if the Universe was a friendly place. He said yes. Decades later, are we still of the same opinion?
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cbsf85 | Are we being duped into buying beauty products? | Is it truly nonsensical to apply treatments to your skin and hair? Am I really wasting money on vitamin e oil, and other beauty and health products? I was told today that the body doesn't absorb from the outside, rather only from within. I was all on board believing that, but now I'm thinking about all the Epsom soaks I take and keratin hair treatments... what's the dealio? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"eti5vow",
"etidk2n"
],
"text": [
"There's no simple yes or no answer to that, it's a lot of grey.\n\nBroadly speaking, most of those beauty treatments may be beneficial for your son and hair, but they won't be any better than a cheap moisturizer, conditioner, etc.\n\nThe skin can absorb various things - oils, water (also salt in water), etc. Mostly, these things will not penetrate very far, staying mainly in or on the epidermis. Given that the epidermis mostly consists of dead cells, you won't revitalize them more if your moisturizer has added vitamins or hyaluronic acid or whatever other \"wonder chemical\" is included.\n\nEverybody is a bit different, so there may be products that work better for you than others. It may also change over time. It's also very possible that your vitamin infused oil helps your skin more than other products, but it's not because of the vitamin e. It's some combination of the other ingredients coincidentally suiting your skin well.\n\nWith all the subtle differences in composition, there's really no good way to predict what would work best for a specific person, but it's not necessarily connected to the price tag.\n\nMy advice would be, experiment a little with different things. Get a small amount of a cheaper brand of moisturizer, try it for a little while. See how it works for you, and either enjoy it or try a different one. Do it one by one if you want to reduce wasted cash and product.\n\nBeauty products, like diet products and fitness gear, often have some small amount of actual science that sounds like it should make the product with better. Most of the time, whatever benefit or effect they claim, is so minor you'll never notice.",
"the question that helped me to come at terms with reality was \"why do dermatologists age and have wrinkles and look not so good as they supposed to if all that stuff exists and works?\"\n\nif we're not speaking about makeup, which is basically the colored masking layer for anything that's beneath it, we have very little options, and most of them fall under \"preserve what you have as much as you can and as long as you can\" motto. the skin's beauty is mostly its youth and ability to keep water inside cells. you try to make that water stay inside by minimizing water loss and retaining the ability of your skin to hold water in your cells. you either have skin that's not damaged by the sun and harsh weather and it's hydrated and smooth or you have dehydrated damaged skin that is not able to retain the moisture."
],
"score": [
13,
7
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Are we being duped into buying beauty products?
Is it truly nonsensical to apply treatments to your skin and hair? Am I really wasting money on vitamin e oil, and other beauty and health products? I was told today that the body doesn't absorb from the outside, rather only from within. I was all on board believing that, but now I'm thinking about all the Epsom soaks I take and keratin hair treatments... what's the dealio? | [
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|
1rd4yo | What/how do people analyze wind tunnel tests? What kind of data do they get using the smoke trails? | I frequently see videos of wind tunnel tests (mostly in the area of cars is where I gained interest) where they have the smoke flowing around te vehicle. I'm curious what kind of data they actually get from these tests and how do they analyze it to get accurate predictions of how it will perform in the real world. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cdm0p63"
],
"text": [
"In my realm (structural engineering), wind tunnels are used to simulate and predict expected wind loading to structures during specified gusts. Smaller, to-scale models of buildings are built, hooked up with load sensors, and then placed in a wind tunnel that simulates a design storm and provides load data at critical points.\n\nAs for your specific question regarding smoke trails with cars, understand that my fluid knowledge comes from two fluid dynamics classes in undergrad. I think that these trails are used to demonstrate how particles travel over the surface of a car, giving useful information about the aerodynamics and drag coefficient of the car."
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | What/how do people analyze wind tunnel tests? What kind of data do they get using the smoke trails?
I frequently see videos of wind tunnel tests (mostly in the area of cars is where I gained interest) where they have the smoke flowing around te vehicle. I'm curious what kind of data they actually get from these tests and how do they analyze it to get accurate predictions of how it will perform in the real world. | [
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|
vqt1o | Could the mechanism of a quartz watch be used to lift something heavy like a car? | I understand that quartz watches use piezoelectricity to drive cogs. I'm wondering if you could use those cogs to drive larger cogs, at a really low gear ratio, and lift something very heavy, or would some part of the mechanism be likely to fail? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c56uwe4"
],
"text": [
"Maybe, although it may take a while due to the watch's low power output, not to mention lots and lots of batteries. \n\nThe biggest problem would be overcoming friction in the gearing system. Even though you can gear down the system to accommodate the limited torque output of the watch, you still have to overcome the friction between all the necessary gears, bearings, etc. Said friction may or may not be low enough for the watch to handle. \n\nWith a frictionless system, the answer would be yes. As a wise man once said, “Give me a lever long enough and a fulcrum on which to place it, and I shall move the world.”"
],
"score": [
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Could the mechanism of a quartz watch be used to lift something heavy like a car?
I understand that quartz watches use piezoelectricity to drive cogs. I'm wondering if you could use those cogs to drive larger cogs, at a really low gear ratio, and lift something very heavy, or would some part of the mechanism be likely to fail? | [
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|
cifod9 | When they say that epithelium/parenchyma is the functional part of cells, what precisely do they mean by functional? | The epithelium covers outer organ and inner part of cavities, but what about that is functional? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ev7opv1"
],
"text": [
"If you take the example of the stomach, it's functions are to produce gastric acid that helps in digestion. The stomach has many layers: epithelium (mucosa), submucosa, muscle layer and srrosal layer. The mucosal layer is what produces the gastric juices. Hence, it is the functional part. The muscle aid I mixing the acid with food and propelling it into the intestines. Intestines have similar layers. If function of intestine is to absorb nutrients, it happens through specific transport proteins present in its epithelial layer. \n\nSo the primary function of the organ is performed by the epithelium. Hence, its called the functional part"
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | When they say that epithelium/parenchyma is the functional part of cells, what precisely do they mean by functional?
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|
m4oe7 | Are there common foods that are fine on their own, but a bad idea to eat together? | To clarify, I'm interested to know if there are unexpected reactions when eating some foods together.
I'm sure there are foods that are just bad for you, but that's not surprising unless their components are "less bad" when eaten alone. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2y2v1m"
],
"text": [
"There are combinations of foods which if taken together, will inhibit the absorption of various nutrients (a quick scan through the previous thread didn't seem to have these but I may have just missed a post) - examples include oxalic acid (spinach, kale etc) which inhibits calcium absorption."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Are there common foods that are fine on their own, but a bad idea to eat together?
To clarify, I'm interested to know if there are unexpected reactions when eating some foods together. I'm sure there are foods that are just bad for you, but that's not surprising unless their components are "less bad" when eaten alone. | [
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|
s6x98 | What do you do when you read a paper in a well-respected journal that incorrectly cites something? | This is a general question, but I'll provide a specific example below.
What do you do if a paper cites a study to support their argument/data, but the paper actually directly contradicts it?
I'm preparing for a major experiment and in my literature review I'm reading into all of the sources that my experiment will be premised upon. The study that this project is based on is somewhat novel and so I have apprehension about using their paradigm. My anxiety is compounded in the fact that some of their findings directly contradict preliminary results that my lab has generated.
The main issue here, is that they cite the aberrant finding as "reproducing the results shown in [paper] et al." Reading that paper, it directly contradicts their findings (i.e. shows the exact opposite).
Other papers contain major statistical oversights but that is neither here nor there. Other papers cite protocols from other studies, but when you go read those studies they don't contain the relevant protocol (or even cite a different paper that does).
At what point do you write the journal? These papers are being cited heavily in my field. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c4blyi4",
"c4bpmv3"
],
"text": [
"> Other papers cite protocols from other studies, but when you go read those studies they don't contain the relevant protocol (or even cite a different paper that does).\n\nThe part in parenthesis I've encountered quite often, and it only means one extra step to find the original protocol. I find that, in terms of protocols, the citations are often quite reliable. It may be obscure, so it's not immediately obvious, but I've yet to encounter a paper citing a protocol that _just isn't there_.",
"1. Discuss with you PI\n2. Email the editors\n3. Email the authors\n4. Complete your study, write it up, and have a part of your discussion address your concerns with the literature\n\nbest regards!"
],
"score": [
6,
6
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | What do you do when you read a paper in a well-respected journal that incorrectly cites something?
This is a general question, but I'll provide a specific example below. What do you do if a paper cites a study to support their argument/data, but the paper actually directly contradicts it? I'm preparing for a major experiment and in my literature review I'm reading into all of the sources that my experiment will be premised upon. The study that this project is based on is somewhat novel and so I have apprehension about using their paradigm. My anxiety is compounded in the fact that some of their findings directly contradict preliminary results that my lab has generated. The main issue here, is that they cite the aberrant finding as "reproducing the results shown in [paper] et al." Reading that paper, it directly contradicts their findings (i.e. shows the exact opposite). Other papers contain major statistical oversights but that is neither here nor there. Other papers cite protocols from other studies, but when you go read those studies they don't contain the relevant protocol (or even cite a different paper that does). At what point do you write the journal? These papers are being cited heavily in my field. | [
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|
k2b9r | Question about defecating | Besides the fact that there is pressure being released from various places (rectum, pelvis) and toxins/other wastes being expelled from your body... Is there a, or what is the, specific NT or hormone that is being released that makes you feel the way you do (good, light, satisfied) after you poop?
Some other ideas were: Could it possibly be the your blood pressure dropping quickly after you've completed your bowel movement? Could the pressure and material being released be stimulating the pelvic/hypogastric nerve? I just didn't think that releasing pressure alone could make you have that sense of "feel good" after—I figure there had to be some specific hormone(s) or neurotransmitter(s).
I looked around for a while and found some other interesting things... and speculation, but couldn't find the answer to this specifically. I hope my question is clear enough! | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2h04uu"
],
"text": [
"The intestinal tract has its own nervous system, the enteric nervous system, which is large and very complicated. It is capable of functioning independently of the brain. It uses a lot of serotonin and dopamine for signalling, and much has been written on the subject.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nI don't exactly know which neurotransmitter is responsible for discomfort. I know that serotonin is crucial to nausea, which is how ondansetron works (5HT3 receptor antagonist).\n\nWhile there is probably a NT responsible for rectal discomfort, there probably isn't one for the feeling of relief afterwards (at least not peripherally). Relieving discomfort, in pretty much any scenario, can give a similar good feeling. If you've ever gone skiing, think of the feeling of putting your shoes on afterwards. Or if you've ever gone to a dentist with a bad toothache, think of the relief of the anesthetic."
],
"score": [
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8598871"
]
} | Question about defecating
Besides the fact that there is pressure being released from various places (rectum, pelvis) and toxins/other wastes being expelled from your body... Is there a, or what is the, specific NT or hormone that is being released that makes you feel the way you do (good, light, satisfied) after you poop? Some other ideas were: Could it possibly be the your blood pressure dropping quickly after you've completed your bowel movement? Could the pressure and material being released be stimulating the pelvic/hypogastric nerve? I just didn't think that releasing pressure alone could make you have that sense of "feel good" after—I figure there had to be some specific hormone(s) or neurotransmitter(s). I looked around for a while and found some other interesting things... and speculation, but couldn't find the answer to this specifically. I hope my question is clear enough! | [
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35x353 | How can I interpret c^2 or v^2? | It is hard for me to visualize this concept. I can visualize velocity and I can visualize acceleration. However, I cannot visualize a squared velocity. What does that even mean?
When you consider the formula F = ma, this makes perfect sense to me because that just means mass at an acceleration. But e=mc^2 means mass at a what? I know if you rearrange the formula, it can be e=F*d (constant force through a distance). Is this the only way to interpret the formula?
Someone had mentioned that c^2 is just a constant and does not mean anything. I don't see how that can be true. If it was just a coefficient sure, but I don't see how a constant means nothing.
**EDIT**: To clarify my question, I'm not asking about what c^2 is or how e=mc^2 was derived. That was just an example. I'm wondering how to interpret velocity * velocity in general. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"> e=mc2 means mass at a what?\n\nE=mc^2 means the energy of mass at rest. The *c^2* in this equation is the square of the speed of light, but *c* is much more than just that. What Einstein really discovered in Special Relativity was that the universe does not exhibit what is known as *Galilean Symmetry,* in which there are no preferred positions or speeds in the universe. Instead, there is in fact one special speed in the universe, *c*, which is *invariant*, meaning that all observers everywhere agree on its value. Anything traveling at *c* in one reference frame also travels at *c* in all other (inertial) reference frames. All the \"weird\" consequences of SR are a result of applying this axiom. \n\nThe fact that light happens to travel at this speed is almost an afterthought. Nothing would have to actually travel at *c* in order for it to still be a fundamental quantity describing, not the speed of any accidental phenomenon, but something fundamental about the structure of the universe.\n\nHence *c* in E=mc^2 is not the mere \"speed of light,\" but rather \"the Lorentz invariant speed of the Universe,\" a fundamental universal constant, like *G* or ℏ, both of which, by the way, also carry units.\n\n > if you rearrange the formula, it can be e=F*d\n\nNo, E=mc^2 and E=Fd describe two totally different things. E=mc^2 describes the energy contained in mass at rest, whereas E=Fd describes the *energy given* to a body when acted upon by a classical force, and is always zero when the mass is at rest (since at rest, the distance traveled must be zero).",
"I'm not physicist, but I can give a quick answer, and maybe someone else will come along and give a better one.\n\nFirst thing, e=mc^2 wasnt just written down out of no where, it was derived from other equations. Indeed, it is a result that can be derived in all sorts of ways, including one of my favorites just [imagining a photon in a box](_URL_0_).\n\nHowever, another way, comes from using \"Lorentz Transformations\". A simplified version of this comes from simply imagining what would happen if a beam of light bounced between two mirrors, [the two mirrors were moving](_URL_1_). The light beam then moves in the shape of a triangle. Everyone knows that when it comes to triangles, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the square of the other two sides. And as one of the sides is proportional to 1/c, we end up with a c^2 in our equation.\n\nSo enough with the derivation. What does unit's squared mean? Well, I think you need to ask yourself, why do you have no problem with a unit of force times a unit of distance, but a yet a unit of velocity times a unit of velocity seems unnatural to you. Does acceleration freak you out because it is proportional to 1 over seconds divided by seconds? And I hope you don't have an issue with area or volume, because if you do, you're head might explode of you find out that the definition of a volt is kg ⋅ m^2 ⋅ s^−3 ⋅ A^−1\n\nWhat I'm getting at, is I can multiply anything by anything, and if I do, then the units are multiplied. Sometimes those results have obvious real work, tangible significance, and sometimes they don't.\n\nTo answer the volt thing, one can see how the units come about. A voltage = How many Joules of energy per Coloumb of charge do particles have: v = J/C. Joules = Energy = 1/2*m*v^2 = kg * (m/s)^2 = kg . m^2 . s^-2 . A Coulomb is how much charge flows past a point during an amp of current, hence C = A . s . So v = (kg . m^2 . s^-2) / (A . s) = kg . m^2 . s^-3 . A^-1"
],
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.adamauton.com/warp/emc2.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_dilation#Simple_inference_of_time_dilation_due_to_relative_velocity"
]
} | How can I interpret c^2 or v^2?
It is hard for me to visualize this concept. I can visualize velocity and I can visualize acceleration. However, I cannot visualize a squared velocity. What does that even mean? When you consider the formula F = ma, this makes perfect sense to me because that just means mass at an acceleration. But e=mc^2 means mass at a what? I know if you rearrange the formula, it can be e=F*d (constant force through a distance). Is this the only way to interpret the formula? Someone had mentioned that c^2 is just a constant and does not mean anything. I don't see how that can be true. If it was just a coefficient sure, but I don't see how a constant means nothing. **EDIT**: To clarify my question, I'm not asking about what c^2 is or how e=mc^2 was derived. That was just an example. I'm wondering how to interpret velocity * velocity in general. | [
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|
7gmavi | Late Thanksgiving question: Is roux an emulsifier as well as a thickener? | Oil and water don't mix unless you use something like a surfactant or emulsifier. When making my Thanksgiving gravy, I got to thinking, I'm mixing oil and flour, and then mixing that with water. Yes it's thickening it, but it's also holding it in suspension(as long as I follow the recipe ).
Furthermore is it the roux or simply the wheat flour? And what is it about the wheat flour, simply the surface area giving enough to bind to? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dqkt6id"
],
"text": [
"The roux, just the flour and fat mixture, has both thickening and emulsifying properties.\n\nThe starch and gluten (to a lesser degree) act as thickeners. Once dissolved in water they will form a loose gel-like network. This network helps trap the fat and liquid portions of the sauce. \n\nThe starch also acts as an emulsifier which aids suspending the fat portion of the roux in the liquid (mostly water) which forms the bulk of the sauce (white, cheese, what have you)"
],
"score": [
6
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Late Thanksgiving question: Is roux an emulsifier as well as a thickener?
Oil and water don't mix unless you use something like a surfactant or emulsifier. When making my Thanksgiving gravy, I got to thinking, I'm mixing oil and flour, and then mixing that with water. Yes it's thickening it, but it's also holding it in suspension(as long as I follow the recipe ). Furthermore is it the roux or simply the wheat flour? And what is it about the wheat flour, simply the surface area giving enough to bind to? | [
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|
nanl8 | How will the researchers at CERN know when they find the Higg's Boson? | What kind of data or anomalies will tell scientists that they've stumbled upon the Higg's boson? I understand how detection works for other subatomic particles, but how could you differentiate that data from the Higg's? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c37ltf6"
],
"text": [
"[Here's a list of processes](_URL_1_) that produce the Higgs Boson as a product, also [here](_URL_0_), with a signature of particles it produces, that they plan to look for."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATLAS#Physics_Program",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higgs_boson#Experimental_search"
]
} | How will the researchers at CERN know when they find the Higg's Boson?
What kind of data or anomalies will tell scientists that they've stumbled upon the Higg's boson? I understand how detection works for other subatomic particles, but how could you differentiate that data from the Higg's? | [
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|
5zr1d7 | Can the used of biased language/words/nomenclature delay the process of gaining scientific insight? Has this been explicitly studied before? | [deleted] | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"df2d97q"
],
"text": [
"I'm not at all convinced this is something we WANT to eliminate. Removing all of your semantic bias would be effectively erasing 80% of your education in the field (all but abstract scientific principles). How effective would a biologist be if they had no knowledge of basic semantics in their specific field, no knowledge of anatomy, no knowledge of biological hierarchies we've established, no knowledge of metabolism processes or what photosynthesis is. Etc. Etc.\n\nThey wouldn't be effective whatsoever. They would be as useless as a psychologist tossed into a particle physics lab or vice versa: both know science methods, but both would be trash at their new jobs without any of that semantic bias guiding them to reasonable connections, insights, non repetition, etc.\n\nI think you're describing a minor drawback of a very necessary thing overall."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Can the used of biased language/words/nomenclature delay the process of gaining scientific insight? Has this been explicitly studied before?
[deleted] | [
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30e87u | What is the motivation behind attempting to account for the variance in experimental science, rather than the central tendency? | For instance, in neuroscience papers experimentalists frequently describe their model/analysis as explaining some percentage of the variance. What is the intuition behind this approach? | askscience | {
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"This is actually a question about statistics!\n\ntl;dr : read /u/genebeam's example below instead.\n\nImagine we are measuring something. Let's start with a simple example like using a ruler to measure the length of a pencil. We might take several measurements and get slightly different answers every single time. This source of variability in our data is due to measurement error - we don't believe that the pencil is changing every time we measure its length; rather, our measurement is imprecise. \n\nSuppose instead of just measuring one pencil, we are now measuring the lengths of 100 pencils. I tried to get them to be as similar as possible, but that's very difficult, so some are a little longer and some are a little shorter. Again, we end up with different measurements when we measure the lengths of all of these pencils. Part of the difference (variability in pencil length measurement!) is again due to measurement imprecision, but now it is also due to differences in pencil lengths as well. \n\nNow let's do an experiment: I want to find out if pencils, like metal, expand when heated. I'm going to split my 100 pencils (which I assume to be approximately the same length) into two groups of 50. I will then heat one group of pencils (and assume that I heat each pencil in that group by the same amount) and do nothing to my other group of pencils. I will then measure the lengths of each pencil, compute the average pencil length of pencils in each group, and compare them. Notice that now there are even more possible reasons why I might get different measurements for each pencil: (1) measurement error, (2) the pencils are different (from each other and across groups), and (3) I heated up one group (the experimental manipulation) and not the other. \n\nI want to perform a statistical analysis that will let me say that the difference between average pencil length across the two groups is due to my experimental manipulation (heating of the pencils) and not due to the other possible sources of variability (measurement error or inter-pencil differences). This is the basis of [analysis of variance (ANOVA)](_URL_0_). \n\nFor example, suppose that every time a measure a single pencil over and over again, my measurements vary by 1.3 mm. Across the 50 pencils in my control (un-heated group), the average length is 55 mm, but the longest is 58.1 mm and the shortest is 53.7 mm (all others are somewhere in between). For my heated group of pencils, the average length is 55.9 mm, with the longest being 57.8 mm and the shortest being 54.2 mm. Just comparing the numbers 55 (average length of pencils in unheated group) and 55.9 (average length of pencils in heated group) we might be tempted to say that heating lengthens pencils by approximately 1 mm on average. But that's not necessarily true! Look at how much variability there is in pencil length. Maybe this difference is just due to the heated group starting off with slightly longer pencils on average than the unheated group. If my ruler is really crummy, maybe the measurements just fell in the right direction for the heated group. Or take a look at my measurement error: I may be off by 1.3 mm every time I measure *the exact same pencil*! How can I be sure that the difference of just 1 mm is actually due the heating and not something funky with my measurements? I need some method for determining whether the differences between the averages in my two groups is due to / can be accounted for by / can be explain by variability due to error (measurement or differences between pencils) or whether it's due to my experimental manipulation. This is the idea behind ANOVA.\n\n(Note that we can get rid of some of the error variance by using a within-subjects design: measuring one set of pencils and then heating that same set! Now we don't have to worry about differences in starting pencil lengths across the two groups since we're using the same pencils in both groups).\n\nIf you took any intro stats classes, you were probably taught about ANOVA and regression in separate units. However, ANOVA and regression are the exact same thing (mathematically) - implementations of the [general linear model](_URL_1_). In regression, we are also interested in how much of the difference or variability in one variable (the dependent variable) can be explained by another (or several) variables (the independent variables or predictors or factors). (Ditto correlation, with the caveat that correlations are usually shown for observed but not manipulated variables).\n\nHere's a neuroscience example to tie back in to your original question. Suppose I am measuring the number of spikes per second from a single neuron and I want to know how this quantity changes when the owner of this neuron is doing some task (looking at a light say). I might measure the neuron's activity for 10 s, and get several spike counts for each 1 s period. These won't be the same! Some of the variability might be due to unexplained factors affecting the baseline (some stochasticity or kooky quantum stuff, who knows) -- this is like having 10 pencils, but they aren't all exactly the same length. I'm also not convinced that my electrode or other equipment is perfect, so maybe I'm missing a spike every once in a while or erroneously adding an extra spike to the count (measurement error). Now I show the light, measure spike counts for 10 s again and want to know if the number of spikes I record is different from the number I recorded without a light. We can think of this in terms of ANOVA as we did before, or we can think of it as a regression in this way:\n\n num spikes = presence of light * effect of light + baseline spikes + error\n\npresence of light can either be a 0 or a 1. If it's 0 (no light), then:\n\n num spikes = baseline spikes + error \n\nThe error term captures the fact that there is variability in how many spikes I measure even if there is no light (either due to measurement error or variability in the signal itself).\n\nIf there is a light, then presence of light = 1 and the equation becomes\n\n num spikes = effect of light + baseline spikes + error\n\neffect of light captures how many spikes are caused by or explained by there being a light. If the effect of light is negligible, then the # of spikes won't change very much if the light is on or off. The variability in the # of spikes would depend mostly on the error. However, if the effect of light is large, then that means that having the light on would cause large changes in the number of spikes. That is, the variability in the number of spikes during the experiment is mostly due to the variability in whether the light is on or not, and not due to other sources of variability (error term). \n\nWe can talk about this in terms of how much of the variability in the number of spikes is *explained* by the variability in the light (whether it's on or not). If it's a lot, then that just means that the light has a large effect; if not, then the light doesn't do anything.\n\nAgain, this is just a general way of understanding regression / ANOVA and is not specifically restricted to neuroscience / neuroscience papers.\n\nedit: changed around a few things to try to make it a bit clearer in the example",
"I'll attempt a briefer answer than /u/albasri's excellent example.\n\nIf experimentalists are looking to \"account for the variation\" it's because they trying to see if particular factor (such as one they manipulated) changes the central tendency. You can also try to do this for an observational study.\n\nSimple example: take a bunch of schoolchildren. You'll find their heights range quite a bit. Then look at the heights of all the children who are the same age, for each age. Among all children of a fixed age, the heights range a lot less than they do for all the children lumped together. The conclusion is something like \"among elementary school children, age accounts for 70% of the height variation.\" It's just a fancy way of saying age predicts height, to an extent (though it doesn't say age *causes* height, even though in this example that's probably also true).\n\nI'm not sure what you mean by finding the \"central tendency\", but it sounds like something that would precede or be a small part of an experimental or observational study. In my example, it might be finding the average or median height of all the children."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis_of_variance",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_linear_model"
]
} | What is the motivation behind attempting to account for the variance in experimental science, rather than the central tendency?
For instance, in neuroscience papers experimentalists frequently describe their model/analysis as explaining some percentage of the variance. What is the intuition behind this approach? | [
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|
xpann | When trying two different but similar things, I always tend to like the first one more. Why is this? | Unless the second one really blows me away, I'll stick to what I first experienced. Is there a term for this? I found that this applies many things, especially albums by the same band or movie sequels. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c5of4fs"
],
"text": [
"It is a known effect called the [status quo bias](_URL_1_). It's related to the [loss aversion](_URL_0_) fallacy in that humans are not always wired to think logically: our subconscious values what we have over what we might acquire unless there's a *very* clear advantage to changing."
],
"score": [
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_aversion",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Status_quo_bias"
]
} | When trying two different but similar things, I always tend to like the first one more. Why is this?
Unless the second one really blows me away, I'll stick to what I first experienced. Is there a term for this? I found that this applies many things, especially albums by the same band or movie sequels. | [
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j3ff5 | Scientists of Reddit: How do you go about devising an awesome research project? | I've just started work in my PhD lab, studying cellular/molecular neuroscience...I've been given tons of flexibility in devising a dissertation project, but this benefit comes with the risks of proposing sophomorish or otherwise misdirected project ideas. For those who have successfully developed an independent research plan, I'd love to hear your advice for finding interesting scientific questions! | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c28ux6i",
"c28t3w1",
"c28vthc"
],
"text": [
"I'm currently in graduate school, but did a stint at the NIH where I proposed and completed a project that ended in a first and corresponding authorship. All my rotation projects and my thesis project came from my noggen. \n\nHere's how it's done (atleast for me): Take on a project that you really don't like. Thats what I like to call \"the Motivation.\" Next, panic! Afterwords, chill out by reading a bunch of papers, especially recent reviews, or go to some seminars. Now look at those papers and seminars that you Really enjoyed. What was the topic? BAM you have a topic. When you were reading or listening, did you ever scrunch your face in disbelief? BAM you've got a question. Now the most important part, go to your mentor (who isn't always your boss) and talk about: A) what you found really interesting; B) your question about the topic; C) what they find interesting about the topic/question. Lastly, quit that stupid project. It wasn't going anywhere anyway.\n\nNow you just hash it out, read papers, refine your ideas. Thats how it works for me.",
"I got my project by gluing myself to the postdoc in our lab my first year. I helped him do his work, and saw a lot of avenues for improvement. When he left, I took the project over and did my thing. I also worked on a few other projects here and there by just screwing around with stuff I thought was interesting. I had some harebrained ideas that went nowhere, and a few that panned out.\n\nSo I guess what I'm saying is just do work on whatever you can find, and talk to all the people in your lab about what they are doing and why. The research questions you want to answer should grow out of that.",
"I recommend starting out by reading the literature about the current state of the field in which you're interested. Until you have a grasp of what is known (or what the experts *think* they know), it's difficult to know what would be novel. Of course, try to pursue something that really gets you fired up, but sometimes dissertations end up being side projects that you find along the way (interesting or not!). Best wishes!"
],
"score": [
2,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Scientists of Reddit: How do you go about devising an awesome research project?
I've just started work in my PhD lab, studying cellular/molecular neuroscience...I've been given tons of flexibility in devising a dissertation project, but this benefit comes with the risks of proposing sophomorish or otherwise misdirected project ideas. For those who have successfully developed an independent research plan, I'd love to hear your advice for finding interesting scientific questions! | [
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|
pms8a | What does (nA/PPm) mean in terms of sensitivity? | I'm doing some research on carbon monoxide sensors and i have come across this unit when Referring to sensitivity of a sensor but am not sure what is is referring to. i know what parts per million are but the nA is a mystery. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3qn3w5"
],
"text": [
"Electrochemical sensors are often electronic devices such that when a certain voltage is applied across them, conduct an amount of current that is approximately directly proportional to the amount of chemical they are sensing. This approximation is only valid when the applied voltage is within a certain range -- outside of this plateau region the sensor will not behave as linearly. \n\nBack to your original question, the sensitivity is nanoamperes per part per million of concentration (most likely in the context of suggested or typical application circuit)"
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | What does (nA/PPm) mean in terms of sensitivity?
I'm doing some research on carbon monoxide sensors and i have come across this unit when Referring to sensitivity of a sensor but am not sure what is is referring to. i know what parts per million are but the nA is a mystery. | [
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|
1jf3g6 | What are the differences between a "hitchhiker's thumb" and the alternative? Is there any clue to its origin and usefulness? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cbe1b4u"
],
"text": [
"[Hitchhiker's thumb is a manufactured myth.](_URL_0_) In a large enough population, the range of angles seen between the first and second phalanges of the human thumb covers a continuous range with a normal distribution. Hitchhiker's thumb only appears if you pick an arbitrary angle (say, 50 & deg;) and define hitchhiker's thumb as any result greater than that."
],
"score": [
6
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://udel.edu/~mcdonald/myththumb.html"
]
} | What are the differences between a "hitchhiker's thumb" and the alternative? Is there any clue to its origin and usefulness?
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9wvsyt | Has there been a documented case of speciation of wildlife due to a man made object? | I was driving on the freeway, and was thinking about animals crossing the road. Since it'd be pretty dangerous to cross a large city freeway, I'd imagine there could be a separation of populations (of non-flying animals/insects).
So, has there ever been a documented separation of populations by a man made object leading to a speciation event? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"e9r1g8z"
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"text": [
"You might be interested in the emergence of Culex pipiens molestus, aka the London Underground mosquito.\n\n\"The surface and subterranean populations were genetically distinct, with no evidence of gene flow between closely adjacent populations of the different forms, whereas there was little differentiation between the different populations of each form. The substantially reduced heterozygosity in the Underground populations and the allelic composition suggest that colonization of the Underground has occurred once or very few times. Breeding experiments show compatibility between the Underground populations but not with those breeding above ground.\"\n\nSource : _URL_0_"
],
"score": [
4
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.nature.com/articles/6884120"
]
} | Has there been a documented case of speciation of wildlife due to a man made object?
I was driving on the freeway, and was thinking about animals crossing the road. Since it'd be pretty dangerous to cross a large city freeway, I'd imagine there could be a separation of populations (of non-flying animals/insects). So, has there ever been a documented separation of populations by a man made object leading to a speciation event? | [
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|
6o3ggh | After hearing an inspirational talk or interview, in which the listeners have interest, what percentage of the listeners take some action to change their life or environment? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dkebx5o"
],
"text": [
"I'm unaware of any solid literature regarding the effectiveness of motivational speakers. Motivational speaking tends to be a money making career path. Motivational speakers don't have to be licensed clinical providers and there is no requirement that their seminars actually work. Given this, they have no incentive to support rigorous research examining their systems as they don't need research of efficacy to make money and research failing to show efficacy would hurt their business. \n\nFrom a research perspective there isn't much reason to believe that motivational seminars would be efficacious. Most of these seminars clearly rely on enthusiasm and social cohesion within the seminar group to drive behavior change. Neither of those factors affect the kind of contingencies that are associated with long term behavioral change. The field seems to have narrowed on strategies like motivational interviewing, values work, and contingency management to drive behavioral change. These approaches have at least indirect (and in some cases direct) evidence of efficacy from clincial trials. \n\nIt's not impossible that motivational seminars would work. However, like a lot of pseudoscientific approaches, there isn't much incentive for the proponents of these techniques to challenge their own system with science. That combined with the obvious money-making techniques that are employed by these seminars should make you very wary. \n\nMy personal opinion is that motivational seminars are there own reinforcement. People like to go, get caught up in the moment, and imagine what it would be like for their life to be better for a little while. It's sort of like buying a lottery ticket and imagining what you'll do with the money. There is something addictive about that process even if it doesn't actually help the individual reach their goals. Most patients I see who bring up these seminars have been to literally dozens of them and read sometimes hundreds of similar books."
],
"score": [
6
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | After hearing an inspirational talk or interview, in which the listeners have interest, what percentage of the listeners take some action to change their life or environment?
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||
13s2ii | Has there been any studies on the most effective method of falling alseep (without drugs)? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c76oqy8"
],
"text": [
"This is a hard topic to study because it depends a lot on your sleeping environment. Do you live in a loud city? Is your room dark enough? Do you have roommates that are smoking outside your door? Did you watch TV right before bed or drink coffee today?\n\nSleep studies are sometimes performed using the [multiple sleep latency test](_URL_0_). Basically, they put you in a dark, silent room and they measure how long it takes you to fall asleep. You're just not allowed to have any stimulants before the test.\n\nYou'll find that it is very uncommon that a healthy person takes more than 20 minutes to fall asleep. If you remove stimulants from your diet and have a healthy sleeping environment (practice good \"sleep hygiene\"), you will almost surely fall asleep within 20 minutes.\n\nSo, studying this topic becomes moot: if people almost always have an MSLT below 20 minutes, then it must be the environment keeping you up as opposed to how much you toss and turn or think.\n\nAs a side-note, people typically advise getting out of bed after ~30 mins of sleepless rest and doing something else for a bit."
],
"score": [
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_Sleep_Latency_Test"
]
} | Has there been any studies on the most effective method of falling alseep (without drugs)?
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||
11shv8 | Super soldiers and human engineering | Hello askscience, if you would indulge me with a pseudo-science question of sorts I'd greatly appreciate it.
In science fiction there's the common trope of the genetically enhanced/engineered Super soldier, the most famous examples perhaps being the SPARTAN of Halo (_URL_1_) and the Space Marine of Warhammer 40k (_URL_0_)
As difficult as this may be to answer, I was wondering how plausible it would be for such a process to exist?
Edit: Also to be specifically clear - I don't strictly mean presently, I'm more curious about the plausibility of the 'concept' as we currently understand physiology/biology. The two examples are provided as examples of the trope, rather than specific points of interest. :) | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c6p8z43",
"c6p7cir",
"c6qwoim"
],
"text": [
"Some of the Space Marine enhancements wouldn't be feasible anyway. In particular I think the carapace would interfere with the way the ribs and intercostal muscles work to inflate the lungs. I aways thought the acid spit was a bit suspect (how don't they burn themselves?) and the ability to aquire memories of food eaten (not sure memories work that way).\n\nAside from the fantasy element, genetic enhancements can only go so far without extensive (and expensive) training and technological augmentation. It may prove easier or more desirable simply to select candidates from a diverse population and give them serious training (possibly from birth, similar to the original Spartans).\n\nGood genes will get you so far, but if any athlete/genius, sits eating burgers and watching porn for long enough they are unikely to make for good warrior gods.\n\nTL;DR training and bionics may be more economical than genes anyway",
"Well, as a Biomedical Engineering student with a developing career in a human genomics laboratory, I guess I could give you this analogy:\n\nWarp Drive is to Physics what the Spartans are to Biomedical Engineering -- that is to say, both concepts are neat ideas, and that is all. Biomedical engineering is rudimentary compared to the technological protocols necessary to do something like either of those Science Fiction hypotheticals.",
"There are current advances in gene therapy using viruses to restore vision in certain types of blindness and other conditions where a gene/protein is introduced back to the patient who cannot make that protein themselves. The main problem with such gene therapy is that the amount of protein produced is often still insufficient to complete cure the patient, partially b/c the immune system freaks out or the viral infection rate is insufficient. We already know of certain proteins to inhibit to increase muscle mass in mice, and during Olympics a Chinese swimmer was accused of getting enhanced using the same method (which is silly). There is also grandiose plans to remake mammoths by introducing newly synthesized bits of mammoth DNA into elephant eggs.\n\nSo what I am trying to say - while gene therapy/genetic enhancement is at best rudimentary, it's possible, and we will figure it out eventually. I really hope it will be for the sake of saving kids and helping people live longer, more productive lives instead of making silly super soldiers that go \"grrrr\"."
],
"score": [
8,
7,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://wh40k.lexicanum.com/wiki/Creation_of_a_Space_Marine",
"http://halo.wikia.com/wiki/SPARTAN-II_augmentation_procedures"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | Super soldiers and human engineering
Hello askscience, if you would indulge me with a pseudo-science question of sorts I'd greatly appreciate it. In science fiction there's the common trope of the genetically enhanced/engineered Super soldier, the most famous examples perhaps being the SPARTAN of Halo (_URL_1_) and the Space Marine of Warhammer 40k (_URL_0_) As difficult as this may be to answer, I was wondering how plausible it would be for such a process to exist? Edit: Also to be specifically clear - I don't strictly mean presently, I'm more curious about the plausibility of the 'concept' as we currently understand physiology/biology. The two examples are provided as examples of the trope, rather than specific points of interest. :) | [
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] |
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