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xdwdd | Answer of the Week #1 - Winners | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c5linrw"
],
"text": [
"Cool - thanks for the nomination. I hope you'll be sending messages to the winners to let them know of this thread. Communicating science is a really important part of educating the lay-public, and I'd hate for those people who get this recognition (even as simple as this is) to miss it."
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Answer of the Week #1 - Winners
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||
u0fyk | I just received a telescope and discovered that it is not sighted correctly. How do I fix this? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c4rdyb9"
],
"text": [
"Try r/astronomy. They are usually very helpful with this sort of question."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | I just received a telescope and discovered that it is not sighted correctly. How do I fix this?
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||
3gzkpe | Would this Crab Claw Mutation Function? | I saw [this](_URL_0_) post by /u/damn_u_scuba_steve which shows [this image of a mutated crab claw](_URL_1_) and I'm curious to know whether, had the crab lived, would the extra claw have functioned at all? I imagine it would but if so, would the crab have been able to control it independently from it's other claws? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cu3pczh"
],
"text": [
"The second set of claws looks fused in the picture, almost like it got two top claws growing out of its top claw instead of a top and a bottom. At a guess, whatever embryonic signal that says \"be a top claw\" was present in that region of the crab when the second set started growing.\n\nWe are safe from the menace of fractal crabs for now."
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/mildlyinteresting/comments/3gz5zj/this_crab_claw_grew_another_smaller_claw/",
"http://imgur.com/JXrmuS2"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | Would this Crab Claw Mutation Function?
I saw [this](_URL_0_) post by /u/damn_u_scuba_steve which shows [this image of a mutated crab claw](_URL_1_) and I'm curious to know whether, had the crab lived, would the extra claw have functioned at all? I imagine it would but if so, would the crab have been able to control it independently from it's other claws? | [
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|
4sd5sm | Why do we get hayfever, and howcome some people grow out of it? | As a sufferer, why do some people's bodies react to a bit of pollen in the nose as a threat, and why is it that in some people it can just go away? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d5ahc1b"
],
"text": [
"As far as I'm aware this hasn't been completely unraveled yet, but I still want to answer it to the best of my knowledge (life science student here).\nThe adaptive immune system which is part of the system that causes the alergic reaction uses certain proteins called antibodies to detect foreign structures (so called antigens) that have entered the body, such as viruses, bacteria, fungi etc. The way antibodies are built is a random process. A set of genes will be rearranged during this process until a functioning antibody can be produced (it isn't actually produced yet; just for the sake of clarity). During this process there is a surveilance going on to make sure that no antibodies can be produced that target self-antigens (antigens that naturally occur in the body). In the end you have a bunch of cells in the lymph nodes and spleen that can produce a unique type of antibody.\nTo make sure that, when a pathogen enters your body, the immune system presents the best possible reaction against the pathogen, the cells, that produce the antibodies, go through maturation. In this process the antibody will be refined. This process again is highly supervised by other cell types. But nontheless, the regulation process can go wrong which can cause your body to produce antibodies against harmless structes such as pollen. \nIf you suffer from hayfever you have a specific type of antibody (called IgE) that is bound to the surface of certain immune cell, the mast cells. These make up a large portion of immune cells in mucous membranes. Since the pollen is inhaled by you the will have immediate contact with the IgE on the surface of the mast cells and will cause a cascade of immune reactions which you experience as the symptoms of hayfever. \n\nUnfortunately I can't answer you the question why people grow out of it on their own. My guess would be that the immune system adapts over time. Only thing that related to that, that comes to my mind is the allergen immunotherapy. There you use subsequent doses of the antigen with increasing concentrations so that your body can get used to the presence of the antigen without reacting excessively.\n\nTL;DR: due to misregulation in the (primarily random) process of building the bodies immune system it can happen that the immune system show an extreme reaction to harmless structures."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Why do we get hayfever, and howcome some people grow out of it?
As a sufferer, why do some people's bodies react to a bit of pollen in the nose as a threat, and why is it that in some people it can just go away? | [
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c7mhye | How do epidural shots work? | I know that they block nerves but could anyone provide a more in depth explanation?
(i currently am doing my first anatomy course in University and I've done a couple pharmacology course but this question didn't cross my mind until recently)
Also, additional questions! What sort of receptors does it act on? What nerves do they block? what do the nerves usually innervate?? what sort of chemical is contained in an epidural shot?? how likely is someone to die/suffer an injury from an innaccurate / excess dose? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Here’s a very general layout (not a med professional, but have taken anatomy)\n\nYour brain has 3 membranes surrounding it. \nThe Pia-Mater (soft mother) is right against the grey & white matter (grey matter “thinks”, white matter “conducts”).\nArachnoid membrane (called that because it has the blood vessels in it and looks like a spiderweb).\nand the Dura-Mater (tough or hard mother) is the outermost thick layer which also extends to cover the entire spinal cord (I can’t recall if the Pia-Mater and arachnoid do, they might though)\n\nThe term nerve block doesn’t mean it “closes” the nerve (not like a valve or bending a hose at least), but it stops signals from moving through it with a strong anesthetic.\n\nAn epidural shot uses a needle to pierce the Dura-Mater, going between vertebra, and put anesthetic right onto the spinal cord, thereby stopping/weakening any signals from below that point on the body. \n\nEpidurals are generally only used to numb the lower parts of the body because the higher on the spine it goes the higher chances are something will go wrong.\n\nI do not know if epidurals always use the same anesthetic, but I do know that they are almost exclusively used for pain management. And I don’t know exactly what sort of transmitters are blocked but the receptors that send pain signals are called novice profs.\n\nEpidurals are fairly safe procedures (when done by trained professionals, obviously) but problems can occur if the needle goes too deep, is misplaced, or some such."
],
"score": [
2
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | How do epidural shots work?
I know that they block nerves but could anyone provide a more in depth explanation? (i currently am doing my first anatomy course in University and I've done a couple pharmacology course but this question didn't cross my mind until recently) Also, additional questions! What sort of receptors does it act on? What nerves do they block? what do the nerves usually innervate?? what sort of chemical is contained in an epidural shot?? how likely is someone to die/suffer an injury from an innaccurate / excess dose? | [
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|
1f0frx | Very basic electricity question | I was trying to clean the contacts on my NIMH battery pack for my RC car, it's a 7.2v 6-cell 4500mah pack. I ended up accidentally shorting it and it sparked like crazy and melted the plastic connector...
Now, I now that power (watts) is a function of voltage and current, and that resistance reduces current, and that when I shorted the battery terminals there was almost no resistance, so there was a ton of current but still limited to the 7.6 volts.
It occured to me that if a 7.6 volt cell could do that (it melted and fused the bristles of the wire brush I was using) that a 9 volt cell should be at least as powerful... so I tried this with a 9 volt cell, which is easy since both terminals are right on top, and I got very little reaction, it certainly wasn't enough to melt/fuse the copper wire bristles like the other battery did.
What am I missing that makes the 7.2v battery pack apparently so much more powerful when shorted than the 9 volt cell?
Thanks. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ca5ofr1",
"ca5qt4c",
"ca5yhnf",
"ca5npt4"
],
"text": [
"Batteries themselves have some internal resistance. The internal resistance in a 9 volt battery is actually quite high, so shorting the ends won't produce that much power.",
"> It occured to me that if a 7.6 volt cell could do that (it melted and fused the bristles of the wire brush I was using) that a 9 volt cell should be at least as powerful... so I tried this with a 9 volt cell\n\n[You are a true scientist!](_URL_0_) :-)",
"9 volt batteries have internal resistors to limit the flow. It also allows them to have a more consistent voltage over the life f the battery. When you shorted it, there was still resistance, it was just internal.",
"Are you thinking of [a 9-volt battery like this?](_URL_2_)\n\nInside one of these, [there are six very small alkaline cells.](_URL_2_) They are incapable of providing very much current at once, due to their size and composition (which is similar to 1/2 of a AAA each). If you tried the same thing with 6 D-cells in series instead, you would find the current would be much higher."
],
"score": [
7,
6,
5,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://xkcd.com/242/",
"http://www-cdf.fnal.gov/physics/new/hdg/Plain_English_files/9voltBattery.jpg",
"http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-S5PD46Mo4_s/Tc7zQ5I7KxI/AAAAAAAAAAM/ryDPIA_-sAU/s1600/inside-e1292823738808.jpg"
]
} | Very basic electricity question
I was trying to clean the contacts on my NIMH battery pack for my RC car, it's a 7.2v 6-cell 4500mah pack. I ended up accidentally shorting it and it sparked like crazy and melted the plastic connector... Now, I now that power (watts) is a function of voltage and current, and that resistance reduces current, and that when I shorted the battery terminals there was almost no resistance, so there was a ton of current but still limited to the 7.6 volts. It occured to me that if a 7.6 volt cell could do that (it melted and fused the bristles of the wire brush I was using) that a 9 volt cell should be at least as powerful... so I tried this with a 9 volt cell, which is easy since both terminals are right on top, and I got very little reaction, it certainly wasn't enough to melt/fuse the copper wire bristles like the other battery did. What am I missing that makes the 7.2v battery pack apparently so much more powerful when shorted than the 9 volt cell? Thanks. | [
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|
iyi9y | Looking for great physics/chemistry/biology demos for kids ... | ... I am going to be the "Science Guy" for a day care serving babies to 12 y/o's and am looking for some great, big demos to do in the name of science! I also teach full time, so I'm looking for a bit more than the simple volcano : > | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c27ont9",
"c27ovhh",
"c27rans",
"c27p5yx",
"c27qvmh"
],
"text": [
"Dry Ice and Liquid Nitrogen, if you can get it, always wows the kids.",
"*The Illustrated Guide to Home Chemistry* has some pretty cool and doable experiments in it. Also, nitrogen triiodide is always fun and isn't hard to prepare, but I'm not sure if its a good idea to have even small amounts of sensitive explosives around small kids. If you're not familiar with the demonstration, you prepare a small pile of wet NI3, let it dry, tie a feather to a stick and use it to detonate the NI3, producing a boom and a cloud of purple vapor.",
"Take large transparent bowl filled with water. Have kids stand around. Make them add pepper to said bowl. Pepper floats on surface of water. Add drop of dish washing liquid. All the pepper \"particles\" magically move to the edge. Not messy, lots to learn and teach and (this part irks me a lot) parents wont mind pepper and dish washing liquid near their kids. I've done this twice and they've liked it both times. Surface tension experiments are neat if you ask me.",
"Using food coloring and separate glass jars demonstrate what occurs when mixing a sample of one color with a sample of another color. It might be basic for the older kids, but my 3 year old loved it. You could always do the coke and mentos trick too.",
"From my high school class I believe we used to do \"Screaming Jelly Babies\" by melting potassium in a test tube then adding a jelly baby [or other genertic glucose baised confectionry] and watching the resultant reaction."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Looking for great physics/chemistry/biology demos for kids ...
... I am going to be the "Science Guy" for a day care serving babies to 12 y/o's and am looking for some great, big demos to do in the name of science! I also teach full time, so I'm looking for a bit more than the simple volcano : > | [
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|
107oxu | Hey Reddit, I was given a thermos of liquid nitrogen by a science friend and I have no idea what to do with it, any ideas? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c6b42v2",
"c6b4i4b"
],
"text": [
"Pour a small amount in a styrofoam cup. Dip a short (6\" or so) length of copper pipe in it. When the nitrogen stops boiling, the pipe will be as cold as it will get. Then, while it is still very cold, drop a strong magnet down the pipe. You will get best results if the pipe diameter is just big enough to fit the magnet without touching the sides. You could get all this stuff at Home Depot for a couple of bucks. Use a glove when handling the frozen pipe.\n\nYou can do this with a warm pipe too, but the results are much more dramatic with a pipe cooled to 77K.",
"Whatever you do, do it outside. If nitrogen boils quickly in an enclosed area, you can suffocate without knowing that you're about to die. There is a reason that the word \"nitrogen\" translates to \"suffocation gas\" in nearly every single language."
],
"score": [
4,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Hey Reddit, I was given a thermos of liquid nitrogen by a science friend and I have no idea what to do with it, any ideas?
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sy3hi | How far we are of making antigravity technology? | I've already seen some objectcs in an "antigravity state", like a magnet or something like that which "flies" when they dive it inside liquid nitrogen. But that's the most mindblowing thing I've ever seen so far.
How far are we from antigravity technology? Is there any big challenge today for it? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c4hy24l",
"c4hygc5"
],
"text": [
"Well, it's certainly possible to make magnets levitate, but that's magnetism, not gravity.\n\nUnfortunately, if my limited understanding of relativity is right, it's physically impossible to make \"true\" antigravity. Gravity always attracts, never repels; the closest thing you could do would be to hang a small planet over your head so that it pulls you upwards.",
"Very, very far, I would say.\n\nThere's a certain small chance that anti-matter is gravitationally repulsive, but it's speculated that it's not. The only theories we have of anti-gravity are really far out there theories. From everything we can tell, gravity is always attractive.\n\nAnti-gravity things would be pretty cool though. You let go of them, and they go rocketing into space. Considering we have no idea how we could make anti-gravity, and anything that would be anti-gravity would only exist likely on a sub-atomic scale, no one is very concerned with it other than theoretical physicists."
],
"score": [
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | How far we are of making antigravity technology?
I've already seen some objectcs in an "antigravity state", like a magnet or something like that which "flies" when they dive it inside liquid nitrogen. But that's the most mindblowing thing I've ever seen so far. How far are we from antigravity technology? Is there any big challenge today for it? | [
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|
1k6s61 | How does an IUC Paragaurd work? How does the copper wire prevent pregnancy? | I just got one and I was wondering how it works. I was told the copper creates an ion force field, but how does that prevent sperm from finding the egg? I was told this method of BC is immediately effective, and i am assuming that is due to the force field it creates? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cbm3q36"
],
"text": [
"Copper IUDs* (intrauterine device) essentially release small amounts of copper into the uterus, which causes a reaction from the uterus making it an unstable environment for sperm to survive in. It will also then prevent a fertilized egg from adhering to the uterine wall, leaving it to be flushed out."
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | How does an IUC Paragaurd work? How does the copper wire prevent pregnancy?
I just got one and I was wondering how it works. I was told the copper creates an ion force field, but how does that prevent sperm from finding the egg? I was told this method of BC is immediately effective, and i am assuming that is due to the force field it creates? | [
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|
iigqa | Question for Neuroscientist or anyone who knows alot about the brain. | Just want to start off by saying sorry if this is a stupid question but I got an idea recently and I wanted to know if it could work.I read something about how neurons that fire together wire together.I'm not sure what this is saying _URL_0_ it saying that when you do 2 things at the same time they become connected in the brain?
Anyways the idea I had was to connect my neurons for concentrating with neurons used for movement in my hand.I know that its not really how neurons work and that everything's kind of interconnected,but there are some areas that do more with movement and others that deal will feeling.I was wondering if concentrating on something while moving my hand would make it so that later in the future I would gain the ability to concentrate better while moving my hand.Or if whenever I'm happy I could move my hand and then later they would become connected,so then if Im UNhappy,moving my hand would make me happy.
I have a feeling I'm missing some basic thing that makes all this stupid so if you could tell me what that is,or if its actually a good idea, that would be great.If you need me to explain something just ask.Thank you. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c241ea2",
"c240ral",
"c2436m5"
],
"text": [
"> I read something about how neurons that fire together wire together.\n\n\nIt's a bit of an outdated phrase from [Hebbian learning](_URL_0_). While it has some relevance in actual neuroscience, it's not a generalization. It is fairly general in artificial neural networks, though.\n\nIt means that when two neurons fire (somewhat) independently in response to the same stimuli, they will strengthen their connection.\n\n\n > Anyways the idea I had was to connect my neurons for concentrating with neurons used for movement in my hand.\n\nYou're dipping into plasticity and training. \n\n\nBefore going further the rest of your stuff is a bit of a stretch of what to do, but not exactly unreasonable (see behavioral conditioning).",
"I think that the \"neurons that fire together wire together\" phenomena has more to do with what happens as the different parts of your brain are taking on their specialized functions. If during development one network of neurons becomes intertwined with another one, then two normally separate things can become interconnected. Synesthesia is an example, sometimes people will associate numbers with colors or even smells.\n\nI'm pretty sure this isn't something that people can manipulate (at least based on our current understanding of things). I'm not a neuroscientist though, so someone else will probably know better.",
"This sort of conditioned association might be possible, but it would have nothing to do with Hebbian learning. You're overstretching the principle."
],
"score": [
2,
2,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"exactly.Is"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebbian_theory"
]
} | Question for Neuroscientist or anyone who knows alot about the brain.
Just want to start off by saying sorry if this is a stupid question but I got an idea recently and I wanted to know if it could work.I read something about how neurons that fire together wire together.I'm not sure what this is saying _URL_0_ it saying that when you do 2 things at the same time they become connected in the brain? Anyways the idea I had was to connect my neurons for concentrating with neurons used for movement in my hand.I know that its not really how neurons work and that everything's kind of interconnected,but there are some areas that do more with movement and others that deal will feeling.I was wondering if concentrating on something while moving my hand would make it so that later in the future I would gain the ability to concentrate better while moving my hand.Or if whenever I'm happy I could move my hand and then later they would become connected,so then if Im UNhappy,moving my hand would make me happy. I have a feeling I'm missing some basic thing that makes all this stupid so if you could tell me what that is,or if its actually a good idea, that would be great.If you need me to explain something just ask.Thank you. | [
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|
1mq94z | How do I measure spring rates for small springs? I am aiming for finding out the PSI ratings of multiple springs. | The springs sizes range from a chap stick tube to egg roll size. They are firm springs and I only have simple tools and a scale to use. Any help would be great! | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ccby5g3"
],
"text": [
"measure the spring, compress the spring on the scale, remeasure the spring. the scale will tell you the force, and the difference in the lengths is the deflection. you can get the spring rate from these two numbers."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | How do I measure spring rates for small springs? I am aiming for finding out the PSI ratings of multiple springs.
The springs sizes range from a chap stick tube to egg roll size. They are firm springs and I only have simple tools and a scale to use. Any help would be great! | [
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|
67n28d | What is the mean temperature of ITER as a whole when running? | I was wondering, given that the fusion reactor chamber contains hydrogen and stuff at millions of degrees, does this notably increase the temperature of the reactor as a whole? I mean, the reactor weighs about 5000 tons of steel, but it also has 0.5 gram hydrogen in its reaction chamber at 100,000,000 Kelvin, so I’m wondering what temperature would the whole reactor as a whole have. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"ITER will use superconducting magnets. The magnets will be cooled to 4 Kelvin. Most of the experiment will be inside a cryostat which will be cooled to 80 Kelvin. \n\nThe material components facing the plasma will be subject to large heat loads, and they'll operate at several hundred degrees about room temperature. I don't know the number off hand."
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} | {
"url": []
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"url": []
} | What is the mean temperature of ITER as a whole when running?
I was wondering, given that the fusion reactor chamber contains hydrogen and stuff at millions of degrees, does this notably increase the temperature of the reactor as a whole? I mean, the reactor weighs about 5000 tons of steel, but it also has 0.5 gram hydrogen in its reaction chamber at 100,000,000 Kelvin, so I’m wondering what temperature would the whole reactor as a whole have. | [
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odst7 | Ignorant/Stupid Question, but I must know. Related to Star Wars. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"It's only the size of a moon, so perhaps it doesn't have enough gravity to maintain an atmosphere.\n\nAlso Star Wars isn't exactly Hard Science Fiction, so unless it's been specified somewhere in cannon it's really anyone's guess.",
"The movies seemed to imply that space was separated from the internal area of the death star by a force field or collection of them. In several scenes you see ship bays that are open to outer space. I'd say that they regulated the exchange of gases much like any closed system would.\n\nAs for whether or not an atmosphere would slowly form, it's hard to say. It would depend on things like how close they are to a star, other sources of charged particles, other gasses, etc.\n\nIf it were large enough and had enough gravity to keep the gas and something to protect it from being stripped away, then sure. But it's also implied that the Death Star performs hyper space jumps and I doubt that it's atmosphere would travel with it in that case, depending on how that is supposed to work. Although, they could recollect the atmosphere and then redeploy it upon arrival. But I'm not sure what use they would have for an atmosphere.",
"Not a scientist, but a big Star Wars nerd. \n\n[The first Deathstar was 160km in diameter, while the second was 900km in diameter.](/_URL_0_) Other relevant information is that it *seems* to be mostly hollow, especially if you allow in information from the expanded universe, where it's shown to have open-air parks. But even in just the movies we see large, open spaces like the hanger bays, high-ceilinged hallways, the huge chamber where Obi Wan disables the tractor beam, and, in the case of the second Deathstar, an area around the reactor core at the center that is large enough for the Millenium Falcon to fly around in with ease. The point is, it's mass is probably not very great. Now, if I remember high school physics clearly:\n\n**F = G * ((m1*m2)/d^2 ))**\n\nwhere F is the gravitational force imposed on an outside object (escaping gasses), G is the gravitational constant, m1 is the mass of the body (Deathstar), m2 is the mass of the outside object (escaping gasses), and d is the distance between the centers of gravity of the two objects.\n\nAnyway, so for the gasses to be pulled toward the Deathstar with enough force to create an atmosphere, the Deathstar would have to have a pretty big mass, as it's large radius (especially on the much larger second Deathstar) and the low mass of the gasses is going to act against that.\n\nOf course, this is all assuming that there is any gas leaving the Deathstar in the first place, which I'm not sure why there would be, aside from venting from the reactor core, if such venting exists. They do talk about an exhaust port that leads to the reactor core in the first film (this is what Luke shoots his torpedoes down), however, even that doesn't necessarily mean it would be constantly venting."
],
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://starwars.wikia.com/wiki/Death_Star"
]
} | Ignorant/Stupid Question, but I must know. Related to Star Wars.
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sk6t6 | Can someone explain the dopplereffect for me? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c4eo41j"
],
"text": [
"Most people are more familar with the Doppler effect when dealing with sound waves, for instance a truck sounding higher pitched as it approaches and sounding lower pitched after it drives by. However, the Doppler effect also takes place with light. Objects moving away from you will \"red-shift\" where they will appear a little bit redder than they actually are, and \"blue-shift\" when moving towards you. \n\nThe reason for this is because we sense different tones and different colors based upon the frequency of the source. The higher the frequency of sound something has (how quickly it is oscillating) the higher pitched it sounds. For light, the higher the frequency the bluer something looks.\n\nFrom here on out, let's look at sound waves. Sound waves are compressed air, what you hear is the compressed air pushing in on your ear drum. Sound is a sequence of compressed air, then normal air, etc. That will make your ear drum oscillate, which you translate to sound. The quicker the compressed bits of the air hit your ear drum, the higher pitched it will sound. As someone moves towards you, their speed moving towards you is added to the speed of the oscillating sound waves, so it sounds higher pitched. \n\nTo help visualize, imagine a guy on a truck throwing a ball past you once per second. If the truck is stationary, you will see one ball fly past your face every second. However, if he is moving towards you, the balls will pass by less than every second, because he throws a ball every second, but each subsequent ball has to travel a shorter distance than the one before it. \n\nUsing this analogy, you can understand why sonic booms happen. Imagine if you are throwing the balls at 50 mph, and your truck is traveling at at 50 mph as well. Then, as your throw each ball, they will stay right beside you, all piling up, and then as the truck passes you, all of the balls would fly by your face at the same time. This is what happens with a sonic boom. The source of the sound is moving at the same speed as the sound, so all of the sound gets \"piled up\" at the source, so as it passed by, you hear all of the sound at once."
],
"score": [
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Can someone explain the dopplereffect for me?
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||
3dnqrc | Can you identify this cucumber anomaly? | I was looking at a cucumber segment I grabbed from where I work, and I saw [this](_URL_0_) (40x). I'm just a hobbyist so I have no idea what it is exactly, but they're all up and down the veins of the cucumber. [This](_URL_4_) is a closer look at the end of one at 100x. The thicker the vein, the [more there are](_URL_5_) (vein is dark brown in quadrant 4 of the image, and all the black dots are some sort of cilia-motile microbe. Another one of the strange structures can be seen in between the two.) Is this an artery or a parasite or what? I'm a senior in high-school so I'm fairly uneducated and apologize in advance if this is some entry-level knowledge, but please help! Thanks!
-follow up-
I posted right before work and I just got off. While at work I let the slide sit and dehydrate a little, and now more complete structures are visible. [Here](_URL_1_) and [here](_URL_3_). They seem to form in what I assume are veins for the fruit, [here](_URL_2_) are veins without the structures. The segment was taken from half way between the center and the skin of a cucumber slice. After looking at some microscopy for xylem vessels, the resemblance is clear. However, I also have no idea why they would be so far into the fruit. Could it explain why they appear in the larger veins?
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ct7oudm"
],
"text": [
"Good eye and observations! Seems like you correctly came to the conclusion that the coiled structures are xylem. Specifically, they are bundles of primary vasculature. Each coil is a thickened part of a regular vessel, and most likely there are more toward the interior because that part of the fruit has a greater need for delivery of water and nutrients. Here's some [more info](_URL_0_)"
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://imgur.com/yLh8uVQ",
"http://imgur.com/BS3pEO4",
"http://imgur.com/SGmEMox,K8bhwDw#0",
"http://imgur.com/5fOPg5Z",
"http://imgur.com/lNHFmqc",
"http://imgur.com/thYZkut"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://waynesword.palomar.edu/trjune99.htm"
]
} | Can you identify this cucumber anomaly?
I was looking at a cucumber segment I grabbed from where I work, and I saw [this](_URL_0_) (40x). I'm just a hobbyist so I have no idea what it is exactly, but they're all up and down the veins of the cucumber. [This](_URL_4_) is a closer look at the end of one at 100x. The thicker the vein, the [more there are](_URL_5_) (vein is dark brown in quadrant 4 of the image, and all the black dots are some sort of cilia-motile microbe. Another one of the strange structures can be seen in between the two.) Is this an artery or a parasite or what? I'm a senior in high-school so I'm fairly uneducated and apologize in advance if this is some entry-level knowledge, but please help! Thanks! -follow up- I posted right before work and I just got off. While at work I let the slide sit and dehydrate a little, and now more complete structures are visible. [Here](_URL_1_) and [here](_URL_3_). They seem to form in what I assume are veins for the fruit, [here](_URL_2_) are veins without the structures. The segment was taken from half way between the center and the skin of a cucumber slice. After looking at some microscopy for xylem vessels, the resemblance is clear. However, I also have no idea why they would be so far into the fruit. Could it explain why they appear in the larger veins? | [
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|
14ewlo | What's wrong with my friend's goldfish Lumpy? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c7cjbc0"
],
"text": [
"That's a tumor. I don't know if it's benign or malignant, though. Either way, that fish's days are numbered."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | What's wrong with my friend's goldfish Lumpy?
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ueabo | Is there a difference between PSI of water and PSI of air? | Had a discussion about pressure and I think I'm correct, but not sure. If I have a 12-inch diameter, 100-foot long ductile-iron pipe filled with water to a pressure of 100 psi (pounds/inch^2), would there be any difference in using 100 psi of air (or any other source) other than the obvious safety issues? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c4un1nq"
],
"text": [
"There would be no difference as far as pressure goes. \n\nSince water is essentially incompressible, it will be much easier to reach 100 psi using water (or any Newtonian fluid) than air. That, and the safety aspect, are the only differences. \n\nEdit (clarification): there is no difference between 100 psi of air and 100 psi of water. There are, however, differences in the practical application you described."
],
"score": [
6
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Is there a difference between PSI of water and PSI of air?
Had a discussion about pressure and I think I'm correct, but not sure. If I have a 12-inch diameter, 100-foot long ductile-iron pipe filled with water to a pressure of 100 psi (pounds/inch^2), would there be any difference in using 100 psi of air (or any other source) other than the obvious safety issues? | [
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|
btnnpi | How does blood flow round your body in space? | [deleted] | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ep0mzns"
],
"text": [
"Short answer: The same way as it normally does\n\n\nBut in reality it is a bit more complicated. The weightlessness removes the hydrostatic pressure gradient of your blood, this means a lower venous pressure in your legs and higher in your head. Arterial pressures are less affected. The main practical outcome for astronauts is that they tend to get bloated faces and afaik some temporary visual disturbances."
],
"score": [
7
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | How does blood flow round your body in space?
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6jlz40 | Confused about star birth: Quick burst like a match, or more gradual increase like a stove top? | My question concerns what happens when a collapsing cloud of gas reaches the necessary pressure and temperature to achieve nuclear fusion in it's core.
When I asked about star birth in my Into Astronomy class a few years ago, my professor told me when a cloud of compressed gas first fuses hydrogen and becomes a star, it's akin to the flashing burst of a match tip at the moment of lighting, i.e. there is a sudden burst of light and solar wind which further compresses the protoplanetary disk forming around the new born star (which was also used to explain why gaseous planets in our system have essentially been "pushed to the back" while the rocky ones stay up front.
However, I just read in 'Death by Black Hole,' by Neil DeGrasse Tyson, the VAST majority of light from a star is only created in the core, and a single photon, on average, can take up to a MILLION YEARS to complete it's journey from the core to the surface where it can finally travel outward unimpeded. This makes me think that a new star would actually brighten gradually, like a stove top heating to incandescence, rather than in a quick flash.
So which is it? | askscience | {
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"So it is a little of both, during the early lifetime of a star it does heat gradually but the initiation of fusion is a dramatic shift in the temperature and luminosity of the star. \n\nOne thing to remember is that stars shine because they are hot, not because of nuclear fusion.\n\nThe reason fusion is an essential component is that as the star radiates heat away then a source of heat is required to replace it otherwise the star would cool down fairly rapidly, on the order of a million years.\n\nSo, as a gas cloud is collapsing into a star it is always in hydrostatic equilibrium where the gas pressure provided by the heating of the collapse is in balance with the gravitational force. This is also true for our Sun. However, our Sun and other stars have an internal source of heat that keeps the gas pressure high. In the protostar the only source of heat is from the collapse itself so in order for a cloud to collapse it must radiate some heat away and thus cool, this allows further collapse which causes further heating slowing the collapse.\n\nAt some point the cloud gravity is strong enough that the hydrostatic equilibrium demands reasonably high temperatures. At such a temperature the gas cloud becomes opaque to its own radiation. What we mean is that thermal radiation emitted by the cloud can no longer escape from the cloud and so in order for the cloud to collapse further, energy must be removed by another means.\n\nThe core of the cloud becomes opaque first essentially because it is hottest but the other portions continue to fall into this core resulting in further heating. Eventually the core is hot enough to first dissociate h2 into atomic h and then to ionize h and he. These changes of phase cost energy and as a result allow the collapse to continue.\n\nThis portion of the collapse is very very rapid compared to the preceeding aeons. This is the \"lighting of the match\" because eventually the core becomes hot enough that it's emitted radiation is now optical instead of infra-red and as such the radiation is once more free to escape the cloud. The whole time the core of the cloud, now a protostar, continues to be heated by material falling from the circumstellar disk.\n\nWhile some deuterium fusion may occur at some point in this stage it is certainly not the main source of heat in the cloud which continues to be the gravitational collapse of material. This is important as the entire time up till now any joule of energy radiated away allows the star to collapse further.\n\nEventually hydrogen fusion begins in the core of the star. At this point, since the temperature is now controlled by the fusion rate in the core, the equilibrium shifts, the star is able to be much hotter because in essence it can radiate more energy per second without shrinking. The extra radiation clears the remaining cloud of material around the star and the star begins it's journey down the main-sequence.",
"Starts slow, heats up as gravitational collapse increases pressure and thus the rate of the reaction. Heat builds slowly since it is lost at surface into surrounding space. \n\n\"Light\" is mushy word. Stick to \"radiation\"."
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} | Confused about star birth: Quick burst like a match, or more gradual increase like a stove top?
My question concerns what happens when a collapsing cloud of gas reaches the necessary pressure and temperature to achieve nuclear fusion in it's core. When I asked about star birth in my Into Astronomy class a few years ago, my professor told me when a cloud of compressed gas first fuses hydrogen and becomes a star, it's akin to the flashing burst of a match tip at the moment of lighting, i.e. there is a sudden burst of light and solar wind which further compresses the protoplanetary disk forming around the new born star (which was also used to explain why gaseous planets in our system have essentially been "pushed to the back" while the rocky ones stay up front. However, I just read in 'Death by Black Hole,' by Neil DeGrasse Tyson, the VAST majority of light from a star is only created in the core, and a single photon, on average, can take up to a MILLION YEARS to complete it's journey from the core to the surface where it can finally travel outward unimpeded. This makes me think that a new star would actually brighten gradually, like a stove top heating to incandescence, rather than in a quick flash. So which is it? | [
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|
vy5pn | How do we know that physical constants such as G, C, etc. have not slowly change over time? | And how do we know that the physical constants hold their value across the entire universe? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c58mkls",
"c58o8hg",
"c58od9n"
],
"text": [
"Because if they did it would have measureable effects that we can observe. We know, for example, that the gravitational constant varies by less than a few parts per trillion yearly. [link](_URL_0_)",
"BLO got downvoted pretty hard for this, but in a certain sense he's right. We can put limits on our understanding, as iorgfeflkd pointed out. If they differed by more than a certain amount, our instruments would be able to detect this. As our instruments get better and better, we continue to find that the fundamental constants are constant. (And theoretically, we have good reason to suspect that constants are, in fact, constant.)",
"Just as an example, α, the [fine-structure constant](_URL_2_), which has been puzzling theoretical physicists for quite some time for completely separate reasons, may not really be constant at all. As you can see in the section on that linked Wikipedia article, [*Is the fine-structure constant really constant?*](_URL_2_#Is_the_fine-structure_constant_actually_constant.3F), the answer to your question is we don't really know. Reading through the section, you can see that numerous experiments have been done through the years, but none are particularly conclusive.\n\nSo for now, we assume constants are constant, unless proved otherwise."
],
"score": [
23,
6,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/9509090.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine-structure_constant",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine-structure_constant#Is_the_fine-structure_constant_actually_constant.3F"
]
} | How do we know that physical constants such as G, C, etc. have not slowly change over time?
And how do we know that the physical constants hold their value across the entire universe? | [
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|
45k26h | Would it be possible to release large amounts Dopamin, just by thinking of it? | And if so, would it be addictive? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"czz5iac"
],
"text": [
"Dopamine is being released in your brain all the time. There are dopamine-releasing neurons in circuits that control movement, attention, and so on. And all of those circuits include many neurons that are not dopamine-releasing. Just releasing a bunch of dopamine into your brain would probably mess up a variety of systems to some degree. The most noticeable effect would probably be on movement, and in the long term you might develop some Parkinson's symptoms."
],
"score": [
8
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Would it be possible to release large amounts Dopamin, just by thinking of it?
And if so, would it be addictive? | [
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|
4m2kl4 | What do single-step and multi-step growth curves tell you about viral growth? | Obviously, I know that they each tell you aspects of viral replication rates. I'm confused as to why you would use one vs. the other. I know that you use a high MOI for a single step which results in a "synchronized" infection vs a low MOI for a multi-step infection. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d443aoy"
],
"text": [
"One-step infection is used to study a single life cycle of the virus on a culture of cells. You're basically averaging your entire culture test results to extrapolate what happens to an individual cell that gets infected.\n\nMulti-step infection is used to confirm your single-curve results. It's supposed to simulate a more \"real-world\" scenario of infection concentrations and is used to show that your results are not because you have an overblown MOI.\n\nYou want your multi-step titres to trend the same way your single-step ones. That means your replication rate estimates are most likely going to be applicable to a real-world scenario."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | What do single-step and multi-step growth curves tell you about viral growth?
Obviously, I know that they each tell you aspects of viral replication rates. I'm confused as to why you would use one vs. the other. I know that you use a high MOI for a single step which results in a "synchronized" infection vs a low MOI for a multi-step infection. | [
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|
1o7stl | Leukocytes in Infarctions | In the case of an infarction, leukocytes flood the affected area to begin phagocytosing waste and repairing damage. How can leukocytes operate in a hypoxic environment? Do they subsist entirely on anaerobic glycolysis for the long periods of time an infarction can affect a tissue? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ccpsuig"
],
"text": [
"Hi. Cramer and Johnson showed exactly this in [2003](_URL_0_). The switch is caused by a previously unknown (I think) function of hypoxia induced factor, HIF. These factors are also important in angiogenesis, the creation of new blood networks to oxygenate the area.\n\nWith regards to your second question, I can't help! :( I do know that circulating white blood cells have a short life span (about 5-6 days) so there will be a high rate of cell turnover in any case."
],
"score": [
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.landesbioscience.com/journals/cc/article/402/"
]
} | Leukocytes in Infarctions
In the case of an infarction, leukocytes flood the affected area to begin phagocytosing waste and repairing damage. How can leukocytes operate in a hypoxic environment? Do they subsist entirely on anaerobic glycolysis for the long periods of time an infarction can affect a tissue? | [
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|
114kjw | If time, resources, and/or money were not limiting factors, what experiment, study, or engineering project would you most want to see carried out? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c6j9m7x"
],
"text": [
"Time's not a factor? An evolutionary study with proper controls and replicated trials.\n\nMake 10,000 identical closed biomes with genetically identical flora and fauna. Have 100 different experimental conditions with different moisture or temperature or sunlight or air composition or whatever. 100 biomes get each condition. Let the experiment run for 100 million years. Track the genetic changes that come out at the end."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | If time, resources, and/or money were not limiting factors, what experiment, study, or engineering project would you most want to see carried out?
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||
6tsxkp | How does our brain stay in our heads without smashing against the "walls"? | Like if we fall and hit our head, why doesn't our brain just splat into our cranium? I get that theres a liquid that helps it float but how does it all work? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dloya91"
],
"text": [
"Your brain is held in place by 3 layers of membranes, which kind of anchor the brain, preventing it from spinning around or jostling too much. We call these membranes meninges. The outermost is the dura mater, middle is arachnoid mater, the inner is the pia mater. The pia is pretty much glued to the brain. Combined with we cerebralspinal fluid, these membranes protect your brain from impact."
],
"score": [
6
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | How does our brain stay in our heads without smashing against the "walls"?
Like if we fall and hit our head, why doesn't our brain just splat into our cranium? I get that theres a liquid that helps it float but how does it all work? | [
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|
3mway2 | How does the velocity of femoral artery flow change when stroke volume increases? | I read in a study that increase in stroke volume (from increased venous return) is positively correlated to increase in the velocity of femoral artery flow.
I'm having a hard time coming up with an explanation as to why this happens. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cvj19f1"
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"text": [
"Let's assume that the femoral artery has a constant circumference (ignoring arterial pulsation).\n\nFlow = Velocity x Cross-sectional area (of the artery)\n\nIncrease in stroke volume results in increased blood volume flowing through the femoral artery. But if the cross-sectional area remains constant, the only thing that could increase is the velocity.\n\nIn real life, however, the arterial circumference varies with changes in flow."
],
"score": [
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | How does the velocity of femoral artery flow change when stroke volume increases?
I read in a study that increase in stroke volume (from increased venous return) is positively correlated to increase in the velocity of femoral artery flow. I'm having a hard time coming up with an explanation as to why this happens. | [
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|
b0a6m6 | How do counterweights at the tops of tall buildings such as a pendulum or pool of water counteract the buildings swaying? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"eidz5pq",
"eie3po4"
],
"text": [
"It's called a tuned mass damper.\n\nAs I understand it, by two different ways. It's tuned to remove, or reduce problem vibration frequencies, and then by adding shock absorbers to transform that vibration into heat. \n\nThe wiki does a much better job at explaining it, and you can find a few youtube videos that do a decent job of explaining it. \n\nI hope this helps until a better answer is posted.",
"The key point in this is that it includes some sort of damper. This is any kind of mechanism that retards the motion, usually by friction. A pendulum is usually fitted with giant shock absorbers, which are basically just pistons pushing some fluids through tight spot, so turbulence changes the kinetic energy into heat. A pool of water would do the same thing, if it starts sloshing around."
],
"score": [
6,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | How do counterweights at the tops of tall buildings such as a pendulum or pool of water counteract the buildings swaying?
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||
5ayb20 | How does heat effect radiometric dating? | I am an accounting major taking an astronomy course so I am not educated on physics.
My professor was speaking about radiometric dating of rocks here on Earth and explained that radiometric dating is not as effective on meteorites as they have been heated up. Someone asked the question of why this is the case since If uranium decays to lead then the composition of the rock did not change, it is still uranium/lead and other material so how does the atomic clock reset? He didn't really know how to answer it or just could not articulate it. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d9kskku"
],
"text": [
"Any thermal mechanism that causes one of the metals to be removed from the meteor at a rate faster than the other is removed would have the potential to alter the ratio U/Pb as it heats up in the atmosphere. For example, Lead melts at a much lower temperature than uranium , 327 °C versus 1132 °C. Oxidation in the atmosphere might also play a role, both metals have a variety of oxidation states, some of which may have higher vapor pressures than the base metal alone. This might result in sublimation of those oxides as the meteor heats up. So its easy to see how the ratio could be changed in ways that would be hard to predict or correct for and that have nothing to do with radioactive decay."
],
"score": [
8
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | How does heat effect radiometric dating?
I am an accounting major taking an astronomy course so I am not educated on physics. My professor was speaking about radiometric dating of rocks here on Earth and explained that radiometric dating is not as effective on meteorites as they have been heated up. Someone asked the question of why this is the case since If uranium decays to lead then the composition of the rock did not change, it is still uranium/lead and other material so how does the atomic clock reset? He didn't really know how to answer it or just could not articulate it. | [
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4u8x57 | How did Io, Europa, and Ganymede end up in a 1:2:4 orbital resonance? Is this situation stable, or just temporary? | I recently learned of the 1:2:4 ratio of orbital periods between Jupiter's moons of Io, Europa, and Ganymede. How did this happen? Is this situation stable? Also, are there any other recorded cases of these types of orbital resonances? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"The resonance of the Jovian moons is stable. In addition to having their orbital periods in sync, the moons also have slightly eccentric (oval-shaped) orbits. The moons' orbits are organized so that if, say, Io starts orbiting slightly faster for some reason, it finds itself ahead of Europa at the time when their orbits are closest together, so Europa's gravity pulls back on it and slows it down.\n\nHowever, it's not known how the system got into this state. There are two possibilities:\n\nOne is that they started off in uninteresting orbits, but Io migrated outward over time due to tidal interaction with Jupiter's spin. (Earth's moon is moving away from Earth for the same reason.) As Io moved outward, it fell into a 2:1 resonance with Europa: this resonance is so strong that the two orbits became locked together, so as Io continued to move outward, it pushed Europa with it, until both of them moved out far enough to enter an orbital resonance with Ganymede.\n\nThe other is simply that they were \"born that way\": these resonances began with the small particles that formed the moons, and they were in resonance from the moment they coalesced.\n\nJury's still out on which of these is the real explanation.\n\nThere are quite a few other examples of orbital period resonance in the solar system: Pluto's small moons Styx, Nix, and Hydra are in a ratio of 18:22:33 (!!), and Pluto itself is in a 2:3 resonance with Neptune.\n\n_URL_0_\n_URL_2_\n_URL_1_\n_URL_3_",
"Good answer by /u/agate_ here. In terms of other mean motion resonances in our Solar System, there are all kinds of resonances for Saturn's moons:\n\n- Hyperion and Titan are in a 3:4 resonance.\n\n- Dione and Enceladus are in a 1:2 resonance.\n\n- Tethys and Mimas are in a 1:2 resonance.\n\n- Mimas and Pandora are in a 3:2 resonance.\n\n- Janus and Epimetheus are in a 1:1 resonance (they swap orbits every 4 years).\n\n- Telesto, Tethys, and Calypso are in a 1:1:1 resonance (Telesto and Calypso orbit in Tethys' L4 and L5 Lagrangian points).\n\n- Helene, Dione, are in a Polydeuces 1:1:1 resonance (Helene and Polydeuces orbit in Dione's L4 and L5 Lagrangian points).\n\n- Mimas and Methone are in a 14:15 resonance.\n\n- Prometheus and Atlas are in a 53:54 resonance.\n\n- Pandora and Prometheus are in a 118:121 resonance."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_resonance",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0019103504001952",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0019103596956699",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_distance_(astronomy)#Tidal_dissipation"
]
} | How did Io, Europa, and Ganymede end up in a 1:2:4 orbital resonance? Is this situation stable, or just temporary?
I recently learned of the 1:2:4 ratio of orbital periods between Jupiter's moons of Io, Europa, and Ganymede. How did this happen? Is this situation stable? Also, are there any other recorded cases of these types of orbital resonances? | [
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|
1y2a87 | I heard a snippet on NPR that we are pumping so much water out of the Ogallala Aquifer that it is effecting the earths gravitational field. Can someone please explain this too me? How is it changing, why is it changing, etc. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cfgplic",
"cfgr0uw"
],
"text": [
"Gravity is a function of mass. Any movement of mass affects earth's gravitational field. If you move a shoe from one room to another, you affect the gravitational field. This is just the sort of 'framing' people use to generate anxiety or fear about specific causes.",
"I find the statement \"effecting the Earth's gravitational field\" a bit misleading. As explained ANY mass affects this, including the weight I carry myself.\n \nNow the key (and the root source of the statement) is: is it measurable?\n \nMeasuring something like this is incredibly difficult, and very sensitive equipment is needed. The [GRACE mission](_URL_0_) is a pair of satellites that was designed to do just that. It is currently operative and it works like a charm.\n \nAnd not the kicker: yes it was able to measure things like a depleted aquifer. We were never able to do this before, but now we do. And the result is statements like the one we're talking about. It's a statement like: \"Area man's yard is so big; it can bee seen from space\". Well yeah, 40 years ago that was a statement, now with things like Google Earth, it does not mean much, but boy does it sound good! :-)\n \ntl;dr; yes its true, but its a bit of hype"
],
"score": [
25,
7
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.csr.utexas.edu/grace/"
]
} | I heard a snippet on NPR that we are pumping so much water out of the Ogallala Aquifer that it is effecting the earths gravitational field. Can someone please explain this too me? How is it changing, why is it changing, etc.
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33f5zc | On the Ishihara Test for Color Blindness, why are the figures used for testing made on coloured circles and not on another geometrical shape? | This was asked by my professor on a lab session of Neurophysiology and my group is having a hard time finding a good answer. In fact, he asks why the test isn't made on square-shaped figures, instead of circles. Thanks in advance. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cqlngsf"
],
"text": [
"You probably would need someone who can read Japanese to find the root literature for this.. the primary reference for the Ishihara plates, [here] (_URL_1_), doesn't include any justification for their form. I can't find any justification anywhere else in the literature. They are a tool that serves its purpose. If there's a \"history of the Ishihara plates\", I can't find it in the citation indices..\n\nI did find this passage on the [U.Iowa ophthalmology website] (_URL_0_), but I can't figure out the source for the information (probably some ophthalmology textbook, possibly a translation of one written by Ishihara?):\n\n\"At first the charts were not for sale and were used exclusively by the Army. Some of these first plates used the cursive Japanese phonetic script (‘hiragana’) and some asked the subject to trace a tortuous line across the plate.\"\n\nSo, the original tests used the curvy hiragana characters, or required tracing a smooth line. Both imply a need for curvilinear elements. That would be a historical explanation. Visually, a good guess for why round dots made for such a successful test would be that circular shapes pack in such a way that allows for smoothly curving contours, so if you can see the contours (defined by equiluminant chrominance changes), they will feel natural and not jagged like they would be if the dots were square. So ultimately it's an aesthetic/practical decision: the test works well like it is, so we keep it the way it is."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://webeye.ophth.uiowa.edu/dept/20thcenturybooks/100Books.htm",
"http://www.dfisica.ubi.pt/~hgil/p.v.2/Ishihara/Ishihara.24.Plate.TEST.Book.pdf"
]
} | On the Ishihara Test for Color Blindness, why are the figures used for testing made on coloured circles and not on another geometrical shape?
This was asked by my professor on a lab session of Neurophysiology and my group is having a hard time finding a good answer. In fact, he asks why the test isn't made on square-shaped figures, instead of circles. Thanks in advance. | [
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1j6zsx | If you could track a single atom from your food to your toenail, what would the path it takes look like? | In other words; if I ate a bagel, how would the atoms that make up that bagel end up being a part of my body? (I only chose the toenail for the "head-to-toe" allusion) | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cbbt8o3",
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"text": [
"Well bagels have a lot of carbohydrates. One carbohydrate that bagels contain a lot of is starch. Starch is a polymer of glucose monomers, linked in a number of different ways.\n\nAn easy atom to look at would be one of the carbons in the glucose ring. This takes a pretty easy path to understand. You put the bagel in your mouth and begin to chew. Your saliva contains an enzyme called amylase, which starts to break up the amylose chains into glucose monomers. After you swallow, and the masticated food goes through the esophagus to the stomach, the process continues. Let's say our carbon atom is in a glucose in an [alpha]-1,4 linkage in amylose. By now, maybe its glucose monomers. Or maybe further digestion has to occur -- this would wait until the stomach has made the food into a paste (chyme) and the food has passed into the duodenum, the first segment of the small intestine. Here, pancreatic amylase breaks down more starch.\n\nAt some point, the starch is broken up fully into glucose monomers. Starting in the small intestine, glucose is transported first into the cells that line the intestine, through a co-transport channel called [SLC5A1](_URL_0_). At any point glucose can be utilized by the cellular metabolism. But let's say it isn't, and instead it passes through the basal membrane on that cell through another transport protein called [GLUT2 or SLC2A2](_URL_3_). Similar passages ensure that some of this will eventually end up in the blood. \n\nThe first blood vessel that our glucose molecule will see is likely a mesenteric capillary. This drains into hepatic portal vein, which then enters the liver. The blood is filtered and passed through the hepatic vasculature system, eventually ending up in the portal vein which drains into the inferior vena cava. This enters the right atrium, then the right ventricle, then is pumped into the pulmonary artery and passes through the capillary bed of the lung. This drains into the pulmonary vein, then the left atrium, left ventricle, and aorta. It stays in the aorta until the bifurcation of the iliacs, then the external iliac, the common femoral artery, the superficial femoral artery, the popliteal artery, the anterior tibial artery, the dorsalis pedis artery, and then a dorsal metatarsal artery. From there it goes through progressively smaller branches until it is in the capillary bed of the toe. \n\nAt this point, let's say the glucose crosses the endothelium and makes its way into a skin cell that decides to use it. Maybe it enters using the [GLUT1](_URL_2_) protein that is responsible for basal glucose usage. So this cell is going to use glucose. It starts doing that in the cytosol of the cell.\n\nThe first step is to split glucose from its 6 carbon ring into two 3 carbon pyruvate molecules. This process is called [glycolysis](_URL_4_). Here we start to get into heavy biochemistry. First, the cell attaches a phosphate to the glucose. Next, the carbons are rearranged into fructose phosphate, then the cell adds another phosphate to it to be fructose 1,6 phosphate. This makes the ring less stable, and the next step splits it into two 3 carbon intermediates, DHAP and GADP. DHAP is quickly converted into GADP. \n\nUp until this point, the whole digestion and transport of glucose has been an energy loser. This is the point where energy starts to be harvested. The cell generally does this by stripping off energetic bonds from the molecule and using those to \"recharge\" molecules like NAD and ADP to NADH and ATP which the cell uses as energy sources for lots of reactions. GADP is converted to 1,3BPG which yields NAD- > NADH. Then 1,3BPG is converted to 3-phosphoglycerate which yields ADP- > ATP. Three more steps, one more ADP-ATP, and you end up with pyruvate. In the process, you've also stripped a water molecule from that original glucose molecule.\n\nPyruvate is the fuel for the metabolism of the cell. How it is used is dependent on whether the cell has enough oxygen (aerobic metabolism) or if it is oxygen starved (in which case it goes to anaerobic metabolism). If there is enough oxygen, the pyruvate makes its way to the mitochondrion, where the rest of the pyruvate is broken down entirely into low-energy waste products, carbon dioxide and water. Let's say our intrepid carbon atom is one of the pyruvate carbons. \n\nPyruvate is converted to acetyl co-A, spinning off one carbon dioxide, making one high energy NADH from NAD. Acetyl coA enters the dreaded [Krebs cycle](_URL_1_). Acetyl coA is bound to oxaloacetate to make citrate. Through a number of very clever steps, two carbons are spun off of citrate, yielding 2 CO2 molecules, 3 molecules of NADH, and a few high energy electrons and regenerating oxaloacetate. \n\nSo our carbon is now CO2. How it gets out of the toe is pretty simple. Either passive diffusion as dissolved CO2 or it is converted into part of the blood acid-base buffer, bicarbonate, which is transported. Eventually it ends up in the capillary bed. Then to a vein, which eventually works its way up the dorsal digital vein, then maybe to the great saphenous vein, then to the common femoral vein, then external iliac vein, then iliac, then inferior vena cava, then right atrium, RV, and PA. In the lungs, the carbon may remain part of the buffer system, or if CO2, may passively diffuse into the alveolar cell and then into the alveolar gas space, where it is exhaled back into the atmosphere.\n\nWhew. Good review for me.\n\nedit: typos and clarity.",
"The bagel is made up of polysaccharides in you mouth there are enzymes that will immediately start breaking them down into mono-saccharides (sugars). As the bagel enter your stomach the acid will help to dissolve the bagel via hydrolyzing proteins helping to bind the bagel together. Once it passes into your small intestine bacteria and more enzymes will fully break down the bagel into sugars and a bit of amino acids. Proteins in the lining of your intestines are designed to transport sugars and amino acids across the intestine and into the blood. From there the sugars and amino acids will travel to cells in your toe and another set of proteins will transport them across the cell membrane and into the cytosol of toe cells.\n\nFrom there the atoms still need to enter the toe nail. Toe nails are made of protein so the sugars will be broken down into pyruvate and eventually become part of amino acids via a bunch of proteins. The amino acids from the bagel are ready to be used to make a protein. You DNA is copied into a template to make the protein and the amino acids are bound to little pieces that only fit an exact sequence on the templated. Once the protein is formed it will be transported to the toe nail."
],
"score": [
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SLC5A1",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citric_acid_cycle",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glut1",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SLC2A2",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycolysis"
]
} | If you could track a single atom from your food to your toenail, what would the path it takes look like?
In other words; if I ate a bagel, how would the atoms that make up that bagel end up being a part of my body? (I only chose the toenail for the "head-to-toe" allusion) | [
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1925f6 | How do supersaturated solutions exist? | I know that to create a supersaturated solution, one pours a bunch of solute into a solvent then heats the solution until all the solute is dissolved, letting it cool back down again. It's obviously not very stable, because adding a little seed crystal undoes the whole process. What causes the excess solute to remain dissolved when the temperature goes back down again? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c8k4tco"
],
"text": [
"In chemical terms, it's kinetically stabilized. Once it's supersaturated, it's energetically beneficial to form solid crystals (hence it's _thermodynamically_ unstable). But actually doing so requires an 'investment' in energy to make a 'hole' in the solvent (because of surface tension) for a crystal to form in, besides also happening to get a number of solid-to-be molecules in the right place at the right time. \n\nSo depending on the conditions, the crystal can need help getting started. A seed crystal will obviously do that job directly. Other things that can cause the initial formation (crystal nucleation) is turbulence (which cases cavitation - i.e. holes in the liquid), surfaces (only half as much water-surface needs to be created) and other irregularities. Also, impurities and other stuff that disrupts the structure in general.\n\nA mixture of some flammable gas and oxygen is also kinetically stable but thermodynamically unstable (as there's less chemical energy when its combusted). But there again, it requires an initial 'investment' of energy to get it started, for bonds to break so the reactions can start. I.e. you need a spark or something to set it off."
],
"score": [
10
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | How do supersaturated solutions exist?
I know that to create a supersaturated solution, one pours a bunch of solute into a solvent then heats the solution until all the solute is dissolved, letting it cool back down again. It's obviously not very stable, because adding a little seed crystal undoes the whole process. What causes the excess solute to remain dissolved when the temperature goes back down again? | [
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|
3p7xvd | Why isn't it possible to recall every fact we know on demand? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cw4w2bn"
],
"text": [
"Memory isn't stored in discrete locations, but rather in patterns of neural activity located relatively diffusly placed on the cortex. As such, many different memories may share individual neurons, or even groups of neurons. Attempting to access a memory will also activate these shared patterns. Somtimes, this will make the desired memory more easily retrievable. However, other times this will interfere, and the desired memory will be blocked (one may experience this as knowingly recall the wrong memory).\n\nInterestingly though, this diffuse coding for memory also allows for multiple approaches to retrieving a memory. Thus, while you may not remember a particular Susan's last name when actively trying to recall it because you know 20 other Susans and each of their names keeps trying to grab your attention, the smell of apples may actually trigger the correct memory because you met this particular Susan while learning how to press apples cider (likely a very unique memory to your encounter with Sue). \n\nThese effects are additive, thus more competing pathways make it harder to remember things, and more complementary pathways enhance recall. Also, the effects of each depends on how strong the pathways are, which is moderated by long term potentiation (LTP). LTP basically lowers the activation threshold for a given neuron or group of neurons that have experienced frequent enervation by increasing the number of available ion channels they can utilize to initiate action potentials. \n\nCheck this page out to get yourself started on exploring memory recall:\n_URL_0_"
],
"score": [
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://human-factors.arc.nasa.gov/cognition/tutorials/ModelOf/index.html"
]
} | Why isn't it possible to recall every fact we know on demand?
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||
3u3p73 | How does a Galvanic Cell work? | Hello! Can someone smart or someone that knows more than me explain how a "Galvanic Cell" works?
Here is a picture of a galvanic cell:
_URL_0_ | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cxc5hxi"
],
"text": [
"It's a redox reaction where electrons flow from the reductant to the oxidant. The salt bridge that connects them is there to mitigate the + and - charges that are caused from the flow of electrons. \n\nFor a more comprehensive analysis of it, you should check out /r/chemhelp. They would be more than happy to help you with your homework"
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.studera.com/tranano/kemi/Allmankemi/bilder/GALV.BMP"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | How does a Galvanic Cell work?
Hello! Can someone smart or someone that knows more than me explain how a "Galvanic Cell" works? Here is a picture of a galvanic cell: _URL_0_ | [
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|
8epfcl | What is causing this "fairy ring" on this volcanic island? | Dropped Pin
near Île Amsterdam
_URL_0_ | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dxxiisj"
],
"text": [
"There's a road leading up to it with a car parked. This looks like a tree ringed field of some kind. Maybe grazing?\n\nIt dopes not appear to be a volcanic feature."
],
"score": [
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://goo.gl/maps/CaQBtY4nut82"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | What is causing this "fairy ring" on this volcanic island?
Dropped Pin near Île Amsterdam _URL_0_ | [
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|
27g74h | Tuning fork in space ? | Don't know if this has been asked before. If a tuning fork is made to vibrate and then left in space, will it continue to vibrate forever ? I'm assuming no energy radiation such as heat or light is being emitted from it so technically all the energy in the tuning fork would be retained within it, and it would continue to vibrate forever.... | askscience | {
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"ci0wfbt"
],
"text": [
"Every material has some degree of anelastic behavior. That means that every material will dissipate some small amount of energy as its stress-strain state changes, even if the states it goes through are all nominally in the elastic zone. So even in space, the vibration of the tuning fork will decay slowly over time as the elastic strain energy initially imparted to the fork is dissipated into heat.\n\nIn other words, no, the tuning fork will not vibrate forever. The process of vibration inevitably converts a small amount of vibrational energy to heat in every cycle.",
"No, all vibrating systems experience structural damping. This structural damping is characterized by a hysteresis effect (_URL_0_) as the material is stretched and compressed, causing the total energy in the system to dissipate. The actual source of the hysteresis is the conversion of the kinetic energy into thermal energy by internal friction.\n\nBy removing our tuning fork to space we have eliminated viscous damping with the air and whatever is holding the tuning fork.\n\nFun fact: all systems, electrical, mechanical, fluid can be modelled as spring, mass, damper systems"
],
"score": [
8,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ehysteresis.PNG"
]
} | Tuning fork in space ?
Don't know if this has been asked before. If a tuning fork is made to vibrate and then left in space, will it continue to vibrate forever ? I'm assuming no energy radiation such as heat or light is being emitted from it so technically all the energy in the tuning fork would be retained within it, and it would continue to vibrate forever.... | [
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|
nra6n | What recent advances in your field are lesser known to the masses but could have significant impacts on our way of life in the next 5-10 years? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3bbgji",
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],
"text": [
"Desertec - _URL_0_\n\nThere is enough solar energy that hits the Sahara desert in 6 hours to power the entire world's energy need for 1 year. Desertec is attempting to build solar energy collection plants in Northern Sahara and connect that through underwater power lines to Europe. In addition, they are looking at ways to store and distribute the energy throughout the rest of the world.\n\nThis has the potential to totally upset the existing oil-centric energy industry.",
"Computational toxicology. Lots of work is being done in this field to eventually have a way to analyze a new (or currently untested) chemical for an accurate idea of potential toxicology based upon exposure, without costly or time consuming animal studies."
],
"score": [
4,
2
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.desertec.org/"
]
} | What recent advances in your field are lesser known to the masses but could have significant impacts on our way of life in the next 5-10 years?
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||
ktbla | Looking for D2 (molecular deuterium) phase diagram | I need a diagram of the equation of state for molecular deuterium with temperature and pressure ranges from 0-300K and 0-1 MPa, or something near those ranges for an experiment I'm doing at work, and Google has only been able to provide me with diagrams in the GPa range or temperatures > 1000K, which is not possible with the apparatus I have. Does anyone have access to any papers which characterize the equation of state for D2 or would be able to point me in the right direction? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2n2d28"
],
"text": [
"I don't know one offhand.. looking at scholar/scifinder it seems most studies are aimed at high pressure/temperature scenarios, as you say. [Here's one](_URL_0_) that might be useful, though.\n\nExcuse the presumption, but are you sure you _need_ one? The intermolecular forces which govern the phases/equation of state should be near-identical for H2 and D2. The only significant differences in their thermodynamic properties would stem from the differences in vibrational states and zero-point vibrational energy, which would probably result in rather small contributions at the \"ordinary\" temperature/pressure ranges you're talking about. (If you're willing and good with statistical thermodynamics, you could probably derive some simple corrections.)"
],
"score": [
6
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/003189146090029X"
]
} | Looking for D2 (molecular deuterium) phase diagram
I need a diagram of the equation of state for molecular deuterium with temperature and pressure ranges from 0-300K and 0-1 MPa, or something near those ranges for an experiment I'm doing at work, and Google has only been able to provide me with diagrams in the GPa range or temperatures > 1000K, which is not possible with the apparatus I have. Does anyone have access to any papers which characterize the equation of state for D2 or would be able to point me in the right direction? | [
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|
kcd10 | How does chin (knockout resistance) scale with weight? | If you look at [statistics](_URL_0_) from mixed martial arts bouts, you'll see that heavier weight classes tend to have more knockouts. I don't have the numbers, but imagine in boxing the results are similar.
I'm curious as to whether this increase in knockouts is entirely due to the fact that bigger fighters punch harder, or if the resistance to knockouts also increases with size, but to a lesser extent than the punching power.
If you graph the numbers in my link, you'll that with the exception of heavyweight, the trend is linear. Heavyweight is lower than expected based on the trend and perhaps can be explained away with the fact that it's the only weightclass with large weight mismatches.
Looking at the literature on measuring punching power, it seems that some metrics (like rotational acceleration) are linear with mass, but the evidence didn't look very strong. If it is indeed linear then the trend is entirely explained by stronger punches and chins don't have to be taken into account.
*tl;dr* How much harder is it to knock out a bigger person?
edit: an obvious question that follows up: if the relation is M^0 , why? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2j6x67",
"c2j9qmp"
],
"text": [
"There are so many variables no matter how much I try to explain them all i'll most likely forget a few or wont have even realized some existed. Also for simplification purposes i'll only be comparing lightweights to heavy weights. As this is real life and the stats will never perfectly describe the trend.\n\n1st thing you aren't factoring in is that there is usually a shift in fighting styles from the light weight through to the heavy weight. Especially in MMA/UFC fighting. Quick example you generally don't see light weights going punch for punch, there is a alot of grappling and the main skill at work is agility. Your linked data seems to support this as you can see a shift from point based winning to who lasts the longest\n\n2nd There is a large difference between the force heavy weights put behind their punches and the force light weights put out. The main reason for this is again light weight fights are more agile they move around more, and if you can't start throwing hay makers or you'll miss.\nIn heavy weight however the opposite is true, you want to keep your opponent back at some distance especially in mixed/kickboxing fights since having a 266 pound guy dodge past a punch and knock you to the ground will quickly end a fight.\n\n3rd The Human neck is a fairly weak joint, there are some exercises you can do to strengthen it, which I would assume all boxers do. Now there would most assuredly be a gap in the strengthening that a lightweight and a heavy weight put into strengthening their necks however, the neck could naturally take a lightweight boxers punch to the head without A) breaking your neck B) tearing a muscle/ligament or C) whiplash now compare this to the absolutely astounding force a professional heavy weight boxer can put into a punch, you would be lucky to escape with all your vertebrae intact. So to summarize, both weight classes would train their neck muscles however there is only so much you can do to protect your head from the force of a heavy weight punch.\n\n4th Boxing gloves, each class has their own gloves and the lightweight ones are relatively thin compared to the heavyweight thickness, now you'd think this would mean less injuries in the heavier classes however it has the opposite effect. Back when boxers would only fight with some cloth wrapped around their hands they would only on rare occasions punch another boxer in the face. Why ? well because you'd break your fucking hand that's why. So the bigger and thicker the gloves the more face shots you're looking at seeing because when you can punch someone full force on a bone and not break 3 of your knuckles thats going to be your main target, as head shots are very painful and disorienting.\n\nI hope this answers your question.",
"First question should perhaps be \"Why do we loose conciousness when we experience head trauma?\" \n \nNow I must confess I am having trouble finding the appropriate reference for this atm (google and pubmed Fu is lacking), but I seem to recall that it was hypothesised or reported(?) that: torsional forces disrupt synapses in the brainstem. \n \nIf that is the case you would perhaps not expect this to scale with weight as clearly... more force but more muscles to support the neck...\n \nNot sure if that is helpful, but in general, biology isn't as well behaved as physics when in comes to conforming to scaling and symmetries.\n\n*edit*: missing comma"
],
"score": [
7,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.mma-elo.com/rants/2008/btn-weight-and-decisions/"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | How does chin (knockout resistance) scale with weight?
If you look at [statistics](_URL_0_) from mixed martial arts bouts, you'll see that heavier weight classes tend to have more knockouts. I don't have the numbers, but imagine in boxing the results are similar. I'm curious as to whether this increase in knockouts is entirely due to the fact that bigger fighters punch harder, or if the resistance to knockouts also increases with size, but to a lesser extent than the punching power. If you graph the numbers in my link, you'll that with the exception of heavyweight, the trend is linear. Heavyweight is lower than expected based on the trend and perhaps can be explained away with the fact that it's the only weightclass with large weight mismatches. Looking at the literature on measuring punching power, it seems that some metrics (like rotational acceleration) are linear with mass, but the evidence didn't look very strong. If it is indeed linear then the trend is entirely explained by stronger punches and chins don't have to be taken into account. *tl;dr* How much harder is it to knock out a bigger person? edit: an obvious question that follows up: if the relation is M^0 , why? | [
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|
1niw9y | Doppler effect due to circular motion of the source | I was wondering what the (Doppler) effect would be if the observer has a lightsource going around him with a circular motion and constant tangential velocity. (assuming the observer can see in all directions without moving himself)
What I think:
If you use this as reference: [Imgur](_URL_0_)
You will find as relativistic formula: [Imgur](_URL_1_)
And in this case (circular motion), the theta will be 90°, so the equation reduces itself: [Imgur](_URL_2_)
So the frequency of the light will be shifted, but the shifted frequency will be constant over time and not changing. Is that correct? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ccj03yc"
],
"text": [
"When theta = 90° (which is what I think you meant), that is indeed the case. Check out [transverse Doppler effect](_URL_0_)."
],
"score": [
6
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/Oz252SC.png",
"http://i.imgur.com/hPjcZoM",
"http://i.imgur.com/WBpHkOb"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativistic_Doppler_effect#Transverse_Doppler_effect"
]
} | Doppler effect due to circular motion of the source
I was wondering what the (Doppler) effect would be if the observer has a lightsource going around him with a circular motion and constant tangential velocity. (assuming the observer can see in all directions without moving himself) What I think: If you use this as reference: [Imgur](_URL_0_) You will find as relativistic formula: [Imgur](_URL_1_) And in this case (circular motion), the theta will be 90°, so the equation reduces itself: [Imgur](_URL_2_) So the frequency of the light will be shifted, but the shifted frequency will be constant over time and not changing. Is that correct? | [
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|
1z8crj | Do rorschach ink blots really give any meaningful insight into your mind? | It's always seemed to me that ink blot tests would be so open to subjective analysis that you wouldn't be able to draw real conclusions from them. Am I wrong? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cfrzd3g"
],
"text": [
"It depends on how they are used. There are formal administration and scoring systems (e.g., Exner) that report good reliability and validity. In the absence of these standardized procedures, your are correct that subjectivity plays a major role. This process, referred to as illusory correlation, has been [demonstrated empirically](_URL_0_).\n\nYou may be interested in this review, [The Scientific Status of Projective Techniques](_URL_1_). The conclusion that the authors come to is that *some* scales of the Rorschach have some degree of validity, but it's unclear whether the information they provide is actually useful."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=buy.optionToBuy&uid=1969-13004-001",
"http://www.cienciapsicologica.org/docs/The_Scientific_Status_of_Projective_Techniques.pdf"
]
} | Do rorschach ink blots really give any meaningful insight into your mind?
It's always seemed to me that ink blot tests would be so open to subjective analysis that you wouldn't be able to draw real conclusions from them. Am I wrong? | [
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|
2wjvxh | Does magnitude of smell have a unit? Would the quantity be a vector, or would it be scalar? | Thought of this one after my roommate came out of the bathroom. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"coroczl"
],
"text": [
"The number of particles would affect potency, so maybe parts per billion or parts per trillion. However, concentration only helps compare identical compounds. A low cocentration of sulfur has a \"more powerful\" smell than a high concentration of nitrogen."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Does magnitude of smell have a unit? Would the quantity be a vector, or would it be scalar?
Thought of this one after my roommate came out of the bathroom. | [
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|
xe3wl | What causes "fapper's remorse"? [possibly NSFW] | I think many people have experienced this:
You watch porn and are really into it. You don't think there's anything wrong with it and keep on going until you finally orgasm. Two seconds later you realize what you just watched and feel weirdly disgusted with yourself.
It almost seems like extreme arousal somehow eliminates empathy. Only when you are done, you realize that you just witnessed a human being being humiliated in front of a camera for money.
The switch back to a "normal" human being happens literally within seconds of having your orgasm.
What is it that causes such an extreme mood swing afterwards, and what is it that causes the switch from "normal", empathetic me to the animal that is only driven by lust in the first place?
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c5lkka5",
"c5lkc74"
],
"text": [
"Related question: do women experience \"shlicker's remorse\" when watching porn?",
"For men, after ejaculation the brain instructs you to disengage from sexual thoughts because serotonin floods the brain. Which can cause you to experience such feelings, most of the time it also creates a powerful sleep-inducing feeling. \n\nHence why so many men fall asleep after sex. \n\nIt sounds to me like you are also experiencing a bit of guilt associated with the type of porn you chose to masturbate to. This is mostly normal.. Depending on several factors to include how taboo the porn subject matter is. \n\nSex and sexual satisfaction draws out some of the most extreme feelings and desires in the human brain. Next to our natural instinct to survive our sex drive is the most powerful we possess."
],
"score": [
5,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | What causes "fapper's remorse"? [possibly NSFW]
I think many people have experienced this: You watch porn and are really into it. You don't think there's anything wrong with it and keep on going until you finally orgasm. Two seconds later you realize what you just watched and feel weirdly disgusted with yourself. It almost seems like extreme arousal somehow eliminates empathy. Only when you are done, you realize that you just witnessed a human being being humiliated in front of a camera for money. The switch back to a "normal" human being happens literally within seconds of having your orgasm. What is it that causes such an extreme mood swing afterwards, and what is it that causes the switch from "normal", empathetic me to the animal that is only driven by lust in the first place? | [
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|
183g6j | Blizzard in the NE (Nemo): Would anyone mind discussing its potential impact in a manner free of media sensationalism? | I live in the NH and they are basically saying we are going to get hit very hard. The media is perpetuating this as well. What are the facts? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c8brlyn"
],
"text": [
"The national weather service puts out official forecasts, on their [site](_URL_1_). You can drill down and you are looking for the forecast discussion like [this one](_URL_0_) for the ME/NH area.\n\nThey are generally hype free. With [this](_URL_2_) message about Katrina being the closest they get to weather channel hype."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://forecast.weather.gov/product.php?site=NWS&issuedby=GYX&product=AFD&format=CI&version=1&glossary=1&highlight=off",
"http://www.weather.gov",
"http://web.archive.org/web/20080120002429/http://www.srh.noaa.gov/data/warn_archive/LIX/NPW/0828_155101.txt"
]
} | Blizzard in the NE (Nemo): Would anyone mind discussing its potential impact in a manner free of media sensationalism?
I live in the NH and they are basically saying we are going to get hit very hard. The media is perpetuating this as well. What are the facts? | [
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|
6bh3gl | Is there any weird phenomenon related to the non-existence of the mean of the Cauchy Distribution? | I understand how to prove that the mean doesn't exist, but it still feels weird. Is there any interesting mathematical reason for that? I've also read that it appears in physics too. Is there any weird phenomenon related to the non.existence of the mean? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"The mean is just a convenient mathematical parameter to use for *certain* probability distributions. It's not guaranteed that a given probability distribution will have a mean, nor is it necessary to parameterize the distribution by its mean.\n\nThe Cauchy distribution does not have a mean nor a variance, so it's parametrized in terms of its mode and FWHM instead.\n\nThe Cauchy distribution shows up often in physics. There are no physical implications of the fact that the mean doesn't exist. And as far as I know, there's no interesting reason why the mean doesn't exist, it just turns out that the integral of x f(x) dx over all x does not converge (where f(x) is the Cauchy PDF).",
"If you sample a variable with a Cauchy distribution, then neither the sample mean nor variance converges as the number of samples goes to infinity. The \"mathematical\" reason is obviously that the integrals do not exist, but more practically it's about the tails being too \"fat\" - in other words the probability of finding outliers that throws off the mean and variance is too large for the values to converge.",
"It is more significant that the standard deviation is infinite, which means a sum of independent Cauchy distributed random variables does not obey the central limit theorem and thus cannot be approximated as a Gaussian. \n\nIn fact, the probability distribution I have for the mean of \"N\" random variables which obey the same Cauchy distribution, IS the Cauchy distribution they all obey. This means no matter how much I sample a Cauchy distribution I can never estimate the mean in this way. Fortunately the median can be estimated by sampling, which is also the Cauchy principle value for the mean."
],
"score": [
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Is there any weird phenomenon related to the non-existence of the mean of the Cauchy Distribution?
I understand how to prove that the mean doesn't exist, but it still feels weird. Is there any interesting mathematical reason for that? I've also read that it appears in physics too. Is there any weird phenomenon related to the non.existence of the mean? | [
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|
178gfk | How much do we understand about the actual mechanics of ion channels/pumps? | I am taking a neurobiology course, and I've been seeing plenty of diagrams like this
_URL_0_
which illustrate (or at least attempt to illustrate) the structure of an ion channel (in purple). I have a few questions:
1) Does this diagram accurately describe the ion channel structure; as in, are (some or all) ion channels actually composed of five lobes?
2) How does the channel actually open and close? Are there actually large moving parts of the protein, or is everything controlled on an electrical basis? Either way, can you elaborate?
3) How sure can we be of any of this? I would think ion channels would be much too small to observe by any traditional means, but I have no idea.
Sorry for the barrage of questions, but this fascinates me, and my professor couldn't really offer any definitive answers. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c838buo"
],
"text": [
"While it is difficult to watch an ion channel function in real time, we have lots of structural snapshots from experimental methods such as electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction. For example the five-lobed channel in your image is the well studied acetylcholine receptor. [Here](_URL_0_) is a detailed molecular structure such a channel. For some ion channels and pumps we have structures of multiple states. So we can intrerpolate between open and closed structures, for example. Plus there are MANY experiments that map certain functions to specific parts of the protein sequence. \n\nMost channels open and close by movement of the large parts (lobes) in relation to one another. Since the channel opening is usually very narrow even in the open state, it takes little movement to close it.\n\nHow can we be sure? Well we may have some of the details wrong, and the models are just hypothetical, but the current models of ion channel function are supported by and are consistent with a huge amount of data from many researchers in many fields. That is the hallmark of a \"hypothesis\" that is widely accepted because it is almost certainly correct, like evolution."
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://imgur.com/QIoyTZ7"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nicotinic_Acetylcholine_receptor.png"
]
} | How much do we understand about the actual mechanics of ion channels/pumps?
I am taking a neurobiology course, and I've been seeing plenty of diagrams like this _URL_0_ which illustrate (or at least attempt to illustrate) the structure of an ion channel (in purple). I have a few questions: 1) Does this diagram accurately describe the ion channel structure; as in, are (some or all) ion channels actually composed of five lobes? 2) How does the channel actually open and close? Are there actually large moving parts of the protein, or is everything controlled on an electrical basis? Either way, can you elaborate? 3) How sure can we be of any of this? I would think ion channels would be much too small to observe by any traditional means, but I have no idea. Sorry for the barrage of questions, but this fascinates me, and my professor couldn't really offer any definitive answers. | [
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|
zxqw1 | When is the prime of the human brain? | Is it when we're in our 20s and 30s, or is it a little older? When is the exact prime of the human brain? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c68o7jg",
"c68oald"
],
"text": [
"* There is no exact prime. It is different for **everyone**. \n* The human brain does not fully mature until age 21-22, according to [this source](_URL_5_), but other sources say up to [age 25](_URL_2_) and [here](_URL_3_) and [here](_URL_4_). It is different for everyone and many factors determine this. * Age 25 seems more likely.\n* General consensus: older people are wiser, as they have more experience and have had enough time to master their area of work/skills.\n* Mentally I would probably guess around late 30's for most people in MEDC's, but there are too many factors to say an exact age.\n\n* To test mental agility, [Salthouse](_URL_0_) had 2,000 healthy people ages 18-60 solve puzzles, recall words and story details and spot patterns in letters and symbols.\n\nResearchers found that the first marked decline was at age 27 in tests of brain speed, reasoning and visual puzzle-solving ability. However, memory stayed intact until age 37, while abilities based on accumulated knowledge, such as performance on tests of vocabulary or general information, increased until age 60.\n\n* [White matter peaks at age 39.](_URL_1_)\n\nEDIT: Some sources for maturity age.",
"Neuroscientist [Ryuta Kawashima](_URL_8_), author of popular Japanese book [Train Your Brain: 60 Days to a Better Brain](_URL_9_) and contributor to the [Brain Age](_URL_7_) series of video games, theorizes that age 20 is the optimum brain age.\n\nHowever, I don't think there is legitimately a prime brain age or a method of testing this. It's much more likely that your brain will continue to improve so long as you keep it active, and will deteriorate in function so long as you don't. ([Comparison here](_URL_6_) finds that all groups of braining training show improvement in various areas, while the control group is the only one that drops in functioning; EDIT: Link requires subscription. It was a citation in the aforementioned Brain Age Wiki article which discusses the study if you want to read more about it, but tl;dr: playing Brain Age, going to school, and doing problems on paper all show improvement, while doing nothing [control group] shows a decrease in sharpness).\n\nYour brain doesn't become less sharp due to age. It becomes less sharp due to lack of use or disease. Your brain's prime is thus not at any one point in your life, but a span -- from the age of full development (generally accepted as somewhere from 20-22) until you either stop using it critically or develop a disease (such as Alzheimers or other mental health issue)."
],
"score": [
37,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.thirdage.com/brain-fitness/when-does-your-brain-function-peak",
"http://www.brainhealthhacks.com/2011/01/12/what-could-account-for-our-middle-age-peak-in-cognitive-function-wiring/",
"http://www.examiner.com/article/a-child-s-brain-fully-develops-by-age-25",
"http://www.ehow.com/facts_6371486_age-human-brain-fully-developed_.html",
"http://wiki.answers.com/Q/When_does_the_human_brain_mature",
"http://www.ehow.com/facts_5817063_age-development-human-brain-complete_.html",
"http://technology.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/tech_and_web/gadgets_and_gaming/article5587314.ece",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_Age",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryuta_Kawashima",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Train_Your_Brain:_60_Days_to_a_Better_Brain"
]
} | When is the prime of the human brain?
Is it when we're in our 20s and 30s, or is it a little older? When is the exact prime of the human brain? | [
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2jfez4 | Could you Skype at Relativistic Velocities? | If I'm on a ship traveling at relativistic velocities and I attempt to Skype with someone back on Earth (assuming Wi-Fi reached that far and the receivers were tuned to account for the red/blueshift), what would it look like to the people on either end? If they could connect, would either one be able to notice the time dilation? | askscience | {
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"As long as the ship is traveling at velocities below the speed of light (c), communication is possible.\n\nBut as the velocity increases, all communication signals get shifted towards longer wavelengths. This means that the \"bandwidth\" of the signal decreases, and you can't pass as much information through it as before. It's like having an internet connection that gets slower and slower.\n\nAt the speed of light, communication with the ship flying away from you is obviously impossible, and the bandwidth becomes zero.\n\nBoth parties will observe that the time on the other end runs more slowly.This will be independent of whether they are moving towards each other or away from each other, or even past each other.\n\nHowever, there will also be a Doppler effect on top of it that will slow the stream down when the ship is flying away, and will speed things up when it is flying towards the Earth. You can only calculate time dilation after you make corrections for the Doppler effect.\n\nAlso, as the ship gets further and further away, there will be large delays between the time you say something and the time you hear their response. Even trying to talk to someone on the Moon is hard, because you need to wait for two seconds to hear back from them.",
"1) Both the spaceship and the Earth would see the other as time dilated (moving slowly).\n\n2) Both the spaceship and the Earth would see the other as Doppler Shifted.\n\nThe interaction between (1) and (2) can get a little weird. Let us consider the case where the spaceship is approaching Earth.\n\nFirst of all, let us consider the round trip communications. If the spaceship initiates the communications, Earth would observe the spaceship as communicating slowly, but the signals it sends are also compressed in space (because it is moving close to the speed of light). The Doppler compression wins out, and Earth would see the spaceship's communications as compressed in space (and therefore time). Then Earth responds.\n\nWhen Earth responds the spaceship also sees Earth as moving slowly. However, Earth is also approaching the spaceship (they are approaching each other) so the Doppler shift beats time dilation and the signal is compressed. So the spaceship also sees signals from Earth as compressed.\n\nSo what does this mean? We would be unable to match frequencies. Suppose we tried to sing in harmony. I would start off singing (let's say at tuning A). You would hear me as singing a higher pitch and sing higher to compensate. I would hear you singing higher still, and have to compensate. We would end up in a positive feedback loop, singing progressively higher pitches until we reached the end of our vocal ranges.\n\nHowever, there is something weird about this. How can I see time as running slowly for you AND say that your videos are running quickly? The key is in how you are moving through space, and when you started signaling.\n\nSuppose a spaceship sent information to me and I received it at a certain time T1. I watch their video as they approach, and it is running fast. Then at a time T2 they arrive at Earth just as they say they are arriving at Earth in their video. I know how fast they were going, so I can use my knowledge of the speed of light to predict the time T0 when they first sent that message. I could then measure the time T2 - T0 since they began. But I would find that the total time the videos depict is too short for the time T2-T0 (meaning they had experienced less time than I had expected, thus time was dilated). However, the time it took me to receive the videos, T2-T1, was shorter than the time depicted (the actual video signal was sped up).\n\n\nThere are two more interesting things to note:\n\nEarth and the spaceship would disagree on when signaling began and from where. Suppose Earth observed that the spaceship began signaling at a time TE and a distance away DE. The spaceship would disagree, they would say they began signaling at a time TS > TE (later on) and a distance away DS < DE (they were closer when they began). Similarly, if Earth responded at a time TE2 and distance DE2, the spaceship would say that earth actually responded at an earlier time TES2 < TE2 and a greater distance away DS2 > DE2. In fact, the only time and location Earth and the Spaceship would agree on is when and where they would collide. This is true, not only of spaceships, but of all particles in the universe. The only way to synchronize measures of time and space is to be sitting in the same location in time and space.\n\nWhat happens after the spaceship passes earth? This one has already been mentioned in other posts, but now Doppler shift and time dilation are working together. So both the spaceship and earth would see the videos as slowed down. But now we would be seeing the videos as especially slow, even slower than you would expect from time dilation alone. Again, this is because not only is time on the spaceship slowed down, they are also moving away from us.",
"On this same line of thought what if you weren't traveling in a straight line? What if you were moving at the speed of light in a circle around the person you were attempting to communicate with. Assuming the distance stays constant and they have a device that can capture the signal what would happen?",
"By relativistic velocities I assume you mean on the order of .9c away from or toward the earth.\n\nThe short answer is if there is a conversation, it would be a very weird one.\n\nImagine we(on earth) send a message some time dt after the ship departs. Let's express the ship's velocity as the ratio relative to the speed of light or beta. So if you are traveling at .9c we shall say beta is .9. So now we can set up a system of linear equations to find out how long it will take take you on the ship to get a message sent from earth after time dt. The position of the ship is .9c*(t+dt) and the position of the message is c*t. We want to solve for when the positions are equal so beta*(t+dt)=t. Solving for t, t= beta*dt/(1-beta)=dt/(1/beta -1) So in the case where beta=.9 then t=9*dt. So now you have received the message 10*dt after you left. Now say you respond instantly. (new superhero ability?) Now from the reference frame of the earth, it will take another 9*dt for the message to get back to the earth. Total it has taken 19dt to send and respond to a message dt long. So if your friends on earth sent you a quick 1 second goodbye message, they won't see your response for 19 seconds. Now imagine if they want to respond to your message. Again they are able to respond instantly. They will get another response from you 19^2 seconds later. Hence a conversation in some sense is possible, however it would not be a very sustainable conversation. \n\nImagine a slightly different scenario. Say you are watching a movie. Each frame is displayed for 1/24th of a second. Well that would make ugly math, so let's say you're watching a boring slide show that would normally progress at a rate of 1 slide per second. After each slide the viewing time is multiplied by a factor of 10. Ok, so the first slide lasts 1 seconds and the second lasts 10 seconds, and the third 100. That doesn't seem too bad. However, the 18th slide will take longer than the age of the universe. So you really couldn't have much of a conversation with a highly relativistic ship. \n\nYou would see the opposite effect traveling toward the earth, with the messages getting ever closer together. By the time your computers manage to connect that call you better say goodbye, because you're fractions of a second from colliding with the earth, or shooting past and quickly being out of communications range again.",
"This is a super interesting question. Let's assume a couple of things:\n\n* You're moving with respect to the Earth at 0.5c. We could use another number, but half the speed of light is already plenty fast, and more than sufficient to observe relativistic effects.\n* You're very close to the Earth. Let's say you're just 100 km from the Earth at the time the conversation starts.\n* Instead of using WiFi, let's just transmit our signal via modulation of a super-powerful laser. Wifi's complicated and grungy. Lasers are simpler to model, and also pretty frikking sweet - just ask a shark with one on it's head.\n* Let's assume nobody's accelerating.\n\nThat last bit's an important assumption. It means we're allowed to treat this problem using only *Special Relativity*, which is mathematically much simpler than *General Relativity*. And the other assumptions (the laser beam for example) allow us to model this system using simplistic examples and then hand-wave them to generalize them to a conversation.\n\nNow, according to special relativity, according to the observer on Earth your clock will be running at 1/( 1-v^2 / c^2 )^1/2 , which in this case comes out to 86.6% as fast as \"real\" time. According to the traveler, however, it's the Earth's clocks which are moving slow, again at 86.6% \"real\" time.\n\nSo if we discount doppler effects, someone speaking to you over Skype would be slowed down, and that one second for the other guy would take 1.154 seconds (1/86.6%) for you.\n\nOf course, we **can't** discount doppler effects at this speed. After all, we're transmitting these signals using garden-variety light! So for now let's just model the Skype call as a heartbeat. Once per (relative) second, the laser transmitting the communications beam modulates the amplitude of the laser light so it's twice as bright for a brief period (0.01 seconds, or some other risibly small fraction), before going right back to low amplitude for the other 0.99 seconds.\n\nNow, we've already established that this ticking clock will only tick every 1.154 seconds because of time dilation. But you also need to account for the Earth **moving away from you!** In the 1.154 seconds the Earth's moving away from you, it moves 0.577 light-seconds away from you. (1.154 seconds * 0.5 c). So between each pulse the Earth gets 0.577 light-seconds further away from you. Thus, each pulse takes an *additional* 0.577 seconds to arrive after the last one. Add those up, and you get a total \"slowdown\" of pulses of 1.731 seconds apart. Note, I haven't gotten at all into *classical* doppler effects - Those concerns affect frequency and that complicates matters, and we really don't need them. Amplitude modulation let's us skip those concerns.\n\nNow let's generalize: We can talk about pulses, and we can talk about **lack thereof**. These pulses could easily be 1's and 0's. A big pulse is a 1, and a little pulse, (or no pulse at all) is a 0. Then we're transmitting data, which is what Skype needs us to do to make a conversation work. However, if you think about it a second you'll realize that really, the 0.577 second delay isn't necessarily going to literally slow down the processing of Skype on your spacecraft. It's just going to reduce the bandwidth that skype can transmit. If they compress the signal sufficiently, and if the original bandwidth of the laser beam we're using is sufficiently high, (it can easily be very high - people send data @ 10Gb/s over fiber, which is just a glorified example of laser transmission) then you won't necessarily see any slowdown if the software's accounted for it. The point is, if your software we built to account for both the lesser bandwidth and the the time dilation, you'd only see this manifest as a delay in transmission of each message before the other guy responded to it as Skype waits for the entire message to arrive & reassembles it on the fly. There'd have to be 0.731 seconds of black for every second of message being transmitted while Skype waits for the entire signal to arrive, but it *could, quite easily,* be reassembled in what looks like realtime.\n\nThis ends up being kind of a lukewarm answer to your question, I'm afraid, because there's plenty of intelligence in the design of skype software that we cannot account for using the simplistic, hand-waving explanation here. \n\nSo let's remove the skype software, and just make the signal transmit directly onto a photodiode controlling a speaker in your spaceship. It's the simplest model for laser communication I can think of.\n\nIn that case, yes, you'd hear a voice that would be slowed down by 173.1%.",
"For some reading on this, [see this previous thread on the same topic](_URL_1_), and [this thread on a similar topic](_URL_0_)",
"if you setup relativistic signal boosters, then yes. theoretically possible.\n\nconsidering the distances covered - you'd have to create \"fast\" lanes that are saturated with these boosters so they could communicate with each other in a timely manner, and travel only within these fast lanes which be very narrow. \n\nor perhaps come up with some relativistic communication technology that \"bends\" spacetime - then communicating would be as immediate as travel within spacetime itself due to the fact that the two points in space communicating will have no real \"space\" between them.\n\nthat said, this is like thousands of years ahead of our time, if at all possible. currently, doppler effects rule the physics of communication at those speeds, or any speed really, and anything travelling near the speed of light will succumb to the rules we already know.",
"If anyone is interested the effect of speed on wireless communication systems is called Doppler fading. This effect can hurt wireless systems even traveling at car speeds however the effect of Doppler fading is diminished by using a communication channel with a very large bandwidth. So assuming you are communicating on a n infinitely wide channel then as your speed approaches the speed of light you will be able to continue communicating. However an infinitely wide channel is not really possible but neither is travelling the speed of light.",
"Assuming you worked out all the tech. It would be in slow motion by a factor of gamma. It would be analogous to when you move away from sound and the frequency gets lower. What would probably be done in practice is you would just wait a few seconds every couple minutes or so, depending how fast you were going, so you could see a normal looking picture.",
"Doppler Spread is a common problem in any mobile communications system.\n\nDon't forget you suppose to broadcast and recieve on a very specific frequency... which is going to shift if they are moving relative to each other..\n\nHere are some examples of the sort of things they do to try cope with it...\n_URL_2_",
"It'd probably look a lot like Skype looks today. The time dilation, assuming your receiving and transmitting units could speed up or slow down the signals accordingly, would just make it lag and skip."
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} | Could you Skype at Relativistic Velocities?
If I'm on a ship traveling at relativistic velocities and I attempt to Skype with someone back on Earth (assuming Wi-Fi reached that far and the receivers were tuned to account for the red/blueshift), what would it look like to the people on either end? If they could connect, would either one be able to notice the time dilation? | [
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|
ywgwt | Could you really space dive like in star trek (2009 film)? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c5zf7nh"
],
"text": [
"You can't jump from orbit to Earth. When you're in orbit you are actually already in free fall. If you then jump, you'll just continue to be in free fall and continue to orbit. To get back to surface, you need to cancel a significant part of your orbital velocity somehow. The way the space shuttle did this is to slow down just enough that the shuttle dips into the atmosphere. In the atmosphere air resistance will then take care of the rest of the velocity. This however requires all that heat shielding since you're entering the atmosphere at an extremely high speed.\n\nIf you got rid of a more significant amount of your orbital energy using engines of some kind, then you would enter the atmosphere at a much slower speed and might not need such shielding. Although, just falling towards Earth will obviously increase your speed, so then it's a question of how high you're jumping from and how great a velocity will you achieve before the atmosphere starts to slow you down."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Could you really space dive like in star trek (2009 film)?
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||
16q6wz | Alternative Splicing Analysis | Hi Reddit,
I have a dilemma in lab. I am looking at a gene that likely undergoes alternative splicing. There are various transcripts of this gene reported, and I've designed several primers for those transcripts (analyzing cDNA). However, I am consistently getting multiple bands on my gel, or no bands at all. In your experience, what is the best way to analyze genes that may undergo alternative splicing? The goal is to finally do an expression assay (probably taqman) | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c7yjdqa",
"c7ydn6g"
],
"text": [
"May be a bit of work but you could always extract the separate fragments from an agarose gel, clone them in a vector and sequence them? Afterwards you can then design primers directed against the different transcripts.\n\nSeems like a good way to me.",
"Have you simply tried a Northern blot? That seems the most straightforward thing to do to see what transcripts are present.\n\nIt's a little unclear what you mean by \"expression assay\". Do you just want to quantitate relative levels of the alternative transcripts by qPCR? Or do you want to actually look at protein expression?"
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Alternative Splicing Analysis
Hi Reddit, I have a dilemma in lab. I am looking at a gene that likely undergoes alternative splicing. There are various transcripts of this gene reported, and I've designed several primers for those transcripts (analyzing cDNA). However, I am consistently getting multiple bands on my gel, or no bands at all. In your experience, what is the best way to analyze genes that may undergo alternative splicing? The goal is to finally do an expression assay (probably taqman) | [
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|
83e9yo | How does Shazam work? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dvhof5d",
"dvhslys",
"dvhucnv",
"dvi6xrn"
],
"text": [
"I actually worked with Shazam for a while when my employer at the time was partnering with them. They generate a \"fingerprint\" of the audio and then I assume they segment that in a way that you can then search on parts of songs.\n\nIt's probably similar to this project _URL_1_\n\nMore descriptive blog post: _URL_0_",
"Sorry for the mobile link.\n\nShazam and others like it use a variation on Fourier Transforms to generate a fingerprint that is extremely compact and easy for a computer to analyze. \n\nThis is also part of the secret that allowed mp3 files to be so compressed and yet play back at high quality.\n\n_URL_2_",
"I have read a bit about the general procedure of fingerprinting songs, and a few friends of mine worked on developing their own version of the software. DejaVu, the software linked in another comment, has an excellent description of the process, complete with visuals. For those who don’t want to look it up, I can provide an overview. \n\n1. The software most likely starts by converting whatever audio input it gets directly into a “wav” file or something equivalent. These files are a time series of amplitudes of diaphragm compression from the mic. This is a map of a sound signal in the time domain. This is pretty common way to represent sound, and is most likely what you’ve seen if you work with any software like GarageBand or the like. \n\n2. Then, the software takes a discrete Fourier transform of the data. The method used to do this is the FFT (Fast Fourier Transform). If you’ve never heard of this process, it can be difficult to conceptualize. In essence, it takes data in the time domain and maps it into the frequency domain. This means that it calculates the amount of the signal that is made up of different frequencies. This is possible because any signal can be created by a combination of different frequencies at different amplitudes. The FFT extracts those amplitudes. \n\n3. I lied a little in the last step. Instead of taking the FT on the entire time stream at once, we take it on small amounts at a time. Maybe a second or so. This is often called the “bin” size. The bin size is arbitrary, and there are advantages and disadvantages to making it larger or smaller. So, for a three minute song, using a bin size of half a second, we would have 360 bins. For each bin, the frequency information is extracted. Now, we have a series of bins, chronologically ordered, and the frequency information extracted from them. \n\n4. With this information, we can begin to implement fingerprinting techniques. The most common way to do this is to finding “peaks” in the data for each bin. This means finding local maxima. There may be (and most likely *will* be) several per bin. The reason we do this is that peaks tend to survive noise. In the presence of static, as long as there is a sufficient signal to noise ratio, the peaks ought to retain their relative locations to each other (location meaning how many bins away it is from another peak). \n\n5. The collection of local maxima and their locations with respect to one another is the fingerprint of the song. You can then calculate this fingerprint for many songs. \n\n6. To identify a song, record a small sample of audio, and then apply the same process to this sample. The local maxima locations will partially match with a previously calculated fingerprint. The better the match, the greater our confidence in the identification. \n\nThere are many different things to consider when using this method:\n- Windowing functions for the FT of the bins\n- Bin size\n- Peak finding techniques (and acceptance and denial of peaks)",
"The core algorithm has been published: _URL_3_\n\nAnd their engineering blog has more implementation details on how their production implementation works scattered around, depending on details you're looking for: _URL_4_"
],
"score": [
69,
60,
8,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://willdrevo.com/fingerprinting-and-audio-recognition-with-python/",
"https://github.com/worldveil/dejavu",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_transform",
"http://www.ee.columbia.edu/~dpwe/papers/Wang03-shazam.pdf",
"https://blog.shazam.com/tagged/engineering"
]
} | How does Shazam work?
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baod68 | Transparency: Pass-through or catch and release? | When photons traverse through a transparent substance, do they actually pass through without interacting with the substance, or are they absorbed and re-released with the same direction and frequency? If they just pass straight through, then what causes photons to refract (deflect off of their straight line path). | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ekdlv9z"
],
"text": [
"Neither.\n\nConsidering the material and photons as separated objects doesn't work well. The light becomes ... something else. \"Photon in material X\" - with different speed and so on."
],
"score": [
6
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Transparency: Pass-through or catch and release?
When photons traverse through a transparent substance, do they actually pass through without interacting with the substance, or are they absorbed and re-released with the same direction and frequency? If they just pass straight through, then what causes photons to refract (deflect off of their straight line path). | [
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|
xb916 | Some questions about Dr. Lenski's Long Term Evolution Experiment | Wikipedia has a [pretty good summary](_URL_3_) and I've read source 2, but they've left me curious for more. My questions:
1. On average, how many cells exist in each of the 12 cultures at a given time?. When the researchers [state](_URL_0_), "Potentiated and ancestral cultures had, on average, 1.1 and 1.5 × 10^10 cells, respectively", does that mean 11 billion per colony, or 1.1 * 10^10 * 50k * 12 = 6.6^15 (6.6 quadrillion) total cells?
2. [According to Larry Moran](_URL_1_), e coli mutate at a rate of about 10^-10 per nucleotide per replication, but wiki states, "Of the 12 populations, four developed defects in their ability to repair DNA, greatly increasing the rate of additional mutations in those strains". By how much were their mutation rates increased? Did this hurt or help the ability for "10 to 20 beneficial mutations achieved fixation in each population" ?
3. According to [Moran again](_URL_4_) (his blog always comes up in my search queries), the typical generation time of e coli in the lab is 30 minutes. That should give 385k generations over 22 years, not 50k. Why were they 7.7 times slower in Dr. Lenski's experiment?
4. It's hard to gauge their size, but the experiment itself [looks quite small](_URL_2_). Why not do it on a larger scale?
My biggest curiosity is in getting a rough sense for how fast evolution can move by determining the population sizes and number of mutation and selection events. So far I've got 6.6*10^15 * (5 * 10^6 bp * 10^-10 mutations/bp) = roughly 3.3 trillion mutation events during the course of the experiment, not counting the increase from damaged DNA repair mechanisms. Am I doing this right?
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c5qqvfr"
],
"text": [
"1) As several of the papers published on the experiment indicate, population size has for most of the 12 flasks declined over the course of the experiment, though population A-3 has increased its population size drastically. The quoted number of population size are total number of cells in the flask at carrying capacity. As a general rule, DM25 cultures can hold something on the order of 10^7 cells per mL, which means something times 10^8 for a 10 mL flask. The citrate utilizing population has a higher population size, as it can effectively use a resource in the culture that the other populations cannot.\n\n2) Different populations have had different increases in mutation rate. The 1997 publication in Nature by Sniegowski, Gerrish, and Lenski details measurements of elevated mutation rates in 3 of the populations between 1 and 2 orders of magnitude greater than baseline.\n\n3) This is a common stumbling block. Reported doubling rates are often maximum growth rates. However, that growth rate is not indefinitely sustainable; nutrient limitation will slow things down eventually. In this experiment, each day, each population has 1% of its culture transferred to fresh media. This allows each population 100x growth each day. The log base 2 of 100 is ~6.644, so this is the number of generations each population can go through in a single day. This remains true even if the overall population size changes over the course of the experiment."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2430337/?tool=pmcentrez",
"http://sandwalk.blogspot.com/2007/07/mutation-rates.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lenski%27s_12_long-term_lines_of_E._coli_on_25_June_2008.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._coli_long-term_evolution_experiment",
"http://sandwalk.blogspot.com/2008/05/dna-replication-in-e-coli-problem.html"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | Some questions about Dr. Lenski's Long Term Evolution Experiment
Wikipedia has a [pretty good summary](_URL_3_) and I've read source 2, but they've left me curious for more. My questions: 1. On average, how many cells exist in each of the 12 cultures at a given time?. When the researchers [state](_URL_0_), "Potentiated and ancestral cultures had, on average, 1.1 and 1.5 × 10^10 cells, respectively", does that mean 11 billion per colony, or 1.1 * 10^10 * 50k * 12 = 6.6^15 (6.6 quadrillion) total cells? 2. [According to Larry Moran](_URL_1_), e coli mutate at a rate of about 10^-10 per nucleotide per replication, but wiki states, "Of the 12 populations, four developed defects in their ability to repair DNA, greatly increasing the rate of additional mutations in those strains". By how much were their mutation rates increased? Did this hurt or help the ability for "10 to 20 beneficial mutations achieved fixation in each population" ? 3. According to [Moran again](_URL_4_) (his blog always comes up in my search queries), the typical generation time of e coli in the lab is 30 minutes. That should give 385k generations over 22 years, not 50k. Why were they 7.7 times slower in Dr. Lenski's experiment? 4. It's hard to gauge their size, but the experiment itself [looks quite small](_URL_2_). Why not do it on a larger scale? My biggest curiosity is in getting a rough sense for how fast evolution can move by determining the population sizes and number of mutation and selection events. So far I've got 6.6*10^15 * (5 * 10^6 bp * 10^-10 mutations/bp) = roughly 3.3 trillion mutation events during the course of the experiment, not counting the increase from damaged DNA repair mechanisms. Am I doing this right? | [
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|
1x6kc9 | Question about Dr. Richard Lenski's long term evolution experiment. | Hi guys!
I was watching the recent Ham vs Nye debate, and one creationist scientist (Andrew Fabich) cited by Ken Ham claims that the citrate mutation in Lenski's experiment was not the result of new information as a result of evolution. Instead he says that the information was there all along and the ability to metabolize citrate is simply a switch that turns on and off. How true is this? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cf8zav1"
],
"text": [
"That is just blatantly false. There were *two* subsequent mutations necessary for citrate assimilation to develop. The precursor mutation allowed for the citrate metabolism mutation. That cell line is the only one that has been able to re-evolve that trait; the other lines could not."
],
"score": [
7
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Question about Dr. Richard Lenski's long term evolution experiment.
Hi guys! I was watching the recent Ham vs Nye debate, and one creationist scientist (Andrew Fabich) cited by Ken Ham claims that the citrate mutation in Lenski's experiment was not the result of new information as a result of evolution. Instead he says that the information was there all along and the ability to metabolize citrate is simply a switch that turns on and off. How true is this? | [
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|
s7d4b | Can somebody explain the interaction between the thyroid gland and the hypothalamus and how it is affected by hypothyroidism? | A medical doctor once gave me a very simplistic description along the lines of 'well, if the thyroid gland is not producing enough thyroid hormones, it increases the workload for the hypothalamus which has to constantly try and increase TSH production, which leads to exhaustion / mental fatigue'.
Now, I did not have any trouble on finding information on the feedback loops between hypothalamus and thyroid gland (for example on this [wikipedia page](_URL_0_)). But I am not sure how the connection to exhaustion/ mental fatigue works (I admit these are rather ill-defined concepts). So far I have not found many good sources for this topic, so if you can link to relevant papers that would be greatly appreciated.
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c4boi2v"
],
"text": [
"It sounds like you have a good grasp on the HPT axis, but I'll explain it for anyone else. ([This](_URL_1_) is an easy to understand figure) \n\nSo with someone that has a defect in thyroid hormone production (such as with an iodine deficiency or Hashimoto's thyroiditis, etc.) the thyroid doesn't make enough thyroid hormone. That decrease in hormone is sensed by the hypothalamus which increases its production of Thyroid Releasing Hormone (TRH) this signals the anterior pituitary to release more Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) which goes to the thyroid to try to make more thyroid hormone. But wait! The thyroid isn't working, so no more hormone is made and the TSH levels remain high as the thyroid hormone levels remain low. \n\n > But I am not sure how the connection to exhaustion/ mental fatigue works \n\nI think you may be referencing a problem resulting from low levels of [thyroid hormone](_URL_0_) (T3 and T4). These hormones increase your metabolic rate and sensitize your cells to catecholamines (like adrenaline) which is a stimulant. Not enough T4/T3 therefore leads to fatigue (among many other problems)."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93thyroid_axis"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyroxine",
"http://www.cedarbear.com/ImagesOther/HPT%20Axis.jpg"
]
} | Can somebody explain the interaction between the thyroid gland and the hypothalamus and how it is affected by hypothyroidism?
A medical doctor once gave me a very simplistic description along the lines of 'well, if the thyroid gland is not producing enough thyroid hormones, it increases the workload for the hypothalamus which has to constantly try and increase TSH production, which leads to exhaustion / mental fatigue'. Now, I did not have any trouble on finding information on the feedback loops between hypothalamus and thyroid gland (for example on this [wikipedia page](_URL_0_)). But I am not sure how the connection to exhaustion/ mental fatigue works (I admit these are rather ill-defined concepts). So far I have not found many good sources for this topic, so if you can link to relevant papers that would be greatly appreciated. | [
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6edtb0 | I don't know if this is the right question for this subreddit, but how would a pack of raptors, let's say deinonychus, fair in the modern day Savannah/Serengeti? | Would they be able to compete with other predators like lions, hyenas, and crocodiles, or would they die out? (Assuming they can adapt to the environment) I know dinosaurs are supposed to be on average a lot larger and stronger than modern day animals, but I thought it was interesting the raptor called deinonychus only weighed 150 pounds (compared to a female lion which weights 280) was able to hunt other dinosaurs such as tenontosaurus which weighed around 2000 pounds (compared to zebras and water buffaloes which weigh around 1000 pounds). Would these dinosaurs dominate the food chain today? Or were they only specialized for the animals of their time and fail at hunting the herbivores of the savannah/Serengeti. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"There's actually very little evidence that *Deinonychus* hunted 2000-lb *Tenontosaurus*. All we have are teeth associated with adult specimens, and that's hardly enough to rule out any component of scavenging. In fact, only immature *Tenontosaurus* specimens are associated with skeletal remains of *Deinonychus*.\n\nAll of this paints a picture where *Deinonychus* was not an overpowered arch-predator. It's likely that they did target smaller, more manageable prey in loose mobs (probably *not* packs - there's very little pack hunting behavior among diapsids). Mobs would also form to scavenge larger kills, perhaps made by the local arch-predator *Acrocanthosaurus*. Feeding would have been chaotic, disorganized, and violent; other *Deinonychus*, the victims of squabbles and fights, would not be off the menu. \n\nSo, really, *Deinonychus* is probably only a hyena-level predator at best.\n\n**References**\n\n- Brinkman, D.L. (1998) \"[First Occurrence of *Deinonychus antirrhopus* (Dinosauria: Theropoda) from the Antlers Formation (Lower-Cretaceous: Aptian-Albian) of Oklahoma.](_URL_0_)\" *Oklahoma Geological Survey Bulletin* **146**: 1-27.\n\n- Roach, B.T., and Brinkman, D.L. (2007) \"[A Reevaluation of Cooperative Pack Hunting and Gregariousness in *Deinonychus antirrhopus* and Other Nonavian Theropod Dinosaurs.](http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.3374/0079-032X%282007%2948%5B103%3AAROCPH%5D_URL_1_%3B2)\" *Bulletin of the Peabody Museum of Natural History* **48**(1): 103-138. DOI: 10.3374/0079-032X(2007)48[103:AROCPH]_URL_1_;2",
"I think it is hard to know that, because we don't know if they specialized in a certain type of prey. Some predators are very dependent on one or two prey species. If those species are not around, the predators might not thrive. On the other hand, if they were generalists (eating anything they can catch) they might do OK.",
"Like many questions regarding evolution, this boils down to the potential breadth of behaviour the animal in question demonstrates. In this case the primary behavioural question is 'do they hunt cooperatively?'.\n\nThere is zero evidence to suggest that a *single* Deinonychus could successfully hunt even juvenile Tenontosaurus. However there is some evidence to suggest that *if* they hunted cooperatively, they may have done it regularly. And this we do not know.\n\nAs a solo creature, even an animal as impressively evolved as Deinonychus would struggle in modern day Savannah/Serengeti. Looking vaguely like an over-sized turkey would not bodes well for Deinonychus. Using the customary surprise ambush methods, a 100+kg cat would likely make short work of it.\n\nHowever if Deinonychus worked cooperatively then I would suggest very few modern animals smaller than a rhinoceros would be off the menu. Evolution was just as hard at work back then and 100+Ma, Earth was a truly nasty place. \n\nTo imagine the abilities of Deinonychus, we have to summon up a vivisection of modern animals and glue them together in a 'best effort'. \n\nSomething like a flightless modern-day eagle, crossed with a Roadrunner/Secretary bird - with a dash of crocodile thrown in. Keep in mind, the largest and most powerful of all modern flying raptors comes in at under 10kg. A 5kg eagle is capable of hunting 20kg kangaroos - alone. Deinonychus came in at up to 100kg. While 95-99% flightless in mobility, there was still the possibility of some limited gliding ability to go alongside their 30+km/hr sprint. Those giant claws would pierce through almost any hair/skin combination.\n\nA group of 3 or more cooperative Deinonychus would be deadly for most creatures, and if they were also capable of scaring lions off their kill......well, luckily an asteroid helped us out, I say.\n\nEdit:\n\n > Flightless in mobility, \n\n > there was still the possibility,\n\n > of some limited gliding ability."
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} | {
"url": [
"http://www.ogs.ou.edu/pubsscanned/BULLETINS/Bulletin146.pdf",
"2.0.CO",
"http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.3374/0079-032X%282007%2948%5B103%3AAROCPH%5D2.0.CO%3B2"
]
} | I don't know if this is the right question for this subreddit, but how would a pack of raptors, let's say deinonychus, fair in the modern day Savannah/Serengeti?
Would they be able to compete with other predators like lions, hyenas, and crocodiles, or would they die out? (Assuming they can adapt to the environment) I know dinosaurs are supposed to be on average a lot larger and stronger than modern day animals, but I thought it was interesting the raptor called deinonychus only weighed 150 pounds (compared to a female lion which weights 280) was able to hunt other dinosaurs such as tenontosaurus which weighed around 2000 pounds (compared to zebras and water buffaloes which weigh around 1000 pounds). Would these dinosaurs dominate the food chain today? Or were they only specialized for the animals of their time and fail at hunting the herbivores of the savannah/Serengeti. | [
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|
uo0cc | Help for a budding young scientist?
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c4x0s6c",
"c4x0jdt"
],
"text": [
"r/science might have been better, but I will try answering nevertheless.\n\nDisclaimer: I'm not American, so some of this may not apply there.\n\nFirst, be absolutely sure that it is really what you want. Careers in science are pretty difficult to get, the competition is fierce, hours are long and the pay sucks for most of your career. Google \"don't become a scientist\" and read what you find with all your heart. Additionally, you may want to read [PHD Comics](_URL_1_) and listen to [this illustrating song](_URL_0_).\n\nDo **not** listen to undergraduates. They don't know anything about real science, but are usually very enthusiastic. If you are interested in the reality, listen to what Ph.D. students and postdocs say, perhaps also young professors. Senior professors became scientists when there were a lot of jobs in academia, so their experiences do not reflect the current reality.\n\nSecond, I'm going to quote some redditor's professor: \"specialize first, generalize later\", or something like that. There are very few scientists in the world who have done significant contributions in several fields. You don't need to (and shouldn't) decide the exact sub-field or thesis title right now, but you should be ready to dive into one, and only one, subject. It is useful to learn *about* other subjects, but on the level that does not require much technical knowledge. The reason for that is that real science is frigging hard, and by spreading your interest in the early phase you find that you don't know any subject well enough to be able to publish anything.\n\nThird, which is somewhat counter-intuitive to the previous point, learn math. You don't need to become a mathematician, but you should be comfortable with all levels of math that can be encountered in your field. I think it would be a safe assumption to learn as much as hard undegraduate math as you can in college. I don't know how much math is needed in purely lab-work, though, but if you are planning to ever use the word \"theory\" in your writings, you will find math very helpful.\n\nThird point five, learn to program. Again, you don't need to become a C++ master, but being able to write data processing and numerical modelling scripts is ridiculously helpful in almost any area of life.\n\nFourth, do not go easy on yourself. Don't trust grades. If the course is easy, you can get perfect score without *really* understanding the subject. In real science, being able to mechanically calculate something or being able to remember trivia is worth nothing. You need to be able to understand things very deeply and be able to make logical connections between things. Most of all, you need to be able to think with your own brain, since there is nothing else you can rely on if you become a scientist.\n\nI don't have an opinion about learning subject matter beforehand. I don't know how that works. Most of the science stuff you will learn in the university is not wikipedia-level fun-to-read stuff but very technical and very detailed. If you really want to do this (and I'm not saying it's a bad idea), you should get some books that your future college uses in its intro courses.",
"If you want organic chemistry, then Organic Chemistry by Clayden, Greeves, Warren and Wothers is really good, if a little expensive :/\nSource: I have a copy..."
],
"score": [
2,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fl4L4M8m4d0",
"www.phdcomics.com"
]
} | Help for a budding young scientist?
| [
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1lyl43 | How exactly does Naegleria fowleri attack the brain / nervous system and why is it so difficult to fight against? | With less than 1% survival rate, it seems like we would want to be better prepared for something that one can contract just from getting contaminated water up his or her nose. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cc41ry8"
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"text": [
"It's nearly always fatal, but it's very rarely contracted (~3 cases per year in the US). There are many other diseases that kill many more people, and would be better candidates to spend effort and money on finding treatments for."
],
"score": [
2
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | How exactly does Naegleria fowleri attack the brain / nervous system and why is it so difficult to fight against?
With less than 1% survival rate, it seems like we would want to be better prepared for something that one can contract just from getting contaminated water up his or her nose. | [
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1cmht2 | Is energy use proportional to information transmitted | Theoretically speaking, do you always need more energy to transmit more information, or is there some loophole? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c9hy3ew",
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],
"text": [
"The quick answer is no, as 2500ak says there are different methods of transmission and you can often turn the power up without affecting the data rate directly. However, that said there are several things of scientific interest where the information transmitted ends up being related to energy use:\n\n**Entropy:** Information is fine detail and if its meaning is lost or discarded it becomes a mess, or technically-speaking disorder. There are fundamental theorems that show, for example, that computations which involve discarding information must waste heat in proportion to the *lost* information because of entropy. However this is very small and not a practical issue with current technologies.\n\n**Photon energy:** High data rates require high frequencies; if these are transmitted by radio/micro-waves then the photons involved are higher energy. Again however, the vast majority of transmission techniques involve a huge number of photons and so the photon energy is usually irrelevant. The exception is in *Quantum Cryptography*, where single photons are used to keep information secret because they cannot by divided without making mistakes that can be detected; in this case more info = more photons = more energy!\n\n**Signal to noise:** If you have an unreliable connection and your signal is swamped by noise, you will have a certain rate of transmission, but the system will have errors at a certain rate. In this case, turning up the power will usually increase the signal-to-noise ratio, reducing the error rate, and so in a way the energy use will go up as the successful information transmission rate increases.\n\n**Switching transistors:** As transistors are switched on and off, electrons have to be moved in and out of the gate control and this takes energy. In the process energy is lost through several mechanisms and these are mostly termed capacitive losses. As you lose an amount of energy per switching cycle (i.e. on-off), the energy use is roughly-speaking proportional to the information transmitted/computed. This is the major cause of energy consumption in computer CPUs and is the reason why fast processors need lots of cooling. This is the closest we get to the answer to your question being yes.",
"In what context? There are more and less efficient methods to transmit information. Fiber optics vs electrical signals for example, the resistance per mile is much higher in metallic wires.\n\nIn radio AM is several times less efficient than suppressed carrier because a lot of that energy is going to create the carrier wave in the first place.\n\nI don't know if I'd consider any of those loopholes, a Marconi transmitter from the turn of century took a lot of power to run, vs a more modern equivalent."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Is energy use proportional to information transmitted
Theoretically speaking, do you always need more energy to transmit more information, or is there some loophole? | [
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|
1ac6do | To smash or not to smash? | Does hitting someone over the head hurt less when the bottle breaks like in all the movies? My thought here is that the bottle's breaking cushions some of the blow whereas a slightly softer hit without the bottle breaking would be akin to a baseball bat. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c8wbj36"
],
"text": [
"Have you ever tried to break a bottle? it is REALLY difficult.\n\nEven if you swung as hard as you could, it would likely not break on someone's head. You would probably just kill them or give a nasty concussion.\n\nHowever, yes, the energy required to break the bottle has to come from somewhere, and it would decrease the amount the person felt (like a crumple zone in cars)."
],
"score": [
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | To smash or not to smash?
Does hitting someone over the head hurt less when the bottle breaks like in all the movies? My thought here is that the bottle's breaking cushions some of the blow whereas a slightly softer hit without the bottle breaking would be akin to a baseball bat. | [
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|
4n1hjl | Does a sub-atomic particle travelling in its own field produce a _wake_ in that field? Or is that too simplistic? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d40ge1b"
],
"text": [
"Not sure if this answers your question, but a charged particle that is accelerating (or decelerating) results in radiation travelling away from the particle. [Here's](_URL_2_) a diagram to show why this happens. The amount of power radiated is described by the [Larmor formula](_URL_1_).\n\nYou also have [Cherenkov radiation](_URL_0_) when a charged particle travels through a dielectric medium faster than the speed of light in that medium."
],
"score": [
6
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherenkov_radiation",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larmor_formula",
"http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/65339/how-and-why-does-accelerating-charges-radiate-electromagnetic-radiation"
]
} | Does a sub-atomic particle travelling in its own field produce a _wake_ in that field? Or is that too simplistic?
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2mq5hz | Why aren't we using this? Was it a hoax? | A while back I saw a [video](_URL_0_) about an artificial leaf that split water using solar power and the hydrolysis would generate useable energy. This is a passive energy source and I still don't see any down sides. So what happened to it and why aren't we implementing its power everywhere?! | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cm6we80"
],
"text": [
"The yield is somewhat small and the photovoltaic dyes tend to degrade over time.\n\nBiosynthetic photosynthesis (and/or \"water-splitting\") are under active research, but there has been no example cost-effective enough to upscale *yet*. Currently most examples use a donor ion in the aquatic solution, so you're not actually splitting water, you're just reducing an acid.\n\nIt's actively being researched. I did my thesis on it. And there are also plans to reduce CO2 to CH4 using the same method, which would keep the petrochemical industry alive (which is important to chemists since it supplies almost everything they use)."
],
"score": [
6
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4-M9VU_36NQ"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | Why aren't we using this? Was it a hoax?
A while back I saw a [video](_URL_0_) about an artificial leaf that split water using solar power and the hydrolysis would generate useable energy. This is a passive energy source and I still don't see any down sides. So what happened to it and why aren't we implementing its power everywhere?! | [
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|
3kgn2u | What is the BULK? | I'm currently reading The Science of Interstellar and early on it discusses "the bulk" and it's relation to warped time and space. I can't wrap my mind around this concept at all (mind you I have very little knowledge in astrophysics). Can someone explain this to in baby terms? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cuxatk7"
],
"text": [
"This article has a good explanation: _URL_0_\n\nThe Bulk is the 4D space in which our 3D space is embedded (just as a sheet of 2D paper is part of our 3D world).\n\nThe Bulk is not a real thing as far as we know (and I know)."
],
"score": [
20
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://medium.com/@wwnorton/an-interstellar-explainer-what-are-bulk-beings-1f0d0d99f847"
]
} | What is the BULK?
I'm currently reading The Science of Interstellar and early on it discusses "the bulk" and it's relation to warped time and space. I can't wrap my mind around this concept at all (mind you I have very little knowledge in astrophysics). Can someone explain this to in baby terms? | [
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|
4rovb4 | Why is it so hard to see a repeated 'the'? | In brain teasers like [this one](_URL_0_) it takes forever to find the mistake (the repeated word 'the'). Why does our brain filter out this sort of mistake? Does this phenomenon have a name? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d53g2f4",
"d53byt3"
],
"text": [
"I think the best answer is that your brain is continuously making predictions as you're reading and will often skip over things that are very predictable. I found [this paper](_URL_0_) that claims the probability of word skipping is influenced by two independent factors: word length and predictability. Since the word \"the\" is both short and highly predictable based on context, it is much more likely to be skipped over and thus more easily missed when the the word is repeated.",
"Im not an expert, but if you look at the example you linked, they have done everything possible to make you skip over the \"the\". The line is broken in between the two, the next word is then in bold. Numbers and colors are also used, all of it is misdirection, it would be much easier to spot the mistake if it was just the sentence laid out it one line with nothing else."
],
"score": [
9,
8
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://i2.mirror.co.uk/incoming/article7851917.ece/ALTERNATES/s615/Puzzle-brain-teaser.png"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3543826/"
]
} | Why is it so hard to see a repeated 'the'?
In brain teasers like [this one](_URL_0_) it takes forever to find the mistake (the repeated word 'the'). Why does our brain filter out this sort of mistake? Does this phenomenon have a name? | [
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|
wmfo2 | What is a plausible scientific explanation for "glory clouds" in church services? | I read a NYT article about a runner that relied on his faith. He mentioned something about "glory clouds" during his church service.
Being the skeptical citizen I am I was curious and googled it. I found a few youtube videos of the phenomenon occurring in their church (Bethel Church in Redding, CA).
I googled around to see if there was a debunking and I found nothing more than some suggestions that it was either a malfunctioning in their ventilation system, or a good old fashioned glitter dump.
Are there any reasonable explanations here? Or is trickery at work?
Thanks!
NYT article: _URL_0_
Youtube video (one of many similar): _URL_1_
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c5ekvfs",
"c5ekto4"
],
"text": [
"Edit: Probably [This.](_URL_0_)\n\nIt is most likely due to the condensation of water from evaporated sweat and breath. Supposedly if one of Hitler's buildings had been created the amount of people within the room's combined water generation would cause rain. \n\nMost likely in the video the air conditioning system cooled the evaporated water into mist giving the \"glory\" cloud.",
"That's dust. Definitely dust, you can tell by the straight line it makes coming from the light."
],
"score": [
2,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/14/business/conflict-potential-seen-in-genetic-counselors-paid-by-testing-companies.html",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6VqbVH6SNP4"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.valleyvet.com/ct_detail.html?pgguid=9845ba46-7646-4938-a637-357f55afbb73&itemGUID=ac80bab5-c29a-4b58-a228-c1f6dadf4d5b&ccd=ISH002&utm_source=shopping.com&utm_medium=cpc&utm_content=37718"
]
} | What is a plausible scientific explanation for "glory clouds" in church services?
I read a NYT article about a runner that relied on his faith. He mentioned something about "glory clouds" during his church service. Being the skeptical citizen I am I was curious and googled it. I found a few youtube videos of the phenomenon occurring in their church (Bethel Church in Redding, CA). I googled around to see if there was a debunking and I found nothing more than some suggestions that it was either a malfunctioning in their ventilation system, or a good old fashioned glitter dump. Are there any reasonable explanations here? Or is trickery at work? Thanks! NYT article: _URL_0_ Youtube video (one of many similar): _URL_1_ | [
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|
1kxm1p | Does the notion of pressure points on the body have any scientific basis? | _URL_0_ is what I'm asking about. Are there any particularly weak spots on the body on unprotected nerves that coincide with the idea of pressure points? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cbtn2c1"
],
"text": [
"Soft areas for example the windpipe, the temple, the nasal cavity, can all be exploited to put someone down and potentially kill. In addition if you knock someone out and their head hits a hard surface when they fall that can kill them. It's more common than you would expect for someone to throw one punch and kill the other person in a bar fight. I've known of several cases where this happened. Besides the spine and the nerve which regulates heart beat I've never heard of a nerve which leads to death if it is damaged."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touch_of_Death"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | Does the notion of pressure points on the body have any scientific basis?
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|
2l2xbr | how strong is the power of freezing? | so when water freezes, it expands and it breaks pipes or w/e. now my question, how strong is the power it expands with, and can anything resist it? if yes, what would happen with the water. (example: filling a cube of steel with water so its perfectly full. what would happen if i freeze the water?) | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"clrkprb"
],
"text": [
"When water expands under the pressure of freezing, it will fill the space available to it. If constrained, it will either [rupture the container it's in](_URL_4_), [extrude out](_URL_3_), or [form into a different phase](_URL_1_). This is because, as it freezes, it gets squeezed (placed under pressure) due to its expansion. If this pressure were sufficiently high (I don't know the ratios of expansion for different phases, I'd be glad to do some digging if you'd like), and the temperature sufficiently low, it could form into some of the exotic ices on the phase diagrams above. Several ices (for example, Ice IX) have densities higher than water, that is, unlike normal ice (Ice Ih), they shrink when freezing. if your steel cube were made of some special alloy that simply refused to deform, you would likely form one of these dense ices.\n\nIn the question of a cube of normal steel, it's likely that it will break or deform to accommodate the expanding ice. Ice III is [denser than water](_URL_2_), so let's assume you're just below freezing and trying to reach that phase. According to the diagram, you'll need a pressure of about 200 MPa to hit it. [Steels tend to yield around this range](_URL_0_) (yield is where your steel undergoes permanent deformation), so you could form Ice III, or you could bend your steel box and form Ice Ih, depending on its composition, construction, and how good your welds are."
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.engineershandbook.com/Tables/steelprop.htm",
"https://chemistry.osu.edu/~singer/images/PhaseDiagramX.png",
"http://scripts.iucr.org/cgi-bin/paper?S0567740868004231",
"https://c2.staticflickr.com/8/7143/6680084191_ca34b14337_z.jpg",
"https://www.emergencyplumber.uk.com/images/burst-pipe.png"
]
} | how strong is the power of freezing?
so when water freezes, it expands and it breaks pipes or w/e. now my question, how strong is the power it expands with, and can anything resist it? if yes, what would happen with the water. (example: filling a cube of steel with water so its perfectly full. what would happen if i freeze the water?) | [
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|
kbr0c | How did National Geographic get these shots from inside a caterpillar? Are they faked? | _URL_0_ | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2j0754",
"c2j0xip"
],
"text": [
"I'm in my second year studying Film and Television so I'm no expert, but I'm 90% sure those \"inside the caterpillar\" shots are only well-produced puppetry. \n\nOther than the fact that the larvae look like latex and foam, no camera lens that small could produce such a wide angle of vision and have a large enough camera sensor the capture light so well. (Especially from within the caterpillar). These sorts of nature productions have huge amounts of effort but into sets and post production, not to mention that most of the insects are probably monitored in captivity waiting for the perfect shot.\n\nI'm fairly sure the matter inside the caterpillar is some sort of cotton blend and the fake vignette also helps too.",
"I'd really love to know how these intruders can control the caterpillar's actions (as the video alludes to) 1. at all, and 2. when theyre unable to act."
],
"score": [
21,
6
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vMG-LWyNcAs"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | How did National Geographic get these shots from inside a caterpillar? Are they faked?
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3po79e | Can someone grow out of having ADD? | Or does it just become a matter of learning to manage with it? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cwf1dod",
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],
"text": [
"I'm going to disagree with NawtAGoodNinja if (s)he's implying you can't change these behaviors if you're intentional about it and argue that if he wants that answer to have any merit, he needs to have a citation. \n\nIn any behavior of interest, it's important that we understand the construct on a variety of levels. For that reason, NIMH has created what's called the Research Domain Criteria. It breaks down each construct into units of analysis which are inter-related (_URL_0_). \n\nMany individuals in fields related to psychology look at these constructs at levels that we don't have great interventions (Genes, Molecules, Cells, Circuits, Physiology), they conclude based on their findings that you cannot change anything. However, we understand more and more that these units of analysis have a two way relationship on each other (see epigenetics) instead of a one way relationship that is rather old hat (the nature/nurture argument). \n\nA behavior analysis approach is going to argue that by changing behaviors we \"learn\" which by definition has an impact on the smaller units of analysis. Secondly, most individuals not in the medical field (psychiatry) reject reification of clinical constructs. That is, ADHD isn't a thing, there's not a biological agent like a bacteria or genetic deficiency causing it. Instead it's a series of behaviors that cluster together that may or may not have corresponding biological/physiological/genetic markers. \n\nBreaking it down, ADHD seems to be defined by 4 core behaviors (Barkley RA. Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psycholo Bull 121: 65-94). According to Barkley, these are behavioral inhibition, working memory, regulation of motivation, and motor control. Researchers for awhile now have proposed intervening on working memory in children (an intervention that looks kind of similar to playing simon says) and there's now promising research that this can produce outcomes (Klingberg, T., Fernell, E., Olesen, P. J., Johnson, M., Gustafsson, P., Dahlström, K., ... & Westerberg, H. (2005). Computerized training of working memory in children with ADHD-a randomized, controlled trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 44(2), 177-186.) Indeed Klingberg concluded \"This study shows that WM can be improved by training in children with ADHD. This training also improved response inhibition and reasoning and resulted in a reduction of the parent-rated inattentive symptoms of ADHD.\" \n \n\nA more recent article came to the same conclusion citing medication as an impacting factor as well (Holmes, J., Gathercole, S. E., Place, M., Dunning, D. L., Hilton, K. A., & Elliott, J. G. (2010). Working memory deficits can be overcome: Impacts of training and medication on working memory in children with ADHD. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24(6), 827-836.). \n\nSo like many behaviors (depression, anxiety, etc.) behaviors that are not consistent with ADHD can become the at strength repertoire. Like other changes in behavior, it takes time, effort, patience, and commitment. You will not \"grow out of it\" if you don't try to change the behaviors.",
"It's not likely. Generally, symptoms become more manageable with age (the subject learns to reduce the symptoms of their disorder with the help of specific coping mechanisms and adequate medication), but it is *extremely* rare to outgrow the disorder."
],
"score": [
2,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.nimh.nih.gov/research-priorities/rdoc/research-domain-criteria-matrix.shtml"
]
} | Can someone grow out of having ADD?
Or does it just become a matter of learning to manage with it? | [
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|
xl48c | What is it about Order Hymenoptera that makes them easy to anger? | I'm wondering what is it about the Hymenopterans that makes them so easy to anger. Is it a result of something biochemical such as a certain hormone or more of a insect psychology issue? True, there are some passive species within the Order but overall, many of the species found here are get very angry, very quickly. Why is that? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c5nanja"
],
"text": [
"They are eusocial meaning that most of them do not reproduce, instead they take on supporting roles to increase their evolutionary fitness. Because most of them are infertile it is better to die to protect the hive than to live on. Additionally they are fighting for territory and have a number of predators they must deter."
],
"score": [
7
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | What is it about Order Hymenoptera that makes them easy to anger?
I'm wondering what is it about the Hymenopterans that makes them so easy to anger. Is it a result of something biochemical such as a certain hormone or more of a insect psychology issue? True, there are some passive species within the Order but overall, many of the species found here are get very angry, very quickly. Why is that? | [
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r18cm | This probably a silly question but what is it about water/liquids that messes up electronical equipment? | I know this question must seem stupid but I really don't understand what happens, if like you drop your phone in a pool. Why does it stop working? Please no troll answers :) | askscience | {
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"Water (as long as it's not pure) conducts electricity. Electronic devices rely on electricity flowing in very specific places. If they get wet, electricity will flow through the water, causing the devices to malfunction.",
"If you get electronics wet and let them dry properly before turning them on it is likely they will be okay. Better still if you do get them wet you can use deionized water to clean them and then let that go.\n\nBetter still would probably be to wash them in deionized water then alcohol, let it dry then turn it on.\n\nWater not only could conduct electricity to the wrong place, it also can oxidize things (rust), this can damage joints. \n\nPutting water or alcohol on Si devices is no problem. However OLED/organic electronics do not like moisture. They are encapsulated to prevent humidity from imagining them in fact, but I still would think twice before intentionally using more water with organic devices.\n\nWater is used as a solvent in the semiconductor industry to clean things, the water is simply highly pure (16 Mohm or greater in a clean room is typical). \n\nIf you have a liquid and electricity there also can be electrochemical reactions in addition to the ones that happen at STP! So it would depend on what the liquid is and the voltages involved...",
"I'm gonna throw in some basic circuit math. It might not seem like I'm addressing the question immediately, but I am, promise. :)\n\nImagine you have a basic circuit: a battery connected at both ends to a lightbulb. A circuit is kind of like a roller coaster: the battery is the uphill bit with the chain. It drags charges (electrons) up the \"hill\", then those electrons \"fall\" down the wire, through the lightbulb, and to the other end of the battery, where they're \"carried\" up the hill again. The power we use to run everything from a cellphone to a lightbulb is the FLOW of those electrons. As they move (\"fall\"), we can use that motion to power stuff.\n\nSo, V=IR. V is voltage, which is sort of the like the steepness of the hill. The steeper the fall, the faster the charges move. I is current; that's the number of charges that pass through a given point in the wire at a given point in time. It's just a measurement of how fast the charges are moving; higher current, more power. R is the resistance; higher resistance stuff opposes current more. It's like friction: it always tries to make stuff stop.\n\nNow, you might notice that the less resistance, the more current. Currents generate power. You know how wires get hot when you run a current through them? Well, we don't want the resistance of our entire set-up to be too low: current will flow really fast and heat stuff up too much. Now, devices like lightbulbs have resistance too (it's the power dissipated in the lightbulb that's creating the light), so typically what we do is use stuff with hardly any resistance, like copper, for wires, then use components like lightbulbs with reasonable resistances to get enough power without using too much.\n\nNow, you've probably heard of \"short-circuiting.\" This is what happens if, say, I just connect two ends of a battery with just copper wire. The circuit has hardly any resistance, so the current flows WAY too fast; batteries explode, wires catch fire, etc. And water (well, impure water) conducts electricity with little resistance, so when you get a circuit wet, you're short-circuiting the entire thing; you've essentially connected all points in the circuit to all other points with low-resistance wires. BANG.\n\nKeep in mind this means that if a device is off when it gets wet, it's best to leave it off and let it dry. Water doesn't hurt electronics any more than other stuff if there's no current going to begin with.",
"Electronic equipment from Calculators to iPhones use microchip technology to work. Microchips are basically boards of carved paths for electricity to flow. These very specific paths for electricity to follow cause the different effects from your appliance. Water is very highly conductive. That combined with its fluidity and low viscosity (a liquid's resistance to flow) makes it flow freely over a microchip and disrupt its intended paths. This is known as \"short circuiting.\"\nMicrochips also contain several different components on them. Processing chips, capacitors (the cylindrical things that stick up off of the chip), etc. All of these things require a regulated charge at all times. If the charge sent to them is too much, it causes these chips and capacitors to overload and no longer work. Busted parts on a chip disrupt the natural flow of electricity and thus making it so that even once dry it will no longer work. This is why you must refrain from turning the device on until it is thoroughly dried out.\n\n[Here's](_URL_0_) an example of viscosity for those who don't know what it means.\nTop image=low viscosity (like water)\nBottom Image=High viscosity (like syrup)",
"Your phone is full of microchips. Microchips work through transistors. This basically involves directing electricity down certain paths that are etched on the surface of the microchip. When a program on your phone does one thing, electricity goes down one path. When the program does another thing, it goes down a different path. This is done in a very precise way on a very small scale (hence the name \"micro\" chip).\n\nThe problem with water is that water conducts electricity. Electricity can flow through water easily, unlike air. So, if you submerge a microchip in water, the electricity is more free to go where it wants, and this messes up the intended flow of electricity, so the microchips don't behave as they were designed to behave. Usually, drying your phone out fully will solve this problem. However, salt water can cause chemical changes (rusting) that destroy the transistors on a microchip."
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} | This probably a silly question but what is it about water/liquids that messes up electronical equipment?
I know this question must seem stupid but I really don't understand what happens, if like you drop your phone in a pool. Why does it stop working? Please no troll answers :) | [
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|
4bd0jq | If i stare at a specific point in a pattern, why do the surrounding points disappear? | I was staring at a line in my tile floor, and the lines around it disappeared as i kept my focus. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d1888n1"
],
"text": [
"I think this would be better placed in neuroscience, because it has to do with how your brain processes information. \n \nIt is due to something called [Troxler's Effect](_URL_0_). you can read about this on the wiki page, but basically the sensory neurons get \"used\" to the unchanging stimulus and so begin to ignore it. Same thing happens when you sit perfectly still, you can't feel your shirt!"
],
"score": [
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troxler%27s_fading"
]
} | If i stare at a specific point in a pattern, why do the surrounding points disappear?
I was staring at a line in my tile floor, and the lines around it disappeared as i kept my focus. | [
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|
634t86 | Are people Tourettes Syndrome capable of lying? | [deleted] | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dfs5u3u",
"dfs70or"
],
"text": [
"That's a fundamental misunderstanding of what Tourette's actually is.\n\nTourette's disorder is one of a class of neurodevelopmental disorders called \"tic disorders.\" A tic is defined in the DSM-5 as a sudden, rapid, recurrent, nonrhythmic motor movement or vocalization. For Tourette's to be diagnosed, an individual must exhibit both multiple motor and one or more vocal tics that persist for more than 1 year, and the onset of the tics must have occurred before 18 years of age.\n\nThese tics are most often involuntary, but vocal tics are not \"the individual being forced to say what they are thinking.\" Rather, they can take one of several recognized forms:\n\n* Echolalia, or the repetition of the last word/phrase the individual heard\n\n* Palilalia, or the repetition of one's own words/sounds\n\n* Coprolalia, or the uttering of unacceptable words or slurs.\n\nRegardless, these vocal tics are markedly different in their delivery from normal speech; they are short, grunt-like or bark-like sounds. These vocal tics can be compared to muscle spasms (which, it must be noted, are also extremely common in Tourette's). They are involuntary and have no bearing on or relation to what the individual *meant* to do. \n\nSo to answer, your question: Yes, individuals that suffer from Tourette's Disorder can lie.",
"I have mild tourettes and I can tell you that we don't literally say everything we think. Having Tourettes means that you are forced to do or say certain things, usually called tics. And the things you do or say don't have much to do with what we think about. For example I've had a tic that I was forced to whisper \"switch\" after someone made a grammatical mistake in a sentence. And it had nothing to do with telling the truth or lying. It was just a way of expressing my frustration. I had many other tics, mainly movement and breathing tics though. And to be honest I lie A LOT, although I'm not sure if it's a lot compared to most other people because there's no way to know how much other people lie unless you fully trust them"
],
"score": [
10,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Are people Tourettes Syndrome capable of lying?
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|
144jk9 | Can a neuroscientist measure how much I like something? | For example, could they determine if I liked one song better than another by observing my physiological responses to each one? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c79tu9v",
"c7blg67",
"c79shca"
],
"text": [
"I could measure your galvanic skin conductance as a basic test. I could put you in the fMRI scanner. I could even use psychophysical methods to prime you to \"like\" certain types of stimuli and measure your responses to carefully selected deviations. Ultimately, I can only tell you the correlation between the BOLD signal for e.g. and your own subjective grading of something you like. But this is so subjective and we hardly understand much of how exactly stimuli are limbically processed that at this time, it is futile to ask this question because it does not meet the standard of a well-posed scientific question. \n\nTL;DR - Not really. Correlations, maybe. Absolute measures or judgements, nope.",
"If a neuroscientist wanted to know how much you like something, she would query your behavior. That is because (as you kind of suggest) \"liking\" is a psychological description, not a neuroscientific one. To that end they could measure how much you would [work to obtain it](_URL_0_) or how [frequently you already do it](_URL_1_). \n\nAlternatively they could measure learning, such as how easily you can learn to associate it with other positive or negative things: [Implicit Association Test](_URL_2_). If you already feel positively about something, it is easy to associate it with positive things (e.g., happiness), but more difficult to associate it with negative things (e.g., pain).\n\nedit: formatting",
"There is an interesting paper where a researcher used physiological sensors to determine enjoyment, frustration and challenge during video game play here: _URL_3_"
],
"score": [
3,
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcers#Natural_and_artificial",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premack%27s_principle",
"https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/demo/",
"http://hci.usask.ca/publications/view.php?id=159"
]
} | Can a neuroscientist measure how much I like something?
For example, could they determine if I liked one song better than another by observing my physiological responses to each one? | [
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|
1pm72f | Is 5 a biologically significant/interesting number? | I've had lectures on echinoderms all week, and the theme of pentamorous symmetry keeps reoccurring, and I was wondering if there's any connection with the pentadactyl limbs of mammals, ie if 5 is interesting from a developmental point of view. Is there a reason why having 5 limbs/digits appears to be common in certain groups of animals, or is it just by chance? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cd3rhuz",
"cd3u809"
],
"text": [
"This question has been asked before, and from what I remember, and from [this](_URL_0_) paper, 5 digits are simply inherited from the common ancestor of all tetrapods. I also remember someone commenting that there was a mathematical advantage to having 5 digits for grasping, but that might not be relevant to an ancient tetrapod. As for pentamarous symmetry, it seems mostly restricted to the phylum echinodermata (although feel free to correct me if this is not the case), so for them it would likely just be the same case: an ancient ancestor evolving it.",
"Some ancient tetrapods/precursors had more than 5 digits. We can't really know if there was some advantage or if it was just chance that the 5 digit ones survived. One other thing is that more limbs/digits require more brain power to operate so it could be 5 a level which is useful and allows for more intelligence."
],
"score": [
28,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://dev.biologists.org/content/116/2/289.full.pdf"
]
} | Is 5 a biologically significant/interesting number?
I've had lectures on echinoderms all week, and the theme of pentamorous symmetry keeps reoccurring, and I was wondering if there's any connection with the pentadactyl limbs of mammals, ie if 5 is interesting from a developmental point of view. Is there a reason why having 5 limbs/digits appears to be common in certain groups of animals, or is it just by chance? | [
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|
qp5dg | A question regarding aliens/evolution... | I keep hearing about earth-like planets being discovered. Suppose life started on those planets around the same general time it did on our planet. Wouldn't it's inhabitants, intelligent or otherwise, be incredibly similar to our own?
I've been told that extraterrestrial life would be unimaginable to humans because it would be so different from what we've ever witnessed. But if the planet is remarkably similar to earth I don't understand how this could be, given that their DNA comes from the same stardust that ours comes from. Wouldn't the same basic organisms come to be on that that planet as it did here? Wouldn't natural selection and the like play out incredibly similar to earth's?
Please enlighten me.
TL;DR: I imagine life on-earth-like planets very...earth-like. Tell me why it wouldn't be.
**Edit: Thank you guys for the explanations, the question was bugging me this morning, you have put my mind at rest :)** | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3zbmun",
"c3zcdls"
],
"text": [
"Little changes can built up into huge differences. Look at humans and frogs, so different yet both resulting from the same single celled organisms. There's no reason not to assume that even with similar starts tiny changes over time could develop into huge differences. Plus factor in environment. Earth-like does not mean exactly like earth. A touch more nitrogen or gravity, a bit less light or water could cause creatures to need to adapt in different ways which could snowball into wildly different beings.",
"> Wouldn't it's inhabitants, intelligent or otherwise, be incredibly similar to our own?\n\nVery, very unlikely. It's not as though human beings are the standard model of intelligent life, or that DNA is the only way to propagate genetic information. All these things are chance occurrences in a much larger pattern space.\n\nIf we encounter intelligent life elsewhere in the universe, the chance that it will resemble us is virtually zero."
],
"score": [
7,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | A question regarding aliens/evolution...
I keep hearing about earth-like planets being discovered. Suppose life started on those planets around the same general time it did on our planet. Wouldn't it's inhabitants, intelligent or otherwise, be incredibly similar to our own? I've been told that extraterrestrial life would be unimaginable to humans because it would be so different from what we've ever witnessed. But if the planet is remarkably similar to earth I don't understand how this could be, given that their DNA comes from the same stardust that ours comes from. Wouldn't the same basic organisms come to be on that that planet as it did here? Wouldn't natural selection and the like play out incredibly similar to earth's? Please enlighten me. TL;DR: I imagine life on-earth-like planets very...earth-like. Tell me why it wouldn't be. **Edit: Thank you guys for the explanations, the question was bugging me this morning, you have put my mind at rest :)** | [
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|
og6d0 | Could someone familiar with biochemistry and nutrition check the validity of this article for me? Curious as to the level of bullshit on a scale of 0-10. | _URL_0_ | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3gz4j0"
],
"text": [
"It's pretty bullshit. Some of it has vague basis in fact--proteins do change shape when cooking, for example, though your stomach acid will also denature many proteins, and proteins are broken down into component parts in the digestive tract anyway, and some people tolerate the raw version and cooked version of an allergen food differently--but it can often go the other way, also. \n\nAll of the verifiable benefits they attribute to raw eggs also apply to cooked eggs. You will not kill yourself with trans fats by cooking eggs--that's absurd. If you heat fats too much, they can oxidize and the result is thought to be carcinogenic. But unless you scorch the everloving hell out of your eggs, this is not relevant here--it's most important when choosing the wrong oil for a task and heating past its smoke point, or when cooking over very high heat like grilling.\n\nThe main thing is that they're making claims with no attempt to justify them. For example\n\n > From day one of starting raw eggs, your immune system becomes stronger and health will improve.\n\nThis is a pretty sweeping claim, in line with several they make throughout, and they provide nothing whatsoever to back it up--and they're selling something based on it, which should make you extra wary, especially since the only two people they cite in the entire article as sources are a journalist and a cookbook writer--while they make reference to \"hundreds of scientists\" having proved various things, they never cite a single one.\n\nA note on salmonella--while it's true that salmonella is rare, it can be lethal, and I'd be careful unless you really trust the origins of your eggs and especially around the very young, very old, and immunocompromised. The statement that only sick chickens lay salmonella-contaminated eggs is misleading--chickens can look healthy but have salmonella in their reproductive tract. And while only a few chickens have this issue, if eggs are pooled into large batches and redistributed...well, it can be an issue, but again it is pretty rare. Salmonella is also not the only critter that hides in raw eggs, though it's the big name. Personally, I do eat raw eggs sometimes--homemade mayo, a few bites of cookie dough--but I know the chickens in question, and I know they are housed with a lot of space and that the eggs are not pooled in big batches. Ultimately, the probability is extremely low, but the consequences can be high. Still, the article provides no convincing reason why you should be eating a lot of raw eggs over cooked ones--unless you want some mayo or Caesar."
],
"score": [
6
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.regenerativenutrition.com/content.asp?id=268"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | Could someone familiar with biochemistry and nutrition check the validity of this article for me? Curious as to the level of bullshit on a scale of 0-10.
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|
78kkoc | What is it about the hoof structure (or overall physiology) of mountain goats that makes them capable of scaling sheer cliffs? | Whenever I see images such as [these](_URL_0_) they just seem to defy physics. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dovm7pl"
],
"text": [
"Goats have split toed hooves. The outer edge of the hoof (wall) is hard, but the inner softer/rubbery section of the hoof (sole) allows for gripping onto small spaces (such as ledges or in some cases, dams). [You can see a diagram here.](_URL_0_)\n\nGoats' toes also operate independently. This allows them to gain purchase using a single toe on a smaller space, or to splay the toes out for wider surface contact on larger spaces that may be on a steep incline. Their toenails are also pointed at the edge to dig into the ground for better stability, they catch rocks between the toes which acts as a braking system, and the hoof achieves greater contact to the ground of in the lateral direction leading to a larger slip dissipation at a right angle to the direction they are walking ([Abad et al. 2016](_URL_1_))."
],
"score": [
13
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.bajiroo.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/mountain-goats-best-climber-pics-images-photos-pictures-bajiroo-15.jpg"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://media.tractorsupply.com/is/image/TractorSupplyCompany/hoof_health_1?$400$",
"https://thrish.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/saratorpaper.pdf"
]
} | What is it about the hoof structure (or overall physiology) of mountain goats that makes them capable of scaling sheer cliffs?
Whenever I see images such as [these](_URL_0_) they just seem to defy physics. | [
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|
10kq2f | POWER: volts/watts/etc for household appliances and how it affects our monthly bills? | noticed we are getting shafted in the summer months with 200$ bills in los angeles with moderate AC (set at 81 during nights (it gets hot at night, possibly insulation problem?)
1k kWh last month.
then i started wondering how everything works. 120v for our outlets at home, but appliances are rated with Watts, say 100watt for lightbulb. i recall the formula for power is IR or V^2/R and such, but since we already know V and P, i guess the only difference is I or R.
My question is, does the rating on appliances indicate what it is always run at? is 500W always using 500W for however long we run it, or does it use less than that? are we paying for current, since V and R should be constant for our house/appliances?
and how does this help us learn how to manage our energy better? i notice stuff like cable boxes, certain appliances (ex: PS3, microwaves) do not turn off and have some sort of "standby" power. are those wasting our energy or are they negligible? or something like leaving the printer on without turning it off, even not using it, a waste of energy?
TL:DR: do appliances run at their wattage ALL the time? how can we save energy? do standby appliances waste a lot of energy? am i paying for current???
thanks | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c6eayj3",
"c6ei1hm"
],
"text": [
"You are paying for energy use. Energy is related to current and voltage by the equation E=ItV (Energy = current times time times voltage). So using more current for more time and with equipment with a higher voltage will use more energy and cost you more money than the reverse.\n\nSo how do you reduce costs? \n\n1) Reduce the time you have equipment on. Do you need the AC on or can you open the window? Do you need the lights on or can you turn some of them off?\n\n2) Reduce the current you are using. Do you need the electric heater on in winter, or can you reduce the heater temperature and put on a jumper? (or sweater if you speak in American english). This will use less energy.\n\n3) Reduce the voltage you are using. Use low power light bulbs such as [CFL bulbs](_URL_0_) that have a high set up cost but will pay for themselves over time in low usage costs.\n\n > do appliances run at their wattage ALL the time?\nNo, standby mode uses less, but still uses energy. Turning it off at the wall would reduce it to zero while it is off.\n\nThe W after something indicates its wattage or power use - that is to say the energy it uses per second. (It's named after the British scientist [James Watt](_URL_1_). Reducing your power use will reduce your energy use over time by definition.\n\nThe biggest drains on your energy use are likely to be light bulbs, AC, and any big electrical items like fridges. Obviously you can't easily turn off fridges without running into problems, but things like AC and lights you can do without.\n\nI hope this is helpful :)",
"You pay for power and how long you use that power. Basically watts * hours and you get watt-hour. The watt-hour is a unit of energy. You are charged some cents for every kilowatt-hour of energy you use. \n\nAppliance ratings should be taken with a grain of salt as there are so many variables in determining how much power they actually use. Usually the ratings indicate the maximum power usage. However, microwave, for example uses almost no power on standby. It can jump up to 1000w when you are \"nuking\" something.\n\nBut the general rules always apply. Turn off appliances/lights unless if you really need them. Use more efficient lighting wherever you can."
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.google.co.uk/search?q=CFL+bulbs&oq=CFL+bulbs&sugexp=chrome,mod=9&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watt"
]
} | POWER: volts/watts/etc for household appliances and how it affects our monthly bills?
noticed we are getting shafted in the summer months with 200$ bills in los angeles with moderate AC (set at 81 during nights (it gets hot at night, possibly insulation problem?) 1k kWh last month. then i started wondering how everything works. 120v for our outlets at home, but appliances are rated with Watts, say 100watt for lightbulb. i recall the formula for power is IR or V^2/R and such, but since we already know V and P, i guess the only difference is I or R. My question is, does the rating on appliances indicate what it is always run at? is 500W always using 500W for however long we run it, or does it use less than that? are we paying for current, since V and R should be constant for our house/appliances? and how does this help us learn how to manage our energy better? i notice stuff like cable boxes, certain appliances (ex: PS3, microwaves) do not turn off and have some sort of "standby" power. are those wasting our energy or are they negligible? or something like leaving the printer on without turning it off, even not using it, a waste of energy? TL:DR: do appliances run at their wattage ALL the time? how can we save energy? do standby appliances waste a lot of energy? am i paying for current??? thanks | [
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|
56g7hi | Why is it so hard to have correct calibrated screens? Why can't this be done in the factory? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d8jtkgw",
"d8ussqu"
],
"text": [
"The factory doesn't know how bright or what color temperature the lighting in the room you're sitting in will be. The only way the factory could calibrate perfectly would be if they calibrated the monitor to display correctly in a pitch black room and you used it only in a pitch black room. This is essentially what happens for VR displays like the Vive and Rift, they have a lot of factory calibration done because the viewing conditions will always be the same. Performing basic color calibration (ignoring lighting) isn't done on cheaper monitors because it would cost extra money and it's a value-add that they want to overcharge for when you buy their \"premium color studio deluxe\" model instead.",
"I may be misunderstanding here but TV screens are calibrated before they leave the factory to default settings. If a TV salesperson offers to 'recalibrate' the screen then they are scalping money from you for doing nothing more than access the secret engineering menu on the TV and make a few tweaks. Which aren't usually neccessary."
],
"score": [
2,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Why is it so hard to have correct calibrated screens? Why can't this be done in the factory?
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||
1r3v70 | Do extraterrestrial objects have the same elemental makeup as objects on earth? If not, how do we classify them? | Are asteroids, planets, meteors, etc. all made of the same elements that are normally found on earth? Do they behave the same? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cdjbbg6",
"cdjczor"
],
"text": [
"Yes. All the objects you have listed contain the same elements but in different total amounts and ratios. And they all behave according to the same universal physics.\n\nHere is a quick page on the makeup of the earth, stars, and even interstellar dust clouds. You'll see all of this \"stuff\" is made up of the same \"stuff\" because it all comes from the same place. Exploding stars;\n\n- _URL_0_",
"There are only 90 or so elements that can be found in nature. Asteroids and planets are all made from them, in different abundances."
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://spiff.rit.edu/classes/phys240/lectures/elements/elements.html"
]
} | Do extraterrestrial objects have the same elemental makeup as objects on earth? If not, how do we classify them?
Are asteroids, planets, meteors, etc. all made of the same elements that are normally found on earth? Do they behave the same? | [
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|
u9wab | How far off is GATTACA style engineering? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c4tl7le"
],
"text": [
"I don't think its a good idea to play with that kind of stuff in our lifetime. With only a handful of semi-successful transgene tested in humans, the idea of engineering many your of kid's genes presents a lot of unknowns that might be better tested in mice first. I'll note that 4 of the ten patients in the famous [SCIDs gene therapy clinical study](_URL_0_) developed leukemia because of viral insertion near an oncogene. There have been recent developments in gene therapy and some apparently successful trials with non-viral and site specific viral vectors. For instance, an adeno-associated virus was used to treat a rare genetic blindness in children. \n\nMany genes still have functions that are not elucidated and regulation of gene expression is a phenomenon appearing to be more complicated with every new discovery about it.\n\nIt takes a long time to learn about these kinds of things which are fundamental to understanding how we might undertake safe genetic engineering.\n\nAt the moment the gene therapies that are being explored focus on ameliorating genetic diseases, cancer, or viral infections. It may be that in our lifetime, our children will not have to experience these sadnesses.\n\nPersonally I don't feel that neo-Eugenics would be all that great at this point. Undoubtedly people will think the grass in greener on the side where you have super-children, but there are many unknowable consequences that might be less than appealing."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/288/5466/669.short"
]
} | How far off is GATTACA style engineering?
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2jmzdk | Explanation of the Maxwell Boltzmann Distribution in Relation to Activation Energy? | I am very confused when I see graphs like [this](_URL_2_). The x-axis is kinetic energy, and E_a is marked on the absolute KE scale that is constant with temperature. This implies that particles needs to reach a minimum kinetic energy = activation energy before reacting.
Is that graph in any way related to [this graph](_URL_1_) and [this graph](_URL_0_); both show the activation energy as a *difference* in the energy between reactants and transition state which I assume will vary with temperature (as I'm guessing temperature affects the energy levels of both reactants and transition state). In addition the latter graph show the activation energy (=delta G^++ ?) as a difference in Gibbs free energy, not kinetic energy, and only reactants with free energies above that of the transition state *may possibly* react (I'm assuming other factors like orientation/KE also affects this). Is this correct?
Any help clearing this up for me would be greatly appreciated.
Thank you | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cld9g8z"
],
"text": [
"The graph of KE vs. number of particles with that KE is not directly related to the other graphs you posted. That graph can be thought of as telling you the proportion of molecules/particles in a sample that have the requisite KE to undergo the reaction of interest. To put that another way, think of the KE as a measure of particle speed (KE=.5mv^2); if a certain minimum speed is required for a particle to break the bond of interest for a given reaction, only those particles with speeds equal to or greater than that speed could react. The activation energy for a reaction can be thought of as this minimum speed required for the reaction to occur. The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution is just the empirically measured way that particles will distribute their speeds in a closed container as time goes to infinity. \n\nThe first graph you compare to is a plot of average energy of the particles as the reaction takes place, showing that catalysts speed up reactions by lowering the speed required for bond breaking to occur. This would be true whether looking at a single set of molecules reacting or a massive scale reaction one might see in industry. \n\nThe graph of Gibbs free energy along the reaction coordinate shows the change in chemical potential energy as a reaction takes place. As the molecules collide, there is a temporary (almost infinitesimally short) increase in the potential energy of the intermediate species. The activation energy can be thought of as the energy required to form this intermediate, which is unstable and will naturally break into the products of the reaction. \n\nThis probably isn't the best explanation, and there's a chance I didn't explain everything as accurately as I could have. Don't take my answer as THE answer; this is just what I've come to understand about the issue, and I'm perfectly willing to admit that I might be totally wrong. Anyone with some expertise on the subject, feel free to correct any mistakes you find."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Rxn_coordinate_diagram_5.PNG",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Activation_energy.svg",
"http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-5DhD9f-X8Pc/TcaABhURwRI/AAAAAAAAAA4/aqi-tCsWXI4/s1600/Untitled.png"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | Explanation of the Maxwell Boltzmann Distribution in Relation to Activation Energy?
I am very confused when I see graphs like [this](_URL_2_). The x-axis is kinetic energy, and E_a is marked on the absolute KE scale that is constant with temperature. This implies that particles needs to reach a minimum kinetic energy = activation energy before reacting. Is that graph in any way related to [this graph](_URL_1_) and [this graph](_URL_0_); both show the activation energy as a *difference* in the energy between reactants and transition state which I assume will vary with temperature (as I'm guessing temperature affects the energy levels of both reactants and transition state). In addition the latter graph show the activation energy (=delta G^++ ?) as a difference in Gibbs free energy, not kinetic energy, and only reactants with free energies above that of the transition state *may possibly* react (I'm assuming other factors like orientation/KE also affects this). Is this correct? Any help clearing this up for me would be greatly appreciated. Thank you | [
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|
8x3gp6 | How does Caulerpa taxifolia square with the advantages of multicellularity? | When I ask my friend Google what's so hot about multicellularity, it says:
* It allows organisms to get larger (not limited by diffusion).
* It makes specialisation easier.
* It's more robust because some cells can die without killing the organism.
Cool. Except: Enter [*Caulerpa taxifolia*](_URL_2_), the ~~killer app~~ killer alga. *C.* frickin' *taxifolia* don't care about any of the stuff I just said. *C. taxifolia*'s unicellular as can be, but
* Grows to tens of centimetres.
* [Has complex structure](_URL_0_) convergent with normal non-wacky plants.
* Try to kill it and [each fragment will grow a new plant](_URL_1_) like in that *Sorcerer's Apprentice* cartoon.
Now if this was some kind of super-fragile trick that only works in some specific environment, okay, I'd let it slide. But this baby is wildly successful in a bunch of places, most of which are full of alga-eating things.
Someone's taking me for a ride here!
1. If multicellularity is so good, what's *C. taxifolia*'s trick to do better while being unicellular?
2. Whatever that trick is, why can't I (and large complex organisms in general) copy it instead of being multicellular *like a chump*?
If y'all need me I'll be by the pond screaming at algae. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"e20xktd",
"e20oku6"
],
"text": [
"Algae in *Caulerpa* are not single-celled in the same way that a bacterial cell or a more simple algal cell is. They are multinucleate, which is essentially like a multicelluar organism without cell divisions. Having multiple nuclei means they're limited by the diffusion rate of gene products and also makes specialization easier.\n\nMultinucleate organisms are not particularly rare and many of them are quite successful. Lots of fungi are multinucleate, for example, as are plasmodial slime molds. Some people have even argued that ordinary green plants should be considered multinucleate since their cells are not truly isolated. They have connections called plasmodesmata that allow exchange of cellular products. Even animals have similar structures called gap junctions.",
"Unicellular organisms have the advantage of being clonal (can reproduce by dividing when they have sufficient nutrients), ability to divide/reproduce extremely rapidly, and many have the ability to remain somewhat dormant for a long period of time until nutrients (or sunlight) return. Their main disadvantage is that everything they do is completely at the mercy of pure chance of where the current takes them and that they aren’t eaten by zooplankton. If they are lucky, they might have a light sensing organelle (_URL_0_ ) and a flagellum to move towards the light, but still, single cells have limited functions. When they conglomerate into a multicellular seaweed, they can start to form specialized tissues that perform certain functions extremely well. They have vascular tissue that distributes nutrients evenly to all the cells, leaf like tissues that consistently have maximum surface area facing the sun and are completely focused on photosynthesis rather than swimming around in a random direction. The millions of cells working together are much more productive than any individual planktonic algae is.\n\nYou can think of a human as a conglomerate of 37 trillion cells working together to stay alive, only now we are way more specialized than multicellular seaweed is. Our liver cells (hepatocytes) are incredibly efficient and optimized at making liver enzymes but we have evolved in such a way that hepatocytes never have to do anything except make liver enzymes, so they are not good at living outside of a human. The reason it is beneficial to be a multicellular human is that we can consciously search for food sources with intent, and have legs that allow us to walk there and escape from predators. We can do all sorts of amazing things that allow us to survive in places/circumstances that would otherwise be impossible for unicellular organisms. We have 37 trillion highly specialized cells that can survive when working together in a way that is way more efficient and feasible than if that many unspecialized cells tried to survive on their own."
],
"score": [
11,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4408836/",
"http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/species.php?sc=115",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caulerpa_taxifolia"
]
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eyespot_apparatus"
]
} | How does Caulerpa taxifolia square with the advantages of multicellularity?
When I ask my friend Google what's so hot about multicellularity, it says: * It allows organisms to get larger (not limited by diffusion). * It makes specialisation easier. * It's more robust because some cells can die without killing the organism. Cool. Except: Enter [*Caulerpa taxifolia*](_URL_2_), the ~~killer app~~ killer alga. *C.* frickin' *taxifolia* don't care about any of the stuff I just said. *C. taxifolia*'s unicellular as can be, but * Grows to tens of centimetres. * [Has complex structure](_URL_0_) convergent with normal non-wacky plants. * Try to kill it and [each fragment will grow a new plant](_URL_1_) like in that *Sorcerer's Apprentice* cartoon. Now if this was some kind of super-fragile trick that only works in some specific environment, okay, I'd let it slide. But this baby is wildly successful in a bunch of places, most of which are full of alga-eating things. Someone's taking me for a ride here! 1. If multicellularity is so good, what's *C. taxifolia*'s trick to do better while being unicellular? 2. Whatever that trick is, why can't I (and large complex organisms in general) copy it instead of being multicellular *like a chump*? If y'all need me I'll be by the pond screaming at algae. | [
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|
13xw09 | If a word was written on the moon, how big would the letters need to be for it to be legible on earth? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c784j7w"
],
"text": [
"To determine the size needed you need to calculate the smallest feature size that is resolvable by our eyes. To be able to resolve two objects at a distance of 384400 km (the distance to the moon) than the two objects must have a minimum of 140690 meters between them. So your letters would have to have a minimum feature size of 140690 meters."
],
"score": [
6
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | If a word was written on the moon, how big would the letters need to be for it to be legible on earth?
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||
kh770 | What are the best methods/best foods to maintain a healthy and regular bowel? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2k880g"
],
"text": [
"Lentils. Low glycemic index, incredibly high in fiber and iron. If you make this your staple food and drink lots of water, you will be golden."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | What are the best methods/best foods to maintain a healthy and regular bowel?
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4xv2bw | Do Martian regolith simulants contain perchlorates? | NASA developed some [Martian regolith simulants](_URL_0_) to approximate the mechanical and chemical properties of the real stuff for experiments. It's even been used to test [if plants can grow in Martian regolith](_URL_2_). But:
* The Martian surface [is 0.5% perchlorate](_URL_1_), on average. It gets as high as 0.8% in some places.
* The simulants come from volcanic ash, and I can't find any mention of those ashes being naturally perchlorate rich or having perchlorates added after the fact.
So... do the simulants have perchlorates (naturally or artificially)? If not, how're they any good for simulating Martian "soil"? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d6irf7k"
],
"text": [
"In general, no, they do not include perchlorates, and this is a valid criticism of the \"OMG we grew plants in the Martian soil!\" paper.\n\nThe soil analogue used in that work was JSC-MARS-1A. While [there are investigations that added their own perchlorates](_URL_0_) to JSC-MARS-1A, the plant-growing work did not include them. That said perchlorates are a salt, and with some considerable effort can be washed out of the soil."
],
"score": [
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martian_regolith_simulant",
"http://www.space.com/21554-mars-toxic-perchlorate-chemicals.html",
"http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0103138"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2016GL068919/full"
]
} | Do Martian regolith simulants contain perchlorates?
NASA developed some [Martian regolith simulants](_URL_0_) to approximate the mechanical and chemical properties of the real stuff for experiments. It's even been used to test [if plants can grow in Martian regolith](_URL_2_). But: * The Martian surface [is 0.5% perchlorate](_URL_1_), on average. It gets as high as 0.8% in some places. * The simulants come from volcanic ash, and I can't find any mention of those ashes being naturally perchlorate rich or having perchlorates added after the fact. So... do the simulants have perchlorates (naturally or artificially)? If not, how're they any good for simulating Martian "soil"? | [
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|
j08by | I know every cavity has a resonant frequency, but what should be the amplitude of the exciting wave to cause the cavity to...explode/fracture? | I guess I'm asking how precisely can I crack a wine goblet. A wave has amplitude and frequency, right? I understand the frequency part, but what about the amplitude? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2824w1"
],
"text": [
"The amplitude will need to be big enough to overcome the bonds holding your goblet together - more specifically, the energy transferred need to deform the goblet beyond its elastic limit. This is dependent on the material and thickness."
],
"score": [
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | I know every cavity has a resonant frequency, but what should be the amplitude of the exciting wave to cause the cavity to...explode/fracture?
I guess I'm asking how precisely can I crack a wine goblet. A wave has amplitude and frequency, right? I understand the frequency part, but what about the amplitude? | [
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ymaow | Is there some body part or organ (or brain part) that you think hinders us? | I was recently reading about the first frontal lobotomies, and how they were considered effective until people realized that the anxiety that disappeared when the frontal lobe was tampered with was a result of a loss of all foresight in the patients. intriguing. so obviously that didn't go as well as initially thought. this got me thinking, is there any part of the body, maybe some obscure gland that produces a chemical that affects are brain in x a way, that ya'll think hinder us In some way? more of an opinion related question, and I know you guys like facts here. but there's nothin wrong with using facts to back your opinions :) | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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],
"text": [
"The appendix really enjoys blowing up while at the same time not showing an appreciable use.",
"My favourite anomaly in the body is the recurrent laryngeal nerve, which supplies the motor and sensory aspects of the larynx (voicebox). It goes from the base of the brain, into the chest, loops round the aorta and back into the neck. This makes it more suspect able to damage, especially when performing thyroid surgery. \nIt is found in all tetrapods (amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals), and is thought to have been the longest known nerve to have existed (the sauropod dinosaur Amphicoelias fragillimus)\nIt is commonly used as evidence of evolution."
],
"score": [
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]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Is there some body part or organ (or brain part) that you think hinders us?
I was recently reading about the first frontal lobotomies, and how they were considered effective until people realized that the anxiety that disappeared when the frontal lobe was tampered with was a result of a loss of all foresight in the patients. intriguing. so obviously that didn't go as well as initially thought. this got me thinking, is there any part of the body, maybe some obscure gland that produces a chemical that affects are brain in x a way, that ya'll think hinder us In some way? more of an opinion related question, and I know you guys like facts here. but there's nothin wrong with using facts to back your opinions :) | [
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|
2vr7yr | How does Sverdrup Balance not violate conservation of total vorticity? | As I understand, Sverdrup balance describes how vertically integrated columns of water will experience meridonial transport thanks to surface wind stresses which will reduce/increase the column's vorticity.
However, what I don't understand is the following. The sign of merdionial velocity, v, is proportional to the convergence (or negative divergence) in the column of water. Thus converging water will stretch the vortex, increasing its relative vorticity. This means v is positive, so the column of water will move poleward. Thus, its relative **and** planetary vorticity have increased.
Does this not violate conservation of vorticity, or am I missing a key aspect here i.e. this conservation law doesn't apply and the mass transport is an external source of vorticity? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cok7rkq"
],
"text": [
"Woah! I've been on /r/askscience for 3 years and this is the first question about the Sverdrup balance that I remember seeing. As general background, Sverdrup theory was the first mathematical model which correctly explains how the winds over the ocean drive large scale ocean circulation such as the gyres. \n\nYour confusion might stem from a misunderstanding of where the 'convergence' is happening. In classic Sverdrup theory, the convergence is not over the entire water column but limited to the surface Ekman Layer (typically the top ~50m of the ocean). When the wind field creates Ekman convergence, continuity requires that water be 'pushed down' into the ocean interior, creating a negative vertical velocity at the base of the Ekman Layer. Therefore, for the bulk of the ocean below the Ekman layer, a surface convergence causes a *squashing* of the water column. Conversely, surface Ekman divergence causes stretching. So I think that's the root of your sign error. Squashing creates an increase in relative vorticity so the water column reacts by moving equatorward towards the region of lower planetary vorticity. Total vorticity is conserved. A summary of the chain:\n\nEkman Convergence - > Squashing of water columns below the Ekman Layer - > Increase in Relative Vorticity - > Vorticity conservation requires equatorward flow."
],
"score": [
22
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | How does Sverdrup Balance not violate conservation of total vorticity?
As I understand, Sverdrup balance describes how vertically integrated columns of water will experience meridonial transport thanks to surface wind stresses which will reduce/increase the column's vorticity. However, what I don't understand is the following. The sign of merdionial velocity, v, is proportional to the convergence (or negative divergence) in the column of water. Thus converging water will stretch the vortex, increasing its relative vorticity. This means v is positive, so the column of water will move poleward. Thus, its relative **and** planetary vorticity have increased. Does this not violate conservation of vorticity, or am I missing a key aspect here i.e. this conservation law doesn't apply and the mass transport is an external source of vorticity? | [
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|
31wc90 | Just snapped a picture of a gigantic halo around the sun. Can someone explain? | _URL_0_
Edit: Sorry for the crappy quality, smartphone cameras aren't exactly stellar at managing extreme lighting conditions. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cq78x38"
],
"text": [
"This is **not** a sun dog. Parhelia occurs near the horizon, and creates very distinct left and right bright sections 22 degrees and at the same level as the sun. [This is a picture of what a sundog looks like.](_URL_0_)\n\nThis is caused by an abundance of ice crystals between 20,000 -45,000 ft in the high etage. This is common when cirrostratus clouds are present. This is simply just referred to as a halo, nothing more."
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://imgur.com/LQAin53"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Fargo_Sundogs_2_18_09.jpg"
]
} | Just snapped a picture of a gigantic halo around the sun. Can someone explain?
_URL_0_ Edit: Sorry for the crappy quality, smartphone cameras aren't exactly stellar at managing extreme lighting conditions. | [
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|
xumhd | Could someone, preferably a physicist, fact-check/sanity-check some claims posted in /r/physics comments? | This may seem silly, but bear with me:
There's [this thread](_URL_1_) over at /r/physics, which is basically about cold fusion. (I know, I know, but bear with me.) Some comment in that thread included claims about (cold) fusion exothermically producing elements *heavier than iron*. Without commenting on the kookiness of cold fusion claims, I was driven to respond to the heavier-than-iron exothermic fusion claims with [this comment](_URL_1_c5pnnyc), even though I'm not a physicist and don't really know too much past some basic concepts.
My first question: Did I get things right in that comment? Could someone fact-check it, and point out mistakes if applicable?
This led to a further exchange and ultimately led to another user posting [this comment](_URL_1_c5pnnyc).
My second question: Could someone fact-check that comment, and correct where applicable?
What stood out to me (besides the cold fusion claims which I ignore for lack of evidence) was that it includes claims that hydrogen and iron could fuse *exothermically*, which contradicts my (limited) understanding. It's been my understanding so far that exothermic fusion *only* works up to iron, and that anything past that would be endothermic fusion (e.g. in supernovas), or, more likely, fission of heavier elements.
I don't really get what that guy says about binding energy. As far as *my* understanding goes, the only reason that Hydrogen-1 has zero binding energy is that a Hydrogen-1 nucleus is just one proton, and binding energy is defined as the energy needed to split a nucleus (so just one part=no split=no binding energy per definition). So I'm not sure how that would support claims of iron and hydrogen fusing exothermically.
Spurred on by enslaved_robot_boy's (at least) borderline-condescending remarks, I googled his claims a bit, and found them in [this post](_URL_2_) on what seems to be [a fairly hokey mailing list](_URL_0_) (because it seems to eschew skepticism).
Now again, this may seem like a silly attempt to win an Internet argument in a cargo cult science area, but enslaved_robot_boy is correct in that I don't really know what I might be wrong about and I can't do what he describes as "an extremely simple calculation" because I don't really know the math (I'm really bad at that). Of course I'm not sure if he really does either, and if he has actual knowledge or if he's just fronting. But in either case: I'm trying to learn something from this. Did I make a mistake in my understanding and explanation of fusion and is there something to what the guy said? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c5pqih8",
"c71b6f4"
],
"text": [
"Let's see...hydrogen has 1.00727638 amu per nucleon. Nickel 58 has 0.998885 amu per nucleon. Total mass of reactants is 58.9426193 amu. Copper 59 has a mass of 58.9394980 amu. That means that fusing hydrogen to nickel is indeed slightly exothermic.\n\nZephir is a well known crank and should be ignored.",
"Here is a repost of my simplified rant on nuclear binding energy and the bare bone basics of how binding energy relates to fusion and fission.\n\"To save me time BE = Nuclear Binding Energy,Ps=Protons,Ns=Neutrons. It may seem strange but when Ps and Ns are clumped together in the nucleus their total mass is LESS than the sum of the masses of the Ps and Ns when not bound. This difference in mass is known as nuclear binding energy. The two fundamental forces that affect BE are the strong (which is the stronger of the two but it acts over a smaller distance) and weak (you guessed it weaker of the two but acts over larger distances) nuclear forces. The Strong (or color) force is what pulls the like charged and neutral Ps and Ns together, while the weak force pushes the like charged particles apart. As the number of Ps and Ns in a nucleus increase so does the binding energy, up until Iron for elements with atomic numbers higher than iron however the binding energy decreases as the the number of Ps and Ns increase. This is because while the weak force is weaker it acts over a larger distance and so as the size of the nucleus grows it begins to counteract more of the strong force whose effective distance is less than the diameter of these larger nuclei. In the case of fusion small atoms are forced together to form larger atoms and when the resulting nucleus has a higher BE than the original reactants there is then a net gain in BE. Now remember BE is the difference in mass between a nucleus and the individual Ps and Ns that make it up, So if the end result is a Net Gain in BE that means some of the Mass of Ps and Ns of the original reactants has be converted and released as energy. Fission is merely the opposite of this process. In fission very heavy or large nuclei are split into smaller nuclei and since as mentioned before BE decreases in nuclei larger than iron the new smaller nuclei have a higher BE than the original large ones. \" Now when we are talking about Extremely High temp/energy situations like stars things can sometime get a little wonky. Energy can be generated by the Helium Capture process which in its final stage produces nickle-56 (atomic number 28) which has a higher binding energy than iron (atomic nuber 26), it is however a very brief and unsustainable process as this isotope is unstable and rapidly decays by positron emission into Cobalt and then to Iron-56. After the formation of Iron-56 the process is done and larger elements can only be formed by putting energy in."
],
"score": [
4,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://amasci.com/weird/wvort.html",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/Physics/comments/xtiic/lenr_gets_major_boost_from_national_instruments/",
"http://www.mail-archive.com/[email protected]/msg65949.html",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/Physics/comments/xtiic/lenr_gets_major_boost_from_national_instruments/c5pnnyc"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | Could someone, preferably a physicist, fact-check/sanity-check some claims posted in /r/physics comments?
This may seem silly, but bear with me: There's [this thread](_URL_1_) over at /r/physics, which is basically about cold fusion. (I know, I know, but bear with me.) Some comment in that thread included claims about (cold) fusion exothermically producing elements *heavier than iron*. Without commenting on the kookiness of cold fusion claims, I was driven to respond to the heavier-than-iron exothermic fusion claims with [this comment](_URL_1_c5pnnyc), even though I'm not a physicist and don't really know too much past some basic concepts. My first question: Did I get things right in that comment? Could someone fact-check it, and point out mistakes if applicable? This led to a further exchange and ultimately led to another user posting [this comment](_URL_1_c5pnnyc). My second question: Could someone fact-check that comment, and correct where applicable? What stood out to me (besides the cold fusion claims which I ignore for lack of evidence) was that it includes claims that hydrogen and iron could fuse *exothermically*, which contradicts my (limited) understanding. It's been my understanding so far that exothermic fusion *only* works up to iron, and that anything past that would be endothermic fusion (e.g. in supernovas), or, more likely, fission of heavier elements. I don't really get what that guy says about binding energy. As far as *my* understanding goes, the only reason that Hydrogen-1 has zero binding energy is that a Hydrogen-1 nucleus is just one proton, and binding energy is defined as the energy needed to split a nucleus (so just one part=no split=no binding energy per definition). So I'm not sure how that would support claims of iron and hydrogen fusing exothermically. Spurred on by enslaved_robot_boy's (at least) borderline-condescending remarks, I googled his claims a bit, and found them in [this post](_URL_2_) on what seems to be [a fairly hokey mailing list](_URL_0_) (because it seems to eschew skepticism). Now again, this may seem like a silly attempt to win an Internet argument in a cargo cult science area, but enslaved_robot_boy is correct in that I don't really know what I might be wrong about and I can't do what he describes as "an extremely simple calculation" because I don't really know the math (I'm really bad at that). Of course I'm not sure if he really does either, and if he has actual knowledge or if he's just fronting. But in either case: I'm trying to learn something from this. Did I make a mistake in my understanding and explanation of fusion and is there something to what the guy said? | [
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|
3jcm23 | What is the total volume of space which has ever been occupied by a goat? | [removed] | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cuo8l04"
],
"text": [
"Oh my God that figure. I'm dying.\n\nSo goats were first domesticated from [Bezoar Ibex](_URL_1_) starting about 10,000 years ago, according to [genetic analysis](_URL_0_). I learned that all, just now. From Wikipedia. What do you expect, I'm a physicist, not a biologist.\n\nAnyway, that's the important number. Goats have only been around for 10,000 years, so goatspace has only been around for 10,000 years. \n\nFurthermore, Wikipedia also tells me there are 924 million live goats in the world. That's about 1 goat for every 7 people on earth. Cool. Wikipedia also tells me that goats live on average 15-18 years. I'm learning so many cool goatfacts today. \n\nSo how do we estimate goatspace? Well, to start, we need a total number of goats that have ever lived. I know that about 108 billion people have ever lived, while only 7 billion are around today. This means that [6.5% of humans who have ever lived are alive today](_URL_3_)... so why not the same for goats? I can assume their population has grown exponentially with ours. So if that 924 million goats is 6.5% of the total number of goats whoever lived, I find that there are 14.2 billion goats that have ever goated. \n\n\nSo what's next? Let's find a goatspace volume per goat. We can get that by multiplying the cross sectional area of a goat with it's average velocity. Assume a goat averages about 5 cm/s over a lifetime. It spends a lot of time sleeping, and a lot of time grazing while moving slowly, so I think 5 cm/s is reasonable. For a cross sectional area, let's assume the average goat is 0.25 m^(2). So over an average lifetime (16.5 yrs): \n\n V_goatspace = (5 cm/s) (0.25 m^2) (16.5 years)\n\nThat gives me 6.5×10^9 liters per goat, and with 14.2 billion goats ever, I find 9.2×10^19 liters of goatspace. This is about 20x the total volume of all oceans on earth, so that's a no go. It's obviously overestimating because the goatspace of individual goats will overlap, like you said.\n\nLet's try another approach. How much pasture is there on earth? Let's assume that there are 35 million km^2 of pasture (it's not actually an assumption - [source](_URL_2_)). Now let's assume that all that pasture has been goatspace up to a height of 1 meter at some point in the history of the world. We'll ignore all the times goats haven't been on pastures (underestimate), and we'll assume 100% goatspace coverage of all extant pastures (overestimate). Let's assume those assumptions cancel. By this measure, there are 3.5x10^16 Liters of goatspace on earth. \n\nCompare to the total possible volume of goatspace on earth - the surface area of the earth times the height of a goat:\n\n (196.9 million mi^2 * 0.3) * 1 m = 1.5x10^17 Liters\n\nSo by this count a little less than a quarter of all the land area of the earth has, at some point or another, been occupied by a goat. That sounds a bit more reasonable."
],
"score": [
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2584717/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bezoar_ibex",
"http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/grass_stats/grass-stats.htm",
"http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2011/HowManyPeopleHaveEverLivedonEarth.aspx"
]
} | What is the total volume of space which has ever been occupied by a goat?
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|
uxncy | [Ethology] A question about behavior and self control of primates in a group | I once read that if a dozen randomly selected monkeys/chimpanzees/gorillas were put in a cage a size of a bus, they would fight each other until the dominance hierarchy is achieved (or until they die I guess). Humans don't have any problems with being in the same enclosed space with others however. It's not even self control, as most people don't even think about any urge to show dominance in such a situation.
My question is: what has caused this difference of our behavioral patterns? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c4zhdgl"
],
"text": [
"Humans are not in stable social groups with most of the people they are stuck in an enclosed space with, and don't really relate to (for instance) strangers on the bus as other human beings. \n\nHumans *do* establish dominance within their social groups (friend groups, office, etc), although usually not through as much overt violence as other apes. This is largely because we can talk, and have evolved much more intricate social behaviors which govern these situations."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | [Ethology] A question about behavior and self control of primates in a group
I once read that if a dozen randomly selected monkeys/chimpanzees/gorillas were put in a cage a size of a bus, they would fight each other until the dominance hierarchy is achieved (or until they die I guess). Humans don't have any problems with being in the same enclosed space with others however. It's not even self control, as most people don't even think about any urge to show dominance in such a situation. My question is: what has caused this difference of our behavioral patterns? | [
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|
48pzyz | Appalachian and Penokean mountain-building? | My current understanding of the creation of the Appalachian mountains is that Gondwanaland collied with what is now North America because the ocean that was there at the time closed. This joining created the Appalachians around 270Ma. My question is: were the Penokean Mountains created in a similar way, 1.8Ga? As in, did the Atlantic ocean (or whatever was the paleo-equivalent ocean) close up at an even earlier time, creating the Penokean mountains? Or was it something else? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d0lulxp"
],
"text": [
"Looking it up a bit, you're close. The Penokean Mountains formed when an island arc, think of the Aleutian Islands, collided with what is/was the core of what will become North America. Then behind that, another landmass of sorts collided to finish the Penokean orogeny. \n\nIt's in many ways is similar to how the western North America was built: accretion of island arcs and other landmasses. Look up the Antler for the first one.\n\nFor you to read up more on the Penokean orogeny, if you like. PDF warning: [The Penokean orogeny in the Lake Superior region by Schulz and Cannon, 2007](_URL_0_)\n\nIt shouldn't be behind a paywall since I got it just fine at home. It's a bit technical for those without a strong geology background but look at figure 6 for snapshots of what should've happened. \n\nEdit: I should mention that how the Appalachians formed would look like how the Himalayas was formed. A large continental landmass colliding with another continental landmass."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248450648_The_Penokean_orogeny_in_the_Lake_Superior_Region"
]
} | Appalachian and Penokean mountain-building?
My current understanding of the creation of the Appalachian mountains is that Gondwanaland collied with what is now North America because the ocean that was there at the time closed. This joining created the Appalachians around 270Ma. My question is: were the Penokean Mountains created in a similar way, 1.8Ga? As in, did the Atlantic ocean (or whatever was the paleo-equivalent ocean) close up at an even earlier time, creating the Penokean mountains? Or was it something else? | [
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|
pw2ld | Is the continental drift enough to destroy things like the chunnel | As far as I understand, continents and islands are shifting either towards or away from each between 2-5 cms per year. Is this enough movement to slowly wreck huge infrastructure like the chunnel, or things that are extremely micro measured and calibrated like CERN over a period of years?
I ask because the rock that my house is built on split into 2 in a recent earthquake, and is slowly drifting apart (an engineer estimated our house would totally split in around 100 years at a rate of 1 cm every 8-10 years, assuming the house would last that long anyway) | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3sozs5"
],
"text": [
"The Chunnel? Not as of now, it is squarely on one plate."
],
"score": [
6
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Is the continental drift enough to destroy things like the chunnel
As far as I understand, continents and islands are shifting either towards or away from each between 2-5 cms per year. Is this enough movement to slowly wreck huge infrastructure like the chunnel, or things that are extremely micro measured and calibrated like CERN over a period of years? I ask because the rock that my house is built on split into 2 in a recent earthquake, and is slowly drifting apart (an engineer estimated our house would totally split in around 100 years at a rate of 1 cm every 8-10 years, assuming the house would last that long anyway) | [
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|
2fvn1m | Are electronic balances actually balances? | In a recent lab at university, I was told to weigh a particular object and mass it. We were provided a spring scale for measuring weight and an electronic balance for measuring mass. While measuring mass on the electronic balance, I wondered to myself whether or not the balance was truly a balance - does it weigh one mass against another like actual balances. Does it have any way of compensating for different accelerations due to gravity? Concretely, if I took my object and that balance to the moon (I would probably need a battery as well) would it register the same (or very similar) mass, or does it actually just measure weight, then convert to mass with a pre-determined formula? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ckdj3n0"
],
"text": [
"The electronic balance is measuring the force being applied downwards by the weight, and will have been calibrated to give the correct mass when on Earth. If you moved it to the moon, the reading would be about 1/6th of what it would be here."
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Are electronic balances actually balances?
In a recent lab at university, I was told to weigh a particular object and mass it. We were provided a spring scale for measuring weight and an electronic balance for measuring mass. While measuring mass on the electronic balance, I wondered to myself whether or not the balance was truly a balance - does it weigh one mass against another like actual balances. Does it have any way of compensating for different accelerations due to gravity? Concretely, if I took my object and that balance to the moon (I would probably need a battery as well) would it register the same (or very similar) mass, or does it actually just measure weight, then convert to mass with a pre-determined formula? | [
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|
woh69 | If a dust bowl comparable to the one in the 1930's were to occur today what would be some realistic ramifications? | I am thinking of the current drought most of America is going through at the moment and wanted to know how bad it could possibly get. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c5f4pk9"
],
"text": [
"The dust bowl in the 30's was actually caused by humans. Plowing up all your topsoil + all your plants dying or not planting anything + dry, windy conditions = dust bowl. \n\nSo in theory as long as we don't plow up massive amounts of topsoil and leave it exposed that shouldn't happen again."
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | If a dust bowl comparable to the one in the 1930's were to occur today what would be some realistic ramifications?
I am thinking of the current drought most of America is going through at the moment and wanted to know how bad it could possibly get. | [
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