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816142087_11555-11897 | The debate focused primarily on the nature of the relationship between the civilian and military worlds . There was widespread agreement that there were two distinct worlds and that they were fundamentally different from one another . The argument was over how best to ensure that the two could coexist without endangering liberal democracy . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_11949-12729 | In his seminal 1957 book on civil - military relations , The Soldier and the State , Samuel P. Huntington described the differences between the two worlds as a contrast between the attitudes and values held by military personnel , mostly conservative , and those held by civilians , mostly liberal . Each world consisted of a separate institution with its own operative rules and norms . The military 's function was furthermore inherently different from that of the civilian world . Given a more conservative military world which was illiberal in many aspects , it was necessary to find a method of ensuring that the liberal civilian world would be able to maintain its dominance over the military world . Huntington 's answer to this problem was `` military professionalism . '' | Civil–military relations |
816142087_12730-13528 | Huntington focused his study on the officer corps . He first defined a profession and explained that enlisted personnel , while certainly part of the military world , are not , strictly speaking , professionals . He relegated them to the role of tradesmen or skilled craftsmen , necessary but not professionals in his definition of the term . It was professional military officers , not the enlisted technicians of the trade of violence , or even the part - time or amateur reserve officers extant in the mid-1950s ( as opposed to the near `` part time ' regular ' '' status characterizing reserve officers with extensive active duty experience , professional military education , and active combat experience in the post-Gulf War period ) , who would be the key to controlling the military world . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_13529-14217 | Professionalizing the military , or at least the officer corps , which is the decision - making authority within the military world , emphasizes the useful aspects of that institution such as discipline , structure , order , and self - sacrifice . It also isolates the corps in a specialized arena in which the military professionals would be recognized as experts in the use of force . As recognized experts not subject to the interference of the civilian world , the military 's officer corps would willingly submit itself to civil authority . In Huntington 's words , such an arrangement maintained a `` focus on a politically neutral , autonomous , and professional officer corps . '' | Civil–military relations |
816142087_14218-14912 | In order for the civilian authority to maintain control , it needed to have a way to direct the military without unduly infringing on the prerogatives of the military world and thus provoking a backlash . Civilian leadership would decide the objective of any military action but then leave it to the military world to decide upon the best way of achieving the objective . The problem facing civilian authority , then , is in deciding on the ideal amount of control . Too much control over the military could result in a force too weak to defend the nation , resulting in failure on the battlefield . Too little control would create the possibility of a coup , i.e. , failure of the government . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_14913-15316 | Huntington 's answer to the control dilemma was `` objective civilian control . '' This was in contrast to `` subjective control , '' in which direction would be more intrusive and detailed . To put it simply , the more `` objective civilian control , '' the more military security . Civilian control , then , is the independent variable for the subsequent dependent variable of military effectiveness . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_15317-15962 | If civilian control is the critical variable for military effectiveness , it raises the question of how civilian control is then to be determined . Huntington identified two shaping forces or imperatives for civilian control -- ( 1 ) functional and ( 2 ) societal . He broke the societal imperative into two components , ideology and structure . By ideology , he meant a world - view or paradigm : liberal anti-military , conservative pro-military , fascist pro-military , and Marxist anti-military . By structure , he meant the legal - constitutional framework that guided political affairs generally and civil - military affairs specifically . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_15963-16709 | According to Huntington and early studies of civil - military relationships , it is considered that effective civil - military relations should be in the form of objective civilian control over their armed forces . This control is indicated by the following factors ; ( 1 ) the military 's adoption of professional ethos and their recognition of boundaries of professional roles , ( 2 ) effective subordination of the military to civilian political leadership that formulates strategic directives on foreign and military policies , ( 3 ) recognition and approval from political leaders to the professional authorities and autonomy of the military and ( 4 ) minimal intervention of the military in politics and of politicians in military affairs . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_16710-17751 | If Huntington 's imperatives are the independent variables , then the variable of civilian control becomes in turn an explanatory variable for military security . However , Huntington says that both societal imperatives , ideology and structure , are unchanging , at least in the American case . If that is the case , then the functional imperative is fully explanatory for changes in civilian control and subsequently military security . In short , if external threats are low , liberal ideology `` extirpates '' or eliminates military forces . If external threats are high , liberal ideology produces a `` transmutation '' effect that will re-create the military in accordance with liberalism , but in such a form that it will lose its `` peculiarly military characteristics . '' Transmutation will work for short periods , such as to fight a war , but will not , over time , assure military security . This appears to explain well the pattern of American militarization and demobilization , at least until the initiation of the Cold War . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_17752-18549 | With the understanding that the rise of the Soviet Union created a long - term threat , Huntington concluded that the liberal society of the United States would fail to create adequate military forces to ensure security over the long term . The only circumstance he could foresee that would permit adequate military security was for the United States to change the societal imperative . `` The tension between the demands of military security and the values of American liberalism can , in the long run , be relieved only by the weakening of the security threat or the weakening of liberalism . '' The only way the United States could adequately provide security in the face of a long - term threat such as the Soviet Union , in other words , was for American society to become more conservative . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_18578-19244 | The other principal thread within the civil - military theoretical debate was that generated in 1960 by Morris Janowitz in The Professional Soldier . Janowitz agreed with Huntington that separate military and civilian worlds existed , but differed from his predecessor regarding the ideal solution for preventing danger to liberal democracy . Since the military world as he saw it was fundamentally conservative , it would resist change and not adapt as rapidly as the more open and unstructured civilian society to changes in the world . Thus , according to Janowitz , the military would benefit from exactly what Huntington argued against -- outside intervention . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_19245-19717 | Janowitz introduced a theory of convergence , arguing that the military , despite the extremely slow pace of change , was in fact changing even without external pressure . Convergence theory postulated either a civilianization of the military or a militarization of society However , despite this convergence , Janowitz insisted that the military world would retain certain essential differences from the civilian and that it would remain recognizably military in nature . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_19718-21136 | Janowitz agreed with Huntington that , because of the fundamental differences between the civilian and military worlds , clashes would develop which would diminish the goal of civilian control of the military . His answer was to ensure that convergence occurred , thus ensuring that the military world would be imbued with the norms and expectations of the society that created it . He encouraged use of conscription , which would bring a wide variety of individuals into the military . He also encouraged the use of more Reserve Officer Training Corps ( ROTC ) programs at colleges and universities to ensure that the military academies did not have a monopoly on the type of officer , particularly the senior general officer and flag officer leadership positions , in the military services . He specifically encouraged the development of ROTC programs in the more elite universities , so that the broader influences of society would be represented by the officer corps . The more such societal influences present within the military culture , the smaller the attitudinal differences between the two worlds and the greater the chance of civilians maintaining control over the military . Janowitz , like Huntington , believed that the civilian and military worlds were different from one another ; while Huntington developed a theory to control the difference , Janowitz developed a theory to diminish the difference . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_21137-22351 | In response to Huntington 's position on the functional imperative , Janowitz concluded that in the new nuclear age , the United States was going to have to be able to deliver both strategic deterrence and an ability to participate in limited wars . Such a regime , new in American history , was going to require a new military self - conception , the constabulary concept : `` The military establishment becomes a constabulary force when it is continuously prepared to act , committed to the minimum use of force , and seeks viable international relations , rather than victory ... '' Under this new concept of the military establishment , distinctions between war and peace are more difficult to draw . The military , instead of viewing itself as a fire company to be called out in emergency , would then be required to imagine itself in the role of a police force , albeit on the international level rather than domestically . The role of the civilian elite would be to interact closely with the military elite so as to ensure a new and higher standard of professional military education , one that would ensure that military professionals were more closely attuned to the ideals and norms of civilian society . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_22401-23297 | Charles Moskos developed the institutional / occupational hypothesis as a means to promote comparative historical studies of military organization and military change . This hypothesis evolved into the Postmodern Military Model , which helped predict the course of civil - military relations after the end of the Cold War . The I / O hypothesis argued that the military was moving away from an institutional model towards one that was more occupational in nature . An institutional model presents the military as an organization highly divergent from civilian society while an occupational model presents the military more convergent with civilian structures . While Moskos did not propose that the military was ever `` entirely separate or entirely coterminous with civilian society '' , the use of a scale helped better to highlight the changing interface between the armed forces and society . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_23321-24549 | The Vietnam War opened deep arguments about civil - military relations that continue to exert powerful influences today . One centered on a contention within military circles that the United States lost the war because of unnecessary civilian meddling in military matters . It was argued that the civilian leadership failed to understand how to use military force and improperly restrained the use of force in achieving victory . Among the first to analyze the war critically using Clausewitz as the theoretical basis , Harry Summers argued that the principal reason for the loss of the Vietnam War was a failure on the part of the political leadership to understand the goal , which was victory . The Army , always successful on the battlefield , ultimately did not achieve victory because it was misused and misunderstood . Summers demonstrated how the conduct of the war violated many classical principals as described by Clausewitz , thereby contributing to failure . He ended his analysis with a `` quintessential strategic lesson learned '' : that the Army must become `` masters of the profession of arms , '' thus reinforcing an idea along the lines of Huntington 's argument for strengthening military professionalism . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_24550-25217 | H.R. McMaster observed that it was easier for officers in the Gulf War to connect national policy to the actual fighting than was the case during Vietnam . He concluded that the Vietnam War had actually been lost in Washington , D.C. , before any fighting occurred , due to a fundamental failure on the part of the civilian and military actors involved to argue the issues adequately . McMaster , who urged a more direct debate between civilians and the military on defense policy and actions , and Summers , who argued for a clear separation between civilians and the military , both pointed out controversies over the proper roles of civilian and military leaders . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_25218-26228 | Despite those controversies and the apparent lessons learned from the Vietnam War , some theorists recognized a significant problem with Huntington 's theory insofar as it appears to question the notion of a separate , apolitical professional military . While there is little argument that separate civilian and military worlds exist , there is significant debate about the proper interaction between the two . As discussed above , Huntington proposed that the ideal arrangement was one whereby civilian political leaders provided objective control to the military leadership and then stepped back to permit the experts in violence to do what was most effective . He further stated that the most dangerous arrangement was one whereby civilian leaders intruded extensively in the military world , creating a situation whereby the military leadership was not politically neutral and security of the nation was thus threatened both by an ineffective military and by provoking the military to avoid taking orders . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_26229-26724 | Arguably , however , and despite Huntington 's urging otherwise , U.S. civilian leadership had been intrusive in its control over the military , not only during the Vietnam War , but also during much of the Cold War . During that time , the military elite had been extensively involved in the politics of defense budgets and management , and yet the United States had managed to emerge successfully from the Cold War . Despite that , none of Huntington 's more dire predictions had proven true . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_26725-27626 | In response to this apparent `` puzzle , '' Peter D. Feaver laid out an agency theory of civil - military relations , which he argued should replace Huntington 's institutional theory . Taking a rationalist approach , he used a principal - agent framework , drawn from microeconomics , to explore how actors in a superior position influence those in a subordinate role . He used the concepts of `` working '' and `` shirking '' to explain the actions of the subordinate . In his construct , the principal is the civilian leadership that has the responsibility of establishing policy . The agent is the military that will work -- carry out the designated task -- or shirk -- evading the principal 's wishes and carrying out actions that further the military 's own interests . Shirking at its worst may be disobedience , but Feaver includes such things as `` foot - dragging '' and leaks to the press . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_27627-28300 | The problem for the principal is how to ensure that the agent is doing what the principal wants done . Agency theory predicts that if the costs of monitoring the agent are low , the principal will use intrusive methods of control . Intrusive methods include , for the executive branch , such things as inspections , reports , reviews of military plans , and detailed control of the budget , and for Congress , committee oversight hearings and requiring routine reports . For the military agent , if the likelihood that shirking will be detected by the civilian principal is high or if the perceived costs of being punished are too high , the likelihood of shirking is low . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_28301-29589 | Feaver argued that his theory was different from other theories or models in that it was purely deductive , based on democratic theory rather than on anecdotal evidence , and better enabled analysis of day - to - day decisions and actions on the part of the civilian and military leadership . It operated at the intersection of Huntington 's institutional approach and Janowitz 's sociological point of view . Huntington concentrated on the relationship between civilian leadership and the military qua institution while Janowitz focused on the relationship of the military qua individuals to American society . Agency theory provided a link between the two enabling an explanation of how civil - military relations work on a day - to - day basis . Specifically , agency theory would predict that the result of a regime of intrusive monitoring by the civilian leadership combined with shirking on the part of the military would result in the highest levels of civil - military conflict . Feaver suggested that post-Cold War developments had so profoundly reduced the perceived costs of monitoring and reduced the perceived expectation of punishment that the gap between what civilians ask the military to do and what the military would prefer to do had increased to unprecedented levels . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_29618-30548 | After observing that most civil - military theory assumes that the civilian and military worlds must necessarily be separate , both physically and ideologically , Rebecca L. Schiff offered a new theory -- Concordance -- as an alternative . One of the key questions in Civil - Military Relations ( CMR ) theory has always been to determine under what conditions the military will intervene in the domestic politics of the nation . Most scholars agree with the theory of objective civilian control of the military ( Huntington ) , which focuses on the separation of civil and military institutions . Such a view concentrates and relies heavily on the U.S. case , from an institutional perspective , and especially during the Cold War period . Schiff provides an alternative theory , from both institutional and cultural perspectives , that explains the U.S. case as well as several non-U.S. civil - military relations case studies . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_30549-30895 | While concordance theory does not preclude a separation between the civilian and military worlds , it does not require such a state to exist . She argues that three societal institutions -- ( 1 ) the military , ( 2 ) political elites , and ( 3 ) the citizenry must aim for a cooperative arrangement and some agreement on four primary indicators : | Civil–military relations |
816142087_30896-31053 | Social composition of the officer corps . The political decision - making process . The method of recruiting military personnel . The style of the military . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_31054-31523 | If agreement occurs among the three partners with respect to the four indicators , domestic military intervention is less likely to occur . In her book , The Military and Domestic Politics , she applied her theory to six international historical cases studies : U.S. , post -- Second World War period ; American Post-Revolutionary Period ( 1790 -- 1800 ) ; Israel ( 1980 -- 90 ) ; Argentina ( 1945 -- 55 ) ; India post-Independence and 1980s ; Pakistan ( 1958 -- 69 ) . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_31631-32112 | At the heart of civil - military relations is the problem of how a civilian government can control and remain safe from the military institution it created for its own protection . A military force that is strong enough to do what is asked of it must not also pose a danger to the controlling government . This poses the paradox that `` because we fear others we create an institution of violence to protect us , but then we fear the very institution we created for protection '' . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_32113-32934 | The solution to this problem throughout most of American history was to keep its standing army small , relying on augmentation from militias ( the predecessor of modern - day Reserve forces , to include the National Guard ) and volunteers . While armed forces were built up during wartime , the pattern after every war up to and including World War II was to demobilize quickly and return to something approaching pre-war force levels . However , with the advent of the Cold War in the 1950s , the need to create and maintain a sizable peacetime military force engendered new concerns of militarism and about how such a large force would affect civil - military relations in the United States . For the first time in American history , the problem of civil - military relations would have to be managed during peacetime . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_32935-33726 | The men who wrote the Constitution of the United States were fearful of large standing armies , legislatures that had too much power , and perhaps most of all , a powerful executive who might be able to wage war on his own authority . All were objects of concern because of the dangers each posed to liberal democracy and a free citizenry . While it is often impossible to `` gauge accurately the intent of the Framers '' , it is nevertheless important to understand the motivations and concerns of the writers with respect to the appropriate relationship between civil and military authority . The Federalist Papers provide a helpful view of how they understood the relationship between civil authority , as represented by the executive branch and the legislature , and military authority . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_33727-34468 | In Federalist No. 8 , Alexander Hamilton worried that maintaining a large standing army would be a dangerous and expensive undertaking . In his principal argument for the ratification of the proposed constitution , he argued that only by maintaining a strong union could the new country avoid such a pitfall . Using the European experience as a negative example and the British experience as a positive one , he presented the idea of a strong nation protected by a navy with no need of a standing army . The implication was that control of a large military force is , at best , difficult and expensive , and at worst invites war and division . He foresaw the necessity of creating a civilian government that kept the military at a distance . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_34469-34649 | James Madison , another writer of several of the Federalist Papers , expressed his concern about a standing military in comments before the Constitutional Convention in June 1787 : | Civil–military relations |
816142087_34650-35250 | In time of actual war , great discretionary powers are constantly given to the Executive Magistrate . Constant apprehension of War , has the same tendency to render the head too large for the body . A standing military force , with an overgrown Executive , will not long be safe companions to liberty . The means of defense against foreign danger , have been always the instruments of tyranny at home . Among the Romans it was a standing maxim to excite a war , whenever a revolt was apprehended . Throughout all Europe , the armies kept up under the pretext of defending , have enslaved the people . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_35251-36202 | The United States Constitution placed considerable limitations on the legislature . Coming from a tradition of legislative superiority in government , many were concerned that the proposed Constitution would place so many limitations on the legislature that it would become impossible for such a body to prevent an executive from starting a war . Hamilton argued in Federalist No. 26 that it would be equally as bad for a legislature to be unfettered by any other agency and that restraints would actually be more likely to preserve liberty . James Madison , in Federalist No. 47 , continued Hamilton 's argument that distributing powers among the various branches of government would prevent any one group from gaining so much power as to become unassailable . In Federalist No. 48 , however , Madison warned that while the separation of powers is important , the departments must not be so far separated as to have no ability to control the others . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_36203-36761 | Finally , in Federalist No. 51 , Madison argued that to create a government that relied primarily on the good nature of the incumbent to ensure proper government was folly . Institutions must be in place to check incompetent or malevolent leaders . Most importantly , no single branch of government ought to have control over any single aspect of governing . Thus , all three branches of government must have some control over the military , and the system of checks and balances maintained among the other branches would serve to help control the military . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_36762-37385 | Hamilton and Madison thus had two major concerns : ( 1 ) the detrimental effect on liberty and democracy of a large standing army and ( 2 ) the ability of an unchecked legislature or executive to take the country to war precipitously . These concerns drove American military policy for the first century and a half of the country 's existence . Until the 1950s , the maintenance of a large military force by the United States was an exceptional circumstance and was restricted to times of war . Following every war up to and including World War II , the military was quickly demobilized and reduced to near pre-war levels . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_37434-38261 | Most debate in civil - military relations assumed that a separation between the civilian and military world was inevitable and likely necessary . The argument had been over whether to control the gap between the two ( Huntington ) or to minimize the gap by enacting certain policies ( Janowitz ) . Following the end of the Cold War in 1989 , however , the discussion began to focus on the nature of the apparent gap between civilian and military cultures and , more specifically , whether that gap had reached such proportions as to pose a danger to civilian control of the military . Part of the debate was based on the cultural differences between the more liberal civilian society and the conservative military society , and on the recognition that such differences had apparently become more pronounced than in past years . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_38262-39325 | Alfred Vagts had already begun the discussion from an historical point of view , concentrating on the German / Prussian military experience . He was perhaps most influential with his definition of militarism , which he described as the state of a society that `` ranks military institutions and ways above the prevailing attitudes of civilian life and carries the military mentality into the civilian sphere . '' Louis Smith , whose work pre-dated Huntington 's , discussed issues of congressional and judicial control over the military as well as executive civilian control of military matters . However , all that discussion predated a general recognition that the American experience was going to change in the post-World War II era . Once it became apparent that the American military was going to maintain historically high levels of active - duty personnel , concerns about the differences between civilian and military cultures quickly came to the forefront . The ensuing debate can be generally divided into three periods with different emphases in each . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_39326-39718 | The first period , roughly beginning with the end of World War II and ending in about 1973 with the end of the military draft in the United States , was primarily concerned with defining civil - military relations , understanding the concept of professionalism , and learning how civilians actually controlled the military . As discussed above , Huntington and Janowitz dominated the debate . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_39719-40112 | The second period started in about 1973 , with the end of conscription and the establishment of the all - volunteer force , and continued until the end of the Cold War . This period was concerned with the supposed lessons of the Vietnam War , how the volunteer force changed the nature of the armed forces , and whether those changes led to wider gaps between military and civilian societies . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_40113-40354 | The third period , beginning with the end of the Cold War and continuing today , has seen an increasing interest in and concern about the existence of a `` civil - military culture gap . '' The discussion has centered around four questions : | Civil–military relations |
816142087_40355-40598 | Whether such a gap exists in the first place ? ( Most agree it does . ) What is the nature of the gap ? Does the gap matter ? If it does matter , what is causing it ? What changes in policy might be required to mitigate negative effects ? What | Civil–military relations |
816142087_40635-41075 | While the debate surrounding a presumed culture gap between civilian and military societies had continued since at least the early 1950s , it became prominent in the early 1990s with the conclusion of the Cold War . The promised `` peace dividend '' led to a debate over changes in American national security strategy and what that would mean in terms of the transformation of the mission , composition , and character of the armed forces . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_41130-41356 | The notion of a cultural gap , i.e. , the differences in the culture , norms , and values of the military and civilian worlds , and The notion of a connectivity gap , i.e. , the lack of contact and understanding between them . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_41357-42011 | Few argued that there was no difference between the two worlds , but some were convinced that the difference itself was the primary danger . Charles Maynes worried that a military force consisting primarily of enlisted personnel from the lower socio - economic classes would ultimately refuse to fight for the goals of the upper classes . Tarr and Roman , on the other hand , were concerned that the similarities between military elites and civilian elites enabled a dangerous politicizing trend among the military . Chivers represented a small number who believed that the differences between the cultures were so small as essentially to be irrelevant . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_42012-43036 | Reasons for the cultural and connectivity gaps vary widely . The self - selective nature of the All - Volunteer Force is seen by some to have led to the unrepresentative nature of the armed forces One argument , put forward by a Navy Chief of Chaplains , was that the drawdown in the size of the military was exacerbating differences and making the separation between the military and civilian societies potentially even more divisive . He worried that unless an effective dialogue could be maintained between the military and civilian branches of society , especially in the area of ethical decision - making , the American military risked losing the support of society or becoming dangerously militaristic . Others argued that the increase in diversity among military personnel has actually strengthened ties between society and the military , especially those ties weakened by the results of the Vietnam War . Most were persuaded that the societal effects of the Vietnam War remained central to the cultural differences . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_43037-43679 | One unique view , which does not neatly fall into either of the cultural - or connectivity - gap categories , centers on the organizational differences between the military and civilian societies . This view claims to explain much as to why the military has been or may be used to press ahead of society 's norms . This view goes beyond the simpler cultural - gap approach and emphasizes the ability of the military society to control the behavior and attitudes of its members in ways not possible in the more open civilian society , as evidenced by such phenomena as desegregation of the military and inclusion of women in the military . Why | Civil–military relations |
816142087_43711-44567 | Ultimately , the cultural gap matters only if it endangers civilian control of the military or if it reduces the ability of the country to maintain an effective military force . Those who concentrate on the nature of the gap tend not to be concerned about dangerous trends . However , those who are concerned about the lack of understanding between the civilian and military worlds are uniformly convinced that the civil - military relationship in the United States is unhealthy . Specifically , they have voiced concerns about a military that may become openly contemptuous of civilian norms and values and may then feel free to openly question the value of defending such a society . Others worry whether an inexperienced civilian government will undermine the military by ineffective or inappropriate policies , thus threatening U.S. national security . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_44568-45563 | This debate has generally settled on whether or not the gap is too wide . If too wide , civilian control of the military may be jeopardized due to serious misunderstandings between the two worlds . While most agree that such a gap is to be expected and , in and of itself , is not dangerous , some do concede the aspects of that gap have led directly to misunderstandings between the two worlds . In particular , some have argued that the culture of political conservatism and the apparent increase in partisanship of the officer corps has approached a dangerous limit . Nearly all agree that it is possible for the cultural gap to be either too wide or too narrow , but there is wide disagreement as to where the current situation rests on that continuum . While Elizabeth Kier argues that `` structure and function do not determine culture , '' most agree that a difference between the two is necessary because civilian culture was `` incommensurate with military effectiveness . '' Correcting | Civil–military relations |
816142087_45585-46562 | Assuming that a problem exists , many have offered suggestions for narrowing the gap and correcting the problems arising from it . In general , those suggestions are along three lines . The first is that the military must reach out to the civilian world . Given the essentially universal agreement that civilians must control the military , the duty falls upon the military to find ways to talk to civilians , not the other way around . The second is that civilians must articulate a clear vision of what they expect in terms of the military mission . And the final suggestion is that the most practical and effective means of bringing about dialogue and understanding is to be bilateral education , in which both military and civilian elites would jointly attend specialized schools . Such schooling would emphasize military - strategic thinking , American history and political philosophy , military ethics , and the proper relationship between civil and military authority . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_46563-46868 | Some argue that the root problem is that the military is self - selecting , rendering the culture a self - perpetuating one . Solutions such as the reinstatement of the draft and a European - style national service obligation have been offered . but none appear to have made any progress toward adoption . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_46898-48658 | A common issue that hinders many civil - military relations is when civil political leaders attempt to resume or gain a certain degree of civilian control after a period of transition , conflict or dictatorship , but do not possess the necessary capacities and commitment to handle defense affairs . What should happen in such transitions is that when military figures begin to be withdrawn from political positions in order to achieve some balance , is that civilian politicians should be taught to deal with policy formulation and given an oversight on the defense sector so as to efficiently replace the former military leaders . However , civilian control over the military , despite the efforts that have been made over the past years , has yet to become institutionalized in many countries . The challenges that civil - military relations face in many countries , such as Indonesia , center around problems of military culture , overlapping coordination , authority , lack of resources and institutional deficits . The military can not continue to be an organization with unmatched institutional reach and political influence , while limiting state capacity , because in doing so it will be evermore challenging for civilian supremacy to take a stance , thus establishing effective civil - military relations . If these problems are not addressed properly , as long as civil - military relations of countries continue to interact within undefined boundaries , without clear subordination and authority and with the constrictions of limited budgets , it is unlikely that countries that still struggle with the concept will achieve a stable and efficient civil - military relationship , something that will continue to damage state capacity and stability . | Civil–military relations |
816142087_48659-48942 | According to Amitai Etzioni of the Institute for Communitarian Policy Studies , the AirSea Battle doctrine is an example of a situation in which the military conceptualizes and develops a plan to counter a perceived threat to the United States without sufficient civilian oversight . | Civil–military relations |
825337460_132-734 | Field of Dreams Promotional poster by Olga Kaljakin Directed by Phil Alden Robinson Produced by Lawrence Gordon Charles Gordon Screenplay by Phil Alden Robinson Based on Shoeless Joe by W.P. Kinsella Starring Kevin Costner Amy Madigan James Earl Jones Ray Liotta Burt Lancaster Music by James Horner Cinematography John Lindley Edited by Ian Crafford Distributed by Universal Pictures ( USA ) TriStar Pictures / Carolco Pictures ( International ) Release date April 21 , 1989 ( 1989 - 04 - 21 ) Running time 107 minutes Country United States Language English Budget $15 million Box office $84.4 million | Field of Dreams |
825337460_735-1141 | Field of Dreams is a 1989 American fantasy - drama sports film directed by Phil Alden Robinson , who also wrote the screenplay , adapting W.P. Kinsella 's novel Shoeless Joe . It stars Kevin Costner , Amy Madigan , James Earl Jones , Ray Liotta and Burt Lancaster in his final role . It was nominated for three Academy Awards , including for Best Original Score , Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Picture . | Field of Dreams |
825337460_1142-1335 | In 2017 , the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being `` culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant '' . | Field of Dreams |
825337460_1538-2561 | Ray Kinsella is a novice Iowa farmer who lives with his wife , Annie , and daughter , Karin . In the opening narration , he explains how he had a troubled relationship with his father , John Kinsella , who had been a devoted baseball fan . While walking through his cornfield one evening , he hears a voice whispering , `` If you build it , he will come . '' He continues hearing this before finally seeing a vision of a baseball diamond in his field . Annie is skeptical , but she allows him to plow the corn under in order to build a baseball field . As he builds , he tells Karin the story of the 1919 Black Sox Scandal . Months pass and nothing happens ; his family faces financial ruin until , one night , Karin spots a uniformed man on the field . Ray recognizes him as Shoeless Joe Jackson , a deceased baseball player idolized by John . Thrilled to be able to play baseball again , he asks to bring others to the field to play . He later returns with the seven other players banned as a result of the 1919 scandal . | Field of Dreams |
825337460_2562-2783 | Ray 's brother - in - law , Mark , ca n't see the players and warns him that he will go bankrupt unless he replants his corn . While in the field , Ray hears the voice again , this time urging him to `` ease his pain . '' | Field of Dreams |
825337460_2784-3656 | Ray attends a PTA meeting at which the possible banning of books by radical author Terence Mann is discussed . He decides the voice was referring to Mann . He comes across a magazine interview dealing with Mann 's childhood dream of playing for the Brooklyn Dodgers . After Ray and Annie both dream about him and Mann attending a baseball game together at Fenway Park , he convinces her that he should seek out Mann . He heads to Boston and persuades a reluctant , embittered Mann to attend a game with him at Fenway Park . While there , he hears the voice again , this time urging him to `` go the distance . '' At the same time , the scoreboard `` shows '' statistics for a player named Archibald `` Moonlight '' Graham , who played one game for the New York Giants in 1922 , but never had a turn at bat . After the game , Mann eventually admits that he , too , saw it . | Field of Dreams |
825337460_3657-4768 | Ray and Mann then travel to Chisholm , Minnesota where they learn that Graham had become a doctor and had died sixteen years earlier . During a late night walk , Ray finds himself back in 1972 and encounters the then - living Graham , who states that he had moved on from his baseball career . He also says that the greater disappointment would have been not having a medical career . He declines Ray 's invitation to fulfill his dream ; however , during the drive back home , Ray picks up a young hitchhiker who introduces himself as Archie Graham . While Archie sleeps , Ray reveals to Mann that John had wanted him to live out his dream of being a baseball star . He stopped playing catch with him after reading one of Mann 's books at 14 . At 17 , he had denounced Shoeless Joe as a criminal to John and that was the reason for the rift between them . Ray expresses regret that he did n't get a chance to make things right before John died . When they arrive back at Ray 's farm , they find that enough players have arrived to field two teams . A game is played and Archie finally gets his turn at bat . The | Field of Dreams |
825337460_4817-5717 | The next morning , Mark returns and demands that Ray sell the farm . Karin says that they will not need to because people will pay to watch the ballgames . Mann agrees , saying that `` people will come '' in order to relive their childhood innocence . Ray , after much thought , refuses and a frustrated Mark scuffles with him , during which Karin is accidentally knocked off the bleachers . The young Graham runs from the field to help , becoming old Graham , complete with Gladstone bag , the instant he steps off of it , and saves Karin from choking ( she had been eating a hot dog when she fell ) . Ray realizes that Graham sacrificed his young self in order to save her . After reassuring Ray that his true calling was medicine and being commended by the other players , Graham leaves , disappearing into the corn . Suddenly , Mark is able to see the players and urges Ray not to sell the farm . | Field of Dreams |
825337460_5718-6388 | After the game , Shoeless Joe invites Mann to enter the corn ; he accepts and disappears into it . Ray is angry at not being invited , but Shoeless Joe rebukes him : if he really wants a reward for having sacrificed so much , then he had better stay on the field . Shoeless Joe then glances towards a player at home plate , saying `` If you build it , he will come . '' The player then removes his mask , and Ray recognizes him to be John as a young man . Shocked , Ray realizes that `` ease his pain '' referred to John , and believes that Shoeless Joe was the voice all along ; however , Joe implies that the voice was Ray himself . Joe then disappears into the corn . | Field of Dreams |
825337460_6389-6712 | Ray introduces John to Annie and Karin . As he heads towards the corn , Ray asks him if he wants to play a game of catch . They begin to play and Annie happily watches . Meanwhile , hundreds of cars can be seen approaching the baseball field , fulfilling Karin and Mann 's prophecy that people will come to watch baseball . | Field of Dreams |
825337460_6727-7285 | Kevin Costner as Ray Kinsella Amy Madigan as Annie Kinsella James Earl Jones as Terence Mann Timothy Busfield as Mark Kelly Coffield Park as Dee Frank Whaley as Archie Graham Gaby Hoffmann as Karin Kinsella Dwier Brown as John Kinsella Fern Persons as Annie 's mother Ray Liotta as Shoeless Joe Jackson Burt Lancaster as Archibald `` Moonlight '' Graham Art LaFleur as Chick Gandil Michael Milhoan as Buck Weaver Steve Eastin as Eddie Cicotte Charles Hoyes as Swede Risberg Ben Affleck as Baseball Fan At Fenway Park Matt Damon as Baseball Fan At Fenway Park | Field of Dreams |
825337460_7306-8140 | Phil Alden Robinson read Shoeless Joe in 1981 and liked it so much that he brought it to producers Lawrence Gordon and Charles Gordon . Lawrence Gordon worked for 20th Century Fox , part of the time as its president , and repeatedly mentioned that the book should be adapted into a film . The studio , however , always turned down the suggestion because they felt the project was too esoteric and noncommercial . Meanwhile , Robinson went ahead with his script , frequently consulting W.P. Kinsella , the book 's author , for advice on the adaptation . Lawrence Gordon left Fox in 1986 and started pitching the adaptation to other studios . Universal Studios accepted the project in 1987 and hired USC coach Rod Dedeaux as baseball advisor . Dedeaux brought along World Series champion and USC alumnus Don Buford to coach the actors . | Field of Dreams |
825337460_8141-8565 | The film was shot using the novel 's title ; eventually , an executive decision was made to rename it Field of Dreams . Robinson did not like the idea saying he loved Shoeless Joe , and that the new title was better suited for one about dreams deferred . Later , Kinsella told Robinson that his originally chosen title for the book had been The Dream Field and that the title Shoeless Joe had been imposed by the publisher . | Field of Dreams |
825337460_8583-10061 | Robinson and the producers did not originally consider Kevin Costner for the part of Ray because they did not think that he would want to follow Bull Durham with another baseball film . He , however , did end up reading the script and became interested in the project , stating that he felt it would be `` this generation 's It 's a Wonderful Life '' . Since Robinson 's directing debut In the Mood had been a commercial failure , Costner also said that he would help him with the production . Amy Madigan , a fan of the book , joined the cast as Ray 's wife , Annie . In the book , the writer Ray seeks out is real - life author J.D. Salinger . When Salinger threatened the production with a lawsuit if his name was used , Robinson decided to rewrite the character as reclusive Terence Mann . He wrote with James Earl Jones in mind because he thought it would be fun to see Ray trying to kidnap such a big man . Robinson had originally envisioned Shoeless Joe Jackson as being played by an actor in his 40s , someone who would be older than Costner and who could thereby act as a father surrogate . Ray Liotta did not fit that criterion , but Robinson thought he would be a better fit for the part because he had the `` sense of danger '' and ambiguity which Robinson wanted in the character . Burt Lancaster had originally turned down the part of Moonlight Graham , but changed his mind after a friend , who was also a baseball fan , told him that he had to work on the film . | Field of Dreams |
825337460_10079-10853 | Filming began on May 25 , 1988 . The shooting schedule was built around Costner 's availability because he would be leaving in August to film Revenge . Except for some weather delays and other time constraints , production rolled six days a week . The interior scenes were the first ones shot because the cornfield planted by the filmmakers was taking too long to grow . Irrigation had to be used to quickly grow the corn to Costner 's height . Primary shot locations were in Dubuque County , Iowa ; a farm near Dyersville was used for the Kinsella home ; an empty warehouse in Dubuque was used to build various interior sets . Galena , Illinois served as Moonlight Graham 's Chisholm , Minnesota . One week was spent on location shots in Boston , most notably Fenway Park . | Field of Dreams |
825337460_10854-11199 | Robinson , despite having a sufficient budget as well as the cast and crew he wanted , constantly felt tense and depressed during filming . He felt that he was under too much pressure to create an outstanding film , and that he was not doing justice to the original novel . Lawrence Gordon convinced him that the end product would be effective . | Field of Dreams |
825337460_11200-11773 | During a lunch with the Iowa Chamber of Commerce , Robinson broached his idea of a final scene in which headlights could be seen for miles along the horizon . The Chamber folks replied that it could be done and the shooting of the final scene became a community event . The film crew was hidden on the farm to make sure the aerial shots did not reveal them . Dyersville was then blacked out and local extras drove their vehicles to the field . In order to give the illusion of movement , the drivers were instructed to continuously switch between their low and high beams . | Field of Dreams |
825337460_11822-12224 | Scenes of the Kinsella farm were taken on the property of Don Lansing ; some of the baseball field scenes were shot on the neighboring farm of Al Ameskamp . Because the shooting schedule was too short for grass to naturally grow , the experts on sod laying responsible for Dodger Stadium and the Rose Bowl were hired to create the baseball field . Part of the process involved painting the turf green . | Field of Dreams |
825337460_12225-12723 | After shooting , Ameskamp again grew corn on his property ; Lansing maintained his as a tourist destination . He did not charge for admission or parking , deriving revenue solely from the souvenir shop . By the film 's twentieth anniversary , approximately 65,000 people visited annually . In July 2010 , the farm containing the `` Field '' was listed as for sale . It was sold on October 31 , 2011 , to Go The Distance Baseball , LLC , for an undisclosed fee , believed to be around $5.4 million . | Field of Dreams |
825337460_12724-12924 | In January 2018 , a man went off - roading on the field , causing large tire gashes and damaging the sprinkler system . The following week , he turned himself in and was charged with felony mischief . | Field of Dreams |
825337460_12940-13754 | At first , James Horner was unsure if he could work on the film due to scheduling restrictions . Then he watched a rough cut and was so moved that he accepted the job of scoring it . Robinson had created a temp track which was disliked by Universal executives . When the announcement of Horner as composer was made , they felt more positive because they expected a big orchestral score , similar to Horner 's work for An American Tail . Horner , in contrast , liked the temporary score , finding it `` quiet and kind of ghostly . '' He decided to follow the idea of the temp track , creating an atmospheric soundtrack which would `` focus on the emotions '' . In addition to Horner 's score , portions of several pop songs are heard during the film . They are listed in the following order in the closing credits : | Field of Dreams |
825337460_13755-14152 | `` Crazy '' , written by Willie Nelson and performed by Beverly D'Angelo `` Daydream '' , written by John Sebastian and performed by The Lovin ' Spoonful `` Jessica '' , written by Dickey Betts and performed by The Allman Brothers Band `` China Grove '' , written by Tom Johnston and performed by The Doobie Brothers `` Lotus Blossom '' , written by Billy Strayhorn and performed by Duke Ellington | Field of Dreams |
825337460_14185-14828 | The character played by Burt Lancaster and Frank Whaley , Archibald `` Moonlight '' Graham , is based on an actual baseball player with the same name . His character is largely true to life except for a few factual liberties taken for artistic reasons . For instance , the real Graham 's lone major league game occurred in June 1905 , rather than on the final day of the 1922 season . The real Graham also died in 1965 , as opposed to 1972 as the film depicts . In the film , Terence Mann interviews a number of people about Graham . The DVD special points out that the facts they gave him were taken from articles written about the real one . | Field of Dreams |
825337460_14860-14935 | This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . ( July 2017 ) | Field of Dreams |
825337460_14936-15178 | Universal scheduled the film to open in the U.S. on April 21 , 1989.It debuted in just a few theaters and was gradually released to more screens so that it would have a spot among the summer blockbusters . It ended up playing until December . | Field of Dreams |
825337460_15179-15462 | As of June 2017 , review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes rates the film 86 % , based on 57 reviews with an average score of 7.9 out of 10 . The consensus states : `` Field of Dreams is sentimental , but in the best way ; it 's a mix of fairy tale , baseball , and family togetherness . '' | Field of Dreams |
825337460_15479-15731 | In June 2008 , after having polled over 1,500 people in the creative community , AFI revealed its `` Ten Top Ten '' -- the best ten films in ten `` classic '' American film genres . The film was acknowledged as the sixth best one in the fantasy genre . | Field of Dreams |
825337460_15762-16089 | AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies -- nominated AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes : `` If you build it , he will come . '' -- # 39 AFI 's 100 Years of Film Scores -- nominated AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Cheers -- # 28 AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition ) -- nominated AFI 's 10 Top 10 -- # 6 Fantasy Film | Field of Dreams |
803427119_64-325 | This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( August 2013 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Early | Alternator |
803427119_534-1395 | An alternator is an electrical generator that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy in the form of alternating current . For reasons of cost and simplicity , most alternators use a rotating magnetic field with a stationary armature . Occasionally , a linear alternator or a rotating armature with a stationary magnetic field is used . In principle , any AC electrical generator can be called an alternator , but usually the term refers to small rotating machines driven by automotive and other internal combustion engines . An alternator that uses a permanent magnet for its magnetic field is called a magneto . Alternators in power stations driven by steam turbines are called turbo - alternators . Large 50 or 60 Hz three phase alternators in power plants generate most of the world 's electric power , which is distributed by electric power grids . | Alternator |
803427119_2202-2951 | Alternating current generating systems were known in simple forms from the discovery of the magnetic induction of electric current in the 1830s . Rotating generators naturally produced alternating current but , since there was little use for it , it was normally converted into direct current via the addition of a commutator in the generator . The early machines were developed by pioneers such as Michael Faraday and Hippolyte Pixii . Faraday developed the `` rotating rectangle '' , whose operation was heteropolar -- each active conductor passed successively through regions where the magnetic field was in opposite directions . Lord Kelvin and Sebastian Ferranti also developed early alternators , producing frequencies between 100 and 300 Hz . | Alternator |
803427119_2952-4371 | The late 1870s saw the introduction of first large scale electrical systems with central generation stations to power Arc lamps , used to light whole streets , factory yards , or the interior of large warehouses . Some , such as Yablochkov arc lamps introduced in 1878 , ran better on alternating current , and the development of these early AC generating systems was accompanied by the first use of the word `` alternator '' . Supplying the proper amount of voltage from generating stations in these early systems was left up to the engineer 's skill in `` riding the load '' . In 1883 the Ganz Works invented the constant voltage generator that could produce a stated output voltage , regardless of the value of the actual load . The introduction of transformers in the mid-1880s led to the widespread use of alternating current and the use of alternators needed to produce it . After 1891 , polyphase alternators were introduced to supply currents of multiple differing phases . Later alternators were designed for various alternating current frequencies between sixteen and about one hundred hertz , for use with arc lighting , incandescent lighting and electric motors . Specialized radio frequency alternators like the Alexanderson alternator were developed as longwave radio transmitters around World War 1 and used in a few high power wireless telegraphy stations before vacuum tube transmitters replaced them . | Alternator |
803427119_4599-5090 | A conductor moving relative to a magnetic field develops an electromotive force ( EMF ) in it ( Faraday 's Law ) . This emf reverses its polarity when it moves under magnetic poles of opposite polarity . Typically , a rotating magnet , called the rotor turns within a stationary set of conductors wound in coils on an iron core , called the stator . The field cuts across the conductors , generating an induced EMF ( electromotive force ) , as the mechanical input causes the rotor to turn . | Alternator |
803427119_5091-5296 | The rotating magnetic field induces an AC voltage in the stator windings . Since the currents in the stator windings vary in step with the position of the rotor , an alternator is a synchronous generator . | Alternator |
803427119_5297-5912 | The rotor 's magnetic field may be produced by permanent magnets , or by a field coil electromagnet . Automotive alternators use a rotor winding which allows control of the alternator 's generated voltage by varying the current in the rotor field winding . Permanent magnet machines avoid the loss due to magnetizing current in the rotor , but are restricted in size , due to the cost of the magnet material . Since the permanent magnet field is constant , the terminal voltage varies directly with the speed of the generator . Brushless AC generators are usually larger than those used in automotive applications . | Alternator |
803427119_5913-6374 | An automatic voltage control device controls the field current to keep output voltage constant . If the output voltage from the stationary armature coils drops due to an increase in demand , more current is fed into the rotating field coils through the voltage regulator ( VR ) . This increases the magnetic field around the field coils which induces a greater voltage in the armature coils . Thus , the output voltage is brought back up to its original value . | Alternator |
803427119_6375-6757 | Alternators used in central power stations also control the field current to regulate reactive power and to help stabilize the power system against the effects of momentary faults . Often there are three sets of stator windings , physically offset so that the rotating magnetic field produces a three phase current , displaced by one - third of a period with respect to each other . | Alternator |
803427119_6786-7455 | One cycle of alternating current is produced each time a pair of field poles passes over a point on the stationary winding . The relation between speed and frequency is N = 120 f / P ( \ displaystyle N = 120f / P ) , where f ( \ displaystyle f ) is the frequency in Hz ( cycles per second ) . P ( \ displaystyle P ) is the number of poles ( 2 , 4 , 6 ... ) and N ( \ displaystyle N ) is the rotational speed in revolutions per minute ( RPM ) . Very old descriptions of alternating current systems sometimes give the frequency in terms of alternations per minute , counting each half - cycle as one alternation ; so 12,000 alternations per minute corresponds to 100 Hz . | Alternator |
803427119_7456-7687 | The output frequency of an alternator depends on the number of poles and the rotational speed . The speed corresponding to a particular frequency is called the synchronous speed for that frequency . This table gives some examples : | Alternator |
803427119_7688-7935 | Poles RPM for 50 Hz RPM for 60 Hz RPM for 400 Hz 3,000 3,600 24,000 1,500 1,800 12,000 6 1,000 1,200 8,000 8 750 900 6,000 10 600 720 4,800 12 500 600 4,000 14 428.6 514.3 3,429 16 375 450 3,000 18 333.3 400 2,667 20 300 360 2,400 40 150 180 1,200 | Alternator |
803427119_7961-8082 | Alternators may be classified by method of excitation , number of phases , the type of rotation , and their application . | Alternator |
803427119_8106-8469 | There are two main ways to produce the magnetic field used in the alternators , by using permanent magnets which create their own persistent magnetic field or by using field coils . The alternators that use permanent magnets are specifically called magnetos . In other alternators , wound field coils form an electromagnet to produce the rotating magnetic field . | Alternator |
803427119_8470-8715 | A device that uses permanent magnets to produce alternating current is called a permanent magnet alternator ( PMA ) . A permanent magnet generator ( PMG ) may produce either alternating current , or direct current if it has a commutator . Direct | Alternator |
803427119_8748-9197 | This method of excitation consists of a smaller direct - current ( DC ) generator fixed on the same shaft with the alternator . The DC generator generates a small amount of electricity just enough to excite the field coils of the connected alternator to generate electricity . A variation of this system is a type of alternator which uses direct current from the battery for excitation , after which the alternator is self - excited . Transformation | Alternator |
803427119_9225-9617 | This method depends on residual magnetism retained in the iron core to generate weak magnetic field which would allow weak voltage to be generated . The voltage is used to excite the field coils for the alternator to generate stronger voltage as part of its build up process . After the initial AC voltage buildup , the field is supplied with rectified voltage from the alternator . Brushless | Alternator |
803427119_9639-10412 | A brushless alternator is composed of two alternators built end - to - end on one shaft . Smaller brushless alternators may look like one unit but the two parts are readily identifiable on the large versions . The larger of the two sections is the main alternator and the smaller one is the exciter . The exciter has stationary field coils and a rotating armature ( power coils ) . The main alternator uses the opposite configuration with a rotating field and stationary armature . A bridge rectifier , called the rotating rectifier assembly , is mounted on the rotor . Neither brushes nor slip rings are used , which reduces the number of wearing parts . The main alternator has a rotating field as described above and a stationary armature ( power generation windings ) . | Alternator |
803427119_10413-10831 | Varying the amount of current through the stationary exciter field coils varies the 3 - phase output from the exciter . This output is rectified by a rotating rectifier assembly , mounted on the rotor , and the resultant DC supplies the rotating field of the main alternator and hence alternator output . The result of all this is that a small DC exciter current indirectly controls the output of the main alternator . | Alternator |
803427119_10832-11694 | Early Honda four - cylinder motorcycles ( CB750F , CB350F , CB500F , CB550F ) used a brushless Hitachi 200W alternator . This had a fixed `` rotor '' winding on the outer cover ; the outer end of the iron core was a disc that closed the outer rotor pole . The rotor comprised two intermeshed six - pole `` claws '' welded to and spaced apart by a non-magnetic ring . It bolted directly to the end of the five - bearing crank by the hub of one pole . The other pole had an open end to receive the stator winding . The outer cover also mounted the three - phase stator windings . The magnetic circuit had two auxiliary air gaps between the rotor and its stationary core . The regulator was a conventional automotive type with vibrating points . As it had no slip rings , it was very compact and rugged , but due to the auxiliary air gaps , it had poor efficiency . | Alternator |
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