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Nitrogen as an element is used to prevent things from reacting with the oxygen in the air. It can be used to fill crisp bags and incandescent bulbs. It is also used to fill some tires. It can be used to make electric components like transistors. Liquid nitrogen can be used to freeze things.
Nitrogen compounds have many uses, such as anesthetics (nitrous oxide), explosives (dynamite), cleaners (ammonia), and meat (protein), and planes (fuel).
Oil companies use high pressure nitrogen to help force crude oil to the surface.
Nitrogen was discovered by Daniel Rutherford in 1772, who called it "noxious gas" or "fixed gas". They discovered that part of air did not burn. It was found that animals died in it. It was known as "azote". Many nitrogen compounds also contain the "azide" or "azine" letters, such as hydrazine.
In 1910, Lord Rayleigh found out that when a spark was passed through nitrogen, it made a reactive form of nitrogen. This nitrogen reacted with many metals and compounds.
Association football
Association football is a sport played between two teams. It was invented in England, and is played in most countries. In the United States and Canada, it is called soccer. In most other countries it is called football. Association football is the most popular sport in the world.
There were various attempts to codify the rules of football in England in the mid-19th century. The present laws date from 1863 when a set of rules was adopted in Rugby, Warwickshire by the newly formed Football Association.
Each team has 11 players on the field. One of these players is the goalkeeper, and the other ten are known as "outfield players". The game is played by kicking a ball into the opponent's goal. A match has 90 minutes of play, with a break of 15 minutes during the match. The break in the middle is called "half-time". Added time may be added after half time or after 90 minutes to make up for time lost during the game because of fouls, free kicks, corner kicks, injuries, bookings, substitutions or any other time the game is stopped. If a match ends in a tie, extra-time with two halves of 15 minutes each may be played, and if there is still a tie, a penalty shootout decides the winner. Sometimes extra-time is skipped and the game goes right into the penalty shootout.
There are many competitions for football, for both football clubs and countries. Football clubs usually play other teams in their own country, with a few exceptions. Here are a list of some of those exceptions:
Football clubs also play other teams in their continent in competitions such as the CAF Champions League and the UEFA Champions League.
There are 6 associations (CONCACAF, CONMEBOL, CAF, UEFA, AFC, and OFC). Each association has their own continental competition between clubs and national teams. Some examples are the Copa América for CONMEBOL national teams and the Copa Libertadores for CONMEBOL clubs. FIFA organises international competitions between worldwide clubs and countries. Clubs play in the Club World Cup, and countries play for the FIFA World Cup.
The FIFA World Cup takes place every four years between national teams, and is the world's most popular sporting event, even more popular than the Olympic Games. In football, there are two main competition types. In a "league", all of the teams play the same number of games, but in a "cup", teams leave the competition when they lose, until the last two teams play each other to decide the winner.
Football is the world's most popular sport. It is played in more countries than any other game. In fact, FIFA (the Federation Internationale de Football Association) has more members than the United Nations. It was originally an all-male sport, but today it is played by both males and females (separately, except sometimes at primary school level).
In Europe, the main competitions to compete are the Champions League for the top teams from the top leagues in each country in Europe. Then there is the UEFA Europa League which is for the next best teams from each member country of the UEFA.
The most successful club in the world, in terms of domestic league results, is Rangers F.C. from Scotland, who have won more domestic league titles than any other team in the world. They have won the country's league 54 times which is a world record. In May 2000, Rangers became the first team to win 100 trophies. Other successful clubs are FC Barcelona and Real Madrid from Spain, Bayern Munich and Borussia Dortmund from Germany, Galatasaray S.K. from Turkey, Juventus and Napoli from Italy, Liverpool and Manchester City from England, Paris Saint-Germain from France, and Al Ahly from Egypt.
Spamming
Spamming is when one person or company sends an unwanted email to another person. Spam emails are the computer version of unwanted "junk mail" that arrives in a mailbox, such as advertising pamphlets and brochures. Spam emails are usually sent to try to get the person to buy something or do something else that will cause gain for the sender.
The emails sent when someone is spamming is called spam. The person or company who sent the unwanted email is called a spammer. Both of these words came from a brand of canned meat called "Spam", but it was a short sketch created by the British comedy group Monty Python in 1970 that led to the word "Spam" being widely used to mean unwanted email messages.
Spam emails are usually sent to many people at once trying to get them to buy a product or sign up for a service. The people who receive the email did not ask to receive the email, and do not want to receive it.
One of the reasons there is so much spam emails around is that it costs very little to send millions of spam messages at once. Spam messages can easily be sent, sometimes even by a special computer program.
The hardest part about spamming is to get the email addresses to send the spam to. Sometimes the spammers do this by searching for emails on the internet, or by buying emails from people who know a lot of them (for example, someone who runs a site that makes users tell them their email address to signup will have a lot of email addresses to sell to spammers).
One part of getting e-mail addresses is to find addresses that are still in use. One trick used by spammers is to put a link at the end of a message like this:
If the person clicks on the link, it tells the spammers that there is someone at the address. Then the spammers put that person on a list of people who actually open spam messages. Next, the spammers sell that list to other spammers. The same thing happens if the person sends another email back to the spammer (called "replying"), which also tells the spammer the message has been opened.
Another trick that spammers use is to put a picture – even one that cannot be seen – into a spam message. The picture will have a name that goes with just that one email. When the email is opened, a request will be sent to the server that has that picture to get the image. If they get this request, then they know that you read their email, which could cause a person to receive even more email spam.
The word "spamming" is also used to describe the act of typing a lot of words or text in Internet chat rooms, so that other people using the chatroom cannot carry on conversations. Usually this blocks the screen with meaningless words, in order to annoy the other people in the chatroom. Spamming in Internet chatrooms is usually considered to be rude. This kind of behavior is usually called "flooding" rather than "spamming".
The word "spam" is often (mistakenly) applied to emails containing content that the receiver sees as silly or simply meaningless (e.g. yujhcykgfvylfuv,uyguvgy).
Computer users at home and in workplaces waste a lot of time opening and deleting spam messages. In some cases, spam emails contain viruses or links to pornography or illegal gambling websites. Spam emails often advertise products or services which are being lied about by the companies sending the spam, such as frauds or scams.
Some user email programs can automatically delete spam messages when they arrive, or move them to a separate spam folder. Internet service providers also detect them automatically and cooperate to cut off customers who are major spammers.
Earthquake
An earthquake is the sudden movement or trembling of the Earth's tectonic plates, that creates the shakes of the ground. This shaking can destroy buildings and break the Earth's surface. Sudden shake under water is called tsunami
Who studies earthquakes is called seismology. There can be many earthquakes over a short period of time in a small area. The sudden release of tension in the tectonic plates sends waves of energy that travel through the Earth. Seismology studies about the cause, repeats, type and size of earthquakes.
Earthquakes are measured using watching from seismographs. The magnitude of an earthquake and the power of shaking is usually reported on the Richter scale. The Richter Scale was invented by Charles Francis Richter in 1935. On the scale, 2 is scarcely noticeable, and magnitude 5 (or more) creates damage over a wide area.
An earthquake under the ocean can destruction as the earthquake itself in mountainous areas. Earthquakes can also create landslides. Earthquakes are part of the Earth's natural rock cycle. The affect of an earthquake can be measured by a seismometer. It detects the shakes caused and it puts these movements on a seismograph. The strength, or magnitude, of an earthquake, is measured using the Richter scale. The Richter scale is numbered 0-9. The largest earthquake ever measured was a 9.5 on the scale a 10 has never been recorded.
Scientists cannot predict an earthquake before it happens. But we do know where earthquakes might happen in the future, like close to fault lines. An earthquake under the ocean can create a tsunami, this can create just as much destruction as the earthquake itself.
Earthquakes sometimes hit cities and kill hundreds or thousands of people. Most earthquakes happen along the Pacific Ring of Fire but the biggest ones mostly happen in other places. Tectonically active places are places where earthquakes or volcanic eruptions are quite repeated.
Earthquakes are caused by tectonic movements in the Earth's crust. The main cause is when tectonic plates ride one over the other, causing orogeny (mountain building), and severe earthquakes.
The boundaries between moving plates form the largest fault surfaces on Earth. When they stick, motion between the plates leads to increasing stress. This continues until the stress rises and breaks, suddenly allowing sliding over the locked portion of the fault. This releases the stored energy as shock waves. The San Andreas fault in San Francisco, and Rift valley fault in Africa are faults like this.
1. Volcanic Earthquakes : Earthquakes which are caused by volcanic eruptions are quite devastating. However, these are confined to areas of active volcanoes.
2. Collapse Earthquakes : In areas of intense mining activity, often the roofs of underground mines collapse and minor tremors take place. These are called collapse earthquakes.
There are three main types of geological fault that may cause an earthquake: normal, reverse (thrust) and strike-slip. Normal faults occur mainly in areas where the crust is being extended. Reverse faults occur in areas where the crust is being shortened. Strike-slip faults are steep structures where the two sides of the fault slip horizontally past each other.
Most earthquakes form part of a sequence, related to each other in terms of location and time. Most earthquake clusters consist of small tremors which cause little to no damage, but there is a theory that earthquakes can recur in a regular pattern.
A foreshock is an earthquake that occurs before a larger earthquake, called the mainshock.
An aftershock is an earthquake that occurs after a previous earthquake, the mainshock. An aftershock is in the same region of the main shock but always of a smaller magnitude. Aftershocks are formed as the crust adjusts to the effects of the main shock.
Earthquake swarms are sequences of earthquakes striking in a specific area within a short period of time. They are different from earthquakes followed by a series of aftershocks by the fact that no single earthquake in the sequence is obviously the main shock, therefore none have notably higher magnitudes than the other. An example of an earthquake swarm is the 2004 activity at Yellowstone National Park.
Sometimes a series of earthquakes occur in a sort of earthquake storm, where the earthquakes strike a fault in clusters, each triggered by the shaking or stress redistribution of the previous earthquakes. Similar to aftershocks but on adjacent segments of fault, these storms occur over the course of years, and with some of the later earthquakes as damaging as the early ones. Such a pattern occurred in the North Anatolian fault in Turkey in the 20th century.
Tsunami or a chain of fast moving waves in the ocean caused by powerful earthquakes is a very serious challenge for people's safety and for earthquake engineering. Those waves can inundate coastal areas, destroy houses and even swipe away whole towns. This is a danger for the whole mankind.
Unfortunately, tsunamis can not be prevented. However, there are warning systems which may warn the population before the big waves reach the land to let them enough time to rush to safety.we aware of this tsunami
Earthquake-proof buildings are constructed to withstand the destructive force of an earthquake. This depends upon its type of construction, shape, mass distribution, and rigidity. Different combinations are used. Square, rectangular, and shell-shaped buildings can withstand earthquakes better than skyscrapers. To reduce stress, a building's ground floor can be supported by extremely rigid, hollow columns, while the rest of the building is supported by flexible columns inside the hollow columns. Another method is to use rollers or rubber pads to separate the base columns from the ground, allowing the columns to shake parallel to each other during an earthquake.
To help prevent a roof from collapsing, builders make the roof out of light-weight materials. Outdoor walls are made with stronger and more reinforced materials such as steel or reinforced concrete. During an earthquake flexible windows may help hold the windows together so they don’t break.
Colour
Colour or color is a property of light as seen by people. In Commonwealth English, it is spelled “colour” (notice the U), while in American English it is “color” (no U).
The most common colour names are:
"Primary colours" can be mixed to make other colours. Red, yellow, and blue are the three traditional primary colours. The primary colours for television screens and computer monitors are red, green and blue. Printers and paints use magenta, yellow, and cyan as their primary colours; they may also use black. Sometimes this set of colours is simply called red, yellow, and blue.
People who can not see colours or have a distorted sense of colour are called colour blind. Most colour blind people are male.
Colours are sometimes added to food. Food colouring is used to colour food, but some foods have natural colourings, like beta carotene.
When something has no colour, it is transparent. An example is air.
The science of color is sometimes called chromatics, colorimetry, or simply color science.
A translucent material is not the same as a colourless material because it can still have a colour, like stained glass.
Scurvy
Scurvy is a disease (sickness). It is caused by not eating enough vitamin C. But scurvy can be prevented. It has many symptoms. People who have scurvy get spots on their skin, especially on their legs. Their teeth may loosen and/or fall out. They may bleed from the mouth, nose, and gums (mucus membranes). A person with scurvy will look pale and feel sad (see depression). They will not be able to move easily, because their joints hurt.
Scurvy can be easily cured. Oranges and other fruits can restore normal vitamin levels. In the past, sailors more commonly got scurvy due to being unable to access these foods. Fresh fruit could not be kept for long. The main cause of scurvy is lack of fresh fruits and vegetables. It is now uncommon.
At first, a person with scurvy may:
A bit later a person with scurvy may:
When a person gets help for scurvy, they usually get better very quickly. Babies start eating again after one or two days of help. The symptoms get better within seven days.
Eating vitamin C prevents scurvy. How much vitamin C a person needs changes with his or her age and is different for pregnant and lactating women. The following is the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council's advice on how much vitamin C to eat every day:
Foods with a lot of vitamin C include the following:
Ion
An ion is an electrically charged atom or group of atoms.
It can be made from an atom, or from a group of atoms (molecule). It is "charged" so it will move near electricity. This is because atoms are made of three smaller parts:
An ion has unequal numbers of protons and electrons. Making an ion from an atom or molecule is called "ionization".
The charge on a proton is chosen as +1 (positively charged). The charge on an electron is opposite to the charge on the proton. The charge on the electron is -1 (negatively charged). An atom that is ionized makes two parts, one positive, and one negatively charged. For example, a neutral hydrogen atom has one proton and one electron. Ionizing the atom breaks it into two parts: (1) a positively charged hydrogen ion, H+ (2) a negatively charged electron.
A liquid with ions is called an electrolyte. A gas with lots of ions is called a plasma. When ions move, it is called electricity. For example, in a wire, the metal ions do not move, but the electrons move as electricity. A positive ion and a negative ion will move together. Two ions of the same charge will move apart. When ions move they also make "magnetic fields".
Many ions are colourless. Elements in the main groups in the Periodic Table form colourless ions. Some ions are coloured. The transition metals usually form coloured ions.
In physics, atomic nuclei that have been completely ionized are called charged particles. These are ones in alpha radiation.
Ionization happens by giving atoms high energy. This is done using electrical voltage or by high-energy ionizing radiation or high temperature.
A simple ion is formed from a single atom.
Polyatomic ions are formed from a number of atoms. Polyatomic ions usually consist of all non-metal atoms. But sometimes the polyatomic ion can have a metallic atom too.
Positive ions are called cations. They are attracted to cathodes (negatively charged electrodes). ("Cation" is pronounced "cat eye on", not "kay shun".) All simple metal ions are cations.
Negative ions are called anions. They are attracted to anodes (positively charged electrodes). All simple non-metal ions (except H, which is a proton) are anions.
Transition metals can form more than one simple cation with different charges.
Most ions have a charge of less than 4, but some can have higher charges.
Michael Faraday was the first person to write a theory about ions, in 1830. In his theory, he said what the portions of molecules were like that moved to anions or cations. Svante August Arrhenius showed how this happened. He wrote this in his doctoral dissertation in 1884 (University of Uppsala). The university did not accept his theory at first (he only just passed his degree). But in 1903, he won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the same idea.
In Greek "ion" is like the word "go". "Anion" and "cation" mean "up-goer" and "down-goer". "Anode" and "cathode" are "way up" and "way down".
List of ions
Cognitive science
Cognitive science studies how people make their ideas and what makes thoughts logical. It is often seen as the result of several different scientific fields working together. These fields are psychology (a study of the mind), neuroscience (biological study of the brain), computer science (the creation of programs and computers), and linguistics (the study of language). It does not refer to the sum of all these disciplines. It refers to their intersection on specific problems.
Anthropology
Anthropology is the study of human beings in the past and present.
The word anthropology has two roots: [ anthrop- ] and [ -ology ]. Anthrop- means “about human beings,” and -ology means “a type of science." Anthropology is a type of science about human beings. A person who studies anthropology is called an anthropologist.
The main goal of anthropology is to answer the questions: What makes us human and why?
Anthropology is a biological and historical social science that helps us learn how groups of people are the same, and how they are different in all parts of the world. Anthropologists do research in many places and study how people live now and how they may have lived in the past. They research in modern cities, small villages, tribes, and in the countryside.
Anthropology uses a "four-field approach" that divides anthropology into four big kinds:
Archaeology is the study of humans from the past. People who study archaeology are called archaeologists.
Archaeologists look at things that past people left behind to know how they lived. They look at tools, bones, and past houses to see how people in the past are not the same as people that live today.
Here are some other examples of what archaeologists like to study:
Biological or physical anthropology studies human bodies and how they change over time.
They look at how humans live in nature and how their bodies change because of where they live. They also study how human beings and apes and monkeys are alike. Sometimes biological anthropologists study human and animal bones to learn about how past humans lived. They are also called physical anthropologists.
Here are some other examples of what biological anthropologists like to study:
Linguistic anthropology is the study of how people talk.