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Spanish legislation recognizes titles of nobility and protects their legal owners against third parties.
The Spanish nobility titles are in no case susceptible of purchase or sale, since their succession is strictly reserved for blood relatives of better right of the first holder of the title.
The successions are processed by the Ministry of Justice and their use is subject to their respective tax.
Spanish nobles are classified as either grandees, as titled nobles, or as untitled nobles.
In the past, grandees were divided into first, second, and third classes, but this division has ceased to be relevant in practice while remaining a titular distinction; legally all grandees enjoy the same privileges in modern times.
At one time however, each class held special privileges such as:
Additionally, all grandees were addressed by the king as "mi Primo" (my Cousin), whereas ordinary nobles were only qualified as "mi Pariente" (my Kinsman).
An individual may hold a grandeeship, whether in possession of a title of nobility or not.
Normally, however, each grandeeship is attached to a title.
A grandeeship is always attached to the grant of a ducal title.
The grant of a grandeeship with any other rank of nobility has always been at the will of the sovereign.
Excepting dukes and some very ancient titles of marquesses and counts, most Spanish titles of nobility are not attached to grandeeships.
A grandee of any rank outranks a non-grandee, even if that non-grandee's title is of a higher degree, with the exception of official members of the Spanish Royal Family who may in fact hold no title at all.
Thus, a baron-grandee enjoys higher precedence than a marquess who is not a grandee.
Since 1987, the children of Spanish infantes, traditionally considered part of the royal family, have been entitled to the rank and style of a grandee but do not hold the legal dignity of grandee unless a "grandeza" is officially conferred by the sovereign; once the dignity has been officially bestowed, it becomes hereditary.
Some notable titles, which are attached to grandeeships, are: Duke of Alba, Duke of Medinaceli, Duke of Osuna, Duke of Infantado, Duke of Albuquerque, Duke of Nájera, Duke of Frías and Duke of Medina Sidonia, Marquess of Aguilar de Campoo, Marquess of Astorga, Marquess of Santillana, Marquess of Los Vélez, Count of Benavente, Count of Lerín, Count of Olivares, Count of Oñate, and Count of Lemos.
Dukes, Grandees, their spouses and heirs are entitled to the honorific style of "The Most Excellent Lord/Lady".
Titled nobles without a grandee, their spouses and heirs, and grandee's younger sons/daughter use the style of "The Most Illustrious Lord/Lady".
The ordinary Spanish nobility is divided into six ranks.
From highest to lowest, these are: "Duque" (Duke), "Marqués" (Marquess), "Conde" (Count), "Vizconde" (Viscount), "Barón" (Baron), and "Señor" (Lord) (as well as the feminine forms of these titles).
Nobility descends from the first man of a family who was raised to the nobility (or recognized as belonging to the hereditary nobility) to all his legitimate descendants, male and female, in the male line.
Thus, most persons who are legally noble, hold no noble title.
Hereditary titles formerly descended by male-preference primogeniture, a woman being eligible to inherit only if she had no brother or if her brothers also inherited titles.
However, by Spanish law, all hereditary titles descend by absolute primogeniture, gender no longer being a criterion for preference in inheritance, since 2005.
The often overlooked title of 'prince' ("príncipe/princesa") has historically been borne by those who have been granted or have inherited that title.
It is often not included in lists of the Spanish nobility because it is rare.
Prince/Princess are English translations of Infante/Infanta, referring to the son or daughter of a king; such titles are reserved for members of the royal family (the heir to the throne or the consort of the Queen regnant).
Historically, infante or infanta could refer to offspring, siblings, uncles and aunts of a king.
The heir's princely titles derive from the ancient kingdoms which united to form Spain.
Three titles of prince are held by the heir to the Spanish throne.
Other titles of 'prince' were frequently granted by the kings of Spain, but usually in their capacity as kings of Naples or of Sicily.
Such nobles often sojourned at the Spanish court where their titles were acknowledged, but rarely were Spanish nobles the recipients of a title of prince in Spain.
The most notable exceptions were the title "Prince of the Peace" conferred in 1795 on Manuel Godoy, a favourite of the Spanish king and the title "Prince of Vergara" conferred to Baldomero Espartero.
Although legislation of the twentieth century ended official recognition of the title of prince outside the royal bloodline family, it did allow the holder of a princedom to have the dignity converted to a ducal title of the same name.
All dukedoms are attached to a grandeeship.
A partial list includes:
Baronies did not exist in the Kingdom of Castile nor the Kingdom of Navarre, and the subsequent kings of Spain did not confer any baronies attached to Castilian or Navarrese estates.
However, they did exist in the Kingdom of Aragon, such as:
The title of "Señor" is, together with that of "Conde", the oldest in seniority of the Spanish realms.
Many of these lordships are among the oldest titles of nobility in Spain, and the "Señor" usually exercised military and administrative powers over the lordship.
Although some lordships were created by the kings of Spain, others existed before them and have not been created by any known king.
For example, the Señor of Biscay held a great degree of independence from the king of Castile, to whom he could pledge or not pledge feudal allegiance, but of whom he was not automatically a vassal: each new lord of Biscay had to renew his oath to the king.
Ultimately however, the kings of Castile inherited the lordship.
Besides those held by the King, in Spain remain seven lordships that maintain the official consideration of Titles of the Kingdom according to the Official Guide of the Titles and Grandees of the Kingdom published by the Ministry of Justice: the Lordship of Solar de Tejada, the Lordship of Solar de Mandayona y Villaseca, the Lordship of Alconchel, the Lordship of Lazcano (with Grandee of Spain), the Lordship of Rubianes (with Grandee of Spain), the Lordship of Higuera de Vargas (with Grandee of Spain), the Lordship of Meirás (with Grandee of Spain) and the Lordship of Sonseca.
Other lordships that were considered as Titles of the Kingdom in the past, have not been rehabilitated.
Lower nobility held ranks, without individual titles, such as "infanzon" (in Aragon, e.g.
Latas Family), "hidalgo" or "escudero".
These did not, however, correspond to the status of a "baron", a title unknown to Spanish nobility except in Catalonia.
"Hidalgo" was the most common of these:
Originally all the nobles in the Western Peninsular Christian Realms were "hidalgos" and, as "cristianos viejos", held nearly exclusive right to privileged status (although there were some Jews and Muslims recognized as "hidalgos", who shared their privilege to bear arms as knights in the "mesnada real").
The first of the kings of Pamplona and Asturias were originally elected and lifted up on a shield to assume "Princeps inter Pares" status, by these otherwise untitled nobles.
For approximately three hundred years the "hidalgos" retained this privilege, only a few of them eventually being granted the non-heritable title of "Comes#Medieval usages".
Unlike Spain's later titled nobles, the early "hidalgo" did not necessarily possess or receive any fief or land grant.
Many were as poor as commoners, although they were tax-exempt and could join the civil service or the army.
During the Middle Ages "hidalgo" became a title granted by the kings of Castile as a reward for service done to the crown (or, as in Biscay, as a way of recognizing prior rights).
In the same way "escudero" was granted for military achievement when the "Reconquista" ended.
Being the most obvious proof of noble descent, "hidalgo" came to be the only lesser title to remain among the modern ranks of Spanish nobility.
From this ancient estate of the realm emerged Spain's nobility.
All titled and untitled nobles are considered "hidalgos", but many of the modern titled nobility do not descend from the original "hidalguía".
The term "Hidalgo de Sangre" indicated membership in a family whose noble status was recognized in the earliest records of its existence; thus its immemorial nobility was acknowledged but not created by any monarch.
The evidence supporting one's claim to a title may be reviewed by the Deputation of Grandees and Titled Nobles of the Kingdom ("Diputación de Grandes y Títulos del Reino").
The body includes eight grandees, eight nobles who are not grandees, and a president who must hold both a grandeeship and a hereditary title unattached to a grandeeship.
Succession to Spanish noble titles is hereditary, but not automatic.
The original letters patent which created the title determine the order of succession.
Payment of substantial fees is required whenever a title is inherited.
While noble titles historically have followed the rule of male-preference primogeniture, a Spanish law came into effect on October 30, 2006, after approval by both houses of the "Cortes", establishing the inheritance of hereditary noble titles by the firstborn regardless of gender.
The law is retroactive to July 27, 2005.
Following the death of a noble, the senior heir may petition the sovereign through the Spanish Ministry of Justice for permission to use the title.
If the senior heir does not make a petition within two years, then other potential heirs may do so on their own behalf.
There is a limit of forty years from the vacancy by death or relinquishment of a title within which that title may be claimed and revived by an heir.
The petitioner must demonstrate that he or she is a child, grandchild or direct male line descendant of a noble (whether a grandee or not), or that he or she belongs to certain bodies or orders of chivalry deemed noble, or that the father's family is recognized as noble.
The amount of fees due depend on whether the title is attached to a grandeeship or not, and on whether the heir is a direct descendant or a collateral kinsman of the previous holder.
The petition is normally granted, except if the petitioner is a criminal.
Titles may also be ceded to heirs other than the senior heir, during the lifetime of the main titleholder.
Normally, this process is used to allow younger children to succeed to lesser titles, while the highest or principal title goes to the senior heir.
Only subsidiary titles may be ceded; the principal title must be reserved for the senior heir.
The cession of titles may only be done with the approval of the monarch.
The late Cayetana Fitz-James Stuart, 18th Duchess of Alba (1926–2014) holds the Guinness World Record for number of titles with over 50 titles.
Before her death, she ceded some of her titles to each of her six children; otherwise, all but the eldest would have been excluded from succession.
From the beginning of his reign in November 1975, King Juan Carlos created new titles for about 51 people (as of April 2011), among others recognizing the merits of politicians and artists.
Some of these dignities have been hereditary.
Examples include:
King Juan Carlos also exceptionally confirmed the title of "Count of Barcelona", a title historically attached to the Crown, but used as a title of pretence by his father, "Infante" Juan, during the dynasty's 20th century exile and the subsequent reign of his son.
List of software patents
This is a list of software patents, which contains notable patents and patent applications involving computer programs (also known as a software patent).
Software patents cover a wide range of topics and there is therefore important debate about whether such subject-matter should be excluded from patent protection.
However, there is no official way of identifying software patents and different researchers have devised their own ways of doing so.
This article lists patents relating to software which have been the subject of litigation or have achieved notoriety in other ways.
Notable patent applications are also listed and comparisons made between corresponding patents and patent applications in different countries.
The patents and patent applications are categorised according to the subject matter of the patent or the particular field in which the patent had an effect that brought it into the public view.
Sat.1
Sat.1 is a German free-to-air television channel that is considered the first privately owned television network in Germany, having been launched in January 1984 as "PKS" "(Programmgesellschaft für Kabel- und Satellitenrundfunk)", initially a joint venture of various publishing houses, and was rebranded as Sat.1 in January 1985.
The first broadcast could only be seen by roughly 1200 households who had cable access in the city of Ludwigshafen.
Early programs included old films (mainly from the archives of KirchMedia) American hit series and game shows (the most notable show being the German version of "Wheel of Fortune", "Glücksrad").
Later, the station acquired a name for its original series and TV films.
Sat.1 is a part of the ProSiebenSat.1 Media Group.
Pay-TV sister channel "Sat.1 Emotions" (formerly "Sat.1 Comedy") airs comedy, romance and movies.
In 2013 "Sat.1 Gold", a second, free-to-air Sat.1 offshoot was also launched.
In addition to its free-to-air standard definition feed, Sat.1 also broadcasts an HD feed as a subscription-only channel, available on Astra's HD+ satellite pay-TV platform.
Regional newscasts are broadcast under the title "17:30 Sat.1..." in Bremen, Lower Saxony, Hamburg, Schleswig-Holstein, North Rhine-Westphalia, Rhineland-Palatinate, Hesse and Bavaria.