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They were commissioned by religious establishments or by pious individuals for use within the practice of Tibetan Buddhism and were manufactured in large workshops by monks and lay artists, who are mostly unknown.
The art of Tibet may be studied in terms of influences which have contributed to it over the centuries, from other Chinese, Nepalese, Indian, and sacred styles.
Many bronzes in Tibet that suggest Pala influence, are thought to have been either crafted by Indian sculptors or brought from India.
As Mahayana Buddhism emerged as a separate school in the 4th century AD, it emphasized the role of bodhisattvas, compassionate beings who forgo their personal escape to nirvana in order to assist others.
From an early time, various bodhisattvas were also subjects of statuary art.
Tibetan Buddhism, as an offspring of Mahayana Buddhism, inherited this tradition.
But the additional dominating presence of the Vajrayana (or Buddhist tantra) may have had an overriding importance in the artistic culture.
A common bodhisattva depicted in Tibetan art is the deity Chenrezig (Avalokitesvara), often portrayed as a thousand-armed saint with an eye in the middle of each hand, representing the all-seeing compassionate one who hears our requests.
This deity can also be understood as a "yidam", or 'meditation Buddha' for Vajrayana practice.
More specifically, Tibetan Buddhism contains Tantric Buddhism, also known as Vajrayana Buddhism for its common symbolism of the "vajra", the diamond thunderbolt (known in Tibetan as the dorje).
Most of the typical Tibetan Buddhist art can be seen as part of the practice of tantra.
Vajrayana techniques incorporate many visualizations during meditation, and most of the elaborate tantric art can be seen as aids to these visualizations; from representations of meditational deities (yidams) to mandalas and all kinds of ritual implements.
A surprising aspect of Tantric Buddhism is the common representation of wrathful deities, often depicted with angry faces, circles of flame, or with the skulls of the dead.
These images represent the "Protectors" (Skt.
dharmapala) and their fearsome bearing belies their true compassionate nature.
Actually their wrath represents their dedication to the protection of the dharma teaching as well as to the protection of the specific tantric practices to prevent corruption or disruption of the practice.
They are most importantly used as wrathful psychological aspects that can be used to conquer the negative attitudes of the practitioner.
The indigenous shamanistic religion of the Himalayas is known as Bön.
Bon contributes a pantheon of local tutelary deities to Tibetan art.
In Tibetan temples (known as lhakhang), statues of the Buddha or Padmasambhava are often paired with statues of the tutelary deity of the district who often appears angry or dark.
These gods once inflicted harm and sickness on the local citizens but after the arrival of Padmasambhava these negative forces have been subdued and now must serve Buddha.
Contemporary Tibetan art refers to the art of modern Tibet, or Tibet after 1950.
It can also refer to art by the Tibetan diaspora, which is explicitly political and religious in nature.
Contemporary Tibetan art includes modern thangka (religious scroll paintings) that resemble ancient thangka, as well as radical, avant-garde, works.
Popular Contemporary Tibetan artists include Karma Phuntsok , Tibetan-Swiss painter Sonam Dolma Brauen and Jamyang Dorjee Chakrishar.
R-13 (missile)
The R-13 was a submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM) developed by the Soviet Union starting around 1955.
It was assigned the NATO reporting name SS-N-4 Sark and carried the GRAU index 4K50.
Development of the R-13 was authorised by the Soviet Supreme Council on 25 July 1955 for use on the Project 629 and Project 658 submarines.
The design work was started by OKB-1 under Sergei Korolev before being transferred to CB Miasskoe engineering / Makeyev Rocket Design Bureau (chief designer - Viktor Makeyev).
Final technical specifications was approved by 11 January 1956.
Serial production was undertaken at Zlatoust Machine-Building Plant in 1959.
The R-13 was a single-stage liquid-fuel rocket and entered service in 1961.
This missile was somewhat similar in design to the R-11FM missile, which caused some confusion in Western intelligence services during the Cold War.
The missiles were phased out from 1965 to 1975.
This missile was the first Soviet design to use a small set of rocket engines (vernier thrusters) to perform course and trajectory alterations instead of aerodynamic control surfaces, although a set of four stabilizers were used to keep the missile on-course during initial flight.
During initial testing before the missiles were deployed, 26 of 32 missiles (81%) were successfully launched.
While the systems were deployed from 1961 to 1975, 225 of 311 launches (72%) were successful.
St. Marys River (Maryland)
The St. Marys River (sometimes spelled St. Mary's River) is a river in southern Maryland in the United States.
It rises in southern St. Mary's County, and flows to the southeast through Great Mills, widening into a tidal estuary near St. Mary's City, approximately wide at its mouth on the north bank of the Potomac River, near the Chesapeake Bay to the east.
Offshoring
Offshoring is the relocation of a business process from one country to another—typically an operational process, such as manufacturing, or supporting processes, such as accounting.
Typically this refers to a company business, although state governments may also employ offshoring.
More recently, technical and administrative services have been offshored.
Offshoring and outsourcing are not mutually inclusive: there can be one without the other.
They can be intertwined (Offshore outsourcing), and can be individually or jointly, partially or completely reversed, involving terms such as reshoring,
inshoring, and insourcing.
Offshoring is when the offshored work is done by means of an internal (captive) delivery model., sometimes referred to as "in-house offshore."
Imported services from subsidiaries or other closely related suppliers are included, whereas intermediate goods, such as partially completed
cars or computers, may not be.
Lower cost and increased corporate profitability are often the motivation; economists call this labor arbitrage.
More recently, offshoring drivers also include access to qualified personnel abroad, in particular in technical professions, and increasing speed to market.
Jobs are added in the destination country providing the goods or services and are subtracted from the higher-cost labor country.
The increased safety net costs of the unemployed may be absorbed by the government (taxpayers) in the high-cost country or by the company doing the offshoring.
Europe experienced less offshoring than the United States due to policies that applied more costs to corporations and cultural barriers.
After its accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001, the People's Republic of China emerged as a prominent destination for production offshoring.
Another focus area has been the software industry as part of global software development and developing global information systems.
After technical progress in telecommunications improved the possibilities of trade in services, India became one prominent destination for such offshoring, though many parts of the world are now emerging as offshore destinations.
Offshoring is defined as the movement of a business process done at a company in one country to the same company in another country.
It is not the same as outsourcing, which is the movement of internal business processes to an external organizational unit.
This is done under restrictions and strategies in order to establish consistency with the offshore outsourcing organizations.
Many companies nowadays outsource various professional areas in the company such as e-mail services, payroll and call center.
These jobs are being handled by other organizations that specialize in each sector allowing the offshoring company to focus more on other business concerns.
Subcontracting in the same country would be outsourcing, but not offshoring.
A company moving an internal business unit from one country to another would be offshoring or physical restructuring, but not outsourcing.
A company subcontracting a business unit to a different company in another country would be both outsourcing and offshoring: Offshore outsourcing.
Related terms include
Offshoring can be seen in the context of either production offshoring or services offshoring, and refers to substitution of a service from any company-owned foreign source for one formerly produced in the company's home country, whether or not outsourcing is involved.
Production offshoring, also known as physical restructuring, of established products involves relocation of physical manufacturing processes overseas, usually to a lower-cost destination or one with fewer regulatory restrictions.
Physical restructuring arrived when the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) made it easier for manufacturers to shift production facilities from the US to Mexico.
This trend later shifted to China, which offered cheap prices through very low wage rates, few workers' rights laws, a fixed currency pegged to the US dollar, (currently fixed to a basket of economies) cheap loans, cheap land, and factories for new companies, few environmental regulations, and huge economies of scale based on cities with populations over a million workers dedicated to producing a single kind of product.
However, many companies are reluctant to move high value-added production of leading-edge products to China because of lax enforcement of intellectual property laws.
Growth of offshoring of IT-enabled services, both to subsidiaries and to outside companies (offshore outsourcing) is linked to the availability of large amounts of reliable and affordable communication infrastructure following the telecommunication and Internet expansion of the late 1990s.
Much of the job movement, however, was to outside companies - offshore outsourcing.
"Re-shoring", also known as "backshoring" or "inshoring" is offshoring that has been brought back onshore.
John Urry (distinguished professor of sociology at Lancaster University) argues that the concealment of income, the avoidance of taxation and eluding legislation relating to work, finance, pleasure, waste, energy and security may be becoming a serious concern for democratic governments and ordinary citizens who may be adversely affected by unregulated, offshore activities.
Further, the rising costs of transportation could lead to production nearer the point of consumption becoming more economically viable, particularly as new technologies such as additive manufacturing mature
Reshoring (also known as onshoring, inshoring and backshoring) is the act of reintroducing domestic manufacturing to a country.
It is the reverse process of offshoring, where manufacturing is moved to another country where labor is cheaper.
The World Bank's 2019 World Development Report on the future of work considers the potential for automation to drive companies to reshore production, reducing the role of labor in the process, and offers suggestions as to how governments can respond.
A similar movement can be seen related to Robotic Process Automation, called RPA or RPAAI for self-guided RPA 2.0 based on artificial intelligence, where the incentive to move repetitive shared services work to lower cost countries is partially taken away by the progression of technology.
For the last twenty years, American companies have been "offshoring" and outsourcing manufacturing to low cost countries such as China, Malaysia and Vietnam.
President Obama 2011 SelectUSA program was the first federal program to promote and facilitate U.S. investment in partnership with our states.
This program and website helps companies connect with resources available on a Federal, State and local level.
In January 2012, President Obama Issued a Call to Action to Invest in America at the White House "Insourcing American Jobs" Forum.
Advances in 3D printing technologies brought manufacturers closer to their customers.
There have been several very successful stories of companies.
In most cases hundreds if not thousands of jobs were created or reinstated.
In the case of Starbucks, in 2012 it saved American Mug and Stein Company in East Liverpool, Ohio from bankruptcy.
There have been some cases of reshoring that weren't successful.
Otis Elevators’ reshoring effort did not go well.
Otis says it failed to consider the consequences of the new location and tried to do too much at once, including a supply-chain software implementation.
This is not an uncommon reshoring scenario.
Bringing manufacturing back to the United States isn't so simple, and there are a lot of considerations and analyses that companies must do to determine the costs and feasibility of reshoring.
Some companies pursue reshoring with their own internal staff.
But reshoring projects are complicated and involve engineering, marketing, production, finance, and procurement.
In addition, there are real estate concerns, government incentives and training requirements that require outreach to the community.
To help with these projects, companies often turn to consultants that specialize in Reshoring.
In the United Kingdom, companies have used the reintroduction of domestic call centres as a unique selling point.