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As faculties of the soul, Aristotle enumerates the faculty of reproduction and nutrition; of sensation, memory and recollection; the faculty of reason, or understanding; and the faculty of desiring, which is divided into appetition and volition.
By the use of "reason" conceptions, which are formed in the soul by external sense-impressions, and may be true or false, are converted into knowledge.
For reason alone can attain to truth either in understanding or action.
The best and highest goal is the happiness which originates from virtuous actions.
Aristotle did not, with Plato, regard virtue as knowledge pure and simple, but as founded on nature, habit, and reason.
Virtue consists in acting according to nature: that is, keeping the mean between the two extremes of the too much and the too little.
Thus valor, in his view the first of virtues, is a mean between cowardice and recklessness; temperance is the mean in respect to sensual enjoyments and the total avoidance of them.
The names of the first seven or eight scholarchs (leaders) of the Peripatetic school are known with varying levels of certainty.
A list of names with the approximate dates they headed the school is as follows (all dates BC):
There are some uncertainties in this list.
It is not certain whether Aristo of Ceos was the head of the school, but since he was a close pupil of Lyco and the most important Peripatetic philosopher in the time when he lived, it is generally assumed that he was.
It is not known if Critolaus directly succeeded Aristo, or if there were any leaders between them.
Erymneus is known only from a passing reference by Athenaeus.
Other important Peripatetic philosophers who lived during these centuries include Eudemus of Rhodes, Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, and Clearchus of Soli.
Sometime shortly after the death of Alexander the Great in June 323 BC, Aristotle left Athens to avoid persecution by anti-Macedonian factions in Athens, due to his ties to Macedonia.
After Aristotle's death in 322 BC, his colleague Theophrastus succeeded him as head of the school.
The most prominent member of the school after Theophrastus was Strato of Lampsacus, who increased the naturalistic elements of Aristotle's philosophy and embraced a form of atheism.
After the time of Strato, the Peripatetic school fell into a decline.
Lyco was famous more for his oratory than his philosophical skills, and Aristo is perhaps best known for his biographical studies; although Critolaus was more philosophically active, none of the Peripatetic philosophers in this period seem to have contributed anything original to philosophy.
The reasons for the decline of the Peripatetic school are unclear.
Undoubtedly, Stoicism and Epicureanism provided many answers for those people looking for dogmatic and comprehensive philosophical systems, and the scepticism of the Middle Academy may have seemed preferable to anyone who rejected dogmatism.
Later tradition linked the school's decline to Neleus of Scepsis and his descendants hiding the works of Aristotle and Theophrastus in a cellar until their rediscovery in the 1st century BC, and even though this story may be doubted, it is possible that Aristotle's works were not widely read.
In 86 BC, Athens was sacked by the Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla; all the schools of philosophy in Athens were badly disrupted, and the Lyceum ceased to exist as a functioning institution.
Ironically, this event seems to have brought new life to the Peripatetic school.
Sulla brought the writings of Aristotle and Theophrastus back to Rome, where they became the basis of a new collection of Aristotle's writings compiled by Andronicus of Rhodes which forms the basis of the "Corpus Aristotelicum" which exists today.
Later Neoplatonist writers describe Andronicus, who lived around 50 BC, as the eleventh scholarch of the Peripatetic school, which would imply that he had two unnamed predecessors.
There is considerable uncertainty over the issue, and Andronicus' pupil Boethus of Sidon is also described as the eleventh scholarch.
It is quite possible that Andronicus set up a new school where he taught Boethus.
Whereas the earlier Peripatetics had sought to extend and develop Aristotle's works, from the time of Andronicus the school concentrated on preserving and defending his work.
The most important figure in the Roman era is Alexander of Aphrodisias (c. 200 AD) who wrote commentaries on Aristotle's writings.
With the rise of Neoplatonism (and Christianity) in the 3rd century, Peripateticism as an independent philosophy came to an end, but the Neoplatonists sought to incorporate Aristotle's philosophy within their own system, and produced many commentaries on Aristotle's works.
In the 5th century, Olympiodorus the Elder is sometimes described as a Peripatetic.
The last philosophers in classical antiquity to comment on Aristotle were Simplicius and Boethius in the 6th century AD.
After this, although his works were mostly lost to the west, they were maintained in the east where they were incorporated into early Islamic philosophy.
Some of the greatest Peripatetic philosophers in the Islamic philosophical tradition were Al-Kindi (Alkindus), Al-Farabi (Alpharabius), Avicenna (Ibn Sina) and Averroes (Ibn Rushd).
By the 12th century, Aristotle's works began being translated into Latin during the Latin translations of the 12th century, and gradually arose Scholastic philosophy under such names as Thomas Aquinas, which took its tone and complexion from the writings of Aristotle, the commentaries of Averroes, and "The Book of Healing" of Avicenna.
William Froude
William Froude (; 28 November 1810 in Devon – 4 May 1879 in Simonstown, South Africa) was an English engineer, hydrodynamicist and naval architect.
He was the first to formulate reliable laws for the resistance that water offers to ships (such as the hull speed equation) and for predicting their stability.
Froude was born at Dartington, Devon, England, the son of Robert Froude, Archdeacon of Totnes and was educated at Westminster School and Oriel College, Oxford, graduating with a first in mathematics in 1832.
His first employment was as a surveyor on the South Eastern Railway which, in 1837, led to Brunel giving him responsibility for the construction of a section of the Bristol and Exeter Railway.
It was here that he developed his empirical method of setting out track transition curves and introduced an
alternative design to the helicoidal skew arch bridge at Rewe and Cowley Bridge Junction, near Exeter.
During this period he lived in Cullompton and was Vicar's Warden at St Andrew's Church from 1842 to 1844.
He organised, and paid a large amount to the rebuilding of the chancel and other restoration work.
He also offered to pay to restore the nave if local people would pay 10% of the cost but this offer was refused.
On completion of the Bristol to Exeter line in 1844 he left the town.
At Brunel's invitation Froude turned his attention to the stability of ships in a seaway and his 1861 paper to the Institution of Naval Architects became influential in ship design.
This led to a commission to identify the most efficient hull shape, which he was able to fulfil by reference to scale models: he established a formula (now known as the Froude number) by which the results of small-scale tests could be used to predict the behaviour of full-sized hulls.
He built a sequence of 3, 6 and (shown in the picture) 12 foot scale models and used them in towing trials to establish resistance and scaling laws; "Raven" sharp prow followed the "waveline" theory of John Scott Russell, but "Swan" blunter profile proved to offer lower resistance.
His experiments were vindicated in full-scale trials conducted by the Admiralty and as a result the first ship test tank was built, at public expense, at his home in Torquay.
Here he was able to combine mathematical expertise with practical experimentation to such good effect that his methods are still followed today.
In 1877, he was commissioned by the Admiralty to produce a machine capable of absorbing and measuring the power of large naval engines.
He invented and built the world's first water brake dynamometer, sometimes known as the hydraulic dynamometer, which led to the formation of Heenan & Froude Ltd in Birmingham.
While on holiday as an official guest of the Royal Navy he died in Simonstown, South Africa, where he was buried with full naval honours.
He was the brother of James Anthony Froude, a historian, and Hurrell Froude, writer and priest.
William was married to Catherine Henrietta Elizabeth Holdsworth, daughter of the Governor of Dartmouth Castle, mercantile magnate and member of Parliament Arthur Howe Holdsworth.
Miwok
The Miwok (also spelled Miwuk, Mi-Wuk, or Me-Wuk) are members of four linguistically related Native American groups indigenous to what is now Northern California, who traditionally spoke one of the Miwok languages in the Utian family.
The word "Miwok" means "people" in the Miwok language.
Anthropologists commonly divide the Miwok into four geographically and culturally diverse ethnic subgroups.
These distinctions were not used among the Miwok before European contact.
The United States Bureau of Indian Affairs officially recognizes eleven tribes of Miwok descent in California.
They are as follows:
The predominant theory regarding the settlement of the Americas date the original migrations from Asia to around 20,000 years ago across the Bering Strait land bridge, but one anthropologist claims that the Miwok and some other northern California tribes descend from Siberians who arrived in California by sea around 3,000 years ago.
The Miwok lived in small bands without centralized political authority before contact with European Americans in 1769.
They had domesticated dogs and cultivated tobacco, but were otherwise hunter-gatherers.
The Sierra Miwok harvested acorns from the California Black Oak.
In fact, the modern-day extent of the California Black Oak forests in some areas of Yosemite National Park is partially due to cultivation by Miwok tribes.
They burned understory vegetation to reduce the fraction of Ponderosa Pine.
Nearly every other kind of edible vegetable matter was used as a food source, including bulbs, seeds, and fungi.
Animals were hunted with arrows, clubs or snares, depending on the species and the situation.
Grasshoppers were a highly prized food source, as were mussels for those groups adjacent to the Stanislaus River.
The Miwok ate meals according to appetite rather than at regular times.
They stored food for later consumption, primarily in flat-bottomed baskets.
Miwok mythology and narratives tend to be similar to those of other natives of Northern California.
Miwok had totem animals, identified with one of two moieties, which were in turn associated respectively with land and water.
These totem animals were not thought of as literal ancestors of humans, but rather as predecessors.
Miwok people played gender mixed games on a 110-yard playing field called poscoi a we’a.
A unique game was played with young men and women.
Similarly to soccer, the object was to put an elk hide ball through the goalpost.
The girls were allowed to do anything, including kicking the ball and picking it up and running with it.
The boys were only allowed to use their feet, but if a girl was holding it he could pick her up and carry her towards his goal.
In 1770, there were an estimated 500 Lake Miwok, 1,500 Coast Miwok, and 9,000 Plains and Sierra Miwok, totaling about 11,000 people, according to historian Alfred L. Kroeber, although this may be a serious undercount; for example, he did not identify the Bay Miwok.
The 1910 Census reported only 671 Miwok total, and the 1930 Census, 491.
See history of each Miwok group for more information.
Today there are about 3,500 Miwok in total.
The "Star Wars" films feature a fictional species of forest-dwelling creatures known as Ewoks, who are ostensibly named after the Miwok.
However, the historical Northern-California footprint of the Miwok people (where George Lucas's home and corporate headquarters were located) may have caused the Ewoks' name to be retconned to enhance the marketability of the 1983 film.
The Miwok people are encountered in Kim Stanley Robinson's book, "The Years of Rice and Salt".
In an alternate history scenario depicted in the book they are the first group of Native Americans encountered by the first Chinese to discover the continent.
Coast Miwok
The Coast Miwok are an indigenous people that was the second largest group of Miwok people.
The Coast Miwok inhabited the general area of modern Marin County and southern Sonoma County in Northern California, from the Golden Gate north to Duncans Point and eastward to Sonoma Creek.
The Coast Miwok included the Bodega Bay Miwok, from authenticated Miwok villages around Bodega Bay, and the Marin Miwok.
The Coast Miwok spoke their own Coast Miwok language in the Utian linguistic group.
They lived by hunting and gathering, and lived in small bands without centralized political authority.
In the springtime they would head to the coasts to hunt salmon and other seafood, including seaweed.
Otherwise their staple foods were primarily acorns—particularly from black and tan oak–nuts and wild game, such as deer and cottontail rabbits and black-tailed deer, "Odocoileus hemionus columbianus", a coastal subspecies of the California mule deer, "Odocoileus hemionus".
When hunting deer, Miwok hunters traditionally used Brewer's angelica, "Angelica breweri" to eliminate their own scent.