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Learning Objectives
1. Describe and identify three styles of writing.
2. Demonstrate the appropriate use of colloquial, casual, and formal writing in at least one document of each style.
One way to examine written communication is from a structural perspective. Words are a series of symbols that communicate meaning, strung together in specific patterns that are combined to communicate complex and compound meanings. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, and articles are the building blocks you will use when composing written documents. Misspellings of individual words or grammatical errors involving misplacement or incorrect word choices in a sentence, can create confusion, lose meaning, and have a negative impact on the reception of your document. Errors themselves are not inherently bad, but failure to recognize and fix them will reflect on you, your company, and limit your success. Self-correction is part of the writing process.
Another way to examine written communication is from a goals perspective, where specific documents address stated (or unstated) goals and have rules, customs, and formats that are anticipated and expected. Violations of these rules, customs, or formats—whether intentional or unintentional—can also have a negative impact on the way your document is received.
Colloquial, casual, and formal writing are three common styles that carry their own particular sets of expectations. Which style you use will depend on your audience, and often whether your communication is going to be read only by those in your company (internal communications) or by those outside the organization, such as vendors, customers or clients (external communications). As a general rule, external communications tend to be more formal, just as corporate letterhead and business cards—designed for presentation to the “outside world”—are more formal than the e-mail and text messages that are used for everyday writing within the organization.
Style also depends on the purpose of the document and its audience. If your writing assignment is for Web page content, clear and concise use of the written word is essential. If your writing assignment is a feature interest article for an online magazine, you may have the luxury of additional space and word count combined with graphics, pictures, embedded video or audio clips, and links to related topics. If your writing assignment involves an introductory letter represented on a printed page delivered in an envelope to a potential customer, you won’t have the interactivity to enhance your writing, placing an additional burden on your writing and how you represent it.
Colloquial
Colloquial language is an informal, conversational style of writing. It differs from standard business English in that it often makes use of colorful expressions, slang, and regional phrases. As a result, it can be difficult to understand for an English learner or a person from a different region of the country. Sometimes colloquialism takes the form of a word difference; for example, the difference between a “Coke,” a “tonic,” a “pop, and a “soda pop” primarily depends on where you live. It can also take the form of a saying, as Roy Wilder Jr. discusses in his book You All Spoken Here: Southern Talk at Its Down-Home Best (Wilde, 2003). Colloquial sayings like “He could mess up a rainstorm” or “He couldn’t hit the ground if he fell” communicate the person is inept in a colorful, but not universal way. In the Pacific Northwest someone might “mosey,” or walk slowly, over to the “café,” or bakery, to pick up a “maple bar”—a confection known as a “Long John doughnut” to people in other parts of the United States.
Colloquial language can be reflected in texting:
“ok fwiw i did my part n put it in where you asked but my ? is if the group does not participate do i still get credit for my part of what i did n also how much do we all have to do i mean i put in my opinion of the items in order do i also have to reply to the other team members or what? Thxs”
We may be able to grasp the meaning of the message, and understand some of the abbreviations and codes, but when it comes to business, this style of colloquial text writing is generally suitable only for one-on-one internal communications between coworkers who know each other well (and those who do not judge each other on spelling or grammar). For external communications, and even for group communications within the organization, it is not normally suitable, as some of the codes are not standard, and may even be unfamiliar to the larger audience.
Colloquial writing may be permissible, and even preferable, in some business contexts. For example, a marketing letter describing a folksy product such as a wood stove or an old-fashioned popcorn popper might use a colloquial style to create a feeling of relaxing at home with loved ones. Still, it is important to consider how colloquial language will appear to the audience. Will the meaning of your chosen words be clear to a reader who is from a different part of the country? Will a folksy tone sound like you are “talking down” to your audience, assuming that they are not intelligent or educated enough to appreciate standard English? A final point to remember is that colloquial style is not an excuse for using expressions that are sexist, racist, profane, or otherwise offensive.
Casual
Casual language involves everyday words and expressions in a familiar group context, such as conversations with family or close friends. The emphasis is on the communication interaction itself, and less about the hierarchy, power, control, or social rank of the individuals communicating. When you are at home, at times you probably dress in casual clothing that you wouldn’t wear in public—pajamas or underwear, for example. Casual communication is the written equivalent of this kind of casual attire. Have you ever had a family member say something to you that a stranger or coworker would never say? Or have you said something to a family member that you would never say in front of your boss? In both cases, casual language is being used. When you write for business, a casual style is usually out of place. Instead, a respectful, professional tone represents you well in your absence.
Formal
In business writing, the appropriate style will have a degree of formality. Formal language is communication that focuses on professional expression with attention to roles, protocol, and appearance. It is characterized by its vocabulary and syntax, or the grammatical arrangement of words in a sentence. That is, writers using a formal style tend to use a more sophisticated vocabulary—a greater variety of words, and more words with multiple syllables—not for the purpose of throwing big words around, but to enhance the formal mood of the document. They also tend to use more complex syntax, resulting in sentences that are longer and contain more subordinate clauses.
The appropriate style for a particular business document may be very formal, or less so. If your supervisor writes you an e-mail and you reply, the exchange may be informal in that it is fluid and relaxed, without much forethought or fanfare, but it will still reflect the formality of the business environment. Chances are you will be careful to use an informative subject line, a salutation (“Hi [supervisor’s name]” is typical in e-mails), a word of thanks for whatever information or suggestion she provided you, and an indication that you stand ready to help further if need be. You will probably also check your grammar and spelling before you click “send.”
A formal document such as a proposal or an annual report will involve a great deal of planning and preparation, and its style may not be fluid or relaxed. Instead, it may use distinct language to emphasize the prestige and professionalism of your company. Let’s say you are going to write a marketing letter that will be printed on company letterhead and mailed to a hundred sales prospects. Naturally you want to represent your company in a positive light. In a letter of this nature you might write a sentence like “The Widget 300 is our premium offering in the line; we have designed it for ease of movement and efficiency of use, with your success foremost in our mind.” But in an e-mail or a tweet, you might use an informal sentence instead, reading “W300—good stapler.”
Writing for business often involves choosing the appropriate level of formality for the company and industry, the particular document and situation, and the audience.
Key Takeaway
The best style for a document may be colloquial, casual, informal, or formal, depending on the audience and the situation.
Exercises
1. Refer back to the e-mail or text message example in this section. Would you send that message to your professor? Why or why not? What normative expectations concerning professor-student communication are there and where did you learn them? Discuss your thoughts with your classmates.
2. Select a business document and describe its style. Is it formal, informal, or colloquial? Can you rewrite it in a different style? Share your results with a classmate.
3. List three words or phrases that you would say to your friends. List three words or phrases that communicate similar meanings that you would say to an authority figure. Share and compare with classmates.
4. When is it appropriate to write in a casual tone? In a formal tone? Write a one- to two-page essay on this topic and discuss it with a classmate.
5. How does the intended audience influence the choice of words and use of language in a document? Think of a specific topic and two specific kinds of audiences. Then write a short example (250–500 words) of how this topic might be presented to each of the two audiences. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_English_for_Success/09%3A_Effective_Business_Writing/9.04%3A_Style_in_Written_Communication.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Understand the rules that govern written language.
2. Understand the legal implications of business writing.
You may not recall when or where you learned all about nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, articles, and phrases, but if you understand this sentence we’ll take for granted that you have a firm grasp of the basics. But even professional writers and editors, who have spent a lifetime navigating the ins and outs of crafting correct sentences, have to use reference books to look up answers to questions of grammar and usage that arise in the course of their work. Let’s examine how the simple collection of symbols called a word can be such a puzzle.
Words Are Inherently Abstract
There is no universally accepted definition for love, there are many ways to describe desire, and there are countless ways to draw patience. Each of these terms is a noun, but it’s an abstract noun, referring to an intangible concept.
While there are many ways to define a chair, describe a table, or draw a window, they each have a few common characteristics. A chair may be made from wood, crafted in a Mission style, or made from plastic resin in one solid piece in nondescript style, but each has four legs and serves a common function. A table and a window also have common characteristics that in themselves form a basis for understanding between source and receiver. The words “chair,” “table,” and “window” are concrete terms, as they describe something we can see and touch.
Concrete terms are often easier to agree on, understand, or at least define the common characteristics of. Abstract terms can easily become even more abstract with extended discussions, and the conversational partners may never agree on a common definition or even a range of understanding.
In business communication, where the goal is to be clear and concise, limiting the range of misinterpretation, which type of word do you think is preferred? Concrete terms serve to clarify your writing and more accurately communicate your intended meaning to the receiver. While all words are abstractions, some are more so than others. To promote effective communication, choose words that can be easily referenced and understood.
Words Are Governed by Rules
Perhaps you like to think of yourself as a free spirit, but did you know that all your communication is governed by rules? You weren’t born knowing how to talk, but learned to form words and sentences as you developed from infancy. As you learned language, you learned rules. You learned not only what a word means in a given context, and how to pronounce it; you also learned the social protocol of when to use it and when not to. When you write, your words represent you in your absence. The context may change from reader to reader, and your goal as an effective business communicator is to get your message across (and some feedback) regardless of the situation.
The better you know your audience and context, the better you can anticipate and incorporate the rules of how, what, and when to use specific words and terms. And here lies a paradox. You may think that, ideally, the best writing is writing that is universally appealing and understood. Yet the more you design a specific message to a specific audience or context, the less universal the message becomes. Actually, this is neither a good or bad thing in itself. In fact, if you didn’t target your messages, they wouldn’t be nearly as effective. By understanding this relationship of a universal or specific appeal to an audience or context, you can look beyond vocabulary and syntax and focus on the reader. When considering a communication assignment like a sales letter, knowing the intended audience gives you insight to the explicit and implicit rules.
All words are governed by rules, and the rules are vastly different from one language and culture to another. A famous example is the decision by Chevrolet to give the name “Nova” to one of its cars. In English, nova is recognized as coming from Latin meaning “new”; for those who have studied astronomy, it also refers to a type of star. When the Chevy Nova was introduced in Latin America, however, it was immediately ridiculed as the “car that doesn’t go.” Why? Because “no va” literally means “doesn’t go” in Spanish.
By investigating sample names in a range of markets, you can quickly learn the rules surrounding words and their multiple meaning, much as you learned about subjects and objects, verbs and nouns, adjectives and adverbs when you were learning language. Long before you knew formal grammar terms, you observed how others communicate and learned by trial and error. In business, error equals inefficiency, loss of resources, and is to be avoided. For Chevrolet, a little market research in Latin America would have gone a long way.
Words Shape Our Reality
Aristotle is famous for many things, including his questioning of whether the table you can see, feel, or use is real (Aristotle, 1941). This may strike you as strange, but imagine that we are looking at a collection of antique hand tools. What are they? They are made of metal and wood, but what are they used for? The words we use help us to make sense of our reality, and we often use what we know to figure out what we don’t know. Perhaps we have a hard time describing the color of the tool, or the table, as we walk around it. The light itself may influence our perception of its color. We may lack the vocabulary to accurately describe to the color, and instead say it is “like a” color, but not directly describe the color itself (Russell, 1962). The color, or use of the tool, or style of the table are all independent of the person perceiving them, but also a reflection of the person perceiving the object.
In business communication, our goal of clear and concise communication involves anticipation of this inability to label a color or describe the function of an antique tool by constructing meaning. Anticipating the language that the reader may reasonably be expected to know, as well as unfamiliar terms, enables the writer to communicate in a way that describes with common reference points while illustrating the new, interesting, or unusual. Promoting understanding and limiting misinterpretations are key goals of the effective business communicator.
Your letter introducing a new product or service relies, to an extent, on your preconceived notions of the intended audience and their preconceived notions of your organization and its products or services. By referencing common ground, you form a connection between the known and the unknown, the familiar and the new. People are more likely to be open to a new product or service if they can reasonably relate it to one they are familiar with, or with which they have had good experience in the past. Your initial measure of success is effective communication, and your long term success may be measured in the sale or new contract for services.
Your writing in a business context means that you represent yourself and your company. What you write and how you write it can be part of your company’s success, but can also expose it to unintended consequences and legal responsibility. When you write, keep in mind that your words will keep on existing long after you have moved on to other projects. They can become an issue if they exaggerate, state false claims, or defame a person or legal entity such as a competing company. Another issue is plagiarism, using someone else’s writing without giving credit to the source. Whether the “cribbed” material is taken from a printed book, a Web site, or a blog, plagiarism is a violation of copyright law and may also violate your company policies. Industry standards often have legal aspects that must be respected and cannot be ignored. For the writer this can be a challenge, but it can be a fun challenge with rewarding results.
The rapid pace of technology means that the law cannot always stay current with the realities of business communication. Computers had been in use for more than twenty years before Congress passed the Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998, the first federal legislation to “move the nation’s copyright law into the digital age” (United States Copyright Office, 1998). Think for a moment about the changes in computer use that have taken place since 1998, and you will realize how many new laws are needed to clarify what is fair and ethical, what should be prohibited, and who owns the rights to what.
For example, suppose your supervisor asks you to use your Facebook page or Twitter account to give an occasional “plug” to your company’s products. Are you obligated to comply? If you later change jobs, who owns your posts or tweets—are they yours, or does your now-former employer have a right to them? And what about your network of “friends”? Can your employer use their contact information to send marketing messages? These and many other questions remain to be answered as technology, industry practices, and legislation evolve (Tahmincioglu, 2009).
“Our product is better than X company’s product. Their product is dangerous and you would be a wise customer to choose us for your product solutions.”
What’s wrong with these two sentences? They may land you and your company in court. You made a generalized claim of one product being better than another, and you stated it as if it were a fact. The next sentence claims that your competitor’s product is dangerous. Even if this is true, your ability to prove your claim beyond a reasonable doubt may be limited. Your claim is stated as fact again, and from the other company’s perspective, your sentences may be considered libel or defamation.
Libel is the written form of defamation, or a false statement that damages a reputation. If a false statement of fact that concerns and harms the person defamed is published—including publication in a digital or online environment—the author of that statement may be sued for libel. If the person defamed is a public figure, they must prove malice or the intention to do harm, but if the victim is a private person, libel applies even if the offense cannot be proven to be malicious. Under the First Amendment you have a right to express your opinion, but the words you use and how you use them, including the context, are relevant to their interpretation as opinion versus fact. Always be careful to qualify what you write and to do no harm.
Key Takeaway
Words are governed by rules and shape our reality. Writers have a legal responsibility to avoid plagiarism and libel.
Exercises
1. Define the word “chair.” Describe what a table is. Draw a window. Share, compare, and contrast results with classmates
2. Define love. Describe desire. Draw patience.
3. Identify a target audience and indicate at least three words that you perceive would be appropriate and effective for that audience. Identify a second audience (distinct from the first) and indicate three words that you perceive would be appropriate and effective. How are the audiences and their words similar or different? Compare your results with those of your classmates.
4. Create a sales letter for an audience that comes from a culture other than your own. Identify the culture and articulate how your message is tailored to your perception of your intended audience. Share and compare with classmates.
5. Do an online search on “online libel cases” and see what you find. Discuss your results with your classmates.
6. In other examples beyond the grammar rules that guide our use of words, consider the online environment. Conduct a search on the word “netiquette” and share your findings. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_English_for_Success/09%3A_Effective_Business_Writing/9.05%3A_Principles_of_Written_Communication.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Describe some common barriers to written communication and how to overcome them.
In almost any career or area of business, written communication is a key to success. Effective writing can prevent wasted time, wasted effort, aggravation, and frustration. The way we communicate with others both inside of our business and on the outside goes a long way toward shaping the organization’s image. If people feel they are listened to and able to get answers from the firm and its representatives, their opinion will be favorable. Skillful writing and an understanding of how people respond to words are central to accomplishing this goal.
How do we display skillful writing and a good understanding of how people respond to words? Following are some suggestions.
Do Sweat the Small Stuff
Let us begin with a college student’s e-mail to a professor:
“i am confused as to why they are not due intil 11/10 i mean the calender said that they was due then so thats i did them do i still get credit for them or do i need to due them over on one tape? please let me know thanks. also when are you grading the stuff that we have done?”
What’s wrong with this e-mail? What do you observe that may act as a barrier to communication? Let’s start with the lack of formality, including the fact that the student neglected to tell the professor his or her name, or which specific class the question referred to. Then there is the lack of adherence to basic vocabulary and syntax rules. And how about the lower case “i’s” and the misspellings?
One significant barrier to effective written communication is failure to sweat the small stuff. Spelling errors and incorrect grammar may be considered details, but they reflect poorly on you and, in a business context, on your company. They imply either that you are not educated enough to know you’ve made mistakes or that you are too careless to bother correcting them. Making errors is human, but making a habit of producing error-filled written documents makes negative consequences far more likely to occur. When you write, you have a responsibility to self-edit and pay attention to detail. In the long run, correcting your mistakes before others see them will take less time and effort than trying to make up for mistakes after the fact.
Get the Target Meaning
How would you interpret this message?
“You must not let inventory build up. You must monitor carrying costs and keep them under control. Ship any job lots of more than 25 to us at once.”
Bypassing involves the misunderstanding that occurs when the receiver completely misses the source’s intended meaning. Words mean different things to different people in different contexts. All that difference allows for both source and receiver to completely miss one another’s intended goal.
Did you understand the message in the example? Let’s find out. Jerry Sullivan, in his article Bypassing in Managerial Communication (Sullivan, Kameda, & Nobu, 1991), relates the story of Mr. Sato, a manager from Japan who is new to the United States. The message came from his superiors at Kumitomo America, a firm involved with printing machinery for the publishing business in Japan. Mr. Sato delegated the instructions (in English as shown above) to Ms. Brady, who quickly identified there were three lots in excess of twenty-five and arranged for prompt shipment.
Six weeks later Mr. Sato received a second message:
“Why didn’t you do what we told you? Your quarterly inventory report indicates you are carrying 40 lots which you were supposed to ship to Japan. You must not violate our instructions.”
What’s the problem? As Sullivan relates, it is an example of one word, or set of words, having more than one meaning (Sullivan, Kameda, & Nobu, 1991). According to Sullivan, in Japanese “more than x” includes the reference number twenty-five. In other words, Kumitomo wanted all lots with twenty-five or more to be shipped to Japan. Forty lots fit that description. Ms. Brady interpreted the words as written, but the cultural context had a direct impact on the meaning and outcome.
You might want to defend Ms. Brady and understand the interpretation, but the lesson remains clear. Moreover, cultural expectations differ not only internationally, but also on many different dimensions from regional to interpersonal.
Someone raised in a rural environment in the Pacific Northwest may have a very different interpretation of meaning from someone from New York City. Take, for example, the word “downtown.” To the rural resident, downtown refers to the center or urban area of any big city. To a New Yorker, however, downtown may be a direction, not a place. One can go uptown or downtown, but when asked, “Where are you from?” the answer may refer to a borough (“I grew up in Manhattan”) or a neighborhood (“I’m from the East Village”).
This example involves two individuals who differ by geography, but we can further subdivide between people raised in the same state from two regions, two people of the opposite sex, or two people from different generations. The combinations are endless, as are the possibilities for bypassing. While you might think you understand, requesting feedback and asking for confirmation and clarification can help ensure that you get the target meaning.
Sullivan also notes that in stressful situations we often think in terms of either/or relationships, failing to recognize the stress itself. This kind of thinking can contribute to source/receiver error. In business, he notes that managers often incorrectly assume communication is easier than it is, and fail to anticipate miscommunication (Sullivan, Kameda, & Nobu, 1991).
As writers, we need to keep in mind that words are simply a means of communication, and that meanings are in people, not the words themselves. Knowing which words your audience understands and anticipating how they will interpret them will help you prevent bypassing.
Consider the Nonverbal Aspects of Your Message
Let’s return to the example at the beginning of this section of an e-mail from a student to an instructor. As we noted, the student neglected to identify himself or herself and tell the instructor which class the question referred to. Format is important, including headers, contact information, and an informative subject line.
This is just one example of how the nonverbal aspects of a message can get in the way of understanding. Other nonverbal expressions in your writing may include symbols, design, font, and the timing of delivering your message.
Suppose your supervisor has asked you to write to a group of clients announcing a new service or product that directly relates to a service or product that these clients have used over the years. What kind of communication will your document be? Will it be sent as an e-mail or will it be a formal letter printed on quality paper and sent by postal mail? Or will it be a tweet, or a targeted online ad that pops up when these particular clients access your company’s Web site? Each of these choices involves an aspect of written communication that is nonverbal. While the words may communicate a formal tone, the font may not. The paper chosen to represent your company influences the perception of it. An e-mail may indicate that it is less than formal and be easily deleted.
As another example, suppose you are a small business owner and have hired a new worker named Bryan. You need to provide written documentation of asking Bryan to fill out a set of forms that are required by law. Should you send an e-mail to Bryan’s home the night before he starts work, welcoming him aboard and attaching links to IRS form W-4 and Homeland Security form I-9? Or should you wait until he has been at work for a couple of hours, then bring him the forms in hard copy along with a printed memo stating that he needs to fill them out? There are no right or wrong answers, but you will use your judgment, being aware that these nonverbal expressions are part of the message that gets communicated along with your words.
Review, Reflect, and Revise
Do you review what you write? Do you reflect on whether it serves its purpose? Where does it miss the mark? If you can recognize it, then you have the opportunity to revise.
Writers are often under deadlines, and that can mean a rush job where not every last detail is reviewed. This means more mistakes, and there is always time to do it right the second time. Rather than go through the experience of seeing all the mistakes in your “final” product and rushing off to the next job, you may need to focus more on the task at hand and get it done correctly the first time. Go over each step in detail as you review.
A mental review of the task and your performance is often called reflection. Reflection is not procrastination. It involves looking at the available information and, as you review the key points in your mind, making sure each detail is present and perfect. Reflection also allows for another opportunity to consider the key elements and their relationship to each other.
When you revise your document, you change one word for another, make subtle changes, and improve it. Don’t revise simply to change the good work you’ve completed, but instead look at it from the perspective of the reader—for example, how could this be clearer to them? What would make it visually attractive while continuing to communicate the message? If you are limited to words only, then does each word serve the article or letter? No extras, but just about right.
Key Takeaway
To overcome barriers to communication, pay attention to details; strive to understand the target meaning; consider your nonverbal expressions; and review, reflect, and revise.
Exercises
1. Review the example of a student’s e-mail to a professor in this section, and rewrite it to communicate the message more clearly.
2. Write a paragraph of 150–200 words on a subject of your choice. Experiment with different formats and fonts to display it and, if you wish, print it. Compare your results with those of your classmates.
3. How does the purpose of a document define its format and content? Think of a specific kind of document with a specific purpose and audience. Then create a format or template suitable to that document, purpose, and audience. Show your template to the class or post it on a class bulletin board.
4. Write one message of at least three sentences with at least three descriptive terms and present it to at least three people. Record notes about how they understand the message, and to what degree their interpretations are the same of different. Share and compare with classmates.
9.07: Additional Resources
Visit AllYouCanRead.com for a list of the top ten business magazines. http://www.allyoucanread.com/top-10-business-magazines
The Wall Street Executive Library presents a comprehensive menu of business Web sites, publications, and other resources. http://www.executivelibrary.com
The Web site 4hb.com (For Home Business) provides many sample business documents, as well as other resources for the small business owner. www.4hb.com/index.html
The Business Owner’s Toolkit provides sample documents in more than a dozen categories from finance to marketing to worker safety. www.toolkit.com/tools/index.aspx
Words mean different things to different people—especially when translated from one language to another. Visit this site for a list of car names “que no va” (that won’t go) in foreign languages. http://www.autoblog.com/2008/04/30/nissan-360-the-otti-and-the-moco
Visit “Questions and Quandaries,” the Writer’s Digest blog by Brian Klems, for a potpourri of information about writing. www.writersdigest.com/editor-blogs/questions-and-quandaries
Appearance counts. Read an article by communications expert Fran Lebo on enhancing the nonverbal aspects of your document. http://ezinearticles.com/?The-Second-Law-of-Business-Writing—Appearance-Counts&id=3039288
Visit this site to access the Sullivan article on bypassing in managerial communication. http://econpapers.repec.org/article/eeebushor/v_3a34_3ay_3a1991_3ai_3a1_3ap_3a71-80.htm | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_English_for_Success/09%3A_Effective_Business_Writing/9.06%3A_Overcoming_Barriers_to_Effective_Written_Communication.txt |
“How do I prepare myself for writing?” is a common question and one that has no single correct answer. When do you do your best work? Whatever your work or task may be, it doesn’t have to be writing. Some people work best in the morning, others only after their daily dose of coffee. Still others burn the midnight oil and work well late into the night while their colleagues lose their productive edge as the sun sets. “To thine own self be true,” is a great idea when you have the freedom to choose when you work, but increasingly our lives are governed by schedules and deadlines that we do not control. You may have a deadline that requires you to work late at night when you recognize that you are far more productive early in the morning. If you can, consider one important step to writing success: know when you are most productive. If you cannot choose your timing, then dedication and perseverance are required. The job must be completed and the show must go on. Your effort demonstrates self-control and forbearance (as opposed to impatience and procrastination) and implies professionalism.
• 10.1: Think, Then Write - Writing Preparation
There are several reasons why people fear writing, but there are also several strategies to reduce or eliminate those fears.
• 10.2: A Planning Checklist for Business Messages
Preparation for the writing process involves purpose, research and investigation, reading and analyzing, and adaptation. In the first section we consider how to determine the purpose of a document, and how that awareness guides the writer to effective product.
• 10.3: Research and Investigation - Getting Started
To make a writing project manageable, narrow your topic, focus on key points, plan your investigation for information, and stay organized as you go along.
• 10.4: Ethics, Plagiarism, and Reliable Sources
Unlike writing for personal or academic purposes, your business writing will help determine how well your performance is evaluated in your job. Whether you are writing for colleagues within your workplace or outside vendors or customers, you will want to build a solid, well-earned favorable reputation for yourself with your writing. Your goal is to maintain and enhance your credibility, and that of your organization, at all times.
• 10.5: Completing Your Research and Investigation
Once you become immersed in your sources, it can be easy to get carried away in the pursuit of information and lose sight of why you are doing all this research and investigation. As a responsible writer, you will need to plan not only how you will begin your information gathering, but also how you will bring it to a conclusion.
• 10.6: Reading and Analyzing
When you read, do you read each and every word? Do you skim over the document and try to identify key terms and themes? Do you focus on numbers and statistics, or ignore the text and go straight to the pictures or embedded video? Because people read in many diverse ways, you as a writer will want to consider how your audience may read and analyze your document.
• 10.7: Additional Resources
pixabay.com/photos/concept-man-papers-person-plan-1868728/
10: Writing Preparation
Learning Objectives
1. Explain why preparation is important in business writing.
2. Think critically and employ strategies to overcome common fears of writing.
To be productive, you have to be alert, ready to work, and can accomplish tasks with relative ease. You will no doubt recognize that sometimes tasks take a lot longer, the solution is much harder to find, and you may find work more frustrating at other times. If you have the option, try to adjust your schedule so the writing tasks before you can be tackled at times when you are most productive, where you ability to concentrate is best, and when you are your most productive. If you don’t have the option, focus clearly on the task before you.
Every individual is different, and what works for one person may be ineffective for someone else. One thing that professional writers agree on, however, is that you don’t need to be in the “right mood” to write—and that, in fact, if you wait for the right mood to strike, you will probably never get started at all. Ernest Hemingway, who wrote some of the most famous novels of the twentieth century as well as hundreds of essays, articles, and short stories, advised writers to “work every day. No matter what has happened the day or night before, get up and bite on the nail” (Hemingway, 1999).
In order for your work to be productive, you will need to focus your attention on your writing. The stereotype of the writer tucked away in an attic room or a cabin in the woods, lost in the imaginary world created by the words as they flow onto the page, is only a stereotype. Our busy lives involve constant interruption. In a distraction-prone business environment, much of your writing will be done while colleagues are talking on the phone, having face-to-face conversations as they walk by, and possibly stopping at your desk to say hello or ask a question. Your phone may ring or you may have incoming instant messages (IMs) that need to be answered quickly. These unavoidable interruptions make it even more important to develop a habit of concentrating when you write.
The mind has been likened to a brace of wild horses; if you have ever worked with horses, you know they each have a mind of their own. Taken individually they can be somewhat manageable, but together they can prove to be quite a challenge. Our minds can multitask and perform several tasks simultaneously, but we can also get easily distracted. We can get sidetracked and lose valuable time away from our designated task. Our ability to concentrate is central to our ability to write effectively, whether we work alone or as part of a team.
In many business situations, you may not be writing solo but instead collaborating on a document with various coworkers, vendors, or customers. The ability to concentrate is perhaps even more important in these group writing situations (Nickerson, Perkins, & Smith, 1985). In this discussion, we’ll consider the writing process from a singular perspective, where you are personally responsible for planning, researching, and producing a product of writing. In other areas of this text we also consider the collaborative process, its strengths and weaknesses, and how to negotiate and navigate the group writing process.
Thinking Critically
As you approach your writing project, it is important to practice the habit of thinking critically. Critical thinking can be defined as “self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking” (Paul & Elder, 2007). It is the difference between watching television in a daze versus analyzing a movie with attention to its use of lighting, camera angles, and music to influence the audience. One activity requires very little mental effort, while the other requires attention to detail, the ability to compare and contrast, and sharp senses to receive all the stimuli.
As a habit of mind, critical thinking requires established standards and attention to their use, effective communication, problem solving, and a willingness to acknowledge and address our own tendency for confirmation bias, egocentrism, and sociocentrism. We’ll use the phrase “habit of mind” because clear, critical thinking is a habit that requires effort and persistence. People do not start an exercise program, a food and nutrition program, or a stop-smoking program with 100 percent success the first time. In the same way, it is easy to fall back into lazy mental short cuts, such as “If it costs a lot, it must be good,” when in fact the statement may very well be false. You won’t know until you gather information that supports (or contradicts) the assertion.
As we discuss getting into the right frame of mind for writing, keep in mind that the same recommendations apply to reading and research. If you only pay attention to information that reinforces your existing beliefs and ignore or discredit information that contradicts your beliefs, you are guilty of confirmation bias (Gilovich, 1993). As you read, research, and prepare for writing, make an effort to gather information from a range of reliable sources, whether or not this information leads to conclusions you didn’t expect. Remember that those who read your writing will be aware of, or have access to, this universe of data as well and will have their own confirmation bias. Reading and writing from an audience-centered view means acknowledging your confirmation bias and moving beyond it to consider multiple frames of references, points of view, and perspectives as you read, research, and write.
Egocentrism and sociocentrism are related concepts to confirmation bias. Egocentrism can be defined as the use of self-centered standards to determine what to believe and what to reject. Similarly, sociocentrism involves the use of society-centered standards (Paul & Elder, 2007). Both ways of thinking create an “us versus them” relationship that can undermine your credibility and alienate readers who don’t share your viewpoint.
This leads to confirmation bias and groupthink, resulting in false conclusions with little or no factual support for a belief. If a person believes the earth is flat and never questions that belief, it serves as an example of egocentric thinking. The person believes it is true even though he has never questioned why he believes it. If the person decides to look for information but only finds information that supports his pre-existing belief, ignoring or discrediting information that contradicts that belief, he is guilty of confirmation bias. If he believes the earth is flat because everyone in his group or community believes it, even though he himself has never questioned or confirmed the belief, he is guilty of sociocentrism.
In each case, the false thinking strategy leads to poor conclusions. Watch out for your tendency to read, write, and believe that which reflects only what you think you know without solid research and clear, critical thinking.
Overcoming Fear of Writing
For many people, one of the most frightening things in life is public speaking. For similar reasons, whether rational or irrational, writing often generates similar fears. There is something about exposing one’s words to possible criticism that can be truly terrifying. In this chapter, we are going to break down the writing process into small, manageable steps that, in turn, will provide you with a platform for success. To take advantage of these steps, you need to acknowledge any reluctance or fear that may be holding you back, and bring your interests and enthusiasm to this discussion on writing.
Having a positive attitude about writing in general, and your effort, is also a key ingredient to your success. If you approach a writing assignment with trepidation and fear, you will spend your valuable time and attention in ways that do not contribute positively to your writing. People often fear the writing process because of three main reasons:
1. Negative orientation
2. Risk of failure
3. Fear of the unknown
Let’s take each reason in turn. Negative orientation means the writer has a pre-existing negative association or view of the task or activity. We tend to like people who like us (Gudykunst & Kim, 1997), tend to pursue activities where we perceive rewards and appreciation for our efforts, and are more likely to engage in activities where we perceive we are successful. Conversely, we tend to not like people who we perceive as not like us, tend to ignore or avoid activities where we perceive we are not appreciated or are not rewarded, and are less likely to engage in activities where we perceive we are not successful. For some writers, previous experiences have led to a pre-existing association with writing. That association may be positive if they have been encouraged, affirmed, or rewarded as they demonstrated measurable gain. That association may also be negative if efforts have been met with discouraging feedback, a lack of affirmation, or negative reinforcement.
Effective business writing is a highly valued skill, and regardless of the degree to which writing will be a significant aspect of your designated job duties, your ability to do it well will be a boost to your career. If you have a negative orientation toward writing, admitting this fact is an important first step. Next, we need to actively seek ways to develop your skills in ways that will demonstrate measurable gain and lead to positive affirmation. Not everyone develops in the same way on the same schedule, and measurable gain means that from one writing assignment to the next you can demonstrate positive progress. In an academic setting, measurable gain is one of your clear goals as a writer. In a business or industry setting, you may lack the time to revise and improve, meaning that you will need to get it right the first time. Take advantage of the academic setting to set positive, realistic goals to improve your writing. Surround yourself with resources, including people who will help you reach your goal. If your college or university has a writing center, take advantage of it. If it does not, seek out assistance from those whose writing has been effective and well received.
It is a given that you do not want to fail. Risk of failure is a common fear across public speaking and writing situations, producing predictable behavioral patterns we can recognize, address, and resolve. In public speaking, our minds may go blank at the start of a presentation as we confront our fear of failure. In writing, we may experience a form of blankness often referred to as “writer’s block”—the overwhelming feeling of not knowing what to write or where to start—and sit helplessly waiting for our situation to change.
But we have the power to change our circumstances and to overcome our risk of failure. You may be familiar with the concept of a rough draft, but it may compete in your mind with a desire for perfection. Writing is a dynamic process, a reflection of the communication process itself. It won’t be perfect the first time you attempt it. Awareness that your rough draft serves a purpose, but doesn’t represent your final product, should serve in the same way a rehearsal for a speech serves a speaker. You get a second (or third) chance to get it right. Use this process to reduce your fear of failure and let go of your perfectionist tendencies, if only for a moment. Your desire for perfection will serve you well when it comes to polishing your finished document, but everything has its time and place. Learning where and when to place your effort is part of writing preparation.
Finally, we often fear the unknown. It is part of being human, and is reflected across all contexts, including public speaking and writing. If you have never given a speech before, your first time on stage can be quite an ordeal. If you have never written a formal business report, your fear of the unknown is understandable. How can you address this fear? Make the unknown known. If we take the mystery out of the process and product, we can see it for its essential components, its organizational pattern, and start to see how our product may look before we even start to produce it. In many organizations, you can ask your supervisor or coworkers for copies of similar documents to the one you have been assigned, even if the content is quite different. If this is not an option, simply consider the way most documents in your company are written—even something as basic as an interoffice e-mail will provide some clues. Your goal is to become familiar with the type of document and to examine several successful examples. Once you see a couple of reports, you will have a better feel for what you have to produce and the unknown will be far less mysterious.
Key Takeaway
There are several reasons why people fear writing, but there are also several strategies to reduce or eliminate those fears.
Exercises
1. How would you describe your orientation to writing? Where does this orientation come from? Discuss your thoughts with a classmate.
2. If you could identify one aspect of your writing you would like to improve, what would it be and why? Write a one- two-page essay on this subject.
3. What kinds of writing do you like? Dislike? Explain why and provide an example of each. Share and compare with the class.
4. Who is your favorite author? What do you like about her or his writing? Discuss your opinion with a classmate. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_English_for_Success/10%3A_Writing_Preparation/10.01%3A_Think_Then_Write_-_Writing_Preparation.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Understand who, what, where, when, why, and how as features of writing purpose.
2. Describe the planning process and essential elements of a business document.
John Thill and Courtland Bovee (Thill, J. V., & Bovee, C. L., 2004), two leading authors in the field of business communication, have created a checklist for planning business messages. The following twelve-item checklist, adapted here, serves as a useful reminder of the importance of preparation in the writing process:
1. Determine your general purpose: are you trying to inform, persuade, entertain, facilitate interaction, or motivate a reader?
2. Determine your specific purpose (the desired outcome).
3. Make sure your purpose is realistic.
4. Make sure your timing is appropriate.
5. Make sure your sources are credible.
6. Make sure the message reflects positively on your business.
7. Determine audience size.
8. Determine audience composition.
9. Determine audience knowledge and awareness of topic.
10. Anticipate probable responses.
11. Select the correct channel.
12. Make sure the information provided is accurate, ethical, and pertinent.
Throughout this chapter we will examine these various steps in greater detail.
Determining Your Purpose
Preparation for the writing process involves purpose, research and investigation, reading and analyzing, and adaptation. In the first section we consider how to determine the purpose of a document, and how that awareness guides the writer to effective product.
While you may be free to create documents that represent yourself or your organization, your employer will often have direct input into their purpose. All acts of communication have general and specific purposes, and the degree to which you can identify these purposes will influence how effective your writing is. General purposes involve the overall goal of the communication interaction: to inform, persuade, entertain, facilitate interaction, or motivate a reader. The general purpose influences the presentation and expectation for feedback. In an informative message—the most common type of writing in business—you will need to cover several predictable elements:
• Who
• What
• When
• Where
• How
• Why (optional)
Some elements may receive more attention than others, and they do not necessarily have to be addressed in the order you see here. Depending on the nature of your project, as a writer you will have a degree of input over how you organize them.
Note that the last item, Why, is designated as optional. This is because business writing sometimes needs to report facts and data objectively, without making any interpretation or pointing to any cause-effect relationship. In other business situations, of course, identifying why something happened or why a certain decision is advantageous will be the essence of the communication.
In addition to its general purpose (e.g., to inform, persuade, entertain, or motivate), every piece of writing also has at least one specific purpose, which is the intended outcome; the result that will happen once your written communication has been read.
For example, imagine that you are an employee in a small city’s housing authority and have been asked to draft a letter to city residents about radon. Radon is a naturally occurring radioactive gas that has been classified by the United States Environmental Protection Agency as a health hazard. In the course of a routine test, radon was detected in minimal levels in an apartment building operated by the housing authority. It presents a relatively low level of risk, but because the incident was reported in the local newspaper, the mayor has asked the housing authority director to be proactive in informing all the city residents of the situation.
The general purpose of your letter is to inform, and the specific purpose is to have a written record of informing all city residents about how much radon was found, when, and where; where they can get more information on radon; and the date, time, and place of the meeting. Residents may read the information and attend or they may not even read the letter. But once the letter has been written, signed, and distributed, your general and specific purposes have been accomplished.
Now imagine that you begin to plan your letter by applying the above list of elements. Recall that the letter informs residents on three counts: (1) the radon finding, (2) where to get information about radon, and (3) the upcoming meeting. For each of these pieces of information, the elements may look like the following:
1. Radon Finding
• Who: The manager of the apartment building (give name)
• What: Discovered a radon concentration of 4.1 picocuries per liter (pCi/L) and reported it to the housing authority director, who informed the city health inspector, environmental compliance office, and mayor
• When: During the week of December 15
• Where: In the basement of the apartment building located at (give address)
• How: In the course of performing a routine annual test with a commercially available do-it-yourself radon test kit
2. Information about radon
• Who: According to the city health inspector and environmental compliance officer
• What: Radon is a naturally occurring radioactive gas that results from the breakdown of uranium in soil; a radon test level above 4.0 pCi/L may be cause for concern
• When: Radon levels fluctuate from time to time, so further testing will be done; in past years, test results were below 4.0 pCi/L
• Where: More information is available from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency or the state radon office
• How: By phone, mail, or on the Internet (provide full contact information for both sources)
• Why: To become better informed and avoid misunderstandings about radon, its health risks, and the meaning of radon test results
3. City meeting about radon
• Who: All city residents are welcome
• What: Attend an informational meeting where the mayor, director of the housing authority, city health inspector, and city environmental compliance officer will speak and answer questions
• When: Monday, January 7, at 7 p.m.
• Where: City hall community room
• Why: To become better informed and avoid misunderstandings about radon, its health risks, and the meaning of radon test results
Once you have laid out these elements of your informative letter, you have an outline from which it will be easy to write the actual letter.
Your effort serves as a written record of correspondence informing them that radon was detected, which may be one of the specific or primary purposes. A secondary purpose may be to increase attendance at the town hall meeting, but you will need feedback from that event to determine the effectiveness of your effort.
Now imagine that instead of being a housing authority employee, you are a city resident who receives that informative letter, and you happen to operate a business as a certified radon mitigation contractor. You may decide to build on this information and develop a persuasive message. You may draft a letter to the homeowners and landlords in the neighborhood near the building in question. To make your message persuasive, you may focus on the perception that radiation is inherently dangerous and that no amount of radon has been declared safe. You may cite external authorities that indicate radon is a contributing factor to several health ailments, and even appeal to emotions with phrases like “protect your children” and “peace of mind.” Your letter will probably encourage readers to check with the state radon office to verify that you are a certified contractor, describe the services you provide, and indicate that friendly payment terms can be arranged.
Credibility, Timing, and Audience
At this point in the discussion, we need to visit the concept of credibility. Credibility, or the perception of integrity of the message based on an association with the source, is central to any communication act. If the audience perceives the letter as having presented the information in an impartial and objective way, perceives the health inspector’s and environmental compliance officer’s expertise in the field as relevant to the topic, and generally regards the housing authority in a positive light, they will be likely to accept your information as accurate. If, however, the audience does not associate trust and reliability with your message in particular and the city government in general, you may anticipate a lively discussion at the city hall meeting.
In the same way, if the reading audience perceives the radon mitigation contractor’s letter as a poor sales pitch without their best interest or safety in mind, they may not respond positively to its message and be unlikely to contact him about any possible radon problems in their homes. If, however, the sales letter squarely addresses the needs of the audience and effectively persuades them, the contractor may look forward to a busy season.
Returning to the original housing authority scenario, did you consider how your letter might be received, or the fear it may have generated in the audience? In real life you don’t get a second chance, but in our academic setting, we can go back and take more time on our assignment, using the twelve-item checklist we presented earlier. Imagine that you are the mayor or the housing authority director. Before you assign an employee to send a letter to inform residents about the radon finding, take a moment to consider how realistic your purpose is. As a city official, you may want the letter to serve as a record that residents were informed of the radon finding, but will that be the only outcome? Will people be even more concerned in response to the letter than they were when the item was published in the newspaper? Would a persuasive letter serve the city’s purposes better than an informative one?
Another consideration is the timing. On the one hand, it may be important to get the letter sent as quickly as possible, as the newspaper report may have already aroused concerns that the letter will help calm. On the other hand, given that the radon was discovered in mid-December, many people are probably caught up in holiday celebrations. If the letter is mailed during the week of Christmas, it may not get the attention it deserves. After January 1, everyone will be paying more attention to their mail as they anticipate the arrival of tax-related documents or even the dreaded credit card statement. If the mayor has scheduled the city hall meeting for January 7, people may be unhappy if they only learn about the meeting at the last minute. Also consider your staff; if many of them will be gone over the holidays, there may not be enough staff in place to respond to phone calls that will likely come in response to the letter, even though the letter advises residents to contact the state radon office and the Environmental Protection Agency.
Next, how credible are the sources cited in the letter? If you as a housing authority employee have been asked to draft it, to whom should it go once you have it written? The city health inspector and environmental compliance officer are mentioned as sources; will they each read and approve the letter before it is sent? Is there someone at the county, state, or even the federal level who can, or should, check the information before it is sent?
The next item on the checklist is to make sure the message reflects positively on your business. In our hypothetical case, the “business” is city government. The letter should acknowledge that city officials and employees are servants of the taxpayers. “We are here to serve you” should be expressed, if not in so many words, in the tone of the letter.
The next three items on the checklist are associated with the audience profile: audience size, composition, knowledge, and awareness of the topic. Since your letter is being sent to all city residents, you likely have a database from which you can easily tell how many readers constitute your audience. What about audience composition? What else do you know about the city’s residents? What percentage of households includes children? What is the education level of most of the residents? Are there many residents whose first language is not English; if so, should your letter be translated into any other languages? What is the range of income levels in the city? How well informed are city residents about radon? Has radon been an issue in any other buildings in the city in recent years? The answers to these questions will help determine how detailed the information in your letter should be.
Finally, anticipate probable responses. Although the letter is intended to inform, could it be misinterpreted as an attempt to “cover up” an unacceptable condition in city housing? If the local newspaper were to reprint the letter, would the mayor be upset? Is there someone in public relations who will be doing media interviews at the same time the letter goes out? Will the release of information be coordinated, and if so by whom?
One additional point that deserves mention is the notion of decision makers. Even if your overall goal is to inform or persuade, the basic mission is to simply communicate. Establishing a connection is a fundamental aspect of the communication audience, and if you can correctly target key decision makers you increase your odds for making the connection with those you intend to inform or persuade. Who will open the mail, or e-mail? Who will act upon it? The better you can answer those questions, the more precise you can be in your writing efforts.
In some ways this is similar to asking your professor to write a letter of recommendation for you, but to address it to “to whom it may concern.” If you can provide a primary contact name for the letter of recommendation it will increase its probable impact on the evaluation process. If your goal is to get a scholarship or a job offer, you want to take the necessary steps to increase your positive impact on the audience.
Communication Channels
Purpose is closely associated with channel. We need to consider the purpose when choosing a channel. From source to receiver, message to channel, feedback to context, environment, and interference, all eight components play a role in the dynamic process. While writing often focuses on an understanding of the receiver (as we’ve discussed) and defining the purpose of the message, the channel—or the “how” in the communication process—deserves special mention.
So far, we have discussed a simple and traditional channel of written communication: the hardcopy letter mailed in a standard business envelope and sent by postal mail. But in today’s business environment, this channel is becoming increasingly rare as electronic channels become more widely available and accepted.
When is it appropriate to send an instant message (IM) or text message versus a conventional e-mail or fax? What is the difference between a letter and a memo? Between a report and a proposal? Writing itself is the communication medium, but each of these specific channels has its own strengths, weaknesses, and understood expectations that are summarized in Table \(1\).
Table \(1\): Written Communication Channels
Channel Strengths Weaknesses Expectations When to Choose
IM or Text Message
• Very fast
• Good for rapid exchanges of small amounts of information
• Inexpensive
• Informal
• Not suitable for large amounts of information
• Abbreviations lead to misunderstandings
Quick response
• Informal use among peers at similar levels within an organization
• You need a fast, inexpensive connection with a colleague over a small issue and limited amount of information
Channel Strengths Weaknesses Expectations When to Choose
E-mail
• Fast
• Good for relatively fast exchanges of information
• “Subject” line allows compilation of many messages on one subject or project
• Easy to distribute to multiple recipients
• Inexpensive
• May hit “send” prematurely
• May be overlooked or deleted without being read
• “Reply to all” error
• “Forward” error
• Large attachments may cause the e-mail to be caught in recipient’s spam filter
Normally a response is expected within 24 hours, although norms vary by situation and organizational culture
• You need to communicate but time is not the most important consideration
• You need to send attachments (provided their file size is not too big)
Fax
• Fast
• Provides documentation
• Receiving issues (e.g., the receiving machine may be out of paper or toner)
• Long distance telephone charges apply
• Transitional telephone-based technology losing popularity to online information exchange
Normally, a long (multiple page) fax is not expected
• You want to send a document whose format must remain intact as presented, such as a medical prescription or a signed work order
• Allows use of letterhead to represent your company
Memo
• Official but less formal than a letter
• Clearly shows who sent it, when, and to whom
• Memos sent through e-mails can get deleted without review
• Attachments can get removed by spam filters
Normally used internally in an organization to communicate directives from management on policy and procedure, or documentation You need to communicate a general message within an organization
Letter
• Formal
• Letterhead represents your company and adds credibility
• May get filed or thrown away unread
• Cost and time involved in printing, stuffing, sealing, affixing postage, and travel through the postal system
Specific formats associated with specific purposes You need to inform, persuade, deliver bad news or negative message, and document the communication
Report Significant time for preparation and production Requires extensive research and documentation Specific formats for specific purposes; generally reports are to inform You need to document the relationship(s) between large amounts of data to inform an internal or external audience
Proposal Significant time for preparation and production Requires extensive research and documentation Specific formats for specific purposes; generally proposals are to persuade You need to persuade an audience with complex arguments and data
By choosing the correct channel for a message, you can save yourself many headaches and increase the likelihood that your writing will be read, understood, and acted upon in the manner you intended.
Our discussion of communication channels would not be complete without mentioning the issues of privacy and security in electronic communications. The American Management Association estimates that about two thirds of employers monitor their employees’ electronic communications or Internet use. When you call and leave a voice message for a friend or colleague at work, do you know where your message is stored? There was a time when the message may have been stored on an analog cassette in an answering machine, or even on a small pink handwritten note which a secretary deposited in your friend’s in-box. Today the “where” is irrelevant, as the in-box is digital and can be accessed from almost anywhere on the planet. That also means the message you left, with the representation of your voice, can be forwarded via e-mail as an attachment to anyone. Any time you send an IM, text, or e-mail or leave a voice message, your message is stored on more than one server, and it can be intercepted or forwarded to persons other than the intended receiver. Are you ready for your message to be broadcast to the world? Do your words represent you and your business in a positive light?
Newsweek columnist Jennifer Ordoñez raises this question when she writes, “For desk jockeys everywhere, it has become as routine as a tour of the office-supply closet: the consent form attesting that you understand and accept that any e-mails you write, Internet sites you visit or business you conduct on your employer’s computer network are subject to inspection” (Ordoñez, J., 2008). As you use MySpace, update your Facebook page, get LinkedIn, Twitter, text, and IM, you leave an electronic trail of “bread crumbs” that merge personal and professional spheres, opening up significant issues of privacy. In our discussion we address research for specific business document production, and all the electronic research conducted is subject to review. While the case law is evolving as the technology we use to interface expands, it is wise to consider that anything you write or record can and will be stored for later retrieval by people for whom your message was not initially intended.
In terms of writing preparation, you should review any electronic communication before you send it. Spelling and grammatical errors will negatively impact your credibility. With written documents we often take time and care to get it right the first time, but the speed of IM, text, or e-mail often deletes this important review cycle of written works. Just because the document you prepare in IM is only one sentence long doesn’t mean it can’t be misunderstood or expose you to liability. Take time when preparing your written messages, regardless of their intended presentation, and review your work before you click “send.”
Key Takeaway
Choose the most effective channel for your document and consider the possible ramifications of what you have written before you send it.
Exercises
1. Write a one-page letter to a new customer introducing a new product or service. Compare your result to the letters your classmates wrote. What do the letters have in common? How do they differ from one another?
2. Write a memo that addresses a new norm or protocol, such as the need to register with a new company that will be handling all the organization’s business-related travel, with specific expectations including what information is needed, when, and to whom.
3. Make a list of the written communication that you read, skim, or produce in a one day. Please share your results with the class. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_English_for_Success/10%3A_Writing_Preparation/10.02%3A_A_Planning_Checklist_for_Business_Messages.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Compare and contrast ways of knowing your reading audience.
2. Conduct research and investigation to gather information.
Clearly, not every piece of business writing requires research or investigation. If you receive an e-mail asking for the correct spelling of your boss’s name and her official title, you will probably be able to answer without having to look anything up. But what if the sender of the e-mail wants to know who in your company is the decision maker for purchasing a certain supply item? Unless you work for a very small company, you will likely have to look through the organizational chart, and possibly make a phone call or two, before you are able to write an e-mail answering this question. There—you have just done the research for a piece of business writing.
Even if you need to write something much more complex than an e-mail, such as a report or proposal, research does not have to be all about long hours at a library. Instead, start by consulting with business colleagues who have written similar documents and ask what worked, what didn’t work, what was well received by management and the target audience. Your efforts will need to meet similar needs. Your document will not stand alone but will exist within a larger agenda. How does your proposed document fit within this agenda at your place of work, within the larger community, or with the target audience? It’s worth noting that the word “investigation” contains the word “invest.” You will need to invest your time and effort to understand the purpose and goal of your proposed document.
Before you go to the library, look over the information sources you already have in hand. Do you regularly read a magazine that relates to the topic? Was there an article in the newspaper you read that might work? Is there a book, CD-ROM or mp3 that has information you can use? Think of what you want the audience to know and how you could show it to them. Perhaps a famous quote or a line from a poem may make an important contribution to your document. You might even know someone that has experience in the area you want to research, someone who has been involved with skydiving locally for his or her whole life. Consider how you are going to tell and show your audience what your document is all about.
Once you have an assignment or topic, know your general and specific purposes, and have good idea of your reader’s expectations, it’s time to gather information. Your best sources may be all around you, within your business or organization. Information may come from reports from the marketing department or even from a trusted and well-versed colleague, but you will still need to do your homework. After you have written several similar documents for your organization, you may have your collection of sample documents, but don’t be tempted to take shortcuts and “repurpose” existing documents to meet a tight deadline. Creating an original work specifically tailored to the issue and audience at hand is the best approach to establish credibility, produce a more effective document, and make sure no important aspect of your topic is left out.
Narrowing Your Topic
By now you have developed an idea of your topic, but even with a general and specific purpose, you may still have a broad subject that will be a challenge to cover within the allotted time before the deadline. You might want to revisit your purpose and ask yourself, how specific is my topic?
Imagine that you work for a local skydiving training facility. Your boss has assembled a list of people who might be candidates for skydiving and asks you to write a letter to them. Your general purpose is to persuade, and your specific purpose is to increase the number of students enrolled in classes. You’ve decided that skydiving is your topic area and you are going to tell your audience how exhilarating the experience is, discuss the history and basic equipment, cover the basic requirements necessary to go on a first jump, and provide reference information on where your audience could go to learn more (links and Web sites, for example).
But at this point you might find that a one-page letter simply is not enough space for the required content. Rather than expand the letter to two pages and risk losing the reader, consider your audience and what they might want to learn. How can you narrow your topic to better consider their needs? As you edit your topic, considering what the essential information is and what can be cut, you’ll come to focus on the key points naturally and reduce the pressure on yourself to cover too much information in a limited space environment.
Perhaps starting with a testimony about a client’s first jump, followed by basic equipment and training needed, and finally a reference to your organization may help you define your document. While the history may be fascinating, and may serve as a topic in itself for another day, it may add too much information in this persuasive letter. Your specific purpose may be to increase enrollment, but your general goal will be to communicate goodwill and establish communication. If you can get your audience to view skydiving in a positive light and consider the experience for themselves, or people they know, you have accomplished your general purpose.
Focus on Key Points
As a different example, let’s imagine that you are the office manager for a pet boarding facility that cares for dogs and cats while their owners are away. The general manager has asked you to draft a memo to remind employees about safety practices. Your general purpose is twofold: to inform employees about safety concerns and to motivate them to engage in safe work practices. Your specific purpose is also twofold: to prevent employees from being injured or infected with diseases on the job, and to reduce the risk of the animal patients being injured or becoming sick while in your care.
You are an office manager, not a veterinary or medical professional, and clearly there are volumes written about animal injuries and illnesses, not to mention entire schools devoted to teaching medicine to doctors who care for human patients. In a short memo you cannot hope to cover all possible examples of injury or illness. Instead, focus on the following behaviors and situations you observe:
• Do employees wash their hands thoroughly before and after contact with each animal?
• Are hand-washing facilities kept clean and supplied with soap and paper towels?
• When cleaning the animals’ cages, do employees wear appropriate protection such as gloves?
• What is the procedure for disposing of animal waste, and do all employees know and follow the procedure?
• When an animal is being transferred from one cage to another, are there enough staff members present to provide backup assistance in case the animal becomes unruly?
• What should an employee do if he or she is bitten or scratched?
• What if an animal exhibits signs of being ill?
• Have there been any recent incidents that raised concerns about safety?
Once you have posed and answered questions like these, it should be easier to narrow down the information so that the result is a reasonably brief, easy to read memo that will get employees’ attention and persuade them to adopt safe work practices.
Planning Your Investigation for Information
Now let’s imagine that you work for a small accounting firm whose president would like to start sending a monthly newsletter to clients and prospective clients. He is aware of newsletter production service vendors that provide newsletters to represent a particular accounting firm. He has asked you to compile a list of such services, their prices and practices, so that the firm can choose one to employ.
If you are alert, you will begin your planning immediately, while your conversation with the president is still going on, as you will need more information before you can gauge the scope of the assignment. Approximately how many newsletter vendors does your president want to know about—is three or four enough? Would twenty be too many? Is there a set budget figure that the newsletter cost must not exceed? How soon does your report need to be done?
Once you have these details, you will be able to plan when and where to gather the needed information. The smartest place to begin is right in your office. If the president has any examples of newsletters he has seen from other businesses, you can examine them and note the contact information of the companies that produced them. You may also have an opportunity to ask coworkers if they know or even have copies of any such newsletters.
Assuming that your president wants to consider more than just a couple of vendors, you will need to expand your search. The next logical place to look is the Internet. In some companies, employees have full Internet access from their office computers; other companies provide only a few terminals with Internet access. Some workplaces allow no Internet access; if this is the case, you can visit your nearest public library.
As anyone who has spent an entire evening aimlessly Web surfing can attest, the Internet is a great place to find loads and loads of interesting but irrelevant information. Knowing what questions you are seeking to answer will help you stay focused on your report’s topic, and knowing the scope of the report will help you to decide how much research time to plan in your schedule.
Staying Organized
Once you open up a Web browser such as Google and type in a search parameter like “newsletter production,” you will have a wealth of information to look at. Much of it may be irrelevant, but even the information that fits with your project will be so much that you will be challenged to keep track of it.
Perhaps the most vital strategy for staying organized while doing online research is to open a blank page in your word processor and title it “Sources.” Each time you find a Web page that contains what you believe may be useful and relevant information, copy the URL and paste it on this Sources page. Under the URL, copy and paste a paragraph or two as an example of the information you found on this Web page. Err on the side of listing too many sources; if in doubt about a source, list it for the time being—you can always discard it later. Having these source URLs and snippets of information all in one place will save you a great deal of time and many headaches later on.
As you explore various Web sites of companies that provide newsletter production services, you will no doubt encounter new questions that your president did not answer in the original conversation:
• Does the newsletter need to be printed on paper and mailed? Or would an e-mail newsletter be acceptable, or even preferable?
• Does your firm want the newsletter vendor to write all of the content customized to your firm, provide a menu of pre-existing articles for your firm to choose from, or let your firm provide some—or even all—of the content?
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of these various options?
You also realize that in order to get any cost estimates, even when the above questions are settled, you will need to know the desired length of the newsletter (in pages or in words), and how many recipients are on your firm’s mailing list. At this point in your research and investigation, it may make sense to give your president an informal interim report, summarizing what you have found out and what additional questions need to be answered.
Having a well-organized list of the information you have assembled, the new questions that have arisen, and the sources where you found your information will allow you to continue researching effectively as soon as you have gotten answers and more specific direction from your president.
Key Takeaway
To make a writing project manageable, narrow your topic, focus on key points, plan your investigation for information, and stay organized as you go along.
Exercises
1. Think of a time when someone asked you to gather information to make a decision, whether for work, school, or in your personal life. How specific was the request? What did you need to know before you could determine how much and what kind of information to gather? Discuss your answer with those of your classmates.
2. Make a list of all the ways you procrastinate, noting how much time is associated with each activity or distraction. Share and compare your results with a classmate.
3. You are the manager. Write an e-mail requesting an employee to gather specific information on a topic. Give clear directions and due date(s). Please share your results with the class.
4. How do you prepare yourself for a writing project? How do others? What strategies work best for you? Survey ten colleagues or coworkers and compare your results with your classmates. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_English_for_Success/10%3A_Writing_Preparation/10.03%3A_Research_and_Investigation_-_Getting_Started.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Understand how to be ethical, avoid plagiarism, and use reputable sources in your writing.
Unlike writing for personal or academic purposes, your business writing will help determine how well your performance is evaluated in your job. Whether you are writing for colleagues within your workplace or outside vendors or customers, you will want to build a solid, well-earned favorable reputation for yourself with your writing. Your goal is to maintain and enhance your credibility, and that of your organization, at all times.
Make sure as you start your investigation that you always question the credibility of the information. Sources may have no reviews by peers or editor, and the information may be misleading, biased, or even false. Be a wise information consumer.
Business Ethics
Many employers have a corporate code of ethics; even if your employer does not, it goes without saying that there are laws governing how the company can and cannot conduct business. Some of these laws apply to business writing. As an example, it would be not only unethical but also illegal to send out a promotional letter announcing a special sale on an item that ordinarily costs \$500, offering it for \$100, if in fact you have only one of this item in inventory. When a retailer does this, the unannounced purpose of the letter is to draw customers into the store, apologize for running out of the sale item, and urge them to buy a similar item for \$400. Known as “bait and switch,” this is a form of fraud and is punishable by law.
Let’s return to our previous newsletter scenario to examine some less clear-cut issues of business ethics. Suppose that, as you confer with your president and continue your research on newsletter vendors, you remember that you have a cousin who recently graduated from college with a journalism degree. You decide to talk to her about your project. In the course of the conversation, you learn that she now has a job working for a newsletter vendor. She is very excited to hear about your firm’s plans and asks you to make her company “look good” in your report.
You are now in a situation that involves at least two ethical questions:
1. Did you breach your firm’s confidentiality by telling your cousin about the plan to start sending a monthly newsletter?
2. Is there any ethical way you can comply with your cousin’s request to show her company in an especially favorable light?
On the question of confidentiality, the answer may depend on whether you signed a confidentiality agreement as a condition of your employment at the accounting firm, or whether your president specifically told you to keep the newsletter plan confidential. If neither of these safeguards existed, then your conversation with your cousin would be an innocent, unintentional and coincidental sharing of information in which she turned out to have a vested interest.
As for representing her company in an especially favorable light—you are ethically obligated to describe all the candidate vendors according to whatever criteria your president asked to see. The fact that your cousin works for a certain vendor may be an asset or a liability in your firm’s view, but it would probably be best to inform them of it and let them make that judgment.
As another example of ethics in presenting material, let’s return to the skydiving scenario we mentioned earlier. Because you are writing a promotional letter whose goal is to increase enrollment in your skydiving instruction, you may be tempted to avoid mentioning information that could be perceived as negative. If issues of personal health condition or accident rates in skydiving appear to discourage rather than encourage your audience to consider skydiving, you may be tempted to omit them. But in so doing, you are not presenting an accurate picture and may mislead your audience.
Even if your purpose is to persuade, deleting the opposing points presents a one-sided presentation. The audience will naturally consider not only what you tell them but also what you are not telling them, and will raise questions. Instead, consider your responsibility as a writer to present information you understand to be complete, honest, and ethical. Lying by omission can also expose your organization to liability. Instead of making a claim that skydiving is completely safe, you may want to state that your school complies with the safety guidelines of the United States Parachute Association. You might also state how many jumps your school has completed in the past year without an accident.
Giving Credit to Your Sources
You have photos of yourself jumping but they aren’t very exciting. Since you are wearing goggles to protect your eyes and the image is at a distance, who can really tell if the person in the picture is you or not? Why not find a more exciting photo on the Internet and use it as an illustration for your letter? You can download it from a free site and the “fine print” at the bottom of the Web page states that the photos can be copied for personal use.
Not so fast—do you realize that a company’s promotional letter does not qualify as personal use? The fact is that using the photo for a commercial purpose without permission from the photographer constitutes an infringement of copyright law; your employer could be sued because you decided to liven up your letter by taking a shortcut. Furthermore, falsely representing the more exciting photo as being your parachute jump will undermine your company’s credibility if your readers happen to find the photo on the Internet and realize it is not yours.
Just as you wouldn’t want to include an image more exciting than yours and falsely state that it is your jump, you wouldn’t want to take information from sources and fail to give them credit. Whether the material is a photograph, text, a chart or graph, or any other form of media, taking someone else’s work and representing it as your own is plagiarism. Plagiarism is committed whether you copy material verbatim, paraphrase its wording, or even merely take its ideas—if you do any of these things—without giving credit to the source.
This does not mean you are forbidden to quote from your sources. It’s entirely likely that in the course of research you may find a perfect turn of phrase or a way of communicating ideas that fits your needs perfectly. Using it in your writing is fine, provided that you credit the source fully enough that your readers can find it on their own. If you fail to take careful notes, or the sentence is present in your writing but later fails to get accurate attribution, it can have a negative impact on you and your organization. That is why it is important that when you find an element you would like to incorporate in your document, in the same moment as you copy and paste or make a note of it in your research file, you need to note the source in a complete enough form to find it again.
Giving credit where credit is due will build your credibility and enhance your document. Moreover, when your writing is authentically yours, your audience will catch your enthusiasm, and you will feel more confident in the material you produce. Just as you have a responsibility in business to be honest in selling your product of service and avoid cheating your customers, so you have a responsibility in business writing to be honest in presenting your idea, and the ideas of others, and to avoid cheating your readers with plagiarized material.
Challenges of Online Research
Earlier in the chapter we have touched on the fact that the Internet is an amazing source of information, but for that very reason, it is a difficult place to get information you actually need. In the early years of the Internet, there was a sharp distinction between a search engine and a Web site. There were many search engines competing with one another, and their home pages were generally fairly blank except for a search field where the user would enter the desired search keywords or parameters. There are still many search sites, but today, a few search engines have come to dominate the field, including Google and Yahoo! Moreover, most search engines’ home pages offer a wide range of options beyond an overall Web search; buttons for options such as news, maps, images, and videos are typical. Another type of search engine performs a metasearch, returning search results from several search engines at once.
When you are looking for a specific kind of information, these relatively general searches can still lead you far away from your desired results. In that case, you may be better served by an online dictionary, encyclopedia, business directory, or phone directory. There are also specialized online databases for almost every industry, profession, and area of scholarship; some are available to anyone, others are free but require opening an account, and some require paying a subscription fee. For example, www.zillow.com allows for in-depth search and collation of information concerning real estate and evaluation, including the integration of public databases that feature tax assessments and ownership transfers. Table \(2\) provides a few examples of different kinds of search sites.
Table \(2\): Some Examples of Internet Search Sites
Description URL
General Web searches that can also be customized according to categories like news, maps, images, video
Metasearch engines
Dictionaries and encyclopedias
Very basic information on a wide range of topics
To find people or businesses in white pages or yellow pages listings
Specialized databases—may be free, require registration, or require a paid subscription
At the end of this chapter, under “Additional Resources,” you will find a list of many Web sites that may be useful for business research.
Evaluating Your Sources
One aspect of Internet research that cannot be emphasized enough is the abundance of online information that is incomplete, outdated, misleading, or downright false. Anyone can put up a Web site; once it is up, the owner may or may not enter updates or corrections on a regular basis. Anyone can write a blog on any subject, whether or not that person actually has any expertise on that subject. Anyone who wishes to contribute to a Wikipedia article can do so—although the postings are moderated by editors who have to register and submit their qualifications. In the United States, the First Amendment of the Constitution guarantees freedom of expression. This freedom is restricted by laws prohibiting libel (false accusations against a person) and indecency, especially child pornography, but those laws are limited in scope and sometimes difficult to enforce. Therefore, it is always important to look beyond the surface of a site to assess who sponsors it, where the information displayed came from, and whether the site owner has a certain agenda.
When you write for business and industry you will want to draw on reputable, reliable sources—printed as well as electronic ones—because they reflect on the credibility of the message and the messenger. Analyzing and assessing information is an important skill in the preparation of writing, and here are six main points to consider when evaluating a document, presentation, or similar source of information1. In general, documents that represent quality reasoning have the following traits:
• A clearly articulated purpose and goal
• A question, problem, or issue to address
• Information, data, and evidence that is clearly relevant to the stated purpose and goals
• Inferences or interpretations that lead to conclusions based on the presented information, data, and evidence
• A frame of reference or point of view that is clearly articulated
• Assumptions, concepts, and ideas that are clearly articulated
An additional question that is central to your assessment of your sources is how credible the source is. This question is difficult to address even with years of training and expertise. You may have heard of academic fields called “disciplines,” but may not have heard of each field’s professors called “disciples.” Believers, keepers of wisdom, and teachers of tomorrow’s teachers have long played a valuable role establishing, maintaining, and perpetuating credibility. Academics have long cultivated an understood acceptance of the role of objective, impartial use of the scientific method to determine validity and reliability. But as research is increasingly dependent on funding, and funding often brings specific points of view and agendas with it, pure research can be—and has been—compromised. You can no longer simply assume that “studies show” something without awareness of who conducted the study, how was it conducted, and who funded the effort. This may sound like a lot of investigation and present quite a challenge, but again it is worth the effort.
Information literacy is an essential skill set in the process of writing. As you learn to spot key signs of information that will not serve to enhance your credibility and contribute to your document, you can increase your effectiveness as you research and analyze your resources. For example, if you were researching electronic monitoring in the workplace, you might come upon a site owned by a company that sells workplace electronic monitoring systems. The site might give many statistics illustrating what percentage of employers use electronic monitoring, what percentage of employees use the Internet for nonwork purposes during work hours, what percentage of employees use company e-mail for personal messages, and so on. But the sources of these percentage figures may not be credited. As an intelligent researcher, you need to ask yourself, did the company that owns the site perform its own research to get these numbers? Most likely it did not—so why are the sources not cited? Moreover, such a site would be unlikely to mention any court rulings about electronic monitoring being unnecessarily invasive of employees’ privacy. Less biased sources of information would be the American Management Association, the U.S. Department of Labor, and other not-for-profit organizations that study workplace issues.
The Internet also encompasses thousands of interactive sites where readers can ask and answer questions. Some sites, like Askville by Amazon.com, WikiAnswers, and Yahoo! Answers, are open to almost any topic. Others, like ParentingQuestions and WebMD, deal with specific topics. Chat rooms on bridal Web sites allow couples who are planning a wedding to share advice and compare prices for gowns, florists, caterers, and so on. Reader comment sites like Newsvine facilitate discussions about current events. Customer reviews are available for just about everything imaginable, from hotels and restaurants to personal care products, home improvement products, and sports equipment. The writers of these customer reviews, the chat room participants, and the people who ask and answer questions on many of these interactive sites are not experts, nor do they pretend to be. Some may have extreme opinions that are not based in reality. Then, too, it is always possible for a vendor to “plant” favorable customer reviews on the Internet to make its product look good. Although the “terms of use” which everyone registering for interactive sites must agree to usually forbid the posting of advertisements, profanity, or personal attacks, some sites do a better job than others in monitoring and deleting such material. Nevertheless, if your business writing project involves finding out how the “average person” feels about an issue in the news, or whether a new type of home exercise device really works as advertised, these comment and customer review sites can be very useful indeed.
It may seem like it’s hard work to assess your sources, to make sure your information is accurate and truthful, but the effort is worth it. Business and industry rely on reputation and trust (just as we individuals do) in order to maintain healthy relationships. Your document, regardless of how small it may appear in the larger picture, is an important part of that reputation and interaction.
Key Takeaway
Evaluating your sources is a key element of the preparation process in business writing. To avoid plagiarism, always record your sources so that you can credit them in your writing.
Exercises
1. Before the Internet improved information access, how did people find information? Are the strategies they used still valid and how might they serve you as a business writer? Interview several people who are old enough to have done research in the “old days” and report your findings.
2. Visit the Web site of the United States Copyright Office at http://www.copyright.gov. Find something on the Web site that you did not know before reviewing it and share it with your classmates.
3. On the United States Copyright Office Web site at http://www.copyright.gov view the multimedia presentation for students and teachers, “Taking the Mystery out of Copyright.” Download the “Copyright Basics” document and discuss it with your class.
4. Look over the syllabus for your business communication course and assess the writing assignments you will be completing. Is all the information you are going to need for these assignments available in electronic form? Why or why not?
5. Does the fact that Internet search results are often associated with advertising influence your research and investigation? Why or why not? Discuss with a classmate.
6. Find an example of a bogus or less than credible Web site. Indicate why you perceive it to be untrustworthy, and share it with your classmates.
7. Visit the parody Web site The Onion at http://www.theonion.com and find one story that you think has plausible or believable elements. Share your findings with the class.
1Adapted from Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2007). The miniature guide to critical thinking: Concepts and tools. Dillon Beach, CA: The Foundation for Critical Thinking Press. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_English_for_Success/10%3A_Writing_Preparation/10.04%3A_Ethics_Plagiarism_and_Reliable_Sources.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Demonstrate your ability to manage your time and successfully conduct research and investigation for a writing assignment.
Once you become immersed in your sources, it can be easy to get carried away in the pursuit of information and lose sight of why you are doing all this research and investigation. As a responsible writer, you will need to plan not only how you will begin your information gathering, but also how you will bring it to a conclusion.
Managing Your Time
Given the limited time for research involved in most business writing, how can you make the most of your information-gathering efforts? Part of learning to write effectively involves learning to read quickly and efficiently while conducting research. You are not required to read each word, and if you did, you would slow yourself down greatly. At the same time, if you routinely skip large sections of print and only focus on the bullet lists, you may miss valuable examples that could inspire you in your writing.
How can you tell when to skim and when to pay attention to detail? One strategy is to look for abstracts (or brief summaries of information) before you commit time to reading an article all the way through. Look for indexes to identify key terms you might want to cover before eliminating them as you narrow your topic.
As we mentioned earlier in this chapter, it is smart to make a list of your sources as you search; you may also want to bookmark pages with you Web browser. Sometimes a source that does not look very promising may turn out to offer key information that will drive home an important point in your document. If you have done a good job of recording your sources, it will be easy to go back to a site or source that at first you passed over, but now think may make a relevant contribution.
Compiling Your Information
Patricia Andrews, James Andrews, and Glen Williams provide a useful outline of a process to consider when compiling your information. Compiling involves composing your document out of materials from other documents or sources. This process has seven major steps, adapted from the Andrews, Andrews, and Williams model, which we will consider: sensitivity, exposure, assimilation and accommodation, incubation, incorporation, production and revision.
Let’s say your letter introducing skydiving to a new audience was relatively successful and the regional association asks you to write a report on the status of skydiving services in your region, with the hope that the comprehensive guide may serve to direct and enhance class enrollment across the region. Your task has considerably expanded and involves more research, but given the opportunity this assignment presents, you are excited at the challenge. As you begin to research, plan, and design the document, you will touch on the process of compiling information. If you are aware of each step, your task can be accomplished effectively and efficiently.
Sensitivity refers to your capacity to respond to stimulation, being excited, responsive or susceptible to new information. This starts with a self-inventory of your current or past interests and activities. If you are intrigued by a topic or area of interest, your enthusiasm will carry through to your document and make it more stimulating for your reading audience. You may not have considered, or even noticed elements or ideas associated with your topic, but now that you have begun the process of investigation, you see them everywhere. For example, have you ever heard someone say a word or phrase that you never heard before, but now that you are familiar with it, you hear it everywhere? This same principle applies to your sensitivity to ideas related to your topic. You’ll notice information and it will help you as you develop your awareness of your topic and the many directions you could take the speech. Cognitive psychologist use the term priming to refer to this excited state of awareness (Yaniv, I. & Meyer, D., 1987).
Exposure involves your condition of being presented views, ideas, or experiences made known to you through direct experience. If you are going to select a topic on flying but have never flown before, your level of exposure may be low. Your level of awareness may be high, however, in terms of the importance of security on airplanes after reading about, watching on television, or hearing on the radio stories after the events of September 11, 2001. You may decide to expose yourself to more information through a range of sources as you investigate the topic of airline security. And the more you become exposed to the issues, processes, and goals of your topic, the more likely you are to see areas of interest, new ideas that might fit in your speech, and form patterns of awareness you did not perceive earlier. We have previously discussed at length the importance of selection as a stage in the perceptual process, and selective exposure is one way you gain awareness. You may want to revisit this chapter as you develop your topic or choose where to look for information or decide what kinds of information to expose yourself to as you research your topic.
Assimilation and accommodation refer to the processes by which you assimilate (or integrate) new ideas into your thinking patterns and accommodate (or adopt, adapt, or filter out) new sources of information as they relate to your goal. You may have had preconceived notions or ideas about airline security before you began your investigation, but new information has changed the way you view your topic. You might also find issues (e.g., right to privacy) that may be points of conflict with your beliefs as you review information. This stage is important to the overall process of developing your topic, and it takes time. You need time to be able to contemplate, review, and reflect on how the new information fits or fails to connect clearly to your chosen topic.
Incubation is the process by which you cause an idea or ideas to develop in your mind. This might not happen all at once, and you might spend time thinking about the new information, directions, or ways you might develop or focus your topic. Consider the meaning of the word as it relates to chickens and eggs. An egg may be produced, but it needs time and a warm environment to develop. You might have an idea, but you need to create an environment for it to develop. This might involve further investigation and exploration, or it may involve removing yourself from active research to “digest” or “incubate” what you have already learned. You may feel stuck on an idea or perceive an inability to move on in the development of your ideas or topic, and giving it a rest may be the best course of action. You may also find that just when you least expect it, an idea, fully formed, flashes in your mind and you think, “Why didn’t I see that before?” Before the idea escapes you, write it down and make sure you can refer to it later.
Incorporation refers to the process by which you bring the information into a whole or complete topic. By now you have investigated, chosen some information over others, and have started to see how the pieces will come together. Your perceptions of how the elements come together will form the basis for your development of the organization of your document. It will contribute to the logos, or logic, of your thought and its representation in your document, and help you produce a coherent, organized message that your audience can follow clearly.
Production involves the act of creating your document from the elements you have gathered. You may start to consider what comes first, what goes last, and how you will link your ideas and examples together. You may find that you need additional information and need to go back to your notes that you have taken to find the source quickly and easily. You may also start to communicate with friends, sharing some of the elements or even practicing the first drafts of your document, learning where the connections are clear and where they need work.
Revision is the process by which you look over again in order to correct or improve your message. You will notice elements that need further investigation, development, or additional examples and visual aids as you produce your document. This is an important step to the overall production of your message, much like revising an essay for an English course. The first time you said, thought, or wrote something it may have made sense to you, but upon reflection and after trying an idea out, you need it to be revised in order to work effectively as part of your document. You may revisit the place in which you started (and start all speeches) by reconsidering the rhetorical situation and see if what you have produces is in line with the expectations of the audience. Your awareness of the content, audience, and purpose of the rhetorical situation will guide you through the revision process and contribute to the production of a more effective document.
Once you have gathered what you think is enough material—or, perhaps, once your eyes begin to glaze over—take a step back and return to the general and specific purpose of the document you set out to write. Look again at the basic elements (i.e., who, what, when, etc.) and fill in the “answers” based on what you have found. It is not unusual at this stage to have some “holes” in the information that require more research to fill. You may also realize that your research findings have disproved part or even all of your original agenda, making it necessary to change your message significantly.
Leave enough time before your deadline so that you can sketch out a detailed outline and rough draft of your document and leave it alone for at least a day. When you look at it again, it will probably be clear which additional details need more support, and you can perform targeted research to fill in those gaps.
Key Takeaway
Be mindful of your result and your time frame as you conduct your research and investigation. Allow enough time to let the writing rest before you return to it and make revisions.
Exercises
1. Choose a topic related to a career that interests you and think about how you would research that topic on the Internet. Set a timer for fifteen minutes. Ready, set, go! At the end of fifteen minutes, review the sources you have recorded in your list and think about the information you have found. How well did you use your limited time? Could you do better next time? Try it again.
2. Complete an Internet search of your name and report your findings to the class.
3. Complete an Internet search of your favorite product or service and report your findings to the class.
4. You’ve been assigned to a marketing team tasked to engage an audience just like you. Make a list of what services or products your target audience would find attractive. Pick one and develop a slogan that is sure to get attention. Share your results with the class. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_English_for_Success/10%3A_Writing_Preparation/10.05%3A_Completing_Your_Research_and_Investigation.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Understand different types of reading and analyzing that business documents encounter.
2. Demonstrate how to write for skimming and for analytical reading in at least one written document of each kind.
When you read, do you read each and every word? Do you skim over the document and try to identify key terms and themes? Do you focus on numbers and statistics, or ignore the text and go straight to the pictures or embedded video? Because people read in many diverse ways, you as a writer will want to consider how your audience may read and analyze your document.
Ever since Benjamin Franklin said that “time is money,” (Franklin, 1748) business managers have placed a high value on getting work done quickly. Many times, as a result, a document will be skimmed rather than read in detail. This is true whether the communication is a one-paragraph e-mail or a twenty-page proposal. If you anticipate that your document will be skimmed, it behooves you to make your main points stand out for the reader.
In an e-mail, use a “subject” line that tells the reader the gist of your message before he or she opens it. For example, the subject line “3 p.m. meeting postponed to 4 p.m.” conveys the most important piece of information; in the body of the e-mail you may explain that Wednesday’s status meeting for the XYZ project needs to be postponed to 4 p.m. because of a conflict with an offsite luncheon meeting involving several XYZ project team members. If you used the subject line “Wednesday meeting” instead, recipients might glance at their in-box, think, “Oh, I already know I’m supposed to attend that meeting,” and not read the body of the message. As a result, they will not find out that the meeting is postponed.
For a longer piece of writing such as a report or proposal, here are some techniques you can use to help the reader grasp key points.
• Present a quick overview, or “executive summary,” at the beginning of the document.
• Use boldface headings as signposts for the main sections and their subsections.
• Where possible, make your headings informative; for example, a heading like “Problem Began in 1992” is more informative than one that says “Background.”
• Within each section, begin each paragraph with a topic sentence that indicates what the paragraph discusses.
• When you have a list of points, questions, or considerations, format them with bullets rather than listing them in sentences.
• The “bottom line,” generally understood to mean the total cost of a given expenditure or project, can also refer to the conclusions that the information in the report leads to. As the expression indicates, these conclusions should be clearly presented at the end of the document, which is the place where the time-pressed reader will often turn immediately after reading the first page.
Imagine how unhappy you would be if you submitted a report and your audience came away with a message completely different from what you had intended. For example, suppose your manager is considering adopting a specific new billing system in your office and has asked you to report on the pros and cons of this system. You worked hard, gathered plenty of information, and wrote a detailed report which, in your opinion, gave strong support for adopting the new system.
However, the first few pages of your report described systems other than the one under consideration. Next, you presented the reasons not to implement the new system. Throughout the report, embedded in the body of several different paragraphs, you mentioned the advantages offered by the new system; but they were not grouped together so that you could emphasize them with a heading or other signpost for the reader. At the end of the report, you reviewed the current billing system and stated that few problems were encountered with it.
When you delivered your report, the manager and colleagues who received it missed your most important information and decided not to consider the new system any further. Worse, your manager later criticized you for spending too much time on the report, saying it was not very informative. Situations like this can be avoided if you provide a clear organizational framework to draw your reader’s attention to your main points.
Analyzing is distinct from reading. When you read, you attempt to grasp the author’s meaning via words and symbols, and you may come away with a general emotional feeling about what the writer has written instead of an arsenal of facts. When you analyze a document, you pay more attention to how the author assembled the information to present a coherent message. Business writing often involves communication via words and symbols in ways that meet audience expectations; in many cases, the audience needs to be able to analyze the content, and reading is secondary. For this reason, a solid organizational pattern will greatly enhance your document’s effectiveness.
Key Takeaway
Logical organization is important to promote reader understanding and analysis.
Exercises
1. Take a news article and mark it up to reveal its organizational structure. Does it have an informative opening paragraph? Does each additional paragraph begin with a topic sentence? Does it use subheadings? Is there a conclusion that follows logically from the information presented?
2. Find an article that you do not like and review it. State specific reasons why you dislike it and share your opinion with your classmates.
3. Find an article that you do like and review it. State specific reasons why you like it and share your opinion with your classmates.
4. You’ve been assigned to a sales team that has not been performing at optimal levels. Develop an incentive program to improve the team’s performance. Present your idea to the class. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_English_for_Success/10%3A_Writing_Preparation/10.06%3A_Reading_and_Analyzing.txt |
The Library of Congress is the nation’s oldest federal cultural institution and serves as the research arm of the U.S. Congress. It is also the largest library in the world, with millions of books, recordings, photographs, maps, and manuscripts in its collections. http://www.loc.gov/index.html
The Copyright Office of the Library of Congress offers a wide variety of resources for understanding copyright law and how to avoid plagiarism. http://www.copyright.gov
The Learning Center is designed to help educators and students develop a better sense of what plagiarism means in the information age, and to teach the planning, organizational, and citation skills essential for producing quality writing and research. www.plagiarism.org/learning_center/home.html
The New York Public Library’s Science, Industry, and Business Library (SIBL) is the nation’s largest public information center devoted solely to science and business. www.nypl.org/research/sibl
The Lippincott Library serves the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania, one of the world’s top business schools. http://www.library.upenn.edu/lippincott
Thunderbird School of Global Management operates Thunderbird Knowledge Network, an interactive forum on contemporary business issues delivered in stories, columns, videos, podcasts, and blogs. http://knowledgenetwork.thunderbird.edu/research
The Wall Street Journal is one of the most widely read sources of business news. http://online.wsj.com/home-page
Personalize your business news and analysis with Business Week’s member service, Business Exchange. bx.businessweek.com
INSEAD: The Business School for the World, one of the largest and most highly regarded schools for MBA, Executive MBA, and PhD degrees in business, makes its library resources available online. www.insead.edu/library/index.cfm
As an example of an industry trade association, the Association of Construction Project Managers (ACPM) is a voluntary association of specialist project management professionals working in the built environment. http://www.acpm.co.za
The United States Government’s Small Business Administration has a mandate to aid, counsel, assist and protect the interests of small business concerns, to preserve free competitive enterprise, and to maintain and strengthen the overall economy of our nation. http://www.sba.gov
The U.S. Department of Labor’s Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) sets the standards and conducts inspections to ensure safety and prevent accidents in the workplace. www.osha.gov
The Society for Human Resource Management is a key source of news and information on HR topics. http://www.shrm.org/Pages/default.aspx
The Chicago Board of Trade, the world’s oldest futures and options exchange, trades treasury bonds, corn, soybean, wheat, gold, silver, and other commodities. www.cbot.com
Yahoo! Finance is a useful site for tracking the Dow, S&P 500, and other major stock indices in the United States and abroad; it also has areas for financial news, investing, and personal finance. finance.yahoo.com
The Occupational Outlook Handbook, published every two years by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, describes hundreds of different types of jobs, the training and education each job requires, the typical earnings in that job, and more. www.bls.gov/OCO
CareerBuilder.com, which describes itself as the largest online job search site, offers a vast online and print network to help job seekers connect with employers. www.careerbuilder.com
According to its Web site, Fast Company “sets the agenda, charting the evolution of business through a unique focus on the most creative individuals sparking change in the marketplace.” www.fastcompany.com
LinkedIn, which has been described as the professional counterpart to social networking sites such as Facebook and MySpace, is an interconnected network of experienced professionals from around the world, representing 170 industries and 200 countries. http://www.linkedin.com
Intuit, maker of QuickBooks, Quicken, TurboTax, and other accounting software, provides a small business information center on its Web site. What would you expect to find here that is different from the resources a noncommercial source would offer? http://smallbusiness.intuit.com | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_English_for_Success/10%3A_Writing_Preparation/10.07%3A_Additional_Resources.txt |
The purpose of business writing is to communicate facts and ideas. In order to accomplish that purpose, each document has key components that need to be present in order for your reading audience to understand the message. These elements may seem simple to the point that you may question how any writer could neglect them. But if you take note of how often miscommunication and misunderstanding happen, particularly in written communications, you will realize that it happens all the time. Omission or neglect may be intentional, but it is often unintentional; the writer assumes (wrongly) that the reader will easily understand a concept, idea, or the meaning of the message.
• 11.1: Organization
From background to language, culture to education, there are many variables that come into play and make effective communication a challenge. Organization is the key to clear writing. Organize your document using key elements, an organizing principle, and an outline. Organize your paragraphs and sentences so that your audience can understand them, and use transitions to move from one point to the next.
• 11.2: Writing Style
An appropriate business writing style can be formal or informal, depending on the context, but it should always reflect favorably on the writer and the organization.
• 11.3: Making an Argument
The art of argument in writing involves presenting supportive, relevant, effective evidence for each point and doing it in a respectful and ethical manner.
• 11.4: Paraphrase and Summary versus Plagiarism
There is nothing wrong with quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing with credit to your original source, but presenting someone else’s work as if it were your own is plagiarism.
• 11.5: Additional Resources
Thumbnail: pixabay.com/photos/laptop-co...earch-2562325/
11: Writing
Learning Objectives
1. Understand how to develop and organize content in patterns that are appropriate for your document and audience.
2. Demonstrate your ability to order, outline, and emphasize main points in one or more written assignments.
3. Demonstrate how to compose logically organized paragraphs, sentences, and transitions in one or more written assignments.
The purpose of business writing is to communicate facts and ideas. In order to accomplish that purpose, each document has key components that need to be present in order for your reading audience to understand the message. These elements may seem simple to the point that you may question how any writer could neglect them. But if you take note of how often miscommunication and misunderstanding happen, particularly in written communications, you will realize that it happens all the time. Omission or neglect may be intentional, but it is often unintentional; the writer assumes (wrongly) that the reader will easily understand a concept, idea, or the meaning of the message. From background to language, culture to education, there are many variables that come into play and make effective communication a challenge. The degree to which you address these basic elements will increase the effectiveness of your documents. Each document must address the following:
• Who
• What
• When
• Where
• How
• (and sometimes) Why
If you have these elements in mind as you prepare your document, it will be easier to decide what to write and in what order. They will also be useful when you are reviewing your document before delivering it. If your draft omits any one of these elements or addresses it in an unclear fashion, you will know what you need to do to fix it.
Another way to approach organizing your document is with the classical proofs known as ethos, logos, and pathos. Ethos, or your credibility, will come through with your choice of sources and authority on the subject(s). Your logos, or the logic of your thoughts represented across the document, will allow the reader to come to understand the relationships among who, what, where, when, and so forth. If your readers cannot follow your logic they will lose interest, fail to understand your message, and possibly not even read it at all. Finally, your pathos, or passion and enthusiasm, will be reflected in your design and word choices. If your document fails to convey enthusiasm for the subject, how can you expect the reader to be interested? Every document, indeed every communication, represents aspects of these classical elements.
General Purpose and Thesis Statements
No matter what your business writing project involves, it needs to convey some central idea. To clarify the idea in your mind and make sure it comes through to your audience, write a thesis statement. A thesis statement, or central idea, should be short, specific, and to the point. Steven Beebe and Susan Beebe recommend five guiding principles when considering your thesis statement. The thesis statement should
1. be a declarative statement;
2. be a complete sentence;
3. use specific language, not vague generalities;
4. be a single idea;
5. reflect consideration of the audience.
This statement is key to the success of your document. If your audience has to work to find out what exactly you are talking about, or what your stated purpose or goal is, they will be less likely to read, be influenced, or recall what you have written. By stating your point clearly in your introduction, and then referring back to it in the body of the document and at the end, you will help your readers to understand and remember your message.
Organizing Principles
Once you know the basic elements of your message, you need to decide in what order to present them to your audience. A central organizing principle will help you determine a logical order for your information. One common organizing principle is chronology, or time: the writer tells what happened first, then what happened next, then what is happening now, and, finally, what is expected to happen in the future. Another common organizing principle is comparison: the writer describes one product, an argument on one side of an issue, or one possible course of action; and then compares it with another product, argument, or course of action.
As an example, let’s imagine that you are a business writer within the transportation industry and you have been assigned to write a series of informative pieces about an international initiative called the “TransAmerica Transportation System Study.” Just as the First Transcontinental Railroad once unified the United States from east to west, which was further reinforced by the Interstate Highway System, the proposed TransAmerica Transportation System will facilitate integrating the markets of Mexico, the United States, and Canada from north to south. Rail transportation has long been an integral part of the transportation and distribution system for goods across the Americas, and its role will be important in this new system.
In deciding how to organize your report, you have several challenges and many possibilities of different organizing principles to use. Part of your introduction will involve a historical perspective, and a discussion of the events that led from the First Transcontinental Railroad to the TransAmerica Transportation System proposal. Other aspects will include comparing the old railroad and highway systems to the new ones, and the transformative effect this will have on business and industry. You will need to acknowledge the complex relationships and challenges that collaboration has overcome, and highlight the common benefits. You will be called on to write informative documents as part of a public relations initiative, persuasive essays to underscore the benefits for those who prefer the status quo, and even write speeches for celebrations and awards.
Table \(1\) lists seventeen different organizing principles and how they might be applied to various pieces you would write about the TransAmerican Transportation System. The left column provides the name of the organizing principle. The center column explains the process of organizing a document according to each principle, and the third column provides an example.
Table \(1\): Organizing Principles
Organizing Principle Explanation of Process Example
1. Time (Chronological) Structuring your document by time shows a series of events or steps in a process, which typically has a beginning, middle, and end. “Once upon a time stories” follow a chronological pattern.
Before the First Transcontinental Railroad, the events that led to its construction, and its impact on early America. Additional examples may include the national highway projects and the development of reliable air freight.
Now we can consider the TransAmerica Transportation System and the similar and distinct events that led us to today.
2. Comparison Structuring your document by comparison focuses on the similarities and/or differences between points or concepts.
A comparison of pre– and post–First Transcontinental Railroad America, showing how health and life expectancy improved with the increased access to goods and services.
Another example could be drawn from air freight, noting that organ donation in one part of the country can now save a life in another state or on the opposite coast.
In a similar way, the TransAmerica Transportation System will improve the lives of the citizens of Mexico, the United States, and Canada.
3. Contrast Structuring your document by using contrasting points highlights the differences between items and concepts.
A contrast of pre– and post–First Transcontinental Railroad America showing how much time it took to communicate via letter, or how long it took to move out West. Just in time delivery and the modern highway system and trucking may serve as an example for contrast.
The TransAmerica Transportation System will reduce customs clearing time while increasing border security along the distribution network.
4. Cause and Effect Structuring your document by cause and effect structuring establishes a relationship between two events or situations, making the connection clear. The movement of people and goods out West grew considerably from 1750 to 1850. With the availability of a new and faster way to go West, people generally supported its construction. Both the modern highway and air transportation systems may serve as examples, noting how people, goods, and services can be delivered in drastically reduced time frames. Citizens of all three countries involved have increasingly been involved in trade, and movement across common borders through the TransAmerica Transportation System will enable the movement of goods and services with great efficiency.
5. Problem and Solution Structuring your document by problem and solution means you state the problem and detail how it was solved. This approach is effective for persuasive speeches. Manufacturers were producing better goods for less money at the start of the Industrial Revolution, but they lacked a fast and effective method of getting their goods to growing markets. The First Transcontinental Railroad gave them speed, economy, and access to new markets. Highways and air routes have dramatically increased this trend. In a similar way, this new system is the next evolutionary step in the integration and growth of our common marketplaces.
6. Classification (Categorical) Structuring your document by classification establishes categories.
At the time the United States considered the First Transcontinental Railroad, there were three main types of transportation: by water, by horse, and by foot.
Now rail, road, and air transportation are the norm across business and industry.
7. Biographical Structuring your document by biography means examining specific people as they relate to the central topic.
• 1804: Lewis and Clark travel 4,000 miles in over two years across America
• 1862: President Lincoln signs the Pacific Railroad Act
• 1876: The Transcontinental Express from New York arrives in San Francisco with a record-breaking time of 83 hours and 39 minutes
• 2009: President Obama can cross America by plane in less than 5 hours
• So why shouldn’t the ratio of time from import to consumer be reduced?
8. Space (Spatial) Structuring your document by space involves the parts of something and how they fit to form the whole. A train uses a heat source to heat water, create steam, and turn a turbine, which moves a lever, causing a wheel to move on a track. A package picked up from an office in New York in the morning is delivered to another in Los Angeles in the afternoon. From a Pacific port in Northern Mexico to a market in Chicago or Canada, this system unifies the movement of goods and services.
9. Ascending and Descending Structuring your document by ascending or descending order involves focusing on quantity and quality. One good story (quality) leads to the larger picture, or the reverse. A day in the life of a traveler in 1800. Incremental developments in transportation to the present, expressed through statistics, graphs, maps, and charts. A day in the life of a traveler in 1960, 1980, or even 2000, with visual examples of changes and trends may also contribute to the document. A day in the life of a traveler in 2009 compared to the relatively slow movement of goods and services, constrained by an antiquated transportation network that negatively impacts efficiency.
10. Psychological
It is also called “Monroe’s Motivated Sequence” (Ayres, 1994).
Structuring your document on the psychological aspects of the audience involves focusing on their inherent needs and wants. See Maslow and Schutz. The author calls attention to a need, then focuses on the satisfaction of the need, visualization of the solution, and ends with a proposed or historical action. Useful for a persuasive message.
When families in the year 1800 went out West, they rarely returned to see family and friends. The country as a whole was an extension of this distended family, separated by time and distance. The railroad, the highways, and air travel brought families and the country together. In the same way, common markets already exist across the three countries, but remain separated by time, distance, and an antiquated system scheduled for significant improvement.
11. Elimination Structuring your document using the process of elimination involves outlining all the possibilities.
The First Transcontinental Railroad helped pave the way for the destruction of the Native American way of life in 1870. After examining treaties, relocation and reservations, loss of the buffalo, disease, and war, the railroad can be accurately considered the catalyst for the end of an era.
From the lessons of history we can learn to protect and preserve our distinct cultures, languages, and sovereign territories as we integrate a common transportation system for our mutual benefit and security.
12. Example Structuring your document by example involves providing vivid, specific examples (as opposed to abstract representations of data) to support main points. Just as it once took weeks, even months, for a simple letter to move from coast to coast, goods and services have had a long and arduous process from importation to market. For example, the popular Christmas toy X, imported to Mexico from China in September, may well not be on store shelves by December 25 under the old system. Now it can move from importation to market in under two weeks.
13. Process and Procedure Structuring your document by process and procedure is similar to the time (chronological) organizational pattern with the distinction of steps or phases that lead to a complete end goal. This is often referred to as the “how-to” organizational pattern. From conception to design, manufacturing to packaging, to transportation and inspection, to sales and sales support, let’s examine how the new transportation system facilitates increased efficiency in delivery to market and product support.
14. Point Pattern Structuring your document in a series of points allows for the presentation of diverse assertions to be aligned in a cohesive argument with clear support. The TransAmerica Transportation System offers several advantages: security, speed, efficiency, and cost reduction.
15. Definition Structuring your document with a guiding definition allows for a clear introduction of terms and concepts while reducing the likelihood of misinterpretation. The TransAmerica Transportation System can be defined by its purpose, its integrated components, and its impact on the secure movement of goods and services across common borders.
16. Testimonial Structuring your document around a testimony, or first person account of an experience, can be an effective way to make an abstract concept clearer to an audience. According to Ms. X, owner of InterCountry Trading Company, it previously took 12 weeks to import, clear, and deliver a product from Mexico to the United States, and an additional four weeks to take delivery in Canada. Now the process takes less than two weeks.
17. Ceremonial (Events, Ceremonies, or Celebrations) Structuring your document by focusing on the following:
1. Thanking dignitaries and representatives
2. The importance of the event
3. The relationship of the event to the audience
4. Thanking the audience for participation in the event, ceremony, or celebration
Thanking the representatives, builders, and everyone involved with the construction of the TransAmerica Transportation System. The railroad will unite America, and bring us closer in terms of trade, communication, and family. Thank you for participating in today’s dedication.
Outlines
Chances are you have learned the basic principles of outlining in English writing courses: an outline is a framework that organizes main ideas and subordinate ideas in a hierarchical series of roman numerals and alphabetical letters. The right column of Table \(1\) presents a generic outline in a classical style. In the left column, the three main structural elements of an informative document are tied to the outline. Your task is to fill in the right column outline with the actual ideas and points you are making in your writing project. Feel free to adapt and tailor it to your needs, depending on the specifics of your report, letter, or other document.
Table \(2\): Outline 1
Introduction Main Idea
Body
I. Main idea: Point 1
Subpoint 1
A.1 specific information 1
A.2 specific information 2
Body
II. Main idea: Point 2
Subpoint 1
B.1 specific information 1
B.2 specific information 2
III. Main idea: Point 3
Subpoint 1
C.1 specific information 1
C.2 specific information 2
Conclusion Summary: Main points 1–3
Table \(3\) presents an alternate outline form that may be more suitable for brief documents like letters and e-mails. You can use this format as a model or modify it as needed.
Table \(3\): Outline 2
1 Introduction General purpose, statement, or thesis statement
2 Body Point 1:
Point 2:
Point 3:
3 Conclusion Summarize main points
Paragraphs
Paragraphs are how we package information in business communication, and the more efficient the package, the easier the meaning can be delivered.
You may wish to think of each paragraph as a small essay within a larger information platform, defined by a guiding thesis and an organizing principle. The standard five-paragraph essay format used on college term papers is mirrored in individual paragraphs. Often college essays have minimum or maximum word counts, but paragraphs hardly ever have established limits. Each paragraph focuses on one central idea. It can be as long or as short as it needs to be to get the message across, but remember your audience and avoid long, drawn-out paragraphs that may lose your reader’s attention.
Just as a document generally has an introduction, body, and conclusion, so does a paragraph. Each paragraph has one idea, thought, or purpose that is stated in an introductory sentence. This is followed by one or more supporting sentences and concluded with a summary statement and transition or link to the next idea, or paragraph. Let’s address each in turn:
• The topic sentence states the main thesis, purpose, or topic of the paragraph; it defines the subject matter to be addressed in that paragraph.
• Body sentences support the topic sentence and relate clearly to the subject matter of the paragraph and overall document. They may use an organizing principle similar to that of the document itself (chronology, contrast, spatial) or introduce a related organizing principle (point by point, process or procedure).
• The conclusion sentence brings the paragraph to a close; it may do this in any of several ways. It may reinforce the paragraph’s main point, summarize the relationships among the body sentences, and/or serve as a transition to the next paragraph.
Effective Sentences
We have talked about the organization of documents and paragraphs, but what about the organization of sentences? You have probably learned in English courses that each sentence needs to have a subject and a verb; most sentences also have an object. There are four basic types of sentences: declarative, imperative, interrogative, and exclamatory. Here are some examples:
• Declarative – You are invited to join us for lunch.
• Imperative – Please join us for lunch.
• Interrogative – Would you like to join us for lunch?
• Exclamatory – I’m so glad you can join us!
Declarative sentences make a statement, whereas interrogative sentences ask a question. Imperative sentences convey a command, and exclamatory sentences express a strong emotion. Interrogative and exclamatory sentences are easy to identify by their final punctuation, a question mark and an exclamation point, respectively. In business writing, declarative and imperative sentences are more frequently used.
There are also compound and complex sentences, which may use two or more of the four basic types in combination:
1. Simple sentence. Sales have increased.
2. Compound sentence. Sales have increased and profits continue to grow.
3. Complex sentence. Sales have increased and we have the sales staff to thank for it.
4. Compound complex sentence. Although the economy has been in recession, sales have increased, and we have sales staff to thank for it.
In our simple sentence, “sales” serves as the subject and “have increased” serves as the verb. The sentence can stand alone because it has the two basic parts that constitute a sentence. In our compound sentence we have two independent clauses that could stand alone; they are joined by the conjunction “and.” In our complex sentence, we have an independent clause, which can stand on its own, combined with a fragment (not a sentence) or dependent clause which, if it were not joined to the independent clause, would not make any sense. The fragment “and we have the sales staff to thank” on its own would have us asking “for what?” as the subject is absent. Complex compound sentences combine a mix of independent and dependent clauses, and at least one of the clauses must be dependent.
The ability to write complete, correct sentences is like any other skill—it comes with practice. The more writing you do, as you make an effort to use correct grammar, the easier it will become. Reading audiences, particularly in a business context, will not waste their time on poor writing and will move on. Your challenge as an effective business writer is to know what you are going to write and then to make it come across, via words, symbols, and images, in a clear and concise manner.
Sentences should avoid being vague and focus on specific content. Each sentence should convey a complete thought; a vague sentence fails to meet this criteria. The reader is left wondering what the sentence was supposed to convey.
• Vague – We can facilitate solutions in pursuit of success by leveraging our core strengths.
• Specific – By using our knowledge, experience, and capabilities, we can achieve the production targets for the coming quarter.
Effective sentences also limit the range and scope of each complete thought, avoiding needless complexity. Sometimes writers mistakenly equate long, complex sentences with excellence and skill. Clear, concise, and often brief sentences serve to communicate ideas and concepts in effective and efficient ways that complex, hard-to-follow sentences do not.
• Complex. Air transportation features speed of delivery in ways few other forms of transportation can match, including tractor-trailer and rail, and is readily available to the individual consumer and the corporate client alike.
• Clear. Air transportation is accessible and faster than railroad or trucking.
Effective sentences are complete, containing a subject and a verb. Incomplete sentences—also known as sentence fragments—demonstrate a failure to pay attention to detail. They often invite misunderstanding, which is the opposite of our goal in business communication.
• Fragments – Although air transportation is fast. Costs more than trucking.
• Complete – Although air transportation is fast, it costs more than trucking.
Effective business writing avoids bureaucratic language and phrase that are the hallmark of decoration. Decoration is a reflection of ritual, and ritual has its role. If you are the governor of a state, and want to make a resolution declaring today as HIV/AIDS Awareness Day, you are allowed to start the document with “Whereas” because of its ritual importance. Similarly, if you are writing a legal document, tradition calls for certain standard phrases such as “know all men by these presents.” However, in standard business writing, it is best to refrain from using bureaucratic phrases and ritualistic words that decorate and distract the reader from your clear, essential meaning. If the customer, client, or supplier does not understand the message the first time, each follow-up attempt to clarify the meaning through interaction is a cost. Table \(4\) presents a few examples of common bureaucratic phrases and standard English alternatives.
Table \(4\): Bureaucratic Phrases and Standard Alternatives
Bureaucratic Phrase Standard English Alternatives
At the present time Now, today
Concerning the matter of Regarding, about
Despite the fact that Although, while, even though
Due to the fact that Because, since, as
Implement an investigation of Find out, investigate
Inasmuch as Because, since, as
It has been suggested [name of person or organization] has suggested, said, or stated
It is believed that [name of person or organization] believes, thinks, or says that
It is the opinion of the author I believe, I think, in my opinion
Until such time as Until, when
With the exception of Except, apart from
In oral communication, repetition can be an effective strategy to reinforce a message, but in written communication it adds needless length to a document and impairs clarity.
• Redundant – In this day and age air transportation by air carrier is the clear winner over alternative modes of conveyance for speed and meeting tight deadlines.
• Clear – Today air transportation is faster than other methods.
When a writer states that something is a “true fact,” a group achieved a “consensus of opinion,” or that the “final outcome” was declared, the word choices reflect an unnecessary redundancy. A fact, consensus, or outcome need not be qualified with words that state similar concepts. If it is fact, it is true. A consensus, by definition, is formed in a group from diverse opinions. An outcome is the final result, so adding the word “final” repeats the fact unnecessarily.
In business writing we seek clear and concise writing that speaks for itself with little or no misinterpretation. The more complex a sentence becomes, the easier it is to lose track of its meaning. When we consider that it may read by someone for whom English is a second language, the complex sentence becomes even more problematic. If we consider its translation, we add another layer of complexity that can lead to miscommunication. Finally, effective sentences follow the KISS formula for success: Keep It Simple—Simplify!
Transitions
If you were going to build a house, you would need a strong foundation. Could you put the beams to hold your roof in place without anything to keep them in place? Of course not; they would fall down right away. In the same way, the columns or beams are like the main ideas of your document. They need to have connections to each other so that they become interdependent and stay where you want them so that your house, or your writing, doesn’t come crashing down.
Transitions involve words or visual devices that help the audience follow the author’s ideas, connect the main points to each other, and see the relationships you’ve created in the information you are presenting. They are often described as bridges between ideas, thought or concepts, providing some sense of where you’ve been and where you are going with your document. Transitions guide the audience in the progression from one significant idea, concept, or point to the next. They can also show the relationships between the main point and the support you are using to illustrate your point, provide examples for it, or refer to outside sources. Table \(5\) is a summary of fourteen different types of transitions. Consider them as you contemplate how to bring together your information and make notes on your outline.
Table \(5\): Types of Transitions in Writing
Type Definition Examples
1. Internal Previews An internal preview is a brief statement referring to a point you are going to make. It can forecast or foreshadow a main point in your document. If we look ahead to, next we’ll examine, now we can focus our attention on, first we’ll look at, then we’ll examine
2. Signposts A signpost alerts the audience you are moving from one topic to the next. Sign posts or signal words draw attention to themselves and focus the audience’s attention. Stop and consider, we can now address, turning from/to, another, this reminds me of, I would like to emphasize
3. Internal Summaries An internal summary briefly covers information or alludes to information introduced previously. It can remind an audience of a previous point and reinforce information covered in your document. As I have said, as we have seen, as mentioned earlier, in any event, in conclusion, in other words, in short, on the whole, therefore, to summarize, as a result, as has been noted previously,
4. Sequence A sequence transition outlines a hierarchical order or series of steps in your document. It can illustrate order or steps in a logical process. First…second…third, furthermore, next, last, still, also, and then, besides, finally
5. Time A time transition focuses on the chronological aspects of your order. Particularly useful in an article utilizing a story, this transition can illustrate for the audience progression of time. Before, earlier, immediately, in the meantime, in the past, lately, later, meanwhile, now, presently, shortly, simultaneously, since, so far, soon as long as, as soon as, at last, at length, at that time, then, until, afterward
6. Addition An addition or additive transition contributes to a previous point. This transition can build on a previous point and extend the discussion. Additionally, not to mention, in addition to, furthermore, either, neither, besides, on, in fact, as a matter of fact, actually, not only, but also, as well as
7. Similarity A transition by similarity draws a parallel between two ideas, concepts or examples. It can indicate a common area between points for the audience. In the same way, by the same token, equally, similarly, just as we have seen, in the same vein
8. Comparison A transition by comparison draws a distinction between two ideas, concepts or examples. It can indicate a common or divergent area between points for the audience. Like, in relation to, bigger than, the fastest, larger than, than any other, is bigger than, both, either…or, likewise
9. Contrast A transition by contrast draws a distinction of difference, opposition, or irregularity between two ideas, concepts or examples. This transition can indicate a key distinction between points for the audience. But, neither…nor, however on the other hand, although, despite, even though, in contrast, in spite of, on the contrary conversely, unlike, while instead, nevertheless, nonetheless, regardless, still, though, yet, although
Type Definition Examples
10. Cause and Effect, Result A transition by cause and effect or result illustrates a relationship between two ideas, concepts or examples and may focus on the outcome or result. It can illustrate a relationship between points for the audience. As a result, because, consequently, for this purpose, accordingly, so, then, therefore, thereupon, thus, to this end, for this reason, as a result, because , therefore, consequently, as a consequence, and the outcome was
11. Examples A transition by example illustrates a connection between a point and an example or examples. You may find visual aids work well with this type of transition. In fact, as we can see, after all, even, for example, for instance, of course, specifically, such as, in the following example, to illustrate my point
12. Place A place transition refers to a location, often in a spatially organized essay, of one point of emphasis to another. Again, visual aids work well when discussing physical location with the reading audience. opposite to, there, to the left, to the right, above, adjacent to, elsewhere, far, farther on, below, beyond, closer to, here, near, nearby, next to
13. Clarification A clarification transition restates or further develops a main idea or point. It can also serve as a signal to a key point. To clarify, that is, I mean, in other words, to put it another way that is to say, to rephrase it, in order to explain, this means
14. Concession A concession transition indicates knowledge of contrary information. It can address a perception the audience may hold and allow for clarification. We can see that while, although it is true that, granted that, while it may appear that, naturally, of course, I can see that, I admit that while
Key Takeaway
Organization is the key to clear writing. Organize your document using key elements, an organizing principle, and an outline. Organize your paragraphs and sentences so that your audience can understand them, and use transitions to move from one point to the next.
Exercises
1. What functions does organization serve in a document? Can they be positive or negative? Explain and discuss with a classmate.
2. Create an outline from a sample article or document. Do you notice an organizational pattern? Explain and discuss with a classmate.
3. Which of the following sentences are good examples of correct and clear business English? For sentences needing improvement, describe what is wrong and write a sentence that corrects the problem. Discuss your answers with your classmates.
1. Marlys has been chosen to receive a promotion next month.
2. Because her work is exemplary.
3. At such time as it becomes feasible, it is the intention of our department to facilitate a lunch meeting to congratulate Marlys
4. As a result of budget allocation analysis and examination of our financial condition, it is indicated that salary compensation for Marlys can be increased to a limited degree.
5. When will Marlys’s promotion be official?
6. I am so envious!
7. Among those receiving promotions, Marlys, Bob, Germaine, Terry, and Akiko.
8. The president asked all those receiving promotions come to the meeting.
9. Please attend a meeting for all employees who will be promoted next month.
10. Marlys intends to use her new position to mentor employees joining the firm, which will encourage commitment and good work habits.
4. Find an example of a poor sentence or a spelling or grammar error that was published online or in print and share your finding with the class. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_English_for_Success/11%3A_Writing/11.01%3A_Organization.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Demonstrate your ability to prepare and present information using a writing style that will increase understanding, retention, and motivation to act.
You are invited to a business dinner at an expensive restaurant that has been the top-rated dining establishment in your town for decades. You are aware of the restaurant’s dress code, which forbids casual attire such as jeans, T-shirts, and sneakers. What will you wear? If you want to fit in with the other guests and make a favorable impression on your hosts, you will choose a good quality suit or dress (and appropriately dressy shoes and accessories). You will avoid calling undue attention to yourself with clothing that is overly formal—an evening gown or a tuxedo, for example—or that would distract from the business purpose of the occasion by being overly revealing or provocative. You may feel that your freedom to express yourself by dressing as you please is being restricted, or you may appreciate the opportunity to look your best. Either way, adhering to these style conventions will serve you well in a business context.
The same is true in business writing. Unlike some other kinds of writing such as poetry or fiction, business writing is not an opportunity for self-expression. Instead it calls for a fairly conservative and unadorned style. Writing style, also known as voice or tone, is the manner in which a writer addresses the reader. It involves qualities of writing such as vocabulary and figures of speech, phrasing, rhythm, sentence structure, and paragraph length. Developing an appropriate business writing style will reflect well on you and increase your success in any career.
Formal versus Informal
There was a time when many business documents were written in third person to give them the impression of objectivity. This formal style was often passive and wordy. Today it has given way to active, clear, concise writing, sometimes known as “Plain English” (Bailey, 2008). As business and industry increasingly trade across borders and languages, writing techniques that obscure meaning or impede understanding can cause serious problems. Efficient writing styles have become the norm. Still, you will experience in your own writing efforts this “old school versus new school” writing debate over abbreviations, contractions, and the use of informal language in what was once considered a formal business context. Consider the following comparison of informal versus formal and bureaucratic styles.
Bureaucratic: Attached is the latest delivery data represented in topographical forms pursuant to the directive ABC123 of the air transportation guide supplied by the Federal Aviation Administration in September of 2008.
• Formal – Please note the attached delivery data for July 2009.
• Informal – Here’s the delivery data for last month.
While it is generally agreed that bureaucratic forms can obscure meaning, there is a debate on the use of formal versus informal styles in business communication. Formal styles often require more detail, adhere to rules of etiquette, and avoid shortcuts like contractions and folksy expressions. Informal styles reflect everyday speech patterns and may include contractions and colloquial expressions. Many managers prefer not to see contractions in a formal business context. Others will point out that a comma preceding the last item in a series (known as the “serial comma”) is the standard, not the exception. Some will make a general recommendation that you should always “keep it professional.” Here lies the heart of the debate: what is professional writing in a business context? If you answered “it depends,” you are correct.
Keep in mind that audiences have expectations and your job is to meet them. Some business audiences prefer a fairly formal tone. If you include contractions or use a style that is too casual, you may lose their interest and attention; you may also give them a negative impression of your level of expertise. If, however, you are writing for an audience that expects informal language, you may lose their interest and attention by writing too formally; your writing may also come across as arrogant or pompous. It is not that one style is better than the other, but simply that styles of writing vary across a range of options. Business writing may need to meet legal standards and include references, as we see in the bureaucratic example above, but that is generally not the norm for communications within an organization. The skilled business writer will know his or her audience and will adapt the message to best facilitate communication. Choosing the right style can make a significant impact on how your writing is received.
You may hear reference to a conversational tone in writing as one option in business communication. A conversational tone, as the name implies, resembles oral communication in style, tone, and word choice. It can be appropriate for some audiences, and may serve you well in specific contexts, but it can easily come across as less than professional.
If you use expressions that imply a relationship or a special awareness of information such as “you know,” or “as we discussed,” without explaining the necessary background, your writing may be seen as overly familiar, intimate, or even secretive. Trust is the foundation for all communication interactions and a careless word or phrase can impair trust.
If you want to use humor, think carefully about how your audience will interpret it. Humor is a fragile form of communication that requires an awareness of irony, of juxtaposition, or a shared sense of attitudes, beliefs, and values. Different people find humor in different situations, and what is funny to one person may be dull, or even hurtful, to someone else.
Although there are business situations such as an interview or a performance self-evaluation where you need to state your accomplishments, in general business writing it is best to avoid self-referential comments that allude to your previous successes. These can come across as selfish or arrogant. Instead, be generous in giving credit where credit is due. Take every opportunity to thank your colleagues for their efforts and to acknowledge those who contributed good ideas.
Jargon is a vocabulary that has been developed by people in a particular group, discipline, or industry, and it can be a useful shorthand as long as the audience knows its meaning. For example, when writing for bank customers, you could refer to “ATM transactions” and feel confident that your readers would know what you meant. It would be unnecessary and inappropriate to write “Automated Teller Machine transactions.” Similarly, if you were working in a hospital, you would probably use many medical terms in your interactions with other medical professionals. However, if you were a hospital employee writing to a patient, using medical jargon would be inappropriate, as it would not contribute to the patient’s understanding.
Finally, in a business context, remember that conversational style is not an excuse to use poor grammar, disrespectful or offensive slang, or profanity. Communication serves as the bridge between minds and your written words will represent you in your absence. One strategy when trying to use a conversation tone is to ask yourself, “Would I say it in this way to their face?” A follow-up question to consider is, “Would I say it in this way in front of everyone?” Your professional use of language is one the hallmark skills in business, and the degree to which you master its use will reflect itself in your success. Take care, take time, and make sure what you write communicates a professional tone that positively represents you and your organization.
Introductions: Direct and Indirect
Sometimes the first sentence is the hardest to write. When you know the two main opening strategies it may not make it any easier, but it will give a plan and form a framework. Business documents often incorporate one of two opening strategies regardless of their organizational pattern. The direct pattern states the main purpose directly, at the beginning, and leaves little room for misinterpretation. The indirect pattern, where you introduce your main idea after the opening paragraph, can be useful if you need a strong opening to get the attention of what you perceive may be an uninterested audience. Normally, if you expect a positive response from the reader you will choose a direct opening, being clear from the first sentence about your purpose and goal. If you do not expect a positive reception, or have to deliver bad news, you may want to be less direct. Each style has its purpose and use; the skilled business writer will learn to be direct and be able to present bad news with a positive opening paragraph.
Adding Emphasis
There are times when you will want to add emphasis to a word, phrase, or statistic so that it stands out from the surrounding text. The use of visual aids in your writing can be an excellent option, and can reinforce the written discussion. For example, if you write that sales are up 4 percent over this time last year, the number alone may not get the attention it deserves. If, however, near the text section you feature a bar graph demonstrating the sales growth figures, the representation of the information in textual and graphical way may reinforce its importance.
As you look across the top of your word processing program you may notice bold, italics, underline, highlights, your choice of colors, and a host of interesting fonts. Although it can be entertaining to experiment with these visual effects, do not use them just for the sake of decoration. Consistency and branding are important features of your firm’s public image, so you will want the visual aspects of your writing to support that image. Still, when you need to highlight an important fact or emphasize a key question in a report, your readers will appreciate your use of visual effects to draw their attention. Consider the following examples:
• Bullets can be effective when used with discretion.
Take care when using the following:
1. Numbers
2. With subheadings
3. In serial lists
4. As they can get
5. A bit overwhelming to the point where
6. The reader loses his or her interest
Emphasis can be influenced by your choice of font. Serif fonts, such as Times New Roman and Garamond, have decorative ends that make the font easy to read. Sans serif fonts, like Arial, lack these visual cues and often serve better as headers.
You can also vary the emphasis according to where you place information within a sentence:
• Maximum emphasis. Sales have increased across the United States because of our latest promotion efforts in our largest and most successful market.
• Medium emphasis. Because of our latest promotion efforts in our largest and most successful market, sales have increased across the United States.
• Minimum emphasis. The United States, which has experienced a sales increase, is our largest and most successful market.
The information at end of the sentence is what people often recall, and is therefore normally considered the location of maximum emphasis. The second best position for recall is the beginning of the sentence, while the middle of the sentence is the area with the least recall. If you want to highlight a point, place it at the beginning or end of the sentence, and if you want to deemphasize a point, the middle is your best option (McLean, 2003).
Active versus Passive Voice
You want your writing to be engaging. Which sentence would you rather read?
• A – All sales orders are processed daily by Mackenzie.
• B – Mackenzie processes all sales orders daily.
Most readers prefer sentence B, but why? You’ll recall that all sentences have a subject and a verb, but you may not have paid much attention to their functions. Let’s look at how the subject and verb function in these two sentences. In sentence A, the subject is “Mackenzie,” and the subject is the doer of the action expressed by the verb (processes). In sentence A, the subject is “sales orders,” and the subject is the receiver of the action expressed by the verb (are processed). Sentence A is written in active voice—a sentence structure in which the subject carries out the action. Sentence B is written in passive voice—a sentence structure in which the subject receives the action.
Active sentences tend to be shorter, more precise, and easier to understand. This is especially true because passive sentences can be written in ways that do not tell the reader who the doer of the action is. For example, “All sales orders are processed daily” is a complete and correct sentence in passive voice.
Active voice is the clear choice for a variety of contexts, but not all. When you want to deemphasize the doer of the action, you may write, “Ten late arrivals were recorded this month” and not even mention who was late. The passive form doesn’t place blame or credit, so it can be more diplomatic in some contexts. Passive voice allows the writer to avoid personal references or personal pronouns (he, she, they) to create a more objective tone. There are also situations where the doer of the action is unknown, as in “graffiti was painted on the side of our building last night.”
Overall, business communication resources tend to recommend active voice as the preferred style. Still, the styles themselves are not the problem or challenge, but it is how we use them that matters. A skilled business writer will see both styles as options within a range of choices and learn to distinguish when each style is most appropriate to facilitate communication.
Commonly Confused Words
The sentences in Table \(6\) focus on some of the most common errors in English. You may recall this exercise from the introduction of this chapter. How did you do? Visit the “Additional Resources” section at the end of the chapter for some resources on English grammar and usage.
Table \(1\) Common Errors in English
1. accept or except The office will _______ applications until 5 p.m. on the 31st. accept Attendance is required for all employees _______ supervisors. except
2. affect or effect To _______ the growth of plants, we can regulate the water supply. affect A lack of water has a predictable _______ on most plants. effect
3. e.g. or i.e. Please order 2,000 imprinted giveaways (_______, pens or coffee mugs) e.g. Charge them to my account (_______, account #98765). i.e.
4. its or it’s The department surpassed _______ previous sales record this quarter. its _______ my opinion that we reached peak oil in 2008. It’s
5. lay or lie Please _______ the report on the desk. lay The doctor asked him to _______ down on the examination table. lie
6. pressure or pressurize We need to _______ the liquid nitrogen tanks. pressurize It might be possible to _______ him to resign. pressure
7. principle or principal It’s the basic _________ of farming: no water, no food. principle The _______ reason for the trip is to attend the sales meeting. principal
8. regardless or irregardless _______ of what we do, gas prices are unlikely to go back down. Regardless _______ of your beliefs, please try to listen with an open mind. Regardless (Irregardless is not a standard word; see your dictionary)
9. than or then This year’s losses were worse _______ last year’s. than If we can cut our costs, _______ it might be possible to break even. then
10. that or which _______ type of marketing data did you need? Which Karen misplaced the report, _______ caused a delay in making a decision. which
There are several kinds of data _______ could be useful. that
11 there their, or they’re The report is _________, in the top file drawer. there __________ strategic advantage depends on a wide distribution network. Their
__________ planning to attend the sales meeting in Pittsburgh. They’re
12. to, too, or two Customers need _______ drive slower if they want to save gas. to After sales meeting, you should visit customers in the Pittsburgh area _______. too
In fact, the _______ of you should make some customer visits together. two
13. uninterested or disinterested He would be the best person to make a decision, since he isn’t biased and is relatively _______ in the outcome. disinterested The sales manager tried to speak dynamically, but the sales reps were simply _______ in what he had to say. uninterested
14. who, whom, who’s, or whose __________ truck is that? Whose __________ going to pay for the repairs? Who’s
__________ will go to the interview? Who To __________ should we address the thank-you note? whom
15 your or you’re My office is bigger than _______ cubicle. your _______ going to learn how to avoid making these common mistakes in English. You’re
Making Errors at the Speed of Light
In business and industry there is increasing pressure to produce under deadlines that in some respects have been artificially accelerated by the immediacy inherent in technological communication devices. If you receive an e-mail or text message while you are in the middle of studying a complex problem, you may be tempted to “get it out of the way” by typing out a quick reply, but in your haste you may fail to qualify, include important information, or even check to make sure you have hit “Reply” and not “Reply to All” or even “Delete.” Take care to pause and review your text message, e-mail, or document before you consider it complete. Here is a quick electronic communication do/don’t list to keep in mind before you click “send.”
Do remember the following:
• Everything you access via an employer’s system is subject to inspection.
• Everything you write or record reflects you and your business or organization, even if it is stored in a Google or Yahoo! account.
• Respect personal space by not forwarding every e-mail you think is funny.
• Use a concise but relevant and informative phrase for the subject line.
• E-mail the receiver before sending large attachments, as they may exceed the limit of the receiver’s in-box.
• Attach your intended attachments.
Key Takeaway
An appropriate business writing style can be formal or informal, depending on the context, but it should always reflect favorably on the writer and the organization.
Exercises
1. Select at least three examples of writing from different kinds of sources, such as a government Web site, a textbook, a popular magazine, and a novel. According to the style characteristics discussed in this section, how would you characterize the style of each? Select a paragraph to rewrite in a different style—for example, if the style is formal, make it informal; if the selection is written in active voice, make it passive. Discuss your results with your classmates.
2. What are some qualities of a good business writing style? What makes certain styles more appropriate for business than others? Discuss your thoughts with a classmate.
3. Find an example of formal writing and write an informal version. Please share with your classmates.
4. Find an example of informal writing and write a formal version. Please share with your classmates
5. You are assigned to a work team that has to come up with a formal declaration and an informal explanation for the declaration. The declaration could be a memo indicating that your business will be observing a holiday (each team should have a different holiday).
6. How would you characterize your writing style? Do you need to make modifications to make your style suitable for business writing? Write a one- to two-page essay on this subject. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_English_for_Success/11%3A_Writing/11.02%3A_Writing_Style.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Demonstrate how to form a clear argument with appropriate support to persuade your audience.
2. Recognize and understand inherent weaknesses in fallacies.
According to the famous satirist Jonathan Swift, “Argument is the worst sort of conversation.” You may be inclined to agree. When people argue, they are engaged in conflict and it’s usually not pretty. It sometimes appears that way because people resort to fallacious arguments or false statements, or they simply do not treat each other with respect. They get defensive, try to prove their own points, and fail to listen to each other.
But this should not be what happens in written argument. Instead, when you make an argument in your writing, you will want to present your position with logical points, supporting each point with appropriate sources. You will want to give your audience every reason to perceive you as ethical and trustworthy. Your audience will expect you to treat them with respect, and to present your argument in a way that does not make them defensive. Contribute to your credibility by building sound arguments and using strategic arguments with skill and planning.
In this section we will briefly discuss the classic form of an argument, a more modern interpretation, and finally seven basic arguments you may choose to use. Imagine that these are tools in your toolbox and that you want to know how each is effectively used. Know that the people who try to persuade you—from telemarketers to politicians—usually have these tools at hand.
Let’s start with a classical rhetorical strategy. It asks the rhetorician, speaker, or author to frame arguments in the following steps:
Table \(1\)L Classical Rhetorical Strategy
1. Exordium Prepares the audience to consider your argument
2. Narration Provides the audience with the necessary background or context for your argument
3. Proposition Introduces your claim being argued in the document
4. Confirmation Offers the audience evidence to support your argument
5. Refutation Introduces to the audience and then discounts or refutes the counterarguments or objections
6. Peroration Your conclusion of your argument
This is a standard pattern in rhetoric and you will probably see it in both speech and English courses. The pattern is useful to guide you in preparing your document and can serve as a valuable checklist to insure you are prepared. While this formal pattern has distinct advantages, you may not see it used exactly as indicated here on a daily basis. What may be more familiar to you is Stephen Toulmin’s rhetorical strategy, which focuses on three main elements (Table \(2\)).
Table \(2\) Toulmin’s Three-Part Rhetorical Strategy
Element Description Example
1. Claim Your statement of belief or truth It is important to spay or neuter your pet.
2. Data Your supporting reasons for the claim Millions of unwanted pets are euthanized every year.
3. Warrant You create the connection between the claim and the supporting reasons Pets that are spayed or neutered do not reproduce, preventing the production of unwanted animals.
Toulmin’s rhetorical strategy is useful in that it makes the claim explicit, clearly illustrates the relationship between the claim and the data, and allows the reader to follow the writer’s reasoning. You may have a good idea or point, but your audience will want to know how you arrived at that claim or viewpoint. The warrant addresses the inherent and often unsaid question, “Why is this data so important to your topic?” In so doing, it helps you to illustrate relationships between information for your audience.
Effective Argumentation Strategies: GASCAP/T
Here is a useful way of organizing and remembering seven key argumentative strategies:
1. Argument by Generalization
2. Argument by Analogy
3. Argument by Sign
4. Argument by Consequence
5. Argument by Authority
6. Argument by Principle
7. Argument by Testimony
Richard Fulkerson notes that a single strategy is sufficient to make an argument some of the time, but it is often better to combine several strategies to make an effective argument (Fulkerson, 1996). He organized the argumentative strategies in this way to compare the differences, highlight the similarities, and allow for their discussion. This model, often called by its acronym GASCAP, is a useful strategy to summarize six key arguments and is easy to remember. Here we have adapted it, adding one argument that is often used in today’s speeches and presentations, the argument by testimony. Table \(3\) presents each argument, provides a definition of the strategy and an example, and examines ways to evaluate each approach.
Table \(3\): GASCAP/T Strategies
Argument by Claim Example Evaluation
G Generalization Whatever is true of a good example or sample will be true of everything like it or the population it came from. If you can vote, drive, and die for your country, you should also be allowed to buy alcohol. STAR System: For it to be reliable, we need a (S) sufficient number of (T) typical, (A) accurate, and (R) reliable examples.
A Analogy Two situations, things or ideas are alike in observable ways and will tend to be alike in many other ways Alcohol is a drug. So is tobacco. They alter perceptions, have an impact physiological and psychological systems, and are federally regulated substances. Watch for adverbs that end in “ly,” as they qualify, or lessen the relationship between the examples. Words like “probably,” “maybe,” “could, “may,” or “usually” all weaken the relationship.
S Sign Statistics, facts, or cases indicate meaning, much like a stop sign means “stop.” Motor vehicle accidents involving alcohol occur at significant rates among adults of all ages in the United States. Evaluate the relationship between the sign and look for correlation, where the presenter says what the facts “mean.” Does the sign say that? Does it say more? What is not said? Is it relevant?
C Cause If two conditions always appear together, they are causally related. The U.S. insurance industry has been significantly involved in state and national legislation requiring proof of insurance, changes in graduated driver’s licenses, and the national change in the drinking age from age 18 to age 21. Watch out for “after the fact, therefore because of the fact” (post hoc, ergo propter hoc) thinking. There might not be a clear connection, and it might not be the whole picture. Mothers Against Drunk Driving might have also been involved with each example of legislation.
A Authority What a credible source indicates is probably true. According to the National Transportation Safety Board, older drivers are increasingly involved in motor vehicle accidents. Is the source legitimate and is their information trustworthy? Institutes, boards, and people often have agendas and distinct points of view.
P Principle An accepted or proper truth The change in the drinking age was never put to a vote. It’s not about alcohol, it’s about our freedom of speech in a democratic society. Is the principle being invoked generally accepted? Is the claim, data or warrant actually related to the principle stated? Are there common exceptions to the principle? What are the practical consequences of following the principle in this case?
T Testimony Personal experience I’ve lost friends from age 18 to 67 to alcohol. It impacts all ages, and its effects are cumulative. Let me tell you about two friends in particular. Is the testimony authentic? Is it relevant? Is it representative of other’s experiences? Use the STAR system to help evaluate the use of testimony.
Evidence
Now that we’ve clearly outlined several argument strategies, how do you support your position with evidence or warrants? If your premise or the background from which you start is valid, and your claim is clear and clearly related, the audience will naturally turn their attention to “prove it.” This is where the relevance of evidence becomes particularly important. Here are three guidelines to consider in order to insure your evidence passes the “so what?” test of relevance in relation to your claim. Make sure your evidence has the following traits:
1. Supportive. Examples are clearly representative, statistics are accurate, testimony is authoritative, and information is reliable.
2. Relevant. Examples clearly relate to the claim or topic, and you are not comparing “apples to oranges.”
3. Effective. Examples are clearly the best available to support the claim, quality is preferred to quantity, there are only a few well-chosen statistics, facts, or data.
Appealing to Emotions
While we’ve highlighted several points to consider when selecting information to support your claim, know that Aristotle strongly preferred an argument based in logic over emotion. Can the same be said for your audience, and to what degree is emotion and your appeal to it in your audience a part of modern life?
Emotions are a psychological and physical reaction, such as fear or anger, to stimuli that we experience as a feeling. Our feelings or emotions directly impact our own point of view and readiness to communicate, but also influence how, why, and when we say things. Emotions influence not only how you say or what you say, but also how you hear or what you hear. At times, emotions can be challenging to control. Emotions will move your audience, and possibly even move you, to change or act in certain ways.
Aristotle thought the best and most preferable way to persuade an audience was through the use of logic, free of emotion. He also recognized that people are often motivated, even manipulated, by the exploitation of their emotions. In a business context, we still engage in this debate, demanding to know the facts separate from personal opinion or agenda, but see the use of emotional appeal to sell products.
Marketing experts are famous for creating a need or associating an emotion with a brand or label in order to sell it. You will speak the language of your audience in your document, and may choose to appeal to emotion, but you need to consider how the strategy works, as it may be considered a tool that has two edges.
If we think of the appeal to emotion as a knife, we can see it has two edges. One edge can cut your audience, and the other can cut you. If you advance an appeal to emotion in your document on spaying and neutering pets, and discuss the millions of unwanted pets that are killed each year, you may elicit an emotional response. If you use this approach repeatedly, your audience may grow weary of this approach, and it will lose its effectiveness. If you change your topic to the use of animals in research, the same strategy may apply, but repeated attempts to elicit an emotional response may backfire (i.e., in essence “cutting” you) and produce a negative response called “emotional resistance.”
Emotional resistance involves getting tired, often to the point of rejection, of hearing messages that attempt to elicit an emotional response. Emotional appeals can wear out the audience’s capacity to receive the message. As Aristotle outlined, ethos (credibility), logos (logic), and pathos (passion, enthusiasm, and emotional response) constitute the building blocks of any document. It’s up to you to create a balanced document, where you may appeal to emotion, but choose to use it judiciously.
On a related point, the use of an emotional appeal may also impair your ability to write persuasively or effectively. For example, if you choose to present an article about suicide to persuade people against committing it and you start showing a photo of your brother or sister that you lost to suicide, your emotional response may cloud your judgment and get in the way of your thinking. Never use a personal story, or even a story of someone you do not know, if the inclusion of that story causes you to lose control. While it’s important to discuss relevant topics, you need to assess your relationship to the message. Your documents should not be an exercise in therapy. Otherwise, you will sacrifice ethos and credibility, even your effectiveness, if you “lose it” because you are really not ready to discuss the issue.
Recognizing Fallacies
“Fallacy” is another way of saying false logic. Fallacies or rhetorical tricks deceive your audience with their style, drama, or pattern, but add little to your document in terms of substance. They are best avoided because they can actually detract from your effectiveness. There are several techniques or “tricks” that allow the writer to rely on style without offering substantive argument, to obscure the central message, or twist the facts to their own gain. Table \(4\) examines the eight classical fallacies. Learn to recognize them so they can’t be used against you, and learn to avoid using them with your audience.
Table \(4\) Fallacies
Fallacy Definition Example
1. Red Herring Any diversion intended to distract attention from the main issue, particularly by relating the issue to a common fear. It’s not just about the death penalty; it’s about the victims and their rights. You wouldn’t want to be a victim, but if you were, you’d want justice.
2. Straw Man A weak argument set up to easily refute and distract attention from stronger arguments. Look at the idea that criminals who commit murder should be released after a few years of rehabilitation. Think of how unsafe our streets would be then!
3. Begging the Question Claiming the truth of the very matter in question, as if it were already an obvious conclusion. We know that they will be released and unleashed on society to repeat their crimes again and again.
4. Circular Argument The proposition is used to prove itself. Assumes the very thing it aims to prove. Related to begging the question. Once a killer, always a killer.
5. Ad Populum Appeals to a common belief of some people, often prejudicial, and states everyone holds this belief. Also called the bandwagon fallacy, as people “jump on the bandwagon” of a perceived popular view. Most people would prefer to get rid of a few “bad apples” and keep our streets safe.
6. Ad Hominem or “Argument against the Man” Argument against the man instead of his message. Stating that someone’s argument is wrong solely because of something about the person rather than about the argument itself. Our representative is a drunk and philanderer. How can we trust him on the issues of safety and family?
7. Non Sequitur or “It Does Not Follow” The conclusion does not follow from the premises. They are not related. Since the liberal 1960s, we’ve seen an increase in convicts who got let off death row.
8. Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc or “After This, Therefore because of This” It is also called a coincidental correlation. Violent death rates went down once they started publicizing executions.
Ethical Considerations in Persuasion
In his book Ethics in Human Communication, Richard Johannesen offers eleven points to consider when communicating. Although they are related to public speaking, they are also useful in business writing. You may note that many of his cautions are clearly related to the fallacies we’ve discussed. His main points reiterate many of the points across this chapter and should be kept in mind as you prepare, and present, your persuasive message Johannesen, 1996).
Do not
• use false, fabricated, misrepresented, distorted, or irrelevant evidence to support arguments or claims;
• intentionally use unsupported, misleading, or illogical reasoning;
• represent yourself as informed or an “expert” on a subject when you are not;
• use irrelevant appeals to divert attention from the issue at hand;
• ask your audience to link your idea or proposal to emotion-laden values, motives, or goals to which it is actually not related;
• deceive your audience by concealing your real purpose, your self-interest, the group you represent, or your position as an advocate of a viewpoint;
• distort, hide, or misrepresent the number, scope, intensity, or undesirable features of consequences or effects;
• use emotional appeals that lack a supporting basis of evidence or reasoning;
• oversimplify complex, gradation-laden situations into simplistic, two-valued, either-or, polar views or choices;
• pretend certainty where tentativeness and degrees of probability would be more accurate;
• advocate something that you yourself do not believe in.
Aristotle said the mark of a good person, well spoken, was a clear command of the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion. He discussed the idea of perceiving the various points of view related to a topic and their thoughtful consideration. While it’s important to be able to perceive the complexity of a case, you are not asked to be a lawyer and defend a client.
In your message to persuade, consider honesty and integrity as you assemble your arguments. Your audience will appreciate your thoughtful consideration of more than one view and your understanding of the complexity of the issue, thus building your ethos, or credibility, as you present your document. Be careful not to stretch the facts, or assemble them only to prove your point; instead, prove the argument on its own merits. Deception, coercion, intentional bias, manipulation and bribery should have no place in your message to persuade.
Key Takeaway
The art of argument in writing involves presenting supportive, relevant, effective evidence for each point and doing it in a respectful and ethical manner.
Exercises
1. Select a piece of persuasive writing such as a newspaper op-ed essay, a magazine article, or a blog post. Examine the argument, the main points, and how the writer supports them. Which strategies from the foregoing section does the writer use? Does the writer use any fallacies or violate any ethical principles? Discuss your results with your classmates.
2. Find one slogan or logo that you perceive as persuasive and share it with your classmates.
3. Find an example of a piece of writing that appears to want to be persuasive, but doesn’t get the job done. Write a brief review and share it with classmates.
4. In what ways might the choice of how to organize a document involve ethics? Explain your response and discuss it with your class. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_English_for_Success/11%3A_Writing/11.03%3A_Making_an_Argument.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Understand the difference between paraphrasing or summarizing and plagiarism.
2. Demonstrate how to give proper credit to sources that are quoted verbatim, and sources whose ideas are paraphrased or summarized.
3. Demonstrate your ability to paraphrase in one or more written assignments.
Even if you are writing on a subject you know well, you will usually get additional information from other sources. How you represent others’ ideas, concepts, and words is critical to your credibility and the effectiveness of your document. Let’s say you are reading a section of a document and find a point that relates well to your current writing assignment. How do you represent what you have read in your work? You have several choices.
One choice is simply to reproduce the quote verbatim, or word for word, making sure that you have copied all words and punctuation accurately. In this case, you will put quotation marks around the quoted passage (or, if it is more than about fifty words long, inset it with wider margins than the body of your document) and give credit to the source. The format you use for your source citation will vary according to the discipline or industry of your audience; common formats include APA (American Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), and CMS (Chicago Manual of Style).
Another common strategy in business writing is to paraphrase, or rewrite the information in your own words. You will relate the main point, but need to take care not to copy the original. You will give credit where credit is due, but your citation will be more informal, such as “A Wall Street Journal article dated July 8, 2009, described some of the disagreements among G-8 nations about climate change.” Here are several steps that can help you paraphrase a passage while respecting its original author:
1. Read the passage out loud, paying attention to the complete thought rather than the individual words.
2. Explain the concept in your own words to a friend or colleague, out loud, face-to-face.
3. Write the concept in your own words, and add one or more illustrative examples of the concept that are meaningful to you.
4. Reread the original passage and see how your version compares with it in terms of grammar, word choice, example, and conveyance of meaning.
5. If your writing parrots the original passage or merely substitutes synonyms for words in the original, return to step one and start over, remembering that your goal is to express the central concepts, not to “translate” one word into another.
6. When you are satisfied that your expression of the concept can stand on its own merit, include it in your document and cite the original author as the source of the idea.
Summarizing information is another common way of integrating information into your original work that requires care and attention to detail. To summarize is to reduce a concept, idea, or data set to its most basic point or element. You may have a literature survey to summarize related information in the field under consideration, or a section on background to serve a similar purpose. Suppose you are reporting on a business situation and it occurs to you that one of Shakespeare’s plays has a plot that resembles your situation. You may wish to summarize the Shakespeare play in a few sentences before drawing parallels between it and your current situation. This may help readers to remember and understand your report. Regardless of how or where you incorporate a summary within your document, give attention to its original context and retain its essential meaning free of distortion in the new context of your writing.
Because summarizing is an act of reductionism, some of the original richness in detail that surrounds the original will be necessarily lost. Think of a photograph you have taken in the past that featured several people you know. Using a software program that allows you to modify and manipulate the image, draw a box around only one face. Delete the rest of the contents of the photo so only the information in the box remains. Part of the photo is intact, and one person has become the focal point for the image, but the context has been lost. In the same way, if you focus on one statistic, one quote, or one idea and fail to capture its background you will take the information out of context. Context is one of the eight components of communication, and without it, the process breaks down. While you cannot retain all the definition and detail of the original context in a brief summary, effort to represent the essential point within its context is essential or you risk distortion of the original meaning.
Unlike quoting or paraphrasing, summarizing is something you can—and will—also do to the material you have written. You may start your document with a summary of the background that gives the document purpose. Formal business reports often begin with an executive summary, and scientific articles usually begin with an abstract; both of these serve as a brief preview of the information in the full document. You may write a brief internal summary after each main discussion point in a lengthy document; this will serve to remind your reader of the discussion to date and to establish the context for the upcoming point. Finally, a summary is a very common, and often effective, way to conclude a document. Ending your writing with a summary helps your reader to remember your main points.
Plagiarism is neither paraphrasing nor summarizing information from other works. Plagiarism is representing another’s work as your own. Professional standards, which are upheld in all fields from architecture to banking to zoology, all involve the elements of authenticity and credibility. Credit is given where credit is due, authorities in the field are appropriately cited or referenced, and original writing is expected to be exactly that. Patch writing, or the verbatim cut-and-paste insertion of fragments, snippets, or small sections of other publications into your own writing without crediting the sources, is plagiarism. Wholesale copying of other works is also plagiarism. Both destroy your professional credibility, and fail to uphold common professional standards.
Colleges and universities have policies against plagiarism, and within business and industry, the negative impact on credibility and careers often exceeds any academic punishment. There is no shame in quoting someone else’s work while giving credit, nor in paraphrasing a point correctly or summarizing the research results of a study you did not perform; but there are significant consequences to representing other’s ideas as your own.
Aside from the fear of punishment, a skilled business writer should recognize that intellectual theft is wrong. You may be tempted to borrow a sentence; however, know your document will be represented in many ways across time, and more than one career has been destroyed by plagiarism discovered years after the fact. The accomplished business writer should take as a compliment the correct citation and reference of their work. The novice business writer should learn by example but refrain from cut and paste strategies to complete a document.
In a world where most modern documents are accessible in some form online, the ability to cross-reference information with a couple of key strokes makes plagiarism a self-defeating solution when better alternatives exist. Quote and give credit, link to related documents with permission, paraphrase and summarize with citation, but do not plagiarize.
Key Takeaway
There is nothing wrong with quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing with credit to your original source, but presenting someone else’s work as if it were your own is plagiarism.
Exercises
1. Select a piece of writing such as an essay from a Web site, a book chapter, or a newspaper or magazine article. Write a paraphrase of a portion of it. Write a brief summary of the entire piece. Note the difference between the two techniques. Giving credit to the original piece, discuss your paraphrase and summary with your classmates.
2. Find an example of an advertisement you perceive as particularly effective and write a one-sentence summary. Share the advertisement and your one-sentence summary with the class.
3. Find an example of an advertisement you perceive as particularly ineffective and write a one-sentence summary. Share the advertisement and your one sentence review with the class.
4. Find a case where plagiarism or misrepresentation had consequences in the business world. Share your findings and discuss with classmates.
11.05: Additional Resources
Read an informative article about outlines and get a sample outline template. http://www.essaywritinghelp.com/outline.htm
This Writing Tutorials site from John Jay College of Criminal Justice offers a menu of tools for composing a thesis statement, an outline, well-constructed paragraphs, and more. resources.jjay.cuny.edu/erc/writing/index.php.
This RefDesk.com page offers a compendium of different resources for English grammar and usage. http://www.refdesk.com/factgram.html
Read an article on avoiding bureaucratic language by marketing strategist David Meerman Scott. http://www.econtentmag.com/Articles/ArticleReader.aspx?ArticleID=14538&ContextSubtypeID=12
Garbl’s Wordy Phrases presents a list of bureaucratic phrases to avoid and their standard English alternatives. home.comcast.net/~garbl/stylemanual/phrases.htm
This University of North Carolina site provides a handout on writing arguments. http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/argument/
Read about logic in argumentative writing on Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab (OWL). http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/659/01
The College Board Web site provides a robust guide for how to avoid plagiarism. www.collegeboard.com/student/plan/college-success/10314.html | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_English_for_Success/11%3A_Writing/11.04%3A_Paraphrase_and_Summary_versus_Plagiarism.txt |
Just when you think the production of your document is done, the revision process begins. Runners often refer to “the wall,” where the limits of physical exertion are met and exhaustion is imminent. The writing process requires effort, from overcoming writer’s block to the intense concentration composing a document often involves. It is only natural to have a sense of relief when your document is drafted from beginning to end. This relief is false confidence, though. Your document is not complete, and in its current state it could, in fact, do more harm than good. Errors, omissions, and unclear phrases may lurk within your document, waiting to reflect poorly on you when it reaches your audience. Now is not time to let your guard down, prematurely celebrate, or to mentally move on to the next assignment. Think of the revision process as one that hardens and strengthens your document, even though it may require the sacrifice of some hard-earned writing.
• 12.1: General Revision Points to Consider
General revision requires attention to content, organization, style, and readability. These four main categories should give you a template from which to begin to explore details in depth. A cursory review of these elements in and of itself is insufficient for even the briefest review. Across this chapter we will explore ways to expand your revision efforts to cover the common areas of weakness and error.
• 12.2: Specific Revision Points to Consider
When revising your document, it can be helpful to focus on specific points. When you consider each point in turn, you will be able to break down the revision process into manageable steps. When you have examined each point, you can be confident that you have avoided many possible areas for errors. By revising for format, facts, names, spelling, punctuation, and grammar, you can increase your chances of correcting many common errors in your writing.
• 12.3: Style Revisions
The revision process requires filtration. You may come across word choices you thought were appropriate at the time or notice words you thought you wrote but are absent, and the revision process will start to produce results. Some words and sentence constructions will be harmful to the effective delivery and require attention. Some transitions fail to show the connections between thoughts and need to be changed. Revising for style increases a document’s clarity, conciseness, and professionalism.
• 12.4: Evaluating the Work of Others
As an experienced business writer, you may be called upon to review others’ work. When evaluating the work of others, make sure you understand the assignment, evaluate how well the writing carries out the assignment, evaluate assertions, check facts, and watch for errors. Deliver your evaluation with tact and diplomacy.
• 12.5: Proofreading and Design Evaluation
In traditional publishing, proofreading and design are the final stages a book undergoes before it is published. If the earlier steps of research, organizing, writing, revising, and formatting have been done carefully, proofreading and design should go smoothly. Now is not the time to go back and revise a document’s content, or to experiment with changes in format. Instead, the emphasis is on catching any typographical errors that have slipped through the revision process.
• 12.6: Additional Resources
Thumbnail: pixabay.com/photos/man-reading-touchscreen-blog-791049/
12: Revising and Presenting Your Writing
Learning Objectives
• Discuss the process of revision
• List three general elements of every document that require revision
General revision requires attention to content, organization, style, and readability. These four main categories should give you a template from which to begin to explore details in depth. A cursory review of these elements in and of itself is insufficient for even the briefest review. Across this chapter we will explore ways to expand your revision efforts to cover the common areas of weakness and error. You may need to take some time away from your document to approach it again with a fresh perspective. Writers often juggle multiple projects that are at different stages of development. This allows the writer to leave one document and return to another without losing valuable production time. Overall, your goal is similar to what it was during your writing preparation and production: a clear mind.
Evaluate Content
Content is only one aspect of your document. Let’s say you were assigned a report on the sales trends for a specific product in a relatively new market. You could produce a one-page chart comparing last year’s results to current figures and call it a day, but would it clearly and concisely deliver content that is useful and correct? Are you supposed to highlight trends? Are you supposed to spotlight factors that contributed to the increase or decrease? Are you supposed to include projections for next year? Our list of questions could continue, but for now let’s focus on content and its relationship to the directions. Have you included the content that corresponds to the given assignment, left any information out that may be necessary to fulfill the expectations, or have you gone beyond the assignment directions? Content will address the central questions of who, what, where, when, why and how within the range and parameters of the assignment.
Evaluate Organization
Organization is another key aspect of any document. Standard formats that include an introduction, body, and conclusion may be part of your document, but did you decide on a direct or indirect approach? Can you tell? A direct approach will announce the main point or purpose at the beginning, while an indirect approach will present an introduction before the main point. Your document may use any of a wide variety of organizing principles, such as chronological, spatial, compare/contrast. Is your organizing principle clear to the reader?
Beyond the overall organization, pay special attention to transitions. Readers often have difficulty following a document if the writer makes the common error of failing to make one point relevant to the next, or to illustrate the relationships between the points. Finally, your conclusion should mirror your introduction and not introduce new material.
Evaluate Style
Style is created through content and organization, but also involves word choice and grammatical structures. Is your document written in an informal or formal tone, or does it present a blend, a mix, or an awkward mismatch? Does it provide a coherent and unifying voice with a professional tone? If you are collaborating on the project with other writers or contributors, pay special attention to unifying the document across the different authors’ styles of writing. Even if they were all to write in a professional, formal style, the document may lack a consistent voice. Read it out loud—can you tell who is writing what? If so, that is a clear clue that you need to do more revising in terms of style.
Evaluate Readability
Readability refers to the reader’s ability to read and comprehend the document. A variety of tools are available to make an estimate of a document’s reading level, often correlated to a school grade level. If this chapter has a reading level of 11.8, it would be appropriate for most readers in the eleventh grade. But just because you are in grade thirteen, eighteen, or twenty-one doesn’t mean that your audience, in their everyday use of language, reads at a postsecondary level. As a business writer, your goal is to make your writing clear and concise, not complex and challenging.
You can often use the “Tools” menu of your word processing program to determine the approximate reading level of your document. The program will evaluate the number of characters per word, add in the number of words per sentence, and come up with a rating. It may also note the percentage of passive sentences, and other information that will allow you to evaluate readability. Like any computer-generated rating, it should serve you as one point of evaluation, but not the only point. Your concerted effort to choose words you perceive as appropriate for the audience will serve you better than any computer evaluation of your writing.
Key Takeaway
The four main categories—content, organization, style, and readability—provide a template for general revision.
Exercises
1. Select a document, such as an article from a Web site, newspaper, magazine, or a piece of writing you have completed for a course. Evaluate the document according to the four main categories described in this section. Could the document benefit from revision in any of these areas? Discuss your findings with your classmates.
2. Interview a coworker or colleague and specifically ask how much time and attention they dedicate to the revision process of their written work. Compare your results with classmates.
3. Find a particularly good example of writing according to the above criteria. Review it and share it with your classmates.
4. Find a particularly bad example of writing according to the above criteria. Review it and share it with your classmates. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_English_for_Success/12%3A_Revising_and_Presenting_Your_Writing/12.01%3A_General_Revision_Points_to_Consider.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. List six specific elements of every document to check for revision
When revising your document, it can be helpful to focus on specific points. When you consider each point in turn, you will be able to break down the revision process into manageable steps. When you have examined each point, you can be confident that you have avoided many possible areas for errors. Specific revision requires attention to the following:
• Format
• Facts
• Names
• Spelling
• Punctuation
• Grammar
Let’s examine these characteristics one by one.
Format
Format is an important part of the revision process. Format involves the design expectations of author and audience. If a letter format normally designates a date at the top, or the sender’s address on the left side of the page before the salutation, the information should be in the correct location. Formatting that is messy or fails to conform to the company style will reflect poorly on you before the reader even starts to read it. By presenting a document that is properly formatted according to the expectations of your organization and your readers, you will start off making a good impression.
Facts
Another key part of the revision process is checking your facts. Did you know that news organizations and magazines employ professional fact-checkers? These workers are responsible for examining every article before it gets published and consulting original sources to make sure the information in the article is accurate. This can involve making phone calls to the people who were interviewed for the article—for example, “Mr. Diaz, our report states that you are thirty-nine years old. Our article will be published on the fifteenth. Will that be your correct age on that date?” Fact checking also involves looking facts up in encyclopedias, directories, atlases, and other standard reference works; and, increasingly, in online sources.
While you can’t be expected to have the skills of a professional fact-checker, you do need to reread your writing with a critical eye to the information in it. Inaccurate content can expose you and your organization to liability, and will create far more work than a simple revision of a document. So, when you revise a document, ask yourself the following:
• Does my writing contain any statistics or references that need to be verified?
• Where can I get reliable information to verify it?
It is often useful to do independent verification—that is, look up the fact in a different source from the one where you first got it. For example, perhaps a colleague gave you a list of closing averages for the Dow Jones Industrial on certain dates. You still have the list, so you can make sure your document agrees with the numbers your colleague provided. But what if your colleague made a mistake? The Web sites of the Wall Street Journal and other major newspapers list closings for “the Dow,” so it is reasonably easy for you to look up the numbers and verify them independently.
Names
There is no more embarrassing error in business writing than to misspell someone’s name. To the writer, and to some readers, spelling a name “Michelle” instead of “Michele” may seem like a minor matter, but to Michele herself it will make a big difference. Attribution is one way we often involve a person’s name, and giving credit where credit is due is essential. There are many other reasons for including someone’s name, but regardless of your reasons for choosing to focus on them, you need to make sure the spelling is correct. Incorrect spelling of names is a quick way to undermine your credibility; it can also have a negative impact on your organization’s reputation, and in some cases it may even have legal ramifications.
Spelling
Correct spelling is another element essential for your credibility, and errors will be glaringly obvious to many readers. The negative impact on your reputation as a writer, and its perception that you lack attention to detail or do not value your work, will be hard to overcome. In addition to the negative personal consequences, spelling errors can become factual errors and destroy the value of content. This may lead you to click the “spell check” button in your word processing program, but computer spell-checking is not enough. Spell checkers have improved in the years since they were first invented, but they are not infallible. They can and do make mistakes.
Typically, your incorrect word may in fact be a word, and therefore, according to the program, correct. For example, suppose you wrote, “The major will attend the meeting” when you meant to write “The mayor will attend the meeting.” The program would miss this error because “major” is a word, but your meaning would be twisted beyond recognition.
Punctuation
Punctuation marks are the traffic signals, signs, and indications that allow us to navigate the written word. They serve to warn us in advance when a transition is coming or the complete thought has come to an end. A period indicates the thought is complete, while a comma signals that additional elements or modifiers are coming. Correct signals will help your reader follow the thoughts through sentences and paragraphs, and enable you to communicate with maximum efficiency while reducing the probability of error (Strunk, 1979).
Table \(1\) lists twelve punctuation marks that are commonly used in English in alphabetical order along with an example of each.
Table \(1\): Punctuation Marks
Symbol Example
Apostrophe Michele’s report is due tomorrow.
Colon : This is what I think: you need to revise your paper.
Comma , The report advised us when to sell, what to sell, and where to find buyers.
Dash This is more difficult than it seems—buyers are scarce when credit is tight.
Ellipsis Lincoln spoke of “a new nation…dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.”
Exclamation Point ! How exciting!
Hyphen The question is a many-faceted one.
Parentheses ( ) To answer it (or at least to begin addressing it) we will need more information.
Period . The answer is no. Period. Full stop.
Question Mark ? Can I talk you into changing your mind?
Quotation Marks “ ” The manager told him, “I will make sure Renée is available to help you.”
Semicolon ; Theresa was late to the meeting; her computer had frozen and she was stuck at her desk until a tech rep came to fix it.
It may be daunting to realize that the number of possible punctuation errors is as extensive as the number of symbols and constructions available to the author. Software program may catch many punctuation errors, but again it is the committed writer that makes the difference. Here we will provide details on how to avoid mistakes with three of the most commonly used punctuation marks: the comma, the semicolon, and the apostrophe.
Commas
The comma is probably the most versatile of all punctuation marks. This means you as a writer can use your judgment in many cases as to whether you need a comma or not. It also means that the possible errors involving commas are many. Commas are necessary some of the time, but careless writers often place a comma in a sentence where it is simply not needed.
Commas are used to separate two independent clauses joined by a conjunction like “but,” “and,” and “or.”
Example
The advertising department is effective, but don’t expect miracles in this business climate.
Commas are not used simply to join two independent clauses. This is known as the comma splice error, and the way to correct it is to insert a conjunction after the comma.
Examples
The advertising department is effective, the sales department needs to produce more results.
The advertising department is effective, but the sales department needs to produce more results.
Commas are used for introductory phrases and to offset clauses that are not essential to the sentence. If the meaning would remain intact without the phrase, it is considered nonessential.
Examples
After the summary of this year’s sales, the sales department had good reason to celebrate.
The sales department, last year’s winner of the most productive award, celebrated their stellar sales success this year.
The sales department celebrated their stellar sales success this year.
Commas are used to offset words that help create unity across a sentence like “however” and “therefore.”
Examples
The sales department discovered, however, that the forecast for next year is challenging.
However, the sales department discovered that the forecast for next year is challenging.
Commas are often used to separate more than one adjective modifying a noun.
Example
The sales department discovered the troublesome, challenging forecast for next year.
Commas are used to separate addresses, dates, and titles; they are also used in dialogue sequences.
Examples
John is from Ancud, Chile.
Katy was born on August 2, 2002.
Mackenzie McLean, D. V., is an excellent veterinarian.
Lisa said, “When writing, omit needless words.”
Semicolons
Semicolons have two uses. First, they indicate relationships among groups of items in a series when the individual items are separated by commas. Second, a semicolon can be used to join two independent clauses; this is another way of avoiding the comma splice error mentioned above. Using a semicolon this way is often effective if the meaning of the two independent clauses is linked in some way, such as a cause-effect relationship.
Examples
Merchandise on order includes women’s wear such as sweaters, skirts, and blouses; men’s wear such as shirts, jackets, and slacks; and outwear such as coats, parkas, and hats.
The sales campaign was successful; without its contributions our bottom line would have been dismal indeed.
Apostrophes
The apostrophe, like the semicolon, has two uses: it replaces letters omitted in a contraction, and it often indicates the possessive.
Because contractions are associated with an informal style, they may not be appropriate for some professional writing. The business writer will—as always—evaluate the expectations and audience of the given assignment.
Examples
It’s great news that sales were up. It is also good news that we’ve managed to reduce our advertising costs.
When you indicate possession, pay attention to the placement of the apostrophe. Nouns commonly receive “’s” when they are made possessive. But plurals that end in “s” receive a hanging apostrophe when they are made possessive, and the word “it” forms the possessive (“its”) with no apostrophe at all.
Examples
Mackenzie’s sheep are ready to be sheared.
The parents’ meeting is scheduled for Thursday.
We are willing to adopt a dog that has already had its shots.
Grammar
Learning to use good, correct standard English grammar is more of a practice than an event, or even a process. Grammar involves the written construction of meaning from words and involves customs that evolve and adapt to usage over time. Because grammar is always evolving, none of us can sit back and rest assured that we “know” how to write with proper grammar. Instead, it is important to write and revise with close attention to grammar, keeping in mind that grammatical errors can undermine your credibility, reflect poorly on your employer, and cause misunderstandings.
Jean Wyrick has provided a list of common errors in grammar to watch out for, which we have adapted here for easy reference (Wyrick, 2008). In each case, the error is in italics and the [correct form] is italicized within square bracket.
Subject-Verb Agreement
The subject and verb should agree on the number under consideration. In faulty writing, a singular subject is sometimes mismatched with a plural verb form, or vice versa.
Examples
Sales have not been consistent and they doesn’t [do not] reflect your hard work and effort.
The president appreciates your hard work and wish [wishes] to thank you.
Verb Tense
Verb tense refers to the point in time where action occurs. The most common tenses are past, present, and future. There is nothing wrong with mixing tenses in a sentence if the action is intended to take place at different times. In faulty or careless writing, however, they are often mismatched illogically.
Examples
Sharon was under pressure to finish the report, so she uses [used] a shortcut to paste in the sales figures.
The sales department holds a status meeting every week, and last week’s meeting will be [was] at the Garden Inn.
Split Infinitive
The infinitive form of verb is one without a reference to time, and in its standard form it includes the auxiliary word “to,” as in “to write is to revise.” It has been customary to keep the “to” next to the verb; to place an adverb between them is known as splitting the infinitive. Some modern writers do this all the time (for example, “to boldly go…”), and since all grammar is essentially a set of customs that govern the written word, you will need to understand what the custom is where you work. If you are working with colleagues trained across the last fifty years, they may find split infinitives annoying. For this reason, it’s often best to avoid splitting an infinitive wherever you can do so without distorting the meaning of the sentence.
Examples
The Marketing Department needs assistance to accurately understand our readers [to understand our readers accurately].
David pondered how to best revise [how best to revise] the sentence.
Double Negative
A double negative uses two negatives to communicate a single idea, duplicating the negation. In some languages, such as Spanish, when the main action in the sentence is negative, it is correct to express the other elements in the sentence negatively as well. However, in English, this is incorrect. In addition to sounding wrong (you can often hear the error if you read the sentence out loud), a double negative in English causes an error in logic, because two negatives cancel each other out and yield a positive. In fact, the wording of ballot measures is often criticized for confusing voters with double negatives.
Examples
John doesn’t need no [any] assistance with his sales presentation. [Or John needs no assistance with his sales presentation.]
Jeri could not find no [any] reason to approve the request. [Or Jeri could find no reason to approve the request.]
Irregular Verbs
Most verbs represent the past with the addition of the suffix “ed,” as in “ask” becomes “asked.” Irregular verbs change a vowel or convert to another word when representing the past tense. Consider the irregular verb “to go”; the past tense is “went,” not “goed.”
Examples
The need arised [arose] to seek additional funding.
Katy leaped [leapt] onto the stage to introduce the presentation.
Commas in a Series
A comma is used to separate the items in a series, but in some writing styles the comma is omitted between the final two items of the series, where the conjunction joins the last and next-to-last items. The comma in this position is known as the “serial comma.” The serial comma is typically required in academic writing and typically omitted in journalism. Other writers omit the serial comma if the final two items in the series have a closer logical connection than the other items. In business writing, you may use it or omit it according to the prevailing style in your organization or industry. Know your audience and be aware of the rule.
Examples
Lisa is an amazing wife, mother, teacher, gardener, and editor.
Lisa is an amazing wife, mother teacher, gardener and editor.
Lisa is an amazing teacher, editor, gardener, wife and mother.
Faulty Comparisons
When comparing two objects by degree, there should be no mention of “est,” as in “biggest” as all you can really say is that one is bigger than the other. If you are comparing three or more objects, then “est” will accurately communicate which is the “biggest” of them all.
Examples
Between the twins, Mackenzie is the fastest [faster] of the two.
Among our three children, Mackenzie is the tallest.
Dangling Modifiers
Modifiers describe a subject in a sentence or indicate how or when the subject carried out the action. If the subject is omitted, the modifier intended for the subject is left dangling or hanging out on its own without a clear relationship to the sentence. Who is doing the seeing in the first sentence?
Examples
Seeing the light at the end of the tunnel, celebrations were in order.
Seeing the light at the end of the tunnel, we decided that celebrations were in order.
Misplaced Modifiers
Modifiers that are misplaced are not lost, they are simply in the wrong place. Their unfortunate location is often far from the word or words they describe, making it easy for readers to misinterpret the sentence.
Examples
Trying to avoid the deer, the tree hit my car.
My car hit the tree when I tried to avoid a deer in the road.
Key Takeaway
By revising for format, facts, names, spelling, punctuation, and grammar, you can increase your chances of correcting many common errors in your writing.
Exercises
1. Select a news article from a news Web site, newspaper, or magazine. Find as many facts in the article as you can that could require fact-checking. Then check as many of these facts as you can, using sources available to you in the library and on the Internet. Did you find any errors in the article? Discuss your findings with your classmates.
2. Find an example of an assertion without attribution and share it with classmates.
3. Find an example of an error in a published document and share it with classmates.
4. Interview a coworker or colleague and specifically ask them to share a story where an error got past them during the revision process and made it to print or publication. How did they handle it? How much time did it take to correct? What did they learn from the experience? Compare your results with classmates. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_English_for_Success/12%3A_Revising_and_Presenting_Your_Writing/12.02%3A_Specific_Revision_Points_to_Consider.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Discuss and demonstrate the use of twelve points to consider for style revisions.
You know the difference between cloudy and clear water, but can you tell when your writing is cloudy, when meaning is hidden in shadows, when the message you are trying to communicate is obscured by the style you use to present it? Water filtration involves removing particulates, harmful inorganic and organic materials, and clarifying the water. In the same way, the revision process requires filtration. You may come across word choices you thought were appropriate at the time or notice words you thought you wrote but are absent, and the revision process will start to produce results. Some words and sentence constructions will be harmful to the effective delivery and require attention. Some transitions fail to show the connections between thoughts and need to be changed.
Another way of conceptualizing the revision process in general and the clarifying process specifically is the common reference to a diamond in the rough. Like muddy water, diamonds do not come to have significant value until they have had their rough edges removed, have received expert polish, and been evaluated for clarity. Your attention to this important process will bring the value quotient of your writing up as it begins to more accurately communicate intended meaning. As we’ve discussed before, now is not the time to lose momentum. Just the opposite, now is the time to make your writing shine.
Here we will discuss several strategies to help clarify your writing style. If you have made wise word choices, the then next step to clarifying your document is to take it sentence by sentence. Each sentence should stand on its own, but each sentence is also interdependent on all other sentences in your document. These strategies will require significant attention to detail and an awareness of grammar that might not be your area of strength, but the more you practice them the more they will become good habits that will enhance your writing.
Break Up Long Sentences
By revising long sentences you can often increase the overall clarity of your document. To do this, let’s start off with one strategy that will produce immediate results. Count the number of conjunctions in your document. Word processing programs will often perform a search for a specific a word and for our use, “and” will do just fine. Simple sentences often become compound and complex through the use of the word “and.” The further the subject, the action, and the modifiers or descriptions are from one another is directly related to the complexity of the sentence, increasing the probability of reader error and misunderstandings. Look for the word “and” and evaluate whether the sentence has two complete thoughts or ideas. Does it try to join two dissimilar ideas or ones better off on their own?
In prose, and your expository writing classes, you may have learned that complex sentences can communicate emotions, settings, and scenes that evoke a sense of place and time with your reading audience. In business writing, our goals aim more toward precision and the elimination of error; a good business document won’t read like a college essay. A professor may have advised you to avoid short, choppy writing. Are we asking you to do something along those lines? No. Choppy writing is hard to follow, but simple, clear writing does the job with a minimum of fuss and without decoration.
In their best-selling book The Elements of Style, William Strunk Jr. and E. B. White emphasize clarity as a central goal. However, the following is one of their rules: “Do not break sentences in two.” As effective business writers we would agree with this rule, and while it may seem to contradict the preceding paragraph, let’s consider what they mean by that rule. They encourage writers to avoid sentence fragments by refraining from using a period where the sentence needs a comma. That means that an independent clause should be connected to a dependent clause when necessary, and as we’ve discussed previously, a comma and a conjunction are appropriate for the task. The sentence fragment cannot stand alone, so we would agree with the rule as written.
But we would also qualify its use: when you have two long and awkward independent clauses that form an unwieldy sentence, it may indeed be better to divide the clauses into two independent sentences. Your skill as a business writer is required to balance the needs of the sentence to communicate meaning with your understanding of audience expectations, and clarity often involves concise sentences.
Revise Big Words and Long Phrases
Big words can clutter your writing with needless jargon that may be a barrier to many readers. Even if you know your audience has significant education and training in a field, you may need to include definitions and examples as effective strategies to communicate meaning. Don’t confuse simple writing with simplistic writing. Your task will almost certainly not require an elementary approach for new readers, but it may very well require attention to words and the degree to which they contribute to, or detract from, the communication of your intended message. Long noun sequences, often used as descriptive phrases, can be one example of how writing can reduce clarity. If you need to describe a noun, use a phrase that modifies the noun clearly, with commas to offset for example, to enhance clarity.
Another long phrase to watch out for is often located in the introduction. Long preambles can make the sentence awkward and will require revision. Sentences that start with “It is” or “There are” can often be shortened or made clearer through revision.
Evaluate Long Prepositional Phrases
A prepositional phrase is a phrase composed of a preposition (a “where” word; a word that indicates location) and its object, which may be a noun, a pronoun, or a clause. Some examples of simple prepositional phrases include “with Tom,” “before me,” and “inside the building security perimeter.”
Prepositional phrases are necessary—it would be difficult to write without them—but some add to the bottom line word count without adding much to the sentence. Bureaucratic writing often uses this technique in an attempt to make a sentence sound important, but the effort usually has the undesirable dual effects of obscuring meaning and sounding pompous.
Examples
The 1040 Form will in all certainty serve the majority of our customers.
The 1040 Form will certainly serve the majority of our customers.
The revision places an adverb in place of a long prepositional phrase and allows for a reduction in the word count while strengthening the sentence.
Delete Repetitious Words
Some level of repetition is to be expected and can be beneficial. It is also important to be consistent in your use of words when precise terminology is appropriate. However, needless repetition can make your document less than vigorous and discourage readers. For example, use of the word “said” when attributing dialogue is acceptable a couple of times, but if it is the only word you use, it will lose its impact quickly. People can “indicate,” “point out,” “share,” and “mention” as easily as they can “say” words or phrases. Synonyms are useful in avoiding the boredom of repetition.
Avoid Fillers
Like, you know, like, you know what I mean, ahh, umm, and all the fillers you may use or hear in oral communication have, well, little or no place in the written representation of the spoken word. Review your writing for extra words that serve the written equivalent of “like” and omit them. They do not serve you as an author, and do not serve the reading audience.
Eliminate Slang
Many college professors can give examples of e-mails they have received from students that use all the modern characteristics of instant message and text abbreviation combined with a complete disregard for any norms of grammar or spelling, resulting in nearly incomprehensible messages. If your goal is to be professional, and the audience expectations do not include the use of slang, then it is inappropriate to include it in your document. Eliminate slang as you would a jargon term that serves as a barrier to understanding meaning. Not everyone will understand your slang word no more than they would a highly specialized term, and it will defeat your purpose. Norms for capitalization and punctuation that are routinely abandoned in efficient text messages or tweets are necessary and required in professional documents. Finally, there is no place in reputable business writing for offensive slang or profanity.
Evaluate Clichés
Clichés are words or phrases that through their overuse have lost their impact. That definition does not imply they have lost their meaning, and sometimes a well-placed cliché can communicate a message effectively. “Actions speak louder than words” is a cliché, but its five words speak volumes that many of your readers will recognize. This appeal to familiarity can be an effective strategy to communicate, but use it carefully. Excessive reliance on clichés will make your writing trite, while eliminating them altogether may not serve you well either. As an effective business writer, you will need to evaluate your use of clichés for their impact versus detraction from your message.
Emphasize Precise Words
Concrete words that are immediately available to your audience are often more effective than abstract terms that require definitions, examples, and qualifications. All these strategies have their place, but excessive use of abstractions will make your document less than precise, requiring additional clarification that can translate to work for you as the author and, more importantly, for your readers. Qualifiers deserve special mention here. Some instructors may indicate that words like “may,” “seems,” or “apparently” make your writing weak. Words are just words and it is how we use them that creates meaning. Some qualifiers are necessary, particularly if the document serves as record or may be the point of discussion in a legal issue. In other cases direct language is required, and qualifiers must be eliminated. Too many qualifiers can weaken your writing, but too few can expose you to liability. As a business writer, your understanding of audience expectations and assignment requirements will guide you to the judicious use of qualifiers.
Evaluate Parallel Construction
When you are writing in a series or have more than one idea to express, it is important to present them in similar ways to preserve and promote unity across your document. Parallel construction refers to the use of same grammatical pattern; it can be applied to words, phrases, and sentences. For example, “We found the seminar interesting, entertaining, and inspiring” is a sentence with parallel construction, whereas “We found the seminar interesting, entertaining, and it inspired us” is not. If your sentences do not seem to flow well, particularly when you read them out loud, look for misplaced parallels and change them to make the construction truly parallel.
Obscured Verbs
Business writing should be clear and concise. If the meaning is obscured, then revision is required. One common problem is the conversion of verbs into nouns with the addition of suffixes like: -ant,-ent, -ion, -tion, -sion, -ence, -ance, and ing. Instead of hiding meaning within the phrase “through the consolidation of,” consider whether to use the verb forms “consolidated” or “consolidating.” Similarly, instead of “the inclusion of,” consider using “including,” which will likely make the sentence more active and vigorous.
The “Is It Professional?” Test
Finally, when revising your document with an attention to detail, you simply need to ask the question: is it professional? If a document is too emphatic, it may seem like an attempt at cheerleading. If it uses too much jargon, it may be appropriate for “nerds” but may limit access to the information by a nontechnical audience. If the document appears too simplistic, it may seem to be “talking down” to the audience, treating the readers more like children than adults. Does your document represent you and your organization in a professional manner? Will you be proud of the work a year from now? Does it accomplish its mission, stated objectives, and the audience’s expectations? Business writing is not expository, wordy, or decorative, and the presence of these traits may obscure meaning. Business writing is professional, respectful, and clearly communicates a message with minimal breakdown.
Key Takeaway
Revising for style can increase a document’s clarity, conciseness, and professionalism.
Exercises
1. Which of the following sentences are examples of good business writing in standard English? For the sentences needing improvement, make revisions as you see fit and explain what was wrong with the original sentence. Discuss your results with your classmates.
1. Caitlin likes gardening, golfing, hiking, and to swim.
2. At any given point in time, well, there is a possibility that we could, like, be called upon for help.
3. The evaluation of writing can be done through the examination and modification of each sentence.
4. While in the meeting, the fire alarm rang.
5. Children benefit from getting enough sleep, eating a balanced diet, and outdoor playtime.
6. Yee has asked us to maximize the department’s ka-ching by enhancing the bling-bling of our merchandise; if we fail to do this the darn president may put the kibosh on our project.
7. Ortega’s memo stated in no uncertain terms that all employees need to arrive for work on time every day.
8. Although there are many challenges in today’s market and stock values have dropped considerably since last year, but we can hope to benefit from strategic thinking and careful decision making.
9. If you are unable to attend the meeting, please let Steve or I know as soon as possible.
10. One of the shipping containers are open.
2. Find an example of a good example of effective business writing, review it, and share it with your classmates.
3. Find an example of a bad example of effective business writing, review it, and share it with your classmates.
4. Revision requires attention to detail, and you may be under pressure to produce quality results within a deadline. How do you communicate your need for time for the revision process to those who are waiting on you to complete the document? Share and discuss your responses with your classmates. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_English_for_Success/12%3A_Revising_and_Presenting_Your_Writing/12.03%3A_Style_Revisions.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Describe five elements of critical analysis to use in evaluating someone else’s writing.
2. Demonstrate how to deliver an evaluation constructively and respectfully.
As an experienced business writer, you may be called upon to review others’ work. Having a clear understanding of the process will help you be efficient in your review, producing constructive advice that would benefit the essay while resisting change for change’s sake.
Five Steps in Evalution
By following a sequence of orderly steps, you can increase the likelihood that your evaluation of someone else’s writing will be fair, constructive, and useful. Below are the five steps in evaluation:
1. Understand the assignment.
2. Evaluate how well the writing carries out the assignment.
3. Evaluate assertions.
4. Check facts.
5. Look for errors.
First, review the instructions that were given to the writer. Make sure you understand the assignment and the target audience. What resources did the writer have access to, and how much time was allotted for completing the assignment? What purpose did the document need to fulfill, and what role will this document have in future business activities or decisions?
Second, evaluate how well the document fulfills its stated goals. As a reader, do you see the goals carried out in the document? If you didn’t know the writer and you were to find the document next year in a file where you were searching for information, would it provide you with the information it aims to convey? For example, suppose the document refers to the sales history of the past five years. Does the writer provide the sales history for the reader’s reference, or indicate where the reader can get this information?
Evaluate the assertions made in the document. An assertion is a declaration, statement, or claim of fact. Suppose the writer indicates that the sales history for the past five years is a significant factor. Does the writer explain why this history is significant? Is the explanation logical and sufficient?
Evaluate the facts cited in the document. Does the writer credit the sources of facts, statistics, and numbers? For example, suppose the writer mentions that the population of the United States is approximately three hundred million. Obviously, the writer did not count all U.S. residents to arrive at this number. Where did it come from? If you have access to sources where you can independently verify the accuracy of these details, look them up and note any discrepancies.
Finally, check the document for proper format and for errors in spelling, punctuation, and grammar. Word processing spell checkers do not catch all errors.
Delivering the Evaluation
If you are asked to evaluate someone else’s written work, keep in mind that not everyone can separate process from product, or product from personality. Many authors, particularly those new to the writing process, see the written word as an extension of self. To help the recipient receive your evaluation as professional advice, rather than as personal criticism, use strategies to be tactful and diplomatic.
Until you know the author and have an established relationship, it is best to use “I” statements, as in “I find this sentence difficult to understand.” The sentence places the emphasis on the speaker rather than the sentence, and further distances the author from the sentence. If you were to say, “This sentence is awful,” all the author may hear is, “I am an awful writer” and fail to pay attention to your message, the sentence under examination, or ways to improve it. Business writing produces products, and all products can be improved, but not all authors can separate messenger from message.
Avoid the use of the word you in your evaluation, oral or written, as it can put the recipient on the defensive. This will inhibit listening and decrease the probability of effective communication (McLean, 2005). If you phrase an evaluation point as, “Why did you include this word here?” it can be interpreted as a personal attack. Just as speakers are often quite self-conscious of their public speaking abilities, writers are often quite attached to the works they have produced. Anticipating and respecting this relationship and the anxiety it sometimes carries can help you serve as a better evaluator.
Phrasing disagreement as a question is often an effective response strategy. Let’s rephrase that previous question to, “What is this sentence intended to communicate?” This places the emphasis on the sentence, not the author, and allows for dialogue. Phrasing your evaluation as a question emphasizes your need to understand, and provides the author with space to respond in a collaborative fashion.
Focus on the document as a product, an “it,” and avoid associating the author or authors with it. There may be times when the social rank or status of the individual involved with work requires respectful consideration, and choosing to focus on the document as a work in progress, distinct from authors themselves, can serve you well. This also means that at times you may notice a glaring error but be reluctant to challenge the author directly as you anticipate a less than collaborative response. By treating the document as a product, and focusing on ways to strengthen it, keeping in mind our goals of clear and concise as reference points, you can approach issues without involving personalities.
Key Takeaway
When evaluating the work of others, make sure you understand the assignment, evaluate how well the writing carries out the assignment, evaluate assertions, check facts, and watch for errors. Deliver your evaluation with tact and diplomacy.
Exercises
1. Select a piece of writing from a Web site, book, newspaper, or magazine. Imagine that you are delivering an evaluation to the author of the piece. Using the strategies in this section, write a tactful and diplomatic critique. Your instructor may choose to make this a class exercise, asking students to exchange papers and evaluate each others’ writing.
2. Select a piece of writing from a Web site, book, newspaper, or magazine. Imagine that you are editing it half its original length. Share the article and your revised copy with your classmates.
3. What responsibility do you have to point out the need for correction in a document when the author or team leader outranks you at work? Does it make a difference if you anticipate they will take the feedback negatively? How do you reconcile these concerns with your responsibility to the organization? Share and discuss your responses with your classmates. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_English_for_Success/12%3A_Revising_and_Presenting_Your_Writing/12.04%3A_Evaluating_the_Work_of_Others.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Understand the difference between revising and proofreading, and how to use proofreading marks.
2. Describe six design elements for evaluation.
In traditional publishing, proofreading and design are the final stages a book undergoes before it is published. If the earlier steps of research, organizing, writing, revising, and formatting have been done carefully, proofreading and design should go smoothly. Now is not the time to go back and revise a document’s content, or to experiment with changes in format. Instead, the emphasis is on catching any typographical errors that have slipped through the revision process, and “pouring” the format into a design that will enhance the writer’s message.
Proofreading
By now you have completed a general and specific review of the document, with attention to detail. You may have made changes, and most word processing programs will allow you to track those changes across several versions and authors.
If you work in an environment where a document exists as a hard copy during the revision process, you may use or see handwritten proofreading symbols. Professional proofreaders often use standard markings that serve to indicate where changes needed to be made on a physical document. Some of today’s word processing programs incorporate many proofreading symbols in their menus. It is useful to be familiar with the various proofreading marks that were traditionally used to review and revise hard copy documents. Even if you never use the symbols in a document, your awareness of them—and the points of emphasis under review—will serve you well. Do you need to insert a word, delete a word, capitalize a letter, or start a new paragraph? There are specific symbols for each of these actions because the review and revision process has common and consistent elements that need to be addressed.
Design Evaluation
If you are asked to review a document, design an element that deserves consideration. While most of our attention has focused on words (i.e., sentence construction and common errors), design can have a strong impact on the representation and presentation of information.
Framing
Framing refers to how information is presented, including margins, line justifications, and template expectations. Just as frame creates a border around a painting, highlighting part of the image while hiding the margins, the frame of a page influences how information is received. Margins create space around the edge and help draw attention to the content. One-inch margins are standard, but differences in margin widths will depend on the assignment requirements. A brief letter, for example, may have margins as wide as two inches so that the body of the letter fills up the stationery in a more balanced fashion. Template expectations are distinct from audience expectation, though they are often related. Most software programs have templates for basic documents, including letters, reports, and résumés.
Templates represent the normative expectations for a specific type of document. Templates have spaces that establish where a date should be indicated and where personal contact information should be represented. They also often allow you to “fill in the blank,” reflecting each document’s basic expectations of where information is presented.
For example, line justification involves where the text lines up on the page. Letters often have a left justify, lining up the text on the left side of the page while allowing the ends of each line on the right side to be “ragged,” or not aligned. This creates even spaces between words and gives the appearance of organization while promoting white space, the space on the page free of text. Balance between text (often black) and white space creates contrast and allows for areas of emphasis. Left justify often produces the appearance of balance, as the words are evenly spaced, while left and right justify can produce large gaps between words, making the sentences appear awkward and hard to read.
Typefaces
Typeface refers to design of symbols, including letters and numbers *Kostelnick, 1998). The creation of the face of the type, as in a typing machine or printing press, has long been both an art and a science. In past centuries, carvings of the face of the type in copperplate, where ink was applied and then pressed to paper, created intricate and intriguing images designed to communicate style, prestige, status, and formality with the communication of words and symbols. We no longer use copper or hot lead type, but the typeface still exists as a medium for communication in addition to the word itself.
There are two general categories of typeface: serif and sans serif. “Sans” means without, so the emphasis here is on whether the face of the type has a serif or not. A serif is a small cross line, often perpendicular to the stroke of the letter, that is decorative but also serves the useful purpose of differentiating characters that could otherwise look similar (e.g., “m” and “rn,” “d” and “cl,” or “3” and “8”). For this reason, serif typefaces, such as Times New Roman and Garamond, are often easier to read, especially when the font size is small. Sans serif fonts, such as Arial and Helvetica, lack the serif and can be harder to read in long text sequences. They are most commonly used for headings. However, when text is to be read electronically (on the screen of a computer or other device), serifs can tend to break up, so sans serif typefaces can be a better choice.
The rule of thumb, or common wisdom, is to limit your document to two typefaces, contrasting sans serif (headings) with text (serif). Take care not to use a font that is hard to read, creating an unnecessary barrier for your reader. Also, use a font that conveys the tone of your professional message to enhance your effectiveness.
Paragraphs
Paragraphs are the basic organizational unit for presenting and emphasizing the key points in a document. Effective paragraphs can provide an effective emphasis strategy, but the placement within the page can also influence recall and impact. The first point presented is often the second in importance, the second point is the least important, and the third point in a series of three is often the most important. People generally recall the last point presented, and tend to forget or ignore the content in the middle of a sequence. Use this strategy to place your best point in the most appropriate location.
A lengthy document that consists of paragraph after paragraph can become monotonous, making reading a chore and obscuring pieces of information that need to stand out. To give the document visual variety and to emphasize key information, consider the following strategies:
• Bullets
• Numbers
• Boldface
• Italics
• Underlining
• Capitalization (all caps)
Remember, however, that using all caps (all capitals) for body text (as opposed to headings) is often considered rude, like shouting, particularly in electronic communications.
Visual Aids
If you have the luxury of including visual aids, such as graphics and pictures, in your document, take care to make sure that the verbal and visual messages complement each other. The visual should illustrate the text, and should be placed near the words so that the relationship is immediately clear. Sometimes during editing, a photograph will get pushed to the next page, leaving the relevant text behind and creating discontinuity. This creates a barrier for your reader, so avoid it if possible.
Designing Interactive Documents
Finally, documents increasingly have an interactivity component that can lead the reader in many directions. Providing links can facilitate interactivity, and that depth of resources can be a distinct advantage when writing documents to be read on a computer. However, be careful when integrating a web link within your document, as your audience may leave your message behind and not return. If you create a link associated with clicking on a photograph or icon, make sure that the scroll-over message is clear and communicates whether the reader will leave the current page. As we have seen in many design elements, there are strengths and weaknesses associated with each option and it requires a skilled business writer to create and deliver an effective message.
Key Takeaway
Proofreading and design put the finishing touches on a completed document.
Exercises
1. Using proofreading marks, mark the errors in the following paragraph:
2. With a writing assignment in draft form from your class, swap with a classmate and review the spelling, grammar, and punctuation, using proofreading marks where applicable.
12.06: Additional Resources
Online Writing Laboratory (OWL) at Purdue University provides a comprehensive guide to the revision process. OWL is open access, free, and an excellence resource for any writer. Please feel free to consult it anytime during our discussion to go more in depth on a grammatical point or writing tip. http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/561/05
Visit this YourDictionary.com page for a useful article about punctuation marks. http://grammar.yourdictionary.com/punctuation/punctuation-rules-help.html
Visit this site for a useful list of irregular verbs in English. http://www.englishpage.com/irregularverbs/irregularverbs.html
This site from Capital Community College in Connecticut provides a menu of English grammar resources. grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar
EnglishClub.com is dedicated to English learners and those for whom English is a second language—but it can be useful for all of us. http://www.englishclub.com/grammar
The original (1918) edition of the famous style guide The Elements of Style is available online at Bartleby.com. http://www.bartleby.com/141
The Writers and Editors site presents an article on tact and tone in editing the work of others. http://www.writersandeditors.com/tips_on_tact_and_tone_30805.htm
Merriam-Webster provides a chart of proofreader’s marks and their meanings. www.merriam-webster.com/mw/table/proofrea.htm
Visit this About.com site for information on designing a document. http://desktoppub.about.com/od/designprinciples/Principles_of_Design.htm
For in-depth information on how to present visuals effectively, visit the Web site of Edward Tufte, a Professor Emeritus at Yale University, where he taught courses in statistical evidence, information design, and interface design. http://www.edwardtufte.com/tufte/index
For a wealth of articles and information about typefaces and other aspects of document design, explore the Web site of AIGA, the professional association for design. http://www.aiga.org/content.cfm/about | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_English_for_Success/12%3A_Revising_and_Presenting_Your_Writing/12.05%3A_Proofreading_and_Design_Evaluation.txt |
• 13.1: Text, E-mail, and Netiquette
Text messages and e-mails are part of our communication landscape, and skilled business communicators consider them a valuable tool to connect. Netiquette refers to etiquette, or protocols and norms for communication, on the Internet.
• 13.2: Memorandums and Letters
A memo (or memorandum, meaning “reminder”) is normally used for communicating policies, procedures, or related official business within an organization. It is often written from a one-to-all perspective (like mass communication), broadcasting a message to an audience, rather than a one-on-one, interpersonal communication. It may also be used to update a team on activities for a given project, or to inform a specific group within a company of an event, action, or observance.
• 13.3: Business Proposal
In order to be successful in business and industry, you should be familiar with the business proposal. Much like a report, with several common elements and persuasive speech, a business proposal makes the case for your product or service. Business proposals are documents designed to make a persuasive appeal to the audience to achieve a defined outcome, often proposing a solution to a problem.
• 13.4: Report
Reports are documents designed to record and convey information to the reader. Reports are part of any business or organization; from credit reports to police reports, they serve to document specific information for specific audiences, goals, or functions. Informational and analytical reports require organization and a clear purpose.
• 13.5: Résumé
A résumé is a document that summarizes your education, skills, talents, employment history, and experiences in a clear and concise format for potential employers. Businesses increasingly scan résumés into searchable databases.
• 13.6: Sales Message
A sales message is the central persuasive message that intrigues, informs, persuades, calls to action, and closes the sale. Not every sales message will make a direct sale, but the goal remains. Whether your sales message is embedded in a letter, represented in a proposal, or broadcast across radio or television, the purpose stays the same.
• 13.7: Additional Resources
Thumbnail: pixabay.com/photos/office-bu...ument-3295556/
13: Business Writing in Action
Learning Objectives
1. Discuss the role of text messaging in business communication.
2. Write effective e-mails for both internal and external communication.
3. Demonstrate the appropriate use of netiquette.
Text messages and e-mails are part of our communication landscape, and skilled business communicators consider them a valuable tool to connect. Netiquette refers to etiquette, or protocols and norms for communication, on the Internet.
Texting
Whatever digital device you use, written communication in the form of brief messages, or texting, has become a common way to connect. It is useful for short exchanges, and is a convenient way to stay connected with others when talking on the phone would be cumbersome. Texting is not useful for long or complicated messages, and careful consideration should be given to the audience.
It is often said that you can tell how old someone is by how he or she inputs a phone number on a cell phone. If the person uses his or her thumb while holding the digital device, that person may have been raised on video games and be adept at one-handed interfaces. If he holds the digital device with one hand and inputs the number with the other, he may be over thirty, or may be less comfortable with some technological devices. Of course, there is no actual correlation between input and age, but it is a useful example to use when considering who your audience is when writing a text message. If the person is a one-hander, and knows all the abbreviations common to texting, you may be able to use similar codes to communicate effectively. If the person is a two-hander, you are better off using fewer words and spelling them out. Texting can be a great tool for connecting while on the go, but consider your audience and your company, and choose words, terms, or abbreviations that will deliver your message.
Tips for Effective Business Texting
• Know your recipient; “? % dsct” may be an understandable way to ask a close associate what the proper discount is to offer a certain customer, but if you are writing a text to your boss, it might be wiser to write, “what % discount does Murray get on \$1K order?”
• Anticipate unintentional misinterpretation. Texting often uses symbols and codes to represent thoughts, ideas, and emotions. Given the complexity of communication, and the useful but limited tool of texting, be aware of its limitation and prevent misinterpretation with brief messages.
• Contacting someone too frequently can border on harassment. Texting is a tool. Use it when appropriate but don’t abuse it.
• Unplug yourself once in awhile. Do you feel constantly connected? Do you feel lost or “out of it” if you don’t have your cell phone and cannot connect to people, even for fifteen minutes? Sometimes being unavailable for a time can be healthy—everything in moderation, including texting.
• Don’t text and drive. Research shows that the likelihood of an accident increases dramatically if the driver is texting behind the wheel (Houston Chronicle, 2009). Being in an accident while conducting company business would reflect poorly on your judgment as well as on your employer.
E-mail
Electronic mail, usually called e-mail, is quite familiar to most students and workers. It may be used like text, or synchronous chat, and it can be delivered to a cell phone. In business, it has largely replaced print hard copy letters for external (outside the company) correspondence, as well as taking the place of memos for internal (within the company) communication (Guffey, 2008). E-mail can be very useful for messages that have slightly more content than a text message, but it is still best used for fairly brief messages.
Many businesses use automated e-mails to acknowledge communications from the public, or to remind associates that periodic reports or payments are due. You may also be assigned to “populate” a form e-mail in which standard paragraphs are used but you choose from a menu of sentences to make the wording suitable for a particular transaction.
E-mails may be informal in personal contexts, but business communication requires attention to detail, awareness that your e-mail reflects you and your company, and a professional tone so that it may be forwarded to any third party if needed. E-mail often serves to exchange information within organizations. Although e-mail may have an informal feel, remember that when used for business, it needs to convey professionalism and respect. Never write or send anything that you wouldn’t want read in public or in front of your company president.
Tips for Effective Business E-mails
• Proper salutations should demonstrate respect and avoid mix-ups in case a message is accidentally sent to the wrong recipient. For example, use a salutation like “Dear Ms. X” (external) or “Hi Barry” (internal).
• Subject lines should be clear, brief, and specific. This helps the recipient understand the essence of the message. For example, “Proposal attached” or “Your question of 10/25.”
• Close with a signature. Identify yourself by creating a signature block that automatically contains your name and business contact information.
• Avoid abbreviations. An e-mail is not a text message, and the audience may not find your wit cause to ROTFLOL (roll on the floor laughing out loud).
• Be brief. Omit unnecessary words.
• Use a good format. Include line breaks between sentences or divide your message into brief paragraphs for ease of reading. A good e-mail should get to the point and conclude in three small paragraphs or less.
• Reread, revise, and review. Catch and correct spelling and grammar mistakes before you press “send.” It will take more time and effort to undo the problems caused by a hasty, poorly written e-mail than to get it right the first time.
• Reply promptly. Watch out for an emotional response—never reply in anger—but make a habit of replying to all e-mails within twenty-four hours, even if only to say that you will provide the requested information in forty-eight or seventy-two hours.
• Use “Reply All” sparingly. Do not send your reply to everyone who received the initial e-mail unless your message absolutely needs to be read by the entire group.
• Avoid using all caps. Capital letters are used on the Internet to communicate emphatic emotion or yelling and are considered rude.
• Test links. If you include a link, test it to make sure it is complete.
• E-mail ahead of time if you are going to attach large files (audio and visual files are often quite large) to prevent exceeding the recipient’s mailbox limit or triggering the spam filter.
• Give feedback or follow up. If you don’t get a response in twenty-four hours, e-mail or call. Spam filters may have intercepted your message, so your recipient may never have received it.
Let’s look at two examples of business e-mail. In Figure \(1\), we have an e-mail form. In Figure \(2\), we have a letter written specifically for the situation and audience.
Netiquette
We create personal pages, post messages, and interact via mediated technologies as a normal part of our careers, but how we conduct ourselves can leave a lasting image, literally. The photograph you posted on your MySpace page may have been seen by your potential employer, or that nasty remark in a post may come back to haunt you later. Some fifteen years ago, when the Internet was a new phenomenon, Virginia Shea laid out a series of ground rules for communication online that continue to serve us today.
Virginia Shea’s Rules of Netiquette
• Remember the human on the other side of the electronic communication.
• Adhere to the same standards of behavior online that you follow in real life.
• Know where you are in cyberspace.
• Respect other people’s time and bandwidth.
• Make yourself look good online.
• Share expert knowledge.
• Keep flame wars under control.
• Respect other people’s privacy.
• Don’t abuse your power.
• Be forgiving of other people’s mistakes (Shea, 1994).
Her rules speak for themselves and remind us that the golden rule (treat others as you would like to be treated) is relevant wherever there is human interaction.
Key Takeaways
• A text message is a brief written message sent and received using a digital device. It is useful for informal, brief, time-sensitive communication.
• E-mail is useful for both internal and external business communications. The content and formatting of an e-mail message should reflect professionalism and follow the rules of netiquette.
• Social customs that exist in traditional, live, human interaction also influence the rules and customs by which we interact with each other in the online environment.
Exercises
1. Write a text message in your normal use of language. It should use all your normal abbreviations (e.g., FWIW, IMHO, LOL), even if not everyone understands them.
2. Find an example of an e-mail that you wish you had never sent or received. Rewrite it to eliminate the characteristics that you find problematic. Share it with your classmates.
3. Choose at least three e-mails you have sent or received that are good examples of business communication. What makes them good examples? Could they be improved in any way? Share your suggestions with classmates.
4. When is e-mail inappropriate? Why?
5. Find a “flame war,” or heated discussion in an online forum and note how it is handled. Compare the results with your classmates.
6. In your experience, how do people behave when they interact online? Share your observations with your classmates. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_English_for_Success/13%3A_Business_Writing_in_Action/13.01%3A_Text_E-mail_and_Netiquette.txt |
Learning Objectives
• Discuss the purpose and format of a memo.
• Understand effective strategies for business memos.
• Describe the fifteen parts of a standard business letter.
• Access sample business letters and write a sample business letter.
Memos
A memo (or memorandum, meaning “reminder”) is normally used for communicating policies, procedures, or related official business within an organization. It is often written from a one-to-all perspective (like mass communication), broadcasting a message to an audience, rather than a one-on-one, interpersonal communication. It may also be used to update a team on activities for a given project, or to inform a specific group within a company of an event, action, or observance.
Memo Purpose
A memo’s purpose is often to inform, but it occasionally includes an element of persuasion or a call to action. All organizations have informal and formal communication networks. The unofficial, informal communication network within an organization is often called the grapevine, and it is often characterized by rumor, gossip, and innuendo. On the grapevine, one person may hear that someone else is going to be laid off and start passing the news around. Rumors change and transform as they are passed from person to person, and before you know it, the word is that they are shutting down your entire department.
One effective way to address informal, unofficial speculation is to spell out clearly for all employees what is going on with a particular issue. If budget cuts are a concern, then it may be wise to send a memo explaining the changes that are imminent. If a company wants employees to take action, they may also issue a memorandum. For example, on February 13, 2009, upper management at the Panasonic Corporation issued a declaration that all employees should buy at least \$1,600 worth of Panasonic products. The company president noted that if everyone supported the company with purchases, it would benefit all (Lewis, 2009).
While memos do not normally include a call to action that requires personal spending, they often represent the business or organization’s interests. They may also include statements that align business and employee interest, and underscore common ground and benefit.
Memo Format
A memo has a header that clearly indicates who sent it and who the intended recipients are. Pay particular attention to the title of the individual(s) in this section. Date and subject lines are also present, followed by a message that contains a declaration, a discussion, and a summary.
In a standard writing format, we might expect to see an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. All these are present in a memo, and each part has a clear purpose. The declaration in the opening uses a declarative sentence to announce the main topic. The discussion elaborates or lists major points associated with the topic, and the conclusion serves as a summary.
Let’s examine a sample memo.
Five Tips for Effective Business Memos
Audience Orientation
Always consider the audience and their needs when preparing a memo. An acronym or abbreviation that is known to management may not be known by all the employees of the organization, and if the memo is to be posted and distributed within the organization, the goal is clear and concise communication at all levels with no ambiguity.
Professional, Formal Tone
Memos are often announcements, and the person sending the memo speaks for a part or all of the organization. While it may contain a request for feedback, the announcement itself is linear, from the organization to the employees. The memo may have legal standing as it often reflects policies or procedures, and may reference an existing or new policy in the employee manual, for example.
Subject Emphasis
The subject is normally declared in the subject line and should be clear and concise. If the memo is announcing the observance of a holiday, for example, the specific holiday should be named in the subject line—for example, use “Thanksgiving weekend schedule” rather than “holiday observance.”
Direct Format
Some written business communication allows for a choice between direct and indirect formats, but memorandums are always direct. The purpose is clearly announced.
Objectivity
Memos are a place for just the facts, and should have an objective tone without personal bias, preference, or interest on display. Avoid subjectivity.
Letters
Letters are brief messages sent to recipients that are often outside the organization (Bovee, C., & Thill, J., 2010). They are often printed on letterhead paper, and represent the business or organization in one or two pages. Shorter messages may include e-mails or memos, either hard copy or electronic, while reports tend to be three or more pages in length.
While e-mail and text messages may be used more frequently today, the effective business letter remains a common form of written communication. It can serve to introduce you to a potential employer, announce a product or service, or even serve to communicate feelings and emotions. We’ll examine the basic outline of a letter and then focus on specific products or writing assignments.
All writing assignments have expectations in terms of language and format. The audience or reader may have their own idea of what constitutes a specific type of letter, and your organization may have its own format and requirements. This chapter outlines common elements across letters, and attention should be directed to the expectations associated with your particular writing assignment. There are many types of letters, and many adaptations in terms of form and content, but in this chapter, we discuss the fifteen elements of a traditional block-style letter.
Letters may serve to introduce your skills and qualifications to prospective employers, deliver important or specific information, or serve as documentation of an event or decision. Regardless of the type of letter you need to write, it can contain up to fifteen elements in five areas. While you may not use all the elements in every case or context, they are listed in Table \(1\).
Table \(1\): Elements of a Business Letter
Content Guidelines
1. Return Address This is your address where someone could send a reply. If your letter includes a letterhead with this information, either in the header (across the top of the page) or the footer (along the bottom of the page), you do not need to include it before the date.
2. Date The date should be placed at the top, right or left justified, five lines from the top of the page or letterhead logo.
3. Reference (Re:) Like a subject line in an e-mail, this is where you indicate what the letter is in reference to, the subject or purpose of the document.
4. Delivery (Optional) Sometimes you want to indicate on the letter itself how it was delivered. This can make it clear to a third party that the letter was delivered via a specific method, such as certified mail (a legal requirement for some types of documents).
5. Recipient Note (Optional) This is where you can indicate if the letter is personal or confidential.
Content Guidelines
6. Salutation A common salutation may be “Dear Mr. (full name).” But if you are unsure about titles (i.e., Mrs., Ms., Dr.), you may simply write the recipient’s name (e.g., “Dear Cameron Rai”) followed by a colon. A comma after the salutation is correct for personal letters, but a colon should be used in business. The salutation “To whom it may concern” is appropriate for letters of recommendation or other letters that are intended to be read by any and all individuals. If this is not the case with your letter, but you are unsure of how to address your recipient, make every effort to find out to whom the letter should be specifically addressed. For many, there is no sweeter sound than that of their name, and to spell it incorrectly runs the risk of alienating the reader before your letter has even been read. Avoid the use of impersonal salutations like “Dear Prospective Customer,” as the lack of personalization can alienate a future client.
7. Introduction This is your opening paragraph, and may include an attention statement, a reference to the purpose of the document, or an introduction of the person or topic depending on the type of letter. An emphatic opening involves using the most significant or important element of the letter in the introduction. Readers tend to pay attention to openings, and it makes sense to outline the expectations for the reader up front. Just as you would preview your topic in a speech, the clear opening in your introductions establishes context and facilitates comprehension.
8. Body If you have a list of points, a series of facts, or a number of questions, they belong in the body of your letter. You may choose organizational devices to draw attention, such as a bullet list, or simply number them. Readers may skip over information in the body of your letter, so make sure you emphasize the key points clearly. This is your core content, where you can outline and support several key points. Brevity is important, but so is clear support for main point(s). Specific, meaningful information needs to be clear, concise, and accurate.
9. Conclusion An emphatic closing mirrors your introduction with the added element of tying the main points together, clearly demonstrating their relationship. The conclusion can serve to remind the reader, but should not introduce new information. A clear summary sentence will strengthen your writing and enhance your effectiveness. If your letter requests or implies action, the conclusion needs to make clear what you expect to happen. It is usually courteous to conclude by thanking the recipient for his or her attention, and to invite them to contact you if you can be of help or if they have questions. This paragraph reiterates the main points and their relationship to each other, reinforcing the main point or purpose.
10. Close “Sincerely” or “Cordially” are standard business closing statements. (“Love,” “Yours Truly,” and “BFF” are closing statements suitable for personal correspondence, but not for business.) Closing statements are normally placed one or two lines under the conclusion and include a hanging comma, as in Sincerely,
11. Signature Five lines after the close, you should type your name (required) and, on the line below it, your title (optional).
12. Preparation Line If the letter was prepared, or word-processed, by someone other than the signatory (you), then inclusion of initials is common, as in MJD or abc.
13. Enclosures/Attachments Just like an e-mail with an attachment, the letter sometimes has additional documents that are delivered with it. This line indicates what the reader can look for in terms of documents included with the letter, such as brochures, reports, or related business documents.
14. Courtesy Copies or “CC” The abbreviation “CC” once stood for carbon copies but now refers to courtesy copies. Just like a “CC” option in an e-mail, it indicates the relevant parties that will also receive a copy of the document.
15. Logo/Contact Information A formal business letter normally includes a logo or contact information for the organization in the header (top of page) or footer (bottom of page).
Strategies for Effective Letters
Remember that a letter has five main areas:
1. The heading, which establishes the sender, often including address and date
2. The introduction, which establishes the purpose
3. The body, which articulates the message
4. The conclusion, which restates the main point and may include a call to action
5. The signature line, which sometimes includes the contact information
A sample letter is shown in Figure \(3\).
• be clear, concise, specific, and respectful;
• each word should contribute to your purpose;
• each paragraph should focus on one idea;
• the parts of the letter should form a complete message;
• the letter should be free of errors.
Key Takeaways
• Memos are brief business documents usually used internally to inform or persuade employees concerning business decisions on policy, procedure, or actions.
• Letters are brief, print messages often used externally to inform or persuade customers, vendors, or the public.
• A letter has fifteen parts, each fulfilling a specific function.
Exercises
1. Find a memo from your work or business, or borrow one from someone you know. Share it with your classmates, observing confidentiality by blocking out identifying details such as the name of the sender, recipient, and company. Compare and contrast.
2. Create a draft letter introducing a product or service to a new client. Post and share with classmates.
3. Write a memo informing your class that an upcoming holiday will be observed. Post and share with classmates.
4. Find a business letter (for example, an offer you received from a credit card company or a solicitation for a donation) and share it with your classmates. Look for common elements and points of difference.
5. Now that you have reviewed a sample letter, and learned about the five areas and fifteen basic parts of any business letter, write a business letter that informs a prospective client or customer of a new product or service. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_English_for_Success/13%3A_Business_Writing_in_Action/13.02%3A_Memorandums_and_Letters.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Describe the basic elements of a business proposal.
2. Discuss the main goals of a business proposal.
3. Identify effective strategies to use in a business proposal.
An effective business proposal informs and persuades efficiently. It features many of the common elements of a report, but its emphasis on persuasion guides the overall presentation.
Let’s say you work in a health care setting. What types of products or services might be put out to bid? If your organization is going to expand and needs to construct a new wing, it will probably be put out to bid. Everything from office furniture to bedpans could potentially be put out to bid, specifying a quantity, quality, and time of delivery required. Janitorial services may also be bid on each year, as well as food services, and even maintenance. Using the power of bidding to lower contract costs for goods and services is common practice.
In order to be successful in business and industry, you should be familiar with the business proposal. Much like a report, with several common elements and persuasive speech, a business proposal makes the case for your product or service. Business proposals are documents designed to make a persuasive appeal to the audience to achieve a defined outcome, often proposing a solution to a problem.
Idea
Effective business proposals are built around a great idea or solution. While you may be able to present your normal product, service, or solution in an interesting way, you want your document and its solution to stand out against the background of competing proposals. What makes your idea different or unique? How can you better meet the needs of the company that other vendors? What makes you so special? If the purchase decision is made solely on price, it may leave you little room to underscore the value of service, but the sale follow-through has value. For example, don’t consider just the cost of the unit but also its maintenance. How can maintenance be a part of your solution, distinct from the rest? In addition, your proposal may focus on a common product where you can anticipate several vendors at similar prices. How can you differentiate yourself from the rest by underscoring long-term relationships, demonstrated ability to deliver, or the ability to anticipate the company’s needs? Business proposals need to have an attractive idea or solution in order to be effective.
Traditional Categories
You can be creative in many aspects of the business proposal, but follow the traditional categories. Businesses expect to see information in a specific order, much like a résumé or even a letter. Each aspect of your proposal has its place and it is to your advantage to respect that tradition and use the categories effectively to highlight your product or service. Every category is an opportunity to sell, and should reinforce your credibility, your passion, and the reason why your solution is simply the best.
Table \(1\): Business Proposal Format
Cover Page Title page with name, title, date, and specific reference to request for proposal if applicable.
Executive Summary Like an abstract in a report, this is a one- or two-paragraph summary of the product or service and how it meets the requirements and exceeds expectations.
Background Discuss the history of your product, service, and/or company and consider focusing on the relationship between you and the potential buyer and/or similar companies.
Proposal The idea. Who, what, where, when, why, and how. Make it clear and concise. Don’t waste words, and don’t exaggerate. Use clear, well-supported reasoning to demonstrate your product or service.
Market Analysis What currently exists in the marketplace, including competing products or services, and how does your solution compare?
Benefits How will the potential buyer benefit from the product or service? Be clear, concise, specific, and provide a comprehensive list of immediate, short, and long-term benefits to the company.
Timeline A clear presentation, often with visual aids, of the process, from start to finish, with specific, dated benchmarks noted.
Marketing Plan Delivery is often the greatest challenge for Web-based services—how will people learn about you? If you are bidding on a gross lot of food service supplies, this may not apply to you, but if an audience is required for success, you will need a marketing plan.
Finance What are the initial costs, when can revenue be anticipated, when will there be a return on investment (if applicable)? Again, the proposal may involve a one-time fixed cost, but if the product or service is to be delivered more than once, and extended financial plan noting costs across time is required.
Conclusion Like a speech or essay, restate your main points clearly. Tie them together with a common them and make your proposal memorable.
Ethos, Pathos, and Logos
Ethos refers to credibility, pathos to passion and enthusiasm, and logos to logic or reason. All three elements are integral parts of your business proposal that require your attention. Who are you and why should we do business with you? Your credibility may be unknown to the potential client and it is your job to reference previous clients, demonstrate order fulfillment, and clearly show that your product or service is offered by a credible organization. By association, if your organization is credible the product or service is often thought to be more credible.
In the same way, if you are not enthusiastic about the product or service, why should the potential client get excited? How does your solution stand out in the marketplace? Why should they consider you? Why should they continue reading? Passion and enthusiasm are not only communicated through “!” exclamation points. Your thorough understanding, and your demonstration of that understanding, communicates dedication and interest.
Each assertion requires substantiation, each point clear support. It is not enough to make baseless claims about your product or service—you have to show why the claims you make are true, relevant, and support your central assertion that your product or service is right for this client. Make sure you cite sources and indicate “according to” when you support your points. Be detailed and specific.
Professional
A professional document is a base requirement. If it is less than professional, you can count on its prompt dismissal. There should be no errors in spelling or grammar, and all information should be concise, accurate, and clearly referenced when appropriate. Information that pertains to credibility should be easy to find and clearly relevant, including contact information. If the document exists in a hard copy form, it should be printed on a letterhead. If the document is submitted in an electronic form, it should be in a file format that presents your document as you intended. Word processing files may have their formatting changed or adjusted based on factors you cannot control—like screen size—and information can shift out of place, making it difficult to understand. In this case, a portable document format (PDF)—a format for electronic documents—may be used to preserve content location and avoid any inadvertent format changes when it is displayed.
Effective, persuasive proposals are often brief, even limited to one page. “The one-page proposal has been one of the keys to my business success, and it can be invaluable to you too. Few decision-makers can ever afford to read more than one page when deciding if they are interested in a deal or not. This is even more true for people of a different culture or language,” said Adnan Khashoggi, a successful multibillionaire (Riley, 2002). Clear and concise proposals serve the audience well and limit the range of information to prevent confusion.
Two Types of Business Proposals
Solicited
If you have been asked to submit a proposal it is considered solicited. The solicitation may come in the form of a direct verbal or written request, but normally solicitations are indirect, open-bid to the public, and formally published for everyone to see. A request for proposal (RFP), request for quotation (RFQ), and invitation for bid (IFB) are common ways to solicit business proposals for business, industry, and the government.
RFPs typically specify the product or service, guidelines for submission, and evaluation criteria. RFQs emphasize cost, though service and maintenance may be part of the solicitation. IRBs are often job-specific in that they encompass a project that requires a timeline, labor, and materials. For example, if a local school district announces the construction of a new elementary school, they normally have the architect and engineering plans on file, but need a licensed contractor to build it.
Unsolicited
Unsolicited proposals are the “cold calls” of business writing. They require a thorough understanding of the market, product and/or service, and their presentation is typically general rather than customer-specific. They can, however, be tailored to specific businesses with time and effort, and the demonstrated knowledge of specific needs or requirement can transform an otherwise generic, brochure-like proposal into an effective sales message. Getting your tailored message to your target audience, however, is often a significant challenge if it has not been directly or indirectly solicited. Unsolicited proposals are often regarded as marketing materials, intended more to stimulate interest for a follow-up contact than make direct sales. Sue Baugh and Robert Hamper encourage you to resist the temptation to “shoot at every target and hope you hit at least one” (Baugh, L. S., and Hamper, R. J., 1995). A targeted proposal is your most effective approach, but recognize the importance of gaining company, service, or brand awareness as well as its limitations.
Sample Business Proposal
The Writing Help Tools Center is a commercial enterprise, and offers a clear (and free) example of a business proposal here:
www.writinghelp-central.com/sample-business-proposal.html
Key Takeaway
Business proposals need to target a specific audience.
Exercises
1. Prepare a business proposal in no more than two pages. Do not include actual contact information. Just as the example has employees named after colors, your (imaginary) company should have contact information that does not directly link to real businesses or you as an individual. Do not respond to point 12.
2. Search for an RFP (request for proposal) or similar call to bid, and post it to your class. Compare the results with your classmates, focusing on what is required to apply or bid.
3. Identify a product or service you would like to produce or offer. List three companies that you would like to sell your product or service to and learn more about them. Post your findings, making the link between your product or service and company needs. You may find the Web site on creating a business plan (https://www.scu.edu/mobi/business-courses/starting-a-business/session-2-the-business-plan/#3) useful when completing this exercise | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_English_for_Success/13%3A_Business_Writing_in_Action/13.03%3A_Business_Proposal.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Discuss the main parts of a report.
2. Understand the different types of reports.
3. Write a basic report.
What Is a Report?
Reports are documents designed to record and convey information to the reader. Reports are part of any business or organization; from credit reports to police reports, they serve to document specific information for specific audiences, goals, or functions. The type of report is often identified by its primary purpose or function, as in an accident report, a laboratory report, a sales report, or even a book report. Reports are often analytical, or involve the rational analysis of information. Sometimes they simply “report the facts” with no analysis at all, but still need to communicate the information in a clear and concise format. Other reports summarize past events, present current data, and forecast future trends. While a report may have conclusions, propositions, or even a call to action, the demonstration of the analysis is the primary function. A sales report, for example, is not designed to make an individual sale. It is, however, supposed to report sales to date, and may forecast future sales based on previous trends. This chapter is designed to introduce you to the basics of report writing.
Types of Reports
Reports come in all sizes, but are typically longer than a page and somewhat shorter than a book. The type of report depends on its function. The function of the report is its essential purpose, often indicated in the thesis or purpose statement. The function will also influence the types of visual content or visual aids, representing words, numbers, and their relationships to the central purpose in graphic, representational ways that are easy for the reader to understand. The function may also contribute to parameters like report length (page or word count) or word choice and readability. “Focusing on the content of your longer business documents is not only natural but necessary because doing so helps ensure complete, correct information” (Bovee, C., and Thill, J., 2010).
Reports vary by function, and they also vary by style and tradition. Within your organization, there may be employer-specific expectations that need to be addressed to meet audience expectations. This chapter discusses reports in general terms, focusing on common elements and points of distinction, but reference to similar documents where you work or additional examination of specific sample reports may serve you well as you prepare your own report.
Informational or Analytical Report?
There are two main categories for reports, regardless of their specific function or type. An informational report informs or instructs and presents details of events, activities, individuals, or conditions without analysis. An example of this type of “just the facts” report is a police accident report. The report will note the time, date, place, contributing factors like weather, and identification information for the drivers involved in an automobile accident. It does not establish fault or include judgmental statements. You should not see “Driver was falling down drunk” in a police accident report. Instead, you would see “Driver failed sobriety tests and breathalyzer test and was transported to the station for a blood sample.” The police officer is not a trained medical doctor and is therefore not licensed to make definitive diagnoses, but can collect and present relevant information that may contribute to that diagnosis.
The second type of report is called an analytical report. An analytical report presents information with a comprehensive analysis to solve problems, demonstrate relationships, or make recommendations. An example of this report may be a field report by a Center for Disease Control (CDC) physician from the site of an outbreak of the H1N1 virus, noting symptoms, disease progression, steps taken to arrest the spread of the disease, and to make recommendations on the treatment and quarantine of subjects.
Table \(3\) includes common reports that, depending on the audience needs, may be informational or analytical.
Table \(1\): Types of Reports and Their Functions
Type Function
1. Laboratory Report Communicate the procedures and results of laboratory activities
2. Research Report Study problems scientifically by developing hypotheses, collecting data, analyzing data, and indicating findings or conclusions
3. Field Study Report Describe one-time events, such as trips, conferences, seminars, as well as reports from branch offices, industrial and manufacturing plants
4. Progress Report Monitor and control production, sales, shipping, service, or related business process
5. Technical Report Communication process and product from a technical perspective
6. Financial Report Communication status and trends from a finance perspective
7. Case Study Represent, analyze, and present lessons learned from a specific case or example
8. Needs Assessment Report Assess the need for a service or product
9. Comparative Advantage Report Discuss competing products or services with an analysis of relative advantages and disadvantages
10. Feasibility Study Analyze problems and predict whether current solutions or alternatives will be practical, advisable, or produced the desired outcome(s)
11. Instruction Manuals Communicate step-by-step instructions on the use of a product or service
12. Compliance Report Document and indicate the extent to which a product or service is within established compliance parameters or standards
13. Cost-Benefit Analysis Report Communicate costs and benefits of products or services.
14. Decision Report Make recommendations to management and become tools to solve problems and make decisions
15. Benchmark Report Establish criteria and evaluate alternatives by measuring against the establish benchmark criteria
16. Examination Report Report or record data obtained from an examination of an item or conditions, including accidents and natural disasters
17. Physical Description report Describe the physical characteristics of a machine, a device, or object
18. Literature Review Present summaries of the information available on a given subject
How Are Reports Organized?
Reports vary by size, format, and function. You need to be flexible and adjust to the needs of the audience while respecting customs and guidelines. Reports are typically organized around six key elements:
1. Whom the report is about and/or prepared for
2. What was done, what problems were addressed, and the results, including conclusions and/or recommendations
3. Where the subject studied occurred
4. When the subject studied occurred
5. Why the report was written (function), including under what authority, for what reason, or by whose request
6. How the subject operated, functioned, or was used
Pay attention to these essential elements when you consider your stakeholders, or those who have an interest in the report. That may include the person(s) the report is about, whom it is for, and the larger audience of the business, organization, or industry. Ask yourself who the key decision makers are who will read your report, who the experts or technicians will be, and how executives and workers may interpret your words and images. While there is no universal format for a report, there is a common order to the information. Each element supports the main purpose or function in its own way, playing an important role in the representation and transmission of information.
Table \(2\): Ten Common Elements of a Report
Page Element Function Example
1. Cover Title and image Like the cover of a book, sometimes a picture, image, or logo is featured to introduce the topic to the reader.
2. Title Fly Title only This page is optional. Feasibility Study of Oil Recovery from the X Tarpit Sands Location
3. Title Page Label, report, features title, author, affiliation, date, and sometimes for whom the report was prepared Feasibility Study of Oil Recovery from the X Tarpit Sands Location Peak Oilman, X Energy Corporation Prepared for X
4. Table of Contents A list of the main parts of the report and their respective page numbers
• Abstract……1
• Introduction……2
• Background……3
5. Abstract
• Informational abstract: highlight topic, methods, data, and results
• Descriptive abstract: (All of the above without statements of conclusion or recommendations)
This report presents the current status of the X tarpit sands, the study of oil recoverability, and the findings of the study with specific recommendations.
6. Introduction Introduces the topic of the report Oil sands recovery processes include ways to extract and separate the bitumen from the clay, sand, and water that make up the tar sands. This study analyzes the feasibility of extraction and separation, including a comprehensive cost/benefits analysis, with specific recommendations.
7. Body
Key elements of body include:
• Background
• Methodology
• Results
• Analysis and Recommendations
• Background: History of oil extraction and separation from tarpit sands.
• Methodology: Specific analysis of the site based on accepted research methods.
• Results: Data from the feasibility study.
• Analysis and Recommendations: Analysis of the data and recommendations based on that analysis.
Page Element Function Example
8. Conclusion Concise presentation of findings This portion clearly indicates the main results and their relation to recommended action or outcome.
9. References Bibliography or Works Cited This part contains a list of citations.
10. Appendix Related supporting materials This may include maps, analysis of soil samples, and field reports.
Here is a checklist for ensuring that a report fulfills its goals.
1. Report considers the audience’s needs
2. Format follows function of report
3. Format reflects institutional norms and expectations
4. Information is accurate, complete, and documented
5. Information is easy to read
6. Terms are clearly defined
7. Figures, tables, and art support written content
8. Figures, tables, and art are clear and correctly labeled
9. Figures, tables, and art are easily understood without text support
10. Words are easy to read (font, arrangement, organization)
11. Results are clear and concise
12. Recommendations are reasonable and well-supported
13. Report represents your best effort
14. Report speaks for itself without your clarification or explanation
Key Takeaway
Informational and analytical reports require organization and a clear purpose.
Exercises
1. Find an annual report for a business you would like to learn more about. Review it with the previous reading in mind and provide examples. Share and compare with classmates.
2. Write a report on a trend in business that you’ve observed, and highlight at least the main finding. For example, from the rising cost of textbooks to the online approach to course content, textbooks are a significant issue for students. Draw from your experience as you bring together sources of information to illustrate a trend. Share and compare with classmates. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_English_for_Success/13%3A_Business_Writing_in_Action/13.04%3A_Report.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Describe the differences among functional, reverse chronological, combination, targeted, and scannable résumés.
2. Discuss what features are required in each type of résumé.
3. Prepare a one-page résumé.
A résumé is a document that summarizes your education, skills, talents, employment history, and experiences in a clear and concise format for potential employers. The résumé serves three distinct purposes that define its format, design, and presentation:
1. To represent your professional information in writing
2. To demonstrate the relationship between your professional information and the problem or challenge the potential employer hopes to solve or address, often represented in the form of a job description or duties
3. To get you an interview by clearly demonstrating you meet the minimum qualifications and have the professional background help the organization meet its goals
An online profile page is similar to a résumé in that it represents you, your background and qualifications, and adds participation to the publication. People network, link, and connect in new ways via online profiles or professional sites like LinkedIn. In many ways, your online profile is an online version of your résumé with connections and friends on public display. Your MySpace and Facebook pages are also often accessible to the public, so never post anything you wouldn’t want your employer (current or future) to read, see, or hear. This chapter covers a traditional résumé, as well as the more popular scannable features, but the elements and tips could equally apply to your online profile.
Main Parts of a Résumé
Regardless of the format, employers have expectations for your résumé. They expect it to be clear, accurate, and up to date (Bennett, S. A., 2005). This document represents you in your absence, and you want it to do the best job possible. You don’t want to be represented by spelling or grammatical errors, as they may raise questions about your education and attention to detail. Someone reading your résumé with errors will only wonder what kind of work you might produce that will poorly reflect on their company. There is going to be enough competition that you don’t want to provide an easy excuse to toss your résumé at the start of the process. Do your best work the first time.
Résumés have several basic elements that employers look for, including your contact information, objective or goal, education and work experience, and so on. Each résumé format may organize the information in distinct ways based on the overall design strategy, but all information should be clear, concise, and accurate (Simons, W., and Curtis, R., 2004).
Contact Information
This section is often located at the top of the document. The first element of the contact information is your name. You should use your full, legal name even if you go by your middle name or use a nickname. There will plenty of time later to clarify what you prefer to be called, but all your application documents, including those that relate to payroll, your social security number, drug screenings, background checks, fingerprint records, transcripts, certificates or degrees, should feature your legal name. Other necessary information includes your address, phone number(s), and e-mail address. If you maintain two addresses (e.g., a campus and a residential address), make it clear where you can be contacted by indicating the primary address. For business purposes, do not use an unprofessional e-mail address like [email protected] or [email protected]. Create a new e-mail account if needed with an address suitable for professional use.
Objective
This is one part of your résumé that is relatively simple to customize for an individual application. Your objective should reflect the audience’s need to quickly understand how you will help the organization achieve its goals.
Education
You need to list your education in reverse chronological order, with your most recent degree first. List the school, degree, and grade point average (GPA). If there is a difference between the GPA in your major courses and your overall GPA, you may want to list them separately to demonstrate your success in your chosen field. You may also want to highlight relevant coursework that directly relate to the position.
Work Experience
List in reverse chronological order your employment history, including the positions, companies, locations, dates, duties and skills demonstrated or acquired. You may choose to use active, descriptive sentences or bullet lists, but be consistent. Emphasize responsibilities that involved budgets, teamwork, supervision, and customer service when applying for positions in business and industry, but don’t let emphasis become exaggeration. This document represents you in your absence, and if information is false, at a minimum you could lose your job.
Table \(1\): Types of Résumés
Type Function Advantage Disadvantage
1. Reverse Chronological Reverse chronological résumés (also called reverse time order) focus on work history. Demonstrates a consistent work history It may be difficult to highlight skills and experience.
2. Functional Functional résumés (also called competency-based résumés) focus on skills. Demonstrates skills that can clearly link to job functions or duties It is often associated with people who have gaps in their employment history.
3. Combination A combination résumé lists your skills and experience first, then employment history and education. Highlights the skills you have that are relevant to the job and provides a reverse chronological work history Some employers prefer a reverse chronological order.
4. Targeted A targeted résumé is a custom document that specifically highlights the experience and skills that are relevant to the job. Points out to the reader how your qualifications and experience clearly match the job duties Custom documents take additional time, preparation, analysis of the job announcement, and may not fit the established guidelines.
5. Scannable A scannable résumé is specifically formatted to be read by a scanner and converted to digital information. Increasingly used to facilitate search and retrieval, and to reduce physical storage costs Scanners may not read the résumé correctly.
You may choose to include references at the end of your résumé, though “references upon request” is common. You may also be tempted to extend your résumé to more than one page, but don’t exceed that limit unless the additional page will feature specific, relevant information that represents several years of work that directly relates to the position. The person reading your résumé may be sifting through many applicants and will not spend time reading extra pages. Use the one-page format to put your best foot forward, remembering that you may never get a second chance to make a good first impression.
Use Key Words
Just as there are common search terms, and common words in relation to each position, job description, or description of duties, your scannable résumé needs to mirror these common terms. Use of nonstandard terms may not stand out, and your indication of “managed employees” may not get the same attention as the word “supervision” or “management.”
Follow Directions
If a job description uses specific terms, refers to computer programs, skills, or previous experience, make sure you incorporate that language in your scannable résumé. You know that when given a class assignment, you are expected to follow directions; similarly, the employer is looking for specific skills and experience. By mirroring the employer’s language and submitting your application documents in accord with their instructions, you convey a spirit of cooperation and an understanding of how to follow instructions.
Insert a Key Word Section
Consider a brief section that lists common words associated with the position as a skills summary: customer service, business communication, sales, or terms and acronyms common to the business or industry.
Make It Easy to Read
You need to make sure your résumé is easy to read by a computer, including a character recognition program. That means no italics, underlining, shading, boxes, or lines. Choose a sans serif (without serif, or decorative end) font like Arial or Tahoma that won’t be misread. Simple, clear fonts that demonstrate no points at which letters may appear to overlap will increase the probability of the computer getting it right the first time. In order for the computer to do this, you have to consider your audience—a computer program that will not be able to interpret your unusual font or odd word choice. A font size of eleven or twelve is easier to read for most people, and while the computer doesn’t care about font size, the smaller your font, the more likely the computer is to make the error of combining adjacent letters.
Printing, Packaging and Delivery
Use a laser printer to get crisp letter formation. Inkjet printers can have some “bleed” between characters that may make them overlap, and therefore be misunderstood. Folds can make it hard to scan your document. E-mail your résumé as an attachment if possible, but if a paper version is required, don’t fold it. Use a clean, white piece of paper with black ink; colors will only confuse the computer. Deliver the document in a nine-by-twelve-inch envelope, stiffened with a sheet of cardstock (heavy paper or cardboard) to help prevent damage to the document.
Key Takeaway
A résumé will represent your skills, education, and experience in your absence. Businesses increasingly scan résumés into searchable databases.
Exercises
1. Find a job announcement with specific duties that represents a job that you will be prepared for upon graduation. Choose a type of résumé and prepare your résumé to submit to the employer as a class assignment. Your instructor may also request a scannable version of your résumé.
2. Conduct an online search for a functional or chronological résumé. Please post and share with your classmates.
3. Conduct an online search for job advertisements that detail positions you would be interested in, and note the key job duties and position requirements. Please post one example and share with your classmates.
4. When is a second page of your résumé justified? Explain.
5. Conduct an online search for resources to help you prepare your own résumé. Please post one link and a brief review of the Web site, noting what features you found useful and at least one recommendation for improvement. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_English_for_Success/13%3A_Business_Writing_in_Action/13.05%3A_Resume.txt |
Learning Objectives
1. Discuss a basic sales message and identify its central purpose
2. Detail the main parts of a sales message and understand strategies for success
A sales message is the central persuasive message that intrigues, informs, persuades, calls to action, and closes the sale. Not every sales message will make a direct sale, but the goal remains. Whether your sales message is embedded in a letter, represented in a proposal, or broadcast across radio or television, the purpose stays the same.
Sales messages are often discussed in terms of reason versus emotion. Every message has elements of ethos, or credibility; pathos, or passion and enthusiasm; and logos, or logic and reason. If your sales message focuses exclusively on reason with cold, hard facts and nothing but the facts, you may appeal to some audience, but certainly not the majority. Buyers make purchase decisions on emotion as well as reason, and even if they have researched all the relevant facts about competing products, the decision may still come down to impulse, emotion, and desire. If your sales message focuses exclusively on emotion, with little or no substance, it may not be taken seriously. Finally, if your sales message does not appear to have credibility, the message will be dismissed. In the case of the sales message, you need to meet the audience’s needs that vary greatly.
In general, appeals to emotion pique curiosity and get our attention, but some attention to reason and facts should also be included. That doesn’t mean we need to spell out the technical manual on the product on the opening sale message, but basic information about design or features, in specific, concrete ways can help an audience make sense of your message and the product or service. Avoid using too many abstract terms or references, as not everyone will understand these. You want your sales message to do the work, not the audience.
Format for a Common Sales Message
A sales message has the five main parts of any persuasive message.
Table \(1\): Five Main Parts of a Persuasive Message
Attention Statement Use humor, novelty, surprise, or the unusual to get attention.
Introduction Build interest by appealing to common needs and wants, and include a purpose statement to set up expectations.
Body Establish credibility, discuss attractive features, and compare with competitors, addressing concerns or potential questions before they are even considered.
Conclusion Sum it up and offer solution steps or calls to action, motivating the audience to take the next step. The smaller the step, the more likely the audience will comply. Set up your audience for an effective closing.
Residual Message Make the sale, make them remember you, and make sure your final words relate to the most important information, like a contact phone number.
Getting Attention
Your sales message will compete with hundreds of other messages and you want it to stand out (Price, D., 2005). One effective way to do that is to make sure your attention statement(s) and introduction clearly state how the reader or listener will benefit.
• Will the product or service save time or money?
• Will it make them look good?
• Will it entertain them?
• Will it satisfy them?
Regardless of the product or service, the audience is going to consider first what is in it for them. A benefit is what the buyer gains with the purchase and is central to your sales message. They may gain social status, popularity, sex appeal, or even reduce or eliminate something they don’t want. Your sales message should clearly communicate the benefits of your product or service (Winston, W., and Granat, J., 1997).
Sales Message Strategies for Success
Your product or service may sell itself, but if you require a sales message, you may want to consider these strategies for success:
1. Start with your greatest benefit. Use it in the headline, subject line, caption, or attention statement. Audiences tend to remember the information from the beginning and end of a message, but have less recall about the middle points. Make your first step count by highlighting the best feature first.
2. Take baby steps. One thing at a time. Promote, inform, and persuade on one product or service at a time. You want to hear “yes” and make the associated sale, and if you confuse the audience with too much information, too many options, steps to consider, or related products or service, you are more likely to hear “no” as a defensive response as the buyer tries not to make a mistake. Avoid confusion and keep it simple.
3. Know your audience. The more background research you can do on your buyer, the better you can anticipate their specific wants and needs and individualize your sales message to meet them.
4. Lead with emotion, follow with reason. Gain the audience’s attention with drama, humor, or novelty and follow with specific facts that establish your credibility, provide more information about the product or service, and lead to your call to action to make the sale.
These four steps can help improve your sales message, and your sales. Invest your time in planning and preparation, and consider the audience’s needs as you prepare your sales message.
Key Takeaway
A sales message combines emotion and reason, and reinforces credibility, to create interest in a product or service that leads to a sale.
Exercises
1. Create your own e-mail sales message in a hundred words or less. Share it with the class.
2. Identify one sales message you consider to be effective. Share it with classmates and discuss why you perceive it to be effective.
3. Please consider one purchase you made recently. What motivated you to buy and why did you choose to complete the purchase? Share the results with your classmates.
4. Are you more motivated by emotion or reason? Ask ten friends that question and post your results.
13.07: Additional Resources
Visit NetLingo for some common texting abbreviations. http://www.netlingo.com/acronyms.php
The Online Writing Lab (OWL) at Purdue University includes an area on e-mail etiquette. http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/636/01
Shea’s Netiquette online is another useful source. http://www.albion.com/netiquette/book/index.html
The New York Times blog “Gadgetwise: Getting Smart About Personal Technology” discusses an ever-changing variety of questions related to netiquette. http://gadgetwise.blogs.nytimes.com
The OWL at Purdue also includes pages on memo writing and a sample memo. http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/590/01; http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/590/04
For 642 sample letters, from cover letters to complaints, go to this site. www.4hb.com/letters
Visit this Negotiations.com page for information on writing a request for proposal, quotation, and information. http://www.negotiations.com/articles/procurement-terms
Visit this site for additional proposal writing tips. www.4hb.com/0350tipwritebizproposal.html
TechSoup offers a sample Request for Proposal. http://www.techsoup.org/support/articles-and-how-tos/rfp-library
Your online profile counts as much as your résumé. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=105483848&sc=nl&cc=es-20090628
Read a Forbes article on “Ten Ways to Torpedo Your Sales Pitch.” http://www.forbes.com/2007/08/01/microsoft-ebay-symantec-ent-sales-cx_mf_0801byb07_torpedo.html
Direct mail and other sales copy written by Susanna Hutcheson. http://www.powerwriting.com/port.html
Visit this site for tips on how to write a public service announcement (PSA). www.essortment.com/tips-write-public-service-announcement-34787.html
The National Institute of Justice provides guidelines on writing a PSA. www.nij.gov/topics/courts/restorative-justice/marketing-media/pages/psa.aspx
The AdCouncil provides a range of examples. http://www.adcouncil.org/Our-Campaigns | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_English_for_Success/13%3A_Business_Writing_in_Action/13.06%3A_Sales_Message.txt |
Thumbnail: (Unsplash license; Kelly Sikkema via https://unsplash.com/photos/et5mfj1eB94Unsplash)
14: APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting
Learning Objectives
• Identify the major components of a research paper written using American Psychological Association (APA) style.
• Apply general APA style and formatting conventions in a research paper.
In this chapter, you will learn how to use APA style, the documentation and formatting style followed by the American Psychological Association, as well as MLA style, from the Modern Language Association. There are a few major formatting styles used in academic texts, including AMA, Chicago, and Turabian:
• AMA (American Medical Association) for medicine, health, and biological sciences
• APA (American Psychological Association) for education, psychology, and the social sciences
• Chicago—a common style used in everyday publications like magazines, newspapers, and books
• MLA (Modern Language Association) for English, literature, arts, and humanities
• Turabian—another common style designed for its universal application across all subjects and disciplines
While all the formatting and citation styles have their own use and applications, in this chapter we focus our attention on the two styles you are most likely to use in your academic studies: APA and MLA.
If you find that the rules of proper source documentation are difficult to keep straight, you are not alone. Writing a good research paper is, in and of itself, a major intellectual challenge. Having to follow detailed citation and formatting guidelines as well may seem like just one more task to add to an already-too-long list of requirements.
Following these guidelines, however, serves several important purposes. First, it signals to your readers that your paper should be taken seriously as a student’s contribution to a given academic or professional field; it is the literary equivalent of wearing a tailored suit to a job interview. Second, it shows that you respect other people’s work enough to give them proper credit for it. Finally, it helps your reader find additional materials if he or she wishes to learn more about your topic.
Furthermore, producing a letter-perfect APA-style paper need not be burdensome. Yes, it requires careful attention to detail. However, you can simplify the process if you keep these broad guidelines in mind:
• Work ahead whenever you can. Chapter 11 includes tips for keeping track of your sources early in the research process, which will save time later on.
• Get it right the first time. Apply APA guidelines as you write, so you will not have much to correct during the editing stage. Again, putting in a little extra time early on can save time later.
• Use the resources available to you. In addition to the guidelines provided in this chapter, you may wish to consult the APA website at http://www.apa.org or the Purdue University Online Writing lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu, which regularly updates its online style guidelines.
General Formatting Guidelines
This chapter provides detailed guidelines for using the citation and formatting conventions developed by the American Psychological Association, or APA. Writers in disciplines as diverse as astrophysics, biology, psychology, and education follow APA style. The major components of a paper written in APA style are listed in the following box.
These are the major components of an APA-style paper:
1. Title page
2. Abstract
3. Body, which includes the following:
• Headings and, if necessary, subheadings to organize the content
• In-text citations of research sources
4. References page
All these components must be saved in one document, not as separate documents.
Title Page
The title page of your paper includes the following information:
• Title of the paper
• Author’s name
• Name of the institution with which the author is affiliated
• Header at the top of the page with the paper title (in capital letters) and the page number (If the title is lengthy, you may use a shortened form of it in the header.)
List the first three elements in the order given in the previous list, centered about one third of the way down from the top of the page. Use the headers and footers tool of your word-processing program to add the header, with the title text at the left and the page number in the upper-right corner. Your title page should look like the following example.
Abstract
The next page of your paper provides an abstract, or brief summary of your findings. An abstract does not need to be provided in every paper, but an abstract should be used in papers that include a hypothesis. A good abstract is concise—about one hundred to one hundred fifty words—and is written in an objective, impersonal style. Your writing voice will not be as apparent here as in the body of your paper. When writing the abstract, take a just-the-facts approach, and summarize your research question and your findings in a few sentences.
In Chapter 12, you read a paper written by a student named Jorge, who researched the effectiveness of low-carbohydrate diets. Read Jorge’s abstract. Note how it sums up the major ideas in his paper without going into excessive detail.
Exercise \(1\)
Write an abstract summarizing your paper. Briefly introduce the topic, state your findings, and sum up what conclusions you can draw from your research. Use the word count feature of your word-processing program to make sure your abstract does not exceed one hundred fifty words.
Tip
Depending on your field of study, you may sometimes write research papers that present extensive primary research, such as your own experiment or survey. In your abstract, summarize your research question and your findings, and briefly indicate how your study relates to prior research in the field.
Margins, Pagination, and Headings
APA style requirements also address specific formatting concerns, such as margins, pagination, and heading styles, within the body of the paper. Review the following APA guidelines.
Use these general guidelines to format the paper:
1. Set the top, bottom, and side margins of your paper at 1 inch.
2. Use double-spaced text throughout your paper.
3. Use a standard font, such as Times New Roman or Arial, in a legible size (10- to 12-point).
4. Use continuous pagination throughout the paper, including the title page and the references section. Page numbers appear flush right within your header.
5. Section headings and subsection headings within the body of your paper use different types of formatting depending on the level of information you are presenting. Additional details from Jorge’s paper are provided.
Exercise \(2\)
Begin formatting the final draft of your paper according to APA guidelines. You may work with an existing document or set up a new document if you choose. Include the following:
• Your title page
• The abstract you created in Exercise 1
• Correct headers and page numbers for your title page and abstract
Headings
APA style uses section headings to organize information, making it easy for the reader to follow the writer’s train of thought and to know immediately what major topics are covered. Depending on the length and complexity of the paper, its major sections may also be divided into subsections, sub-subsections, and so on. These smaller sections, in turn, use different heading styles to indicate different levels of information. In essence, you are using headings to create a hierarchy of information.
The following heading styles used in APA formatting are listed in order of greatest to least importance:
1. Section headings use centered, boldface type. Headings use title case, with important words in the heading capitalized.
2. Subsection headings use left-aligned, boldface type. Headings use title case.
3. The third level uses left-aligned, indented, boldface type. Headings use a capital letter only for the first word, and they end in a period.
4. The fourth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are boldfaced and italicized.
5. The fifth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are italicized and not boldfaced.
Visually, the hierarchy of information is organized as indicated in Table 13.1 “Section Headings”.
Table 13.1 - Section Headings
Level of Information Text Example
Level 1 Heart Disease
Level 2 Lifestyle Factors That Reduce Heart Disease Risk
Level 3 Exercising regularly.
Level 4 Aerobic exercise.
Level 5 Country line dancing.
A college research paper may not use all the heading levels shown in Table 13.1 “Section Headings”, but you are likely to encounter them in academic journal articles that use APA style. For a brief paper, you may find that level 1 headings suffice. Longer or more complex papers may need level 2 headings or other lower-level headings to organize information clearly. Use your outline to craft your major section headings and determine whether any subtopics are substantial enough to require additional levels of headings.
Exercise \(3\)
Working with the document you developed in Note 13.11 “Exercise 2”, begin setting up the heading structure of the final draft of your research paper according to APA guidelines. Include your title and at least two to three major section headings, and follow the formatting guidelines provided above. If your major sections should be broken into subsections, add those headings as well. Use your outline to help you.
Because Jorge used only level 1 headings, his Exercise 3 would look like the following:
Level of Information Text Example
Level 1 Purported Benefits of Low-Carbohydrate Diets
Level 1 Research on Low-Carbohydrate Diets and Weight Loss
Level 1 Other Long-Term Health Outcomes
Level 1 Conclusion
In-Text Citations
Throughout the body of your paper, include a citation whenever you quote or paraphrase material from your research sources. As you learned in Chapter 11, the purpose of citations is twofold: to give credit to others for their ideas and to allow your reader to follow up and learn more about the topic if desired. Your in-text citations provide basic information about your source; each source you cite will have a longer entry in the references section that provides more detailed information.
In-text citations must provide the name of the author or authors and the year the source was published. (When a given source does not list an individual author, you may provide the source title or the name of the organization that published the material instead.) When directly quoting a source, it is also required that you include the page number where the quote appears in your citation.
This information may be included within the sentence or in a parenthetical reference at the end of the sentence, as in these examples.
Epstein (2010) points out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).
Here, the writer names the source author when introducing the quote and provides the publication date in parentheses after the author’s name. The page number appears in parentheses after the closing quotation marks and before the period that ends the sentence.
Addiction researchers caution that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (Epstein, 2010, p. 137).
Here, the writer provides a parenthetical citation at the end of the sentence that includes the author’s name, the year of publication, and the page number separated by commas. Again, the parenthetical citation is placed after the closing quotation marks and before the period at the end of the sentence.
As noted in the book Junk Food, Junk Science (Epstein, 2010, p. 137), “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive.”
Here, the writer chose to mention the source title in the sentence (an optional piece of information to include) and followed the title with a parenthetical citation. Note that the parenthetical citation is placed before the comma that signals the end of the introductory phrase.
David Epstein’s book Junk Food, Junk Science (2010) pointed out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).
Another variation is to introduce the author and the source title in your sentence and include the publication date and page number in parentheses within the sentence or at the end of the sentence. As long as you have included the essential information, you can choose the option that works best for that particular sentence and source.
Citing a book with a single author is usually a straightforward task. Of course, your research may require that you cite many other types of sources, such as books or articles with more than one author or sources with no individual author listed. You may also need to cite sources available in both print and online and nonprint sources, such as websites and personal interviews. Section 13.2 and Section 13.3 provide extensive guidelines for citing a variety of source types.
writing at work
APA is just one of several different styles with its own guidelines for documentation, formatting, and language usage. Depending on your field of interest, you may be exposed to additional styles, such as the following:
• MLA style. Determined by the Modern Languages Association and used for papers in literature, languages, and other disciplines in the humanities.
• Chicago style. Outlined in the Chicago Manual of Style and sometimes used for papers in the humanities and the sciences; many professional organizations use this style for publications as well.
• Associated Press (AP) style. Used by professional journalists.
References List
The brief citations included in the body of your paper correspond to the more detailed citations provided at the end of the paper in the references section. In-text citations provide basic information—the author’s name, the publication date, and the page number if necessary—while the references section provides more extensive bibliographical information. Again, this information allows your reader to follow up on the sources you cited and do additional reading about the topic if desired.
The specific format of entries in the list of references varies slightly for different source types, but the entries generally include the following information:
• The name(s) of the author(s) or institution that wrote the source
• The year of publication and, where applicable, the exact date of publication
• The full title of the source
• For books, the city of publication
• For articles or essays, the name of the periodical or book in which the article or essay appears
• For magazine and journal articles, the volume number, issue number, and pages where the article appears
• For sources on the web, the URL where the source is located
The references page is double spaced and lists entries in alphabetical order by the author’s last name. If an entry continues for more than one line, the second line and each subsequent line are indented five spaces. Review the following example. (Section 13.3 provides extensive guidelines for formatting reference entries for different types of sources.)
Tip
In APA style, book and article titles are formatted in sentence case, not title case. Sentence case means that only the first word is capitalized, along with any proper nouns.
Key Takeaways
• Following proper citation and formatting guidelines helps writers ensure that their work will be taken seriously, give proper credit to other authors for their work, and provide valuable information to readers.
• Working ahead and taking care to cite sources correctly the first time are ways writers can save time during the editing stage of writing a research paper.
• APA papers usually include an abstract that concisely summarizes the paper.
• APA papers use a specific headings structure to provide a clear hierarchy of information.
• In APA papers, in-text citations usually include the name(s) of the author(s) and the year of publication.
• In-text citations correspond to entries in the references section, which provide detailed bibliographical information about a source. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_English_for_Success/14%3A_APA_and_MLA_Documentation_and_Formatting/14.01%3A_Formatting_a_Research_Paper.txt |
Learning Objectives
• Apply American Psychological Association (APA) style formatting guidelines for citations.
This section covers the nitty-gritty details of in-text citations. You will learn how to format citations for different types of source materials, whether you are citing brief quotations, paraphrasing ideas, or quoting longer passages. You will also learn techniques you can use to introduce quoted and paraphrased material effectively. Keep this section handy as a reference to consult while writing the body of your paper.
Formatting Cited Material: The Basics
As noted in previous sections of this book, in-text citations usually provide the name of the author(s) and the year the source was published. For direct quotations, the page number must also be included. Use past-tense verbs when introducing a quote—“Smith found…” and not “Smith finds.…”
Formatting Brief Quotations
For brief quotations—fewer than forty words—use quotation marks to indicate where the quoted material begins and ends, and cite the name of the author(s), the year of publication, and the page number where the quotation appears in your source. Remember to include commas to separate elements within the parenthetical citation. Also, avoid redundancy. If you name the author(s) in your sentence, do not repeat the name(s) in your parenthetical citation. Review following the examples of different ways to cite direct quotations.
Chang (2008) emphasized that “engaging in weight-bearing exercise consistently is one of the single best things women can do to maintain good health” (p. 49).
The author’s name can be included in the body of the sentence or in the parenthetical citation. Note that when a parenthetical citation appears at the end of the sentence, it comes after the closing quotation marks and before the period. The elements within parentheses are separated by commas.
• Weight Training for Women (Chang, 2008) claimed that “engaging in weight-bearing exercise consistently is one of the single best things women can do to maintain good health” (p. 49).
• Weight Training for Women claimed that “engaging in weight-bearing exercise consistently is one of the single best things women can do to maintain good health” (Chang, 2008, p. 49).
Including the title of a source is optional.
In Chang’s 2008 text Weight Training for Women, she asserts, “Engaging in weight-bearing exercise is one of the single best things women can do to maintain good health” (p. 49).
The author’s name, the date, and the title may appear in the body of the text. Include the page number in the parenthetical citation. Also, notice the use of the verb asserts to introduce the direct quotation.
“Engaging in weight-bearing exercise,” Chang asserts, “is one of the single best things women can do to maintain good health” (2008, p. 49).
You may begin a sentence with the direct quotation and add the author’s name and a strong verb before continuing the quotation.
Formatting Paraphrased and Summarized Material
When you paraphrase or summarize ideas from a source, you follow the same guidelines previously provided, except that you are not required to provide the page number where the ideas are located. If you are summing up the main findings of a research article, simply providing the author’s name and publication year may suffice, but if you are paraphrasing a more specific idea, consider including the page number.
Read the following examples.
Chang (2008) pointed out that weight-bearing exercise has many potential benefits for women.
Here, the writer is summarizing a major idea that recurs throughout the source material. No page reference is needed.
Chang (2008) found that weight-bearing exercise could help women maintain or even increase bone density through middle age and beyond, reducing the likelihood that they will develop osteoporosis in later life (p. 86).
Although the writer is not directly quoting the source, this passage paraphrases a specific detail, so the writer chose to include the page number where the information is located.
Tip
Although APA style guidelines do not require writers to provide page numbers for material that is not directly quoted, your instructor may wish you to do so when possible.
Check with your instructor about his or her preferences.
Formatting Longer Quotations
When you quote a longer passage from a source—forty words or more—use a different format to set off the quoted material. Instead of using quotation marks, create a block quotation by starting the quotation on a new line and indented five spaces from the margin. Note that in this case, the parenthetical citation comes after the period that ends the sentence. Here is an example:
In recent years, many writers within the fitness industry have emphasized the ways in which women can benefit from weight-bearing exercise, such as weightlifting, karate, dancing, stair climbing, hiking, and jogging. Chang (2008) found that engaging in weight-bearing exercise regularly significantly reduces women’s risk of developing osteoporosis. Additionally, these exercises help women maintain muscle mass and overall strength, and many common forms of weight-bearing exercise, such as brisk walking or stair climbing, also provide noticeable cardiovascular benefits. (p. 93)
Exercise \(1\)
Review the places in your paper where you cited, quoted, and paraphrased material from a source with a single author. Edit your citations to ensure that
• each citation includes the author’s name, the date of publication, and, where appropriate, a page reference;
• parenthetical citations are correctly formatted;
• longer quotations use the block-quotation format.
If you are quoting a passage that continues into a second paragraph, indent five spaces again in the first line of the second paragraph. Here is an example:
In recent years, many writers within the fitness industry have emphasized the ways in which women can benefit from weight-bearing exercise, such as weightlifting, karate, dancing, stair climbing, hiking, and jogging. Chang (2008) found that engaging in weight-bearing exercise regularly significantly reduces women’s risk of developing osteoporosis. Additionally, these exercises help women maintain muscle mass and overall strength, and many common forms of weight-bearing exercise, such as brisk walking or stair climbing, also provide noticeable cardiovascular benefits.
It is important to note that swimming cannot be considered a weight-bearing exercise, since the water supports and cushions the swimmer. That doesn’t mean swimming isn’t great exercise, but it should be considered one part of an integrated fitness program. (p. 93)
Tip
Be wary of quoting from sources at length. Remember, your ideas should drive the paper, and quotations should be used to support and enhance your points. Make sure any lengthy quotations that you include serve a clear purpose. Generally, no more than 10–15 percent of a paper should consist of quoted material.
Introducing Cited Material Effectively
Including an introductory phrase in your text, such as “Jackson wrote” or “Copeland found,” often helps you integrate source material smoothly. This citation technique also helps convey that you are actively engaged with your source material. Unfortunately, during the process of writing your research paper, it is easy to fall into a rut and use the same few dull verbs repeatedly, such as “Jones said,” “Smith stated,” and so on.
Punch up your writing by using strong verbs that help your reader understand how the source material presents ideas. There is a world of difference between an author who “suggests” and one who “claims,” one who “questions” and one who “criticizes.” You do not need to consult your thesaurus every time you cite a source, but do think about which verbs will accurately represent the ideas and make your writing more engaging. The following chart shows some possibilities.
Strong Verbs for Introducing Cited Material
ask suggest question
explain assert claim
recommend compare contrast
propose hypothesize believe
insist argue find
determine measure assess
evaluate conclude study
warn point out sum up
Exercise \(2\)
Review the citations in your paper once again. This time, look for places where you introduced source material using a signal phrase in your sentence.
1. Highlight the verbs used in your signal phrases, and make note of any that seem to be overused throughout the paper.
2. Identify at least three places where a stronger verb could be used.
3. Make the edits to your draft.
writing at work
It is important to accurately represent a colleague’s ideas or communications in the workplace. When writing professional or academic papers, be mindful of how the words you use to describe someone’s tone or ideas carry certain connotations. Do not say a source argues a particular point unless an argument is, in fact, presented. Use lively language, but avoid language that is emotionally charged. Doing so will ensure you have represented your colleague’s words in an authentic and accurate way.
Formatting In-Text Citations for Other Source Types
These sections discuss the correct format for various types of in-text citations. Read them through quickly to get a sense of what is covered, and then refer to them again as needed.
This section covers books, articles, and other print sources with one or more authors.
A Work by One Author
For a print work with one author, follow the guidelines provided in Section 13.1. Always include the author’s name and year of publication. Include a page reference whenever you quote a source directly. (See also the guidelines presented earlier in this chapter about when to include a page reference for paraphrased material.)
• Chang (2008) emphasized that “engaging in weight-bearing exercise consistently is one of the single best things women can do to maintain good health” (p. 49).
• Chang (2008) pointed out that weight-bearing exercise has many potential benefits for women.
Two or More Works by the Same Author
At times, your research may include multiple works by the same author. If the works were published in different years, a standard in-text citation will serve to distinguish them. If you are citing multiple works by the same author published in the same year, include a lowercase letter immediately after the year. Rank the sources in the order they appear in your references section. The source listed first includes an a after the year, the source listed second includes a b, and so on.
Rodriguez (2009a) criticized the nutrition-supplement industry for making unsubstantiated and sometimes misleading claims about the benefits of taking supplements. Additionally, he warned that consumers frequently do not realize the potential harmful effects of some popular supplements (Rodriguez, 2009b).
Tip
If you have not yet created your references section, you may not be sure which source will appear first. See Section 13.3 for guidelines—or assign each source a temporary code and highlight the in-text citations so you remember to double-check them later on.
Works by Authors with the Same Last Name
If you are citing works by different authors with the same last name, include each author’s initials in your citation, whether you mention them in the text or in parentheses. Do so even if the publication years are different.
• J. S. Williams (2007) believes nutritional supplements can be a useful part of some diet and fitness regimens. C. D. Williams (2008), however, believes these supplements are overrated.
• According to two leading researchers, the rate of childhood obesity exceeds the rate of adult obesity (K. Connelley, 2010; O. Connelley, 2010).
• Studies from both A. Wright (2007) and C. A. Wright (2008) confirm the benefits of diet and exercise on weight loss.
A Work by Two Authors
When two authors are listed for a given work, include both authors’ names each time you cite the work. If you are citing their names in parentheses, use an ampersand (&) between them. (Use the word and, however, if the names appear in your sentence.)
• As Garrison and Gould (2010) pointed out, “It is never too late to quit smoking. The health risks associated with this habit begin to decrease soon after a smoker quits” (p. 101).
• As doctors continue to point out, “It is never too late to quit smoking. The health risks associated with this habit begin to decrease soon after a smoker quits” (Garrison & Gould, 2010, p. 101).
A Work by Three to Five Authors
If the work you are citing has three to five authors, list all the authors’ names the first time you cite the source. In subsequent citations, use the first author’s name followed by the abbreviation et al. (Et al. is short for et alia, the Latin phrase for “and others.”)
• Henderson, Davidian, and Degler (2010) surveyed 350 smokers aged 18 to 30.
• One survey, conducted among 350 smokers aged 18 to 30, included a detailed questionnaire about participants’ motivations for smoking (Henderson, Davidian, & Degler, 2010).
Note that these examples follow the same ampersand conventions as sources with two authors. Again, use the ampersand only when listing authors’ names in parentheses.
• As Henderson et al. (2010) found, some young people, particularly young women, use smoking as a means of appetite suppression.
• Disturbingly, some young women use smoking as a means of appetite suppression (Henderson et al., 2010).
Note how the phrase et al. is punctuated. No period comes after et, but al. gets a period because it is an abbreviation for a longer Latin word. In parenthetical references, include a comma after et al. but not before. Remember this rule by mentally translating the citation to English: “Henderson and others, 2010.”
A Work by Six or More Authors
If the work you are citing has six or more authors, list only the first author’s name, followed by et al., in your in-text citations. The other authors’ names will be listed in your references section.
Researchers have found that outreach work with young people has helped reduce tobacco use in some communities (Costello et al., 2007).
A Work Authored by an Organization
When citing a work that has no individual author(s) but is published by an organization, use the organization’s name in place of the author’s name. Lengthy organization names with well-known abbreviations can be abbreviated. In your first citation, use the full name, followed by the abbreviation in square brackets. Subsequent citations may use the abbreviation only.
• It is possible for a patient to have a small stroke without even realizing it (American Heart Association [AHA], 2010).
• Another cause for concern is that even if patients realize that they have had a stroke and need medical attention, they may not know which nearby facilities are best equipped to treat them (AHA, 2010).
Exercise \(3\)
1. Review the places in your paper where you cited material from a source with multiple authors or with an organization as the author. Edit your citations to ensure that each citation follows APA guidelines for the inclusion of the authors’ names, the use of ampersands and et al., the date of publication, and, where appropriate, a page reference.
2. Mark any additional citations within your paper that you are not sure how to format based on the guidelines provided so far. You will revisit these citations after reading the next few sections.
A Work with No Listed Author
If no author is listed and the source cannot be attributed to an organization, use the title in place of the author’s name. You may use the full title in your sentence or use the first few words—enough to convey the key ideas—in a parenthetical reference. Follow standard conventions for using italics or quotations marks with titles:
• Use italics for titles of books or reports.
• Use quotation marks for titles of articles or chapters.
• “Living With Diabetes: Managing Your Health” (2009) recommends regular exercise for patients with diabetes.
• Regular exercise can benefit patients with diabetes (“Living with Diabetes,” 2009).
• Rosenhan (1973) had mentally healthy study participants claim to be experiencing hallucinations so they would be admitted to psychiatric hospitals.
A Work Cited within Another Work
To cite a source that is referred to within another secondary source, name the first source in your sentence. Then, in parentheses, use the phrase as cited in and the name of the second source author.
Rosenhan’s study “On Being Sane in Insane Places” (as cited in Spitzer, 1975) found that psychiatrists diagnosed schizophrenia in people who claimed to be experiencing hallucinations and sought treatment—even though these patients were, in fact, imposters.
Two or More Works Cited in One Reference
At times, you may provide more than one citation in a parenthetical reference, such as when you are discussing related works or studies with similar results. List the citations in the same order they appear in your references section, and separate the citations with a semicolon.
Some researchers have found serious flaws in the way Rosenhan’s study was conducted (Dawes, 2001; Spitzer, 1975).
Both of these researchers authored works that support the point being made in this sentence, so it makes sense to include both in the same citation.
A Famous Text Published in Multiple Editions
In some cases, you may need to cite an extremely well-known work that has been repeatedly republished or translated. Many works of literature and sacred texts, as well as some classic nonfiction texts, fall into this category. For these works, the original date of publication may be unavailable. If so, include the year of publication or translation for your edition. Refer to specific parts or chapters if you need to cite a specific section. Discuss with your instructor whether he or she would like you to cite page numbers in this particular instance.
In New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, Freud explains that the “manifest content” of a dream—what literally takes place—is separate from its “latent content,” or hidden meaning (trans. 1965, lecture XXIX).
Here, the student is citing a classic work of psychology, originally written in German and later translated to English. Since the book is a collection of Freud’s lectures, the student cites the lecture number rather than a page number.
An Introduction, Foreword, Preface, or Afterword
To cite an introduction, foreword, preface, or afterword, cite the author of the material and the year, following the same format used for other print materials.
Electronic Sources
Whenever possible, cite electronic sources as you would print sources, using the author, the date, and where appropriate, a page number. For some types of electronic sources—for instance, many online articles—this information is easily available. Other times, however, you will need to vary the format to reflect the differences in online media.
Online Sources without Page Numbers
If an online source has no page numbers but you want to refer to a specific portion of the source, try to locate other information you can use to direct your reader to the information cited. Some websites number paragraphs within published articles; if so, include the paragraph number in your citation. Precede the paragraph number with the abbreviation for the word paragraph and the number of the paragraph (e.g., para. 4).
As researchers have explained, “Incorporating fresh fruits and vegetables into one’s diet can be a challenge for residents of areas where there are few or no easily accessible supermarkets” (Smith & Jones, 2006, para. 4).
Even if a source does not have numbered paragraphs, it is likely to have headings that organize the content. In your citation, name the section where your cited information appears, followed by a paragraph number.
The American Lung Association (2010) noted, “After smoking, radon exposure is the second most common cause of lung cancer” (What Causes Lung Cancer? section, para. 2).
This student cited the appropriate section heading within the website and then counted to find the specific paragraph where the cited information was located.
If an online source has no listed author and no date, use the source title and the abbreviation n.d.in your parenthetical reference.
It has been suggested that electromagnetic radiation from cellular telephones may pose a risk for developing certain cancers (“Cell Phones and Cancer,” n.d.).
Personal Communication
For personal communications, such as interviews, letters, and e-mails, cite the name of the person involved, clarify that the material is from a personal communication, and provide the specific date the communication took place. Note that while in-text citations correspond to entries in the references section, personal communications are an exception to this rule. They are cited only in the body text of your paper.
J. H. Yardley, M.D., believes that available information on the relationship between cell phone use and cancer is inconclusive (personal communication, May 1, 2009).
writing at work
At work, you may sometimes share information resources with your colleagues by photocopying an interesting article or forwarding the URL of a useful website. Your goal in these situations and in formal research citations is the same. The goal is to provide enough information to help your professional peers locate and follow up on potentially useful information. Provide as much specific information as possible to achieve that goal, and consult with your professor as to what specific style he or she may prefer.
Exercise \(4\)
Revisit the problem citations you identified in Exercise 3—for instance, sources with no listed author or other oddities. Review the guidelines provided in this section and edit your citations for these kinds of sources according to APA guidelines.
Key Takeaways
• In APA papers, in-text citations include the name of the author(s) and the year of publication whenever possible.
• Page numbers are always included when citing quotations. It is optional to include page numbers when citing paraphrased material; however, this should be done when citing a specific portion of a work.
• When citing online sources, provide the same information used for print sources if it is available.
• When a source does not provide information that usually appears in a citation, in-text citations should provide readers with alternative information that would help them locate the source material. This may include the title of the source, section headings and paragraph numbers for websites, and so forth.
• When writing a paper, discuss with your professor what particular standards he or she would like you to follow. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_English_for_Success/14%3A_APA_and_MLA_Documentation_and_Formatting/14.02%3A_Citing_and_Referencing_Techniques.txt |
Learning Objectives
• Apply American Psychological Association (APA) style and formatting guidelines for a references section.
This section provides detailed information about how to create the references section of your paper. You will review basic formatting guidelines and learn how to format bibliographical entries for various types of sources. This section of Chapter 13, like the previous section, is meant to be used as a reference tool while you write.
Formatting Reference Entries
Reference entries should include the following information:
• The name of the author(s)
• The year of publication and, where applicable, the exact date of publication
• The full title of the source
• For books, the city of publication
• For articles or essays, the name of the periodical or book in which the article or essay appears
• For magazine and journal articles, the volume number, issue number, and pages where the article appears
• For sources on the web, the URL where the source is located
See the following examples for how to format a book or journal article with a single author.
Sample Journal Article Entry
The following box provides general guidelines for formatting the reference page. For the remainder of this chapter, you will learn about how to format bibliographical entries for different source types, including multiauthor and electronic sources.
Formatting the References Section: APA General Guidelines
1. Include the heading References, centered at the top of the page. The heading should not be boldfaced, italicized, or underlined.
2. Use double-spaced type throughout the references section, as in the body of your paper.
3. Use hanging indentation for each entry. The first line should be flush with the left margin, while any lines that follow should be indented five spaces. Note that hanging indentation is the opposite of normal indenting rules for paragraphs.
4. List entries in alphabetical order by the author’s last name. For a work with multiple authors, use the last name of the first author listed.
5. List authors’ names using this format: Smith, J. C.
6. For a work with no individual author(s), use the name of the organization that published the work or, if this is unavailable, the title of the work in place of the author’s name.
7. For works with multiple authors, follow these guidelines:
• For works with up to seven authors, list the last name and initials for each author.
• For works with more than seven authors, list the first six names, followed by ellipses, and then the name of the last author listed.
• Use an ampersand before the name of the last author listed.
8. Use title case for journal titles. Capitalize all important words in the title.
9. Use sentence case for all other titles—books, articles, web pages, and other source titles. Capitalize the first word of the title. Do not capitalize any other words in the title except for the following:
• Proper nouns
• First word of a subtitle
• First word after a colon or dash
10. Use italics for book and journal titles. Do not use italics, underlining, or quotation marks for titles of shorter works, such as articles.
Exercise \(1\)
Set up the first page of your references section and begin adding entries, following the APA formatting guidelines provided in this section.
1. If there are any simple entries that you can format completely using the general guidelines, do so at this time.
2. For entries you are unsure of how to format, type in as much information as you can, and highlight the entries so you can return to them later.
Formatting Reference Entries for Different Source Types
As is the case for in-text citations, formatting reference entries becomes more complicated when you are citing a source with multiple authors, citing various types of online media, or citing sources for which you must provide additional information beyond the basics listed in the general guidelines. The following guidelines show how to format reference entries for these different situations.
For book-length sources and shorter works that appear in a book, follow the guidelines that best describes your source.
A Book by Two or More Authors
List the authors’ names in the order they appear on the book’s title page. Use an ampersand before the last author’s name.
Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. (1963). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
An Edited Book with No Author
List the editor or editors’ names in place of the author’s name, followed by Ed. or Eds. in parentheses.
Myers, C., & Reamer, D. (Eds.). (2009). 2009 nutrition index. San Francisco, CA: HealthSource, Inc.
An Edited Book with an Author
List the author’s name first, followed by the title and the editor or editors. Note that when the editor is listed after the title, you list the initials before the last name.
Tip
The previous example shows the format used for an edited book with one author—for instance, a collection of a famous person’s letters that has been edited. This type of source is different from an anthology, which is a collection of articles or essays by different authors. For citing works in anthologies, see the guidelines later in this section.
A Translated Book
Include the translator’s name after the title, and at the end of the citation, list the date the original work was published. Note that for the translator’s name, you list the initials before the last name.
Freud, S. (1965). New introductory lectures on psycho-analysis (J. Strachey, Trans.). New York, NY: W. W. Norton. (Original work published 1933).
A Book Published in Multiple Editions
If you are using any edition other than the first edition, include the edition number in parentheses after the title.
A Chapter in an Edited Book
List the name of the author(s) who wrote the chapter, followed by the chapter title. Then list the names of the book editor(s) and the title of the book, followed by the page numbers for the chapter and the usual information about the book’s publisher.
A Work That Appears in an Anthology
Follow the same process you would use to cite a book chapter, substituting the article or essay title for the chapter title.
An Article in a Reference Book
List the author’s name if available; if no author is listed, provide the title of the entry where the author’s name would normally be listed. If the book lists the name of the editor(s), include it in your citation. Indicate the volume number (if applicable) and page numbers in parentheses after the article title.
Two or More Books by the Same Author
List the entries in order of their publication year, beginning with the work published first.
• Swedan, N. (2001). Women’s sports medicine and rehabilitation. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen Publishers.
• Swedan, N. (2003). The active woman’s health and fitness handbook. New York, NY: Perigee.
If two books have multiple authors, and the first author is the same but the others are different, alphabetize by the second author’s last name (or the third or fourth, if necessary).
• Carroll, D., & Aaronson, F. (2008). Managing type II diabetes. Chicago, IL: Southwick Press.
• Carroll, D., & Zuckerman, N. (2008). Gestational diabetes. Chicago, IL: Southwick Press.
Books by Different Authors with the Same Last Name
Alphabetize entries by the authors’ first initial.
A Book Authored by an Organization
Treat the organization name as you would an author’s name. For the purposes of alphabetizing, ignore words like The in the organization’s name. (That is, a book published by the American Heart Association would be listed with other entries whose authors’ names begin with A.)
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders DSM-IV (4th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.
A Book-Length Report
Format technical and research reports as you would format other book-length sources. If the organization that issued the report assigned it a number, include the number in parentheses after the title. (See also the guidelines provided for citing works produced by government agencies.)
Jameson, R., & Dewey, J. (2009). Preliminary findings from an evaluation of the president’s physical fitness program in Pleasantville school district. Pleasantville, WA: Pleasantville Board of Education.
A Book Authored by a Government Agency
Treat these as you would a book published by a nongovernment organization, but be aware that these works may have an identification number listed. If so, include it in parentheses after the publication year.
U.S. Census Bureau. (2002). The decennial censuses from 1790 to 2000 (Publication No. POL/02-MA). Washington, DC: US Government Printing Offices.
Exercise \(2\)
Revisit the references section you began to compile in Exercise 1. Use the guidelines provided to format any entries for book-length print sources that you were unable to finish earlier.
Review how Jorge formatted these book-length print sources:
Atkins, R. C. (2002). Dr. Atkins’ diet revolution. New York, NY: M. Evans and Company.
Agatson, A. (2003). The South Beach diet. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Griffin.
An Article in a Scholarly Journal
Include the following information:
• Author or authors’ names
• Publication year
• Article title (in sentence case, without quotation marks or italics)
• Journal title (in title case and in italics)
• Volume number (in italics)
• Issue number (in parentheses)
• Page number(s) where the article appears
DeMarco, R. F. (2010). Palliative care and African American women living with HIV. Journal of Nursing Education, 49(5), 1–4.
An Article in a Journal Paginated by Volume
In these types of journals, page numbers for one volume continue across all the issues in that volume. For instance, the winter issue may begin with page 1, and in the spring issue that follows, the page numbers pick up where the previous issue left off. (If you have ever wondered why a print journal did not begin on page 1, or wondered why the page numbers of a journal extend into four digits, this is why.) Omit the issue number from your reference entry.
Wagner, J. (2009). Rethinking school lunches: A review of recent literature. American School Nurses’ Journal, 47, 1123–1127.
An Abstract of a Scholarly Article
At times you may need to cite an abstract—the summary that appears at the beginning—of a published article. If you are citing the abstract only, and it was published separately from the article, provide the following information:
• Publication information for the article
• Information about where the abstract was published (for instance, another journal or a collection of abstracts)
A Journal Article with Two to Seven Authors
List all the authors’ names in the order they appear in the article. Use an ampersand before the last name listed.
• Barker, E. T., & Bornstein, M. H. (2010). Global self-esteem, appearance satisfaction, and self-reported dieting in early adolescence. Journal of Early Adolescence, 30(2), 205–224.
• Tremblay, M. S., Shields, M., Laviolette, M., Craig, C. L., Janssen, I., & Gorber, S. C. (2010). Fitness of Canadian children and youth: Results from the 2007–2009 Canadian Health Measures Survey. Health Reports, 21(1), 7–20.
A Journal Article with More Than Seven Authors
List the first six authors’ names, followed by a comma, an ellipsis, and the name of the last author listed. The article in the following example has sixteen listed authors; the reference entry lists the first six authors and the sixteenth, omitting the seventh through the fifteenth.
Writing at Work
The idea of an eight-page article with sixteen authors may seem strange to you—especially if you are in the midst of writing a ten-page research paper on your own. More often than not, articles in scholarly journals list multiple authors. Sometimes, the authors actually did collaborate on writing and editing the published article. In other instances, some of the authors listed may have contributed to the research in some way while being only minimally involved in the process of writing the article. Whenever you collaborate with colleagues to produce a written product, follow your profession’s conventions for giving everyone proper credit for their contribution.
A Magazine Article
After the publication year, list the issue date. Otherwise, treat these as you would journal articles. List the volume and issue number if both are available.
A Newspaper Article
Treat these as you would magazine and journal articles, with one important difference: precede the page number(s) with the abbreviation p. (for a single-page article) or pp. (for a multipage article). For articles whose pagination is not continuous, list all the pages included in the article. For example, an article that begins on page A1 and continues on pages A4 would have the page reference A1, A4. An article that begins on page A1 and continues on pages A4 and A5 would have the page reference A1, A4–A5.
A Letter to the Editor
After the title, indicate in brackets that the work is a letter to the editor.
Jones, J. (2009, January 31). Food police in our schools [Letter to the editor]. Rockwood Gazette, p. A8.
A Review
After the title, indicate in brackets that the work is a review and state the name of the work being reviewed. (Note that even if the title of the review is the same as the title of the book being reviewed, as in the following example, you should treat it as an article title. Do not italicize it.)
Exercise \(3\)
Revisit the references section you began to compile in Exercise 1. Use the guidelines provided above to format any entries for periodicals and other shorter print sources that you were unable to finish earlier. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_English_for_Success/14%3A_APA_and_MLA_Documentation_and_Formatting/14.03%3A_Creating_a_References_Section_%28Part_1%29.txt |
Citing Articles from Online Periodicals: URLs and Digital Object Identifiers (DOIs)
Whenever you cite online sources, it is important to provide the most up-to-date information available to help readers locate the source. In some cases, this means providing an article’s URL, or web address. (The letters URL stand for uniform resource locator.) Always provide the most complete URL possible. Provide a link to the specific article used, rather than a link to the publication’s homepage.
As you know, web addresses are not always stable. If a website is updated or reorganized, the article you accessed in April may move to a different location in May. The URL you provided may become a dead link. For this reason, many online periodicals, especially scholarly publications, now rely on DOIs rather than URLs to keep track of articles.
A DOI is a Digital Object Identifier—an identification code provided for some online documents, typically articles in scholarly journals. Like a URL, its purpose is to help readers locate an article. However, a DOI is more stable than a URL, so it makes sense to include it in your reference entry when possible. Follow these guidelines:
• If you are citing an online article with a DOI, list the DOI at the end of the reference entry.
• If the article appears in print as well as online, you do not need to provide the URL. However, include the words Electronic version after the title in brackets.
• In other respects, treat the article as you would a print article. Include the volume number and issue number if available. (Note, however, that these may not be available for some online periodicals).
An Article from an Online Periodical with a DOI
List the DOI if one is provided. There is no need to include the URL if you have listed the DOI.
Bell, J. R. (2006). Low-carb beats low-fat diet for early losses but not long term. OBGYN News, 41(12), 32. doi:10.1016/S0029-7437(06)71905-X
An Article from an Online Periodical with No DOI
List the URL. Include the volume and issue number for the periodical if this information is available. (For some online periodicals, it may not be.)
Note that if the article appears in a print version of the publication, you do not need to list the URL, but do indicate that you accessed the electronic version.
Robbins, K. (2010, March/April). Nature’s bounty: A heady feast [Electronic version]. Psychology Today, 43(2), 58.
A Newspaper Article
Provide the URL of the article.
McNeil, D. G. (2010, May 3). Maternal health: A new study challenges benefits of vitamin A for women and babies. The New York Times. Retrieved from www.nytimes.com/2010/05/04/he...tml?ref=health
An Article Accessed through a Database
Cite these articles as you would normally cite a print article. Provide database information only if the article is difficult to locate.
Tip
APA style does not require writers to provide the item number or accession number for articles retrieved from databases. You may choose to do so if the article is difficult to locate or the database is an obscure one. Check with your professor to see if this is something he or she would like you to include.
An Abstract of an Article
Format these as you would an article citation, but add the word Abstract in brackets after the title.
Bradley, U., Spence, M., Courtney, C. H., McKinley, M. C., Ennis, C. N., McCance, D. R.…Hunter, S. J. (2009). Low-fat versus low-carbohydrate weight reduction diets: Effects on weight loss, insulin resistance, and cardiovascular risk: A randomized control trial [Abstract]. Diabetes, 58(12), 2741–2748. diabetes.diabetesjournals.org...00098.abstract
A Nonperiodical Web Document
The ways you cite different nonperiodical web documents may vary slightly from source to source, depending on the information that is available. In your citation, include as much of the following information as you can:
• Name of the author(s), whether an individual or organization
• Date of publication (Use n.d. if no date is available.)
• Title of the document
• Address where you retrieved the document
If the document consists of more than one web page within the site, link to the homepage or the entry page for the document.
American Heart Association. (2010). Heart attack, stroke, and cardiac arrest warning signs. Retrieved from http://www.americanheart.org/present...dentifier=3053
An Entry from an Online Encyclopedia or Dictionary
Because these sources often do not include authors’ names, you may list the title of the entry at the beginning of the citation. Provide the URL for the specific entry.
Addiction. (n.d.) In Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary. Retrieved from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/addiction
Data Sets
If you cite raw data compiled by an organization, such as statistical data, provide the URL where you retrieved the information. Provide the name of the organization that sponsors the site.
US Food and Drug Administration. (2009). Nationwide evaluation of X-ray trends: NEXT surveys performed [Data file]. Retrieved from www.fda.gov/Radiation-Emittin...EvaluationofX- RayTrendsNEXT/ucm116508.htm
Graphic Data
When citing graphic data—such as maps, pie charts, bar graphs, and so on—include the name of the organization that compiled the information, along with the publication date. Briefly describe the contents in brackets. Provide the URL where you retrieved the information. (If the graphic is associated with a specific project or document, list it after your bracketed description of the contents.)
US Food and Drug Administration. (2009). [Pie charts showing the percentage breakdown of the FDA’s budget for fiscal year 2005]. 2005 FDA budget summary. Retrieved from mhttp://www.fda.gov/AboutFDA/Reports.../ucm117231.htm
An Online Interview (Audio File or Transcript)
List the interviewer, interviewee, and date. After the title, include bracketed text describing the interview as an “Interview transcript” or “Interview audio file,” depending on the format of the interview you accessed. List the name of the website and the URL where you retrieved the information. Use the following format.
Davies, D. (Interviewer), & Pollan, M. (Interviewee). (2008). Michael Pollan offers president food for thought [Interview transcript]. Retrieved from National Public Radio website: www.npr.org/templates/transcr...ryId=100755362
An Electronic Book
Electronic books may include books available as text files online or audiobooks. If an electronic book is easily available in print, cite it as you would a print source. If it is unavailable in print (or extremely difficult to find), use the format in the example. (Use the words Available from in your citation if the book must be purchased or is not available directly.)
A Chapter from an Online Book or a Chapter or Section of a Web Document
These are treated similarly to their print counterparts with the addition of retrieval information. Include the chapter or section number in parentheses after the book title.
Hart, A. M. (1895). Restoratives—Coffee, cocoa, chocolate. In Diet in sickness and in health (VI). Retrieved from www.archive.org/details/dieti...ssin00hartrich
A Dissertation or Thesis from a Database
Provide the author, date of publication, title, and retrieval information. If the work is numbered within the database, include the number in parentheses at the end of the citation.
Computer Software
For commonly used office software and programming languages, it is not necessary to provide a citation. Cite software only when you are using a specialized program, such as the nutrition tracking software in the following example. If you download software from a website, provide the version and the year if available.
Internet Brands, Inc. (2009). FitDay PC (Version 2) [Software]. Available from www.fitday.com/Pc/PcHome.html?gcid=14
A Post on a Blog or Video Blog
Citation guidelines for these sources are similar to those used for discussion forum postings. Briefly describe the type of source in brackets after the title.
writing at work
Because the content may not be carefully reviewed for accuracy, discussion forums and blogs should not be relied upon as a major source of information. However, it may be appropriate to cite these sources for some types of research. You may also participate in discussion forums or comment on blogs that address topics of personal or professional interest. Always keep in mind that when you post, you are making your thoughts public—and in many cases, available through search engines. Make sure any posts that can easily be associated with your name are appropriately professional, because a potential employer could view them.
A Television or Radio Broadcast
Include the name of the producer or executive producer; the date, title, and type of broadcast; and the associated company and location.
West, Ty. (Executive producer). (2009, September 24). PBS special report: Health care reform [Television broadcast]. New York, NY, and Washington, DC: Public Broadcasting Service.
A Television or Radio Series or Episode
Include the producer and the type of series if you are citing an entire television or radio series.
Couture, D., Nabors, S., Pinkard, S., Robertson, N., & Smith, J. (Producers). (1979). The Diane Rehm show [Radio series]. Washington, DC: National Public Radio.
To cite a specific episode of a radio or television series, list the name of the writer or writers (if available), the date the episode aired, its title, and the type of series, along with general information about the series.
Bernanke, J., & Wade, C. (2010, January 10). Hummingbirds: Magic in the air [Television series episode]. In F. Kaufman (Executive producer), Nature. New York, NY: WNET.
A Motion Picture
Name the director or producer (or both), year of release, title, country of origin, and studio.
Spurlock, M. (Director/producer), Morley, J. (Executive producer), & Winters. H. M. (Executive producer). (2004). Super size me. United States: Kathbur Pictures in association with Studio on Hudson.
A Recording
Name the primary contributors and list their role. Include the recording medium in brackets after the title. Then list the location and the label.
• Smith, L. W. (Speaker). (1999). Meditation and relaxation [CD]. New York, NY: Earth, Wind, & Sky Productions.
• Székely, I. (Pianist), Budapest Symphony Orchestra (Performers), & Németh, G. (Conductor). (1988). Chopin piano concertos no. 1 and 2 [CD]. Hong Kong: Naxos.
A Podcast
Provide as much information as possible about the writer, director, and producer; the date the podcast aired; its title; any organization or series with which it is associated; and where you retrieved the podcast.
Kelsey, A. R. (Writer), Garcia, J. (Director), & Kim, S. C. (Producer). (2010, May 7). Lies food labels tell us. Savvy consumer podcasts [Audio podcast]. Retrieved from www.savvyconsumer.org/podcasts/050710
Exercise \(4\)
Revisit the references section you began to compile in Exercise 1.
1. Use the APA guidelines provided in this section to format any entries for electronic sources that you were unable to finish earlier.
2. If your sources include a form of media not covered in the APA guidelines here, consult with a writing tutor or review a print or online reference book. You may wish to visit the website of the American Psychological Association at http://www.apa.org or the Purdue University Online Writing lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu, which regularly updates its online style guidelines.
3. Give your paper a final edit to check the references section.
Key Takeaways
In APA papers, entries in the references section include as much of the following information as possible:
• Print sources. Author(s), date of publication, title, publisher, page numbers (for shorter works), editors (if applicable), and periodical title (if applicable).
• Online sources (text-based). Author(s), date of publication, title, publisher or sponsoring organization, and DOI or URL (if applicable).
• Electronic sources (non-text-based). Provide details about the creator(s) of the work, title, associated company or series, and date the work was produced or broadcast. The specific details provided will vary depending on the medium and the information that is available.
• Electronic sources (text-based). If an electronic source is also widely available in print form, it is sometimes unnecessary to provide details about how to access the electronic version. Check the guidelines for the specific source type. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_English_for_Success/14%3A_APA_and_MLA_Documentation_and_Formatting/14.04%3A_Creating_a_References_Section_%28Part_2%29.txt |
Learning Objectives
• Identify the major components of a research paper written using MLA style.
• Apply general Modern Language Association (MLA) style and formatting conventions in a research paper.
We have addressed American Psychological Association (APA) style, as well as the importance of giving credit where credit is due, so now let’s turn our attention to the formatting and citation style of the Modern Language Association, known as MLA style.
MLA style is often used in the liberal arts and humanities. Like APA style, it provides a uniform framework for consistency across a document in several areas. MLA style provides a format for the manuscript text and parenthetical citations, or in-text citations. It also provides the framework for the works cited area for references at the end of the essay. MLA style emphasizes brevity and clarity. As a student writer, it is to your advantage to be familiar with both major styles, and this section will outline the main points of MLA as well as offer specific examples of commonly used references. Remember that your writing represents you in your absence. The correct use of a citation style demonstrates your attention to detail and ability to produce a scholarly work in an acceptable style, and it can help prevent the appearance or accusations of plagiarism.
If you are taking an English, art history, or music appreciation class, chances are that you will be asked to write an essay in MLA format. One common question goes something like “What’s the difference?” referring to APA and MLA style, and it deserves our consideration. The liberal arts and humanities often reflect works of creativity that come from individual and group effort, but they may adapt, change, or build on previous creative works. The inspiration to create something new, from a song to a music video, may contain elements of previous works. Drawing on your fellow artists and authors is part of the creative process, and so is giving credit where credit is due.
A reader interested in your subject wants not only to read what you wrote but also to be aware of the works that you used to create it. Readers want to examine your sources to see if you know your subject, to see if you missed anything, or if you offer anything new and interesting. Your new or up-to-date sources may offer the reader additional insight on the subject being considered. It also demonstrates that you, as the author, are up-to-date on what is happening in the field or on the subject. Giving credit where it is due enhances your credibility, and the MLA style offers a clear format to use.
Uncredited work that is incorporated into your own writing is considered plagiarism. In the professional world, plagiarism results in loss of credibility and often compensation, including future opportunities. In a classroom setting, plagiarism results in a range of sanctions, from loss of a grade to expulsion from a school or university. In both professional and academic settings, the penalties are severe. MLA offers artists and authors a systematic style of reference, again giving credit where credit is due, to protect MLA users from accusations of plagiarism.
MLA style uses a citation in the body of the essay that links to the works cited page at the end. The in-text citation is offset with parentheses, clearly calling attention to itself for the reader. The reference to the author or title is like a signal to the reader that information was incorporated from a separate source. It also provides the reader with information to then turn to the works cited section of your essay (at the end) where they can find the complete reference. If you follow the MLA style, and indicate your source both in your essay and in the works cited section, you will prevent the possibility of plagiarism. If you follow the MLA guidelines, pay attention to detail, and clearly indicate your sources, then this approach to formatting and citation offers a proven way to demonstrate your respect for other authors and artists.
Five Reasons to Use MLA Style
1. To demonstrate your ability to present a professional, academic essay in the correct style
2. To gain credibility and authenticity for your work
3. To enhance the ability of the reader to locate information discussed in your essay
4. To give credit where credit is due and prevent plagiarism
5. To get a good grade or demonstrate excellence in your writing
Before we transition to specifics, please consider one word of caution: consistency. If you are instructed to use the MLA style and need to indicate a date, you have options. For example, you could use an international or a US style:
• International style: 18 May 1980 (day/month/year)
• US style: May 18, 1980 (month/day/year)
If you are going to the US style, be consistent in its use. You’ll find you have the option on page 83 of the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, 7th edition. You have many options when writing in English as the language itself has several conventions, or acceptable ways of writing particular parts of speech or information. For example, on the next page our MLA Handbook addresses the question:
Which convention is preferred in MLA style:
twentieth century
Twentieth Century
20th century
20th Century
You are welcome to look in the MLA Handbook and see there is one preferred style or convention (you will also find the answer at end of this section marked by an asterisk [*]). Now you may say to yourself that you won’t write that term and it may be true, but you will come to a term or word that has more than one way it can be written. In that case, what convention is acceptable in MLA style? This is where the MLA Handbook serves as an invaluable resource. Again, your attention to detail and the professional presentation of your work are aspects of learning to write in an academic setting.
Now let’s transition from a general discussion on the advantages of MLA style to what we are required to do to write a standard academic essay. We will first examine a general “to do” list, then review a few “do not” suggestions, and finally take a tour through a sample of MLA features. Links to sample MLA papers are located at the end of this section.
General MLA List
1. Use standard white paper (8.5 × 11 inches).
2. Double space the essay and quotes.
3. Use Times New Roman 12-point font.
4. Use one-inch margins on all sides
5. Indent paragraphs (five spaces or 1.5 inches).
6. Include consecutive page numbers in the upper-right corner.
7. Use italics to indicate a title, as in Writing for Success.
8. On the first page, place your name, course, date, and instructor’s name in the upper-left corner.
9. On the first page, place the title centered on the page, with no bold or italics and all words capitalized.
10. On all pages, place the header, student’s name + one space + page number, 1.5 inches from the top, aligned on the right.
Tip
Depending on your field of study, you may sometimes write research papers in either APA or MLA style. Recognize that each has its advantages and preferred use in fields and disciplines. Learn to write and reference in both styles with proficiency.
Title Block Format
You never get a second chance to make a first impression, and your title block (not a separate title page; just a section at the top of the first page) makes an impression on the reader. If correctly formatted with each element of information in its proper place, form, and format, it says to the reader that you mean business, that you are a professional, and that you take your work seriously, so it should, in turn, be seriously considered. Your title block in MLA style contributes to your credibility. Remember that your writing represents you in your absence, and the title block is the tailored suit or outfit that represents you best. That said, sometimes a separate title page is necessary, but it is best both to know how to properly format a title block or page in MLA style and to ask your instructor if it is included as part of the assignment.
Your name
Instructor
Course number
Date
Title of Paper
Paragraphs and Indentation
Make sure you indent five spaces (from the left margin). You’ll see that the indent offsets the beginning of a new paragraph. We use paragraphs to express single ideas or topics that reinforce our central purpose or thesis statement. Paragraphs include topic sentences, supporting sentences, and conclusion or transitional sentences that link paragraphs together to support the main focus of the essay.
Tables and Illustrations
Place tables and illustrations as close as possible to the text they reinforce or complement. Here’s an example of a table in MLA.
Table 13.2
Sales Figures by Year Sales Amount (\$)
2007 100,000
2008 125,000
2009 185,000
2010 215,000
As we can see in Table 13.2, we have experienced significant growth since 2008.
This example demonstrates that the words that you write and the tables, figures, illustrations, or images that you include should be next to each other in your paper.
Parenthetical Citations
You must cite your sources as you use them. In the same way that a table or figure should be located right next to the sentence that discusses it (see the previous example), parenthetical citations, or citations enclosed in parenthesis that appear in the text, are required. You need to cite all your information. If someone else wrote it, said it, drew it, demonstrated it, or otherwise expressed it, you need to cite it. The exception to this statement is common, widespread knowledge. For example, if you search online for MLA resources, and specifically MLA sample papers, you will find many similar discussions on MLA style. MLA is a style and cannot be copyrighted because it is a style, but the seventh edition of the MLA Handbook can be copyright protected. If you reference a specific page in that handbook, you need to indicate it. If you write about a general MLA style issue that is commonly covered or addressed in multiple sources, you do not. When in doubt, reference the specific resource you used to write your essay.
Your in-text, or parenthetical, citations should do the following:
• Clearly indicate the specific sources also referenced in the works cited
• Specifically identify the location of the information that you used
• Keep the citation clear and concise, always confirming its accuracy
Works Cited Page
After the body of your paper comes the works cited page. It features the reference sources used in your essay. List the sources alphabetically by last name, or list them by title if the author is not known as is often the case of web-based articles. You will find links to examples of the works cited page in several of the sample MLA essays at the end of this section.
As a point of reference and comparison to our APA examples, let’s examine the following three citations and the order of the information needed.
Citation Type MLA Style APA Style
Website Author’s Last Name, First Name. Title of the website. Publication Date. Name of Organization (if applicable). Date you accessed the website. <URL>. Author’s Last Name, First Initial. (Date of publication). Title of document. Retrieved from URL
Online article Author’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Title of the website. Date of publication. Organization that provides the website. Date you accessed the website. Author’s Last name, First Initial. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, Volume(Issue). Retrieved from URL
Book Author’s Last Name, First Name. Title of the Book. Place of Publication: Publishing Company, Date of publication. Author’s Last Name, First Initial. (Date of publication). Title of the book. Place of Publication: Publishing Company.
Note: The items listed include proper punctuation and capitalization according to the style’s guidelines.
Exercise \(1\)
In Section 13.1, you created a sample essay in APA style. After reviewing this section and exploring the resources linked at the end of the section (including California State University–Sacramento’s clear example of a paper in MLA format), please convert your paper to MLA style using the formatting and citation guidelines. You may find it helpful to use online applications that quickly, easily, and at no cost convert your citations to MLA format.
Exercise \(2\)
Please convert the APA-style citations to MLA style. You may find that online applications can quickly, easily, and at no cost convert your citations to MLA format. There are several websites and applications available free (or as a free trial) that will allow you to input the information and will produce a correct citation in the style of your choice. Consider these two sites:
Hint: You may need access to the Internet to find any missing information required to correctly cite in MLA style. This demonstrates an important difference between APA and MLA style—the information provided to the reader.
Sample Student Reference List in APA Style
1 Brent, D. A., Poling, K. D., & Goldstein, T. R. (2010). Treating depressed and suicidal adolescents: A clinician’s guide. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
MLA
2 Dewan, S. (2007, September 17). Using crayons to exorcise Katrina. The New York Times. Retrieved from www.nytimes.com/2007/09/17/ar...gn/17ther.html
MLA
3 Freud, S. (1955). Beyond the pleasure principle. In The Complete Works of Sigmund Freud. (Vol. XVII, pp. 3–66). London, England: Hogarth.
MLA
4 Henley, D. (2007). Naming the enemy: An art therapy intervention for children with bipolar and comorbid disorders. Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Association, 24(3), 104–110.
MLA
5 Hutson, M. (2008). Art therapy: The healing arts. Psychology Today. Retrieved from www.psychologytoday.com/artic...e-healing-arts
MLA
6 Isis, P. D., Bus, J., Siegel, C. A., & Ventura, Y. (2010). Empowering students through creativity: Art therapy in Miami-Dade County Public Schools. Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Association, 27(2), 56–61.
MLA
7 Johnson, D. (1987). The role of the creative arts therapies in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological trauma. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 14, 7–13.
MLA
8 Malchiodi, C. (2006). Art therapy sourcebook. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
MLA
9 Markel, R. (Producer). (2010). I’m an artist [Motion picture]. United States: Red Pepper Films.
MLA
10 Kelley, S. J. (1984). The use of art therapy with sexually abused children. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health, 22(12), 12–28.
MLA
11 Pifalo, T. (2008). Why art therapy? Darkness to light: Confronting child abuse with courage.Retrieved from www.darkness2light.org/KnowAb...rt_therapy.asp
MLA
12 Rubin, J. A. (2005). Child art therapy (25th ed.). New York, NY: Wiley.
MLA
13 Schimek, J. (1975). A critical re-examination of Freud’s concept of unconscious mental representation. International Review of Psychoanalysis, 2, 171–187.
MLA
14 Strauss, M. B. (1999). No talk therapy for children and adolescents. New York, NY: Norton.
MLA
15 Thompson, T. (2008). Freedom from meltdowns: Dr. Thompson’s solutions for children with autism.Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
MLA
Useful Sources of Examples of MLA Style
• Arizona State University Libraries offers an excellent resource with clear examples.
• Purdue Online Writing Lab includes sample pages and works cited.
• California State University–Sacramento’s Online Writing Lab has an excellent visual description and example of an MLA paper.
• www.csus.edu/owl/index/mla/mla_format.htm
• SUNY offers an excellent, brief, side-by-side comparison of MLA and APA citations.
• www.sunywcc.edu/LIBRARY/resea...A_08.03.10.pdf
• Cornell University Library provides comprehensive MLA information on its Citation Management website.
• The University of Kansas Writing Center is an excellent resource.
• www.writing.ku.edu/guides
* (a) is the correct answer to the question at the beginning of this section. The MLA Handbook prefers “twentieth century.”
Key Takeaways
• MLA style is often used in the liberal arts and humanities.
• MLA style emphasizes brevity and clarity.
• A reader interested in your subject wants not only to read what you wrote but also to be informed of the works you used to create it.
• MLA style uses a citation in the body of the essay that refers to the works cited section at the end.
• If you follow MLA style, and indicate your source both in your essay and in the works cited section, you will prevent the possibility of plagiarism.
14.E: APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting (Exercises)
1. In this chapter, you learned strategies for using APA and MLA style documentation and formatting in a research paper. Locate a source that uses APA or MLA style, such as an article in a professional journal in the sciences or social sciences. Identify these key components of an APA or MLA paper in your example: the abstract, section heads, in-text citations, and references list.
2. Check one of your assignments for correct APA or MLA formatting and citations. (You may wish to conduct this activity in two sessions—one to edit the body of the paper and one to edit the references section.) Check for the following:
• All components of an APA or MLA paper are included.
• The title page (or title block) and body of the paper are correctly formatted.
• In-text, or parenthetical, citations are complete and correctly formatted.
• Sources cited within the paper match the sources listed in the references or works cited section.
• The references or works cited section uses correct formatting and lists entries in alphabetical order.
3. As electronic media continually change, guidelines for citing electronic sources are continually updated. Identify three new or emerging forms of electronic media not listed in this text—for instance, virtual communities, such as Second Life, or social networking sites, such as LinkedIn, Facebook, and MySpace. Answer the following questions:
• Under what circumstances would this media be a useful source of information for a research paper? How might students use these sources to conduct research five or ten years from now?
• What information would a student need to provide if citing this source? Why?
• Develop brief guidelines for how to cite the emerging media source types you identified. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_English_for_Success/14%3A_APA_and_MLA_Documentation_and_Formatting/14.05%3A_Using_Modern_Language_Association_%28MLA%29_Style.txt |
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Learning Objectives
In this section, you’ll:
• Reflect on your reading and writing beliefs.
• Learn what experts say about reading and writing beliefs.
• Learn how to use this book.
• Meet Brenda Knights, whose narratives around business communication will be central to this textbook.
01: Exploring Your Reading and Writing Beliefs
Before you can learn to write in a new context, it’s helpful to explore how you got to this point. Every one of us arrives in the workplace (and the classroom) with our own beliefs and assumptions about communication. Sometimes, these beliefs are helpful. Sometimes, however, our beliefs can hold us back. So, before we dive in, let’s take a moment to reflect.
Read the following questions and think them over. It may be helpful for you to write some notes in a journal.
Questions for Reflection
1. How did you learn to read and write? Who influenced you?
2. What do people in your culture and/or your family believe about reading, writing and telling stories?
3. What are some of your most positive reading and writing memories?
4. Describe some moments when you struggled with reading or writing. How did you react?
5. Have you ever changed a belief around reading and writing?
6. Do you believe that you are a good writer? Why or why not?
7. What is the most frustrating part of reading or writing for you?
8. Describe your writing process. How do you tackle writing tasks?
9. What do you think the role of your writing teacher should be?
Now, reflect on your answers. Do you notice any patterns? Can you identify any beliefs that might hold you back? Let’s take a look at how other students answered.
Simran's Story
Simran’s earliest memories of reading involve being snuggled up with her grandma, siblings and cousins. She loved being read to. Before she was old enough to go to school, she often sat with her older siblings as they did their homework and pretended to write. Unfortunately, when Simran was in Grade 4, she had a teacher who criticized her writing. She began to believe that she was a bad writer. By the time she reached Grade 12, English was Simran’s worst subject.
Today, Simran likes to read for fun, but hates to read for school. When she gets a writing assignment, she often starts and stops and procrastinates. She writes a sentence then gets caught up in grammar details, deletes it, starts over, then checks social media. In the end, she pulls an all-nighter and hands in her assignment with just minutes to spare. Simran likes to write fan fiction based on her favourite T.V. show, and she doesn’t understand why the words come so easily when she’s writing for fun, but so painfully when she’s writing for school. She isn’t looking forward to taking a business communication course because she thinks completing the assignments will be stressful.
Jian Yi's Story
Jian Yi began his education in China. He was an excellent student and enjoyed writing. His teachers often praised his beautiful cursive. When Jian Yi was 12, his family moved to Canada. He was placed for a short time in an EAL class, but quickly was integrated into a Grade 7 classroom. He understood very little and felt embarrassed whenever he was asked to speak in class. Though Jian Yi’s English skills improved dramatically, he never again enjoyed school.
Jian Yi doesn’t enjoy reading or writing. He majored in Accounting because he believed there wouldn’t be much reading and writing, and he’s disappointed that he has to take a communications class. He is taking a full course load and he wants to get through this course as quickly as possible.
Both Simran and Jian Yi are good writers; Simran can write short stories and Jian Yi can write in multiple languages. Neither, however, expects to do well in this course. That’s the power of unhelpful beliefs. They can set us up for failure before we’ve even started. By talking about our reading and writing beliefs and figuring our where they came from, we can challenge unhelpful beliefs and be more successful.
Thinking about our reading and writing beliefs is also a great way to celebrate the communication strengths you already have. For example, if you’ve learned Traditional Stories from elders in your community, you already know a story can be used as a powerful teaching tool when tailored to the right audience at the right time. Your ability to play music or sing will help you write sentences that people will enjoy reading. If you can shift between multiple languages or dialects, you can adapt to a new workplace environment. Our goal is not to erase what’s unique about your writing voice to make it “appropriate” for the workplace, but to build on your existing skills so that you can be successful in whatever workplace you enter.
Contributors and Attributions
Business Writing For Everyone by Arley Cruthers is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/01%3A_Exploring_Your_Reading_and_Writing_Beliefs/1.01%3A_Looking_Back.txt |
The question of how to become a better writer has been studied extensively for decades. We actually know a lot about how people learn to read and write, and how to help students improve. Here are just a few writing beliefs that researchers, writing teachers and scholars believe to be true.[1]. How many of these points do you agree with?
1. “Everyone can become a better writer.” [2]
2. “People learn to write by writing.”[3]
3. “Writing is a process.”[4]
4. Writing helps us think and figure out what we have to say.
5. There is no one way to write well. Different writers have different processes and may even change their process depending on what type of writing they’re doing.
6. Editing, revising and rethinking are important to help writers reach their potential.
7. “Writing and reading are related.”[5] Reading will improve your writing. It doesn’t even matter what genre you read. Read what you enjoy.
8. Talking about your writing with your peers and your teacher can make you a better writer.
In short, you can become a better writer. In fact, some studies have found that students who believe that they can become good writers improve faster than those who don’t[6].
I believe that you are a good writer. I believe that you can become a better writer. I believe that you use your writing skills every day. It’s hard to change a belief overnight, so perhaps you don’t yet agree with me. That’s okay. Over the course of the semester, we’ll build on what you already know and apply it to the workplace. We’ll figure out a writing process that works for you. And hopefully, by the end of the semester, you’ll have created writing that you’re proud of.
1.03: How do I use this Book
Your instructor will tell you how to use this book. For example, if you’re in a flipped classroom, each chapter will prepare you for the activities and discussions you’ll have in class. Still, you’re a busy student with a lot to do. You might not have time to read every word. So how can you still benefit from the book?
Ideal Scenario: The ideal way to use this book is to do a few reflection questions by freewriting, thinking about the questions or discussing them with a friend or partner. You’d then read each chapter, including the stories and examples. You can also do the interactive content.
Short on Time: If you’re short, just skim the reflection questions and activities and skip the interactive content. You might also skim the student stories, but make sure to read Brenda Knights’ narratives, since these are important to the learning.
Very Short on Time: If you’re very short on time, read the headings and anything in bold or bullet points. You won’t get the full benefit, but at least you’ll be aware of the general principles.
Meet Brenda Knights
Figure 1.1 Brenda Knights
At the beginning of each chapter, you’ll find a short narrative by Brenda Knights. Ms. Knights is the President of Səýeḿ, the economic development branch of the Kwantlen Nation. Səýeḿ has 11 companies in a wide range of industries, including a gift shop, a security services company, a marketing and design company, an IT company, land development and a restaurant. In addition, Ms. Knights is a member of the Indigenous Business and Investment Council and a Member at Large of Tourism Langley, and she’s pursuing an MA in Leadership through Trinity Western University. This means that Ms. Knights has extensive workplace communication experience and uses her communication skills every day.
Səýeḿ is guided by the seven traditional laws of the Kwantlen Nation: health, happiness, generations, generosity, humbleness, forgiveness and understanding. You will see these principles throughout the narratives.
These narratives have been included in the book to help you explore the nuances of workplace communication and to see how some of the issues we’re discussing in theory play out in reality. The goal is not to give you an easy answer, but to help you understand the material in a deeper way and encourage you to reflect on your own communication values. When you read the narratives, ask yourself:
• What parallels can I draw between the story and the rest of the chapter?
• Are there places where the narrative seems to oppose the material in the rest of the chapter? How can I make sense of this apparent contradiction?
• Can I find connections between the narratives and my own life experience? | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/01%3A_Exploring_Your_Reading_and_Writing_Beliefs/1.02%3A_What_do_Experts_say_about_Reading_and_Writing.txt |
Especially if you went to school in an education system that emphasizes memorization and repetition, you might be frustrated by parts of this book. That’s because this book resists telling you the “right” way to do things. It will give you strategies for success, show you examples of successful workplace documents, and introduce you to people who doing workplace communication well, but you won’t find many templates.
That’s because business communication is all about making decisions. If your instructor tells you that there’s just one way to write a memo, you will struggle when you get hired in a workplace that does memos differently, or that doesn’t use memos at all. Already, social media, Slack/Discourse and other new communication platforms are changing the way we communicate in the workplace. If you can make good communication decisions and use the habits of a successful writer, you can be successful anywhere.
1.05: Key Takeaways
• Reflecting on your reading and writing beliefs will help you identify places where your beliefs aren’t helpful.
• Negative feelings about writing can lead to procrastination and an inability to try new things. Recognizing negative feelings can reduce their power.
• Everyone can become a better writer.
• Writing doesn’t just help you express yourself. It’s also a great way to figure out what you think about something.
• The goal of this book is to help you make strong decisions about communication. At the beginning of each piece, you will read a narrative by Brenda Knights. Reflect on it as you read the rest of the chapter, then connect it to the rest of the material that you’ve learned and your own experience.
1.06: Activities for Further Reflection
Activities and Exercises
Your instructor may ask you to do one or more of these activities.
1. Draw a short comic strip that illustrates how you learned to read and write. (You won’t be judged on your artistic ability). You can focus on one incident in the story of how you learned to read and write or try to illustrate the main parts.Then, write a short email to your instructor that describes
• How you decided what to include in your comic and what to leave out.
• What this comic says about your reading and writing beliefs.
2. Write a letter to your instructor that tells them what you believe about reading and writing. Be sure to include:
• Whether or not you think your beliefs are helpful.
• Whether you would like to change any of your beliefs.
3. Ask some friends, elders or your parents about their reading and writing beliefs. What trends do you notice about the beliefs of the people around you? How do you think these views have influenced you? Write a few paragraphs about your findings.
4. If you speak a different language or have lived in different cultures, write about how the reading and writing beliefs compare to the reading/writing beliefs in Canada. Do you have different reading and writing beliefs for each language you speak? Write a few paragraphs about your findings. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/01%3A_Exploring_Your_Reading_and_Writing_Beliefs/1.04%3A_Why_doesnt_this_Book_just_tell_me_What_to_do.txt |
Photo by UX Indonesia on Unsplash
Learning Objectives
In this section you will:
• Explore the writing process.
• Reflect on the role that emotions play in your writing process.
• Evaluate your own writing process and find ways to remove barriers you encounter.
• See examples of the writing process in the workplace.
02: The Writing Process
Before we begin, consider the following questions. Your instructor may ask you to freewrite about one or more of these questions in your learning journal.
• Describe a time when you wrote something you’re proud of. How did you get started? What conditions did you write under? Did you revise?
• What is your ideal writing process? Do you currently use your ideal writing process?
• How do you normally complete an assignment? Do you feel that this method is successful?
• If you write in different genres (music, creative writing, videos, etc), do you use the same writing process for each? For example, would you write an essay the same way you would write a short story?
• If you write in more than one language, do you use the same writing process for each language you write? How are your writing processes the same and different?
2.02: Brenda Knights Narrative
When I’m writing a grant or a tender, I find that doing the project plan first with timelines helps me to think things through. Before I jump into the writing, I map it out in Microsoft Projects. I think about who’s involved, what’s involved, what’s the budget. Going through that process in advance helps me refine. If you write first, your ideas could grow and get out of scope. If you do a quick project plan and a budget, you keep it really focused.
When you do the scope and budget in advance, a couple of things become revealing. You think about the people who need to be involved. Do they have the availability? That might influence your timeline. If this has to be completed in six months, but the right person isn’t available, then you have to look for another person or ask yourself if it’s something we can even do.
In general, there are a lot of people with great ideas, and not a lot of people who are good at executing and following through and completing the tasks. That’s the hard part. It’s not the idea. It’s the execution. Organizing and planning before you start to write gives you the ability to execute and know that what you’re doing is realistic.
I also talk to other employees and ask their thoughts before I start to write. If you start the writing process first, you’re often scramble later to adjust your timeline or track down people and suddenly someone’s gone on vacation and the project is due. That’s why you need to talk to people right up front. The writing’s the easiest part. Once you’ve talked to people, it will come out in your writing. You’ll feel confident that you’ve got a good plan in place.
2.03: What is the Writing Process
Writing is not one thing. To write successfully, you also need to pre-write, think, research, plan, organize, draft, revise, rethink, analyze and brainstorm. Why is it important to think of writing as more than just the act of physically writing out words? Because often when people say that they’re “bad at writing,” they actually just need to make a few adjustments to just one of the phases of the writing process. The more you understand your writing process, the more control you have over it.
The writing process is made up of three main parts:
Pre-writing: In the pre-writing stage, you might read an assignment prompt, research, make an outline, sketch some ideas, brainstorm, doodle, jot down notes or even just think about your writing topic while you’re on the bus or driving home.
Writing: In the writing or drafting stage, you write down words. Your writing task will determine how you write. Some people write long or important documents by composing them in a notebook and then typing out the final product. Some write in one long paragraph and then break it up in the revision stage.
Technology Tip
Speech-to-text software was originally created for people whose disability impacts their hand function or fatigue levels, but it has a wide range of applications. For example, artist and parasport athlete John Loeppky, who has cerebral palsy, uses it in the pre-writing stage when he is writing something creative that has a strong voice. He gets his thoughts down, then edits them. Many people use speech-to-text apps to brainstorm, to write down a great idea when they’re away from home or to look at their writing in a new way. You can try out a free speech-to-text program SpeechNotes.
Revision: After you’ve finished writing, it’s time to rethink your piece. Many students think that revising is just making grammatical changes, but it’s a lot more than that. Expert writers often spend most of their composition time on revision. They may rethink their strategy, try a new outline, show their work to a colleague to get feedback, read their work out loud to see where it sounds choppy or simply put the work away for a few hours so that they can come back to it with a fresh perspective.
It’s important to note that your writing process won’t be a straight line. Expert writers switch between different modes. For example, you might realize that you need more research and go back to the pre-writing process. You might revise and write as you go. You might show a draft to a colleague or friend and decide to reorganize the entire work based on their feedback. Sometimes, this back-and-forth feels frustrating to new writers, but it’s a normal part of the writing process. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/02%3A_The_Writing_Process/2.01%3A_Questions_for_Reflection.txt |
Because this is a business writing class, it might seem weird to talk about feelings. But how you feel about a writing task often determines how effectively you can complete it. For example, have you ever struggled to write an apology to someone you upset? Have you ever found yourself procrastinating to write an assignment you don’t really understand? Have you ever found that it’s easier for you to seem to write better in some classes more than others?
Emotions are the reason that sometimes you can write without thinking and sometimes you find yourself procrastinating, then staring at a blank screen, typing and deleting the same words over and over, feeling your writing becoming more awkward rather than less. That’s why simply acknowledging how you feel can help you avoid procrastination.
The first step is acknowledging how you feel, and the second step is figuring out why you feel that way. For example, some students have negative feelings about a writing assignment because they don’t like the teacher (or a teacher they had years ago), or they’ve had past struggles in a subject, or they don’t understand the point of the assignment, or they’re overwhelmed with other classes. Being able to identify why you’re feeling an emotion takes the power out of it. Sometimes you can even find a solution to make the writing task easier.
Here are some stories about how student writers changed their writing processes.
Raveena’s Story
Whenever Raveena writes, she feels a little editor on her shoulder who’s always chiming in correcting her grammar and telling her that her sentences are awkward and sloppy. She spends so much time editing while she writes that she loses her train of thought and has trouble just letting her thoughts flow. Writing a single page takes her hours.
Raveena’s instructor asked if she had always written this way. Raveena said she used to write easily, but during her first semester of university she had a couple of instructors who were tough graders. Whenever she would write, she would imagine her instructors criticizing her. Raveena’s instructor suggested two solutions:
1) She should pretend to write to someone she likes. It’s easier to write to a friendly reader than a hostile one. Raveena imagined writing to her favourite cousin and writing got a little easier.
2) She asked Raveena to put a piece of paper over her laptop screen or turn the screen’s brightness to the lowest setting, then type out her thoughts. At first, Raveena found this very uncomfortable. When she turned her screen back on, she saw a jumble of text. But Raveena soon discovered that she had quickly written 500 words, which would have taken her hours under her old method. Raveena then used her excellent editing skills to shape what she had written.
Kai’s Story
Kai prided themself on being able to write their essays the night before. They would drink some energy drinks and buy their favourite snacks and write for hours. They rarely revised their work. This technique worked well in high school, but when they got to university their grades started slipping. Their instructors noted that they had great ideas, but many were not well-organized or were incomplete.
Kai’s instructor asked the class to bring a draft for a peer workshop. Kai told their instructor that they wouldn’t be able to write a draft, since they could only write well the night before the assignment was due. Kai’s instructor asked them what they liked about writing at night. Kai said that they liked how quiet it was in the house at 3 a.m. and how the pressure made them focus. Kai’s instructor asked them to try to replicate the same environment (dark room, snacks, drinks etc.), set a timer for 2 hours and see how much they could write. Kai was able to write a rough draft of their assignment, though they didn’t feel the “writing magic” in the same way.
During the workshop, Kai’s classmates offered several useful suggestions for improvement, but they were worried about overthinking things and ruining them by doing too much revision. Kai’s instructor told them to save the rough draft as a different file. If they didn’t like the revisions, they could go back to the previous draft. Kai tried a number of revision techniques and ended up with a much stronger assignment. Slowly, they used more and more revision techniques in their other assignments. The result: higher grades and more sleep.
If your writing process is working for you, then there’s no need to change it. But if the way you write frustrates you, consider making some changes. You might also consider changing your writing process for certain writing tasks, such as important assignments. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/02%3A_The_Writing_Process/2.04%3A_What_Role_do_Emotions_Play_in_Writing.txt |
Here are some simple ways to change your writing process. Pick a few and try them.
Pre-Writing
1. Read the assignment prompt, then quickly write down 5 things you’ll need to do to be successful in the assignment. Using this list and the assignment prompt, create a timeline for finishing the assignment. For example, if you’re being graded on using primary and secondary research, you’ll want to make time to research, analyze your sources and add your citations.
2. Go for a walk (or do some exercise) and think about your writing task. Sometimes moving your body helps you do brainstorming.
3. Create an outline for your work.
4. Use brainstorming (mind mapping, bubble maps, etc).
5. Try illustrating your project visually. Connect ideas and thoughts with lines.
6. Read a similar document to get ideas.
7. Talk about your writing task with a friend.
8. Represent your writing task visually. Sometimes creating a comic strip or series of doodles helps you to figure out where to start.
Writing
1. Turn off the screen of your computer and try writing your document. This will help you get your thoughts down without worrying about editing.
2. Use the voice recorder in your phone to record yourself describing what you want to write about as if to a friend.
3. Write an imaginary conversation between your sources. How would they respond to each other?
4. Try free-writing. Write the phrase “What I want my reader to know is…” or “The most surprising thing about my research is…” Then, set a timer for 5 minutes and write about this topic. Don’t stop writing. Ignore all grammar and spelling errors. See how much you can write.
5. Schedule a time each day to write and put it in your calendar.
6. Try to Pomodoro Technique, where you work intensely for 25 minutes then take a 5 minute break.
7. Use website blocking software like Freedom, FocusBooster or StayFocusd to block your internet use for a few hours so you can concentrate.
Revising
1. Read your work out loud. The ear is a better editor than the eye.
2. Leave your work overnight so that you can come back to it with fresh eyes.
3. Describe your work to a trusted friend or family member and encourage them to ask you questions.
4. Compare your work to the assignment prompt or rubric. Read a criteria/rubric point then go to your work and underline where in the work you met the criteria.
5. Print your work out and cut it up so that each paragraph is on its own piece of paper. Try reorganizing your paragraphs. Does another order work better?
6. If your writing uses sources, print your work out and highlight every time you use a source. If your writing has no highlighted parts, you might want to add sources. If your writing is mostly highlighted, you might want to do more analysis of the sources.
7. Underline the main point of each paragraph. If you can’t point out what the point of the paragraph is, you may need to rethink it. If your paragraph has multiple points, you may need to break it up.
8. Show your work to your teacher, a colleague or friend and ask them what they think the goal of the assignment is.
2.06: The Writing Process in the Workplace
Students are often surprised to learn how much time professional writers devote to pre-writing and editing. In fact, a study conducted by a Toronto consulting firm found that writers in the workplace spend 40% of their time pre-writing or planning, 30% of their time revising and only 20% of their time writing[1]. In contrast, some studies have found that students only spend 3-5% of their composition time revising.
In the workplace, you will vary your writing process depending on several factors, including:
• The importance of the writing task.
• Your deadline.
• The deliverable.
• Your own writing process.
• The culture of your workplace.
• How much collaboration is required.
A Note on Collaboration
Much of the writing that you’ll be doing in the workplace will involve collaborating with others. To do so effectively, you will have to respect other people’s writing processes and listen carefully to your collaborators.
Different cultures also have different collaboration practices. For example, if your project impacts Indigenous People, you would want to involve many different people from the impacted community, especially Elders. If you’re not Indigenous, you might begin the project by taking time to listen, ask questions, and build trust.
When done well, collaboration will make your work stronger. This quote from settler scholar Sophie McCall shows that collaboration doesn’t just have to be about ensuring that everyone agrees:
“Collaboration does not have to aim for a seamless platform of agreement; indeed, collaboration can embrace differences and acknowledge conflict. We came to think of our process as one of working across differences of experience, profession, background and interest.” – Sophie McCall on working with Metis artist Gabrielle L’Hirondelle (as quoted in Elements of Indigenous Style: A Guide for Writing by And About Indigenous Peoples by Gregory Younging. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/02%3A_The_Writing_Process/2.05%3A_Ways_the_Switch_Up_Your_Writing_Process.txt |
Joe is a communications and marketing manager for a non-profit. Because his organization is small, he has a very broad job description. Over the course of a single day, he might write emails to partner organizations, clients and coworkers, do research for a grant, plan a social media campaign and take minutes in a meeting. To be effective, Joe has to balance producing quality work with using his time effectively. For this reason, his writing process often changes depending on his task.
Every year, Joe’s non-profit organization sends out a letter to previous donors asking for donations. The letter tells a story about someone who has benefitted from the organization’s services. The organization expects to raise between \$20,000 and \$25,000 from the letter, so it’s very important.
Pre-writing: Joe begins by researching what kind of stories other organizations have told to donors. He is especially interested in what larger organizations with larger budgets are doing. Next, he has a meeting with his boss and several program coordinators to identify a client whose story should be highlighted in the letter. Joe does some research on the client, then works with a program coordinator who knows the client to come up with interview questions. Joe conducts the interview, then immediately goes to a coffee shop to sketch out his ideas for the letter while the interview is still fresh in his mind. When he gets home, he transcribes his interview notes.
Writing: Joe drafts two different versions of the letter.
Pre-Writing: Joe’s coworkers provide feedback on the two letters. Joe’s boss also shows the letters to a few former donors who now sit on the Board of Directors. They all agree on one version of the letter. Joe’s boss asks him to contact the client again to ask some follow-up questions that will make the letter more specific. Joe contacts the client again and does more research.
Revision: Joe revises his letter based on the feedback. When his boss is satisfied, he sends it to a company that specializes in designing and mailing out donations letters. He includes photos of the client to be included in the letter. Joe and his boss go back and forth with the company to come up with a final design that everyone is happy with.
Joe sends hundreds of emails in a week. Usually, he hardly has to think about them. Today, however, he receives an email from the Executive Director of another organization asking for Joe’s thoughts on an upcoming social media campaign her organization is planning. Joe is happy to help the Executive Director, but he is busy and can only spare an hour.
Pre-writing: Joe takes a look at the Executive Director’s campaign. He’s unsure about one aspect of the campaign, so he does a little bit of research. He compares the campaign to the final report from a similar campaign that he ran.
Writing: Joe has a few criticisms of the Executive Director’s campaign idea, so he chooses his words carefully. The email is long, so he includes a few headings and some bullet points to make it easier to read.
Revision: So that he can catch any mistakes, he leaves the email for a few hours. When he comes back to it, he finds a few grammar mistakes. He also rewrites the first few lines to make sure that they achieve the correct tone.
Image Description
Figure 2.1 image description: This bar graph shows Joe’s writing process. He moves from pre-writing (presented in red), then spends a short amount of time writing (in yellow) then moves back to pre-writing and spends a large chunk of time revising (in green). [Return to Figure 2.1]
Figure 2.2 image description: This graph shows Joe’s writing process for an email. He spends a short amount of time pre-writing (in red), then the bulk of his time is spent writing (in yellow) and then spends a short amount of time revising (in green). [Return to Figure 2.2]
2.08: Test Your Knowledge
How well can you identify the parts of the writing process?
Query \(1\)
2.09: Key Takeaways
• By understanding your own writing process, you can have more control over your writing.
• The writing process consists of pre-writing, writing and revising. Though students spend most of their time on the writing stage, in the workplace, most of the time is spent on pre-writing and revising.
• Simple changes to your writing process can save you time and lead to an improved final product.
• To improve your writing, you must think both about what you do when you write, but also how you feel when you write. Figuring out why you feel something about a particular writing task can reduce procrastination.
2.10: Activities for Further Reflection
Your instructor may ask you to complete one or more of the following exercises.
1. Write a paragraph connecting Brenda Knights’ narrative to the rest of the chapter or to your own experience.
2. Review Raveena and Kai’s stories. Now, write one about yourself. If you’re happy with your writing process, write about how you developed it. If you’d like to make some changes, imagine what advice your instructor would give you. If you’re not sure, ask!
3. Think of two different writing tasks that you’ve accomplished. Using Joe’s story as a model, create a diagram that shows your writing process for each task, then tell the story of that writing process.
4. Re-read the “Ways to Switch Up Your Writing Process,” and pick a few methods that are interesting to you. Try them over the next few weeks, then write a memo to your instructor reporting on how the experience went.
5. Ask a friend about their writing process. Then, write a short email giving them advice on how to make their writing process more enjoyable or efficient. (Note: you don’t actually have to send the email to your friend. You can just send it to your instructor). | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/02%3A_The_Writing_Process/2.07%3A_Joes_Writing_Process.txt |
Photo by Samuel Pereira on Unsplash
Learning Objectives
In this section, you will:
• Learn how communication models can be practical.
• Explore how our context impacts how well our messages are received.
• Learn two different communication models.
• See how these communication models can be applied to workplace communication.
03: Context Audience Purpose
Before you start, consider the following questions. Your instructor may ask you to freewrite about one or more of these questions in your learning journal.
1. Think about a time when a miscommunication occurred in your life. Why do you think it happened?
2. Think about a time when you had to write to a new audience or in a new context. For example, perhaps you had to write an email to an instructor when you were new to university. How did you tackle the task? Is there anything you wish you did differently?
3. Pretend that you woke up this morning and are sick. Write 1-2 sentences to the following audiences:
• Your best friend or partner, complaining about being sick.
• Your instructor, because you’re supposed to write a midterm today.
• Your followers on Facebook or Twitter.
Now, reflect on the differences between those messages. Which was the easiest to write? Which was the hardest? Would you post such a message on social media? Why or why not?
3.02: Brenda Knights Narrative
I used to work in a business where I wore suits. I can recall going into my first elder’s meeting wearing a suit, and I probably came across as intimidating, as not one of them, not part of the group. I have learned that even my business attire needs to adapt to my audience’s expectations. If I’m going to meet with government officials, I’ll dress up more. If I’m going to meet with elders and have a meal with them, I don’t go in a suit. I want to open doors and make them feel that I’m one of them, I’m not different from them. My style of dress allows the conversation to take place. If I have to speak on Indigenous issues, I’ll wear my cedar hat or my jewelry. For me, that shares my culture and helps me promote my community. I can tell them where the necklace is from and promote people in my community.
So, it’s catering to what the audience is expecting, but it doesn’t have to be tokenistic. I’m not showing up in regalia, for example, since that’s not the place for regalia. You want to meet the audience’s expectations in a sincere and authentic way. I see it as an opportunity to teach that person. An example is that someone will call me for an event and say that they want drummers and singers to come. They want to participate in reconciliation and the first thing they think is: drummers and singers. But, I’ll ask, “What are you actually doing to put reconciliation into action? If drummers and singers come, what actions are going to come out of that? What’s next?” It starts the dialogue that there are other ways we can participate and put that into action. We’ll talk about the event and brainstorm how we can make it a sincere event. For me, that’s through business and partnering and working together to extend it beyond one speaking engagement.
We’ve had some discussions about authenticity in our community. We’ve been going through some business planning in our restaurant and thinking about how we represent ourselves as an Indigenous business while still being authentic. We came to the conclusion that it wasn’t necessarily about the pictures on the wall or what’s on the menu, but the overall values you incorporate. If we have a value for sustainability, our menu should reflect that. If we have a value for family, then how we treat our employees should reflect that. It’s how we carry ourselves day in and day out that make us authentic, not because we’re selling salmon or bannock, or that there’s art on the wall.
We believe that when it comes to meeting people’s expectations, we have to start with our own values or we’re going to be disappointed. Even in the case of tourism, most of us have travelled to a place where we’ve experienced something that feels inauthentic, like you’re being sold something. So, we start with our values. In business in general, those businesses who are going to last are those who are authentic and have strong values. That should come across in everything you do.
3.03: Why use Communication Models
Think back to the last time you had a miscommunication with someone. Maybe a friend misinterpreted the tone of your chat message. Maybe an email you sent wound up in a spam filter and so it wasn’t even seen. Maybe you tried to argue your position but couldn’t think of the right evidence.
Every day, you communicate in thousands of ways: some successful, some less so. There are many current models and theories that help us to plan successful communication and explain why some communication decisions work better than others. In the workplace, we might be more concerned about practical knowledge and skills than theory. However, understanding communication models allows you to make better decisions, which allow you to be a more successful communicator.
Defining Communication
The word communication is derived from a Latin word meaning “to share.” Communication can be defined as “purposefully and actively exchanging information between two or more people to convey or receive the intended meanings through a shared system of signs and (symbols)” (“Communication,” 2015, para. 1).
Let us break this definition down with an example. Imagine you are in a coffee shop with a friend, and they are telling you a story about a cricket match they won over the weekend. What images come to mind as you hear their story? Is your friend using words you understand to describe the situation? Are they speaking in long, complicated sentences or short, descriptive sentences? Are they leaning back in their chair and speaking calmly, or can you tell they are excited? Are they using words to describe how the match played out, or did they draw a diagram on a napkin? Did your friend pause and wait for you to to comment throughout their story or just blast right through? Did you have trouble hearing your friend at any point in the story because other people were talking or because the milk steamer in the coffee shop was whistling?
All of these questions directly relate to the considerations for communication in this course, including analyzing the audience, choosing a communications medium, using plain language, and using visual aids.
Before we examine each of these considerations in more detail, we should explore the elements of the communication process. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/03%3A_Context_Audience_Purpose/3.01%3A_Questions_for_Reflection.txt |
When communication scholars first started studying communication, they saw it as a straightforward process: a sender sends a message to a receiver. The receiver receives it. This model makes the receiver very passive. If this model was true, miscommunications would rarely occur. Today, communication scholars know that what’s happening is more complicated.
In 1948, C.E. Shannon proposed a more complicated theory, which I’ve simplified below.[1]. The main point, however, is that a lot of factors influence and interfere with communication.
Context of Use and Context of Production
According to this model, there are four steps in the communication process.
1. Production: In this model, the person in yellow is the sender. They create a message. But, when they create the message, they don’t do it in isolation. Instead, they encode the message with their own beliefs, attitudes, experiences, feelings, background, environment and much more. This is called the Context of Production, or the context in which the message was created.
2. Circulation: How the message is circulated impacts how the audience receives it. For example, you would react differently if someone broke up with you face-to-face than you would if they broke up with you by text message. The sender circulates the message using the medium that they think will be most effective.
3. Use: The audience (in red) doesn’t just passively receive the message. Instead, they decode the message based on their own Context of Use. They draw on their own beliefs, attitudes, experiences, feelings, background, etc. to understand the message. The more these two circles overlap, the more meaning is created.
4. Reproduction: Again, the audience isn’t passive. In the final stage, the audience takes action (or doesn’t) after receiving the message. They may alter it, share it with others, or even ignore it.
If the Context of Production circle overlaps with the Context of Use circle, then then the audience understands the message. The more overlap, the more understanding. So, if your friend telling the story about the cricket match is talking quickly, if the coffee shop gets noisy or if you get distracted by an argument going on across the room, then the circles would overlap less. If you don’t understand cricket, you might appreciate your friend’s enthusiasm but not how the match actually went. If you’re listening to everything your friend says and you understand because of your shared experiences just how much the cricket match meant to him, then the circles would overlap a lot.
One of the reasons the Context of Use/ Context of Production model is useful is that it helps us think of context as something that changes and that can be individual. The scholar Godwin Agboka says that when we think of intercultural communication, we often think about “large culture” models. [2] This can lead to stereotypical thinking and making too big of a distinction between “us” and “them,” which can actually make it harder to communicate across cultures. For example, a textbook might tell you that people from India behave one way, and people from Japan behave a different way.
But not everyone within a culture has the same beliefs and experiences, and many of us go between cultures. For example, an international student from India might behave one way with friends in India, another way when socializing with other international students from India while in Canada, and a third way when interacting with domestic students who have South Asian heritage.
To understand this model better, let’s take a look at this vintage ad for ketchup:
Sometimes it’s easiest to see the Context of Production when we look at a context that’s very different from our own. This ad was created in the 1950s, almost 70 years ago. It was created in a very different context. What kind of values, beliefs and assumptions led to the creation of this ad? Who do you think created it? Who was it marketed to?
When you look at the ad, think about what’s in it and what’s not in it. Judging by the caption, we can probably make some assumptions about how North American society in the 1950s viewed women. To put this ad in perspective, women in Canada weren’t allowed to own a credit card until the 1970s; the first woman officially ran a marathon in the late 1960s. We can assume that this message was produced at a time when the dominant cultural view was that women are weak. In fact, this ad is actually marketed to women (who did the majority of the grocery shopping), so many women saw themselves this way too.
We can also think about what’s not in it. The woman in the ad looks very stereotypically feminine (red fingers and nails, dress, etc.) and we can assume that she’s maybe middle class or upper class by her jewelry. She’s also white; it’s likely that this ad was created by white people with the intended audience of white people. That’s not surprising. Around the time this ad was created, Canada had just allowed people of Japanese, Chinese and South Asian descent to vote and when these groups were depicted in advertisements, they were racist caricatures. (In fact, Indigenous people were not allowed to vote in Canada until 1960). That ad is encoded with a Context of Production that saw women as weak, that valued a particular type of femininity, and that ignored or discriminated against BIPOC (Black, Indigenous, People of Colour), and the ad reflects that.
This ad was probably circulated in magazines at the time. Imagine seeing this ad in a magazine. The bright yellow would likely stand out in contrast to the red ketchup bottle, fingernails and lips and catch your attention. Sometimes, ads like this one were accompanied by recipes that used ketchup. People (mostly women) could cut out the recipes and add them to their recipe box. This ad is therefore designed to be circulated in a particular way.
Today, however, the Context of Use is very different. How do you think a modern North American audience would react to this ad? They might be insulted. That’s because they’re decoding the ad in a society where women do Crossfit and lift weights, and would not see themselves as being too weak to open a ketchup bottle. You’re also seeing this ad in a textbook or on a computer screen or mobile phone, which is something that the creators of this ad couldn’t have even dreamed of. Maybe you’re new to Canada and you don’t know much about Canadian politics or history. Still, your individual Context of Use (what people in your family and culture think about women, your own experiences, etc.) will determine how you reacted to the ad.
When this ad was created, the creators hoped that it would make people go out and buy ketchup. They obviously weren’t thinking that their ad would be reproduced in this textbook. By including this ad as an example, I’m using it for my own purposes: to teach you about a communication model. You might further reproduce it by remixing it for a project or showing it to a friend.
Because the Context of Use is so different from the Context of Production, there’s not a lot of overlap between the two circles. We can read the message, but it probably doesn’t make us want to buy ketchup. In the 1950s, there would have been much more overlap.
The benefit of studying this communication model is that it helps us to see how our own worldview influences how we communicate. Often, communicators do a lot of work analyzing their audience, but they forget to think about how their own assumptions and values influence how they communicate. A lack of self-reflection can lead to miscommunication and even cause harm to your audience. This is especially important when you are communicating with people of other cultures. As intercultural communication scholar E.T. Hall said, “Years of study have convinced me that the real job is not to understand other cultures, but to understand our own.” (Hall, 1973) This model helps us understand how our own culture influences how we judge other people.
To test your understanding of the model, explore it by clicking on hotspots on the image.
Query \(1\)
Image Description
Figure 3.1 image description: This model describes the context of use and context of production. There are two overlapping circles: one yellow and one red. The first circle represents the speaker’s context of production. The second represents the context of use that the audience decodes the message in. Because there’s overlap, there’s understanding. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/03%3A_Context_Audience_Purpose/3.04%3A_The_Communication_Process.txt |
Our goal as communicators is to use our understanding of the communication process to make sure that when we send a message, the circle of our Context of Production overlaps as much as possible with the audience’s Context of Use.
Another way to look at the communications process is to think of CMAPP, which stands for Context, Message, Audience and Purpose.
Sometimes, new communicators will want to start the writing process by deciding what product they want to create. For example, they might want to create an Instagram account to promote the company. If you don’t analyze your context, audience, message and purpose, however, then you could end up choosing the wrong product.To communicate effectively, you should undertake the following steps.
1. Determine the Message’s Purpose
In their book The Essentials of Technical Communication, Elizabeth Tebeaux and Sam Dragga note that in the workplace, you “write to create change.” (2014) By this, they mean that every piece of communication done in the workplace has some sort of purpose. You don’t send an email or write a proposal just for fun. You write to change something. Maybe you want to change something small, like having your coworker send you a file, or maybe you want to make a big change, like convincing another company to buy goods or services from you. But every piece of writing in the workplace should exist for a reason.
Before you can start communicating, you need to know the purpose of the message. What do you want your audience to do? Sometimes, the purpose is obvious. If you’re applying for a grant, for example, the purpose is to win the grant and earn the money. Sometimes, however, the purpose is not so clear. Let’s say that you receive an angry email from a customer. Depending on your relationship to the customer and the nature of their complaint, you may respond with the purpose of keeping the customer’s business, you may respond to break bad news in a way that the audience will at least respect, or you may not respond at all.
2. Analyze your Audience
The audience any piece of writing is the intended or potential reader or readers. This should be the most important consideration in planning, writing, and reviewing a document. You “adapt” your writing to meet the needs, interests, and background of the readers who will be reading your writing.
The principle seems absurdly simple and obvious. It’s much the same as telling someone, “Talk so the person in front of you can understand what you’re saying.” It’s like saying, “Don’t talk rocket science to your six-year-old.” Do we need a course in that? Doesn’t seem like it. But, in fact, lack of audience analysis and adaptation is one of the root causes of most of the problems you find in business documents.
Audiences, regardless of category, must also be analyzed in terms of characteristics such as the following:
• Background—knowledge, experience, training:One of your most important concerns is just how much knowledge, experience, or training you can expect in your readers. Often, business communicators are asked to be clear, but what’s clear to you might not be clear to someone else. For example, imagine that you’re a software developer who’s developing an app for a client. Unfortunately, your code had a number of bugs, which put you behind schedule. If you give a highly technical explanation of why the bugs occurred, you will likely confuse your client. If you simply say “we ran into some bugs,” your client might not be satisfied with the explanation. Your job would be to figure out how much technical knowledge your audience has, then find a way to communicate the problem clearly.
• Needs and interests:To plan your document, you need to know what your audience is going to expect from that document. Imagine how readers will want to use your document and what will they demand from it. For example, imagine you are writing a manual on how to use a new smart phone—what are your readers going to expect to find in it? Will they expect it to be in print or will they look for the information online? Would they rather watch a series of Youtube videos?
• Different cultures:If you write for an international audience, be aware that formats for indicating time and dates, monetary amounts, and numerical amounts vary across the globe. Also be aware that humour and figurative language (as in “hit a home run”) are not likely to be understood outside of your own culture. Ideally, your company should employ someone from within that culture to ensure that the message is appropriate, especially if it’s an important message.
• Other demographic characteristics: There are many other characteristics about your readers that might have an influence on how you should design and write your document—for example, age groups, type of residence, area of residence, gender, political preferences, and so on.
Audience analysis can get complicated by other factors, such as mixed audience types for one document and wide variability within the audience.
• More than one audience.You may often find that your business message is for more than one audience. For example, it may be seen by technical people (experts and technicians) and administrative people (executives). What to do? You can either write all the sections so that all the audiences of your document can understand them (good luck!), or you can write each section strictly for the audience that would be interested in it, then use headings and section introductions to alert your audience about where to go and what to avoid in your report.
• Wide variability in an audience.You may realize that, although you have an audience that fits into only one category, there is a wide variability in its background. This is a tough one—if you write to the lowest common denominator of reader, you’re likely to end up with a cumbersome, tedious book-like thing that will turn off the majority of readers. But if you don’t write to that lowest level, you lose that segment of your readers. What to do? Most writers go for the majority of readers and sacrifice that minority that needs more help. Others put the supplemental information in appendices or insert cross-references to beginners’ books.
In the workplace, communicators analyze their audience in a number of ways. If your audience is specific (for example, if you’re writing a report to a particular person), you may draw on past experience, ask a colleague, Google the person or even contact them to ask how they would best like the information. If you’re communicating to a large group, you might use analytics, do user testing or run a focus group.
Unless your project is important, you may not have time to undertake sophisticated audience analysis. In this case, you should follow the most important maxim of workplace communication: don’t waste people’s time. In general, clear, plain language that is clearly arranged will please most audiences. We’ll talk more about Plain Language in the next chapter.
3. Craft Your Message
Let’s say you’ve analyzed your audience until you know them better than you know yourself. What good is it? How do you use this information? How do you keep from writing something that will still be incomprehensible or useless to your readers?
The business of writing to your audience takes a lot of practice. The more you work at it, the more you’ll develop an intuition about how most effectively to reach your audience. But there are some controls you can use to have a better chance to connect with your readers. The following “controls” mostly have to do with making information more understandable for your specific audience:
• Add information readers need to understand your document. Check to see whether certain key information is missing—for example, a critical series of steps from a set of instructions, important background that helps beginners understand the main discussion, or definitions of key terms.
• Omit information your readers do not need. Unnecessary information can also confuse and frustrate readers—after all, it’s there so they feel obligated to read it. For example, you can probably chop theoretical discussion from basic instructions.
• Change the level of the information you currently have. You may have the right information but it may be “pitched” at too high or too low a technical level. It may be pitched at the wrong kind of audience—for example, at an expert audience rather than a technician audience. This happens most often when product-design notes are passed off as instructions.
• Add examples to help readers understand. Examples are one of the most powerful ways to connect with audiences, particularly in instructions. Even in non-instructional text, for example, when you are trying to explain a technical concept, examples are a major help—analogies in particular.
• Change the level of your examples. You may be using examples, but the technical content or level may not be appropriate to your readers.
• Change the organization of your information. Sometimes, you can have all the right information but arrange it in the wrong way. For example, there can be too much background information up front (or too little) such that certain readers get lost. Sometimes, background information needs to be consolidated into the main information—for example, in instructions it’s sometimes better to feed in chunks of background at the points where they are immediately needed.
• Strengthen transitions. It may be difficult for readers, particularly non-specialists, to see the connections between the main sections of your report, between individual paragraphs, and sometimes even between individual sentences. You can make these connections much clearer by adding transition words and by echoing key words more accurately. Words like “therefore,” “for example,” “however” are transition words—they indicate the logic connecting the previous thought to the upcoming thought.
• Write stronger introductions—both for the whole document and for major sections. People seem to read with more confidence and understanding when they have the “big picture”—a view of what’s coming, and how it relates to what they’ve just read. Therefore, make sure you have a strong introduction to the entire document—one that makes clear the topic, purpose, audience, and contents of that document. And for each major section within your document, use mini-introductions that indicate at least the topic of the section and give an overview of the subtopics to be covered in that section.
• Create topic sentences for paragraphs and paragraph groups. It can help readers immensely to give them an idea of the topic and purpose of a section (a group of paragraphs) and in particular to give them an overview of the subtopics about to be covered.
• Change sentence style and length. How you write—down at the individual sentence level—can make a big difference too. In instructions, for example, using imperative voice and “you” phrasing is vastly more understandable than the passive voice or third-personal phrasing. Passive, person-less writing is harder to read—put people and action in your writing. Similarly, go for active verbs as opposed to be verb phrasing. All of this makes your writing more direct and immediate—readers don’t have to dig for it. Sentence length matters as well. An average of somewhere between 15 and 25 words per sentence is about right; sentences over 30 words are often mistrusted.
• Work on sentence clarity and economy. This is closely related to the previous “control” but deserves its own spot. Often, writing style can be so wordy that it is hard or frustrating to read. When you revise your rough drafts, put them on a diet—go through a draft line by line trying to reduce the overall word, page or line count by 20 percent. Try it as an experiment and see how you do. You’ll find a lot of fussy, unnecessary detail and inflated phrasing you can chop out.
• Use more or different graphics. For non-specialist audiences, you may want to use more graphics—and simpler ones at that. Graphics for specialists are more detailed and more technical.
• Break text up or consolidate text into meaningful, usable chunks. For non-specialist readers, you may need to have shorter paragraphs.
• Add cross-references to important information. In technical information, you can help non-specialist readers by pointing them to background sources. If you can’t fully explain a topic on the spot, point to a section or chapter where it is.
• Use headings and lists. Readers can be intimidated by big dense paragraphs of writing, uncut by anything other than a blank line now and then. Search your rough drafts for ways to incorporate headings—look for changes in topic or subtopic. Search your writing for listings of things—these can be made into vertical lists. Look for paired listings such as terms and their definitions—these can be made into two-column lists. Of course, be careful not to force this special formatting—don’t overdo it.
• Use special typography, and work with margins, line length, line spacing, type size, and type style. You can do things like making the lines shorter (bringing in the margins), using larger type sizes, and other such tactics. Certain type styles are believed to be friendlier and more readable than others.
4. Choose Your Medium/Product
Analyzing your purpose, audience and message will lead you to your medium, which is how the message is communicated. Should your message be a letter? A memo? An email? A text? A GIF?
For example, we have discussed a simple and traditional channel of written communication: the hard-copy letter mailed in a standard business envelope and sent by postal mail. But in today’s business environment, this channel is becoming increasingly rare as electronic channels become more widely available and accepted.
When is it appropriate to send an instant message or text message versus a conventional e-mail? What is the difference between a letter and a memo? Between a report and a proposal? Writing itself is the communication medium, but each of these specific channels has its own strengths, weaknesses, and understood expectations that are summarized in Table 2.5.1.
Table 2.5: Written communication channels.
Channel Strengths Weaknesses Expectations When to choose
Instant message or text message Very fast
Good for rapid exchanges of small amounts of informationInexpensive
Informal
Not suitable for large amounts of information
Abbreviations lead to misunderstandings
Quick response Informal use among peers at similar levels within an organization
You need a fast, inexpensive connection with a colleague over a small issue and limited amount of information
Channel Strengths Weaknesses Expectations When to choose
Email Fast
Good for relatively fast exchanges of information“Subject” line allows compilation of many messages on one subject or project
Easy to distribute to multiple recipients
Inexpensive
May be overlooked or deleted without being read.
Large attachments may cause the e-mail to be caught in recipient’s spam filter (though this can be remedied by using Dropbox)
Tone may be lost, causing miscommunications.
Normally a response is expected within 24 hours, although norms vary by situation and organizational culture You need to communicate but time is not the most important consideration
You need to send attachments (provided their file size is not too big)
Channel Strengths Weaknesses Expectations When to choose
Fax Fast
Provides documentation
Very few businesses have a fax machine anymore, unless you work in the legal or medical field. Normally, a long (multiple page) fax is not expected You want to send a document whose format must remain intact as presented, such as a medical prescription or a signed work order
Channel Strengths Weaknesses Expectations When to choose
Memo Official but less formal than a letter
Clearly shows who sent it, when, and to whom
Memos sent through e-mails can get deleted without review
Sending to many recipients (without using an email delivery CRM like MailChimp) can cause your message to get stuck in a spam filter.
Normally used internally in an organization to communicate directives from management on policy and procedure, or documentation You need to communicate a general message within your organization
Channel Strengths Weaknesses Expectations When to choose
Letter Formal Letterhead
represents your company and adds credibility
May get filed or thrown away unread
Cost and time involved in printing, stuffing, sealing, affixing postage, and travel through the postal system
Specific formats associated with specific purposes You need to inform, persuade, deliver bad news or negative message, and document the communication
Channel Strengths Weaknesses Expectations When to choose
Report Can require significant time for preparation and production Requires extensive research and documentation Specific formats for specific purposes You need to document the relationship(s) between large amounts of data to inform an internal or external audience
Channel Strengths Weaknesses Expectations When to choose
Proposal Can require significant time for preparation and production Requires extensive research and documentation Specific formats for specific purposes You need to persuade an audience with complex arguments and data
By choosing the correct channel for a message, you can save yourself many headaches and increase the likelihood that your writing will be read, understood, and acted upon in the manner you intended.
In terms of writing preparation, you should review any electronic communication before you send it. Spelling and grammatical errors will negatively impact your credibility. With written documents, we often take time and care to get it right the first time, but the speed of instant messaging, text messaging, or emailing often deletes this important review cycle of written works. Just because the document you prepare in a text message is only one sentence long doesn’t mean it can’t be misunderstood or expose you to liability. Take time when preparing your written messages, regardless of their intended presentation, and review your work before you click “send.”
To further explore the CMAPP model, click on the hotspots below.
Query \(1\)
Let’s wrap up by seeing these principles in action.
Image Description
Figure 3.3 image description: This is a diagram of Context, Message, Audience, Purpose, and Product. The blue circle represents the context. Audience, message and purpose sit within the context. There’s a purple arrow that leads to product, which shows how product comes last, after the other factors have been considered. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/03%3A_Context_Audience_Purpose/3.05%3A_Applying_the_Communication_Process.txt |
Anmol's Story
Anmol had a question for his accounting teacher, so he decided to email her. He didn’t know what to put for the email subject, so he left it blank. He was worried about not getting the answer to his question in time to complete his homework, so he just wrote the email quickly and didn’t do a lot of proofreading. He also put a lot of exclamation marks so the teacher would take him seriously. Anmol was surprised when the teacher told him that the email was rude.
Let’s run this situation through the CMAPP model.
The university is a new context. It has spoken and unspoken rules. Because Anmol wasn’t aware of the context of the university, it was hard to make a good communication choice. Looking back, he realized that a university context is perhaps more formal than other types of environments he’d communicated in, so perhaps his email didn’t have an appropriate tone.
Audience: Anmol realized that his teacher was also a bit on the formal side. She wore a business suit to class each day, unlike some of his other instructors. When he re-read his email, he realized that multiple question marks looked a bit too informal. Anmol also realized that his teacher probably received a lot of student emails and was busy, so she didn’t want to have to re-read an email. Because he hadn’t done any proofreading, his email was hard to read.
Purpose: Anmol’s purpose was to receive a quick response to his question. He realized that he’d simply written “I don’t understand this week’s homework. What should I do?” This is a broad question, so it would be hard for his teacher to help him. Because he didn’t include a subject in his email, it was also hard for his teacher to know what the email was about.
Message/ Product: To help achieve his purpose, Anmol decided to review the instructions his teacher had given, then narrow his question down. He then edited his email to make sure it was easy to read and correctly punctuated. He made sure that his tone was polite. He also added a clear subject line, which included his class and section number. He decided that an email was the correct product to create, since his teacher didn’t give any other contact information.
3.07: Key Takeaways
• When you write, you should consider your audience’s needs. The more you understand about your audience, the easier it will be to write.
• When you communicate, your message is encoded with your own Context of Production: all of the values, beliefs and assumptions that make up your worldview. Being aware of how your values and beliefs shape your communication will help you communicate more clearly.
• When your audience receives your message, they will decode it based on their Context of Use. Being aware of what your audience believes and how they will use the message will help you make better choices.
• Many new communicators want to start by creating a product, such as an email or Instagram account. By first considering your context, audience, purpose and message, however, you can make better choices about what product to create.
3.08: Activities for Further Reflection
Your instructor may ask you to complete one or more of the following activities:
1. Write a paragraph connecting Brenda Knights’ narrative to the rest of the chapter or to your own experience.
2. Find a vintage ad online. Draw a diagram of the Context of Production that you think the message was created in and Context of Use that you’re viewing it in. Do you find the ad persuasive? Why or why not? Do you think the overlap between the Context of Use and Context of Production circles has changed since the ad was created? Why?
3. Think about a miscommunication that you experienced or that you found online. Diagram the miscommunication according to the Context of Production/ Context of Use model. Label the stages (encoding, circulation, use and reproduction). Then, write a short paragraph about what stage(s) of the communication process caused the miscommunication to occur.
4. Look at the prompt for an upcoming assignment. Analyze it according to the CMAPP model. What do you know about the assignment’s context, message, audience, purpose and product? How can this knowledge help you be successful in your assignment?
5. Think about an assignment that you’ve created recently. Then, look online to try to see how other people have delivered a similar message in a different genre. For example, if you had to write an essay in a history class about Winston Churchill, you might find this post on the Reddit subreddit r/AskHistorians or the Epic Rap Battles of History episode about Winston Churchill vs Theodore Roosevelt. How does the genre impact the message? What’s left out and what’s included? Does it appeal to a different audience? Write a paragraph or two about your findings.
Contributors and Attribution
This chapter is an adaptation of Chapter 5.2 “Think, then write: Writing preparation”in Business Communication for Successand is used under a CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 International license. It also contains material from Introduction to Professional Communications is (c) 2018 by Melissa Ashman and is licensed under a Creative Commons-Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International license.
This chapter is also an adaptation of Audience Analysis: Just Who Are These Guys” by David McMurrey, which is licensed under a Creative Commons 4.0 International License. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/03%3A_Context_Audience_Purpose/3.06%3A_Anmols_Story.txt |
Photo by Melody Jacob on Unsplash
Learning Objectives
In this section you will:
• Learn how a piece’s tone can impact how successfully the message is received.
• Explore some strategies to write more clearly and concisely.
• Learn how to use plain language.
• Learn how to use inclusive language.
• Explore what ‘writing voice’ is and how to stay true to yours while still being successful in a business context.
04: Style and Tone
Before you start, consider the following questions. Your instructor might ask you to freewrite about one or more of these questions in your learning journal.
1. Have you ever experienced a miscommunication where someone’s tone was misinterpreted? How do you think the miscommunication happened?
2. How would you describe your writing voice?
3. How similar do you think your writing voice is to your speaking voice?
4. Who is your favourite author? Why do you like the way that author writes?
5. When you communicate online, how do you make sure your audience understands your tone?
4.02: Brenda Knights Narrative
I get asked to do public speaking events. A lot of times when you’re asked to speak, you get butterflies to an extent, no matter how experienced you are. You can do research on who your audience is, but the thing I’ve found that always calms my nerves has been to speak from the heart. When I think about other speakers I’ve enjoyed hearing and learned from, it’s all people who speak from the heart, who draw from the place where their values are. That resonates with people.
Anyone can read statistics. I’ll often go to speaking events and see someone reading off a Powerpoint. The audience starts to pick up their phones. They’re disinterested. They’re not engaged. To engage the audience, you need to speak to the heart using real-life experiences so that others can say, “Yeah, I can see what you’re going through. I can see that happening in my business.” When you’re preparing to give a speech, you can think about your talking points, but find a way to connect your experience to the topic. That’s much more engaging than reading statistics. You can provide handouts with statistical information, but most people would rather listen to a storyteller than have someone lecturing them. When you look at TED speakers, they’re bringing their life experience in and telling stories of what happened to them. They might bring statistics in, but it’s the stories that get the audience engaged.
When I’m writing a grant or proposal, I need to sell them on why my proposal is better than the competition’s. I find that if you speak from the heart in your writing, you can draw that connection. You can say if you give us this grant, it’s going to be meaningful to my community. That’s going to make your proposal stand out over others. I’ll even add pictures with captions to tell the story.
If I’m writing a grant — say I’m looking to fund a wool weaving class — I’ll add a picture of one of our elders teaching a wool weaving class. In the writing, I’ll share that on this date we held a class and had very positive feedback, that community members enjoyed the storytelling, and that they felt they were putting reconciliation into action. The results will be that this knowledge will be passed down to future generations. I tell the story of it. That’s more impactful than saying that you want to do a wool weaving class and here’s how much it will cost. The people who are reviewing these proposals are looking for ones that are going to give you maximum value for the funding. I’ve been on both sides of the fence where I’ve written grants and where I’ve been an evaluator, and I can tell you that you’re shopping around for the best story.
4.03: Why Pay Attention to Style and Tone
Style and tone refer to how something is said: the words you choose, your sentence and paragraph lengths, the details you include, your attitude towards the reader, whether you use positive or negative words, etc. Every word you choose creates a reaction within the reader.
For example, which would you prefer to hear?
• I’m happy to answer any questions.
or
• If you still don’t understand, I can clarify for you.
Probably the first one, right? Even though these sentences mean roughly the same thing, one makes the speaker seem approachable and friendly. The other makes it seem as if anyone who doesn’t understand is at fault and is wasting the speaker’s time. That’s the power of tone.
It’s important to pay attention to tone because, especially when we communicate in writing, tone can be hard to convey. If someone’s confused about your message’s content, they’ll ask you follow-up questions. But people don’t often give each other feedback about tone. It’s rare that someone will say, “Your email came off as a little hostile. Did you intend that?” Without you knowing it, tone miscommunications can negatively impact your relationships with coworkers, bosses and clients.
This chapter will also tackle wordiness. Wordy or imprecise writing is responsible for a lot of lost productivity in the workplace. In one survey of 547 business professionals, 81% said that “poorly written material wastes a lot of their time.” (Bernoff, 2016, para. 4). So, learning how to write clearly and concisely can give you a huge advantage.
4.04: Sailing the 7 Cs
Sometimes when business communicators talk about “style and tone,” we say that business communication should have the 3 Cs: clear, concise and correct. This was expanded on in the 1952 book Effective Public Relations by Cutlip and Center into 7 Cs:
• Clarity
• Completeness
• Correctness
• Concision
• Concreteness
• Coherence
• Courtesy
Other scholars have thrown in other C words like credibility, context, capability etc. (Are you feeling confusion and consternation about the letter C yet?)
This is good advice. Sometimes, however, miscommunications still happen because the writer forgot to consider their audience. What seems clear and coherent to a nuclear physicist might not seem that way to a general audience. What seems concise to someone passionate about a topic might seem long-winded to those just looking for basic information. So, to understand style and tone, we need to apply the communication models we explored in the last chapter and constantly ask what our audience needs.
In most workplaces, the biggest constraint is time. Every day, an estimated 300 billion emails are sent worldwide[1]. One study found that the average office worker received 121 emails a day[2]. If every email took just an extra minute to read because it was confusing, each person would waste 2 hours a day.
So how can we ensure that we help our audience save time? Plain language. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/04%3A_Style_and_Tone/4.01%3A_Questions_for_Reflection.txt |
While there was a time when many business documents were written in the third person to give them the impression of objectivity, this formal style was often passive and wordy. Today, it has given way to active, clear, concise writing, sometimes known as “plain English” (Bailey, 2008). Plain language style involves everyday words and expressions in a familiar group context and may include contractions.
Many people see plain language as an ethical means of communication. For example, one legal expert rewrote Instagram’s terms of use to be in plain language, then showed her version to teenagers. They were shocked by what Instagram was able to do with their photos, and would not have consented if they had read the plain language version instead of the one written in complicated legal jargon.
No matter who your audience is, they will appreciate your ability to write using plain language. Here are five principles for writing in plain language:
Principle 1: Use Active Voice
To use active voice, make the noun that performs the action the subject of the sentence and pair it directly with an action verb.
Read these two sentences:
• Matt Damon left Harvard in the late 1980s to start his acting career.
• Matt Damon’s acting career was started in the late 1980s when he left Harvard.
In the first sentence, left is an action verb that is paired with the subject, Matt Damon. If you ask yourself, “Who or what left?” the answer is Matt Damon. Neither of the other two nouns in the sentence—Harvard and career—“left” anything.
Now look at the second sentence. The action verb is started. If you ask yourself, “Who or what started something?” the answer, again, is Matt Damon. But in this sentence, the writer placed career—not Matt Damon—in the subject position. When the doer of the action is not the subject, the sentence is in passive voice. In passive voice constructions, the doer of the action usually follows the word by as the indirect object of a prepositional phrase, and the action verb is typically partnered with a version of the verb to be.
Writing in the Active Voice
Writing in active voice is easy once you understand the difference between active and passive voice. First, find the verb. Then, ask yourself who did the verb. Is the subject present?
Review Active vs. Passive Voice
Identify the sentences with active voice:
1. Mika kicked the ball.
2. The ball was kicked by Mika.
3. Great students attend Kwantlen Polytechnic University.
4. The university is attended by great students.
5. I made a mistake.
6. Mistakes were made.
Answers: 1, 3, and 5
Using the Passive Voice
While using the active voice is preferred, sometimes passive voice is the best option. For example, maybe you don’t know who’s responsible for an action or you don’t want to place the blame on someone. For example, you might say “a lamp was broken at our recent party” to avoid saying who broke the lamp.
Principle 2: Use Common Words Instead of Complex Words
Sometimes, new communicators believe that large words feel more appropriate to a business environment. Also, the world is filled with wonderful, long words that are fun to use. Often, however, long words cause more confusion. Worse than that, they can exclude anyone who doesn’t understand that particular word. Maybe you’ve had the experience of reading an academic article or textbook chapter and having to read the same sentence three times over to try to figure out what it was trying to say. Then, when you asked your instructor, they explained it in a simple way. If you’ve ever thought, “Why didn’t they just say it simply from the beginning?” you can understand the power of plain language.
Again, the trick is to use words that are appropriate to the audience, the context and your purpose. As we’ve said, time is the biggest constraint, so simple words likely meet most audiences’ needs. In specialized environments, however, more complex words are required. For example, a lawyer has to use specific, technical language to precisely lay out a case. A doctor has to use medical language to convey a patient’s exact symptoms and diagnosis.
When you enter into a new workplace context, look at how your coworkers are writing to determine the level of formality the situation requires. You can also use one of the many free online tools such as Readability Formulas to determine the reading level of your writing. When you use these tools, you copy and paste some text into the tool and it will estimate the reading level.
Principle #3: Use a Positive Tone Whenever Possible
Unless there is a specific reason not to, use positive language wherever you can. Positive language benefits your writing in two ways. First, it creates a positive tone, and your writing is more likely to be well-received. Second, it clarifies your meaning, as positive statements are more concise. Take a look at the following negatively worded sentences and then their positive counterparts, below.
Examples
Negative: Your car will not be ready for collection until Friday.
Positive: Your car will be ready for collection on Friday.
Negative: You did not complete the exam.
Positive: You will need to complete the exam.
Negative: Your holiday time is not approved until your manager clears it.
Positive: Your holiday time will be approved when your manager clears it.
Writers don’t just create a positive tone on the sentence level. They can also create this tone by choosing what details to include. If something negative is unimportant to the reader, you can leave it out. Kitty O. Locker called the practice of using “positive emphasis” (Locker, 2016) to meet your audience’s needs “You Attitude.”
This is especially important if a situation is negative to you but not the audience. For example, imagine that you held a fundraiser that didn’t raise as much money as you hoped. This might really impact your budget and the future of some programs you run. But if you’re sending out an email with the goal of getting people to fill out a survey asking for ways to improve the fundraiser, none of this matters.
Read the following two examples, then ask yourself which version would make you more likely to fill out the survey:
Examples
Negative Details: Unfortunately, this year’s Gala Under the Stars only raised half of its expected profit. This means that we will need to cancel our Little Stars after-school program and lay off part-time staff. Obviously, this is devastating to our organization, so we need to make sure it doesn’t happen again. Please fill out this survey to help make the Gala Under the Stars better.
Positive Details: Help us make Gala Under the Stars even better next year. Fill out this five-minute survey and be entered into a draw for two movie tickets.
In the first example, the reader has to wade through negative details in order to get to the survey. They might not even read the email long enough to find out about the survey. In the second example, however, the benefit to reader (free tickets) and what’s being asked of them (to fill out a survey) is listed first. Positive details don’t just lead to a positive tone, they also help you fulfill the purpose of the communication.
Principle 4: Write for your Reader
When you write for your readers and speak to an audience, you have to consider who they are and what they need to know. When readers know that you are concerned with their needs, they are more likely to be receptive to your message, and will be more likely to take the action you are asking them to and focus on important details.
Your message will mean more to your reader if they get the impression that it was written directly to them.
Organize your Document to Meet your Readers’ Needs
When you write, ask yourself, “Why would someone read this message?” Often, it is because the reader needs a question answered. What do they need to know to prepare for the upcoming meeting, for example, or what new company policies do they need to follow? Think about the questions your readers will ask and then organize your document to answer them.
Principle 5: Keep Words and Sentences Shorts (Conciseness)
It is easy to let your sentences become cluttered with words that do not add value to your message. Improve cluttered sentences by eliminating repetitive ideas, removing repeated words, and editing to eliminate unnecessary words.
Eliminating Repetitive Ideas
Unless you are providing definitions on purpose, stating one idea twice in a single sentence is redundant.
Removing Repeated Words
As a general rule, you should try not to repeat a word within a sentence. Sometimes you simply need to choose a different word, but often you can actually remove repeated words.
Example
Original: The student who won the cooking contest is a very talented and ambitious student.
Revision: The student who won the cooking contest is very talented and ambitious.
Rewording to Eliminate Unnecessary Words
If a sentence has words that are not necessary to carry the meaning, those words are unneeded and can be removed.
Examples
Original: Gagandeep has the ability to make the most fabulous twice-baked potatoes.
Revision: Gagandeep makes the most fabulous twice-baked potatoes.
Original: For his part in the cooking class group project, Malik was responsible for making the mustard reduction sauce.
Revision: Malik made the mustard reduction sauce for his cooking class group project.
Avoid Expletive Pronouns (most of the time)
Many people create needlessly wordy sentences using expletive pronouns, which often take the form of “There is …” or “There are ….”
Pronouns (e.g., I, you, he, she, they, this, that, who, etc.) are words that we use to replace nouns (i.e., people, places, things), and there are many types of pronouns (e.g., personal, relative, demonstrative, etc.). However, expletive pronouns are different from other pronouns because unlike most pronouns, they do not stand for a person, thing, or place; they are called expletives because they have no “value.” Sometimes you will see expletive pronouns at the beginning of a sentence, sometimes at the end.
Examples
There are a lot of reading assignments in this class.
I can’t believe how many reading assignments there are!
Note: These two examples are not necessarily bad examples of using expletive pronouns. They are included to help you first understand what expletive pronouns are so you can recognize them.
The main reason you should generally avoid writing with expletive pronouns is that they often cause us to use more words in the rest of the sentence than we have to. Also, the empty words at the beginning tend to shift the more important subject matter toward the end of the sentence. The above sentences are not that bad, but at least they are simple enough to help you understand what expletive pronouns are. Here are some more examples of expletive pronouns, along with better alternatives.
Examples
Original: There are some people who love to cause trouble.
Revision: Some people love to cause trouble.
Original: There are some things that are just not worth waiting for.
Revision: Some things are just not worth waiting for.
Original: There is a person I know who can help you fix your computer.
Revision: I know a person who can help you fix your computer.
When you find yourself using expletives, always ask yourself if omitting and rewriting would give your reader a clearer, more direct, less wordy sentence. Can I communicate the same message using fewer words without taking away from the meaning I want to convey or the tone I want to create?
Choose Specific Wording
You will give clearer information if you write with specific rather than general words. Evoke senses of taste, smell, hearing, sight, and touch with your word choices. For example, you could say, “My shoe feels odd.” But this statement does not give a sense of why your shoe feels odd, since “odd” is an abstract word that does not suggest any physical characteristics. Or you could say, “My shoe feels wet.” This statement gives you a sense of how your shoe feels to the touch. It also gives a sense of how your shoe might look as well as how it might smell, painting a picture for your readers.
4.06: Inclusive Language
Good communicators include everyone and don’t make assumptions about their readers. You can make your language more inclusive by:
• Using the singular “they” instead of “he or she.” For example, instead of saying, “A communicator should understand his or her audience,” you could say, “A communicator should understand their audience” or “Communicators should understand their audience.”
• Being specific when discussing a person’s identity and use the terminology they prefer. For example, instead of saying “Marilyn Gabriel is a First Nations person,” you could say “Marilyn Gabriel is a member of the Kwantlen Nation.” Usually, a person’s disability isn’t relevant, but if it is, use neutral and specific language. For example, instead of saying “Brent is confined to a wheelchair” (which is both inaccurate, negative and vague), you could say “Brent uses a wheelchair” or “Brent has cerebral palsy and uses a wheelchair.” When in doubt, ask the person what terminology they prefer.
• Question the assumptions that you make about your audience. Consider that many of your readers might not share the same cultural values or experiences. For example, before writing a sentence like “Every child waits all year for Christmas morning,” consider that many of your readers might not have shared this experience.
• Avoid expressions or idioms that would be confusing to English language learners. Workplaces are increasingly global, and your writing should be understood by people from many different backgrounds.
Words and phrases also often have complex histories. For example, often we don’t think twice about calling a decision “stupid” or “dumb,” but these words have a long history rooted in harm against people with cognitive or intellectual disabilities. One way that we can address ableism, racism, sexism, xenophobia, fatphobia and other forms of discrimination is to replace these words with words that are more precise. For example, saying “our manager’s decision is stupid” is vague, whereas “our manager’s decision will make life harder for the interns” or “our manager’s decision ignores the data that Cody presented at the meeting last week” is much more specific.
You should be especially careful when writing about groups of people in a way that might reinforce stereotypes. For example, in his book Elements of Indigenous Style, Gregory Younging discusses how subtle bias can have a big impact when non-Indigenous people write about First Nations, Metis and Inuit people. For example, instead of portraying Indigenous people as victims, focus on their “resilience, agency and future.” (2018, pg. 77). Instead of portraying an Indigenous culture as something static that existed in the past, focus on how that culture is thriving and changing.
4.07: Practice What You Learned
Query \(1\) | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/04%3A_Style_and_Tone/4.05%3A_Plain_Language.txt |
Everyone has a natural writing voice, just like everyone has an accent. Being aware of your writing voice allows you to manipulate your voice so that you can adapt your writing to many different contexts and participate in many different types of conversations.
This essay by Kyle Stedman is both an example of voice and also gives some useful tips about how to discover your own narrative voice.
Making Sure Your Voice Is Present by Kyle Stedman
The Terror of Voice
I like order. I love the comfort of a beautiful and functional Excel spreadsheet. I organize my CDs by genre and then alphabetically by artist. I eat three meals a day.
But my love of order sometimes butts heads with my love of writing. That’s because no matter how much attention I pay to following the rules of writing, I know that to produce writing that astounds readers—moving them, making them gasp, enticing them—I’ll have to include more than just correct writing. I’ll need to find a way to make my voice present.
And sometimes, that terrifies me with the uncertainty of it all. I sometimes wish writing excellently were like working in Excel. I know I can make a spreadsheet absolutely perfect if my formulas are coded properly and my data is lined up correctly. Writing excellently is messier than that: it means admitting the difficult truth that even when everything in my essay follows all the grammatical and mechanical rules, my writing can still lack qualities that will make my readers’ eyes pop out of their heads with delightful surprise.
I often tell my students that the difference between A-level and B-level writing is voice. In other words, assignments often deserve B’s even when they have perfect punctuation and grammar, an intriguing concept, brilliant ideas, excellent and well-integrated sources, and a Works Cited page that would earn a standing ovation at the annual MLA convention. An assignment can have all of those things but still feel dry and voiceless, reading like a dying man trudging through the desert, sandal-slap after sandal-slap, lifeless sentence after lifeless sentence.
So What is Voice in Writing?
“Voice” is a weird term, right? We usually say your voice is the quality of how you sound when you talk out loud—but aren’t we talking about writing?
First, let’s think about everything that makes your speaking voice distinctive. It has its own aural quality, formed by the size of your mouth, throat, and tongue, along with your distinctive habits of how you use your body to manipulate the sound of the air exhaling from your lungs.
But beyond the sounds your body naturally produces through your mouth, you also have your own way of choosing words, and that’s part of your voice, too. You have words you use more often than others, phrases you rely on, and ways you make the musical tone of your voice go up and down in distinct ways. All of those choices are partly based on how you learned to speak in your family and culture, and they’re partly based on what you bring to the table as an individual. Sometimes you just let out whatever you’re thinking, and sometimes you pause to consider how you want to sound.
Don’t miss that: qualities of spoken voice are, to some extent, chosen. Depending on where and when and with whom we’re speaking, our voice can change.
Now let’s turn to writing. I would define voice in writing as the quality of writing that gives readers the impression that they are hearing a real person, not a machine. Voice in writing is therefore multifaceted: it’s partly an unconscious, natural ring that dwells in the words you write, but it’s also related to the words you choose (stuffy and overused or fresh and appealing?), the phrases you rely on (dictionary-like or lively?), and how you affect your readers’ emotions (bored or engaged?). And it’s not something that is magically there for some writers and not there for others. Voice is something that can be cultivated, practiced, watered, even designed.
I’m reminded of a quote from poet D.A. Powell, which I heard on the trailer for a documentary called Bad Writing. He says, “Bad art is that which does not succeed in cleansing the language of its dead—stinking dead—usages of the past” (MorrisHillPictures). Voice in writing is like that: it gives readers the sense that they’re hearing a fresh, cleansed voice unlike any they’ve heard before.
We Need Voice in Business and Academic Writing, Too
A common misconception among writers is that writing for college, especially in a fancy-looking, citation-filled essay, should have the complexity and difficulty of Pride and Prejudice: “She is all affability and condescension, and I doubt not but you will be honoured with some portion of her notice when service is over” (Austen). That is, we sometimes assume that a formal workplace is where we say things with big words and in roundabout ways that seem sort of something like what we imagine talk is like around a gilded dinner table in a palace, somewhere.
I think this assumption is wrong. Even when reading assignments that were written for college classes, readers don’t want to be bored or confused. They want liveliness; they want voice. Listen to veteran writing teacher Donald Graves use all of his cute-old-man powers to beg you to use your personal voice in even your standardized writing tests:
Donald Graves on the Importance of Putting Voice in your Writing
I recently taught a class that focused entirely on blogging for the first thirteen weeks of the course, followed by a final academic essay at the end of the semester. Students regularly asked me what style they should adopt in their final essay, how formal to be, what kind of voice to adopt. To most of the students, my reply was, “Write it how you wrote your blog!” To which almost all of them said, “Huh? That was informal. This is formal.” To which I said, “You’re partly right. You paid less attention to details when you were blogging, sure, but your voices were there. You used sentences that sounded like you! They were resonant! I was moved! Do you hear the italics in my voice? That’s how good your writing was! So don’t lose that by putting on a new coat of formality when it doesn’t fit well!” As the one who was going to read their academic essays, I was afraid that I was going to get a bunch of essays that sounded like Pride and Prejudice, with big words and roundabout sentence constructions. I wanted big, complex ideas in these final essays, but I also wanted stylistic liveliness, sentences that made me sit up straight and open my eyes wide. I admit that after the students had written first drafts of their essays, I backed off a little, and we talked about the ways that formal writing situations do indeed demand a different kind of voice than a blog post—but I was always insistent that no writing situation called for bored readers.
Of course, I see the other side: there’s a place for formality in a lot of writing. Depending on the circumstance, sometimes our most formal coat is indeed what we need to wear. In your future college classes, you might not get much of an idea from your professor about what kind of coat she expects you to wear, so you’ll probably have to do some asking. (“Dear Professor X, I’m baffled about what kind of voice to use in my essay. For example, may I write the word baffled? Please send examples. Sincerely, Judy Jetson.”)
My favourite trick here is one I learned from a small writing textbook called They Say, I Say: purposefully mixing the formal and informal in a single sentence or two. If you want to talk about something using a formal term, which is often a good idea in formal writing, use the formal term but then turn around and say it again informally. Like this: “Spoken voice is affected by our use of the epithelium, the vocal ligament, and the vocalis muscle. We’ve got a lot of ways to make sound.” The authors of They Say, I Say remind us that “translating the one type of language into the other, the specialized into the everyday, can help drive home a point” (Graff, Birkenstein, and Durst 118).
That leads me to the stuff you’re probably here for: actual ideas about how to get this elusive thing called voice into your writing.
1. Trust the gush—but then come back to the gush with a critical eye.
In one of my favourite articles about voice in writing, writing scholar Tom Romano tells the story of a student who turned in a piece of paper with the words “TRUST THE GUSH” messily scribbled on it. Romano expounds on what the phrase means to him:
Trusting the gush means moving on the heat quickening in you.
Trusting the gush means being fearless with language.
Trusting the gush means writing about what you are emotionally moved by and perhaps don’t even know why.
Trusting the gush means putting onto the page those thoughts, connections, and perceptions that stand ready to be uttered. (51)
It’s beautiful advice that feels true to me. I’ve had times where I turn off the screen of my computer and write with no visual reference, letting words gush out of me in their most natural, voice-filled way.
But remember how I said that voice isn’t just natural, it’s also constructed for specific occasions? My gush is usually full of some good, usable words, phrases, and sentences, but it’s also a big, gushy mess. So that’s when I back away for a bit of time (more than a day, if possible), returning later to my gush in search of the lines that seem most lively, most full of voice, the ones that fit best into my current writing context.
2. Don’t be afraid to use some of speech’s informalities, but always punctuate them in formal ways.
Sometimes students ask if they can use contractions in their academic essays, and I always say yes—but then I regret it when I get “theyre not understanding” and “he said your not smart enough” in submitted work. But on the flip side, I find I’m more willing to be lenient with student writing that is slightly too informal for my taste when the writer shows that she knows what she’s doing with her punctuation. Life is like that, you know? If you take one step of goodwill (knowing your punctuation), people want to give you lenience in other areas (accepting informality, even if it seems to step over the line).
3. Read your work aloud—and don’t be afraid to have fun with it.
I tell students to read their stuff aloud all the time, and usually I get a scared, silent look in return. (I think this look might mean, “Do you have any idea how stupid I would look if someone walked in while I was talking to myself?”) Well, fine—play around with it:
• Read your own stuff aloud to yourself. I like to do this after printing it out. Listen for places where you stumble, where you seem to be saying the same word over and over, where you think you might be boring. Peter Elbow justifies this well:
I find that when students have the repeated experience of reading their writing aloud, they are more likely to write sentences that are inviting and comfortable to recite—which in turn makes the sentences better for readers who get them in silence. Putting this differently, the sound of written words when spoken is a crucial benefit for silent readers, yet too few students hear the words they write. When they have to read their writing aloud frequently and thus hear it, they tend to listen more as they write—and readers hear more meaning as they read. (5)
• Have someone else read your stuff aloud to you, with another copy in front of yourself to follow along with and mark spots that feel voiceless. Ask your friend what sounded best, what he most remembers on the sentence level, where it sounded like you.
• Play The Boring Game: have three people sit down, each with a piece of paper with a line drawn through the middle; this is The Boring Line. Make one person the timekeeper. Start reading your essay out loud to them, and ask the timekeeper to raise his hand every thirty seconds. At those moments, the readers all make a dot on the paper to show how bored they are; a dot way above the boring line means they’re absolutely engaged, as if beautiful aliens had just transported into the room, while a dot way below the boring line means they’re wondering why they agreed to play the stupid boring game with you. After the essay is done, ask them to connect the dots, showing you a line of where they were relatively more or less bored. Talk to them to help identify what parts of the essay bored them; you probably didn’t have much voice in those spots.
4. Surprise Your Readers
I’m serious: make sure that throughout your piece, every once in a while you throw in a word or phrase that makes you think, “I bet they never saw that one coming!” (In this piece that you’re reading now, one of my attempts at that is my first heading, “The Terror of Voice.” I’m counting on readers thinking, “Wait, the terror of voice? . . . I’m confused! I’d better read on to figure out what he means!”)
My guess is that with a little practice, this won’t be too hard to achieve. You could read through a draft of something and highlight (either on paper or the computer) every place where you think you’re breaking the expectation of your reader in a surprising way, whether because of the topic you chose to dive into or because of a phrase or sentence they might not have seen coming. Then you skim back through and find places without any highlights around, and try to work something in there.
As with most of my suggestions, this can backfire if you take it too far, which is why I think playing The Boring Game (above) is so important, so you can feel out your choices with real people. Obviously, your readers will be surprised if you start slamming sexually explicit words onto the screen, but that’s clearly not the kind of voice I’m talking about. Less dramatically, I’ve been in situations where I go for a strong, surprising personal voice and later discover (on my own, or with the help of someone else) that it’s just not working for that audience.
This happened to me recently when I was writing a piece about integrating sources into essays. I worked up this detailed analogy involving Jane Austen, gardens, statues, and helicopters (seriously), and I even kept the analogy through a few drafts. But a friend, whom I had asked to read my draft, told me she was a little confused by the whole thing. At first I ignored her—I was being surprising! There were helicopters—helicopters! But eventually, I realized she was right; I had to back down and rework my surprising analogy into something that just plain made more sense. The revised version was still surprising (involving Spider-Man), but it was surprising and it worked. There’s a difference.
5. Use Rhetorical Figures to Help Shape Your Sentences
Sometimes we hear or read something and say, “Wow, there was so much power in those words!” And sometimes, we fall for a common lie: we think that powerful speakers and writers are just plain born that way, that their skill comes from some indefinable something that they have and we don’t.
I like rhetorical figures because they expose that thinking as a lie.
Since the days of classical Greece and Rome, instructors in rhetoric have realized that this lie existed, so they formulated organized ways of figuring out what exactly makes some speaking and writing feel so powerful. They labeled these terms and encouraged their students to try using these sentence forms in their own sentences. Here are some examples, all of which are direct quotes from Silva Rhetoricae: The Forest of Rhetoric, an awesome site at https://rhetoric.byu.edu/ (Burton):
• anaphora: Repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of successive clauses, sentences, or lines. Example: This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England, / This nurse, this teeming womb of royal kings.
• asyndeton: The omission of conjunctions between clauses, often resulting in a hurried rhythm or vehement effect. Example: Veni, vidi, vici (Caesar: “I came; I saw; I conquered”)
• epitasis: The addition of a concluding sentence that merely emphasizes what has already been stated. Example: Clean your bedroom. All of it.
These and dozens of others are available at Silva Rhetoricae and at the (somewhat more manageable) American Rhetoric site, especially the page on “Rhetorical Figures in Sound” (Eidenmuller).
The idea is to force yourself to try setting up a sentence or two following the guidelines of one of the rhetorical figures, and then to sit back and gauge the result for yourself. Often, I think you’ll be impressed with how excellent you sound, with a very present and powerful tone of voice.
The Terror of Practice
In the end, there’s one more terrifying thing about writing with voice: it’s unlikely that you’ll see a huge change without lots of practice. And that means lots of writing. And that means time. Which you might not have.
So I’m closing with a word of moderation. To see a change in your writing voice in just a short semester, you’ll need to think about voice in every piece of writing you do. Shooting off a quick Moodle forum response? Try using a rhetorical figure. Confirming a meeting time with a friend over text message? Try to surprise her with an unexpected phrase. Writing an in-class assignment? Read it over slowly in your head, paying careful attention to how it would sound if you read it out loud. (Or, if your teacher lets you, just read it out loud there in the classroom. This is unlikely.) Writing an essay draft that feels like busy-work? Play around with how you might perfectly punctuate some informal language (and don’t be afraid to ask your teacher if you did it correctly).
Even though a YouTube search for “voice in writing” will give you lots of good advice—including one devastatingly cute video of young kids baking brownies while the “Word Chef” talks about what makes for a strong voice in a book about a cockroach (teachertubewriting)—there really is no substitute for practice. Thinking about writing is never, ever the same as practicing writing.
And most of all, breathe. Our voice comes from our breath, the life that flows from our bodies into the minds of our listeners. Shape it, practice it, use it for good. (That’s asyndeton—did you catch it?) | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/04%3A_Style_and_Tone/4.08%3A_What_is_Voice.txt |
• Everyone has a unique writing voice. You can use revision to help adjust your natural writing voice for different contexts.
• Many business writing audiences value plain, clear language that can be easily understood.
• In general, active voice is easier to read than passive voice.
• Your language should be inclusive. Especially when you are communicating to or about groups who face stereotypes, you should be precise with your language and think carefully about whether your words reflect bias.
4.10: Activities for Further Reflection
Your instructor may ask you to complete one or more of the following exercises.
1. Write a paragraph connecting Brenda Knights’ narrative to the rest of the chapter or to your own experience.
2. Pick a mood like “happy” or “nervous” or “bored.” Then, go outside and write down 10 details that you see that could convey that mood. For example, if you were standing in your classroom and were happy, you might see bright clothing, friendly faces, delicious cups of coffee etc. If you were bored, you might see white walls, a dreary day outside, too much text on the Powerpoint slides, a clock ticking slowly. Use your 10 details to write a short paragraph that conveys the mood you were trying to express without saying it. You can also consider your sentence length and rhythm. When you’re done, read your work out loud and see if someone can guess the mood.
3. Go online and find the terms of service for a social media platform or website that you like, such as Facebook or Twitter. See if you can translate a few paragraphs into plain language.
4. Take a long or wordy paragraph (either something you’ve written or something you’ve read — maybe even in this textbook) and try to turn it into a tweet (280 characters) without losing the meaning.
5. Find a video you’ve saved that shows your friends and family interacting. Watch the video and listen to how each person is speaking. What makes their “voice” unique? Do they use certain words more often? Do they favour long or short sentences? Do they talk quickly or slowly? If you had to describe their “voice,” how would you describe it.
6. If you can write in more than one language, write a paragraph or two that reflects on the difference between what is seen as “good writing” in the different languages you speak. Do all cultures value plain language? What features does good writing have in other languages you speak?
7. Using the voice recorder on a smartphone or computer, record yourself reading an assignment. Then, listen to the recording. What do you notice about the style and tone of your piece? Write a paragraph on your findings.
Works Cited
Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice. 1813. Project Gutenberg. Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, 5 Sept. 2010. Web. 24 May 2011.
Burton, Gideon O. Silva Rhetoricae: The Forest of Rhetoric. Brigham Young U, n.d. Web. 26 May 2011.
Eidenmuller, MIchael E. “American Rhetoric: Rhetorical Figures in Sound.” American Rhetoric. American Rhetoric, 2011. Web. 26 May 2011.
Elbow, Peter. “11. Revising by Reading Aloud. What the Mouth and Ear Know.” Selected Works of Peter Elbow. U of Massachusetts-Amherst, 2010. Web. 26 May 2011.
Graff, Gerald, Cathy Birkenstein, and Russel Durst. They Say, I Say: The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing, with Readings. New York: Norton, 2009. Print.
MorrisHillPictures. “Bad Writing – Official Trailer.” YouTube. YouTube, 13 Apr. 2010. Web. 24 May 2011.
Romano, Tom. “Writing with Voice.” Voices from the Middle 11.2 (2003): 50-55. NCTE. Web. 24 May 2011.
teachertubewriting. “Word Chef Voice in Writing.” YouTube. YouTube, 29 Sept. 2009. Web. 30 May 2012.
Bailey, E. P. (2008). Plain English at work: A guide to business writing and speaking. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Bernoff, Josh. Bad Writing Is Destroying Your Company’s Productivity. Harvard Business Review. Web. 6 September 2016.
Contributors and Attributions
This chapter contains material taken from Introduction to Professional Communications is (c) 2018 by Melissa Ashman and is licensed under a Creative Commons-Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International license.
This chapter also contains material from Making Sure Your Voice is Present by Kyle Stedman available through WritingCommons.Org,This work is licensed under aCC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/04%3A_Style_and_Tone/4.09%3A_Key_Takeaways.txt |
Photo by Dan Azzopardi on Unsplash
Learning Objectives
In this section you will:
• Learn how organization can meet your reader’s needs.
• Explore some strategies for organizing your ideas using headings, subheadings and bullet points.
• Learn how to write coherent and effective paragraphs.
• Use the strategy of ‘reverse outlining’ to test how well-organized your draft is.
05: Organizing Your Ideas
Before we begin, consider the following questions. Your instructor may ask you to freewrite about one or more of these questions in your learning journal.
1. When you write, how do you know when to begin and end a paragraph?
2. How do you organize your thoughts when you write?
3. Look at a piece written by your favourite author. How does he or she use paragraphs?
4. Have you ever had an experience where you missed an important piece of information because it was buried in a paragraph or otherwise hard to read? What happened?
5. How do you organize ideas within a paragraph?
6. What role does pre-writing and revision play in how you organize your writing?
5.02: Brenda Knights Narrative
One thing I can share as someone who’s evaluated grants is that if you’re responding to a call for tender or a grant, you need to read the questions and respond to those questions. I’ve evaluated grant applications where a company has just put in their company flier and banked on having a good reputation. That’s demonstrating disrespect. Granting organizations have a lot of accountabilities and they have to show why they selected who they selected. They’ll go through each question and assign a score. They want to see that the person answered each question.
When I write a grant, I respond in the same order that they asked, so it’s easy to find. You don’t want them to have to hunt around to see if you answered the questions. So I’ll put it in the same order and make sure there are headings. I make it easy on the reader to respect their time.
In some ways, the process is really similar to applying for a job. When you apply for a job, you write a cover letter and resume where you explain why you should be considered. It’s the same thing with grant applications. You’re trying to sell your company and show why you should be successful. When someone’s looking at your cover letter and resume, they’ll ask, “Does this person understand what I’m looking for? Did they take the time to answer all my questions?” Grant writing is like that.
When a person doesn’t take time and care with an application, it creates an impression with the reader that this isn’t someone who will take time and care to do the job. Are they going to follow through in the project, when they couldn’t follow through with the grant writing? It diminishes the reviewer’s confidence in you, so you can’t put your best foot forward.
5.03: Philip's Story
During his co-op term, Philip helped to organize an informal conference. The week before the conference, his supervisor asked him to send out an email to all the participants to let them know the schedule of events. Because everyone was so busy getting ready for the conference, Philip’s supervisor didn’t have time to look over the email. Philip wrote:
Hi everyone,
We’re all looking forward to seeing you on Saturday morning for the conference. We have an exciting lineup of speakers ready to help your business apply design thinking to tough problems. We’re especially excited for our keynote speaker! Best of all, the entire event is catered by Cedar Feast House Catering, so get ready for some tasty treats. When you arrive, please check in and receive your welcome package and identification. There is also a welcome social on Friday night at 6 pm in the Starlight Room. If you signed up for the childcare services, please tell the front desk and they will take you to the childcare area. I’ve attached the full lineup of speakers to this email or you can visit our website here. If you have any questions, please contact me at 604-555-5555 or [email protected]. Thanks!
Philip and his coworkers were surprised when only a few people came to the welcome social and many claimed not to know about it. Can you see why?
It’s because the information about the social event was buried in the middle of the email. Many people simply read “see you on Saturday morning,” skimmed the rest of the email and overlooked the social. That’s the power of organization. Philip’s email was clear and had a positive tone, but because of the organization his message wasn’t delivered. We’ll come back to Philip at the end of the chapter.
5.04: Organizing Your Ideas
As we’ve learned, successful business communicators meet their audience’s needs. Organization is one more way to do that. When a document is well-organized, readers can easily get the information they need. Good organization also helps readers see the connections between ideas.
We know that time is one of the biggest constraints in modern business communication. Most people get a lot of emails, and so often must skim. If you can’t capture your audience’s attention in the first few seconds, you risk losing it completely. When organizing business documents, we therefore need to ask ourselves some questions:
• What is the most important thing for the audience to know?
• What does the audience need to know first? Second?
• How can I draw attention to key points using organizational aids like headings and bullet points? (For more information on headings and bullet points, check out the chapter on Visual Communication Strategies).
• Will my audience understand the connections between my ideas? If not, how can I help them?
• Should all the information be in the document, or should some of it be in attachments or links?
To give you some strategies for tackling these questions, we’ll take a look at a few tools in your organizational toolbox:
• Headings and subheadings
• Lists
• Paragraphs
But first, let’s see how all of these work together. Take a look at the visual below. Which one do you think your audience is most likely to read: the black text, the red text, the blue text or the green text? Probably, your audience would read the black text, the red text, the blue text and then the green text. You can explore the graphic below to learn a little more about organization. We’ll go into detail later in the chapter.
Query \(1\)
5.05: Headings Subheading and Lists
Headings and subheadings help to organize longer documents. Because the text is larger and often bold, the reader’s attention is drawn to them. Headings and subheadings are especially useful when you’re writing a document like a report, which often has different audiences looking for different types of information.
To write effective headings:
• Use parallelism: When you start a pattern, you should keep using it. For example, if you started with the heading “Christmas Gift Ideas for Toddlers” and then used “Christmas Gift Ideas for School-Aged Kids,” you would disrupt the pattern if your next heading was “What Toys Boys Like.”
• Use consistent sizes and fonts: In your document, you might have different “levels” of headings. For example, the title of the document in the above example is larger than the headings. Apply the same font and size to each “level” of headings in your document.
• Use limited articles: An article is a word like “the” or “a.” Too many of these can crowd your headings. For example, instead of saying “The Academic Barriers to Student Success,” you could say “Academic Barriers to Student Success.”
Tip
Headings and subheadings can help you in the writing process. Many people like to create an outline of an important document like a report. Outlining also helps you to see places where you need more detail or less detail.
Writing Lists
Lists are an easy way to show readers the connections between ideas. Bullet points often draw the reader’s attention, so they’re the perfect organizational aid for helping a reader to see next steps or important recommendations. Lists also remove the need for awkward transition words like ‘firstly’ and ‘secondly.’ To write effective lists:
• Use parallelism: Again, if you start a pattern, you should continue it.
• Keep between 3 – and 6 bullet points: Too many bullet points are hard for readers to follow.
• Punctuate the list effectively: If you’re using a paragraph list, put a colon after the topic sentence, then capitalize the first word. (As I’ve done here). | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/05%3A_Organizing_Your_Ideas/5.01%3A_Questions_for_Reflection.txt |
Unlike punctuation, which can be subjected to specific rules, no ironclad guidelines exist for shaping paragraphs. If you presented a text without paragraphs to a dozen writing instructors and asked them to break the document into logical sections, chances are that you would receive different opinions about the best places to break the paragraph.
In part, where paragraphs should be placed is a stylistic choice. Some writers prefer longer paragraphs that compare and contrast several related ideas, whereas others stick to having one point per paragraph. In the workplace, many writers use shorter paragraphs — and even use one-line paragraphs — since this allows readers to scan the document quickly.
If your readers have suggested that you take a hard look at how you organize your ideas, or if you are unsure about when you should begin a paragraph or how you should organize final drafts, then you can benefit by reviewing paragraph structure.
Note
When you are drafting, you need to trust your intuition about where to place paragraphs; you don’t want to interrupt the flow of your thoughts as you write to check on whether you are placing them in logical order. Such self-criticism could interfere with creativity or the generation of ideas. Before you submit a document for a grade, however, you should examine the structure of your paragraphs.
Structuring a Paragraph
We’ve already learned that every piece of workplace communication should have a purpose. That’s also true of paragraphs. In general, you should have one purpose per paragraph, although for the overall flow of the document you might want to combine two points. Let’s take a look at this customer service email:
Paragraph Purpose
Dear Ms. Tran,
Thank you for your patience as we investigated your missing clothing order, which you brought to our attention on Tuesday.
Provides a context for writing.
Once we received your email, we contacted both our warehouse and FedEx. The warehouse confirmed that your order was processed on Feb. 19th and FedEx confirmed that a shipping label was created on Feb. 20th. Unfortunately, we were not able to locate the package from that point. Tells the reader what the writer did to solve the problem.
We are sorry for the inconvenience. Since we value your business and we know that you have been waiting for your clothes for two weeks, we would like to offer you two choices:
1. We can refund your money and give you a 25% discount towards future purchases.
2. We can send your clothing order with free one-day shipping and still give you a 25% discount towards future purchases.
Apologizes and offers a solution.
Please let us know which option you choose and we will immediately process your order. If you have any questions, you can also call me at 604-123-4557. Tells the reader what to do next.
Thank you again for your patience. We appreciate your business and look forward to making this right.
Sincerely,
Makiko Hamimoto
Ends the communication on a positive note, looking towards the future.
As you can see, most of the paragraphs have only one point. In short communication, it’s enough to simply understand what role the paragraph plays in your writing. In longer or more important communication, you may choose to use topic sentences to structure your paragraphs.
What is a Topic Sentence?
A topic sentence summarizes the main idea or the purpose of a paragraph. In business writing, the topic sentence usually comes at the beginning of the paragraph. Then, the rest of the paragraph provides the supporting details. Sometimes, a writer will choose to put the topic sentence at the end of the paragraph in order to break bad news or build the reader up to a point.
A topic sentence functions in several important ways:
• It informs the reader of the paragraph’s direction
The topic sentence announces the direction of the paragraph’s conversation. With the help of an effective topic sentence, readers will better understand what the paragraph will be about.
• It guides the reader through the major points that support the writer’s purpose
Clearly worded topic sentences may help readers find the author’s position or argument more convincing.
• It places boundaries on the paragraph’s content
The body of the paragraph provides support for the topic sentence. The paragraph should only include evidence and details that relate directly to the boundary established by the topic sentence.
Let’s Look at an Example:
Topic sentence: This year, our Instagram marketing program outperformed our other social media campaigns.
Details within the paragraph:
• We hosted a unicorn-themed party for Instagram influencers in the Vancouver area, which led to our hashtag trending locally and a 167% increase in local sales of our Pastel Cloud Eye Paints.
• Our Instagram influencer program continues to drive sales. For every \$1 in product we give to an influencer, we make back \$23.
• Instagram accounts for 57% of social-media-driven traffic to our website and 78% of all social-media-driven purchases.
• For every dollar we spent on Instagram marketing, we made \$7.45.
When the topic sentence prefaces the sentences with supporting details, the purpose of the paragraph is clearer to the reader. Together, the topic sentence and the body sentences create a well-organized and easy to follow paragraph:
This quarter, Instagram marketing was the top performer of our social media marketing plan. For every dollar we spent on Instagram marketing, we made \$7.45. Overall, Instagram accounts for 57% of social-media-driven traffic to our website and 78% of all social-media-driven purchases. Much of this success is due to our Instagram influencer program. For every \$1 in free product we give out, we make \$23 in product sales. In May, we also hosted a unicorn-themed party for Instagram influencers in the Vancouver area to promote our Pastel Cloud Eye Paints, which led to our hashtag trending locally and a 167% increase in local product sales. We therefore recommend investing more heavily in Instagram next quarter in order to expand our influencer program.
Organization Within Paragraphs
Note that in this paragraph, the ideas are organized logically. The author starts out with the topic sentence, then organizes the rest of the information from most general to most specific. The logic of the paragraph is therefore:
1. Instagram marketing was successful.
2. It was successful because overall it was profitable.
3. It was profitable because of the Instagram influencer program.
4. Therefore, we should expand the Instagram influencer program.
Notice how the author uses transition words to link these ideas. Let’s look again:
This quarter, Instagram marketing was the top performer of our social media marketing plan. For every dollar we spent on Instagram marketing, we made \$7.45. Overall, Instagram accounts for 57% of social-media-driven traffic to our website and 78% of all social-media-driven purchases. Much of this success is due to our Instagram influencer program. For every \$1 in free product we give out, we make \$23 in product sales. In May, we also hosted a unicorn-themed party for Instagram influencers in the Vancouver area to promote our Pastel Cloud Eye Paints, which led to our hashtag trending locally and a 167% increase in local product sales. We therefore recommend investing more heavily in Instagram next quarter in order to expand our influencer program.
Too many transition words make your paragraph feel forced. In this instance, however, a few transition words help the reader to see the connections that the author is making. We’ll talk more about transition words below.
If you’re having trouble organizing your paragraph, you can try the following formats:
• General to specific: This is the most common format, and is the one used in the paragraph above.
• Specific to General: Building the reader up to a point. This is usually used to soften bad news, since it helps prepare the reader for the news.
• Cause and Effect: Show how one thing caused another thing to happen.
• Chronological: Describe events as they happened.
• Narrative: Describe a scene. Though this form is usually used in creative writing, it is often used in the workplace in incident reports, donations letters and other forms of storytelling.
Paragraph Transitions
Readers expect paragraphs to relate to each other as well as to the overall purpose of a text. Establishing transitional sentences for paragraphs can be one of the most difficult challenges you face as a writer because you need to guide the reader with a light hand. When you are too blatant about your transitions, your readers may feel patronized.
Effective paragraph transitions signal to readers how two consecutive paragraphs relate to each other. The transition signals the relationship between the “new information” and the “old information.”
For example, the new paragraph might:
• elaborate on the idea presented in the preceding paragraph
• introduce a related idea
• continue a chronological narrative
• describe a problem with the idea presented in the preceding paragraph
• describe an exception to the idea presented in the preceding paragraph
• describe a consequence or implication of the idea presented in the preceding paragraph.
Let’s take a look at an example. Can you find the transition between these two ideas?
In 1997, then-CEO Wen Xie gave a presentation that set a bold new direction for our company. She recognized that the marketplace was shifting and we needed to embrace digital technology. She said that “all employees can be potential change-makers within the organization” and she announced a bold new retraining and restructuring program. The result: our company experienced unprecedented growth.
Over 20 years later, the principles Xie laid out still apply. Though technology has changed, the company’s commitment to empowering all employees to be “changemakers” remains. That’s why we have launched a new online portal for employees to give their ideas for the improvement of the company.
Here, the writer outlines two ideas:
• In 1997, Xie changed the direction of the company.
• The organization has launched a new online portal for employees to give their ideas.
What’s the connection? That the principles Xie outline still apply, and that’s the reason for the new online portal. Without connection words like “still,” it would be hard for the audience to see how a speech given in 1997 relates to the new online portal.
As the above examples illustrate, effective paragraph transitions signal relationships between paragraphs. They help the reader see the connections that you are making and move easily through your argument.
Below are some terms that are often helpful for signalling relationships among ideas.
Chronology before, next, earlier, later, during, after, meanwhile, while, until, then, first, second
Comparison also, similarly, likewise, in the same way, in the same manner
Contrast however, but, in contrast, still, yet, nevertheless, even though, although
Clarity for example, for instance, in other words
Continuation and, also, moreover, additionally, furthermore, another, too
Consequence as a result, therefore, for this reason, thus, consequently
Conclusion in conclusion, in summary, to sum up
(As you can see, business communication textbook instructions really like the letter C). | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/05%3A_Organizing_Your_Ideas/5.06%3A_Writing_Effective_Paragraphs.txt |
Often, outlining is recommended as an early component of the writing process as a way to organize and connect thoughts so the shape of what you are going to write is clear before you start drafting it. This is a tool many writers use that is probably already familiar to you.
Reverse outlining, though, is different in a few ways. First, it happens later in the process, after a draft is completed rather than before. Second, it gives you an opportunity to review and assess the ideas and connections that are actually present in the completed draft. This is almost an opposite approach from traditional outlining, which considers an initial set of ideas that might shift as the draft is written and new ideas are added or existing ones are moved, changed, or removed entirely. A reverse outline can help you improve the structure and organization of your already-written draft, letting you see where support is missing for a specific point or where ideas don’t quite connect on the page as clearly as you wanted them to.
How to Create a Reverse Outline
1. At the top of a fresh sheet of paper, write your primary purpose for the text you want to outline. This should be the purpose exactly as it appears in your draft, not the purpose you know you intended. If you can’t find the actual words, write down that you can’t find them in this draft of the message—it’s an important note to make!
2. Draw a line down the middle of the page, creating two columns below your message purpose.
3. Read, preferably out loud, the first body paragraph of your draft.
4. In the left column, write the single main idea of that paragraph (again, this should be using only the words that are actually on the page, not the ones you want to be on the page). If you find more than one main idea in a paragraph, write down all of them. If you can’t find a main idea, write that down, too.
5. In the right column, state how the main idea of that paragraph supports the purpose.
6. Repeat steps 3-5 for each body paragraph of the draft.
Once you have completed these steps, you have a reverse outline! It might look a little something like the reverse outline shown in Figure 6.2.1.
Figure 6.2.1 An example of a reverse outline
Working with the Results of your Reverse Outline
Now what? You’ve probably already made some observations while completing this. Do you notice places where you are repeating yourself in your message? Do you notice places where some of your paragraphs have too many points or don’t clearly support the purpose of the message?
There are a number of observations that can be made with the aid of a reverse outline, and a number of ways it can help you strengthen your messages.
If multiple paragraphs share the same idea
You might try combining them, paring back the information for that specific idea so it doesn’t feel imbalanced in how much space it takes up, and/or organizing these paragraphs about the same point so they are next to each other in the paper.
If any paragraphs have multiple main ideas
Each paragraph should have only one primary focus. If you notice a paragraph does have more than one main idea, you could look for where some of those ideas might be discussed in other paragraphs and move them into a paragraph already focusing on that point. You could also select just the one main idea you think is most important to this paragraph and cut the other points out. Another option would be to split that paragraph into multiple paragraphs and expand on each main idea.
If any paragraph lacks a clear main idea
If it was hard for you to find the main idea of a paragraph, it will also be hard for your reader to find. For paragraphs that don’t yet have a main idea, consider whether the information in that paragraph points to a main idea that just isn’t written on the page yet. If the information does all support one main idea, adding that idea to the paragraph might be all that is needed. Alternatively, you may find that some of the ideas fit into other paragraphs to support their ideas, or you may not need some of them in the next draft at all.
If any ideas don’t connect well to the purpose of the message
It should be clear how the main idea of each paragraph supports the purpose of the message. If that connection is not clear, ask yourself how the main idea of that paragraph does further your purpose and then write that response.
If there are gaps in reasoning
If a message starts out introducing something that is a problem in a community, then presents a solution to the problem, and then talks about why the problem is a problem, this organization is likely to confuse readers. Reorganizing to introduce the problem, discuss why it is a problem, and then move on to proposing a solution would do good work to help strengthen the next draft of this paper. If there are gaps in reasoning, you may need to move, revise, or add transition statements after moving paragraphs around. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/05%3A_Organizing_Your_Ideas/5.07%3A_Reverse_Outlining.txt |
To test your knowledge, let’s edit the email that Philip sent at the beginning of the chapter.
Query \(1\)
5.09: Key Takeaways
• A clear paragraph provides your audience with an appropriate amount of information and is structured so that the reader can see the connection between ideas. Many paragraphs had topic sentences, but because paragraphs can be so short in business communication, this is not a hard-and-fast rule.
• Each paragraph should have a purpose.
• You can use transitional words to help the reader see the connection between ideas and between paragraphs.
• Your paragraph should meet your audience’s needs in terms of detail and length.
• You can use reverse outlining to make sure that everything in your document is clearly organized and supported.
5.10: Activities for Further Reflection
Your instructor may ask you to complete one or more of the following exercises.
1. Write a paragraph connecting Brenda Knights’ narrative to the rest of the chapter or to your own experience.
2. Pick an assignment you’ve recently completed or some writing you’ve done in the workplace. Underline the topic sentence of each paragraph. If you don’t have a topic sentence, write one in the margins. Next, number the rest of the sentences within your paragraph from most to least important. When you’re done, take a look at your paragraphs. Do you notice any trends? Are all of the paragraphs organized from most to least important, or did you use a different organizational pattern? Based on what you’ve learned, rewrite any paragraphs that could use stronger organization.
3. Pick an assignment you’ve recently completed or some writing you’ve done in the workplace. In the margins, write the purpose of each paragraph (or why it exists in the document). Next, take out a highlighter and highlight any sentence that fulfills the purpose. Look at your document. Does everything in the paragraph meet the purpose? If not, edit your document. You might split one paragraph into two or create a new paragraph.
4. Pick an assignment you’ve recently completed or some writing you’ve done in the workplace. Write the purpose of each paragraph in the margin or underline the topic sentence. Next, draw an arrow between each paragraph. On the arrow, write the connection you see between the paragraphs. (Review the Paragraph Transitions section for examples). Next, read your document to make sure that your audience will see the same connections you’re making. If not, use transition sentences or a few transition words.
5. Pick an assignment you’ve recently completed or some writing you’ve done in the workplace. Try the Reverse Outlining technique described in this chapter.
6. Pick an assignment you’ve recently completed or some writing you’ve done in the workplace. Print it off, then cut it up so that each paragraphs is on its own scrap of paper. Shuffle the pages, then play with the order of the paragraphs. Is there a better way to organize the paragraphs than the one you’re currently using?
Contributors and Attribution
This chapter contains material taken from Introduction to Professional Communications is (c) 2018 by Melissa Ashman and is licensed under a Creative Commons-Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International license.
This chapter also contains material taken from Paragraph Structure on WritingCommons.Org. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/05%3A_Organizing_Your_Ideas/5.08%3A_Test_Your_Knowledge.txt |
Photo by Jason Leung on Unsplash
Learning Objectives
In this section you will:
• Review the CMAPP communication model.
• Get introduced to the genres of business communication.
• Learn how to select a genre for your purpose.
• Explore ways to effectively send emails, memos, letters and instant messages.
06: Writing Emails Memos Letters and Instant Messages
Before we begin, consider the following questions. Your instructor may ask you to freewrite about one or more of these questions in your learning journal.
1. If you have workplace experience, how do people use email, letters and memos in your workplace?
2. Have you ever experienced a miscommunication because of emails, letters or memos? Why did the miscommunication occur?
3. Have you ever had to send an email/letter/memo that was very difficult to write? What made it difficult? How did you deal with this? Were you happy with how it turned out?
4. If you speak a different language or have experience with more than one culture, how does email use vary among these cultures/languages?
6.02: Brenda Knights Narrative
Email is terribly misused. We’re inundated with so many emails that people’s attention spans are not there. If you’re writing a lengthy email, no one is going to read it. They don’t have the time. Sometimes, there are reasons to send an email, such as documenting something officially, but it’s often not effective for communicating.
The one thing that drives me nuts in an office environment, and this is getting worse, is that people aren’t getting up from their desks and talking to their neighbours. I question whether that’s efficient. I think it’s a better use of time to get up from your desk, talk to your coworker and resolve the issue. If a coworker’s busy and you can’t drop in, you might send an email and ask if they have a couple of minutes to talk today. Schedule a time if the person’s really busy. It doesn’t have to be a long meeting. If the issue is really important to the point that your email is becoming long, you need to talk to the person. Things get misinterpreted or you might not have all of the information, but a quick discussion can resolve it.
I also see people making the mistake of sending email when they’re upset or angry. Even if you’re trying really hard not to sound upset, your coworker’s going to pick up on that and your words will come across as offensive. Your coworkers will miss what you were trying to say and focus on you being rude. It’s like driving a car. When we hide inside our car, we can turn into these awful beings. We can become angry with someone for cutting us off, but in person we’re less likely to do that. Speaking face-to-face can keep you accountable to good behaviour.
When there’s written communication, there’s such a huge chance of miscommunication. If there’s a difficult conversation, have it face-to-face so it doesn’t get misconstrued. Because once it’s misconstrued, it’s hard to come back from that. Those relationships become damaged and now there’s mistrust. Repairing that mistrust is so difficult. You don’t always know how people will interpret your writing, so before you write, think about whether you really need to be writing.
From a legal perspective, the other factor is that in many organizations, whatever you write can be accessed by the company. The company owns those emails. The company computer is their asset, the email is their asset, so you could be putting the company at risk or putting something in writing that might embarrass you down the road. What you write could be subpoenaed or someone could file a Freedom of Information request. Sometimes we don’t emphasize just how high the stakes are in written communication. We put people in these scenarios where they don’t realize that they could hurt themselves or the company by what they’re putting out there.
Whether it’s social media, writing something in a grant, writing an email, writing a text, I always think to myself, what if someone else reads that? What would they be thinking of me? How would they be interpreting it? One way or another, that message could get out. You need to be really, really careful with what you put in writing and what you share.
When I worked at a bus company, I oversaw bus drivers. They’re working in the field, so I didn’t see them day-to-day. My boss was at head office, so I didn’t see him regularly. But if there was something important, he would come out and see me. I knew that the very fact that he took time to see me meant that it was important. Without him having to tell me it was important; I knew by his actions. That message had way more meaning than if he blasted me an email. He took time out of his day to come and talk to me.
So, I applied the same thing to the drivers. If I got a commendation praising a driver, I could send them a letter in the mail saying thanks for doing a great job. They would open the letter, maybe feel good. Sure. But if I took time out of my day to go to the workplace, show up on the bus and say that I stopped by to give them this commendation, that has more meaning. Coming out to the bus and giving them that praise face-to-face reinforced positive behaviour and made them more likely to repeat it. It stuck with them, as opposed to getting a letter in the mail, which might seem insincere. Our days get busy. It’s hard. But taking time with your employees and making room to acknowledge and celebrate them will lead to more positive behaviours.
6.03: Reviewing CMAPP
Before we begin, let’s review the CMAPP model we learned about in Chapter 3.
Query \(1\)
This model tells us that before you choose a medium (or genre), you must consider your context, message, audience and purpose. Right now, the context is especially important because workplace communications is undergoing a shift. For the past 20 years, email has taken over many of the jobs once reserved for faxes, memos and letters. Now, instant messaging programs like Slack are taking over some of the work that email used to do. Social media has also taken over some of email’s job in the workplace. For example, many companies offer customer service over Twitter and Facebook.
Often, students want to learn the perfect way to write a memo or letter, or to have a template that they can fill out. But because the context is always changing, and because different workplaces have different practices, it’s not possible to say that there’s one correct way to write each document. Instead, we’re going to explore the different decisions that go into choosing a medium, and the different roles each medium plays in the workplace.
Here are some questions you can ask yourself before you choose a genre:
• How quickly does my audience need this information?
• How does my audience expect to receive this information?
• How will my audience use this information? For example, if I’m informing my audience about new fitness classes at a gym, would it be better to create a printed schedule that participants could put on their fridge? Or would they prefer to access the information through a website, on an app?
• What way is this information normally sent in my organization?
• Will I be expected to use a template or build off someone else’s work?
• Does my audience have any accessibility requirements?
6.04: Meet the Genres
Before we dive into discussing each one, let’s get a brief overview of the most popular business writing genres. We’ll talk about reports in Chapter 12 and social media in Chapter 16.
Query \(1\) | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/06%3A_Writing_Emails_Memos_Letters_and_Instant_Messages/6.01%3A_Questions_for_Reflection.txt |
Figure 6.1 The Memo [Image Description]
A memo (or memorandum, meaning “reminder”) is normally used for communicating policies, procedures, or related official business within an organization. It is often written from a one-to-all perspective (like mass communication), broadcasting a message to an audience, rather than a one-on-one, interpersonal communication. It may also be used to update a team on activities for a given project or to inform a specific group within a company of an event, action, or observance.
Memos can be tricky because they often communicate to multiple audiences who have different levels of knowledge about the context. For example, if you are communicating a new company policy, different types of employees will want to know exactly how the policy impacts them.
Format
Memos have a header that includes DATE, TO, FROM, and SUBJECT lines. Other lines, such as CC or BCC, may be added as needed. An RE (“Reference”) line may be used instead of SUBJECT, but this use is becoming rarer as “RE” is often mistaken as “Reply” because of its use in email.
• DATE: List the date on which the memo is distributed.
• TO: List the names of the recipients of the memo. If there are several recipients, it’s acceptable to use a group name, such as “All Employees” or “Personnel Committee Members.”
• FROM: List the name and job title of the writer(s).
• SUBJECT: Think of the SUBJECT line as the title for the memo. Make it specific so that readers can immediately identify the topic.
Many organizations have their own style preferences on these issues. If not, the order listed above, double-spaced, is the most common.
The text of memos typically uses block format, with single-spaced lines, an extra space between paragraphs, and no indentions for new paragraphs.
Organization
Depending on whether you’re breaking good, neutral or bad news, you will choose between a direct, or indirect approach. We’ll cover this in Chapter 7.
When organizing your memo, you should make decisions with a few principles in mind:
• Meeting the needs of multiple audiences: Because memos are used to broadcast a message, they often have a large audience. Memos are structured to allow all of these audiences to easily find the information they need. Most memos use headings, for example. Memos also often start with a clear statement of purpose that explains what the memo is about. They also might contain a ‘background’ section for those who are unfamiliar with the memo’s topic. For example, if the purpose of the memo is to outline the new work-from-home policy, the background might explain the previous policy or why the policy has been updated.
• Conveying Seriousness: In the past, memos were used routinely. Now that email exists, however, memos are most often used to send out official announcements. You might ignore an email, but most employees will read a memo. Memos may also be printed, or posted on a bulletin board in common work spaces. Sometimes, memos have legal implications. (How often have you read a news article that contains the line “In a leaked memo, the company said…”). Memos therefore tend to be more clearly edited, precise and formal. That doesn’t mean that memos are full of big words, but just that the author usually chooses their words carefully. Your memo may undergo several rounds of revisions.
• Telling the Reader What to Do: Because memos often go to large audiences and because they’re for broadcasting, not conversation, it’s important to tell the reader what steps they’re expected to take, if any. For example, if you’re updating the work-from-home policy, are employees expected to contact someone if they’re interested in working from home? Do they need to follow a new procedure? Who should they talk to if they have questions? Clearly laying out the next steps will avoid confusion and frustration.
Sample Memo
Let’s take a look at a sample memo.
Memorandum
Date: March 18, 2019
To: Department Managers
From: Safiyya Dev, Store Manager
Subject: Customer Service Excellence Nominations
Please submit your nominations for the quarterly Customer Service Excellence Award by April 8. Help us identify great employees!
Do you have an employee who you feel fortunate to have in your department? Does this employee show a positive and professional attitude when helping customers? Do you get frequent comments about this person’s friendliness and helpfulness? Now, you have an opportunity to give this employee the recognition they deserve.
According to the nomination criteria, nominees must:
• demonstrate excellent customer service consistent with Variety Craft Supplies’ policies;
• have worked at Variety Craft Supplies for at least six months;
• work 20 or more hours per week;
• not have received the Customer Service Excellent Award within the last year; and
• have a record clear or oral and written warnings for the last six months.
The winner of the award will receive a framed certificate and a \$100 check.
A nominating form is attached. Please complete and return it to me by Monday, April 8. Thank you for your help in identifying and rewarding excellent customer service representatives.
As you can see, this memo has a direct and concise opening that states the purpose of the memo. The body paragraph provides the award criteria, which will help managers follow through on the request. The conclusion provides action information, a deadline and a courteous closing message.
Style and Tone
While memo reports and policy memos have a more formal tone, the audience of memos are coworkers, so the writing style usually assumes a relationship with them (and therefore a certain lack of formality). Just keep in mind that the relationship is a professional one, so the writing should reflect that. Furthermore, as with all workplace documents, the audience may contain a variety of readers, and the style and tone should be appropriate for all of their technical and authority levels.
Common Memo Writing Situations
Memos are used in a variety of workplace communication situations, from documentation of procedures and policies to simple announcements. Below are some common types of memos:
• Policies (changes and new)
• Instructions
• Procedures
• Announcements
• Trip reports
Image Description
Figure 6.1 image description: This photo shows that the memo has variable speed (because it can be sent through email or in hard copy) and is moderately to very formal. Its purpose is to communicate within an organization and to broadcast a message. Memos aren’t used for conversations. [Return to Figure 6.1] | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/06%3A_Writing_Emails_Memos_Letters_and_Instant_Messages/6.05%3A_Writing_Memos.txt |
Figure 6.3 The Letter [Image Description]
Though letters were the main mode of communication for thousands of years, today they’re mostly brief messages sent to recipients that are usually outside the organization (Bovee & Thill, 2010). They are often printed on letterhead paper and represent the business or organization in one or two pages. Because communications are increasingly electronic, letters are getting rarer in the workplace. Often, they’re reserved for important communications that have legal implications, such as offering someone a job or trying to collect money your organization is owed.
As genres shift, business communicators are trapped in a weird situation where business documents are set up like letters but are set electronically. For example, your cover letter might be attached as a PDF to an email.
Regardless of the type of letter you need to write, it can contain up to fifteen elements in five areas. While you may not use all the elements in every case or context, they are listed in Table 4.2.1.
Table 4.2.1 Elements of a business letter
Content Guidelines
1. Return address This is your address where someone could send a reply. If your letter includes a letterhead with this information, either in the header (across the top of the page) or the footer (along the bottom of the page), you do not need to include it before the date.
2. Date The date should be placed at the top, right or left justified, five lines from the top of the page or letterhead logo.
3. Reference (Re:) *optional Like a subject line in an e-mail, this is where you indicate what the letter is in reference to, the subject or purpose of the document.
4. Delivery
*optional
Sometimes you want to indicate on the letter itself how it was delivered. This can make it clear to a third party that the letter was delivered via a specific method, such as certified mail (a legal requirement for some types of documents).
5. Recipient note *optional This is where you can indicate if the letter is personal or confidential.
6. Salutation A common salutation may be “Dear Mr. (full name).” If you are unsure about titles (i.e., Mrs., Ms., Mr., Mx., Dr.), you may simply write the recipient’s name (e.g., “Dear Cameron Rai”) followed by a colon. A comma after the salutation is correct for personal letters, but a colon should be used in business. The salutation “To whom it may concern” is appropriate for letters of recommendation or other letters that are intended to be read by any and all individuals. If this is not the case with your letter, but you are unsure of how to address your recipient, make every effort to find out to whom the letter should be specifically addressed. For many, there is no sweeter sound than that of their name, and to spell it incorrectly runs the risk of alienating the reader before your letter has even been read. Avoid the use of impersonal salutations like “Dear Prospective Customer,” as the lack of personalization can alienate a future client.
7. Introduction This is your opening paragraph, and may include an attention statement, a reference to the purpose of the document, or an introduction of the person or topic depending on the type of letter. An emphatic opening involves using the most significant or important element of the letter in the introduction. Readers tend to pay attention to openings, and it makes sense to outline the expectations for the reader up front. Just as you would preview your topic in a speech, the clear opening in your introductions establishes context and facilitates comprehension.
8. Body If you have a list of points, a series of facts, or a number of questions, they belong in the body of your letter. You may choose organizational devices to draw attention, such as a bullet list, or simply number them. Readers may skip over information in the body of your letter, so make sure you emphasize the key points clearly. This is your core content, where you can outline and support several key points. Brevity is important, but so is clear support for main point(s). Specific, meaningful information needs to be clear, concise, and accurate.
9. Conclusion An emphatic closing mirrors your introduction with the added element of tying the main points together, clearly demonstrating their relationship. The conclusion can serve to remind the reader, but should not introduce new information. A clear summary sentence will strengthen your writing and enhance your effectiveness. If your letter requests or implies action, the conclusion needs to make clear what you expect to happen. This paragraph reiterates the main points and their relationship to each other, reinforcing the main point or purpose.
10. Close “Sincerely” or “Cordially” are standard business closing statements. Closing statements are normally placed one or two lines under the conclusion and include a hanging comma, as in Sincerely,
11. Signature Five lines after the close, you should type your name (required) and, on the line below it, your title (optional).
12. Preparation line If the letter was prepared or typed by someone other than the signatory (you), then inclusion of initials is common, as in MJD or abc.
13. Enclosures (attachments) Just like an e-mail with an attachment, the letter sometimes has additional documents that are delivered with it. This line indicates what the reader can look for in terms of documents included with the letter, such as brochures, reports, or related business documents. Only include this line if you are in fact including additional documentation.
14. Courtesy copies or “CC” The abbreviation “CC” once stood for carbon copies but now refers to courtesy copies. Just like a “CC” option in an e-mail, it indicates the relevant parties that will also receive a copy of the document.
15. Logo and contact information A formal business letter normally includes a logo or contact information for the organization in the header (top of page) or footer (bottom of page).
Let’s take a look at a sample letter.
Sample Letter
Marge Gagnon
1111 Random St.
Vancouver, BC
T3T 3T3
01/01/2020
Re: Offer of Employment at XYZ
CompanyDelivery: Canada Post Registered Mail
Note: Confidential
Dear Ms. Gagnon,
This letter is to formally offer you employment as a Bean Counter at Bubba’s Bean Barn. As a member of our bean counting team, you will be responsible for using best practices in bean counting to efficiently count a wide variety of beans and work effectively with a team of other bean counters. Your starting salary will be \$65,000, including benefits, which have been outlined in the attached benefits package. You will start on Feb. 1st 2020 at 8:30 am.On behalf of all of us at Bubba’s Bean Barn, welcome to our bean team! If you have any questions, please don’t hesitate to ask.
Sincerely,
Bubba Jean McBeanGSM/ep
Enclosures: Benefits package, full job description.
CC: Jen Yee
[email protected]
604-222-3333
Image Description
Figure 6.3 image description: This diagram shows that the letter is a slow medium and these days is quite formal. It’s mostly used to communicate with people outside of organizations or if there are legal implications. As well as, solicit documents and to communicate when time isn’t a strong constraint. [Return to Figure 6.3] | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/06%3A_Writing_Emails_Memos_Letters_and_Instant_Messages/6.06%3A_Writing_Letters.txt |
Figure 6.2 The Email [Image Description]
Email is typically quite familiar to most students and workers. While it may be used like text messaging, or synchronous chatting, and it can be delivered to a cell phone, email remains an asynchronous communication tool. In business, email has largely replaced print hard copy letters for external (outside the company) correspondence, as well as taking the place of memos for internal (within the company) communication (Guffey, 2008). Email can be very useful for messages that have slightly more content than a text message, but it is still best used for fairly brief messages.
Many businesses use automated e-mails to acknowledge communications from the public or to remind associates that periodic reports or payments are due. You may also be assigned to “populate” a form email in which standard paragraphs are used, but you choose from a menu of sentences to make the wording suitable for a particular transaction.
The rise of email management systems like MailChimp and Constant Contact have also made it easy to integrate graphic design elements into emails and to send emails to an entire mailing list without getting caught in a spam filter. Now, businesses send everything from newsletters to donations campaigns to holiday greetings through email.
Emails may be informal in personal contexts, but business communication requires attention to detail, awareness that your email reflects you and your company, and a professional tone so that it may be forwarded to any third party if needed. Email often serves to exchange information within organizations. Although email may have an informal feel, remember that when used for business, it needs to convey professionalism and respect. Never write or send anything that you wouldn’t want read in public or in front of your company president or CEO.
Tips for effective business emails
If you’re struggling to write an email, err on the side of not wasting the reader’s time. Many readers get hundreds of emails a day. While a reader might sit down to read a letter or a memo, they will usually spend a few seconds scanning an email for relevant information before moving on to the next one.
Unless your email is sensitive or you are breaking bad news, it’s nearly always a good idea to state the main point of the email clearly and to clearly tell the audience what you want them to do.
It may be helpful for you to think of this as building a frame around your email. In the first part of the frame, you open by telling the reader why you’re writing. Then, in the body, you give the main message. In the bottom part of the frame, you end by telling the reader what to do next. Here’s an example. The grey shaded parts represent the frame.
Frame: I’m writing to congratulate you on being named Employee of the Month.
In your nomination form, your manager noted that you’ve always had exceptional customer service skills, but last month you stood out by helping an elderly customer troubleshoot her computer issues. Your patience and dedication was inspirational to the rest of the team.
Frame: We would like to present you with a certificate and your \$100 cheque at the staff meeting on Monday, June 5th. Please confirm whether or not you’ll be in attendance so we can plan accordingly.
Congratulations once again. We are lucky to have you part of our team!
First, the writers tells exactly why they’re writing. Then, they provide the supporting details. Last, they tell the reader what to do (confirm whether or not they’ll be at the meeting).
Here are some more tips for sending successful emails:
• Proper salutations should demonstrate respect and avoid mix-ups in case a message is accidentally sent to the wrong recipient. For example, use a salutation like “Dear Ms. X” (external) or “Hi Barry” (internal).
• Subject lines should be clear, brief, and specific. This helps the recipient understand the essence of the message. For example, “Proposal attached” or “Your question of 10/25.”
• Close with a signature. Identify yourself by creating a signature block that automatically contains your name and business contact information. It is becoming increasingly common for businesses to add First Nations Land Acknowledgements to their email signatures. For example, at Kwantlen, we can use: “At KPU we work, study, and live in a region south of the Fraser River which overlaps with the unceded traditional and ancestral lands of the Kwantlen, Musqueam, Katzie, Semiahmoo, Tsawwassen, Qayqayt and Kwikwetlem peoples.”
• Be brief.
• Use a clear format. Include line breaks between sentences or divide your message into brief paragraphs for ease of reading.
• Your email should have one purpose. If you find yourself covering more than one topic in your email, you should consider sending multiple emails so that your reader does not miss important information.
• Reread, revise, and review. Catch and correct spelling and grammar mistakes before you press “send.” It will take more time and effort to undo the problems caused by a hasty, poorly written email than to get it right the first time.
• Reply promptly. Watch out for an emotional response—never reply in anger—but make a habit of replying to all emails within 24 hours, even if only to say that you will provide the requested information in 48 or 72 hours.
• Use “Reply All” sparingly. Do not send your reply to everyone who received the initial email unless your message absolutely needs to be read by the entire group.
• If you include a link, test it to make sure it is complete.
• Announce email attachments in your message.
• Give feedback or follow up. If you don’t get a response in 24 hours, e-mail or call. Spam filters may have intercepted your message, so your recipient may never have received it.
Sample Standard Email
To: Harriet Adamo, Physical Plant Manager, XYZ Corporation
From: Mel Vargas, Construction Site Manager, Maxim Construction
Sent: Monday, 10/25/2019 8:14 AM
Subject: Construction Interruptions
Harriet,
I know employees of XYZ Corp. are looking forward to moving into the new ABC Street building in January, but recently groups of employees who do not have business here have been walking through the building. These visits create a safety hazard, interrupt the construction workers, and could put your occupancy date in jeopardy.
Would you please instruct your staff members who haven’t already been moved to ABC Street to stay out of the building? If they need to meet here with someone who has already moved, they should conduct their business and leave promptly via the nearest staircase.
We need to avoid further interruptions so our construction workers can get the building ready for occupancy on schedule. If you have any questions, please call me.
Thanks,
Mel
Melvin R. Vargas
Construction Site Manager, Maxim Construction Co.
1234 Main St, Big City, Canada
(111) 222-3333 ext. 4444
Image Description
Figure 6.2 image description: This diagram shows that the email is fairly rapid and can vary greatly in formality. Use it to communicate externally and internally for a wide range of purposes, send files and to document a conversation. Unlike memos, you can have a discussion over email. [Return to Figure 6.2] | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/06%3A_Writing_Emails_Memos_Letters_and_Instant_Messages/6.07%3A_Writing_Letters.txt |
Figure 6.4 Instant Messages [Image Description]
It may seem weird to learn about instant messaging in a textbook, given that you probably are very familiar with it. But instant messaging is transforming workplaces, and major differences exist between using instant messaging with friends and using it with colleagues. Fans of instant messaging says it reduces the high volume of emails, allows people to get their questions answered quickly and enables people across multiple offices to talk without the need for meetings. Opponents say that instant messaging is distracting, that it results in too many side conversations and it’s not a secure medium.
To use instant messaging effectively, you should:
• Avoid sending anything you wouldn’t be okay with the CEO reading. Sometimes, miscommunications happen because people use too many text-message acronyms, which makes their messages seem sloppy and confusing. When in doubt, err on the side of speaking clearly and plainly.
• Respond promptly.
• Adjust your tone and level of formality to your audience. Before communicating on a new channel, take a minute to watch your colleagues interact. How do people use grammar? Do they use GIFs? Is every message on-topic or do people chat about their lives? Every organization has a slightly different culture around Slack. Often miscommunications arise because people treat Slack like Facebook or Twitter.
• Consider who needs to see your message. Are you posting in the right channel?
• Since your coworkers might get notifications on their phones, only post during business hours.[1]
• Don’t message everyone in the group (using @everyone on Slack) unless you really need to talk to everyone in the group.
• Don’t criticize people. In fact, you should usually keep your tone positive.
Image Description
Figure 6.4 image description: This diagram shows that instant messages are very fast and informal. They’re usually used to reach someone quickly (both internally and externally), provide customer service and have discussions. [Return to Figure 6.4]
6.09: Netiquette
We create personal pages, post messages, and interact via mediated technologies as a normal part of our lives, but how we conduct ourselves can leave a lasting image, literally. Several years ago, when the internet was a new phenomenon, Virginia Shea laid out a series of ground rules for communication online that continue to serve us today.
Virginia Shea’s Rules of Netiquette
• Remember the human on the other side of the electronic communication.
• Adhere to the same standards of behaviour online that you follow in real life.
• Know where you are in cyberspace.
• Respect other people’s time and bandwidth.
• Share expert knowledge.
• Respect other people’s privacy.
• Don’t abuse your power.
• Be forgiving of other people’s mistakes (Shea, 1994).
One of the really difficult things about this particular moment in workplace communication is that many people have to be online for their jobs, but risk online is unevenly distributed. For example, one 11-year study found that 71% of victims in online harassment cases were women[1]. Racialized people also experience more harassment. A Pew study found that 25% of black Americans had been harassed because of their race online.[2]. LGBTQ2S+ youth are also three times more likely to experience online harassment.[3].
When you post online, it’s great to upload standards of professionalism, but it’s also important to think about the wider context around you. For example, you might use Twitter to follow experts in your field from diverse backgrounds and open yourself up to perspectives you might not have considered. If your company has a Slack channel or Discord server, you might pay attention to the dynamics that go on between employees. When people joke around, whose expense is it at? Whose voice is the loudest? Whose perspective is ignored?
And while many people give advice about “building your brand” online, people who are successful on social media often listen more than they post. They amplify other people’s voices when they aren’t an expert on the subject. They’re true to their own personality. We’ll talk more about social media in Chapter 16. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/06%3A_Writing_Emails_Memos_Letters_and_Instant_Messages/6.08%3A_Writing_Instant_Messages.txt |
Query \(1\)
6.11: Key Takeaways
• The CMAPP model will help you determine which genre to use.
• The most important constraint in business is to not waste people’s time.
• A memo is used to communicate within an audience. It’s about broadcasting a message, not about having a conversation.
• You can use an indirect or a direct organizational model.
• Emails have a wide range of purposes. If you’re sending a longer email, consider using an email frame that tells the reader why you’re writing, provides follow-up details, then ends by telling the reader what to do next.
• Letters are used for communicating outside an organization, often when the communication has to be documented for legal purposes.
• When using instant messaging in the workplace, use clear, plain language and don’t say anything that you wouldn’t be comfortable with the CEO reading. Be aware of the conventions of different instant messaging channels.
6.12: Activities for Further Reflection
Your instructor may ask you to complete one or more of the following exercises.
1. Choose one of the following scenarios, then write an email, memo or letter as a response. Think about what genre would be most effective, then use the models discussed in the chapter to write your response.
• Your company has decided to consider allowing employees to work from home. Anyone who is interested in working from home must have a conversation with their manager to determine if their position would be appropriate for this arrangement. If the manager approves, they must submit Form 4A to their HR representative. Those who are approved to work from home will start with a 3 month trial period, where they will be required to submit a weekly log of the tasks they performed at home. Your job is to inform employees of this new opportunity and make sure they know how to apply.
• Easter is coming up in a few weeks and you work for a flower shop. Many people order lilies for Easter, but these can be toxic to pets. The florist has come up with a pet-friendly Easter bouquet. He asks you to let the customers know about the dangers of lilies and suggest that they order a non-toxic Easter bouquet instead.
• You work for a non-profit that gives out scholarships to disadvantaged teenagers. You’ve already informed the winners of the scholarship by phone, but your boss wants you to send them something in writing with all of the official details and any forms that need to be filled out to claim the scholarship.
• You volunteer on your condo’s strata. The strata has approved painting the outside of the building. Between April 5-10, the residents must not open their windows and must remove anything from their balconies. You don’t have email addresses for every resident, but you do have access to their physical mailboxes.
• You recently purchased a new guitar at a local music shop. One of the shop’s employees, Maria, spent over an hour helping you make your purchase. She was very knowledgeable, and was the reason that you purchased the guitar at the small local store instead of going to a larger store with more selection. You want to let Maria’s boss know about her excellent service.
2. Brenda Knights’ narrative talks about the perils of email. Why do you think it was included in the chapter? Do you agree that people should write fewer emails, memos and letters? Do you prefer to converse via email or in person?
Contributors and Attribution
This chapter contains material taken from Introduction to Professional Communications is (c) 2018 by Melissa Ashman and is licensed under a Creative Commons-Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International license.
This chapter also contains material taken from Memos, which is published on WritingCommons.org. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/06%3A_Writing_Emails_Memos_Letters_and_Instant_Messages/6.10%3A_Test_Your_Knowledge.txt |
Learning Objectives
In this section you will:
• Learn how to send good and neutral messages.
• Learn how to send news to multiple audiences.
• Explore some strategies for breaking bad news.
• Explore how to break bad news on social media.
07: Communicating Good Neutral and Negative Messages
Before we begin, consider the following questions. Your instructor may ask you to freewrite about one or more of these questions in your learning journal.
1. Think about the last time that you got disappointing news. How did the sender deliver the message? How did that make you feel? Can you think of a way that you would have preferred to be told?
2. Have you ever received a rejection from a job or university? Do you remember how that news was communicated? How did it make you feel? How would you have preferred to hear that news?
3. Think about a time when you broke disappointing news to someone in the workplace or in your personal life. What strategy did you use to break the news? How did it go? Is there anything you wish you had done differently?
4. How do you give bad news in your culture or family? Are you blunt or do you ease into it? Do you give different people bad news in different ways?
5. Have you ever had to communicate news to a big group of people, like your family or your entire workplace? How did you decide what to put in the message?
7.02: Brenda Knights Narrative
Most of the bad news I give has to do with employee discipline. I often see managers getting frustrated and thinking the worst of the situation, but one thing I’ve learned is that there’s always more to the story. Reserve judgement until you can talk to the employee and hear their side. The worst thing you can do is to just start lecturing them, then find out that there’s more to the story and it wasn’t as bad as you thought. Taking the time to understand what went on and allowing the employee to be heard really builds that level of respect.
One thing that makes difficult conversations easier is that they should never be a surprise to the employee. If the bad news comes out of the blue and there’s been no corrective coaching, no expectations set, and you just come down hard on someone, the message isn’t going to be heard. They’ll feel mistreated. That’s why it’s so important to take that time up front with employees to talk to them, to explain the expectations and to provide support so they can get on track. Discipline isn’t about getting people to termination. It’s about correcting behaviour and supporting people.
I always start with asking open-ended questions to see what comes out of that. Rather than saying, “you were late and this is against policy,” I need to find out why. That allows the employee to feel comfortable and share. What new information can I gather that will allow us to fix the problem? Did the bus schedule change? Was it a one-time thing? So, you get agreement from the employee about what the next steps are going to be and how we’re going to solve the problem together.
I had a situation where someone was late. I talked to the employee and it turned out that they were going through a separation and they were struggling to deal with two kids and get them to school on time. We came up with a plan. We were able to assign them to a different shift so they could take care of their kids and be successful. When you talk to your employee and work on problem solving, if they do continue to fail, they are more likely to hear the negative message because they know you’ve tried to work with them to resolve the situation already.
I’ve also had the difficult situation where I’ve tried to work with an employee, tried to problem solve, but they’re insistent that they’ve done nothing wrong and still aren’t following policies. Sometimes, you have to recognize that when you’re in a leadership role, you’re expected to conduct yourself professionally. You may come across employees who are going to push your buttons and even say things that are unpleasant. If someone is being aggressive, I will say, ‘I’m going to take a break until we can come back to the table and talk calmly. Let’s take a 5 or 10-minute break and calm down so we can collect our thoughts.” Sometimes I will also direct the conversation by asking questions to keep the conversation focused and to-the-point.
I’ve found that with about 95% of employees, taking time to talk with them and listen to them and work with them solves most problems. And if you have to end up terminating someone, it’s usually an amicable conversation because the employee knows you’ve done everything. They may be upset, but they feel that you’ve showed them respect and they’ll often own up to their mistakes. With that remaining 5%, who may be angry, it’s about knowing your audience. No matter what you say, you’re not going to change the person’s mind. There’s a difference of opinion. So, I go back to saying to the person, “Thank you for sharing that. Thank you for telling me that, but this is the policy, this is what’s expected, and the decision has been made.” You need to be firm. I try to end those conversations as quickly as possible, because you’re not going to change their way of thinking, you’re just going to inflame the situation the longer it goes on.
It’s also best not to sugar coat bad news. You want to stick to the facts. I will always prepare in advance. I’ll have the relevant policy ready, the dates and times of previous conversations and what was talked about, the letters I’ve used to document those meetings. But by the time we get to the point in the process where it’s a termination or really bad news, it’s usually not a shock. Just last week I had been working with an employee, but this business line was not financially where it needed to be. I’d been working for the past year and giving specific tasks around my expectations, but the employee wasn’t able to move the organization in the right direction. In the end, though, the employee was actually very receptive and said to me in the exit interview, “This isn’t a surprise. I knew this was coming. I knew you’d told me over the past year.” That’s the ideal outcome. It doesn’t come as a shock. Everyone feels respected.
I don’t want employees to be fearful of me or scared that I’ll come down on them. I have to see them in the field and in the community and I want them to feel comfortable and part of a team and not walk out feeling resentful. I’ve found that if you’re firm and fair, they will respect you.
As a manager and a leader, you have to know your employees really well. The old school style of leadership was that the leader didn’t associate with the employees. It was a very militant style. But nowadays a leader has to know their staff and know them well. One of our teachings is about finding people’s gifts, finding what makes them strong in a role. You have to set a person up for success.
We all have goodness within us. No one intends to be difficult or make your life challenging. But it’s taking the time and care to understand why someone is approaching something a certain way. Once you get at the why, it’s much easier to solve the problem. You just have to come at it with some empathy and understanding and respect. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/07%3A_Communicating_Good_Neutral_and_Negative_Messages/7.01%3A_Questions_For_Reflection.txt |
In this section, we’ll learn how to deliver different types of news. While you’re reading this section, pay attention to the role that audience analysis plays. How can you communicate messages in a way that meets the reader’s needs?
Delivering Good or Neutral News
Hopefully, most of the communication you will do in the workplace will involve giving neutral or good news. Usually, a direct approach is best. Consider the context in which most people receive workplace communication. Some studies have found that the average worker receives 90 emails per day and sends 40 emails per day. Now, imagine that every time the worker receives an email, they need to spend 1 minute re-reading it because the point of the email was not immediately obvious. That would be 1.5 hours of wasted time! If you factor in lost productivity due to miscommunication, the cost is even higher.
When it comes to neutral or positive messages, usually the best strategy is to get to the point. Make it clear:
• Why you’re writing.
• What supporting details the reader needs to know.
• If the reader needs to do anything.
It’s this last point that business communicators often stumble on. They give the information, but forget to tell the audience what to do with the information. The reader is left wondering whether they’re just supposed to be aware that the information exists, or if they’re supposed to act on it in some way.
One helpful tip is to end the communication by looking towards the future. Tell the reader what you want them to do. If they merely need to be aware of the information, you could use a phrase like “If you have any questions, let me know.” If they need to do something, state it clearly. For example, you might say, “Please send your changes to this document to me by Thursday at 10 am so that I can get them into the final draft.”
You might find this format helpful:
• Be direct: start with the good news to put the reader in a positive frame of mind.
• Give supporting details, explanation and commentary. These should be clearly organized. If you have a large amount of information, you may choose to use bullet points, headings or links/attachments.
• If there are any drawbacks, state them clearly but positively. (“Please mail the defective phone back so that we can issue you a new model).
• End with a note of thanks or congratulations.
Here’s an example:
To: Alice Meng
From: Ilya Marchenkova
Subject: Baby Carrier Replacement
Date: Jan. 19th 2019Ms. Meng,Thank you for emailing us about the broken strap on your baby carrier. We would be happy to send you a replacement carrier at no cost.To receive your new carrier, please:
1) Cut the straps of your damaged carrier and take a photo. Make sure that the warranty number located on the waistband of your carrier is clearly displayed. I’ve attached a PDF with a series of photos to show you how to do this.
2) Email me the photo along with your mailing address.
Once we receive this information, we will send your new carrier with next-day shipping.
Let me know if there’s anything more we can help you with.
Thanks,
– Ilya
As you can see, Ilya breaks the good news immediately, then clearly lays out what Alice needs to do next to receive the new carrier. Even the drawbacks, such as having to cut the straps on her current carrier so that it is not used by another baby, are stated positively. Ilya also includes attachments to help her easily follow his instructions. He then ends on a positive note.
Remember that when you communicate, you should always be aware of the context, audience and purpose of your message, as well as the relationship you have with your reader. Concision is highly valued in the workplace, but it should not come at the expense of tact or using a positive tone. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/07%3A_Communicating_Good_Neutral_and_Negative_Messages/7.03%3A_Delivering_Good_or_Neutral_News.txt |
When you write a message to a single audience — especially if you know that audience — it’s often clear what the reader needs to know. But what if you’re communicating to multiple audiences? And what if those audiences have different levels of experience with your subject matter?
Let’s take a look at this email written by Erin White coming out to their colleagues as non-binary. This is obviously positive news, but they don’t know exactly what each colleague knows and believes about non-binary people. When you read this email, ask yourself the following questions:
• How do they use the good/neutral news model discussed in the last section?
• How would you describe their tone?
• How do they structure their message? (Headings, etc)
• How do they meet the needs of different types of audiences?
Subject: Good morning! I’m coming out as nonbinary
All
Y’all have made VCU feel like home for me for the past 10 years. I wanted to share with you today that I am nonbinary, and use they/them pronouns. I have been out as nonbinary in my personal life for a while and I’m ready to bring that part of myself to my work life.
Why now?
I have been a member of the VCU community for a long time, I love working here, and I know this is a place where I can bring my whole self to work. I think my work and VCUL community are enriched when employees are authentically present. I think that all you kind folks at VCUL are open to welcoming me. I also think it’s important to be visible to folks in the community, especially students, who are trans or nonbinary.
What does that mean for me, your colleague?
I’m asking you to change how you talk to me and how you refer to me. Instead of using she or her pronouns to refer to me, you can use they and them. “Erin sent that message about their pronouns.” It’s kind of awkward at first but it gets easier with practice.
What can I call you?
– Addressing me: Erin, you, friend, colleague, erwhite, E-dubs, Mx. White (pronounced “mix”)…
– Referring to me: Erin, they, them, theirs, that person, friend, colleague, talented IT professional…
What shouldn’t I call you?
– Addressing me: Ms., Miss, lady, girl, woman, ma’am…
– Referring to me: she, her, he, him, it, Ms., Miss, lady, girl, woman…
What if I get it wrong?
It’s okay! If you catch yourself, correct and move on. What’s important is to try.
Will you correct me if I get it wrong?
It depends on the situation. If I remind you, it’s because I know we respect each other and both care about our relationship.
Can I correct others?
Yes, in the spirit of calling folks in rather than calling them out. We’re all in community with each other, and want to be generous with each other as we learn.
I don’t agree that I should use they/them pronouns for you.
I hope that you can respect me and honour how I am asking to be addressed, recognizing that inclusion is a core value at VCU, so we can work together. Another option is to just use my name instead of my pronouns.
That’s it! There are more resources on how to affirm nonbinary folks online if you are interested. Thank you for reading this far and thank you for your support.
Source: Erinrwhite.com
In this email, Erin uses a lot of the strategies we just discussed. They are direct and get right to the point (delivering the key message in the subject line and the first sentence), then provide supporting details. They meet the needs of multiple types of audiences by using clear headings and links to external resources for those who want more information. They also use a warm, positive tone that assumes that the VCU community will be supportive and respectful. For example, they refer to the audience as “kind folks” and stresses that “inclusion is a core value” of the university.
They also think about the topic from the perspective of their audience and anticipate that some people might find using the ‘they’ pronoun a little awkward. By mentioning this, assuring the reader that it gets easier with practice, and giving an alternative (referring to them by their name, rather than pronoun), Erin anticipates all of their reader’s needs.
When you communicate to multiple audiences, you can use the same strategies:
• Thinking about what information different types of audiences might need.
• Using headings to allow people to skim for relevant content.
• Thinking about tone and word choice. How will different audience members react to your tone? Do you need to define any words?
• Providing links or attachments with more information for those who need it.
• Anticipating questions or objections your audience might have and answering them. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/07%3A_Communicating_Good_Neutral_and_Negative_Messages/7.04%3A_Delivering_Positive_and_Neutral_Messages_to_Multiple_Audiences.txt |
A bad news message (or negative news message) delivers news that the audience does not want to receive. Delivering negative news is never easy. Whether you are informing someone they are being laid off or providing constructive criticism on their job performance, how you choose to deliver the message can influence its response (Bovee & Thill, 2010).
Some people prefer their bad news to be direct and concise. Others may prefer a less direct approach. How you break bad news will also depend on your culture, your family and norms of your industry. For example, people in India might be very direct with their family and close friends, but use an indirect approach in a workplace setting.
Regardless of whether you determine a direct or indirect approach is warranted, your job is to deliver news that you anticipate will be unwelcome.
In this section we will examine several scenarios that can be communicated internally (within the organization) and externally (outside the organization), but recognize that the lines can be blurred as communication flows outside and through an organization or business. Internal and external communication environments often have a degree of overlap. The rumour of anticipated layoffs may surface in the local media, and you may be called upon to address the concern within the organization. In a similar way, a product that has failed internal quality control tests will require several more tests and improvements before it is ready for market, but if that information leaves the organization, it can hurt the business reputation, prospects for future contracts, and the company’s ability to secure financing.
Goals of Bad News Messages
When you break bad news, you first want to think about the best possible outcome for everyone involved. For example, if you have to lay off a good employee because of budget cuts, the best case scenario is that the person is upset but understands that the layoff wasn’t about their work performance. If you handle the news with professionalism, you might be able to preserve the working relationship in the future. If you’re firing an employee who hasn’t responded to multiple Performance Improvement Plans, however, you would want to break the news clearly and compassionately, but you might not care as much about preserving the relationship.
This also applies to external communication. Sometimes, an angry customer might complain on social media. You might not be able to preserve the relationship with that customer, but other customers will be watching to see how you handle it. If you deal with the angry customer in a fair, professional manner, you will leave others with a positive impression of your company.
There are seven goals to keep in mind when delivering negative news, in person or in written form:
1. Be clear and concise to minimize the chances of confusion or back-and-forth communication.
2. Help the receiver understand and accept the news.
3. Maintain trust and respect for the business or organization and for the receiver.
4. Avoid legal liability or erroneous admission of guilt or culpability.
5. Maintain the relationship, even if a formal association is being terminated. (Note: this only applies to situations where you want the relationship to continue. When dealing with an abusive client, for example, your goal might be to clearly sever the relationship).
6. Reduce the anxiety associated with the negative news to increase comprehension.
7. Achieve the designated business outcome.
Scenarios
Let’s go through some scenarios. Let’s say you’re a supervisor and have been given the task of discussing repeated lateness with an employee called Brian. Brian has frequently been late for work, and the problem has grown worse over the last two weeks. The lateness is impairing not only Brian’s performance, but also that of the entire work team. Your manager has instructed you to put an end to it. The desired result is for Brian to stop being late and to improve his performance.
You can
1. stop by Brian’s cubicle and simply say, “Get to work on time or you are out”
2. invite Brian out to a nice lunch and let him have it
3. write Brian a stern e-mail
4. ask Brian to come to your office and discuss the behaviour with him in private
While there are many other ways you could choose to address the situation, let’s examine each of these four alternatives in light of the goals to keep in mind when presenting negative news.
Scenario 1
First, you could approach Brian in his work space and speak to him directly. Advantages to this approach include the ability to get right to the point right away. However, this approach could strain your supervisor-employee relationship as a result of the public display of criticism, Brian may not understand you, there is a lack of a formal discussion you can document, and there is a risk that your actions may not bring about the desired results.
The goals of delivering a negative message include the desire to be clear and concise in order to avoid having a back-and-forth conversation where you’re continually providing clarification. The approach described above does not provide the opportunity for discussion, feedback, or confirmation that Brian has clearly understood your concern. It fails to address the performance concern and it limits the correction to the lateness. Overall, it fails to demonstrate respect for all parties. The lack of tact apparent in the approach may reflect negatively on you as the supervisor and your supervisors or managers.
When you need to speak to an employee about a personnel concern, it is always best to do it in private. Give thought and concern to the conversation before it occurs, and make a list of points to cover with specific information, including grievances. Like any other speech, you may need to rehearse, particularly if this type of meeting is new to you. When it comes time to have the discussion, issue the warning, back it up in writing with documentation, and don’t give the impression that you might change your decision. Whether the issue at hand is a simple caution about tardiness or a more serious conversation, you need to be fair and respectful, even if the other person has been less than professional. Let’s examine the next alternative.
Scenario 2
Let’s say you invite Brian to lunch at a nice restaurant. There is linen on the table, silverware is present for more than the main course, and the water glasses have stems. The environment says “good job.” Your words will contradict this nonverbal message. The juxtaposition between the environment and the verbal message will cause tension and confusion, which will probably be an obstacle to the receiver’s ability to listen. If Brian doesn’t understand the message, and the message requires clarification, your approach has failed. The contrast between the restaurant setting and the negative message does not promote understanding and acceptance of the bad news or correction. Furthermore, it does not build trust in the relationship, as the restaurant invitation might be interpreted as a “trap” or a betrayal. Let’s examine yet another approach.
Scenario 3
You’ve written Brian a stern e-mail. You’ve included a list of all the recent dates when he was late and made several statements about the quality of his work. You’ve indicated he needs to improve, and stop being late, or else. But was your email harassment? Could it be considered beyond the scope of supervision and interpreted as mean or cruel? And do you even know if Brian has received it? If there was no reply, do you know whether it achieved its desired business outcome? A written message may certainly be part of the desired approach, but how it is presented and delivered is as important as what it says. Let’s examine our fourth approach to this scenario.
Scenario 4
You ask Brian to join you in a private conversation. You start the conversation with an expression of concern and an open-ended question: “Brian, I’ve been concerned about your work lately. Is everything all right?” As Brian answers, you may demonstrate that you are listening by nodding your head and possibly taking notes. You may learn that Brian has been having problems sleeping or that his living situation has changed. Or Brian may decline to share any issues, deny that anything is wrong, and ask why you are concerned. You may then state that you’ve observed the chronic lateness, name one or more specific mistakes you have found in his work, and end with a reiteration that you are concerned. This statement of concern may elicit more responses and open the conversation up into a dialogue where you come to understand the situation, Brian sees your concern, and the relationship is preserved. Alternatively, in case the conversation does not go well, you will still keep a positive attitude even as you document the meeting and give Brian a verbal warning.
Regardless of how well or poorly the conversation goes, if Brian tells other employees about it, they may take note of how you handled the situation, and it will contribute to their perception of you. It guides their expectations of how you operate and how to communicate with you, as this interaction is not only about you and Brian. You represent the company and its reputation, and your professional display of concern as you try to learn more sends a positive message. While the private, respectful meeting may not be the perfect solution, it is preferable to the other approaches we have considered.
One additional point to consider as you document this interaction is the need to present the warning in writing. You may elect to prepare a memo that outlines the information concerning Brian’s performance and lateness and have it ready should you want to present it. If the session goes well, and you have the discretion to make a judgment call, you may elect to give him another week to resolve the issue. Even if it goes well, you may want to present the memo, as it documents the interaction and serves as evidence of due process should Brian’s behaviour fail to change, eventually resulting in the need for termination.
This combined approach of a verbal and written message is increasingly the norm in business communication. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/07%3A_Communicating_Good_Neutral_and_Negative_Messages/7.05%3A_Bad_News_Messages.txt |
There are two approaches you can use to deliver a negative news message–the direct approach and the indirect approach. We’ll go through each of these in turn.
Direct approach
The direct approach is often used when the audience values brevity, the message needs to be concise, the message is very complex and might not be understood easily, the message is related to a known issue or problem (and bad news won’t be a surprise), or you’re terminating a business relationship.
As shown in Figure 4.11.1, the bad news is announced in the opening or introduction of the message.
Figure 4.11.1 An example of a bad news message delivered using the direct approach
Indirect approach
When the bad news may have a significant impact on the recipient or you don’t know them very well, you may prefer to use the indirect approach. Figure 4.11.2 shows an example of a bad news message delivered using this approach.
Figure 4.11.2 An example of a bad news message delivered using the indirect approach
The indirect approach for delivering bad news has five main parts:
1. Open with a buffer statement
2. Explain the situation
3. Break the bad news
4. Redirect or provide alternatives
5. End politely and forward-looking
We’ll go through each of these parts in detail.
Buffer statement
The first part of a negative news message, verbal or written, is a buffer statement. It provides neutral or positive information. It sets the tone and often serves as a cushion for the information to come. It is important that the buffer not be overly positive because this can be misleading or set up the reader to expect a positive news message instead.
Explanation
Next, an explanation discusses why there is an issue. This may be relatively simple, quite complex, or uncomfortable. While an explanation is important, never admit or imply responsibility without written authorization from your company cleared by legal counsel. Try to avoid labeling the bad news, such as calling it inconvenient or disappointing, because this can assume the feelings of your reader and create a negative impression. The person receiving the message may not have felt badly about receiving the news until you pointed out that it was indeed inconvenient or disappointing.
Break the bad news
The third part of the negative news message involves the bad news itself, and the emphasis here is on clarity and accuracy. While you want to break the bad news clearly, try not to spotlight it.
Redirect or provide alternatives
The fourth part of a bad news message is the redirect, where you refocus attention on a solution strategy, possible alternatives, or the subsequent actions that will take place.
End politely and forward-looking
Last, you want to end your message politely and looking to the future. Don’t mention the bad news again!
7.07: Breaking Bad News on Social Media
When someone complains about you or your company on social media, you might be tempted to ignore it. Unfortunately, the conversation about your company will continue whether or not you respond, so responding gives you an opportunity to control the message.
Let’s say that a customer, Amir, posted on Twitter that the watch your company sold him broke within a week. Your goal is to help resolve Amir’s complaint and also show that your watch company has great customer service. Getting into a back-and-forth exchange with Amir will make you look unprofessional, so the best thing to do is to reply to Amir with a short message like: “Thanks for bringing this to our attention. Please follow me so that we can DM (direct message) each other and find a solution. Or, you can email me at ___.”
Hopefully, this will take the conversation offline so that you can resolve it. Maybe it will turn out that Amir’s watch is under warranty and you can repair or replace it. Or maybe Amir broke his watch in a way that’s not covered. You can break the bad news using the strategies above in a private manner. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/07%3A_Communicating_Good_Neutral_and_Negative_Messages/7.06%3A_Delivering_a_Bad_News_Message.txt |
Query \(1\)
7.09: Key Takeaways
• When giving good or neutral news, the most important constraint is not to waste people’s time. Get to the point right away.
• When communicating good and neutral news to multiple audiences, make sure to use clear organization and headings to help people find the information they need. It’s also important to use a positive tone and anticipate questions that a reader might have.
• When breaking bad news, think about the best case scenario. Your goals should be to be clear and concise, help the receiver understand the news, maintain trust and respect for the business, avoid legal liability, maintain the relationship if possible, reduce anxiety associated with the news and achieve the desired business outcome.
• You can use a direct or indirect approach to bad news.
7.10: Activities For Further Reflection
Your instructor may ask you to complete one or more of the following exercises.
1. Choose one of the following bad news scenarios. Decide how you want to deliver the message (in person, phone, email, letter, etc), then write out the message (or a script for a conversation). Feel free to make up supporting details.
Scenario: You are the manager of a clothing store. A customer emails you to complain that she was not allowed to return a dress. Unfortunately, the customer’s dress had been torn up by her dog. Your refund policy does not cover this type of damage. You must tell the customer that you can’t refund her money.
Scenario: You promised your boss that you would finish your report by 5 pm today. Unfortunately, you are still waiting for information from your coworker, Pam. Pam and your boss are good friends. You must let the boss know that if you don’t get the information from Pam soon, the report will be late.
Scenario: You are a manager of a restaurant. Your best waiter is named Chad. Lots of customers come in to the restaurant because they love his service. Unfortunately, Chad has been rude to the other wait staff and they have complained to you. Today, you witnessed Chad yelling at a hostess for a very minor reason. You need to get Chad to improve his behaviour, while also maintaining a positive relationship with him so he doesn’t quit.
Scenario: You work for a small start-up that makes designer baby toys. Recently, your team has received several complaints about your most popular toy, saying that it has broken in a way that could harm babies. Your CEO asked you to research this issue, and your research shows that the toy is not safe and must be recalled. You must tell the CEO immediately.
Scenario: You run a coffee shop. Your friend Becky is an artist. She asked if she could hang her art on the walls of your coffee shop. You’ve done this in the past with other artists, and it’s been a success, so you agreed. Unfortunately, you’ve just found out that the art that Becky wants to display is pornographic. You no longer want to hang it in the coffee shop. You need to tell her in a way that preserves the friendship.
2. Search for some of your favourite businesses online and see how they handle customer complaints. Do they follow the strategies discussed in this textbook?
Contributors and Attribution
This chapter contains material taken from Introduction to Professional Communications is (c) 2018 by Melissa Ashman and is licensed under a Creative Commons-Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International license. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/07%3A_Communicating_Good_Neutral_and_Negative_Messages/7.08%3A_Practice_What_You_Learned.txt |
Photo by Isaiah Rustad on Unsplash
Learning Objectives
In this section you will:
• Explore what persuasion looks in a business communication context.
• Learn ways that people’s needs motivate them.
• Apply the rhetorical triangle (ethos, pathos and logos) to persuasive situations.
• Apply the Spectrum of Allies to persuasive strategies.
08: Persuading Your Reader
Before we begin, consider the following questions. Your instructor may ask you to freewrite about one or more of these questions in your learning journal.
1. Have you ever changed your mind about something important? How did you change your mind? Did it happen immediately or slowly? What evidence was most important?
2. Have you ever purchased something because of an advertisement? How did the advertisement persuade you?
3. If you speak more than one language or have lived in more than one culture, how does persuasion differ across different languages or cultures? Can you provide some examples?
4. What makes persuasion ethical?
5. Political organizations and companies that are facing public resistance or a scandal will often hire people to post online pretending to be regular people who support a particular viewpoint. This is called “astroturfing.” The company supplies talking points and the astroturfers rewrite these points in their own voice and post them on the comment sections of news articles an on social media/Reddit. The people reading these messages don’t know that they were paid for by a corporation. Do you think that this form of persuasion is ethical? Why or why not?
8.02: Brenda Knights Narrative
As Kwantlen people, we’re taught that the community is a circle with four interconnected parts: government, community services, culture and economic development. If these aren’t working in harmony, then you won’t be successful. They all work together. We’re the economic development, but if the culture isn’t the strong and the community isn’t strong and the governance isn’t strong, then our business won’t be successful. We need each other.
So, when I think of persuasion, it’s not just about me convincing you that I should get my own way but making sure that all four parts are working together. For example, we work together to make sure that the community side is able to share in resources of the business group. We’re larger, so we have more human resources. We encourage their managers to call on us. So, it’s about building consensus, so everyone has their needs met.
In society, we used to have neighbourhoods where people helped one another. Now we have strained family relationships. Lots of people are struggling on their own. They don’t have that support structure. But Səýeḿ is a community environment that I feel grateful to be a part of. My mom is an Elder, and our community practices Elder care. That means I can come to work and not worry about my mom. I can use my gifts to help the community because someone else is taking care of her. In a business we need to treat our employees as our family. There may be times when an employee is struggling and it’s up to each team member to be aware and support one another in times of need. It’s how a business can thrive and create work life balance for its employees. As a Manager or Leader there is the opportunity to reassign tasks or help take some of the workload off a struggling employee. A business needs to operate as its own community and for employees, it’s important for their leaders be there for them in times of need.
Persuasion is also about respecting people’s viewpoints. Sometimes, I know that there will be squeaky wheel in the room, someone who will oppose a project no matter what. If I get into a back-and-forth with that person, it will reflect poorly on me. I won’t convince them. As a leader, I have to be professional. So, I will listen respectfully and say, “Thank you for sharing that. I’ll take it under consideration.” That will at least let the critic know I’m listening, and it will show everyone else that I can handle criticism. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/08%3A_Persuading_Your_Reader/8.01%3A_Questions_for_Reflection.txt |
When you communicate in the workplace, nearly every message you’ll send will have at least a little bit of persuasion. For example, when you give your opinion at a meeting, you are trying to convince others to agree with you or at least take you seriously. When you ask your coworker to update a document at the last minute to meet a deadline, you’re persuading them to give your work priority over their other tasks.
Often, people equate persuasion with marketing. But persuasion in workplaces can be both much more subtle and much more complicated. For example, if you disagree with a company policy, do you try to fight it alone or do you slowly try to get coworkers on your side? Do you use forceful language or a subtler approach? Do you do research to show how other organizations have tackled the issue or do you focus on making an emotional connection with your audience to help them understand how the policy impacts you? Do you identify one person who has the power to change the policy and convince them, or do you try to get broad support? All of these answers will change depending on your company culture, the people in your company, and your own position within the company.
Luckily, many of the principles we’ve already discussed apply. Understanding your audience’s needs and the context of your message will help you craft your persuasive strategy. In this chapter, we’ll add a few more tools to your persuasive toolkit:
• The Hierarchy of Needs
• Ethos, Pathos and Logos
• The Spectrum of Allies
8.04: Two Hierarchies of Needs
If you’ve taken a psychology class, you might be familiar with Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. The main point is that until people’s basic needs are met, like food and shelter, they can’t care about higher-level concerns like creativity. For example, if your coworker is worried about getting fired or if they don’t feel accepted into your organization, they’re not going to do their best work.
But did you know that Maslow actually learned about the worldview of the Blackfoot (Niitsitapi or Siksikaitsitapi) people and turned it into his Hierarchy of Needs? According to University of Alberta professor Dr. Cindy Blackstock, who’s a member of the Gitksan First Nation, the model is “a rip-off from the Blackfoot nation.” (Blackstock, 2014) (This blog post by Karen Lincoln Michel lays out Blackstock’s case and explains the model more deeply). Instead of a triangle, the Blackfoot people use a tipi. At the base is self-actualization, then community actualization, then cultural perpetuity.
There are two big differences between the models:
1. Maslow focuses on the individual, while the Blackfoot model focuses on caring for the community and keeping culture thriving.
2. Self actualization is the base of the Blackfoot model, while for Maslow it’s the pinnacle of human achievement.
These two competing models both remind us that thinking about our audience’s unmet needs will help us craft a persuasive strategy. More importantly, however, they show us that people’s needs don’t exist in a vacuum. Your audience’s cultural context shapes their needs.
Image Description
Figure 8.1 image description: This diagram represents Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. It is in the shape of a pyramid. At the base in yellow is physiological needs (breathing, food, sleep, sex), then safety in red (health, employment etc), then love/belonging in teal (friendship, family, sexual intimacy), then Esteem in purple (self-esteem, confidence, achievement), then self-actualization in navy blue (morality, creativity, problem solving etc). [Return to Figure 8.1] | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/08%3A_Persuading_Your_Reader/8.03%3A_Persuasion-_It%27s_Everywhere.txt |
Thousands of years ago, Aristotle provided us with three ways to appeal to an audience, and they’re called logos, pathos, and ethos. You’ll learn more about each appeal in the discussion below, but the relationship between these three appeals is also often called the rhetorical triangle as shown in Figure 8.2. The idea is a persuasive message has all 3 of the points of a triangle. (As you can see, this is a very triangle-heavy chapter).
Pathos
Latin for emotion, pathos is the fastest way to get your audience’s attention. People tend to have emotional responses before their brains kick in and tell them to knock it off. Be careful though. Too much pathos can make your audience feel emotionally manipulated or angry because they’re also looking for the facts to support whatever emotional claims you might be making so they know they can trust you.
Many donations campaigns draw on pathos, such as this classic ASPCA ad:
Logos
Latin for logic, logos is where those facts come in. Your audience will question the validity of your claims; the opinions you share in your writing need to be supported using science, statistics, expert perspective, and other types of logic. However, if you only rely on logos, your writing might become dry and boring, so even this should be balanced with other appeals.
Ethos
Latin for ethics, ethos is what you do to prove to your audience that you can be trusted, that you are a credible source of information. (See logos.) It’s also what you do to assure them that they are good people who want to do the right thing. This is especially important when writing an argument to an audience who disagrees with you. It’s much easier to encourage a disagreeable audience to listen to your point of view if you have convinced them that you respect their opinion and that you have established credibility through the use of logos and pathos, which show that you know the topic on an intellectual and personal level.
You can also gain ethos through your use of sources. Reliable, appropriate sources act as expert voices that provide a perspective you don’t have. Layout, graphic design choices, white space, style and tone: all of these factors influence your ethos.
Fallacies
Regardless of what appeals you use in your writing, it is important to be aware of fallacies (errors in reasoning) because they can reduce the impact of your message on your reader. For more information on common fallacies, refer to these resources available from the Writing Commons:
Using Ethos, Pathos and Logos
According to Aristotle, a solid argument needed ethos, pathos and logos. That doesn’t mean that you should try to balance each one in every persuasive argument you make. Instead, ethos, pathos and logos help us do two things:
1. Determine why an argument isn’t currently persuasive. For example, if you show a sample ad campaign to a client and they don’t find it trustworthy, you can examine how you’re using ethos. If your Powerpoint presentation is boring, you can think about how pathos could be used to help your audience take your message seriously.
2. Identify how others are trying to persuade us: Ethos, pathos and logos can be useful tools for information literacy. When a salesperson comes into your office to give you a slick pitch about a new piece of software that’s going to change your working life, you can think about how they’re trying to persuade you. Is it all pathos with very few facts to back it up?
Practicing Ethos, Pathos and Logos
To practice your rhetorical triangle skills, see if you can identify how this vintagead for candy is using ethos, pathos and logos. It’s a little hard to read, so the hotspots repeat the text. (You’ll also notice that this ad is a product of its time. Would a candy ad for today ever have this much text?)
Query \(1\)
Image Description
Figure 8.2 image description: Starting at the top of the triangle, ethos, which is ethics and credibility; then, going counterclockwise pathos, which is emotion; and logos, which is logic and reason, are the three points in the rhetorical triangle. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/08%3A_Persuading_Your_Reader/8.05%3A_The_Rhetorical_Triangle-_Ethos_Pathos_and_Logos.txt |
Often, we think that if we could just give someone the right fact, they would instantly change their mind. This, however, is not true. Changing your mind is a hard thing to do, and many people rarely do it. No one likes to admit that they’re wrong. So, sometimes it can help to think about not just delivering a convincing argument, but thinking about how to move someone from one position to another.
In her essay “Making Them An Offer They Can’t Refuse,” Jeanie Wills suggests that if you want to persuade your audience, you shouldn’t just focus on what you want your audience to do, but what you want them to be. She says:
Our words can have an even more profound effect if we consciously offer the audience a clearly defined role to play. When the role is one the audience knows how to accept, then they can become people who are more knowledgeable, who have more intellectual depth, and who have a greater understanding of a subject than they did before. Accepting such a role has a ripple effect. For instance, audiences who have been moved to take on a new role may be more likely to accept other roles that are similar in nature. In other words, the audience learns that they can learn, and they take that knowledge not only into other classes, but also into their professional life. (Wills, 191)
By thinking of persuasion as offering your audience a new role to play, you can see persuasion as an active process. Let’s say that you have a friend named Ahmed who is a heavy metal fan and who considers himself too much of a music snob to listen to pop music. Even the most well-reasoned argument will probably not turn Ahmed into a pop music fan overnight because he’s currently playing the role of Heavy Metal Fan Who Looks Down on Pop. It’s part of his identity.
If you want to convince him to play a new role, you’re going to think about the journey he will take to get there. You’ll also have to lay out the benefits of thinking in a new way. Maybe you convince Ahmed to listen to a pop song that was produced by a well-respected producer or one that a heavy metal artist has recommended. You’re not asking Ahmed to change his worldview, just showing him that liking this one song still allows him to keep his identity as someone with “good taste in music.” That’s not too big of a leap.
If Ahmed enjoys this one song, he’s seen that it’s possible to like at least a little bit of pop music. That doesn’t mean that he’s going to run to the nearest Taylor Swift concert, but it might mean that he would be open to hearing another pop song, or maybe a whole album. Your persuasive strategy has allowed Ahmed to transition from Heavy Metal Fan Who Looks Down on Pop to Fan of A Wide Range of Music, Which Includes a Little Bit of Pop. He’s seen that liking a wide range of music makes him more cultured, not less. He’s also seen that while there’s plenty of bad pop music out there, he held some stereotypical views about pop. He can be a music snob and a fan of some pop songs at the same time.
When you begin crafting your persuasive message, it might be helpful to draw a diagram of the role your audience is currently occupying, the role you want them to assume, and the journey you’ll take them on.That’s where the Spectrum of Allies comes in. This is a model that helps activists and community organizers change the public’s opinion on an issue.
Here’s how a spectrum-of-allies analysis works: in each wedge you can place different individuals (be specific: name them!), groups, or institutions. Moving from left to right, identify your active allies: people who agree with you and are fighting alongside you; your passive allies: folks who agree with you but aren’t doing anything about it; neutrals: fence sitters, the unengaged; passive opposition: people who disagree with you but aren’t trying to stop you; and finally your active opposition.Some activist groups only speak or work with those in the first wedge (active allies), building insular, self-referential, marginal subcultures that are incomprehensible to everyone else. Others behave as if everyone is in the last wedge (active opposition), playing out the “story of the righteous few,” acting as if the whole world is against them. Both of these approaches virtually guarantee failure. Movements win not by overpowering their active opposition, but by shifting the support out from under them.For example, in 1964, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), a major driver of the civil rights movement in the U.S. South, conducted a “spectrum-of-allies style” analysis. They determined that they had a lot of passive allies who were students in the North: these students were sympathetic, but had no entry point into the movement. They didn’t need to be “educated” or convinced, they needed an invitation to enter.To shift these allies from “passive” to “active,” SNCC sent buses north to bring folks down to participate in the struggle under the banner “Freedom Summer.” Students came in droves, and many were deeply radicalized in the process, witnessing lynching, violent police abuse, and angry white mobs, all simply as a result of black activists trying to vote.Many wrote letters home to their parents, who suddenly had a personal connection to the struggle. This triggered another shift: their families became passive allies, often bringing their workplaces and social networks with them. The students, meanwhile, went back to school in the fall and proceeded to organize their campuses. More shifts. The result: a profound transformation of the political landscape of the U.S. This cascading shift of support, it’s important to emphasize, wasn’t spontaneous; it was part of a deliberate movement strategy that, to this day, carries profound lessons for other movements.
Practice the Spectrum of Allies
Practice the Spectrum of Allies by placing the people below according to what “wedge” they belong in. After you’re done, check your work.
Query \(1\)
Image Description
Figure 8.3 image description: A yellow sad face labeled “pop music hater’ with the caption “I’m someone who has great taste in music, not like those pop fans!” An arrow shows the transition to a neutral yellow smiley face labeled ‘Likes One Song’ with the caption “Ok, this song is good, but that’s because the producer also produces heavy metal.”
Figure 8.4 image description: Neutral yellow face labeled ‘Likes One Song’ with the caption “Ok, this song is good but that’s because the producer also produces heavy metal.” An arrow shows the transition to a happy smiley face labeled ‘Appreciates Some Pop Music” with the caption “Actually, this other song is pretty good. And this album is good. I’m not a pop fan, but some of it is ok.”
Figure 8.5 image description: The spectrum of allies shows 4 wedges: active allies, passive allies, neutral, passive opposition and active opposition. The point is to move someone from one wedge to the other. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/08%3A_Persuading_Your_Reader/8.06%3A_The_Spectrum_of_Allies.txt |
In this chapter, we’ve learned a few tools that can help you become more persuasive. Choosing what tool to use will depend on the importance of your communication. In a low-stakes situation, you might just think of the benefit to the reader and use the positive emphasis skills we learned in Chapter 4. If, however, the stakes are high or your work just doesn’t feel persuasive enough, you can use the tools we’ve discussed to increase your persuasiveness.
Key Takeaways
• Most communication in the workplace involves at least a little persuasion. If the stakes are low, you can simply stress the benefit to the reader. If the stakes are high, you might think specifically about your persuasive strategy.
• Being aware of an audience’s needs and what benefits you’re offering will help you persuade them.
• Persuasion is a complicated skills and is highly dependent on culture.
• We can use Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs to think about what motivates people. If people’s basic needs aren’t met, they won’t be able to do their best work. Maslow actually based his Hierarchy of Needs on the Blackfoot model. In the Blackfoot model, the base is self-actualization, then community actualization, then cultural perpetuity.
• We can use Artistotle’s Rhetorical Triangle to craft a persuasive message. Aristotle believed that an effective message contains ethos (ethics/credibility), pathos (emotion) and logos (logic).
• In “Making Them An Offer They Can’t Refuse,” Jeanie Wills suggests that persuasion is about moving someone from one “role” to another. (From the role of a person who hates pop music to a person who likes one pop music song, for example).
• We can use the Spectrum of Allies model to change the public’s opinion on an issue. People are classified as being active allies, passive allies, neutral, passive opposition or active opposition. After identifying where someone is on the spectrum, you can think about how to move them one step to the left. You might choose not to focus on people who are in active opposition, but focus on making people who are just passively opposed more neutral.
8.08: Activities for Further Reflection
Your instructor may ask you to complete one or more of the following exercises.
1. Choose an advertisement and write a short paragraph identifying ethos, pathos and logos in it.
2. Write a paragraph connecting Brenda Knights’ narrative to the rest of the chapter or to your own experience.
3. Choose three advertisements in three different genres: online ad, print ad, television ad (you can usually find these on Youtube if you don’t have a TV). Write a few paragraphs comparing on how these three ads use ethos, pathos and logos.
4. Choose one of the following scenarios. Then, using the Spectrum of Allies, identify what wedge the person currently occupies, where you’d like to shift them to, and how you’ll get them there.
• You are tired of the cost of living in Vancouver and want to move to Calgary, but your partner likes to be active outdoors and doesn’t want to leave the Vancouver lifestyle.
• Your company has an outdated website that often receives complaints from customers. Unfortunately, the website was made by your coworker Ned. Ned thinks it’s a great website, and is very sensitive to criticism, but he is passionate about new technology and website design.
• Last week, a fire alarm rang in the middle of class and the class missed 45 minutes of instructional time. Because of this, you didn’t get to finish your peer review session. You want to ask your instructor to give you an extra week to work on your assignment so that you can finish the peer review process. This will inconvenience your instructor, but you believe that the class will create better work, which will cut down on their marking time.
Contributors and Attribution
This chapter contains material taken from Introduction to Professional Communications is (c) 2018 by Melissa Ashman and is licensed under a Creative Commons-Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International license.
This chapter also contains material from Beautiful Trouble by Beautiful Trouble, various authors is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/08%3A_Persuading_Your_Reader/8.07%3A_Key_Takeaways.txt |
Photo by Trust “Tru” Katsande on Unsplash.
Learning Objectives
In this section you will:
• Learn the role that sources play in persuasion.
• Develop a research question.
• Narrow your research focus.
• Explore the types of sources you can use and where to find them.
• Learn how to ask effective survey and interview questions.
• Make a source plan.
• Evaluate sources for trustworthiness.
09: The Research Process
Before we begin, consider the following questions. Your instructor may ask you to freewrite about one or more of these questions in your learning journal.
1. Think about the last time that you did research. What kind of research did you do? Were you able to find all the sources you needed? If not, what kind of sources did you struggle to find?
2. How do you use the internet when you research? What kind of sites do you visit? Why?
3. What does academic integrity mean to you?
4. How do you determine what sources to trust online?
5. If you’ve also attended school in a different country, how does that school system teach source use?
9.02: Brenda Knights Narrative
The level of effort I put into research depends on how important the decision is. If it’s something that has a major financial impact to the organization, I will spend more time using academic research to back up what I’m saying. If there’s some resistance to the idea, I’ll take a research-based approach as opposed to a top-down approach. Time is the biggest challenge. We may not have the time and the research may not be available.
In my own Masters program, I’m finding that in Indigenous Studies, there’s not a lot of research and you’re often having to draw on information from around the world. I’ll read research from Australia or New Zealand and it’s often focused on tourism. In the US, it’s focused on casinos. Within Canada, it can be challenging because some of the research is around nations who have incredible land value, and it’s hard to relate it back to my own community.
But I think within those projects, there’s value because even though they’re different, those nations often started from the place my community is currently in. How did they get there? I can recall a report on tourism in Canada in Indigenous communities. I was able to look at the report and see where they got their information, and find older research reports that were more in line with where my community was at. Sometimes I’ll even use those reports to draw out questions I might want to do my own research around. What’s missing here? I’ll look up the names of people who might have been involved, and I’ll go cold-calling. I’ve found that people are really receptive, especially if you’re a student and you’re doing a project. People are happy to talk. That’s often a great way to get new information.
Sometimes you need to do your own digging to find information that’s at the right scale for you. For example, the Maori have amazing tourism programs in New Zealand. We’re not at the stage they’re at, but there are similarities in terms of how they carry it out in an authentic way and what cultural traditions they bring into that environment. Having an inquisitive mind when you’re reading the source, then jotting down questions you might need more information about helps to make the source more relevant. It’s a place to start. It’s not always easy, but I find that in every paper I read, there’s something new, something valuable that I can take and use. You just have to dig through it and find it. Also, it’s okay if the research doesn’t support you. You don’t want to ignore that. Paying attention to research that doesn’t support you will prevent you from going down the wrong path.
I also find that often people’s research questions are too challenging. Research grows over time. Sometimes we want to reach this grandiose conclusion and produce this amazing report, so we come up with a big question, but the information isn’t available yet. Often, we need to back it up a bit. Is it too complex? What research is available, how can we grow this research a little bit, what new question hasn’t been answered? You may have a big idea, but the research isn’t there yet, it may not be our time for the answer to be revealed. So, don’t make it too difficult on yourself. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/09%3A_The_Research_Process/9.01%3A_Questions_for_Reflection.txt |
Imagine that you wake up one morning and are craving a dish from your childhood. You want to make it, but you don’t know how. To get the recipe, you’ll need to do research. Obviously, you won’t have time to sift through the millions of recipes out there to pick the right one, so you’ll narrow your search down based on particular criteria.
If you want the exact dish from your childhood, you might phone up a relative and ask how to make it. But maybe your relative doesn’t use a recipe, and just adds a little of this and a dash of that and you don’t have enough cooking experience to follow along. Or maybe the dish takes days to make, and you want a quicker version, or you want a vegetarian version or a version with cheaper ingredients. You will narrow down your search based on these constraints.
You’ll also evaluate the recipes based on what you know about cooking. You might choose to read a trusted cookbook whose recipes always turn out well, or you might draw on your cooking experience to know that the ratios of a particular recipe are off. You might read reviews. Or, you might combine elements from a couple of recipes to find one that will work for you.
If your dish turns out well, you’ll file this knowledge away and you won’t need to do such extensive searching next time. If it turns out poorly, you’ll figure out what went wrong.
If you’ve ever done something like this, you’ve used the types of research skills we’ll be talking about in this chapter. In the above example, your research task became easier when you understood why you were using sources. You searched out the recipe to fill in a gap in your knowledge. You called a relative because you needed a recipe that tasted exactly like the one from your childhood, or you tried a 30-minute version because speed was the most important factor.
Sometimes, academic and workplace research is difficult because we know we have to use sources, but we don’t always understand why. Why has my teacher told me that I have to use scholarly articles? Why do I have to use 6 – 8 sources? Why does my boss want me to do a survey?
Research in the workplace runs the gamut from looking up Yelp reviews to find a restaurant to host a holiday party to writing reports of several hundred pages that require both extensive primary and secondary research. However you research, being able to find the most useful sources quickly will help you streamline your work. To find the most useful source, you should ask yourself why you’re using sources in the first place.
In the workplace, you’ll use sources to answer questions that you don’t know. Research can:
• Provide a deep look into a narrow topic;
• Provide a broad overview of something you’re just learning about;
• Show you up-to-date information on a topic that changes quickly;
• Save you time by allowing you to build off of someone else’s work;
• Offer a perspective you haven’t considered yet;
• Test your ideas to see if they’re sound;
• Help you solve a problem by showing how someone else solved it;
• Bring together different perspectives so you can consider a problem from all sides;
• Allow you to analyze the opinions of many different people, so you can find trends;
• Show how someone in a different industry, company or location solved a problem;
In this chapter, we’ll learn how to narrow a research question, then find sources that will be help you achieve your purpose.
9.04: Asking Research Questions
Whether you’re writing a paper for a university class or doing workplace research, you’ll be more efficient if you begin with a clear research question. That’s because research questions are more than handy tools; they are essential to the research process. By defining exactly what the researcher is trying to find out, these questions influence most of the rest of the steps taken to conduct the research.
For instance, if you’re seeking information about a health problem in order to learn whether you have anything to worry about, research questions will make it possible for you to more effectively decide whether to seek medical help–and how quickly. Or, if you’re researching a potential employer, having developed and used research questions will mean you’re able to more confidently decide whether to apply for an internship or job there.
The confidence you’ll have when making such decisions will come from knowing that the information they’re based on was gathered by conscious thought rather than luck.
Most of us look for information to answer questions every day, and we often act on the answers to those questions. Are research questions any different from most of the questions for which we seek information? Yes.
Regular Question: What time is my movie showing at Silver City Richmond on Friday?
Research Question: How do “sleeper” films end up having outstanding attendance figures?
Regular Question: What can I do about my insomnia?
Research Question: How do flights more than 16 hours long affect the reflexes of commercial jet pilots?
Regular Question: How many children in Canada have allergies?
Research Question: How does his or her country of birth affect a child’s chances of developing asthma?
Research questions cannot be answered by a quick web search. Answering them involves using more critical thinking than answering regular questions because they seem more debatable. Research questions require more sources of information to answer and, consequently, take more time to answer. They, more often than regular questions, start with the word “How” or “Why.”
That’s why research questions are so key to workplace research. If the answer was easy to find, no one would pay you to find it.
To test your knowledge, sort the following questions into “research questions” and “not research questions.”
Query \(1\) | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/09%3A_The_Research_Process/9.03%3A_Why_Use_Sources.txt |
For many students, having to start with a research question is the biggest difference between how they did research in high school and how they are expected to do research in university and in the workplace. Let’s look at a scenario.
Mina's Story
Mina is doing an internship at a small press. Authors and agents submit children’s books for potential publication and Mina is responsible for reading them all and passing on the most promising ones to the editorial team. One day, the head editor says that she is frustrated by the lack of diversity in the children’s book manuscripts that she is receiving. She asks Mina to do some research about the problem.
Mina isn’t sure where to start. The topic of diversity in children’s book publishing is huge. She begins by doing some background research. A Twitter thread leads her to an article about how 50% of main characters in children’s books are white, 27% are animals, and only 23% are BIPOC characters.[1] Then, she looks at the submission history for her press for the last few months and realizes that the breakdown is pretty similar.
Mina narrows her research question from “diversity in publishing” to “How can our small press encourage more diverse submissions?” Narrowing the question was only possible because she did some initial research. If she’d found that the press received diverse submissions but only accepted books with white main characters, her research focus would be totally different. Her question is now both more manageable (which will save her time) and more useful.
From there, Mina does the following research:
• Reads articles about how other presses have encouraged more diverse applications.
• Follows some popular BIPOC authors on Twitter and learns about some of the challenges they’ve faced in the publishing industry, and interviews a few.
• Discovers that disabled authors face additional barriers and identifies this as an untapped market.
• Interviews a few agents to get their perspective.
• Looks at the website copy for different presses and realizes that her press’ website copy could be more inclusive.
• Writes a short report outlining her findings.
As you can see, a specific research question allowed Mina to save time and also made sure that she was asking the right questions. Mina also kept an open mind throughout the process. She didn’t go looking to prove her own theories, and was open to being surprised. She hadn’t thought about disability, but her research led her to this area. The result: her editor was able to use her research to make positive changes within the press.
Why Narrow a Topic?
Once you have a need for research—say, an assignment—you may need to prowl around a bit online to explore the topic and figure out what you actually want to find out and write about. For instance, maybe your assignment is to develop a poster about “spring” for an introductory horticulture course. The instructor expects you to narrow that topic to something you are interested in and that is related to your class.
Ideas about a narrower topic can come from anywhere. In this case, a narrower topic boils down to deciding what’s interesting to you about “spring” that is related to what you’re learning in your horticulture class and small enough to manage in the time you have.
One way to get ideas would be to read about spring in Wikipedia, looking for things that seem interesting and relevant to your class, and then letting one thing lead to another as you keep reading and thinking about likely possibilities that are more narrow than the enormous “spring” topic. (Be sure to pay attention to the references at the bottom of most Wikipedia pages and pursue any that look interesting. Your instructor is not likely to let you cite Wikipedia, but those references may be citable scholarly sources that you could eventually decide to use.)
Or, instead, if it is spring at the time you could start by just looking around, admire the blooming trees on campus, and decide you’d like your poster to be about bud development on your favourites, the crabapple trees.
Background Reading
When you’re working on university projects it’s wise to do some more reading about that narrower topic once you have it. For one reason, you probably don’t know much about it yet. For another, such reading will help you learn the terms used by experts who have studied your narrower topic. Those terms are certain to be helpful when you’re looking for sources later, so jot them down or otherwise remember them.
For instance, if you were going to do research about the treatment for humans with bird flu, this background reading would teach you that professionals and scholars usually use the term avian influenza instead of bird flu when they write about it. (Often, they also use H1N1 or H1N9 to identify the strain.) If you didn’t learn that, you would miss the kinds of sources you’ll eventually need for your assignment.
This initial reading could cause you to narrow your topic further, which is fine because narrower topics lead to greater specificity for what you have to find out. After this upfront work, you’re ready to start developing the research question(s) you will try to answer.
In the workplace, you may have varying degrees of control over your research question. As you progress in your career, you may spend less time hunting for background information because you’re more familiar with the industry, and because you know where to look for relevant information.
Fuel Your Inspiration
It’s worth remembering that reading, scanning, looking at, and listening to information resources is very useful during any step of the process to develop research questions. Doing so can jog our memories, give us details that will help us focus, and help us connect disparate information–all of which will help us come up with research questions that we find interesting.
Many new communicators are surprised by how much background exploration goes into workplace researching. For example, maybe you’re a graphic designer who’s been asked to create some social media content. Reading graphic design blogs and magazines, checking out graphic designers you admire on Instagram and Twitter, and looking at what companies similar to yours are doing may seem like just browsing for fun, but the process is actually helping you come up with more creative, interesting and useful ideas. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/09%3A_The_Research_Process/9.05%3A_Narrowing_your_Focus.txt |
Once you have your research question, you’ll need information sources to answer it. In today’s complex information landscape, just about anything that contains information can be considered a source.
Here are a few examples:
• books and encyclopedias
• websites, web pages, and blogs
• magazine, journal, and newspaper articles
• research reports and conference papers
• interviews and surveys
• photographs, paintings, cartoons, and other art works
• TV and radio programs, podcasts, movies, and videos
• illuminated manuscripts and artifacts
• bones, minerals, and fossils
• pamphlets and government documents
With so many sources available, the question usually is not whether sources exist for your project but which ones will best meet your information needs. Being able to categorize a source helps you understand the kind of information it contains, which is a big clue to (1) whether might meet one or more of your information needs and (2) where to look for it and similar sources.
A source can be categorized by asking the following questions:
• Why was the source created?
• How will you use the source?
• Who was the original audience of the source?
• What format is the source in?
As you may already be able to tell, sources can be in more than one category at the same time because the categories are not mutually exclusive.
The Purpose of the Source
When you encounter a source, you should ask yourself, “Why does this source exist?” Thinking about the reason an author produced a source can be helpful to you because that reason was what dictated the kind of information they chose to include. Depending on that purpose, the author may have chosen to include factual, analytical information. Or, instead, it may have suited their purpose to include information that was meant to be entertaining. The author’s reason for producing the source also determined whether they included more than one perspective or just their own.
Authors typically want to:
• Inform and educate
• Persuade
• Sell services or products or
• Entertain
An author’s purpose can influence the kind of information they choose to include. Sometimes authors have a combination of purposes, as when a marketer decides he can sell more smart phones with an informative sales video that also entertains us. The same is true when a singer writes and performs a song that entertains us but that she intends to make available for sale.
Why Intent Matters
Authors’ intent matters because their goal will impact what information they include and how they present that information. For instance, when you’re looking for sources that will help you actually decide your answer to your research question or evidence for your answer that you will share with your audience, you will want the author’s main purpose to have been to inform or educate their audience. That’s because, with that intent, they are likely to have used:
• Facts where possible
• Multiple perspectives instead of just their own
• Little subjective information
• Seemingly unbiased, objective language that cites where they got the information
The reason you want that kind of resource when trying to answer your research question or explaining that answer is that all of those characteristics will lend credibility to the argument you are making with your project. Both you and your audience will simply find it easier to believe—will have more confidence in the argument being made—when you include those types of sources.
Sources whose authors intend only to persuade others won’t meet your information need for an answer to your research question or evidence with which to convince your audience. That’s because they don’t always confine themselves to facts. Instead, they tell us their opinions without backing them up with evidence.
It’s especially important to ask the purpose of online sources. Let’s say that you find a social media infographic about the health benefits of elderberry syrup. Someone took the time to create the post. Why did they do that work? Are they trying to sell you elderberry syrup or are they from a government health organization trying to combat misinformation about health supplements? The difference will tell you whether you can trust the source.
How Will You Use the Source?
Another way to categorize information is by the role it will play in your argument. Are you planning on doing analysis on the source or have you chosen the source because someone else has already done some analysis? We call this difference primary vs. secondary sources.
Primary Source – Information in its original form. When you work with primary sources, you provide the interpretation. Some examples are:
• Survey data
• A novel
• Breaking news
• An advertisement
• An eyewitness account
• A painting
• An interview
Secondary Source – Repackaged, restated, or interpretation of primary information. Use secondary sources when you’re interested in the analysis of others. Such as:
• A book about marketing.
• An article that critiques a new piece of software.
• An article or web site that summarizes and synthesizes several eyewitness accounts for a new understanding of an event.
Tertiary Source – An index or something that condenses or summarizes information. Such as:
• Almanacs
• Guide books
• Survey articles
• Timelines
• User guides
• Encyclopedias
The difference between primary, secondary and tertiary can be a little confusing. Think of a primary source as raw materials that you will use to build an argument. You’re the one doing the analysis. For example, let’s say that your company wants to know how to increase the open rates of its email marketing campaign. The data of all of the email open rates from the past year are a primary source. You’ll use this data to look for trends about which emails are most and least popular. If you read a blog post by an expert in email marketing, however, you’re doing secondary research. You’ve chosen the blog posts because you want someone else’s expert opinion. A tertiary source is a source that you use to find other sources. For example, you might look at the Wikipedia entry for ’email marketing’ to find some other reliable sources.
Test Your Knowledge
Understanding the difference between primary and secondary sources is crucial to developing a source plan. Let’s say that you run a small company. Lately, your employees have been unmotivated. You don’t have a human resources department, so you want to do some research about the source of the employees’ lack of motivation. Sort the sources by primary or secondary.
Query \(1\)
Who Was the Intended Audience?
We can also categorize information by the expertise of its intended audience. Considering the intended audience–how expert one has to be to understand the information—can indicate whether the source has sufficient credibility and thoroughness to meet your needs. When you’re writing papers in university, academic articles are usually the best source. In the workplace, however, you may be researching something that doesn’t have many peer-reviewed articles about it yet or you may only need a basic understanding of the topic.
There are varying degrees of expertise:
Popular – Popular newspaper and magazine articles (such as The National Post, Maclean’s Magazine, and Rolling Stone) are meant for a large general audience, generally affordable, easy to purchase or available for free. They are written by staff writers or reporters for the general public.
Professional – Professional magazine articles (such as Plastic Surgical Nursing and Music Teacher) are meant for people in a particular profession, often accessible through a professional organization. Staff writers or other professionals in the targeted field write these articles at a level and with the language to be understood by everyone in the profession.
Additionally, they are:
• About trends and news from the targeted field, book reviews, and case studies.
• Often less than 10 pages, some of which may contain footnotes and references.
• Usually published by professional associations and commercial publishers
• Published after approval from an editor.
Scholarly – Scholarly journal articles (such as Plant Science and Education and Child Psychology) are meant for scholars, students, or the general public who want a deep understanding of a problem or issue. Researchers and scholars write these articles to present new knowledge and further understanding of their field of study.
Additionally, they are:
• Where findings of research projects, data and analytics, and case studies usually appear first.
• Often long (usually over 10 pages) and always include footnotes and references.
• Usually published by universities, professional associations, and commercial publishers.
• Published after approval by peer review or from the journal’s editor.
The most-respected scholarly journals are peer-reviewed, which means that other experts in their field check out each article before it can be published. It’s their responsibility to help guarantee that new material is presented in the context of what is already known, that the methods the researcher used are the right ones, and that the articles contribute to the field.
Peer-reviewed articles are more likely to be credible. Peer-reviewed journal articles are the official scholarly record, which means that if it’s an important development in research, it will probably turn up in a journal article eventually. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/09%3A_The_Research_Process/9.06%3A_Types_of_Sources.txt |
In the next section, we’ll learn how to locate secondary sources. Often, however, your workplace research will ask you to create original research, such as conducting interviews and surveys. The quality of the data you get will depend on the questions you ask and the planning you do.
Conducting Ethical Research
If you conduct scholarly research, such as research that will be published in a peer-reviewed journal, you’ll first have to get approval from a Research Ethics Board. This board will ensure that your research will be beneficial, and won’t harm anyone. Unless you’re a specialized researcher, you likely won’t need research ethics board approval in the workplace. That doesn’t mean, however, that you shouldn’t consider ethics.
To conduct research ethically, you should consider the risk you’re placing your participants under. Specifically, you can consider:
• How might my research cause harm?
• How can I limit this harm?
Harm doesn’t just mean that the person will be physically injured. Even simple-seeming survey and interview questions can expose people to risk. For example, say you work in H.R. and you’re designing a survey to solicit feedback from a team about their manager. If your survey isn’t carefully designed to preserve anonymity and circulated with care, the manager could figure out who said a particular piece of negative feedback and retaliate against the person who said it.
Minimizing harm also extends to emotional harm. If you’re going to ask sensitive questions that might upset someone, you should notify them in advance so that they can decide if they want to answer these questions. Survey and interview participants should also be able to opt out from answering questions.
You should also take care to store survey data safely. For example, if your workplace receives government funding, you may not be allowed to store client data on servers outside of Canada.
Surveys vs. Interviews
When deciding what type of primary research to do, you should consider your purpose. In general, interviews give you qualitative data. That’s data that can’t be measured and is often descriptive. For example, you might interview someone whose career you admire to get career advice about how to become a business analyst. Surveys give you quantitative data: data that can be measured. For example, you might do a survey of 100 business analysts to find out what percentage of them are happy with their jobs.
Asking Useful Questions
Whether you’re doing a survey or an interview, you’ll want to think carefully about the questions you ask. When you design your questions you should:
• Have a clear purpose: For example, if you want to confirm what you already know or sort survey participants into categories, you would ask a closed question, such as “Have you shopped at our store in the past month?” Closed questions can be answered with a yes or no. If you want a detailed answer, you should use an open-ended question. These are questions that begin with Who, What, Where, When, How or Why, and require more detailed responses.
• Research in advance: Knowing what questions to ask usually takes experience or research. For example, if you have an informational interview with a business analyst to get career advice and you’ve only got 30 minutes with her, you’ll want to make those count. Doing a bit of research, such as reading her bio on the company website or checking out her LinkedIn profile or social media presence, will all you to ask more useful, specific questions. Instead of asking, “What university did you go to?” you could ask, “What was your experience like with UBC’s program? Would you recommend it?”
• Keep it simple: Especially if you’re doing a survey, ask clear, simple questions. Make sure to only ask one question at a time. Show your questions to a colleague and revise them to make sure that they can be easily understood. If some participants misunderstand your question, your data will be skewed.
• Word your questions neutrally: Remember: you’re researching to find out something new, not confirm what you want to hear. Neutral questions don’t make assumptions and are open to a wide range of answers. For example, in 2019, The White House released a survey that asked the question “Do you believe that the media is engaging in a witch hunt to take down President Trump?” It’s clear which way the people who made the survey wanted participants to answer.
It can be tricky to word questions neutrally. Practice your skills by sorting questions into ‘neutral’ or ‘biased.’
Query \(1\) | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/09%3A_The_Research_Process/9.07%3A_Conducting_Interviews_and_Surveys.txt |
Once you know the types of sources you’re looking for, it’s time to find them.
Conducting Effective Online Searches
The Internet is filled with sources: some of them useful, some of them not. Watch this short video to learn how to effectively find information on a search engine such as Google.
Finding Scholarly Articles
Most scholarly articles are housed in specialized databases. Libraries (public, school, or company) often provide access to scholarly databases by paying a subscription fee for patrons. For instance, KPU Libraries provide access to several databases available free to people affiliated with the University. You can search for a journal title or view a list of databases by subject in these databases.
Databases that aren’t subject-specific are called general databases. Google Scholar is a free general scholarly database available to all who have access to the Internet.
Searching Databases
Sometimes, a little knowledge about how to do precise searches can save you a lot of time. To find relevant sources when searching Google or a research database you should.
1. Identify the main concepts in your research question. Stick to nouns. For example, if your research question was “How are students affected by the Vancouver Housing Crisis?” your main concepts would be ‘housing crisis’ and ‘students.’
2. Find related search terms. You might choose to use a thesaurus for this. For example, you might search for “affordability crisis” or (if you have discovered that some students have faced homelessness because they were unable to afford a place to live) “homelessness” or “housing vulnerability.”
3. Try using subject headings instead of keywords. When you visit the KPU library, you will see subject guides for different topics. You can also search for subject headings within databases.
4. When searching in databases (or Google) us quotation marks around phrases to make your search more specific. For example, you would search for “common cold” so you don’t get info on cold war or cold weather.
5. Use wildcard and truncation symbols to broaden your search. For example, if you type “wom?n” into a search engine, it will show results for “woman’ and “women.” If you type “mathemat*” into a search engine, it will show results for both “mathematician” and “mathematics.”
6. Use phrases like “and” and “not” to make your search more specific. For example, if you were searching a job board to try to find a job as a network administrator, but you kept finding positions as a network manager, you might search for “network administrator NOT manager.”
News as a Source
News sources can provide insights that scholarly sources may not or that will take a long time to get into scholarly sources. For instance, news sources are excellent for finding out people’s reactions, opinions, and prevailing attitudes around the time of an event.
When Are News Sources Helpful?
• You need breaking news or historical perspectives on a topic (what people were saying at the time).
• You need to learn more about a culture, place, or time period from its own sources.
• You want to keep up with what is going in the world today.
When Are News Sources of Limited Use?
• You need very detailed analysis by experts.
• You need sources that must be scholarly or modern views on a historical topic.
Other Types of Sources
News articles are typically written by journalists who are experts in investigating and get paid for their work. Usually, journalists will work with an editor to make sure that their work is accurate and fair. Depending on your topic, however, you might seek sources such as:
• Social media posts: Sometimes, experts in a subject will engage in public scholarship over Twitter or social media platforms. For example, professional historians will often share their work with the public on Twitter by relating current events to historical moments. The benefit of this type of scholarship is that it can be very current, and you can often see different scholars interact with one another. The downside is, however, that this information hasn’t been vetted by anyone. You may be witnessing an expert’s “rough draft” thoughts, and they might change their mind based on new information or the peer review process. To know if you should trust a social media post, you’ll also have to know a lot about who’s posting and if they’re credible.
• Blog posts: Though blogging is less popular now than it once was, blogs are still a great way to find out current information about a topic in a format that’s more detailed than social media allows for. For example, a cybersecurity expert might tweet about a new threat, but they might then write a blog post that outlines their concerns more explicitly and provides extensive proof. Remember that blogs are not vetted by an editor, and often bloggers have a motivation to sell products or services.
• Archives: If your topic involves the past, you might check out an archive. Many museums make their collections available online through archives. The B.C. Archives offers maps, photographs, letters and much more. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/09%3A_The_Research_Process/9.08%3A_Fantastic_Sources_and_Where_to_Find_Them.txt |
Your Source Plan
Okay, so once you know what kinds of sources you need to meet your information needs, where should you look for them? Once more, thinking about categories can help.
Where sources are located is generally organized by audience expertise level—by whether they are popular, professional, or scholarly sources. Popular and professional are often grouped together. But scholarly sources tend to hang out by themselves. (That’s why searching Google Scholar locates more of them than just plain old Google, and an academic library has more scholarly sources than a public library.)
Before you start looking, try the Plan for Sources table below along with the suggestions made in this section to think through what sources you’ll need for your own research project. Having your Plan for Sources always at your side while you search for sources will guide where you look and what you’re willing to accept. It will help you keep track of whether you have found the right resources.
You can download the table at http://go.osu.edu/planforsources, then fill it out. Using this table doesn’t mean you can’t change your mind if you later find another kind of resource that looks too good to pass up. But making a plan first will insure that you don’t just grab any resource you come across. The few minutes you take to complete the table will save you time later. And it’s nice to have a plan all in one place that you can put into action!
Image Description
Figure 9.2 image description: This plan for sources allows students to identify their information needs, the kind of sources they’ll need, the publication formats and where to look. This will make a source plan.
9.10: What if You can't find Sources for Your Topic
As a college librarian, Patricia Knapp worked with many students who were new to academic research and writing. She observed that beginning students often “have a basic misconception of the function” of research: “they look for and expect to find ‘the answer to the question’ instead of evidence to be examined” (as quoted in Kuhlthau, 10).
Don’t worry if you’ve ever harboured the mistaken belief that research is all about finding the perfect source, a book or article that completely answers your research question. Experienced researchers fall into that way of thinking, too! But they’re also able to step back and rethink their approach to a research question–they’re able to “divide and conquer.” Here’s an example:
Our research question is: How can virtual teams be implemented at Pixar Animation Studios?
You might want to dive right into a library database to find “the answer” to the question, with a search like this:
“virtual teams” AND Pixar
And you might think that such a search will find a ready-made answer to the research question, as represented in this Venn diagram:
But the facts are: a) probably no one has ever published an article about virtual teams at Pixar, so the search would yield zero results, and b) research isn’t about finding “the answer”–it’s about finding ideas and facts you can use to create your own answer.
You should divide the question into two parts, in order to conquer it:
1. First research virtual teams (their challenges, best practices, etc.).
2. Next research Pixar (its mission, corporate culture, etc.).
Accordingly, your two separate database searches might look like this:
1. “virtual teams” AND (challenges OR “best practices”)
2. Pixar AND “corporate culture”
A journal article that you might choose from the first search is by Soo Jeoung Han et al., “How Virtual Team Leaders Cope with Creativity Challenges,” in which the authors study ways that creativity can be fostered in virtual teams. From your second search, you might use an article from Harvard Business Review by Pixar cofounder Ed Catmull, “How Pixar Fosters Collective Creativity.”
By putting these two texts—Han et al. and Catmull—into conversation, you can begin to develop your own argument about how virtual teams could be implemented at Pixar. You might begin with the observation that, according to Han et al., the qualities of an effective creative team are the same, whether it is a virtual or an in-person team. Because, as Catmull notes, Pixar already has such a strong team culture, the company would be well positioned to implement virtual teams: they have formed close relationships, strive to create a space where it’s safe to bring up new ideas or critique others’ ideas, and group members at all levels of the company support one another and take on leadership roles. You could lay out some of the promising parallels between Han et al.’s key findings and the vibrant group culture at Pixar.
Once you’ve started putting the two texts into dialogue, you would probably see more connections. For instance, one of Han et al.’s most interesting claims is that using state-of-the-art technology to communicate can be a motivating factor in itself. Catmull tells us that, at Pixar, “Technology inspires art, and art challenges the technology” (71). Given the fascination with technology at Pixar, members of virtual teams would be motivated to participate because of the opportunity to experiment with the newest forms of digital communication.
By orchestrating an interplay between your two sources, putting them in dialogue with each other and with your own ideas, you can offer an original analysis. “Conquering” your paper means offering this analysis—your thinking, visible on the page. This is what professors—and all genuinely interested readers—want to see.
Speaking again in Venn, the process of creating your own answer to the research question looks like this:
Divide:
Conquer:
The rhetorician Kenneth Burke famously described academic writing as a conversation that has been taking place among various authors, across time, on a given topic; it’s your job as an academic writer to add something new to this conversation. You may think of academic writing and creative writing as completely separate, especially if you’ve been taught to exclude your own voice and opinions from school papers. But when you “divide and conquer,” looking for evidence that can help you to contribute an original idea, academic writing is creative. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/09%3A_The_Research_Process/9.09%3A_Making_a_Source_Plan.txt |
Once you’ve located your sources, you have to determine whether or not you can trust them. The wrong sources can weaken the ethos of your argument, so it’s important to fact check your sources thoroughly.
In this section, we’ll provide two models: The CRAAP test, and the SIFT test. You can choose which one you feel is most helpful. The CRAAP test shows you a series of questions you can ask yourself to determine whether you a piece of information is trustworthy and useful. The SIFT test is a series of “moves” you will take to evaluate information.
The CRAAP Test
Sarah Blakeslee and the librarians at California State University, Chico, came up with the CRAAP Test to help researchers easily determine whether a source is trustworthy. You can download a handout that explains the CRAAP test here.
There are five parts to the CRAAP Test:
• CURRENCY: When was the information published? For some topics, it’s okay if you use an older source. For example, if you want to know what DNA is, it’s okay if the source was published five years ago. But, if you’re researching what the latest DNA discoveries, a five-year-old source wouldn’t be helpful.
• RELEVANCE: Does this information meet your needs? For example, an article aimed at educating young children about DNA would probably not be a relevant source if you work for a tech firm and are writing a report about whether to acquire some DNA technology. It’s okay if a source isn’t perfectly relevant to your research question, since that’s where analysis comes in. For example, if you were researching the Housing Crisis in Vancouver, you might read about how expensive cities like San Francisco and Hong Kong are dealing with their own housing crises in order to get ideas.
• AUTHORITY: Who wrote this information? Your source should be written by someone who has the authority to speak on the matter. For example, you might come across a blog that offers natural health remedies for cancer or depression written by someone who says they’re a doctor. If they’re a doctor because they have a PhD in English Literature, however, then they wouldn’t have the authority to offer medical advice. (You would, however, be able to trust their opinion on depictions of natural remedies in novels). To determine how trustworthy an online source is, you can also look at the URL. If it comes from a .gov or .edu website, you would probably trust it.
• ACCURACY: How reliable or trustworthy is the information? Specifically, you should examine how the source uses evidence. Does the source link to other trustworthy sources? Does the source support its claims with evidence? How reliable is that evidence?Tip: If you’re not sure whether a source is reliable, try Googling the source’s claim plus “criticism” or “hoax.” For example, if you read that baking soda cures cancer, you should Google “baking soda cancer cure hoax.” Sometimes, untrustworthy websites take up the top spots in Google, so if you simple Google “baking soda cancer cure,” you’ll find other untrustworthy websites telling the same lies.
• PURPOSE: Why was this information published? You should be able to identify how the author benefitted from publishing this information. Specifically, consider how the author makes money from putting this information out there. Sources that make money aren’t necessarily untrustworthy, but following the money gives you a clue if the author in
The SIFT Test
The SIFT test was developed by Mike Caulfield. Instead of giving you a list to think about, it gives you some practical steps you can take to figure out if you can trust a source.
Stop
The first move is the simplest. STOP reminds you of two things.
First, when you first hit a page or post and start to read it — STOP. Ask yourself whether you know the website or source of the information, and what the reputation of both the claim and the website is. If you don’t have that information, use the other moves to get a sense of what you’re looking at. Don’t read it or share media until you know what it is.
Second, after you begin to use the other moves it can be easy to go down a rabbit hole, going off on tangents only distantly related to your original task. If you feel yourself getting overwhelmed in your fact-checking efforts, STOP and take a second to remember your purpose. If you just want to repost, read an interesting story, or get a high-level explanation of a concept, it’s probably good enough to find out whether the publication is reputable. If you are doing deep research of your own, you may want to chase down individual claims in a newspaper article and independently verify them.
Please keep in mind that both sorts of investigations are equally useful. Quick and shallow investigations will form most of what we do on the web. We get quicker with the simple stuff in part so we can spend more time on the stuff that matters to us. But in either case, stopping periodically and reevaluating our reaction or search strategy is key.
Investigate the source
We’ll go into this move more on the next page. But idea here is that you want to know what you’re reading before you read it.
Now, you don’t have to do a Pulitzer prize-winning investigation into a source before you engage with it. But if you’re reading a piece on economics by a Nobel prize-winning economist, you should know that before you read it. Conversely, if you’re watching a video on the many benefits of milk consumption that was put out by the dairy industry, you want to know that as well.
This doesn’t mean the Nobel economist will always be right and that the dairy industry can’t be trusted. But knowing the expertise and agenda of the source is crucial to your interpretation of what they say. Taking sixty seconds to figure out where media is from before reading will help you decide if it is worth your time, and if it is, help you to better understand its significance and trustworthiness.
Find trusted coverage
Sometimes you don’t care about the particular article or video that reaches you. You care about the claim the article is making. You want to know if it is true or false. You want to know if it represents a consensus viewpoint, or if it is the subject of much disagreement.
In this case, your best strategy may be to ignore the source that reached you, and look for trusted reporting or analysis on the claim. If you get an article that says koalas have just been declared extinct from the Save the Koalas Foundation, your best bet might not be to investigate the source, but to go out and find the best source you can on this topic, or, just as importantly, to scan multiple sources and see what the expert consensus seems to be. In these cases we encourage you to “find other coverage” that better suits your needs — more trusted, more in-depth, or maybe just more varied. In lesson two we’ll show you some techniques to do this sort of thing very quickly.
Do you have to agree with the consensus once you find it? Absolutely not! But understanding the context and history of a claim will help you better evaluate it and form a starting point for future investigation.
Trace claims, quotes, and media back to the original context
Much of what we find on the internet has been stripped of context. Maybe there’s a video of a fight between two people with Person A as the aggressor. But what happened before that? What was clipped out of the video and what stayed in? Maybe there’s a picture that seems real but the caption could be misleading. Maybe a claim is made about a new medical treatment based on a research finding — but you’re not certain if the cited research paper really said that.
In these cases we’ll have you trace the claim, quote, or media back to the source, so you can see it in it’s original context and get a sense if the version you saw was accurately presented.
It’s about REcontextualizing
There’s a theme that runs through all of these moves: they are about reconstructing the necessary context to read, view, or listen to digital content effectively.
One piece of context is who the speaker or publisher is. What’s their expertise? What’s their agenda? What’s their record of fairness or accuracy? So we investigate the source. Just as when you hear a rumor you want to know who the source is before reacting, when you encounter something on the web you need the same sort of context.
When it comes to claims, a key piece of context includes whether they are broadly accepted or rejected or something in-between. By scanning for other coverage you can see what the expert consensus is on a claim, learn the history around it, and ultimately land on a better source.
Finally, when evidence is presented with a certain frame — whether a quote or a video or a scientific finding — sometimes it helps to reconstruct the original context in which the photo was taken or research claim was made. It can look quite different in context!
In some cases these techniques will show you claims are outright wrong, or that sources are legitimately “bad actors” who are trying to deceive you. But in the vast majority of cases they do something just as important: they reestablish the context that the web so often strips away, allowing for more fruitful engagement with all digital information. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/09%3A_The_Research_Process/9.11%3A_Evaluating_Sources.txt |
A Final Note
In the workplace, research is a messy process. It’s okay if you encounter some stumbling blocks, if your research doesn’t tell you what you want to hear, or if you initially struggle to find sources. To get a sense of just how frustrating research can be, check out this episode of the podcast Reply All, which follows a journalist trying to figure out why a woman in New Jersey is getting strange calls to her office phone number. It’s a great example of formulating a specific research question, then using multiple methods to answer it.
Key Takeaways
• In the workplace, the amount of research you’ll do depends on the amount of time you have and the importance of the topic.
• Having a clear research question will save you time. You may have to do some background research before you find your actual research question.
• Being aware of the role the source will play in your argument will help you find appropriate sources. You can create a source plan to organize your research.
• To do an effective online search, identify the main concepts in your research. Stick to nouns. Then, find related search terms. Use quotation marks around phrases to make your search more specific. You can also use wildcard symbols and phrases like ‘and’ and ‘not’ to refine your search.
• If you can’t find sources on your topic, try the divide and conquer approach.
• To determine how useful a source is, you can evaluate it according to the CRAAP test. When evaluating online sources, it’s especially important to determine whether the person has the authority to speak on the topic and whether the ideas have been supported with evidence.
• Research is messy. It’s okay if you end up changing your mind based on new research.
9.13: Activities for Further Reflection
Your instructor may ask you to complete one or more of the following exercises.
1. Log in to Facebook or Twitter and try to find a political or health-related claim. Evaluate this claim according to the CRAAP test. Write a paragraph about your findings.
2. If you’re taking more than one class, see if you can blend what you’re studying this week in two different classes into one thesis by using the “divide and conquer” method. For example, if you’re studying psychographic targeting in your marketing class and corporate social responsibility in your public relations class, you might write a research question that asks “Is all psychographic targeting ethical?”
3. Write a paragraph connecting Brenda Knights’ narrative to the rest of the chapter or to your own experience.
Works Cited:
Burke, Kenneth. The Philosophy of Literary Form: Studies in Symbolic Action. New York: Vintage, 1957.
Catmull, Ed. “How Pixar Fosters Collective Creativity.” Harvard Business Review, vol. 86, no. 9, Sept. 2008, pp. 64-72. EBSCOhost.
Han, Soo Jeoung, et al. “How Virtual Team Leaders Cope with Creativity Challenges.” European Journal of Training & Development, vol. 41, no. 3, Apr. 2017, pp. 261-276. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1108/EJTD-10-2016-0073.
Kuhlthau, C. C. Seeking meaning: A process approach to library and information services. 2nd ed., Libraries Unlimited, 2004.
Contributors and Attributions
This chapter contains material from Choosing and Using Sources: A Guide To Academic Research by the Ohio State University Libraries, which is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
This chapter also contains material from Divide and Conquer: Rethinking Your Research Sources , which is available from WritingCommons.org and is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license.
This chapter also contains material from SIFT: The Four Moves, which is licensed under a CC-BY 4.0 license. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/09%3A_The_Research_Process/9.12%3A_Key_Takeaways.txt |
Photo by Jo Szczepanska on Unsplash
Learning Objectives
In this section you will:
• Explore the difference between workplace and academic citation.
• Learn what academic integrity is.
• Learn why we cite.
• Learn some strategies for citing, including in-text citation and references.
• the Ideal Gas Law
10: 10a- Citing Sources
Before we begin, consider the following questions. Your instructor may ask you to freewrite about one or more of these questions in your learning journal.
1. What kind of sources have you used in the workplace? How has this differed from the kind of sources you’ve used in school?
2. Why do you think the rules that we have around source use exist? Why do we cite sources?
3. How does your culture handle using other people’s ideas and words? Who “owns” an idea? How do you respectfully use someone’s words?
4. What questions do you have about citation?
5. What’s your definition of “academic integrity?”
6. Do you think that the rules of “academic integrity” apply to the workplace?
10.02: Karan's Story
When Karan studied in India, he wasn’t expected to cite. When he started studying in Canada, he was surprised by the length of the writing assignments. He didn’t know how to use sources, so he copied and pasted a few paragraphs into his assignment and hoped he’d done it right.
He was worried when his teacher asked to meet with him. She said that he’d plagiarized, and that he could get into a lot of trouble. Luckily, Karan’s teacher decided to help him and not report him. She explained that in North American schools, you must distinguish between what words are yours and what come from the source, and what ideas are yours and what come from the source. Karan learned to use quotation marks to show what words came from the source, and to paraphrase by never looking directly at the source.
10.03: Workplace vs. Academic Citation
In this chapter, we’ll tackle how to use sources ethically, analyze them and combine them into an effective argument.
But first: a note about the difference between workplace citation and academic citation.
In the workplace, you may often find yourself using your colleague’s words without crediting them. For example, your boss might ask you to write a grant application using text from previous grant applications. Many people might work on the same document or you might update a document written by someone else.
In the workplace, your employer usually owns the writing you produce, so workplace writing often doesn’t cite individual authors (though contributors are usually named in an Acknowledgements section if it’s a large project/report). That doesn’t mean that you should take credit for someone else’s work, but in general a lot of sharing and remixing goes on within an organization.
For example, say that you work in HR and have been asked to launch a search for a new IT manager. You might use a template to design the job posting or update copy of the ad you posted the last time you hired someone for this role. No one would expect you to come up with an entirely new job posting just because it was originally written by someone who’s left the company.
That said, writers in the workplace often use a wide range of sources to build their ethos. Citation is not only an ethical practice, but it is also a great persuasive strategy. The citation practices you learn in school will therefore serve you well in the workplace.
In school in North America, the context is different. Your instructor has given you an assignment to evaluate how well you can perform skills like integrating research, citing, quoting and paraphrasing. Unless your instructor specifically tells you otherwise, they will assume that you wrote everything in your assignment, unless you use quotation marks.
Image Description
Figure 10a.1 image description: In this XKCD comic, a stick figure is talking into a podium that has an American flag on it and is decorated with stars. A stick figure in the crowd holds up a sign that says ‘citation needed.’ | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/10%3A_10a-_Citing_Sources/10.01%3A_Questions_for_Reflection.txt |
Before we talk about how to cite, let’s take a minute to think about the stakes. Unfortunately, citation an area where the stakes are high during your university career. As a student, you’re expected to learn by making mistakes. But unfortunately, citation mistakes can be costly. In this chapter, we’re going to avoid taking a punishing approach to source use, but we need to be aware that plagiarism or citation errors can have heavy consequences for students who commit what are called academic integrity violations.
Different universities have different definitions. Here is the definition we use at Kwantlen Polytechnic University:
The University ascribes to the highest standards of academic integrity. Adhering to these standards of academic integrity means observing the values on which good academic work must be founded: honesty, trust, fairness, respect, and responsibility. Students are expected to conduct themselves in a manner consistent with these values. These standards of academic integrity require Students to not engage in or tolerate Integrity Violations, including falsification, misrepresentation or deception, as such acts violate the fundamental ethical principles of the University community and compromise the worth of work completed by others.[1]
You can read the full policy here.
In other words, you must take full responsibility for your work, acknowledge your own efforts, and acknowledge the contributions of others’ efforts. Working/ writing with integrity requires accurately representing what you contributed as well as acknowledging how others have influenced your work. When you are a student, an accurate representation of your knowledge is important because it will allow both you and your professors to know the extent to which you have developed as a scholar.
It’s worth noting that other cultures have different – equally valid – definitions of academic integrity. By making you aware of what we mean by academic integrity in this context, you can be aware of the expectations that are being placed on you.
What Is Plagiarism?
Let’s take a look at a common definition of plagiarism. This one comes from Ohio State University’s First Year Experience Office:
At any stage of the writing process, all academic work submitted to the teacher must be a result of a student’s own thought, research or self-expression. When a student submits work purporting to be [their] own, but which in any way borrows organization, ideas, wording or anything else from a source without appropriate acknowledgment of the fact, [they are] engaging in plagiarism.
Plagiarism can be intentional (knowingly using someone else’s work and presenting it as your own) or unintentional (inaccurately or inadequately citing ideas and words from a source). It may be impossible for your professor to determine whether plagiarized work was intentional or unintentional.
While academic integrity calls for work resulting from your own effort, scholarship requires that you learn from others. So in the world of “academic scholarship” you are actually expected to learn new things from others AND come to new insights on your own. There is an implicit understanding that as a student you will be both using other’s knowledge as well as your own insights to create new scholarship. To do this in a way that meets academic integrity standards you must acknowledge the part of your work that develops from others’ efforts. You do this by citing the work of others. You plagiarize when you fail to acknowledge the work of others and do not follow appropriate citation guidelines. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/10%3A_10a-_Citing_Sources/10.04%3A_What_is_Academic_Integrity.txt |
Imagine that you’ve just arrived for a meeting about a group project. You and your classmate Chad are early, so you chat about the project.
“I think we should do our project about how small businesses can take advantage of green technology tax incentives,” you say.
“That’s a great idea,” says Chad.
The rest of your group members arrive, and you begin to brainstorm ideas for your project. Before you can share your idea, however, Chad speaks up.
“I’ve been thinking that we should do something about green technology tax incentives. Maybe we could write about the ways small businesses can benefit,” he says.
Everyone thinks it’s a great idea and compliments Chad on coming up with it.
If this happened to you, how would you feel? Probably, you would feel angry that Chad had taken your idea and passed it off as his own, even if he didn’t use your exact words. Would you feel differently if Chad had told the group that it was your idea? Probably, right?
Citing is basically giving credit. If your source is well-cited, you’ve told the audience whose ideas/words belong to whom and exactly where to go to find those words.
Think of citation as a way of saying thank you. Lots of scholars, like Jesse Stommel and Pete Rorabaugh, say that it’s easier to understand citation when you think of it as saying thank you to those who have given you great ideas. In a blog post, Stommel says no one has truly original ideas, but that we should practice “citation, generosity, connection, and collaboration” to work with sources ethically. [1] .
Why Cite Sources?
There are many good reasons to cite sources.
To Avoid Plagiarism & Maintain Academic Integrity
Misrepresenting your academic achievements by not giving credit to others indicates a lack of academic integrity. This is not only looked down upon by the scholarly community, but it is also punished. When you are a student this could mean a failing grade or even expulsion from the university.
To Acknowledge the Work of Others
One major purpose of citations is to simply provide credit where it is due. When you provide accurate citations, you are acknowledging both the hard work that has gone into producing research and the person(s) who performed that research.
To Provide Credibility to Your Work & to Place Your Work in Context
Providing accurate citations puts your work and ideas into an academic context. They tell your reader that you’ve done your research and know what others have said about your topic. Not only do citations provide context for your work but they also lend credibility and authority to your claims.
For example, if you’re researching and writing about sustainability and construction, you should cite experts in sustainability, construction, and sustainable construction in order to demonstrate that you are well-versed in the most common ideas in the fields. Although you can make a claim about sustainable construction after doing research only in that particular field, your claim will carry more weight if you can demonstrate that your claim can be supported by the research of experts in closely related fields as well.
Citing sources about sustainability and construction as well as sustainable construction demonstrates the diversity of views and approaches to the topic. Further, proper citation also demonstrates the ways in which research is social: no one researches in a vacuum—we all rely on the work of others to help us during the research process.
To Help Your Future Researching Self & Other Researchers Easily Locate Sources
Having accurate citations will help you as a researcher and writer keep track of the sources and information you find so that you can easily find the source again. Accurate citations may take some effort to produce, but they will save you time in the long run. So think of proper citation as a gift to your future researching self!
Ethical Citation Beyond Giving Credit
Citation is also a time to think about what kind of sources you value and who you cite. One way to ensure that you have a thorough view of the issue is to look intentionally for scholars from diverse backgrounds and perspectives. Sometimes, when you’re busy, it’s easy to reach for the first few sources that pop up in the database. But if all of these scholars are of the same demographic, (for example, if they’re all white males between 45 and 60), you’re likely missing an important perspective. Being intentional about who you cite will help you do more thorough analysis.
Other Challenges in Citing Sources
Besides the clarifications and difficulties around citing that we have already considered, there are additional challenges that might make knowing when and how to cite difficult for you.
You Learned How to Write In A Different School System.
Citation practices are not universal. Different countries and cultures approach using sources in different ways. If you’re new to the Canadian school system, you might have learned a different way of citing. For example, some countries have a more communal approach to sources. Others see school as “not real life,” so you don’t need to cite sources in the same way that you would on the job.
Arley’s note: If you’re not sure if you have citation right, you can always show me a draft.
Not Really Understanding the Material You’re Using
If you are working in a new field or subject area, you might have difficulty understanding the information from other scholars, thus making it difficult to know how to paraphrase or summarize that work properly. It can be tempting to change just one or two words in a sentence, but this is still plagiarism.
Running Out of Time
When you are a student taking many classes, working and/or taking care of family members, it may be hard to devote the time needed to doing good scholarship and accurately representing the sources you have used. Research takes time. The sooner you can start and the more time you can devote to it, the better your work will be.
Shifting Cultural Expectations of Citation
Let’s be honest: citation was WAY easier before the Internet came along. Most citation systems were created before the Internet, which is how we end up with strange work-arounds like having to count the paragraph numbers of an online source. Because of new technologies that make finding, using and sharing information easier, many of our cultural expectations around how to do that are changing as well. For example, blog posts often “reference” other articles or works by simply linking to them. It makes it easy for the reader to see where the author’s ideas have come from and to view the source very quickly. In these more informal writings, blog authors do not have a list of citations (bibliographic entries). The links do the work for them. This is a great strategy for online digital mediums, but this method fails over time when links break and there are no hints (like an author, title and date) to know how else to find the reference, which might have moved.
This example of a cultural change of expectations in the non-academic world might make it seem that there has been a change in academic scholarship as well, or might make people new to academic scholarship even less familiar with citation. But in fact, the expectations around citing sources in academic research remain formal. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/10%3A_10a-_Citing_Sources/10.05%3A_What_is_Citing.txt |
Ok, so now we know why we cite, so let’s learn how to cite. Citation and source use are all about balance. If you don’t use enough sources, you might struggle to make a thorough argument. If you cite too much, you won’t leave room for your own voice in your piece.
To illustrate this point, think of a lawyer arguing a case in a trial. If the lawyer just talks to the jury and doesn’t call any witnesses, they probably won’t win the case. After all, a lawyer isn’t an expert in forensics or accident reconstruction or Internet fraud. The lawyer also wasn’t there when the incident occurred. That’s where witnesses come in. The witnesses have knowledge that the lawyer doesn’t.
But if the lawyer just lets the witnesses talk and sits there quietly, they’ll likely also lose the case. That’s because the lawyer is the one who’s making the overall argument. The lawyer asks the witnesses questions and shows how the testimony of different witnesses piece together to prove the case.
To cite sources, you should make two things clear:
• The difference between your words and the source’s words.
• The difference between your ideas and the source’s ideas.
This diagram illustrates the difference:
Attributing A Source’s Words
When you quote someone in your document, you’re basically passing the microphone to them. Inviting another voice into your piece means that the way that person said something is important. Maybe that person is an expert and their words are a persuasive piece of evidence. Maybe you’re using the words as an example. Either way, you’ll likely do some sort of analysis on the quote.
When you use the source’s words, put quotation marks around them. This creates a visual separation between what you say and what your source says. You also don’t just want to drop the quote into the document with no explanation. Instead, you should build a “frame” around the quote by explaining who said it and why it’s important. In short, you surround the other person’s voice with your own voice.
Tip: The longer the source, the more analysis you’re likely going to do.
Here’s an example of a way to integrate a quote within a paragraph.
According to Haudenosaunee writer Alicia Elliot, “We know our cultures have meaning and worth, and that culture lives and breathes inside our languages.” (2019, pg. 18) Here, Elliot shows that when Indigenous people have the opportunity to learn Indigenous languages, which for generations were intentionally suppressed by the Canadian government, they can connect with their culture in a new way.
As you can see, Elliot’s words are important. If you tried to paraphrase them, you’d lose the meaning. Elliot is also a well-known writer, so adding her voice into the document adds credibility. If you’re writing about Indigenous people, it’s also important to include the voices of Indigenous people in your work.
You can see that in this example, the author doesn’t just pass the microphone to Alicia Elliot. Instead, they surround the quote with their own words, explaining who said the quote and why it’s important.
Attributing the Source’s Ideas
When the source’s ideas are important, you’ll want to paraphrase or summarize. For example, Elliot goes on to say that when over half of Indigenous people in a community speak an Indigenous language, the suicide rate goes down (2019, pg. 18). Here, it’s the idea that’s important, not the words, so you should paraphrase it.
What is paraphrasing? Paraphrasing is when you restate an idea in your own words. It’s this last bit — the “own words” part – that is confusing. What counts as your own words?
When you’re paraphrasing, you should ask yourself, “Have I restated this in a way that shows that I understand it?” If you simply swap out a few words for synonyms, you haven’t shown that you understand the idea. For example, let’s go back to that Alicia Elliot quote: “We know our cultures have meaning and worth, and that culture lives and breathes inside our languages.” What if I swapped out a few words so it said “We know our cultures have value and importance, and that culture lives and exhales inside our languages.”?
Does this show that I understand the quote? No. Elliot composed that line with a lot of precision and thoughtfulness. Switching a few words around actually shows disrespect for the care she took with her language.
Instead, paraphrase by not looking at the source material. Put down the book or turn off your computer monitor, then describe the idea back as if you were speaking to a friend.
Here’s another example from Alicia Elliot’s book A Mind Spread Out On the Ground. See if you can paraphrase it. First, read the quote:
I’ve heard people say that when you learn a people’s language, you learn their culture. It tells you how they think of the world, how they experience it. That’s why translation is so difficult—you have to take one way of seeing the world and translate it to another, while still piecing the words together so they make sense. (2019, pg. 18)
Before you paraphrase it, think about what it means to you. Maybe you’ve had the experience of learning the slang or curse words in a new language and finding out what that culture sees as valuable or taboo. Maybe you’ve felt frustrated by not being able to make yourself clear in a different language. Maybe you’ve had to translate for a friend or family member, and haven’t been able to exactly capture what was said.
Now, pretend that someone asked you what Alicia Elliot said. How would you describe it?
Maybe you wrote, “According to Alicia Elliot, it’s hard to translate from one language to another because a language is about so much more than just the words on a page.” Maybe you wrote, “According to Alicia Elliot, knowing another language shows how other people see the world.” Paraphrasing this way not only helps you analyze the quote, but also gives Alicia Elliot credit for her ideas.
What’s the Difference Between Paraphrasing and Summarizing?
When you paraphrase, you take a single point within a source and restate it. What you did above is paraphrasing. Usually, the paraphrased version is about the same length as the original source. The goal of paraphrasing is usually to take someone else’s idea and restate it so that it fits the tone of whatever you’re writing. For example, you might take a complicated sentence from an academic journal and restate it so that your classmates could more easily understand it.
When you summarize, you are simply trying to capture the main points of a larger source in a short way. Your summary will be shorter than the original source. For example, an abstract summarizes the contents of an entire report or article. You might read a book and summarize it by telling friends the main points.
What Information Do I Cite?
Citing sources is often depicted as a straightforward, rule-based practice. In fact, there are many grey areas around citation, and learning how to apply citation guidelines takes practice and education. If you are confused by it, you are not alone – in fact you might be doing some good thinking. Here are some guidelines to help you navigate citation practices.
Cite when you are directly quoting. This is the easiest rule to understand. If you are stating word for word what someone else has already written, you must put quotes around those words and you must give credit to the original author. Not doing so would mean that you are letting your reader believe these words are your own and represent your own effort.
Cite when you are summarizing and paraphrasing. This is a trickier area to understand. First of all, summarizing and paraphrasing are two related practices but they are not the same. Again, summarizing is when you read a text, consider the main points, and provide a shorter version of what you learned. Paraphrasing is when you restate what the original author said in your own words and in your own tone. Both summarizing and paraphrasing require good writing skills and an accurate understanding of the material you are trying to convey. Summarizing and paraphrasing are not easy to do when you are a beginning academic researcher, but these skills become easier to perform over time with practice.
Cite when you are citing something that is highly debatable. For example, if you want to claim that an oil pipeline is necessary for economic development, you will have to contend with those who say that it produces few jobs and has a high risk of causing an oil spill that would be devastating to wildlife and tourism. To do so, you’ll need experts on your side.
When Don’t You Cite?
Don’t cite when what you are saying is your own insight. Research involves forming opinions and insights around what you learn. You may be citing several sources that have helped you learn, but at some point you are integrating your own opinion, conclusion, or insight into the work. The fact that you are NOT citing it helps the reader understand that this portion of the work is your unique contribution developed through your own research efforts.
Don’t cite when you are stating common knowledge. What is common knowledge is sometimes difficult to discern. Generally quick facts like historical dates or events are not cited because they are common knowledge.
Examples of information that would not need to be cited include:
• Partition in India happened on August 15th, 1947.
• Vancouver is the 8th biggest city in Canada.
Some quick facts, such as statistics, are trickier. For example, the number of gun- related deaths per year probably should be cited, because there are a lot of ways this number could be determined (does the number include murder only, or suicides and accidents, as well?) and there might be different numbers provided by different organizations, each with an agenda around gun laws.
A guideline that can help with determining whether or not to cite facts is to determine whether the same data is repeated in multiple sources. If it is not, it is best to cite.
The other thing that makes this determination difficult might be that what seems new and insightful to you might be common knowledge to an expert in the field. You have to use your best judgment, and probably err on the side of over-citing, as you are learning to do academic research. You can seek the advice of your instructor, a writing tutor, or a librarian. Knowing what is and is not common knowledge is a practiced skill that gets easier with time and with your own increased knowledge.
Image Description
Figure 10a.2 image description: This chart illustrates the concept that you should use quotation marks and in-text citation to distinguish between the words of the source and your own words. You should use paraphrasing and in-text citation to distinguish between your ideas and the source’s ideas. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/10%3A_10a-_Citing_Sources/10.06%3A_How_to_Cite_Sources.txt |
Now that we know what to cite and how to quote and paraphrase, we need to decide what format to create our in-text citations and references. Your instructor will tell you whether they prefer MLA, APA, Chicago or another style format. Luckily, the Kwantlen Library librarians have come up with handy citation guides, which you can access on the Citation Styles section of the KPU website.
Rather than covering every citation rule (which you can find in the guides), let’s just discuss the purpose of each one.
Creating an In-Text Citation
An in-text citation tells the reader where the information in a particular sentence came from. If the in-text citation is done well, the reader will be able to use it to find the full reference in the bibliography, then easily find the exact spot where the idea/quote came from.
In MLA citation, the in-text citation consists of the author’s last name and the page number (or paragraph number for sources with no page numbers). If you’ve already used the author’s name in the sentence, you don’t have to repeat it in the in-text citation. It looks like this:
According to Haudenosaunee writer Alicia Elliot, “We know our cultures have meaning and worth, and that culture lives and breathes inside our languages.” (18)
or this:
“We know our cultures have meaning and worth, and that culture lives and breathes inside our languages” (Elliot, 18).
If you’re using APA citation, you add the date that the work was created. As with MLA, you don’t have to repeat the name of the author if you’ve already said it in the sentence. It looks like this:
According to Haudenosaunee writer Alicia Elliot, “We know our cultures have meaning and worth, and that culture lives and breathes inside our languages.” (2019, pg. 18).
or this:
“We know our cultures have meaning and worth, and that culture lives and breathes inside our languages.” (Elliot, 2019, pg. 18).
If you don’t know the name of the author, simply put the first few words of the title. If you don’t know the date, write “n.d.” for No Date. If you don’t know the page number, put in the paragraph number.
Creating a Reference
As with in-text citations, it’s best to refer to KPU’s Citation Guides. The purpose of a reference, however, is to give enough information for the reader to find the original source.
Here’s an example of an MLA reference:
Elliot, Alicia. A Mind Spread Out On the Ground. Toronto: Doubleday Canada, 2019. Print.
Here’s an example of an APA reference:
Elliot, A. (2019) A Mind Spread Out on the Ground. Toronto: Doubleday Canada. Print.
The good news, however, that you can usually use a citation generator to create your references (as long as you double-check them for accuracy). In fact, on the KPU Library website, you can create a citation by clicking on the quotation marks and then selecting your reference type.
This section tells you how to cite. In the next section, you’ll learn how to create an argument using your well-cited sources.
Image Description
Figure 10a.3 image description: This screenshot shows a search on the KPU website, highlighting that you can click on the grey quotation marks to create a citation for a source.
10.08: Test Your Knowledge
Query \(1\)
10.09: Key Takeaways
• When you research, you’ll need to build on the ideas of others. Citation is a way to give credit to the people whose ideas influenced you.
• In the workplace, your employer usually owns the copyright to your work, so you’ll end up building on the work of others and you may not cite in the same way. In school, however, you’re expected to formally give credit through citation to your sources.
• When it comes to citation, you have two tools: in-text citation (which go at the end of the sentence where the source was referenced) and references (a longer citation at the end of the work that helps the reader locate the source). In the workplace, you may also use footnotes and links.
• If the words of the source are important, you should quote. Put quotation marks around the words and then provide an in-text citation. In general, you will include some sort of analysis that explains why the quote is meaningful to your topic.
• If the ideas of the source are important, you will quote and either paraphrase or summarize the source. This involves changing the language of the source so that it matches your document. Don’t simply swap out a few words, but restate the author’s point so that it matches the tone of your document. Put an in-text citation at the end of the sentence.
• Citation practices can be tricky in the age of the Internet, so you can use citation generators as long as you check to make sure they’re correct.
10.10: Activities for Further Reflection
Your instructor may ask you to complete one or more of the following exercises.
1. Create a quiz that tests your classmates’ citation skills.
2. Come up with 10 questions that you still have about citation. Compare them to your partner’s questions. See how many you can answer together. If you don’t know the answer, ask your instructor or see if you can find the answer in the KPU Citation Guides.
3. Complete a Citation Scavenger Hunt. Using the Internet and the KPU Citation Guides, do the following:
• Cite an Instagram account in MLA.
• Find a blog post about the rising costs of textbooks and cite it.
• Find an article by Alicia Elliot then paraphrase a point she makes and create an in-text citation.
• Cite a scholarly article in APA.
• Create a block quote.
• Cite a tweet in MLA.
• Answer the question “If a student does a survey, should it go in an APA bibliography?”
• What about an MLA bibliography?
• Cite a news article without an author in either MLA or APA.
Attribution
This chapter contains material from Choosing and Using Sources: A Guide To Academic Research by the Ohio State University Libraries, which is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/10%3A_10a-_Citing_Sources/10.07%3A_Creating_In-Text_Citations_and_References.txt |
Photo by Zainul Yasni on Unsplash
Learning Objectives
In this section you will:
• Learn how to make an argument.
• Learn how to synthesize sources.
11: 10b- Making An Argument Using Sources
Before we begin, consider the following questions. Your instructor may ask you to freewrite about one or more of these questions in your learning journal.
1. Have you ever argued with someone online? If so, how did you present your argument? Was your argument successful?
2. How do people create arguments in your area of study or career path? Are there certain ethical rules that people in your industry must follow?
3. How do people argue in your culture? Do you argue with everyone the same way (an elder vs. someone your age)?
4. Do you think it’s possible to change someone’s mind using logic?
5. Do you find it easier to create an argument in writing or in person? Why?
11.02: Brenda Knights Narrative
If you have resistance to an idea and it’s an important issue or a high-cost item, that’s where investing in research is important. We have 11 entities, and we had an issue around cost charges. I suspected that the way these costs were being allocated wasn’t fair and they were based on people’s impressions rather than reality. So I did my own quantitative research. I had all the staff track their time in a Harvest report. I was able to go back and show that over the course of these months, here’s how people are spending their time. It was easy for people to see. And that lessened the resistance.
Another example of research where it’s incredibly important to get that scholarly perspective is when we’re dealing with rights and title claims. We have to prove our historical use of that land. Having that arms-length person who can come in and do the scholarly research, look at ethnographic accounts, maps, journals and elder interviews makes everything more credible. In that case, these are significant settlements, so that makes research absolutely necessary.
11.03: Making an Argument
Making an argument means trying to convince others that you are correct or persuade them to take a particular action. Important not just in university, that skill will be necessary for nearly every professional job you hold.
Realizing that your research report, essay, blog post, or oral presentation is to make an argument gives you a big head start because right off you know the sources you’re going to need are those that will let you write the components of an argument for your reader.
Components of an Argument
Making an argument in a report, term paper, or other university writing task is like laying out a case in court. Just as there are conventions that attorneys must adhere to as they make their arguments in court, there are conventions in arguments made in university assignments. Among those conventions is to use the components of an argument.
Note: This section on making an argument was developed with the help of “Making Good Arguments” in The Craft of Research, by Wayne Booth, Gregory Colomb, and Joseph Williams, University of Chicago Press, 2003.
The arguments you’re used to hearing or participating in with friends about something that is uncertain or needs to be decided contain the same components as the ones you’ll need to use in reports and on the job. Arguments contain those components because those are the ones that work—used together, they stand the best chance of persuading others that you are correct.
For instance, the question gets things started off. The claim, or thesis, tells people what you consider a true way of describing a thing, situation, or phenomenon or what action you think should be taken. The reservationsalternatives, and objections that someone else brings up in your sources or that you imagine your readers logically might have allow you to demonstrate how your reasons and evidence (maybe) overcome that kind of thinking—and (you hope) your claim/ thesis comes out stronger for having withstood that test.
EXAMPLE: Argument as a Dialog
Here’s a dialog of an argument, with the most important components labeled.
Marco: Where should we have my parents take us for dinner when they’re here on Sunday? [He asks the question about something that’s unsettled.]
Rupi: We should go to The Cascades! [She makes her main claim to answer the question.] It’s the nicest place around. [Another claim, which functions as a reason for the main claim.]
Marco: How so? [He asks for a reason to believe her claims.]
Rupi: White table cloths. [She gives a reason.]
Marco: What’s that have to do with how good the food is? [He doesn’t see how her reason is relevant to the claim.]
Rupi: Table cloths make restaurants seem upscale. [She relates her reason for the claims.] And I’ve read a survey in Columbus Metro that says the Cascades is one of the most popular restaurants in town. [She offers evidence.]
Marco: I never read the Metro. And Dino’s has table cloths. [He offers a point that contradicts her reason.]
Rupi: I know, but those are checkered! I’m talking about heavy white ones. [She acknowledges his point and responds to it.]
Marco: My dad loves Italian food. I guess he’s kind of a checkered-table-cloth kind of guy? [He raises another reservation or objection.]
Rupi: Yeah, but? Well, I know The Cascades has some Italian things on the menu. I mean, it’s not known for its Italian food but you can order it there. Given how nice the place is, it will probably be gourmet Italian food. [She acknowledges his point and responds to it. There’s another claim in there.]
Marco: Ha! My dad, the gourmet? Hey, maybe this place is too expensive. [He raises another reservation.]
Rupi: More than someplace like Dino’s. [She concedes his point.]
Marco: Yeah. [He agrees.]
Rupi: But everybody eats at The Cascades with their parents while they’re students here, so it can’t be outlandishly expensive. [She now puts limits on how much she’s conceding.]
Order of the Components
The order in which the components should appear in your persuasive reports, presentations and other assignments may vary, but one common arrangement is to begin with an introduction that explains why the situation is important—why the reader should care about it. Your research question will probably not appear, but your answer to it (your thesis, or claim) usually appears as the last sentence or two of the introduction.
The body of your paper follows and consists of:
• Your reasons the thesis is correct or at least reasonable.
• The evidence that supports each reason, often occurring right after the reason it supports.
• An acknowledgement that some people have/could have objections, reservations, counterarguments, or alternative solutions to your argument and a statement of each.
• A response to each acknowledgement that explains why that criticism is incorrect or not very important. Sometimes you might have to concede a point you think is unimportant if you can’t really refute it.
Let’s take a look at how this might work in a short persuasive email.
A Short Argument
To: Ralph Niblet, CEO
From: Hannah Vuong, Communications Manager
Subject: Migrating to MailChimp
Date: Sept. 1st, 2018
Hi Ralph,
Last week, you asked me to research whether we should switch our email marketing software from Constant Contact to MailChimp. I think that we should go with MailChimp for the following reasons:
1. MailChimp is free for a business of our size, while Constant Contact costs us \$57 a month.
2. MailChimp integrates with Salesforce and would allow us to use our database more effectively. I spoke to Sam Cho, who currently administers our Salesforce account, and he shared many exciting ways that we could integrate the two platforms without much effort. He also offered to host a webinar to train our staff.
3. MailChimp allows us segment audiences more effectively. I’ve included some links to a few blog posts that illustrate what we could do. A lot of our current unsubscribes happen because we can’t target emails to specific groups of customers effectively. Our email marketing report from last quarter showed that 70% unsubscribed because of emails that were “not relevant.”
Some colleagues have voiced the objection that they already know how to use Constant Contact and they find MailChimp less intuitive. We will also have to migrate our existing data and clean it. I believe, however, that these barriers can easily be overcome with employee training and good data migration practices.
I am happy to show you a demo of MailChimp this week if you are free.
Thanks,
Hannah
In this short space, Hannah uses a few sources:
• A price comparison done on MailChimp and Constant Contact’s websites
• A discussion with Sam Cho.
• Blog posts
• The company’s email marketing report.
• Interviews with colleagues.
She also uses all of the components of a good argument. First, she states her thesis. Then, she gives reasons and provides her evidence for believing these reasons. In her last paragraph, she acknowledges objections and responds to these objections.
Sometimes when we’re researching, it can be tempting to reach for sources that agree with you. You will likely be rushed on time, or you really want to convince your boss or a coworker of your opinion. But a crucial part of working with sources is that they should help you to reach the right decision. Finding a source that disagrees with you is a gift because either:
1. You are able to think in advance about what objections your audience might have and prepare a response. You won’t be surprised at a meeting. For example, if you’re considering buying a new piece of software, you should read negative reviews. You might find out that the people who had a bad experience had a business context that you don’t share. Maybe they’re in a different industry or they’re trying to use the software for a different purpose.
2. If you can’t come up with a response, you might have to change your initial plan. It’s better to make this discovering in the research phase, rather than wasting time and money doing something that’s not a good idea. For example, if you find a lot of negative reviews of a piece of software, you might choose not to purchase it. Or you might ask the software rep for a longer time to try it out.
Understanding the parts of the argument can be tricky. Test your knowledge by matching each sentence to which part of the argument it represents.
Query \(1\) | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/11%3A_10b-_Making_An_Argument_Using_Sources/11.01%3A_Questions_for_Reflection.txt |
As we’ve learned, the major barrier to research in the workplace is time. If you’re being asked to research something, it’s because it’s really important to your organization. Usually, you’re being paid not for just summarizing sources, but for providing your own analysis. Even so, you will be reacting to your sources.
• What parts of them do you agree with?
• What parts of them do you disagree with?
• Did they leave anything out?
It’s wise to not only analyze—take apart for study—the sources, but also to try to combine your own ideas with ideas and experience. In the classroom, professors frequently expect you to interpret, make inferences, and otherwise synthesize—bring ideas together to make something new or to find a new way of looking at something old. (It might help to think of synthesis as the opposite of analysis).
The same is true in a workplace. Often, you’ll be invited to consider the way that your business has always done something. You might draw on your experience in a different company to provide a fresh perspective. Or, you might remember a blog post you read and combine that with a conference presentation you watched to solve a unique problem your workplace has faced.
Getting Better at Synthesis
To practice synthesis, you should look for connections and patterns. One way to synthesize when writing an argument essay, paper, or other project is to look for themes among your sources. So try categorizing ideas by topic rather than by resource—making associations across sources.
Synthesis can seem difficult, particularly if you are used to analyzing others’ points but not used to making your own. Like most things, however, it gets easier as you get more experienced at it. So don’t be hard on yourself if it seems difficult at first.
In the workplace, the more you advance in your job, the more synthesis will likely be required of you. Basically, you’ll be paid for your own insights: insights that you built in part from your source material. Let’s take a look at an example of synthesis.
EXAMPLE: Synthesis in the Workplace
When you synthesize, you link different sources together to come up with new insights. So let’s imagine that you work in Human Resources. Your CEO wants to do something around encouraging employee wellness, but she doesn’t have any solid ideas about what that will look like. The budget is \$10,000. Initially, you think it could be fun to do some sort of wellness challenge and give prizes to the people who go to the gym most. But then you read an article about how disabled people are often excluded or even shamed by these types of programs. Not everyone can go the gym. Also, would the company be liable if someone got injured trying to win a prize? Hmm.
You do a bit more searching and read some critiques of employee wellness initiatives. This leads you to an interesting article about fatphobia in the workplace. What does it mean to be well in the workplace? Some of the problems are outside of your control. You can’t control the company’s benefits or how they pay their employees, which contribute to wellness. You go to a conference and find a few interesting examples of what kind of wellness programs organizations in other industries have tried. You reflect on your own experiences with wellness programs. You talk to the union representative to see what kind of ideas will work within a union environment. You design a survey to find out what the employees want.
Combining all of these sources — everything from the academia article about fatphobia to the Instagram posts of fun employee activities at other companies — and then adding them to your own experience is challenging, but in the end you come up with an idea that is much better than your original one. Because you took the ideas from different sources and found the links and trends between them, you’ve saved your company from doing something ineffective or even harmful, and you shielded yourself from the criticism you might have received if you’d just gone with your initial idea.
11.05: Key Takeaways
• Sources add to the ethos of your argument by providing knowledge and perspectives that you don’t have.
• An argument usually has a thesis (what you’re claiming), evidence, reasoning (how the evidence connects to the claim), acknowledgement (what someone who doesn’t agree with you would say) and response (how you’d refute that).
• Crafting an argument can lead you to change your mind. If you can’t find a response for an acknowledgement, you might have to alter your thesis.
• When you summarize sources, you restate their point. When you synthesize, you combine multiple ideas to turn them into something new.
• When you synthesize, look for patterns.
11.06: Activities for Further Reflection
Your instructor may ask you to complete one or more of the following exercises.
1. Find an online argument. You might check out the Reddit subreddit Change My View, where people post controversial viewpoints and others try to change their mind. Try to identify the elements of an argument you learned in this chapter. Write 1 – 2 paragraphs about your findings.
2. Write a paragraph that connects Brenda Knights’ narrative to the rest of the chapter and your own personal experience.
3. Find an online argument. You might check out the Reddit subreddit Change My View, where people post controversial viewpoints and others try to change their mind. Imagine that you were asked to contribute to the discussion. Write a response that uses the elements of an argument we learned in this chapter. You don’t need to post it, but if you do post it, pay attention to the responses you get. How do people respond to your argument?
4. Find a report or other piece of writing where someone is making an argument in the workplace. Identify its thesis and major points. Do you agree with all of the points? If so, write 1-2 paragraphs about whether the argument was persuasive. If not, write 1-2 paragraphs identifying weaknesses in the argument.
5. If you speak another language, find an example of an argument in that language. Does it use the elements of argument you learned in this chapter? Are there any differences in how the argument is constructed?
Attribution
This chapter contains material from Choosing and Using Sources: A Guide To Academic Research by the Ohio State University Libraries, which is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/11%3A_10b-_Making_An_Argument_Using_Sources/11.04%3A_Synthesizing_Sources.txt |
Photo by William Iven on Unsplash
Learning Objectives
In this section you will:
• Learn how audience analysis impacts reports.
• Explore different types of reports.
• Learn how to organize reports.
• Explore features of formal reports.
12: Writing Reports
Before we begin, consider the following questions. Your instructor may ask you to freewrite about one or more of these questions in your learning journal.
1. Have you ever written a report in the workplace? (Incident report, progress report, etc.?) How did you compose the report? Did you encounter any challenges? If so, what were they?
2. Have you ever written a report as part of a course? What was the purpose of the report? How did you write it? Did you encounter any challenges? If so, what were they?
3. Select one or more concepts that we’ve studied so far this semester. How do you think it will be useful when writing reports?
4. How do you think a report differs from an essay?
12.02: Brenda Knights Narrative
Reports are all about knowing your audience. What I put in an internal monthly report for our staff meeting isn’t what I’m sharing with our elders table or what I’m sharing with the board of directors. With the staff report, the intent is that each department knows what’s going on. So, it provides context for an operating environment. Sharing the details is important. But for the elders, that’s too much detail. The elders are our shareholders. They don’t need to know the day-to-day. They’re interested in what’s the status of new business, what new business opportunities are we pursuing. We only have a short period of time.
With the elders, we want to give them enough so they’ll feel informed and give them an opportunity to ask questions. It’s also a chance to gauge to see how they feel about an idea. I’ve had land developers approach us. At the first meeting, I might say, “We’ve been approached. We’re exploring whether or not it’s feasible.” That’s it. The next time, I’ll say, “Internally, we now believe it’s feasible. Now, we need to determine lease rates. Here are the next steps.” When it comes time to have a referendum about whether that tenant can be onsite, it’s not new to elders and it’s not taking them by surprise. They know we’ve done our due diligence. You can also gauge from previous meetings if there will be any objections. With some land developers, I’ve had concerns about their practices related to sustainability. Through these discussions, we will either address that, our we’ll see that we’re getting a lot of opposition and this is not a business we will support.
With the board of directors, their time is limited. These are highly accomplished people, and they want the facts in a very high level. They want to know financial information, the reputation of the company. Usually, there’s a verbal report that’s quick, but then we give additional handouts for them to review. If they ask a question, hopefully I’m able to say that the answer is on this page of the report, and you can read more about it there.
So, knowing who your audience is, is crucial. And so is being honest. In grant reporting, for example, they’re going to want to know if you delivered what you said you would. You don’t want to embellish the truth. That will impact you in future opportunities. It’s likely that your audience will find out. It’s okay to say that we attempted to do something, but we ran into an obstacle, and this is what we learned. Honesty is so important in reporting. Reporting is an opportunity to learn. If you apply again in the second year and the organization knows you didn’t deliver and didn’t explain it, it won’t look favourably. So, the process is about honesty and building trust. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/12%3A__Writing_Reports/12.01%3A_Questions_for_Reflection.txt |
Reports are a flexible genre. A report can be anything from a one-page accident report when someone gets a minor injury on the job to a 500+ page report created by a government commission, such as The Truth and Reconciliation Commission Report. Your report could be internal or external, and it could be a printed document, a PDF or even an email.
The type of report is often identified by its primary purpose, as in an accident report, a laboratory report, or a sales report. Reports are often analytical or involve the rational analysis of information. Sometimes they report the facts with no analysis at all. Other reports summarize past events, present current data, and forecast future trends. This section will introduce you to the basics of report writing.
Audience Analysis in Formal Reports
Many business professionals need to write a formal report at some point during their career, and some professionals write them on a regular basis. Key decision makers in business, education, and government use formal reports to make important decisions. Although writing a formal report can seem like a daunting task, the final product enables you to contribute directly to your company’s success.
There are several different organizational patterns that may be used for formal reports, but all formal reports contain front matter material, a body, and back matter (supplementary) items. The body of a formal report discusses the findings that lead to the recommendations. The prefatory material is therefore critical to providing the audience with an overview and roadmap of the report. The following section will explain how to write a formal report with an audience in mind.
Analyzing your Audience
As with any type of writing, when writing reports, it is necessary to know your audience. Will you be expected to write a one-page email or a formal report complete with a Table of Contents and an Executive Summary? Audience analysis will tell you.
For example, if your audience is familiar with the background information related to your project, you don’t want to bombard them with details. Instead, you will want to inform your audience about the aspects of your topic that they’re unfamiliar with or have limited knowledge of. In contrast, if your audience does not already know anything about your project, you will want to give them all of the necessary information for them to understand. Age and educational level are also important to consider when you write. You don’t want to use technical jargon when writing to an audience of non-specialists.
One of the trickier parts of report writing is understanding what your audience expects. Why is your audience reading the report? Do different parts of the report serve different purposes? Will you be expected to follow a specific template? Make sure that you have specifically responded to the expectations of your boss, manager, or client. If your audience expects you to have conducted research, make sure you know what type of research they expect. Do they want research from scholarly journal articles? Do they want you to conduct your own research? No matter what type of research you do, make sure that it is properly documented using whatever format the audience prefers (MLA, APA, and Chicago Manual of Style are some of the most commonly-used formats). As we’ve discussed in the chapter on persuasion, research will contribute to your ethos and your confidence.
For further information about what types of research you may want to include, see this article about research methods and methodologies.
Here are some questions to consider about your audience as you write:
• What does your audience expect to learn from your report?
• Do you have only one audience or multiple audiences? Do they have different levels of knowledge about the topic?
• How much research does your audience expect you to have done?
• How current does your research need to be?
• What types of sources does your audience expect you to have?
• What is the educational level of your audience?
• How much background information does your audience need?
• What technical terms will your audience need defined? What terms will they already be familiar with?
• Is there a template or style guide that you should use for your report?
• What is the cultural background of your audience? | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/12%3A__Writing_Reports/12.03%3A_Audience_Analysis_in_Reports.txt |
Reports vary by function, style, and tradition. Within your organization, you may need to address specific expectations. This section discusses reports in general terms, focusing on common elements and points of distinction. Reference to similar documents at your workplace may serve you well as you prepare your own report. As shown in Table 11.1, there are many types of reports.
Table 11.1 Types of reports
Report type
Description
Progress report
Monitor and control production, sales, shipping, service, or related business process.
Recommendation report
Make recommendations to management and provide tools to solve problems or make decisions.
Summary report
Present summaries of the information available on a given subject.
Progress report
A progress report is used to give management an update on the status of a project. It is generated at timed intervals (for example, once a month) or on completion of key stages. It records accomplishments to date and identifies any challenges or concerns. It is usually written by the project lead and is one to two pages long.
When you write a progress report, begin by stating why you are writing the report:
• Identify what you’ve accomplished
• List any problems you have encountered
• Outline what work still remains
• Conclude by providing an overview of the project’s status and what should be done next.
It’s helpful to think about a report not just in terms of what should be included, but why certain elements are included. Most reports have a persuasive element, so when reporting your progress you are trying to:
• Demonstrate that you have taken appropriate, competent action so far.
• Assure the reader that they can trust you to finish the remainder of the work effectively and that your plan remains a good one.
• Convince the reader that the project has been successful so far.
• If the project hasn’t been successful, then you will want to explain why and suggest ways to improve. Never downplay or lie about challenges you are experiencing. Not only will this damage your reputation when the truth comes out, but you’ll also be defeating the purpose of the progress report: which is to evaluate the project and address issues as they happen.
Understanding your persuasive strategy will help you organize and write your progress report.
Recommendation report
A recommendation report is used to help management make decisions. The goal of this report is to identify a solution to a problem or suggest a course of action. In it, the writer might suggest that a procedure be adopted or rejected, assess an unsatisfactory situation, or persuade decision makers to make a change that will benefit the organization. For example, the report might suggest ways to enhance the quality of a product, increase profit, reduce cost, or improve workplace conditions. The intention of a recommendation report is not to assign blame or be overly critical, but to suggest improvements in a positive manner.
The persuasive goals of most recommendation reports are:
• That a problem or opportunity exists and the organization should take it seriously. Why should your organization devote its resources to this issue? Why now?
• That you have done the necessary research and have the expertise to solve the problem.
• That your research and expertise has led you to a solution, which is the best of all possible solutions.
• That your solution offers benefits to the company and has minimal risks. If there are risks, you are aware of them and have a plan to mitigate them.
The importance and expense of what you’re recommending will dictate the form, amount of detail, length and use of visual aids like charts and graphs. It will also dictate how you lay out your argument.
In Chapter 10, we explored how to craft an argument. This section will be useful to you as you craft the persuasive strategy for your recommendation report. Let’s take another look at the example of an argument we studied in Chapter 10.
A Very Short Report
To: Ralph Niblet, CEO
From: Hannah Vuong, Communications Manager
Subject: Migrating to MailChimp
Date: Sept. 1st, 2018
Hi Ralph,
Last week, you asked me to research whether we should switch our email marketing software from Constant Contact to MailChimp. I think that we should go with MailChimp for the following reasons:
1. MailChimp is free for a business of our size, while Constant Contact costs us \$57 a month.
2. MailChimp integrates with Salesforce and would allow us to use our database more effectively. I spoke to Sam Cho, who currently administers our Salesforce account, and he shared many exciting ways that we could integrate the two platforms without much effort. He also offered to host a webinar to train our staff.
3. MailChimp allows us segment audiences more effectively. I’ve included some links to a few blog posts that illustrate what we could do. A lot of our current unsubscribes happen because we can’t target emails to specific groups of customers effectively. Our email marketing report from last quarter showed that 70% unsubscribed because of emails that were “not relevant.”
Some colleagues have voiced the objection that they already know how to use Constant Contact and they find MailChimp less intuitive. We will also have to migrate our existing data and clean it. I believe, however, that these barriers can easily be overcome with employee training and good data migration practices.
I am happy to show you a demo of MailChimp this week if you are free.
Thanks,
Hannah
If Hannah wanted to turn this email into a report, she would likely find that the major elements are there. She’s done some research, she has used that research to come up with a solution, and she’s anticipated some potential risks or downsides to her plan. As you read about the parts of the report, think about how Hannah might turn her email into a recommendation report.
Summary Report
A summary report is used to give management information. For example, if you work in the marketing department, your boss might ask you to find out about your competitors’ online activities so that your company can effectively compete with them. To do this, you would research your competitors’ websites, social media profiles, digital advertising campaigns, and so on. You would then distill what you find down to the key points so that your boss can get the essential information in a short time, and then decide how to act on it. Unlike the recommendation report, the summary report focuses on the facts, leaving it to management to decide on a course of action.
In general, the main persuasive point that you are making in summary reports is that you have done enough research and have used appropriate sources, and that you have organized this information in a logical and useful manner. Because summary reports give a general overview, it’s important to think about how your reader can skim through the document. Remember: your goal is to save your audience time, so part of the challenge of the report is determining what information your audience needs, and what is irrelevant. You will also have to condense material. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/12%3A__Writing_Reports/12.04%3A_Types_of_Reports.txt |
Reports vary by size, format, and function. You need to be flexible and adjust your report to the needs of the audience. Reports are typically organized around six key elements:
• Who the report is about and/or prepared for
• What was done, what problems were addressed, and the results, including conclusions and/or recommendations
• Where the subject studied occurred
• When the subject studied occurred
• Why the report was written (function), including under what authority, for what reason, or by whose request
• How the subject operated, functioned, or was used
Pay attention to these essential elements when you consider your stakeholders. That may include the person(s) the report is about, whom it is for, and the larger audience of the organization. Ask yourself who the key decision makers are, who the experts will be, and how your words and images may be interpreted. While there is no universal format for a report, there is a common order to the information. Each element supports the main purpose or function, playing an important role in the transmission of information. Some common elements in a report are shown in Table 11.2.
Table 11.2 Parts of a report
Page
Description
Title page
Report title; date of submission; name, title, and organization of the person who prepared the report; name, title, and organization of the person receiving the report.
If your report contains sensitive information or if it is going to be exposed to the elements, it might also contain a cover page.
No page number.
Table of contents
A list of the sections in the report and their respective page numbers.
All headings/sub-headings in the report should be listed on this page.
This page is not labelled with a page number.
Executive summary
The executive summary is a one-page overview of the entire report aimed at managers or people in a position of power. It discusses the managerial implications of your report: basically what managers or other people who have the authority to approve your report need to know. Summarize the topic, methods, data/evidence, results, and conclusions/recommendations.
On its own page.
Labelled as page iii.
Introduction
Introduces the topic of the report, states the purpose of the report, and previews the structure of the report. This section often contains similar information to the Executive Summary, but in a clear, factual manner.
Begins on a new page.
Labelled as page 1.
Body
Key elements of the report body may include the background, methods, results, and analysis or discussion.
Uses descriptive or functional headings and sub-headings (is not labelled “Body”).
Pagination continues from the introduction.
Conclusion and/or recommendations
Concise presentation of findings and/or recommendations. Indicate the main results and their relation to the recommended action(s) or outcome(s).
Pagination continues from the body of the report.
References
A list of all references used in the report.
All in-text citations included in the report should have an accompanying entry in the reference list.
Begins on a new page.
Pagination continues from the conclusions and/or recommendations.
Appendix or appendices
Related supporting materials.
All materials in the appendix (or appendices) must be referred to in the body of the report.
Only one item per appendix.
Each appendix begins on a new page, is labelled as Appendix A, B, C, etc, and is given a title.
Pagination continues from the reference list.
Here is a checklist for ensuring that a report fulfills its goals:
• Report considers the audience’s needs
• Form follows function of report
• Format reflects institutional norms and expectations
• Information is accurate, complete, and documented
• Information is easy to read
• Terms are clearly defined
• Figures, tables, and art support written content
• Figures, tables, and art are clear and correctly labelled
• Figures, tables, and art are easily understood without text support
• Words are easy to read (font, arrangement, organization)
• Results are clear and concise
• Recommendations are reasonable and well-supported
• Report represents your best effort
• Report speaks for itself without your clarification or explanation | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/12%3A__Writing_Reports/12.05%3A_Organizing_Reports.txt |
While you may write much shorter, more casual reports, it’s helpful to go into a bit of detail about formal reports. Formal reports are modular, which means that they have many pieces. Most audience members will not read every piece, so these pieces should stand on their own. That means that you will often repeat yourself. That’s okay. Your audience should be able to find exactly what they need in a particular section, even if that information has been repeated elsewhere.
While it’s fine to copy and paste between sections, you will likely need to edit your work to ensure that the tone, level of detail and organization meet the needs of that section. For example, the Executive Summary is aimed at managers. It’s a short, persuasive overview of everything in the report. The Introduction may contain very similar information, but it focuses on giving a short, technical overview of everything in the report. Its goal is to inform, not to persuade.
Let’s take a look at some of the parts of the report in greater detail.
Title Page
The title page provides the audience with the:
• Name of the report
• This should appear 2 inches from the top margin in uppercase letters.
• Name, title, and organization of the individual receiving the report
• Type “Prepared for” on one line, followed by two separate lines that provide the receiving organization’s name and then the city and state. Some reports may include an additional line that presents the name of a specific person.
• Name of the author and any necessary identifying information
• Type “prepared by” on one line, followed by the name(s) of the author(s) and their organization, all on separate lines.
• Date of submission
• This date may differ from the date the report was written. It should appear 2 inches above the bottom margin.
The items on the title page should be equally spaced apart from each other.
A Note on Page Numbers
The title page should not include a page number, but this page is counted as page “i.” Use software features to create two sections for your report. You can then utilize two different types of numbering schemes. When numbering the pages (i.e., i, ii, iii, etc.) for a formal report, use lowercase roman numerals for all front matter components. Utilize arabic numbers for the other pages that follow. Additionally, if you intend to bind the report on the left, move the left margin and center 0.25 inches to the right.
Letter of Transmittal
A letter of transmittal announces the report topic to the recipient(s).
If applicable, the first paragraph should identify who authorized the report and why the report is significant. Provide the purpose of the report in the first paragraph as well. The next paragraph should briefly identify, categorize, and describe the primary and secondary research of the report. Use the concluding paragraph to offer to discuss the report; it is also customary to conclude by thanking the reader for their time and consideration.
The letter of transmittal should be formatted as a business letter. Some report writers prefer to send a memo of transmittal instead.
When considering your audience for the letter or memo of transmittal, make sure that you use a level of formality appropriate for your relationship with the reader. While all letters should contain professional and respectful language, a letter to someone you do not know should pay closer attention to the formality of the word choice and tone.
Table of Contents
The table of contents page features the headings and secondary headings of the report and their page numbers, enabling audience members to quickly locate specific parts of the report. Leaders (i.e. spaced or unspaced dots) are used to guide the reader’s eye from the headings to their page numbers.
The words “TABLE OF CONTENTS” should appear at the top of the page in all uppercase and bolded letters. Type the titles of major report parts in all uppercase letters as well, double spacing between them. Secondary headings should be indented and single spaced, using a combination of upper- and lowercase letters.
Executive Summary
An executive summary presents an overview of the report that can be used as a time-saving device by recipients who do not have time to read the entire report.
The executive summary should include a:
• Summary of purpose
• Overview of key findings
• Identification of conclusions
• Overview of recommendations
To begin, type “EXECUTIVE SUMMARY” in all uppercase letters and centered. Follow this functional head with paragraphs that include the above information, but do not use first-level headings to separate each item. Each paragraph of information should be single-spaced with double spacing between paragraphs. Everything except for the title should be left-aligned.
An executive summary is usually ten percent of the length of the report. For example, a ten-page report should offer a one-page summary. A 100-page report should feature a summary that is approximately ten pages.
The executive summary is usually seen as the most important part of the report, and it should be written last. When you’re writing the executive summary, imagine that you’re sitting across from your most important audience member. If you only have a few minutes to talk to them, what do you want them to know? What would be most persuasive?
Introduction
The body of a formal report begins with an introduction. The introduction sets the stage for the report, clarifies what need(s) motivated it, and helps the reader understand what structure the report will follow.
Most report introductions address the following elements: background information, problem or purpose, significance, scope, methods, organization, and sources. As you may have noticed, some parts of a formal report fulfill similar purposes. Information from the letter of transmittal and the executive summary may be repeated in the introduction. Reword the information in order to avoid sounding repetitive.
To begin this section, type “BACKGROUND” or “INTRODUCTION” in all uppercase letters. This functional head should be followed by the information specified above (i.e., background information, problem or purpose, etc.). You do not need to utilize any first-level headings in this section.Because this section includes background information, it would be the appropriate place to address the needs of audiences that may need additional knowledge about the topic. Provide definitions of technical terms and instruction about the overall project if necessary. If you are uncertain if your audience needs a particular piece of information, go ahead and include it; it’s better to give your reader a little bit too much background than not enough.
Discussion of Findings
The Discussion of Findings section presents the evidence for your conclusions.
This key section should be carefully organized to enhance readability.
Useful organizational patterns for report findings include but are not limited to:
• Best Case/Worst Case
• Compare/Contrast
• Chronology
• Geography
• Importance
• Journalism Pattern
Use a Best Case/Worst Case organizational pattern when you think that the audience may lack interest in the topic. When examining a topic with clear alternatives to your proposed solution, consider using a Compare/Contrast pattern. Geographical patterns work effectively for topics that are discussed by location.
When describing the organization of the report in the first paragraph, broadly identify how the material in the report is organized rather than state that the report uses a specific pattern (e.g. Chronology, Geography). For example, write, “The research findings address curriculum trends in three provinces: (a) British Columbia, (b) Alberta, and (c) Ontario,” not, “This report uses a geographical organizational pattern.”
Follow the first paragraph with a first-level heading. Use first-level headings for all other major parts of this section. First-level headings should appear in bold, uppercase letters. Center first-level headings, but align any second-level headings with the left margin. Type any second-level headings in bold, upper- and lowercase letters.
As you present, interpret, and analyze evidence, consider using both text and graphics. Take into account what will be easiest for your audience to understand.
Include citations for all quoted or paraphrased material from sources as well; check with your organization as to whether they prefer parenthetical citations or footnotes.
Integrating Graphics
Formal report authors use graphics to present data in different forms. Paragraphs of text and complex or numerical data tend to bog readers down, making graphics a beneficial enhancement. Graphics also make data easier to understand, so they sometimes make a stronger impact on the audience.
Knowing when—and how—to effectively employ graphics is the key to successfully integrating them. Keeping the audience in mind is also critical. You will learn more about creating charts and graphs in the chapter on Visual Communication Strategies.
Conclusions and Recommendations
The conclusions and recommendations section conveys the key results from the analysis in the discussion of findings section. Up to this point, readers have carefully reviewed the data in the report; they are now logically prepared to read the report’s conclusions and recommendations.
Type “CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS” in all uppercase letters. Follow this functional head with the conclusions of the report. The conclusions should answer any research questions that were posed earlier in the report. Present the conclusions in an enumerated or bulleted list to enhance readability.
Recommendations offer a course of action, and they should answer any problem or research questions as well. Think back to the expectations of your audience. Have all of their requirements been addressed?
Works Cited
All formal reports should include a works cited page; his page documents the sources cited within the report. The recipient(s) of the report can also refer to this page to locate sources for further research.
It is acceptable to follow MLA (Modern Language Association), CMS (Chicago Manual of Style), or APA (American Psychological Association) documentation style for entries on this page. Arrange all sources alphabetically. Refer to the latest edition of the appropriate style handbook for more information about how to format entries for print and electronic sources on the Works Cited page
Conclusion
While some of the formatting rules may seem tedious at first, they are necessary in order for your audience to better understand the report. Using a regulated format allows for a more universal organization that everyone will understand. Being aware of your audience’s needs and expectations will allow for a strong report that will satisfy your employee and demonstrate your competence in your field.
Test Your Knowledge
Understanding the parts of the report can be challenging, so test your knowledge by dragging the part of the report to its definition.
Query \(1\)
Image Description
Figure 11.1 image description: This is a diagram of a report title page. Leave 2 inches between the top and the title of the report (which should be in uppercase letters), then write in the middle of the page who the report was prepared for. 3/4 of the way down the page, say who the report was prepared for. Then write the date submitted.
Figure 11.2 image description: A sample table of contents and List of Figures. Use uppercase letters for major parts and use leaders to guide the reader’s eye to the page numbers. The list of figures should be separate from the table of contents.
Figure 11.3 image description: A sample body page of an introduction. This one is separated into ‘PROBLEM’ (all in uppercase letters, bold, and in the center) and BACKGROUND. Each paragraph is single spaced with double spacing between paragraphs.
12.07: Key Takeaways
• Audience analysis is key to reports. Most reports are modular, which means that they are organized into parts that stand on their own. This helps the reader to look for just the information that’s relevant to them.
• Reports have a wide variety of purposes and styles. The three major types are progress reports, recommendation reports and summary reports.
• In a progress report, identify what you’ve accomplished, listed any problems you’ve encountered, outline what work still remains and conclude by providing an overview of the project’s status and what should be done next.
• A recommendation report is used to help management make decisions. You should identify that a problem or opportunity exists and your organization should take it seriously, that you’ve done the research necessary to solve the problem, that your research and expertise has led you to a solution, and that this solution is the best one, and that you’re aware of any risks and have a plan for them.
• A summary report gives management information. The main point is that you’ve done enough research, have used enough sources and have organized them in an appropriate manner.
• Formal reports usually have an executive summary, an introduction, a body (which might be separated into background, methods, results, and analysis), a conclusions/recommendations section, references, and an appendix.
12.08: Activities for Further Reflection
1. Write a paragraph connecting Brenda Knights’ narrative to the rest of the chapter or to your own experience.
2. Look online to find a report. See if you can identify the parts of the report that we’ve discussed. If it’s organized in a different way, why do you think that is? What is the author trying to accomplish?
3. Find an essay or project that you’ve done in another class. Try writing a short Executive Summary for it. How did writing an Executive Summary change the way you looked at the material? How did you decide what to put in the Executive Summary?
4. Find a famous report online, such as The Mueller Report or the Final Report of the National Inquiry into the Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls. What tone does the report have? How does it try to persuade its audience? How does it use evidence?
Attribution
This chapter contains material taken from Introduction to Professional Communications is (c) 2018 by Melissa Ashman and is licensed under a Creative Commons-Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International license.
This chapter also contains material taken from the chapter Memos, Proposals and Reports and Audience Analysis in Formal Reports on WritingCommons.org and is licensed by a CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/12%3A__Writing_Reports/12.06%3A_Writing_Formal_Reports.txt |
Photo by ᒷ⟁⨃.ᖇ.ᕮ.∥.ᕮ on Unsplash
Learning Objectives
In this section you will:
• Learn how audience analysis impacts visual design.
• Explore types of graphics.
• Use Gestalt Theory to understand why some visuals are more effective than others.
• Learn how to choose a graphic to fit your purpose.
• Learn how to integrate your graphic into a document and cite it.
• Learn how to revise your graphic.
13: Visual Communication Strategies
Before we begin, consider the following questions. Your instructor may ask you to freewrite about one or more of these questions in your learning journal.
• What sort of visuals do you find persuasive?
• Have you ever encountered a chart or graph that’s misleading or unethical? Why was it unethical?
• What does good document design look like to you?
• If you have experience with more than one culture, how does graphic design change between the cultures you’ve experienced?
• What colours do you feel are calming? What give you energy?
• Would you agree that people expect more visuals these days? Why or why not?
13.02: Brenda Knights Narrative
When it comes to communication with the elders, I know that as a group, they’re very visual. I would never come in with a Powerpoint with lots of words. But they love a Powerpoint with pictures. It helps them to understand. I might even do a site visit so they can see something in person. It’s about knowing how to convey the message to the audience in the best way.
With staff, with internal communications, I find that multiple modes work because people learn in different ways. We have a communications team that’s responsible for sharing information. We have TV monitors at our work locations and use Brightsign to put up pictures and little notes about where people can go for more information. That’s in our lunch rooms and in our back of house of restaurants, so people can see them. But, we also have a system called Alert Media, where employees can sign up and choose how they want to receive information. Do you want to be contacted by email? By phone? We’ll send the information out based on their preferred method.
I think sometimes we under-communicate as opposed to over-communicate. Having those multiple modes is so important. In the case of Kwantlen, we have some people who don’t have access to computers, so we’ll use paper. We’ll deliver to them door to door. It’s about knowing your audience. If I send out an email, it’s only going to reach half my audience.
When I create visuals, I also make sure I really know the tool. There are new tools like Prezi that are neat, but if you’re not fully comfortable, it’s going to impact your confidence. And I always think about a backup plan in case things go wrong. I’m very comfortable with Powerpoint, but I bring paper copies because what if there’s a power outage. Things go wrong. But if you have a backup, it won’t impact your confidence.
With all of my grant writing, I use a lot of pictures. After I complete a grant, I’ll go through and ask how can I make this more visual? I find that the images really helps my grant stand out. They’re also a reference point. If someone’s trying to figure out whether I answered a question, they can use the photo as a cue. They might remember that information is on the page with the picture of a person weaving. So visuals are a good way to help people locate information. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/13%3A_Visual_Communication_Strategies/13.01%3A_Questions_for_Reflection.txt |
All documents have a purpose—to persuade, to inform, to instruct, to entertain—but the first and foremost purpose of any document is to be read. Choosing effective document design enhances the readability or usability of your document so that the target audience is more likely to get the message you want them to receive, and your document is more likely to achieve your intended purpose.
Choose document design elements that make your document “user friendly” for the target audience. Keep in mind that people do not read technical writing for pleasure; they read it because they have to; it’s part of their job. And since “time is money,” the longer it takes to read the document, the higher the “cost.” Your job as the document designer is to make their reading process as easy, clear, useful and efficient as possible by using all the tools at your disposal.
Designing a document is like designing anything else: you must define your purpose (the goals and objectives you hope your document achieves, as well as the constraints — such as word count and format — that you must abide by), understand your audience (who will read this document and why), and choose design features that will best achieve your purpose and best suite the target audience. In essence, you must understand the Rhetorical Situation (see Ch. 3: Context, Audience, Purpose). in which you find yourself: Who is communicating with whom about what and why? What kind of document design and formatting can help you most effectively convey the desired message to that audience? You want to use the most effective rhetorical strategies at your disposal; document design is one of those strategies.
We can think of document design in a couple of ways. In the chapter on Organization, we thought about how to organize our ideas through paragraphs, headings, lists and other organizational aids. Now, let’s think about creating charts and graphs, and making overall strong design choices.
13.04: Types of Graphics
Before getting into details on creating, formatting, and incorporating graphics, consider the types and their functions. You can use graphics to represent the following elements in your writing:
• Objects — If you’re describing a fuel-injection system, you’ll probably need a drawing or diagram of the thing. If you are explaining how to graft a fruit tree, you’ll need some illustrations of how that task is done. Photographs, drawings, diagrams, maps, and schematics are the types of graphics that show objects.
• Numbers — If you’re discussing the rising cost of housing in Vancouver, you could use a table with the columns being for five-year periods since 1970; the rows could be for different types of housing. You could show the same data in the form of bar charts, pie charts, or line graphs. Tables, bar charts, pie charts, and line graphs are some of the principal ways to show numerical data.
• Concepts — If you want to show how your company is organized, such as the relationships of the different departments and officials, you could set up an organization chart, which is boxes and circles connected with lines showing how everything is hierarchically arranged and related. This would be an example of a graphic for a concept; this type depicts nonphysical, conceptual things and their relationships.
• Words — Graphics can be used to depict words. You’ve probably noticed how some textbooks may put key definitions in a box, maybe with different colour in the background. The same can be done with key points or extended examples.
Creating Accessible Graphics
Graphics are a key way to persuade and inform your audience, so you’ll want to make sure that everyone can benefit from them. If you haven’t written alt text for your photos, for example, someone using a screen reader couldn’t understand them. Choosing the wrong colour palate would make it hard for someone who’s colourblind (or who’s viewing the material in black and white) to understand your graphics. Choosing a colour that has a negative association in another culture might also give readers a negative impression of your graphics.
Karwai Pun, who works for the U.K. Home Office, has created a series of posters to show how to design accessible graphics. You’ll notice that a lot of the advice works for all users. Take a moment to scroll through these graphics and see how you can apply what you’ve learned when creating charts and graphs in the rest of the chapter.
Query \(1\)
This Do’s And Don’ts Of Designing Accessible Services page also contains plain text versions of the posters. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/13%3A_Visual_Communication_Strategies/13.03%3A_Audience_Analysis_in_Document_Design.txt |
Graphic design can be a source of conflict in some workplaces. People often have strong opinions about what they like and dislike when it comes to visuals. We go by our gut feeling. But, these gut feelings are highly subjective and based in our individual context. This can make it hard to fairly evaluate graphics when we’re not the target audience. Sometimes, it helps to have some language to talk about design choices.
Gestalt Theory is framework of understanding how people look at visuals as a whole. It was developed in the 1920s by the German psychologists Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Koffka. The term Gestalt means unified whole. Gestalt works because the mind seeks to organize visual information. There are six basic Gestalt principles: (1) similarity, (2) continuation, (3) closure, (4) proximity, (5) figure/ground, and (6) symmetry and order.
Similarity
When visual elements have a similar shape or look as one another, a viewer will often connect the discrete components and see a pattern. This effect can be used to create a single illustration, image, or message from a series of separate elements. Basically, if something has he same shape, colour, size or texture, humans will see them as linked. For example, every ‘Questions for Reflection’ section in this book have the same colour, shape and layout. If you start using a particular font and size for a heading, you should continue the pattern so that readers aren’t confused.
Continuation
Continuation is the tendency of the mind to see a single continuous line of connection rather than discrete components (see Figure 12.2). The eye is drawn along a path, line, or curve, as long as there is enough proximity between objects to do so. This tendency can be used to point toward another element in the composition, or to draw the eye around a composition. The eye will continue along the path or direction suggested by the composition even when the composition ends, continuing beyond the page dimensions.
To understand this principle, think about this famous optical illusion, which is a drawing of a tree that has several faces hidden in it. You’re able to see the faces because your mind “continues” the lines to complete the shape of the face.
Closure
Closure is a design technique that uses the mind’s tendency to complete incomplete shapes (see Figure 12.3). The principle works if the viewer is given enough visual information to perceive a complete shape in the negative space. In essence, the mind ‘closes’ a form, object, or composition. In the example above, the triangle is formed by the viewer’s mind, which wants to close the shape formed by the gaps and spaces of the adjacent circles and lines. The partial triangle, outlined in black also hints at the missing shape. The above optical illusion is also an example of closure, because your mind ‘closes’ the head shape.
Proximity
Proximity is an arrangement of elements that creates an association or relationship between them (see Figure 12.4). If individual elements are similar, they will probably be perceived first as a whole and second as discrete components. If, like the example above, some of the components form to create a large ‘whole,’ similar elements positioned away from the main shape will also be associated with the large shape. In this case, the viewer interprets them as falling off or away from the main shape. The shapes used do not have to be geometric to create the effect of proximity. Any components that are similar in shape, colour, texture, size, or other visual attribute can achieve proximity.
Thinking about proximity helps you to think about how your audience is finding relationships between the parts of your document. For example, if a photo is under a headline in a newspaper, the audience will associate the two elements. Many of the headlines contained in this list of famous newspaper gaffes, for example, are proximity errors.
Figure/Ground
Figure/ground segregation refers to the contrast between the foreground and background of an image. Graphic designers often use this principle to design negative space around an object. The area where it’s most commonly used is when laying text over an image. If there’s not enough contrast between the figure and the ground, the reader will not be able to read the text.
Symmetry and Order
Symmetry and order follow the premise that a composition should not create a sense of disorder or imbalance (see Figure 12.6), because the viewer will waste time trying to mentally reorder it rather than focus on the embedded content. The photographic example in Figure 12.7 is composed symmetrically and allows the viewer to concentrate on the figure in the centre. Achieving symmetry in a composition also gives the composition balance and a feeling of harmony.
To see Gestalt Theory in action, browse this image of a 1950s movie festival poster. See how many principles you can find, then click on the hotspots to see some of the principles.
Query \(1\)
Image Description
Figure 12.2 image description: A series of rounded rectangles lined up to create a continuous curvy line across the shapes to illustrate the principle of continuity.
Figure 12.7 image description: A poster for the Chicago World’s Fair, which has a strong sense of symmetry in its composition. There is a big tower stretching across the middle of the page and two smaller towers of equal lengths on each side of it. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/13%3A_Visual_Communication_Strategies/13.05%3A_Gestalt_Theory.txt |
Graphics should never be for decoration. Instead, they should have a clear purpose and help the reader to understand something in your document that would be difficult to show with text alone. For that reason, you’ll need to take some extra steps to help your audience use the graphic effectively.
Pick The Right Graphic For Your Purpose
Different graphics have different functions, so you should choose one that meets your needs. For example, let’s say that you’ve been asked to write a report recommending whether your company should voluntarily recall a product. You might insert a photo of the damaged product so that your readers can see proof that the damage is extensive. You might also include a diagram of the product to help the reader understand why the malfunction occurs. If you want your reader to understand that the product has been receiving a lot of customer complaints, you might create a bar chart that compares the number of complaints received by your product to those of similar products that you sell.
When selecting a chart, graph or table, you’ll want to pick the one that fits the relationship you’re trying to show. For example, if you wanted to show how something changed over time, you’d use a line graph. If you wanted to compare different numbers, you’ll use a bar graph. If you wanted to show the percentages of a whole, you’d use a pie chart.
This collection of images will help you to see some popular types of charts and graphs. For a version that’s accessible to print documents and screenreaders, the information is also repeated below.
Query \(1\)
Types of Charts
• Line Graph: Shows how something changed over time. Shows trends.
• Table: Shows a large amount of numerical data, especially when there are many variables.
• Bar Graph: Helps your audience compare numbers, shows how items relate to one another.
• Pie chart: Shows the parts of a whole. Note: only use this when your data adds up to 100%. For example, if you did a survey and allowed participants to choose more than one option, a pie chart wouldn’t be appropriate.
• Checklist: Helps readers understand the steps in a process and keep track of what they have completed.
• Flowchart: Helps readers understand the steps in a process/procedure
• Infographic: Makes a lot of data accessible or entertaining to a general audience.
• Venn Diagram: Shows how different ideas or elements overlap.
• Organizational tree: Shows a hierarchy, such as the structure of an organization.
• Gantt Chart: Shows a project schedule, including what tasks must be completed and when.
Make Your Graphic
Once you understand your audience and the purpose of your graphic, it’s time to create it. Many people create charts in Excel, Word, Google Docs, or a free chart generator. Make sure that you label your chart clearly.
Integrate Your Graphic
You chose your graphic because it shows a relationship, but unless you help your reader out, they might not see the same connection that you see. Insert your graphic close to the text that discusses it, though you should make sure that your graphic fits on one page. For example, if you’ve written a paragraph about how the defective product has three times more customer complaints than similar documents, you would put the bar graph that shows this data directly below.
The first mention of a graphic is called a lead-in statement. It’s also recommended to also use a lead-out statement after the graphic. This is a statement that connects the figure to the material that follows.
Here’s an example:
Example
Our research shows that the BackScratcher Supreme received three times more complaints than our other backscratchers. This bar graph shows the number of customer complaints we received last quarter for each product.
Figure 12.8: Customer Complaints About Back Scratcher Products [Image Description]
As you can see, no other back scratcher comes close for the number of complaints. This suggests that the matter is systemic, not just a few isolated incidents.
By clearly preparing the reader for the graphic, then giving further details, the reader knows how to interpret the chart.
Label The Graphic
As you can see above, it’s also important to clearly title the graphic so that your reader knows what to expect. The graphic above has a clear, precise title. It’s also labeled ‘Figure 11.1. This means that it’s the first graphic in the 11th chapter of the report.
Add Alt Text for the Graphic
As we said above, your graphic should be accessible. If you’re inserting your graphic as an image, you can add alt text. Describe the graphic so that someone who can’t see it can have a similar experience. If your alt text is long, you might include an image description in the caption, as I’ve done above.
Cite the Graphic
Just as you would cite and reference a paraphrase or a direct quote, so too must you cite and reference any graphics that you use that were created by someone else or that were based on someone else’s data. Indicate the source of any graphic or data you have borrowed. Whenever you borrow a graphic or data from some other source, document that fact in the figure title using an in-text citation. You should also include the reference information in the reference list.
This reference guide from SFU tells you how to cite graphs, charts, photos and other images in a variety of settings.
Image Description
Figure 12.8 image description:
A horizontal bar graph that compares customer complaints about back scratcher products in Q2 of 2020. Showing that the BackScratcher Supreme had 66 complaints, compared to 22 for ScritchyScratcher, 12 for ScritchyScratch Mini and 3 for Captain ScritchyScratcher. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/13%3A_Visual_Communication_Strategies/13.06%3A_Working_with_Graphics.txt |
Just like written text, graphics have to be revised. The following checklist will help you revise your visual communication to make sure that it’s as effective as possible.
Putting the Pieces Together
Revision Checklist
1. First Pass: Document-level Review
• Review specifications to ensure that you have included all required content.
• Make sure your title, headings, subheading, and table/figure labels are clear and descriptive. Headings should clearly and efficiently indicate the content of that section; Figure and Table captions should clearly describe the content of the visual.
• Make sure visual elements have appropriate passive space around them.
• Make sure ideas flow in a logical order and explanations come in a timely manner. Make sure visuals illustrate your textual information.
• Write “Reader-Centred” prose: determine the relationship between your purpose in writing and your reader’s purpose in reading. Give your readers the information they want and need to get from your document as efficiently as possible.
• Make sure you are using an appropriate tone (neutral, objective, constructive, formal)
2. Second Pass: Paragraph-level Review
• Make sure each paragraph begins with a topic sentence that previews and/or summarizes the content to come.
• Add coherent transitions to link one sentence logically to the next.
• Cut unnecessary or irrelevant information.
• Avoid overly long or short paragraphs (5-10 lines long is a reasonable guideline).
3. Third Pass: Sentence-level Review
• Watch sentence length; consider revising sentences longer than 25 words. Vary the length and structure of sentences.
• Look at the ratio of verbs:number of words per sentence. Generally, the more verbs/words in the sentence, the better the sentence.
• Use concrete, strong, active verbs – avoid vague, passive, verbs and “is/are/was/were/being” whenever feasible (move the –tion and –ment words up the verb scale).
• Create a clear Actor/Action relationship (Subject-Verb).
• Verbs like “make” “do” ‘have” and “get” have many possible meanings. Try to find more precise ones.
• In general, keep subject and verb close together, and keep verb near the beginning of the sentence.
4. Fourth Pass: Word-level Review
• Use concrete, specific, precise words; avoid vague, abstract, generalizing words.
• Match your vocabulary to your audience: experts can tolerate complex information with a lot of terminology; general readers require simpler, less detailed descriptions/explanations.
• Use clear, plain language rather than pompous diction; write to express, not impress.
• Avoid “sound bite” phrases that have no real meaning; use a single word instead of a phrase whenever possible.
• Avoid clichés, colloquial expressions, and slang.
• Use second person (you) pronouns carefully and sparingly.
• Avoid “ad speak” — don’t sound like you are “selling” something; use objective, measurable descriptors.
13.08: Key Takeaways
• Visual design is important because people don’t read workplace documents for fun. They read them because they have to. Your job is to make documents as readable and usable as possible.
• Before you design your document, define your purpose and think about your audience.
• To make sure that everyone can benefit from your graphics, consider accessibility.
• Gestalt Theory helps us to think about how the document functions as a whole. The six principles of Gestalt Theory are: similarity, continuation, closure, proximity, figure/ground segregation and symmetry.
• When designing charts and graphs, think about what relationship you’re trying to show.
• It’s important to revise graphics and other document design elements in the same way that it’s important to revise what you write.
13.09: Activities for Further Reflection
1. Choose an assignment that you’ve created in this class or another class that doesn’t currently have a chart or graph. Find some data that could benefit from being a chart or graph. Create a chart or graph that illustrates the data, making sure to choose the correct relationship. For example, you might find a sentence in an essay you wrote that says that 10% of Millenials don’t own a smart phone. You could show this visually using a pie chart.
2. Find an infographic online. Then, evaluate it according to what you’ve just learned. Write a short paragraph that answers the following questions: How does it present data? Is it easy to understand? Is it ethical? Can you understand where the data came from?
3. Find a poster in your campus or workplace, or out in the community. Take a photo of it, then evaluate it according to Gestalt Theory. Can you identify all of the principles?
4. Choose a website that you like to visit, then use what you learned about accessibility to evaluate how accessible the website’s visuals are. Write a short email (you don’t have to send it) to the website’s owner suggesting three changes they could make to improve the accessibility of their visuals.
Contributors and Attributions
This chapter contains material taken from Introduction to Professional Communications is (c) 2018 by Melissa Ashman and is licensed under a Creative Commons-Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International license.
This chapter also contains material taken from Graphic Design and Print Production Fundamentals by Ken Jeffrey, which is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License,
This chapter also contains material taken from Technical Writing Essentials by Suzan Last, which is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License,
This chapter also contains material taken from Do’s and Don’ts Of Designing For Accessibility by Karwai Pun, which is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International Public License | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/13%3A_Visual_Communication_Strategies/13.07%3A_Revising_Graphics.txt |
Photo by Vlad Tchompalov on Unsplash
Learning Objectives
In this section you will:
• Learn how oral presentations are important in your working life.
• Learn how to advocate for your point of view through public speaking.
• Explore ethical communication decisions.
• Develop some strategies for public speaking anxiety.
• Explore some ways to give effective oral presentations.
14: Oral Presentations
Before we begin, consider the following questions. Your instructor may ask you to freewrite about one or more of these questions in your learning journal.
• Think back to the most impactful speaker you’ve ever encountered? What made that person impactful? How did they deliver the message?
• What emotions come up when you think about giving an oral presentation? Why do you feel that way?
• If you have experience with a different language or culture, what similarities and differences do you notice in oral presentations across cultures?
• In the age of the internet when we can write down everything we need to say, create videos and create graphics easily, why do we still have oral presentations? What role do they serve?
• How do you use storytelling in your daily life? Do you consider yourself an effective storyteller?
• If you have experience with a different language or culture, what similarities and differences do you notice in storytelling across cultures?
14.02: Brenda Knights Narrative
We have many community members who work in our places of business. We expect employees to follow company policy. If they’re not following company policy, we have to follow through with progressive discipline at times. What that employee goes home and tells their family might be different, but we have to maintain confidentiality and professionalism and can’t convey what happened. A family member might be really upset because they’re hearing one side of the story. The strategy that I’ve used is recognizing that sometimes, no matter what you say, you’re not going to appease them or change their mind. But it’s important to recognize them, hear them out, thank them for sharing and leave it at that. It’s not always about fixing the problem right there. Sometimes people just want to be heard. Eventually, the truth has a way of revealing itself. I’ve found that over time, people figure it out. As a leader, you have to keep that confidentiality. Even if you are tempted to defend your position, you have to realize it’s not the most appropriate time or place.
That can apply in any place of business. As you move up in the company, you’re privileged to learn more and more information that can’t be shared. It can become difficult because you you might feel that sharing information would resolve a conflict or make someone understand, but you might also be putting the company at risk. As a leader, if you’re always trying to come forward with all the answers, you may be seen as defensive as opposed to professional. As people get to know you as a leader, if you’re consistent and known as someone who’s confidential and professional, people will want to work with you and will trust you. I’ve experienced that with elders. I’ve talked to an elder and even though I don’t understand everything, I’m astute enough to know that there’s more to the story that I don’t have access to, and I trust that.
You need to know who’s in the room, too, and whether you need to speak or if someone else should speak. If I’m in the room and our chief is there, the audience wants to hear from the chief, not from me. Out of respect, since she has a senior role, I’m going to defer to her. In a smaller setting, I’ve had a person direct a question to me, and even though I can answer it, I will turn to Chief Marilyn and give her that respect and that opportunity to speak first. When you don’t do that, you can come across as over ambitious. It’s really important to know when it’s your time to speak and who’s the appropriate person to speak. You don’t always have to be the one to answer the question.
In our Kwantlen community, we’re taught that everyone has a different gift to bring. When it comes to a certain topic, it’s okay to defer to the person who is respected in the community as a knowledge keeper. If you do, your information will become more credible and people will buy in to the idea. When you work as a team and put your ego aside and draw on the experts, you realize that you can’t be an expert in everything. It doesn’t always have to be the leader who speaks on everything and has to be knowledgeable on everything.
I always think about our traditional teachings. We were taught as Indigenous people to respect and listen to our elders. It’s not that when you reach a certain age, you automatically become an elder. There’s a purpose for that. Elders are people who have knowledge that they can pass on. If you stop and take the time to listen, there’s often a great deal of information that you can get. Often, we have been taught that it’s rude to leave awkward silences, so sometimes we feel that all that time needs to be filled with talking, but it’s okay to stop and have silence and reflect, as opposed to always talking. You’ll miss out on good information. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/14%3A_Oral_Presentations/14.01%3A_Questions_for_Reflection.txt |
In the workplace, and during your university career, you will likely be asked to give oral presentations. An oral presentation is a key persuasive tool. If you work in marketing, for example, you will often be asked to “pitch” campaigns to clients. Even though these pitches could happen over email, the face-to-face element allows marketers to connect with the client, respond to questions, demonstrate their knowledge and bring their ideas to life through storytelling.
In this section, we’ll focus on public speaking. While this section focuses on public speaking advocacy, you can bring these tools to everything from a meeting where you’re telling your colleagues about the results of a project to a keynote speech at a conference.
Imagine your favourite public speaker. When Meggie (one of the authors of this section) imagines a memorable speaker, she often thinks of her high school English teacher, Mrs. Permeswaran. You may be skeptical of her choice, but Mrs. Permeswaran captured the students’ attention daily. How? By providing information through stories and examples that felt relatable, reasonable, and relevant. Even with a room of students, Meggie often felt that the English teacher was just talking to her. Students worked hard, too, to listen, using note-taking and subtle nods (or confused eyebrows) to communicate that they cared about what was being said.
Now imagine your favourite public speaker. Who comes to mind? A famous comedian like Jen Kirkman? An ac
tivist like Laverne Cox? Perhaps you picture Barack Obama. What makes them memorable for you? Were they funny? Relatable? Dynamic? Confident? Try to think beyond what they said to how they made you feel. What they said certainly matters, but we are often less inclined to remember the what without a powerful how— how they delivered their message; how their performance implicated us or called us in; how they made us feel or how they asked us to think or act differently.
In this chapter, we provide an introduction to public speaking by exploring what it is and why it’s impactful as a communication process. Specifically, we invite you to consider public speaking as a type of advocacy. When you select information to share with others, you are advocating for the necessity of that information to be heard. You are calling on the audience and calling them in to listen to your perspective. Even the English teacher above was advocating that sentence structure and proper writing were important ideas to integrate. She was a trusted speaker, too, given her credibility.
Before we continue our conversation around advocacy, let’s first start with a brief definition of public speaking.
14.04: What's Public Speaking
In the opening section of this chapter, we asked that you imagine your favourite public speaker, but what qualifies? How do we know when public speaking is happening? This section will briefly define public speaking to provide some working terminology and background information.
In public speaking, a speaker attempts to move an audience by advocating for a purposeful message—through informing, persuading, or entertaining—in a particular context. In almost all cases, the speaker is the focus of attention for a specific amount of time. There may be some back-and-forth interaction, such as questions and answers with the audience, but the speaker usually holds the responsibility to direct that interaction either during or after the prepared speech has concluded. As the focus, speakers deliver sound arguments in a well-organized manner. Historically, public speaking was a face-to-face process, but public speaking can now be delivered and viewed digitally.
Broken down, public speaking includes these basic components:
• The sharing of a well-organized, well-supported, message from a designated speaker to an audience;
• In a context;
• Generally prepared;
• With purpose ranging from informative to persuasive to entertaining.
A speaker often feels strongly that the audience would benefit from the message presented. After all, public speaking is purposeful, so giving a speech is the process of providing a group of people with information that is useful and relevant. It may sound like a simple process, but it requires keen delivery – including attention to verbal and nonverbal skills – argument creation, research, and rehearsal to create a captivating experience for your audience. Public speaking is more than a message, it’s an experience.
Brené Brown is one speaker that creates an experience for her audience. You may be familiar with her TedTalk, “The Power of Vulnerability” from 2014 (she’s done some great stuff since then, too). She created a captivating experience with research around vulnerability, told stories that were intriguing, and used humour to draw the audience in —she advocated for ideas that were made meaningful to and for her audience.
We could, conversely, ask you to imagine a less-captivating public speaker. Sadly, we have these in our minds, too. These are often speakers who didn’t deliver information that you were compelled to listen to: they didn’t advocate that the information was of importance to you, to your community, or to other communities. Perhaps they gave you information that you already knew or had been disproven. Put simply: they didn’t create a meaningful experience.
What you advocate for and how you deliver your message are crucial to creating a captivating experience for your audience. Tracing public speaking back to its roots will underscore the historical relevance of public speaking as a form of advocacy. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/14%3A_Oral_Presentations/14.03%3A_Importance_of_Oral_Presentations.txt |
Public speaking as a form of advocacy can be traced through the history of oral communication. Public speaking, or “rhetoric” as it was originally called, has long been considered a method in Western culture of building community, facilitating self-governance, sharing important ideas, and creating policies. In fact, these are the reasons the ancient Athenian Greeks emphasized that all citizens should be educated in rhetoric: so that they could take part in civil society. Rhetoric was a means to discuss and advocate civically with other citizens and community members.
Public speaking is still seen as a key form of civic engagement. Being a good civil servant means listening to information that’s relevant to your community/communities and using public outlets—voting, petitioning, or speaking— to participate in democracy. Public speaking becomes a necessary outlet to advocate for issues within and for your community – it’s a way to become civically engaged.
Public speaking can and should remain invested in advocacy, but “advocacy” can sound slightly intimidating.
To clarify, think about advocacy as one or more of the following components:
• Advocacy is the promotion of an idea, cause, concept, or information
• Advocacy includes actions toward a specific goal
• Advocacy finds solutions to current problems
To advocate is to say “this idea matters” and “I invite each of us to think more deeply about this information.” This could happen by discussing an idea that you believe a community needs to hear or by overtly asking audiences to change their mind about a controversial topic. When you make a selection to provide a perspective, you are actively supporting (or advocating for) that perspective. Of all the arguments, topics, or insights in the world, you have selected one – you’ve selected an advocacy.
Exploring Advocacy
You may be wondering, “if advocacy means the promotion of a cause that affects communities, how do I figure out a cause I find worthy to speak about?”
Believe us, you’ve done this before.
When is the last time you advocated for a certain perspective? You may have shared an article online that suggested boycotting a musical artist. Perhaps you backed your sister up in an argument with your parents about curfews. You may be thinking about arguing with a friend to boycott fast food chains or asking an important question through social media. These are forms of advocacy. You become passionate about these topics and they motivate your engagement around these issues.
Public speaking asks that you expand those moments beyond interpersonal or social media exchanges to include a broader audience where you’re the designated speaker.
You might, for example, be asked to represent a student organization on campus. You would be responsible for advocating on behalf of that group – a responsibility that can be exhilarating and meaningful. You care about the organization –its mission, ideas, and people in it—so you want to successfully advocate for the group’s ideas.
When we advocate, we are balancing our own individual interests with the interests or goals of a larger community or group. We can sometimes over-rely on the first half: our own interests, and forget about the latter: the interests of the larger community. Oftentimes, what we advocate for or about can impact others – both directly (like your student organization) and indirectly (like language choices that are used).
Therefore, advocating for ideas through public speaking has personal and social functions. Public speaking as advocacy will guide our approach through this book, and we encourage you to begin considering your areas of advocacy. There is a lot at stake when we advocate, so we must strive to be ethical communicators.
14.06: Communicating Ethically
Ethics is the practice of what’s right, virtuous, or good (Tompkins, 2011, p. 3). You could likely list a few key ethics that you personally hold. You may view violence as unethical, for example. Ethics are also understood and defined in our own communities. Colleges view plagiarism—or representing someone else’s work as our own—as unethical and wrong within the university community (we’ll discuss this in later chapters). As public speakers, ethics is central because you are attempting to influence others.
When preparing for a public speech, there are two key communication ethics questions to consider:
First, am I advocating for information and others in ethical ways? Anytime we communicate, including public speaking, the content should be crafted with truthful and honest information. Ethical advocacy might include:
• Presenting sound and truthful information while providing credit to external sources
• Avoiding defamatory speech, or a false statement of fact to damage a person’s character
• Avoiding hate speech or language directed against someone or a community’s nationality, race, gender, ability, sexuality, religion or citizenship.
• Avoiding demagogueryor actions that attempt to manipulate by distorting an audience through prejudice and emotion.
Second, am I representing myself in ethical ways? Am I misrepresenting myself? When you ask an individual or a larger audience to listen, you’re asking them to trust not just what you say, but trust who you are. You are establishing credibility—or ethos. Attempts to establish ethical ethos might include:
• Showing character by, in word and action, demonstrating honesty and integrity.
• Being prepared.
• Avoiding misrepresentations of your experience, expertise, or authority.
If we advocate for ideas with reckless disregard for truth, we are communicating in unethical ways. Instead, we can work to become ethical public speakers that communicate information and present ourselves honestly and transparently.
In addition to ethics, there are three additional principles of communication that are central to a deeper understanding of the communication process and, thus, public speaking. We construct public speeches through communication. Below, we’ll outline 3 major considerations about communication that will influence our understanding of ethical public speaking and advocacy: human communication is constitutive, contextual, and cultural. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/14%3A_Oral_Presentations/14.05%3A_Public_Speaking_as_Advocacy.txt |
Communication is the basis of human interaction because we use communication to create shared meaning. We negotiate this meaning through symbols – a word, icon, gesture, picture, object, etc.—that stand in for and represent a thing or experience. “Dog” is a symbol that represents adorable pets. When you see the symbol “dog,” you might picture your own dog, so that symbol has an additional layer of meaning for you. “Dog” also often represents pets as friends (or “humans’ best friend!”), so symbols can refer to literal objects or larger ideals and norms – it’s what makes communication both fascinating and, at times, complex.
Consider the following: your friend comes over to vent about a current relationship. “I am so annoyed!” they claim. “Charlie really needs to work on her communication skills. She never calls me back.”
At first, it may seem that Charlie’s lacking in communication by not returning phone calls. However, communication isn’t secluded to verbal feedback, and it still occurs in our nonverbal symbols, in silence, or in emojis . So, Charlie’s still communicating, just not a meaning that your friend is receiving happily.
As this example begins to demonstrate, communication (and, thus, public speaking) is complex, and below we highlight 3 important components of communication, beginning with communication as constitutive.
Constitutive
When we (your authors) were new public speakers, we often failed to take seriously the opportunity of speaking and communicating with others. We would commonly use words or phrases without investigating their impact on audiences or considering what they represented. That’s because we falsely viewed ourselves as vessels that transmitted information rather than active creators in our own and other’ worldview.
We now know, however, that communication is constitutive, meaning that communication creates meaning and, thus, reality (Nicotera, 2009). Rather than merely transmit pre-determined information, what you say matters and makes up our social world. Think back to the example with your friend and Charlie: Charlie’s communication was affecting your friend and their perception of Charlie. It affected your friend’s world and relationship with Charlie in real ways.
This principle is true of public speaking, too. The message that you create in your speech matters, because it both extends others’ information (like research) and constructs its own meaning. As communicators and public speakers, realizing that you are creating shared meaning may feel like added responsibility. And it is. It means that we are all responsible in thinking deeply about what we decide to speak about and how we decide to represent those ideas.
Power is thus a core consideration of communication because when we communicate, we are influencing others and selecting certain ways to represent our ideas. When you speak, you are elevating certain perspectives, and those often lead to the empowerment or disempowerment of people, places, things or ideas. Communicating is never neutral because meaning is always being negotiated. When you were a child, for example, a guardian may have looked at you angrily, and you knew to behave or there would be consequences. You are being nonverbally influenced and creating shared meaning with that guardian.
Key Takeaway
• Communication is never neutral because meaning is always being negotiated.
Recent debates around school and sports’ mascots help demonstrate the role of power in communication. Maine, for example, unanimously banned Indigenous mascots in public schools after tribal communities expressed discomfort in the images (Hauser, 2019). For Indigenous communities, the verbal and visual images were disrespectful representations of their culture – it was communication that created problematic and stereotypical narratives that represented Indigenous cultures is disempowering ways.
Meaning is being constituted (or created) when you’re in the audience, too. Because public speaking is an experience in a particular context, audience members also contribute to the meaning being shared.
Consider these three scenarios (some of which you may have experienced). While someone is giving a formal speech:
• 3 front-row audience members are sleeping;
• 3 front-row audience members are providing positive, nonverbal feedback and taking notes;
• Someone is vacuuming loudly outside the room during the presentation.
These may sound familiar, and you may even experience these in class! Each scenario, however, does not communicate the same thing and all 3 will affect the public speaking experience – for the speaker and other audience members.
As humans, we are constantly communicating to make meaning with others. Viewing communication as constitutive highlights how these acts create our worldviews, not merely reflect them. In public speaking, then, our advocacies are not just recreating information, but our speeches are active contributors to the world we live in. Our worlds, though, are never universal, and communication is also always contextual.
Information Literacy Pro-Tip: In addition to creating meaning, you will also create original scholarship. You are likely familiar, for example, with citing prominent writers, speakers, or scholars when trying to support an idea in an essay. When you begin giving speeches, you are creating citable information, and your original insights are your own.
Contextual
Like we’ve mentioned, communication is humans trying to make meaning together. As you’ve experienced, though, that meaning is not received or understood the same all of the time. That’s because communication is contextual. It happens in a particular time and place.
Pretend, for example, that you want to break up with your partner. Communicating that desire over text message is a different context then a coffee shop or in a private apartment. As this example demonstrates, context refers to a specific time and place – the literal context. You may decide that a private apartment is more fitting because a coffee shop may lend itself to external noise, changing the vibe, and disrupting your serious talk.
For public speaking, the time and place are similarly key considerations because that context will inform what you say, why, and for how long. Ask yourself,
• Where will I be speaking? To whom?
• What is the purpose?
• When is it taking place?
• Am I delivering the message through a live or mediated channel?
The literal context can have substantial implications for what and how you’re able to communicate. For a public speaker, the place and space will dictate your movement, your presentation aids, and/or the length of your speech. To review these concepts, consider Chapter 3.
In addition to the literal context – the time and place – communication occurs within larger dialogues and contexts – historical and cultural. We’ll discuss communication as cultural below and Chapter two will dive deeper into analyzing your speaking context, but let’s work to understand the larger context here, too.
A communication act – like a speech or interpersonal exchange – occurs in a particular historical context. Have you ever been to a family function where you didn’t know that two family members were feuding? Perhaps you loudly commented on their behaviour jokingly, making the room silent and awkward. Unfortunately, you weren’t aware of the larger context.
In Canada, major conversations are occurring at municipal, provincial and federal level to address climate change. These conversations may be occurring in your communities, too. If you were discussing or speaking about climate change, being aware of these conversations would situate you to enter the larger context. Are you up-to-date on the scientific findings? Is your community susceptible to certain climate change impacts? What about other communities?
As a communicator and public speaker, being attuned and informed about the larger context is paramount, because it will direct you toward an advocacy. What’s relevant? What’s important to consider now? What references or examples are timely?
Communication occurs in a context – the literal time and place and the larger historical conversations. The final component of communication is closely connected with context, and below, we explore communication as cultural.
Cultural
Finally, all communication is cultural.
First, let’s define culture. Culture refers to the collection of language, values, beliefs, knowledge, rituals, and attitudes shared amongst a group (“Culture and Communication,” 2002). Your college campus, for example, may have certain cultural elements (like a school song) that band students together toward similar beliefs and values.
Canada, more broadly, has certain cultural characteristics – celebrating Canada Day or being seen as polite and hockey-loving, for example. You don’t, however, just belong to one or even two cultures. We are all influenced by multiple cultural norms and values.
Communication is cultural because cultures rely on symbols – the bedrock of communication – to determine the norms, expectations, and values within the group. This means two things:
• First, culture is created through the communication process. In other words, we use communication to negotiate (and create) our cultural values;
• Second, communication reflects the cultural values and norms of the people communicating. We can often glean what cultural values are present by looking at someone’s communication.
When we communicate, we are relying on the cultural norms that we’ve been taught and, by using those symbols, advocating for those ideals.
When you are advocating for an idea and communicating why that idea matters, it’s important not to assume that your cultural perspective or location is the best or only perspective (it’s contextual, remember?!). Instead, you must be reflexive about what norms you are advocating for and how you may be representing topics or ideas from or about other cultures. Reflexivity means to critically consider how our values, assumptions, actions, and communication affect others. From a communication perspective, reflexivity acknowledges that your intentions are secondary to the impact that your verbal and nonverbal behavior has on others and on the cultural realities that you create.
Think back to Maine’s legislation that prohibits public schools from using Indigenous mascots. In the U.S., free speech is an important cultural value, so many people argue that free speech should protect these mascots and images. For Indigenous communities, however, these images don’t accurately represent their cultural ideas and negatively stereotype. Because communication does more than just reflect reality (but creates it, ahem: is constitutive), there is power in the information that’s portrayed to others. In this case, we should reflexively ask: Are the images representing our or other cultures ethically? Are we communicating in a way that disempowers others?
These questions are important because communication affects our perceptions of other cultures and cultural norms. We not only learn our own cultural values through communication, we also learn about other cultures through communication, in positive and negative ways. If you grew up in New Westminster, you might have been told negative stories about Surrey. This likely impacted your perception of Surrey and even the people who live there.
This may seem like a silly example, but it demonstrates how communication is the bedrock of cultural meaning – both our own and others.
Communication, as a process of creating shared meaning, is constituted (creating the worlds in which we live), contextual (occurs in a time and place), and cultural (shared rituals, norms, values). These three characteristics are true of all communication – interpersonal, organizational, intercultural, and digital, to name a few.
As public speakers, these components guide our decisions on what information to advocate for and to whom. They ask us to consider, what’s at stake in the perspective that I’m introducing? How will it influence my audience and my community? How am I entering a relevant conversation? What world views am I supporting and creating?
Public speaking is a privilege – not everyone, every day is given an audience of people willing to listen to their ideas. So it’s important, it matters, and it’s meaningful.
So far, we’ve discussed public speaking as a form of advocacy and identified some core communication principles to keep in mind. There is one additional (albeit unwelcome) component that defines many speakers’ experience with public speaking: apprehension. In the final major section of this chapter, we walk through communication apprehension. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/14%3A_Oral_Presentations/14.07%3A_Communication_is_Constitutive_Contextual_and_Cultural.txt |
Admittedly, thinking about advocacy or advocating for ideas can sound intimidating. Even experienced professors can feel anxiety before teaching. To advocate or present information to an audience – some more willing to listen actively than others – is a big responsibility. Understandably, this can lead speakers to experiencing apprehension while preparing and delivering a presentation. In this section, we explore public speaking apprehension while providing some useful tips to manage anxiety.
Public speaking apprehension is fear associated with giving a public speech. This could occur prior to or during a presentation. It’s common to hear that public speaking is a fear, but why are so many people fearful to speak in public?
The first is fear of failure. This fear can result from several sources: real or perceived bad experiences involving public speaking in the past, lack of preparation, lack of knowledge about public speaking, not knowing the context, and uncertainty about one’s task as a public speaker (such as being thrown into a situation at the last minute).
The second fear is fear of rejection of one’s self or one’s ideas. This one is more serious in some respects. You may feel rejection because of fear of failure, or you may feel that the audience will reject your ideas, or worse, you as a person.
Scholars at the University of Wisconsin-Stout (“Public Speaking Anxiety,” 2015) explain that fear in public speaking can also result from one of several misperceptions:
• “all or nothing” thinking—a mindset that if your speech falls short of “perfection” (an unrealistic standard), then you are a failure as a public speaker;
• overgeneralization—believing that a single event (such as failing at a task) is a universal or “always” event; and
• fortune telling—the tendency to anticipate that things will turn out badly, no matter how much practice or rehearsal is done.
One common belief that undergirds our fear is that we often hold ourselves to “expert-level” standards. We learn that audience members look for proof of our credibility, and new public speakers may wonder, “why am I credible?” or “why should someone listen to me?” At the beginning of this chapter, we asked that you imagine your favourite public speaker, and they may have years of experience speaking in public. While it’s important to view these speakers as informal mentors, it can also incite some anxiety. “Am I supposed to speak like them?” you may be wondering.
Likewise, many new college students operate under the false belief that intelligence and skill are “fixed.” In their minds, a person is either smart or skilled in something, or they are not. Some students apply this false belief to math and science subjects, saying things like “I’m just no good at math and I never will be,” or even worse, “I guess I am just not smart enough to be in college.” As you can tell, these beliefs can sabotage someone’s college career. Unfortunately, the same kind of false beliefs are applied to public speaking, and people conclude that because public speaking is hard, they are just not “natural” at it and have no inborn skill. They give up on improving and avoid public speaking at all costs. The classroom is a cool space to begin building some foundational knowledge around public speaking. Remember that you are building a critical thinking portfolio, so have patience with yourself and trust the educational process.
Finally, we often experience students believing the incongruent ideas that public speaking (as a class) should be an “easy A” and that they’d rather die than give a speech. Instead, remember that good public speaking takes time and energy because it is difficult. Public speaking asks you to engage and advocate on behalf of yourselves and others who may not be able to access spaces to advocate for themselves.
Public speaking is also embodied: it requires the activation of and communication through your entire body. Unlike writing an essay or posting a picture online, public speaking requires that your entire body deliver a message, and that can feel odd for many of us. Consequently, learning public speaking means you must train your body to be comfortable and move in predictable and effective ways. This all happens in front of other people: scary! This is difficult work, so of course it’s viewed as fear-inducing for some.
Addressing Public Speaking Anxiety
We wish that we had a “Felix can fix it!” (from Wreck-It Ralph) mentality toward public speaking apprehension. If you have experienced some anxiety around speaking, you know that it can be merely aggravating or completely overwhelming. In this section, we provide some guidance and strategies to address public speaking apprehension.
Mental Preparation
Mental preparation is an important part of public speaking. To mentally prepare, you want to put your focus where it belongs, on the audience and the message. Mindfulness and full attention to the task are vital to successful public speaking. If you are concerned about a big exam or something personal going on in your life, your mind will be divided and add to your stress.
The main questions to ask yourself are “Why am I so anxiety-ridden about giving a presentation?” and “What is the worst that can happen?” For example, you probably won’t know most of your classmates at the beginning of the course, adding to your anxiety. By midterm, you should be developing relationships with them and be able to find friendly faces in the audience. However, very often we make situations far worse in our minds than they actually are, and we can lose perspective.
Physical Preparation
The first step in physical preparation is adequate sleep and rest. You might be thinking, “Impossible! I’m in college.” However, research shows the extreme effects a lifestyle of limited sleep can have, far beyond yawning or dozing off in class (Mitru, Millrood, & Mateika, 2002). As far as public speaking is concerned, your energy level and ability to be alert and aware during the speech will be affected by lack of sleep.
Secondly, eat! Food is fuel, so making sure that you have a nutritious meal is a plus.
A third suggestion is to select what you’ll wear before the day you speak. Have your outfit picked out and ready to go, eliminating something to worry your mind the day-of.
A final suggestion for physical preparation is to utilize some stretching or relaxation techniques that will loosen your limbs or throat. Essentially, your emotions want you to run away but the social system says you must stay, so all that energy for running must go somewhere. The energy might go to your legs, hands, stomach, sweat glands, or skin, with undesirable physical consequences. Tightening and stretching your hands, arms, legs, and throat for a few seconds before speaking can help release some of the tension. Your instructor may be able to help you with these exercises, or you can find some online.
Contextual Preparation
The more you can know about the venue where you will be speaking, the better. For this class, of course, it will be your classroom, but for other situations where you might experience “communication apprehension,” you should check out the space beforehand or get as much information as possible. For example, if you were required to give a short talk for a job interview, you would want to know what the room will be like, if there is equipment for projection, how large the audience will be, and the seating arrangements. If possible, you will want to practice your presentation in a room that is similar to the actual space where you will deliver it.
The best advice for contextual preparation is to be on time, even early. If you have to rush in at the last minute, as so many students do, you will not be mindful, focused, or calm for the speech.
Speech Preparation
Please, please, please, rehearse. You do not want the first time that you say the words to be when you are in front of your audience. Practicing is the only way that you will feel confident, fluent, and in control of the words you speak. Practicing (and timing yourself) repeatedly is also the only way that you will be assured that your speech meets the requirements of the context (length, for example).
Your practicing should be out loud, standing up, with shoes on, with someone to listen, if possible (other than your dog or cat), and with your visual aids. If you can record yourself and watch it, that is even better. If you do record yourself, make sure you record yourself from the feet up—or at least the hips up—so you can see your body language. The need for oral practice will be emphasized over and over in this book and probably by your instructor. As you progress as a speaker, you will always need to practice but perhaps not to the extent you do as a novice speaker.
As hard as it is to believe, YOU NEVER LOOK AS NERVOUS AS YOU FEEL.
You may feel that your anxiety is at level seventeen on a scale of one to ten, but the audience does not perceive it the same way. They may perceive it at a three or four or even less. That’s not to say they won’t see any signs of your anxiety and that you don’t want to learn to control it, only that what you are feeling inside is not as visible as you might think. This principle relates back to focus. If you know you don’t look as nervous as you feel, you can focus and be mindful of the message and audience rather than your own emotions.
Providing Support in the Audience: As an audience member: there are ways to provide supportive feedback to speakers who may be anxious. You can use positive non-verbals to encourage them as they speak, ask thoughtful questions at the conclusion of the presentation, or listen attentively. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/14%3A_Oral_Presentations/14.08%3A_Public_Speaking_Anxiety.txt |
Consider your favourite podcaster or podcast series. We love crime podcasts! Despite being reliant on vocal delivery only, the presenters’ voices paint an aesthetic picture as they walk us through stories around crime, murder, and betrayal. So, how do they do it? What keeps millions of people listening to podcasts and returning to their favourite verbal-only speakers? Is it how they say it? Is it the language they choose? All of these are important parts of effective vocal delivery.
Below, we begin discussing vocal delivery—language choices, projection, vocal enunciation, and more.
Language and Aesthetics
It was 5 p.m. As she looked out the smudged window over the Kansas pasture, the wind quickly died down and the rolling clouds turned a slight gray-green. Without warning, a siren blared through the quiet plains as she pulled her hands up to cover her ears. Gasping for breath, she turned toward the basement and flew down the stairs as the swirling clouds charged quickly toward the farm house.
What’s happening in this story? What are you picturing? A treacherous tornado? A devastating storm rumbling onto a small Kansas farm? If so, the language in the story was successful.
Like this example demonstrates, the language that you use can assist audiences in creating a mental picture or image – creating a visualization is a powerful tool as a speaker.
Aesthetics is, certainly, based on how you deliver or embody your speech. But aesthetics also incorporates language choices and storytelling – techniques that craft a meaningful picture and encompass how you deliver the information or idea to your audience. In this section, we will explore vivid language, implementing rhetorical techniques, and storytelling as an aesthetic tool to create resonance with your audience.
Vivid Language
Vivid language evokes the senses and is language that arouses the sensations of smelling, tasting, seeing, hearing, and feeling. Think of the word “ripe.” What is “ripe?” Do ripe fruits feel a certain way? Smell a certain way? Taste a certain way? Ripe is a sensory word. Most words just appeal to one sense, like vision. Think of colour. How can you make the word “blue” more sensory? How can you make the word “loud” more sensory? How would you describe the current state of your bedroom or dorm room to leave a sensory impression? How would you describe your favourite meal to leave a sensory impression?
In the opening Kansas storm example above, the author may want the audience to sense danger or a certain intensity around the approaching tornado. To create that audience experience, you must craft language that emphasizes these elements.
When using vivid language, you’re trying to bring those sensations to life in a way that can create a vivid experience for your audience. “How can I best represent this idea?” you might ask or “how can I best create a scenario where the audience feels like they’re a part of the scene?”
Viivd language can take time to craft. As you work through your speech, determine where you’d like the audience to experience a particular sensation, and focus on integrating vivid language.
Remember that pathos is a persuasive appeal that is at your disposal, and using vivid language can assist in creating an emotional experience and sensation for the audience.
Rhetorical Techniques
There are several traditional techniques that have been used to engage audiences and make ideas more attention-getting and memorable. These are called rhetorical techniques. Although “rhetorical” is associated with persuasive speech, these techniques are also effective with other types of speeches. We suggest using alliteration, parallelism, and rhetorical tropes.
Alliteration is the repetition of initial consonant sounds in a sentence or passage. In his “I Have a Dream Speech,” Dr. Martin Luther King said, “I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the colour of their skin but by the content of their character.” Do you notice how the consonant of “C” resounds throughout?
Parallelism is the repetition of sentence structures. It can be useful for stating your main ideas. Which one of these sounds better?
“Give me liberty or I’d rather die.”
“Give me liberty or give me death.”
The second one uses parallelism. Quoting again from JFK’s inaugural address: “Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty.” The repetition of the three-word phrases in this sentence (including the word “any” in each) is an example of parallelism.
Tropes are a turning of the text where the literal meaning is changed or altered to provide new insight (Brummett, 2019). This is often referred to as figurative language, or using comparisons with objects, animals, activities, roles, or historical or literary figures. A literal statement would say, “The truck is fast.” Figurative says, “The truck is as fast as…“ or “The truck runs like…”
You are likely most familiar with the metaphor – one type of trope. Metaphors are direct comparisons, such as “When he gets behind the wheel of that truck, he is Kyle Busch at Daytona.” Here are some more examples of metaphors:
Love is a battlefield.
Upon hearing the charges, the accused clammed up and refused to speak without a lawyer.
Every year a new crop of activists is born.
Note: while tropes, metaphors and similes can be useful tools, remember that neurodiverse members in your audience, or people who are not familiar with the Canadian context, may have trouble understanding you.
Similes are closely related to metaphors, and use “like” or “as” when crafting a comparison. “The truck runs like,” is the beginning of a simile.
Tropes are useful because they assist the audience in seeing an idea in a new way or a new light. This can be particularly helpful if you’re struggling to create a vivid experience but have been unsuccessful at evoking the senses. A metaphor can assist by comparing your argument with an idea that the audience is familiar with. If you’re trying to evoke a particular felt sense, make sure the compared idea can conjure up that particular feeling.
Whatever trope you use, the goal is to craft an interesting comparison or turn the text in a unique way that leads to great comprehension for the audience.
Research Spotlight
Researchers found that listeners (or, in this case, audience members) had greater aesthetic appreciation when figurative language (like a metaphor) was used compared to conventional, familiar rhetoric (Wimmer et al, 2016).
Storytelling
Stories and storytelling, in the form of anecdotes and narrative illustrations, are a powerful tool as a public speaker. For better or worse, audiences are likely to remember anecdotes and narratives long after a speech’s statistics are forgotten. Human beings love stories and will often will walk away from a speech moved by or remembering a powerful story or example.
So, what makes a good story?
As an art form, storytelling may include:
• Attention to sequence, or the order of the story;
• Embedding a dramatic quality (or using pathos);
• The use of imagery (or figurative language).
While there is no “one-model-fits-all” view of storytelling, we often know a good story when we hear one, and they are a helpful way to expand your argument and place it in a context.
If you have personal experience with an argument or advocacy that you select, it may be helpful to provide a short story for the audience that provides insight into what you know. Remember that anecdotes are a form of evidence, and we can feel more connected with an idea if the story is related to something a speaker has been through. For example, if you selected police brutality as a speech advocacy, embedding a story about police violence may support your thesis statement and allow your audience to visualize what that might be like. It may draw them in to see a perspective that they hadn’t considered.
Similarly, consider the placement of your story. While your speech may rely on a longer narrative form as an organizational pattern, it’s more likely that you’ll integrate a short story within your speech. We most commonly recommend stories as:
• The attention getter
• Evidence within a main point
• A way to wrap up the speech and leave the audience with something meaningful to consider.
Stories, rhetorical techniques, and vivid language are important mechanisms to evoke language with aesthetics. In addition to what you say, verbal delivery also includes how you say it, including: vocal projection, verbal enunciation and punctuation, and vocal rate.
Projection
“Louder!”
You may have experienced a situation where an audience notified a speaker that they couldn’t be heard. “Louder!” Here, the audience is letting the speaker know to increase their volume, or the relative softness or loudness of one’s voice. In this example, the speaker needed to more fully project their vocals to fit the speaking-event space by increasing their volume. In a more formal setting, however, an audience may be skeptical to give such candid feedback, so it is your job to prepare.
Projection is a strategy to vocally fill the space; thus, the space dictates which vocal elements need to be adapted because every person in the room should comfortably experience your vocal range. If you speak too softly (too little volume or not projecting), your audience will struggle to hear and understand and may give up trying to listen. If you speak with too much volume, your audience may feel that you are yelling at them, or at least feel uncomfortable with you shouting. The volume you use should fit the size of the audience and the room.
Vocal Enunciation and Punctuation
Vocal enunciation is often reduced to pronouncing words correctly, but enunciation also describes the expression of words and language.
Have you ever spoken to a friend who replied, “Stop that! You’re mumbling.” If so, they’re signaling to you that they aren’t able to understand your message. You may have pronounced the words correctly but had indistinct enunciation of the words, leading to reduced comprehension.
One technique to increase enunciation occurs during speech rehearsal, and it’s known as the “dash” strategy: e-nun-ci-ate e-very syllabal in your pre-sen-ta-tion.
The dashes signify distinct vocal enunciation to create emphasis and expression. However, don’t go overboard! The dash strategy is an exaggerated exercise, but it can lead to a choppy vocal delivery.
Instead, use the dash strategy to find areas where difficult and longer words need more punctuated emphasis and, through rehearsal, organically integrate those areas of emphasis into your presentational persona.
Verbal punctuation is the process of imagining the words as they’re written to insert purposeful, punctuated pauses to conclude key thoughts. Your speech is not a run-on sentence. Verbal punctuation allows decisiveness and avoids audiences wondering, “is this still the same sentence?”
Verbal punctuation is a strategy to minimize vocalized fillers, including common fillers of “like, and, so, uh.” Rather than use a filler to fill a vocal void in the speech, punctuate the end of the sentence through a decisive pause (like a period in writing!).
We know what you’re thinking: “there’s no way that reducing fillers is this easy.” You’re partially right. We all use vocalized fillers, particularly in informal conversation, but the more you rehearse purposeful punctuation and decisive endings to your well-crafted thoughts and arguments, the fewer filler words you will use.
It is also helpful to ask for input and feedback from friends, colleagues, or teachers. “What are my filler words?” We have listed common fillers, but you may unconsciously rely on different words. One author, for example, was never aware that they used “kind of” until a colleague pointed the filler out. Once you’re aware of your filler words, work to carefully, consciously, and meticulously try to catch yourself when you say it. “Consciously” is key here, because you need to bring an awareness about your fillers to the forefront of your brain.
Pace and Rate
How quickly or slowly you say the words of your speech is the rate. A slower rate may communicate to the audience that you do not fully know the speech. “Where is this going?” they may wonder. It might also be slightly boring if the audience is processing information faster than it’s being presented.
By contrast, speaking too fast can be overly taxing on an audience’s ability to keep up with and digest what you are saying. It sometimes helps to imagine that your speech is a jog that you and your friends (the audience) are taking together. You (as the speaker) are setting the pace based on how quickly you speak. If you start sprinting, it may be too difficult for your audience to keep up and they may give up halfway through. Most people who speak very quickly know they speak quickly, and if that applies to you, just be sure to practice slowing down and writing yourself delivery cues in your notes to maintain a more comfortable rate.
You will want to maintain a good, deliberate rate at the beginning of your speech because your audience will be getting used to your voice. We have all called a business where the person answering the phone mumbles the name of the business in a rushed way. We aren’t sure if we called the right number. Since the introduction is designed to get the audience’s attention and interest in your speech, you will want to focus on clear vocal rate here.
You might also consider varying the rate depending on the type of information being communicated. While you’ll want to be careful going too slow consistently, slowing your rate for a difficult piece of supporting material may be helpful. Similarly, quickening your rate in certainly segments can communicate an urgency.
And although awkward, watching yourself give a speech via recording (or web cam) is a great way to gauge your natural rate and pace.
Vocal Pauses
The common misconception for public speaking students is that pausing during your speech is bad, but pausing (similar to and closely aligned with punctuation) can increase both the tone and comprehension of your argument. This is especially true if you are making a particularly important point or wanting a statement to have powerful impact: you will want to give the audience a moment to digest what you have said. You may also be providing new or technical information to an audience that needs additional time to absorb what you’re saying.
For example, consider the following statement: “Because of issues like pollution and overpopulation, in 50 years the earth’s natural resources will be so depleted that it will become difficult for most people to obtain enough food to survive.” Following a statement like this, you want to give your audience a brief moment to fully consider what you are saying. Remember that your speech is often ephemeral: meaning the audience only experiences the speech once and in real time (unlike reading where an audience can go back).
Use audience nonverbal cues and feedback (and provide them as an audience member) to determine if additional pauses may be necessary for audience comprehension. Audiences are generally reactive and will use facial expressions and body language to communicate if they are listening, if they are confused, angry, or supportive.
Of course, there is such a thing as pausing too much, both in terms of frequency and length. Someone who pauses too often may appear unprepared. Someone who pauses too long (more than a few seconds) runs the risk of the audience feeling uncomfortable or, even worse, becoming distracted or letting their attention wander.
Pauses should be controlled to maintain attention of the audience and to create additional areas of emphasis.
14.10: Key Takeaways
Hopefully, this section will have given you some useful tools to create engaging presentations and to communicate in a wide range of communication contexts: from meetings to Ted Talks.
• Think of public speaking as a type of advocacy. When you share information with others, you’re advocating for a particular perspective and calling your audience in to listen to your perspective.
• Public speaking is when a speaker attempts to move an audience by advocating for a purposeful message — through informing, persuading or entertaining— in a particular context.
• Advocacy means promoting an idea, cause, concept or information, saying “this idea matters” and “I invite each of us to think more deeply about this information.”
• Effective public speaking is also ethical. Establish your credibility by showing your character in word and action, being prepared and avoid misrepresenting your experience, expertise or authority.
• Communication is constitutive (it creates meaning and matters), contextual (it happens in a particular time and place), and cultural.
• Fear of public speaking comes from fear of failure or a fear of rejection. Preparing yourself mentally and physically, rehearsing your speech and understand your context will help you be effective.
• Effective public speakers use language aesthetics, storytelling and body language to bring their presentations to life.
14.11: Activities for Further Reflection
Before we begin, consider the following questions. Your instructor may ask you to freewrite about one or more of these questions in your learning journal.
1. In Brenda Knights’ chapter, she talks about silences and when not to speak. Write a paragraph explaining how this information fits with the rest of the chapter.
2. Find an essay or project that you created in another class. Then, prepare a 3-minute presentation trying to make your audience care about the topic. Tell the story of your assignment. If possible, record your presentation and pay attention to body language, enunciation and storytelling.
3. Watch the first minute of a TED talk or other public speaking video. Then, write a short paragraph about how the speaker tries to hook the audience in. Consider voice, body language, visuals, storytelling and other elements.
4. Think back to the last oral presentation that you did (either for work or school). How did it go? Write a very short letter to yourself giving some advice for improvement based on what you’ve learned.
Contributors and Attributions
This chapter contains material from Speak Out, Call In: Public Speaking as Advocacy by Meggie Mapes, which is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial ShareAlike license. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/14%3A_Oral_Presentations/14.09%3A_Verbal_Communication_Strategies.txt |
Photo by KAL VISUALS on Unsplash
Learning Objectives
In this section you will:
• Explore what revision looks like in the workplace.
• Develop strategies for revising your work.
• Learn what remixing is, and explore how you can use it to produce new insights.
• See remixing in action.
15: Revision and Remixing
Before we begin, take a moment to reflect on your experiences with revision and remixing. Your instructor may ask you to freewrite about one or more of these questions in your learning journal.
1. In the beginning of the semester, we discussed the writing process. Have you made any changes to your writing process over the semester? How are these changes working?
2. Write a paragraph connecting Brenda Knights’ narrative to the rest of the chapter or to your own experience.
3. Think about the last time that you learned something new. What steps did you take to learn the new skill?
4. Have you ever applied skills you’ve learned in one class to another class? What new insights did you come up with?
5. How has the peer workshopping process impacted you? Have you made changes based on your peers’ feedback? How does this process feel now that you have tried it a few times?
15.02: Brenda Knights Narrative
During one of my first days working at Kwantlen, I had to go work at the gift store because someone was sick. I said I’d go over there to work for a day, and the person I was talking to said, “You’ll be fine. There’s a manual. Just follow the manual.” Fine, I get the manual, and it shows you how to log on to the computer. I did the first step. But then the second step says, “Open the point of sale.”
I looked at the screen and there were all of these icons. I didn’t understand. None of the icons said ‘point of sale.’ So where’s the point of sale? That crucial step was missing. So, I couldn’t even get it open. If there was a visual that showed a picture of the icon, I could have opened it up. Because it just said ‘open the point of sale,’ I couldn’t even get past step 2.
It’s really important to bring someone in who’s not familiar at all with the topic and have them test your instructions. You have to think about how much your audience knows. Manuals need to be so simple that literally anyone can pick it up and follow the instructions. But often, we skip ahead and assume that the reader knows more than they do. That’s why we need to ask them and not make assumptions.
15.03: Revising Editing Proofreading
In Chapter 2, we discussed the writing process and shared the writing processes of different professional communicators. One of the main takeaways of this chapter was that in the workplace, communicators revise their work extensively and approach revision as rethinking the entire piece from the perspective of their audience, not just editing the grammar. When we discussed using sources, we also explored the difference between how workplace communicators use sources and how students are expected to use sources. In this chapter, we’ll further explore the revision process and discuss remixing: how communicators take someone else’s message and build upon it to create something new.
The amount of revision you will do will depend on the importance of the document. If you’re sending an email, you might do a little proofreading. If you’re writing a proposal that you’ve spent weeks working on, you’ll likely need to do more significant editing.
Revising, Editing, and Proofreading
As we discussed in Chapter 2, the difference between a new communicator and an experienced one is simply that the experienced communicator has learned the value of revision. While you may feel that you write best “under pressure” the night before your assignment is due or in the minutes before sending an email at work, writing a single draft at the last minute rarely results in anyone’s best work. You may feel that you’ve put a lot of effort into your first draft, so it can be challenging to think about changing your work or even eliminating words that you toiled over. You might worry about ruining your first draft and over-editing. However, it’s well worth the pain of revising, editing, and proofreading so you produce a polished piece of writing that others can easily understand.
Many writing experts describe writing this way: the first draft if for the writer, but the second draft is for the reader. You already know about the importance of audience analysis, so think of revision as one more way to meet the audience’s needs. In your first draft, you’re getting the material down. In the revision process, you’re taking a step back and thinking about what you’ve written from the audience’s perspective.
To revise a piece of writing, it may help you to consider three approaches: look at the big picture, check your organization, and proofread your final draft.
Higher Order Concerns
Revising for higher order concerns means working on the organization of your ideas. You might insert sentences, words, or paragraphs; you might move them elsewhere in your document; or you might remove them entirely (Meyer, 2017).
When you revise at the “big picture” stage, you are looking at the most important aspects of the writing tasks, and the ones that require the most thought. Here’s a set of questions to help you revise for these higher order concerns:
• Have I met the purpose and requirements?
• Does my draft say what I mean?
• What would my audience think about what I’ve written?
• Have I changed my thinking through writing or researching?
• Are there parts that do not belong here?
• Are there pieces missing?
• Are there places where the reader would struggle to understand my meaning?
• Is the tone right for my reader?
• Are my sources the right kind for my purpose and reader?
• Are all the pieces in the right place?
• Will the reader understand the connections between my ideas?
• Are sources documented?
• Are the visuals appropriate? Could they be clearer?
Another way to edit for higher order concerns is to prepare a reverse outline using your draft. This technique is discussed in Chapter 5.
One of the hardest parts of learning revision is building trust in your ability to make big changes and stray from original plan. It can be tempting to keep trying to tinker: moving words around in a sentence or rearranging a paragraph, hoping that the problem you’ve identified can be solved. But a key part of the writing process is embracing that you’ve learned something new from the time you started your draft to the time you finished it. With that new information, you may realize that a new approach is needed.
If you’re feeling stuck with revision, another technique is to imagine that you’re having a conversation with a friend. Your friend asks what your document is about. Record yourself giving that answer. When you play it back, you’ll likely hear some insight into how to solve a tricky revision problem you’re having.
Lower Order Concerns
Lower order concerns focus on editing and proofreading. When you edit, you work from your revised draft to systematically correct issues or errors in punctuation, grammar, spelling, and other things related to writing mechanics (Meyer, 2017). Proofreading is the last stage where you work from your almost-finished document to fix any issues or errors in formatting or typos you missed (Meyer, 2017). Here’s another way of distinguishing these two tasks. Editing is the act of making changes or indicating what to change; proofreading means checking to make sure those changes were made.
Perhaps you are the person who proofreads and edits as you write a draft, so when you are done drafting and revising for content and structure, you may not have that much editing or proofreading to do. Or maybe you are the person who pays no attention to grammar and spelling as you draft, saving all of the editing until you are finished writing. Either way, plan to carefully edit and proofread your work. For most people, proofreading on a printed copy is more effective than working entirely on screen.
Here are some additional strategies for editing and proofreading your work:
• Take a break between writing and editing. Even a 15 minute break can help you look at your document anew.
• Read your work aloud.
• Work through your document slowly, moving word by word.
• Start at the end of your document and work towards the beginning.
• Focus on one issue at a time. Trying to look for spelling errors, punctuation issues, awkward phrasing, and more all at once can make it easier to miss items needing correction.
• Don’t rely exclusively on spelling- or grammar-checking software. (This poem was run through such a program and no problems were detected!)
• Review through your document several times. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/15%3A_Revision_and_Remixing/15.01%3A_Questions_for_Reflection.txt |
The definition of a remix is:
A piece of media which has been altered from its original state by adding, removing, and/or changing pieces of the item. A song, piece of artwork, books, video, or photograph can all be remixes. The only characteristic of a remix is that it appropriates and changes other materials to create something new.[1]
In the workplace, you will often remix the writing of your coworkers. (This is sometimes called “patchwriting.”) For example, you might build on work that your coworker did: adding new information and rewriting older content so that it fits a new purpose. You might also remix content so that it is accessible to a new audience. For example, perhaps your company has been awarded a contract to create a new park. You might take design plans from a large proposal written in technical language and remix them into social media content aimed at a general audience to build excitement within the community about the new park.
In fact, even this textbook is a remix. The author wrote some chapters, but she also used pieces from multiple different open source textbooks. Sometimes, she did small edits, like changing American spellings to Canadian ones or adding different examples. She often combined sources and rearranged them. Other times, she reimagined the chapter. For example, she took some material that was focused on academic writing and reimagined it from a business writing perspective. Because this textbook is open source, other writers will likely build upon it in the future.
In the workplace, remixing saves time and helps use the talents of many different people. For example, if your non-profit organization often applies for grants, it wouldn’t make sense to write each one from scratch, but it also wouldn’t be a successful strategy to use the same material to apply for every grant. Through remixing, you can use existing material as building blocks to create something new.
Remixing can also teach us a lot about how the creative process works. Chances are strong that you already practice the basics of remixing when you learn a new skill. The video below will show you how many of the books, movies and songs you love are actually remixes.
Everything Is A Remix
In “Everything is a Remix,” Kirby Ferguson draws on examples like Star Wars, Quentin Tarantino movies and more to show the power of remixing. Take a look:
As you watch the video, think about how you use the three elements of remixing in your own life:
• Copy: When you learn a new skill, do you usually start with copying? For example, maybe you’ve watched a makeup tutorial on how to make the perfect smokey eye and followed along. Maybe you improved your skill with a music instrument by trying to play a song exactly as the original artist did.
• Transform: Have you ever transformed the work of someone else? For example, maybe you mastered the smokey eye, but adapted it to your own eye shape and experimented with different colours. Maybe you created a cover of a favourite song in a different style than the original.
• Combine: Have you ever combined elements of different works to create something new? For example, maybe you watched several makeup tutorials then combined a few techniques into a look that was completely your own. Maybe you combined two songs into a mashup.
Experimenting with remixing can help you in many ways in the workplace. Many people’s careers have been launched by the skills they learned while remixing for fun. For example, many graphic designers first mastered Photoshop by creating funny memes for their friends. But as the video shows, professionals often use remixing skills to create new insights on the job. For example, you might notice a trend going on in a different industry or a piece of technology with a different purpose and discover how to apply it to your own particular context.
In the past, communicators in North America sought to control how their words or images were used by others. Many public relations professionals were slow to adapt to the Internet culture, which led to a backlash. For example, in 2013, Beyonce’s publicist tried to get some unflattering photos of her removed from the internet. The move backfired. Thousands of people instead shared and remixed the photo, leading to many more views than if the publicist hadn’t tried to take the photos down.
Recently, many marketing and communications professionals have learned that embracing remixing can be a great way to promote their brand. Let’s take a look at how a mascot became a political meme. | textbooks/biz/Business/Business_English_and_Communication/Business_Writing_For_Everyone/15%3A_Revision_and_Remixing/15.04%3A_What_is_Remixing.txt |
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